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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a2d9e01 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50514 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50514) diff --git a/old/50514-0.txt b/old/50514-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 86372ec..0000000 --- a/old/50514-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7478 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History and Romance of Crime, -Chronicles of Newgate, Vol 2, by Arthur Griffiths - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The History and Romance of Crime, Chronicles of Newgate, Vol 2 - -Author: Arthur Griffiths - -Release Date: November 20, 2015 [EBook #50514] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRONICLES OF NEWGATE, VOL 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: Words in italics in the original are surrounded -with _underscores_. Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been -left as in the original. Ellipses match the original. A complete list -of corrections follows the text. - - - - - The History and - Romance of - Crime - - FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES - TO THE PRESENT DAY - - [Illustration: colophon] - - THE GROLIER SOCIETY - LONDON - - - - -[Illustration: _The Chapel at Newgate_] - - - - - Chronicles of Newgate - - FROM THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY - TO ITS DEMOLITION - A SKETCH OF THE TOWER - - _by_ - - MAJOR ARTHUR GRIFFITHS - - _Late Inspector of Prisons in Great Britain_ - - _Author of - "The Mysteries of Police and Crime" - "Fifty Years of Public Service," etc._ - - In Two Volumes - - Volume II - - THE GROLIER SOCIETY - - - - - EDITION NATIONALE - - Limited to one thousand registered and numbered sets. - - NUMBER 307 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The gaol of Newgate may be taken as the type of all the early prisons, -the physical expression of manifold neglect and mismanagement from the -thirteenth century down to our own times. The case of all prisoners in -England was desperate, their sufferings heartrending, their treatment -an indelible disgrace to a nation claiming to be civilized. The place -of durance was sometimes underground, a dungeon, or subterranean -cellar, into which the prisoners were lowered, to fight with rats for -the meagre pittance of food thrown to them through a trap-door. These -terrible _oubliettes_ were too often damp and noisome, half a foot -deep in water, or with an open sewer running through the centre of -the floor. They had no chimneys, no fire-place, no barrack beds; the -wretched inmates huddled together for warmth upon heaps of filthy rags -or bundles of rotten straw reeking with foul exhalations. There was -not the slightest attempt at ventilation, as we understand the word. -The windows, when they existed, were seldom if ever opened, nor the -doors; the spaces within the prison walls were generally too limited to -allow of daily exercise, and the prisoners were thus kept continuously -under lock and key. Water, another necessary of life, was doled out in -the scantiest quantities, too small for proper ablutions or cleansing -purposes, and hardly sufficient to assuage thirst. John Howard, the -great philanthropist, tells us of one prison where the daily allowance -of water was only three pints per head, and even this was dependent -upon the good will of the keepers, who brought it or not, as they felt -disposed. At another prison, water could only be had on payment, the -price being a halfpenny for three gallons. - -The rations of food were equally meagre. In some prisons almost nothing -was given; in others, the prisoners subsisted on water-soup—"bread -boiled in mere water." The poor debtors were the worst off. For the -felon, thief, murderer, or highwayman there was a grant either in -money or in kind—a pennyworth of bread per diem, or a shilling's -worth per week, or a certain weight of bread: but the debtors, who -formed three-fourths of the permanent prison population, and whose -liabilities on an average did not exceed ten or fifteen pounds a piece, -were almost starved to death. The bequests of charitable people, -especially intended for their support, were devoted to other uses; -creditors seldom if ever paid the "groat," or fourpence per diem for -the subsistence of their imprisoned debtors required by the Act. Any -alms collected within the prison by direct mendicancy were commonly -intercepted by the ruffians who ruled the roost. When gaolers applied -to the magistrates for food for the debtors the answer was, "Let them -work or starve;" yet work was forbidden, lest the tools they used might -fall into the hands of criminal prisoners, and furnish means of escape. -At Exeter the prisoners were marched about the city soliciting charity -in the streets. One Christmas-tide, so Howard says, the person who -conducted them broke open the alms-box and absconded with the contents. -The debtors' ward in this gaol was called the "shew," because the -debtors begged by letting down a _shoe_ from the window. - -Prison buildings were mostly inconvenient, ill-planned, and but little -adapted for the purposes of incarceration. Many of them were ancient -strongholds—the gate of some fortified city, the keep or castle or -embattled residence of a great personage. Some lords, spiritual and -temporal, with peculiar powers in their own districts, once had their -prisons, so to speak, under their own roof. Their prisons lingered long -after the power lapsed, and in Howard's time many of the worst prisons -were the private property of individuals, who protected the keepers, -their lessees, and pocketed the gains wrung from the wretched lodgers. -The Duke of Portland was the proprietor of Chesterfield gaol, which -consisted of one room with a cellar under it. For this accommodation, -and the privilege it conferred upon him of demanding gaol fees, the -keeper paid the Duke an annual rent of eighteen guineas. "The cellar," -Howard says, "had not been cleaned for months, nor the prison door -opened for several weeks." Another disgraceful prison was that owned -by the Bishop of Ely. One bishop had been compelled to rebuild it in -part fourteen years before Howard's visit, but it was still bad. It had -been so insecure that the keeper resorted to a most cruel contrivance -in order to ensure safe custody. Prisoners were chained down upon their -backs upon a floor, across which were several iron bars, with an iron -collar with spikes about their necks, and a heavy iron bar over their -legs. This barbarous treatment formed the subject of a special petition -to the king, supported by a drawing, "with which His Majesty was much -affected, and gave immediate orders for a proper inquiry and redress." - -Loading prisoners with irons was very generally practised, although its -legality was questioned even then. Lord Coke gave his opinion against -the oppression. Bracton affirmed that a sentence condemning a man to -be confined in irons was illegal, and in "Blackstone Commentaries" is -this passage: "The law will not justify jailers in fettering a prisoner -unless when he is unruly, or has attempted an escape." In 1728 the -judges reprimanded the warders of the Fleet prison, and declared that -a jailer could not answer the ironing of a man before he was found -guilty of a crime. When a keeper pleaded necessity for safe custody to -Lord Chief Justice King, the judge bade him "build higher his prison -walls." As Buxton observes, the neglect of this legal precaution was no -excuse for the infliction of an illegal punishment. Prisoners should -not suffer because authorities neglect their duty. "Very rarely is a -man ironed for his own misdeeds, but frequently for those of others; -traditional irons on his person are cheaper than additional elevation -to the walls. Thus we cover our own negligence by increased severity to -our captives." - -The irons were so heavy that walking and even lying down to sleep was -difficult and painful. In some county gaols women did not escape this -severity, Howard tells us, but London was more humane. In the London -prisons the custom of ironing even the untried males was long and -firmly established. An interesting letter is extant from John Wilkes, -dated 1771, the year of his shrievalty to the keeper of Newgate, Mr. -Akerman. This letter expresses satisfaction with his general conduct, -and admits his humanity to the unhappy persons under his care. But -Wilkes takes strong exceptions to the practice of keeping the prisoners -in irons at the time of arraignment and trial, which he conceives to be -alike repugnant to the laws of England and humanity. - -"Every person at so critical a moment ought to be without any bodily -pain or restraint, that the mind may be perfectly free to deliberate on -its most interesting and awful concerns, in so alarming a situation. -It is cruelty to aggravate the feelings of the unhappy in such a state -of distraction, and injustice to deprive them of any means for the -defence of supposed innocence by calling off the attention by bodily -torture at the great moment when the full exertion of every faculty is -most wanting. No man in England ought to be obliged to plead while in -chains; we therefore are determined to abolish the present illegal and -inhuman practice, and we direct you to take off the irons before any -prisoner is sent to the bar either for arraignment or trial." - -Avarice was no doubt a primary cause of the ill-treatment of prisoners, -and heavy fees were exacted to obtain "easement" or "choice" of irons. -This idea of turning gaols to profit underlaid the whole system of -prison management. The gaolers bought or rented their places, and -they had to recoup themselves as best they could. A pernicious vested -interest was thus established, which even the legislature acknowledged. -The sale of strong drink within the prison, and the existence of a -prison tap or bar, were recognized and regulated by law. Drunkenness in -consequence prevailed in all prisons, fostered by the evil practice of -claiming garnish, which did not disappear till well on into the past -century. Another universal method of grinding money out of all who -came within the grip of the law was the extortion of gaol fees. It was -the enormity of demanding such payment from innocent men, acquitted -after a fair trial, who in default were hauled back to prison, that -first moved Howard to inquire into the custom at various prisons. -As early as 1732 the Corporation of London had promulgated an order -that all prisoners acquitted at the Old Bailey should be released -without fees. But when Howard visited Newgate forty years later, Mr. -Akerman the keeper showed him a table of fees "which was given him -for his direction when he commenced keeper." The sums demanded varied -from 8_s._ 10_d._ for a debtor's discharge, to 18_s._ 10_d._ for a -felon's, and £3 6_s._ 8_d._ for a bailable warrant. The exactions for -fees, whether for innocent or guilty, tried or untried, was pretty -general throughout the kingdom, although Howard found a few prisons -where there were none. Even in his suggestions for the improvement of -gaols, although recommending the abolition of fees and the substitution -of a regular salary to the gaoler, he was evidently doubtful of -securing so great a reform, for he expresses a hope that if fees were -not altogether abolished they may at least be reduced. However, the -philanthropist found a welcome support from Mr. Popham, M. P. for -Taunton, who in 1773 brought in a bill abolishing gaolers' fees, and -substituting for them fixed salaries payable out of the county rates, -which bill passed into law the following year in an amended form. This -Act provided that acquitted prisoners should be immediately set at -large in open court. Yet the law was openly evaded by the clerks of -assize and clerks of the peace, who declared that their fees were not -cancelled by the Act, and who endeavoured to indemnify themselves by -demanding a fee from the gaoler for a certificate of acquittal. In one -case at Durham, Judge Gould at the assizes in 1775 fined the keeper -£50 for detaining acquitted prisoners under this demand of the clerk -of assize, but the fine was remitted on explanation. Still another -pretence often put forward for detaining acquitted prisoners until -after the judge had left the town was, that other indictments might be -laid against them; or yet again, prisoners were taken back to prison to -have their irons knocked off, irons with which, as free, unconvicted -men, they were manacled illegally and unjustly. - -Perhaps the most hideous and terrible of all evils was the disgraceful -and almost indiscriminate overcrowding of the gaols. It was immediate -parent of gaol fever. The rarity of gaol deliveries was a proximate -cause of the overcrowding. - -The expense of entertaining the judges was alleged as an excuse for -not holding assizes more than once a year; but at some places—Hull, -for instance—there had been only one gaol delivery in seven years, -although, according to Howard, it had latterly been reduced to three. -Often in the lapse of time principal witnesses died, and there was -an acquittal with a failure of justice. Nor was it only the accused -and unconvicted who lingered out their lives in gaol, but numbers of -perfectly innocent folk helped to crowd the narrow limits of the -prison-house. Either the mistaken leniency, or more probably the -absolutely callous indifference of gaol-rulers, suffered debtors to -surround themselves with their families, pure women and tender children -brought thus into continuous intercourse with felons and murderers, and -doomed to lose their moral sense in the demoralizing atmosphere. The -prison population was daily increased by a host of visitors, improper -characters, friends and associates of thieves, who had free access to -all parts of the gaol. In every filthy, unventilated cell-chamber the -number of occupants was constantly excessive. The air space for each -was often less than 150 cubic feet, and this air was never changed. Of -one room, with its beds in tiers, its windows looking only into a dark -entry, its fireplace used for the cooking of food for forty persons, -it was said that the man who planned it could not well have contrived -a place of the same dimensions more effectually calculated to destroy -his fellow-creatures. The loathsome corruption that festered unchecked -or unalleviated within the prison houses was never revealed until -John Howard began his self-sacrificing visitations, and it is to the -pages of his "State of Prisons" that we must refer for full details, -some of which would be incredible were they not vouched for on the -unimpeachable testimony of the great philanthropist. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - INTRODUCTION 5 - - I. THE GAOL FEVER 19 - - II. THE REBUILDING OF NEWGATE 37 - - III. CELEBRATED CRIMES AND CRIMINALS 53 - - IV. NEWGATE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 116 - - V. PHILANTHROPIC EFFORTS 128 - - VI. THE BEGINNING OF PRISON REFORM 150 - - VII. INTERESTING INSTANCES 171 - - VIII. NEWGATE NOTORIETIES 193 - - IX. LATER RECORDS 251 - - X. THE TOWER OF LONDON 297 - - - - -List of Illustrations - - - NEWGATE CHAPEL _Frontispiece_ - - COMPTER, GILTSPUR ST., LONDON _Page_ 31 - - THIEVING LANE (BOW STREET) " 78 - - THE GREAT COURT OF THE TOWER, LONDON " 297 - - - - - CHRONICLES OF - NEWGATE - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE GAOL FEVER - - The gaol fever the visible exponent of foul state of - gaols—Neither sufficient light, air or space—Meagre - rations—Its ravages—Extends from prisons to court-houses—To - villages—Into the army and the fleet—The Black - Assize—The sickness of the House at the King's Bench - prison—The gaol fever in the 17th century—Its outbreaks - in the 18th—The Taunton Assize—Originated in Newgate - in 1750—Extends to Old Bailey with deadly results—The - Corporation alarmed—Seek to provide a remedy—Enquiry - into the sanitary condition of Newgate—Statistics of - deaths—No regular doctor at Newgate—Mr. Akerman's - brave and judicious conduct at a fire in prison—The - sexes intermixed—Debauchery—Gaming—Drunkenness—Moral - contamination—Criminals willingly took military service to - escape confinement in Newgate. - - -The gaol fever or distemper, which originated in Newgate in 1750, -was the natural product of unsanitary conditions. This fell epidemic -exercised strange terrors by the mystery which once surrounded it; -but this has now been dispelled by the search-light of modern medical -science. All authorities are agreed that it was nothing but that typhus -fever, which inevitably goes hand in hand with the herding and packing -together of human beings, whether in prisons, workhouses, hospitals, or -densely-populated quarters of a town. The disease is likely to crop up -"wherever men and women live together in places small in proportion to -their numbers, with neglect of cleanliness and ventilation, surrounded -by offensive effluvia, without proper exercise, and scantily supplied -with food." It is easy to understand that the poison would be generated -in gaol establishments such as Newgate; still more, that prisoners -would be saturated with it so as to infect even healthy persons whom -they approached. This is precisely what happened, and it is through the -ravages committed by the disorder beyond the prison walls that we learn -the most. The decimation it caused within the gaol might have passed -unnoticed, but the many authentic cases of the terrible mortality it -occasioned elsewhere forced it upon the attention of the chronicler. It -made the administration of the law a service of real danger, while its -fatal effects can be traced far beyond the limits of the court-house. -Prisoners carried home the contagion to the bosoms of their families, -whence the disease spread into town or village. They took it on board -ship, and imported it into our fleets. "The first English fleet sent -to America lost by it above 2,000 men; . . . the seeds of infection were -carried from the guardships into the squadrons; and the mortality -thence occasioned was greater than by all other diseases or means of -death put together." It was the same with the army: regiments and -garrisons were infected by comrades who brought the fever from the -gaol; sometimes the escorts returning with deserters temporarily lodged -in prison also sickened and died. - -The earliest mention of a gaol distemper is that quoted by Howard from -Stowe, under date 1414, when "the gaolers of Newgate and Ludgate died, -and prisoners in Newgate to the number of sixty-four." In "Wood's -History of Oxford" there is a record of a contagious fever which broke -out at the assize of Cambridge in 1521. The justices, gentlemen, -bailiffs, and others "resorting thither took such an infection that -many of them died, and almost all that were present fell desperately -sick, and narrowly escaped with their lives." After this comes the -Black Assize at Oxford in 1577, when, Holinshed says, "there arose -amidst the people such a dampe that almost all were smouldered, very -few escaping . . . the jurors presently dying, and shortly after Sir -Robert Bell, Lord Chief Baron." To this account we may add that of -"Baker's Chronicle," which states that all present died within forty -hours, the Lord Chief Baron, the sheriff, and three hundred more. -The contagion spread into the city of Oxford, and thence into the -neighbourhood, where there were many more deaths. Stowe has another -reference to the fever about this date, and tells us that in the -King's Bench Prison, in the six years preceding the year 1579, a -hundred died of a certain contagion called "the sickness of the house." -Another outbreak occurred at Exeter, 1586, on the occasion of holding -the city assizes, when "a sudden and strange sickness," which had -appeared first among the prisoners in the gaol, was dispersed at their -trial through the audience in court, "whereof more died than escaped," -and of those that succumbed, some were constables, some reeves, some -tithing men or jurors. No wonder that Lord Bacon, in writing on the -subject, should characterize "the smell of the jail the most pernicious -infection, next to the plague. When prisoners have been long and close -and nastily kept, whereof we have had in our time experience twice or -thrice, both judges that sat upon the trial, and numbers of those that -attended the business or were present, sickened upon it and died." - -The gaol distemper is but sparingly mentioned throughout the -seventeenth century, but as the conditions were precisely the same, -it is pretty certain that the disease existed then, as before and -after. But in the first half of the eighteenth century we have detailed -accounts of three serious and fatal outbreaks. The first was at the -Lent Assizes held in Taunton in 1730, "when," Howard says, "some -prisoners who were brought thither from the Ilchester gaol infected the -court; and Lord Chief Baron Pengelly, Sir James Shepherd, sergeant, -John Pigott, Esq., sheriff, and some hundreds besides, died of the -gaol distemper." The second case occurred also in the west country, -at Launceston, where "a fever which took its rise in the prisons was -disseminated far and near by the county assizes, occasioned the death -of numbers, and foiled frequently the best advice." It is described -as a contagious, putrid, and very pestilential fever, attended -with tremblings, twitchings, restlessness, delirium, with, in some -instances, early frenzy and lethargy; while the victims broke out often -into livid pustules and purple spots. The third case of gaol fever -was in London in 1750, and it undoubtedly had its origin in Newgate. -At the May Sessions at the Old Bailey there was a more than usually -heavy calendar, and the court was excessively crowded. The prisoners -awaiting trial numbered a hundred, and these were mostly lodged in two -rooms fourteen feet by seven, and only seven feet in height; but some, -and no doubt all in turn, were put into the bail dock; many had long -lain close confined in the pestiferous wards of Newgate. The court -itself was of limited dimensions, being barely thirty feet square, and -in direct communication with the bail dock and rooms beyond, whence -an open window, at the farther end of the room, carried a draught -poisoned with infection towards the judges' bench. Of these four, viz., -Sir Samuel Pennant, the Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Abney and Baron Clark, -the judges, and Sir Daniel Lambert, alderman, were seized with the -distemper, and speedily died; others, to the number of forty, were also -attacked and succumbed. Among them were some of the under-sheriffs, -several members of the bar and of the jury; while in others of lesser -note the disease showed itself more tardily, but they also eventually -succumbed. Indeed, with the exception of two or three, none of -those attacked escaped. The symptoms were the same as these already -described, including the delirium and the spots on the skin. - -The Corporation of London, moved thereto by a letter from the Lord -Chief Justice, and not unnaturally alarmed themselves at the ravages of -a pestilence which spared neither Lord Mayor nor aldermen, set about -inquiring into its origin. A committee was appointed for this purpose -in October, 1750, five months after the last outbreak, and their -instructions were to ascertain "the best means for procuring in Newgate -such a purity of air as might prevent the rise of those infectious -distempers." . . . The committee consulted the Rev. Dr. Hales and Dr. -Pringle, F. R. S., and the latter subsequently published a paper in the -"Transactions of the Philosophical Society," containing much curious -information concerning the disease. The remedy suggested by Dr. Hales, -and eventually approved of by the committee, was to further try the -ventilator which some time previously had been placed upon the top of -Newgate. Nothing less than the reconstruction on an extended plan of -the prison, which was acknowledged to be too small for its average -population, would have really sufficed, but this, although mooted, -had not yet taken practical shape. The existing ventilator was in -the nature of a main trunk or shaft, into which other air-pipes led -from various parts of the prison. But these were neither numerous nor -effective, while there was no process of extraction or of obtaining -an updraught. To effect this a machine was erected upon the leads -of Newgate with large arms like those of a windmill. Nevertheless, -throughout the execution of the work and afterwards the air of Newgate -continued pestiferous and fatal to all who breathed it. - -The gaol fever or its germs must indeed have been constantly present in -Newgate. The more crowded the prison the more sickly it was. The worst -seasons were the middle of winter or the middle of summer, or when the -weather was damp and wet. The place was seldom without some illness or -other; but in one year, according to Mr. Akerman, about sixteen died in -one month from the gaol distemper. Mr. Akerman declared that the fever -was all over the gaol, and that in ten years he had buried eight or -ten of his servants. He also gave a return to the Commons' committee, -which showed that eighty-three prisoners had died between 1758 and -1765, besides several wives who had come to visit their husbands, and -a number of children born in the gaol. This statement was supported by -the evidence of the coroner for Middlesex, Mr. Beach, who went even -further, and made out that one hundred and thirty-two had died between -1755 and 1765, or forty-nine more in the two additional years. In 1763 -the deaths had been twenty-eight, all of them of contagion, according -to Mr. Beach, who was also of opinion that a large percentage of all -the deaths which had occurred were due to the gaol fever. - -Twenty years later, when Howard was visiting prisons, he heard it -constantly affirmed by county gaolers that the gaol distemper was -brought into their prisons by those removed under Habeas Corpus from -Newgate. In May, 1763, I find an inquisition was held in the new gaol, -Southwark, upon the body of Henry Vincent, one of five prisoners -removed there from Newgate. It then appeared that the Southwark -prisoners had been healthy till those from Newgate arrived, all five -being infected. About this date too, according to the coroner for -Middlesex, there were several deaths in the new gaol, of prisoners -brought from Newgate who had caught the fever in that prison. This same -coroner had taken eleven "inquisitions" at Newgate in a couple of days, -all of whom he thought had died of the gaol distemper. He was also made -ill himself by going to Newgate. Again in 1772 there was a new alarm -of epidemic. In the sessions of the preceding year there had been an -outbreak of malignant distemper, of which several had died. An attempt -was made to remodel the ventilator, and other precautions were taken. -Among the latter was a plan to convey the fumes of vinegar through -pipes into the Sessions' House while the courts were sitting. At this -date there was no regular medical officer in attendance on the Newgate -prisoners, although an apothecary was paid something for visiting -occasionally. Howard expresses his opinion strongly on the want. "To -this capital prison," he says, "the magistrates would, in my humble -opinion, do well to appoint a physician, a surgeon, and an apothecary." -The new prison and the last, built by Dance, was just then in process -of erection, and was intended to embody all requirements in prison -construction. But Howard was dissatisfied with it. Although it would -avoid many inconveniences of the old gaol, yet it had some manifest -errors. "It is too late," he goes on, "to point out particulars. All I -say is, that without more than ordinary care, the prisoners in it will -be in great danger of gaol fever." - -William Smith, M. D., who, from a charitable desire to afford medical -assistance to the sick, inspected and reported in 1776 upon the -sanitary conditions of all the London prisons, had not a better opinion -of the new Newgate than had Howard. The gaol had now a regular medical -attendant, but "it was filled with nasty ragged inhabitants, swarming -with vermin, though Mr. Akerman the keeper is extremely humane in -keeping the place as wholesome as possible. The new prison is built -upon the old principle of a great number being crowded together into -one ward, with a yard for them to assemble in in the day, and a tap -where they may get drink when they please and have the money to pay." -Dr. Smith states that he had no fault to find with the wards, which -were large, airy, high, and as clean as could well be expected where -such a motley crew are lodged. But he condemns the prison, on which so -much had been already spent, and which still required an immense sum to -finish it. Its site was, he thought, altogether faulty. "The situation -of a gaol should be high and dry in an open field, and at a distance -from the town, the building spacious, to obviate the bad effects of a -putrid accumulation of infectious air, and extended in breadth rather -than height. The wards should have many divisions to keep the prisoners -from associating." Dr. Smith found that the numbers who sickened and -died of breathing the impure and corrupted air were much greater than -was imagined. Hence, he says, the absolute necessity for a sufficiency -of fresh air, "the earth was made for us all, why should so small a -portion of it be denied to those unhappy creatures, while so many large -parts lay waste and uncultivated?" - -Another person, well entitled to speak from his own knowledge and -practical experience, declared that the new gaol contrasted very -favourably with the old. This was Mr. Akerman the keeper, who was -the friend of Johnson and Boswell, and whom Dr. Smith and others -call extremely humane. But Mr. Akerman, in giving evidence before a -committee of the House of Commons in 1779, while urging that few were -unhealthy in the new prison, admitted that he had often observed a -dejection of spirits among the prisoners in Newgate which had the -effect of disease, and that many had died broken-hearted. Mr. Akerman -clearly did his best to alleviate the sufferings of those in his -charge. For the poor convicted prisoner, unable to add by private means -or the gifts of friends to the meagre allowance of the penny loaf -per diem, which was often fraudulently under weight, the kind keeper -provided soup out of his own pocket, made of the coarse meat commonly -called clods and stickings. - -Mr. Akerman had many good friends. He was an intimate acquaintance of -Mr. James Boswell, their friendship no doubt having originated in some -civility shown to Dr. Johnson's biographer at one of the executions -which it was Boswell's craze to attend. Boswell cannot speak too highly -of Mr. Akerman. After describing the Lord George Gordon Riots, he says, -"I should think myself very much to blame did I here neglect to do -justice to my esteemed friend Mr. Akerman, keeper of Newgate, who long -discharged a very important trust with an uniform intrepid firmness, -and at the same time a tenderness and a liberal charity, which entitles -him to be recorded with distinguished honour." He goes on to describe -in detail an incident which certainly proves Mr. Akerman's presence of -mind and capacity as a gaol governor. The story has been often quoted, -but it is so closely connected with the chronicles of Newgate that its -recital cannot be deemed inappropriate here. "Many years ago a fire -broke out in the brick part, which was built as an addition to the -old gaol of Newgate. The prisoners were in consternation and tumult, -calling out, 'We shall be burnt! we shall be burnt! down with the gate! -down with the gate!' Mr. Akerman hastened to them, showed himself at -the gate, and after some confused vociferations of 'Hear him! hear -him!' having obtained silent attention, he calmly told them that the -gate must not go down; that they were under his care, and that they -should not be permitted to escape; but that he could assure them they -need not be afraid of being burnt, for that the fire was not in the -prison properly so called, which was strongly built with stone; and -that if they would engage to be quiet he himself would come to them -and conduct them to the further end of the building, and would not -go out till they gave him leave. To this proposal they agreed; upon -which Mr. Akerman, having first made them fall back from the gate, -went in, and with a determined resolution ordered the outer turnkey -upon no account to open the gate, even though the prisoners (though -he trusted they would not) should break their word and by force bring -himself to order it. 'Never mind me,' he said, 'should that happen.' -The prisoners peaceably followed him while he conducted them through -passages of which he had the keys to the extremity of the gaol which -was most distant from the fire. Having by this very judicious conduct -fully satisfied them that there was no immediate risk, if any at all, -he then addressed them thus: 'Gentlemen, you are now convinced that I -told you true. I have no doubt that the engines will soon extinguish -the fire; if they should not, a sufficient guard will come, and you -shall be all taken out and lodged in the compters. I assure you, upon -my word and honour, that I have not a farthing insured. I have left my -house that I might take care of you. I will keep my promise and stay -with you if you insist upon it; but if you will allow me to go out and -look after my family and property I shall be obliged to you.' Struck -with his behaviour, they called out, 'Master Akerman, you have done -bravely; it was very kind in you; by all means go and take care of your -own concerns.' He did so accordingly, while they remained and were all -preserved." Akerman received still higher praise for this, which was -generally admitted to be courageous conduct. Dr. Johnson, according to -Boswell, had been heard to relate the substance of the foregoing story -"with high praise, in which he was joined by Mr. Edmund Burke." Johnson -also touched upon Akerman's kindness to his prisoners, and "pronounced -this eulogy upon his character. He who has long had constantly in -his view the worst of mankind, and is yet eminent for the humanity of -his disposition, must have had it originally in a great degree, and -continued to cultivate it very carefully." - -[Illustration: _Compter, Giltspur Street, London_] - -Another tribute to Akerman's worth comes from a less distinguished -but probably not less genuine source. In the letters of the wretched -Hackman (who killed Miss Reay) he speaks in terms of warm eulogy of -this humane gaoler. "Let me pay a small tribute of praise," he says. -"How often have you and I complained of familiarity's blunting the edge -of every sense on which she lays her hand? . . . what then is the praise -of that gaoler who, in the midst of misery, crimes, and death, sets -familiarity at defiance and still preserves the feelings of a man? The -author of the 'Life of Savage' gives celebrity to the Bristol gaoler, -by whose humanity the latter part of that strange man's life was -rendered more comfortable. Shall no one give celebrity to the present -keeper of Newgate? Mr. Akerman marks every day of his existence by more -than one such deed as this. Know, ye rich and powerful, ye who might -save hundreds of your fellow creatures from starving by the sweepings -of your tables, know that among the various feelings of almost every -wretch who quits Newgate for Tyburn, a concern neither last nor least -is that which he feels upon leaving the gaol of which this man is the -keeper." - -Life in Newgate, with its debauchery and foul discomfort, the nastiness -and squalor of its surroundings, the ever-present infectious -sickness, and the utter absence of all cleanliness, or efforts at -sanitation, must have been terrible. Evil practices went on without -let or hindrance inside its walls. There is clear evidence to show -that the sexes were intermixed during the daytime. The occupants of -the various wards had free intercourse with each other: they had a -reciprocal conversation, exchanged visits, and assisted each other with -such accommodation as the extension of their wretched circumstances -permitted. Dinner was at two in the afternoon, and when prisoners -possessed any variety or novelty in food, they were ready to trade or -barter with it among themselves. After dinner the rest of the day and -night was spent at "cards, draughts, fox and geese," or, as gambling -was not interdicted, at games of chance, which led to numerous frauds -and quarrels. Rapid moral deterioration was inevitable in this criminal -sty. The prison was still and long continued a school of depravity, -to which came tyros, some already viciously inclined, some still -innocent, to be quickly taught all manner of iniquity, and to graduate -and take honours in crime. It is on record that daring robberies were -concocted in Newgate between felons incarcerated and others at large, -who came and went as they pleased. The gaol was the receptacle for -smuggled or stolen goods; false money was coined in the dark recesses -of its gloomy wards and passed out into circulation. Such work was the -natural employment of otherwise unoccupied brains and idle hands. -Thefts inside the gaol were of common occurrence. The prisoners picked -the pockets of visitors whenever they had the chance, or robbed one -another. There is a brief account of Newgate about this period in -the "Memoirs of Casanova," who saw the interior of the prison while -awaiting bail for an assault. Casanova was committed in ball dress, and -was received with hisses, which increased to furious abuse when they -found he did not answer their questions, being ignorant of English. He -felt as if he was in one of the most horrible circles of Dante's hell. -He saw, "Des figures fauves, des regards de vipères, des sinistres -sourires tous les caractères de l'envie de la rage, du desespoir; -c'était un spectacle epouvantable." - -It was not strange that the inmates of Newgate should hold this -miserable life of theirs pretty cheap, and be ready to risk it in any -way to compass enlargement from gaol. Newgate was always constantly -drawn upon by those who wanted men for any desperate enterprise. In -the early days of inoculation, soon after it had been introduced -from the East by Lady Mary Wortly Montague, and when it was still -styled engrafting, the process was first tried upon seven condemned -prisoners, with a certain success. Again, a reprieve was granted to -another convict under sentence of death, on condition that he permit -an experiment to be performed on his ear. The process, which was the -invention of a Mr. Charles Elden, was intended to cure deafness by -cutting the tympanum. Sometimes a convicted criminal was allowed to -choose between a year's imprisonment in Newgate or taking service under -the Crown. There are also many entries in the State Papers of prisoners -pardoned to join His Majesty's forces. Not that these very questionable -recruits were willingly accepted. I find on 13th May, 1767, in reply -to a letter forwarding a list of convicts so pardoned, a protest from -the Secretary of War, who says that commanding officers are very much -averse to accepting the services of these gaol-birds, and have often -solicited him not to send them out to their regiments. The practice -was the more objectionable as at that time the term of service for -free volunteers was for life, while the ex-convicts only joined the -colours for a limited period. The point was not pressed therefore in -its entirety, but the concession made, that these convicts should be -enlarged for special service on the west coast of Africa. It was argued -that "considering the unhealthiness of the climate, His Majesty is -desirous that the troops stationed there should be recruited rather -with such men as must look upon that duty as a mitigation of their -sentences than with deserving volunteers." But to this again objections -were raised by the agent to the troops at Senegal, who pointed out -the extreme danger to life and property of sending nineteen sturdy -cut-throats armed and accoutred to reside within the walls of a feeble -place, having a total garrison of sixty men, adding that, "should -this embarkation of thieves take place he would be glad to insure his -property at seventy-five per cent." - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE REBUILDING OF NEWGATE - - In 1762 Press-yard destroyed by fire—Two prisoners burnt to - death—It is decided to rebuild—Lord Mayor Beckford lays - first stone in 1770—The new gaol is gutted in the Lord George - Gordon riots—Origin of these riots—Lord George, at head - of procession, presents petition to House of Commons—Mob - attracted to Newgate—The gaoler, Mr. Akerman, summoned - to surrender, and release his prisoners—Rioters storm - Newgate—Sack Governor's house—Rioters, headed by Dennis the - hangman, rush in and set inmates free—Other gaols attacked and - burnt—The military called out—Lord George arrested, lodged - in the Tower, and tried for high treason, but acquitted, and - sentenced to fines and imprisonment in Newgate—Dies in Newgate - of gaol fever, 1793. - - -In 1757 the residents in the immediate neighbourhood of Newgate raised -their protest against the gaol, and petitioned the Corporation, -"setting forth their apprehensions from their vicinity to Newgate, -and from the stenches proceeding therefrom, of being subject to an -infectious disease called the gaol distemper." Upon receipt of this -petition, the Common Council appointed a fresh committee, and the -various allegations were gone into seriatim. They next surveyed the -gaol itself and the surrounding premises, examined the site with -a view to rebuilding, and had plans prepared with estimates and -specifications as to cost of ground and construction. The projected -design embraced a series of quadrangles, one for the debtors and -another for the felons, with an area for each. The probable expense -for the work which the committee were of the opinion was greatly -needed would amount to about £40,000, for which sum "they did resolve -to petition Parliament for a grant." This petition was, however, -never presented. Mr. Alderman Dickens, having spoken privately to the -Chancellor of the Exchequer on the subject, was informed that no public -money would be forthcoming, and the project again fell through. - -It did not entirely drop notwithstanding. To the credit of the -Corporation it must be stated, that many attempts were made to grapple -with the difficulties of ways and means. Application was made to -Parliament more than once for power to raise money for the work by some -proportionable tax on the city and county, but always without avail. -Parties differed as to the manner in which funds should be obtained, -yet all were agreed upon the "immediate necessity for converting this -seat of misery and disease, this dangerous source of contagion, into -a secure and wholesome place of confinement." The matter became more -urgent, the occasion more opportune, when that part of the prison -styled the press-yard was destroyed by fire in 1762. - -Some account of this fire may be inserted here. It broke out in the -middle of the night at the back of the staircase in the press-yard, -and in a few hours consumed all the apartments in that place, and -greatly damaged the chapel. Other adjoining premises, particularly -that of a stocking-trimmer in Phœnix Court, were greatly injured -by the fire. Worst of all, two prisoners perished in the flames. One -was Captain Ogle, who had been tried for murdering the cook of the -Vine Tavern, near Dover St., Piccadilly, but had been found insane on -arraignment, and had accordingly been detained in prison "during His -Majesty's pleasure." There was no Broadmoor asylum in those days for -criminal lunatics and Newgate was a poor substitute for the palatial -establishment now standing among the Berkshire pine woods. The fire -was supposed to have originated in Captain Ogle's room. Beneath it -was one occupied by Thomas Smith, a horse-dealer, committed to prison -on suspicion of stealing corn from Alderman Masters. Smith's wife -the night before the conflagration had carried him the whole of his -effects, amounting to some five or six hundred pounds in notes and bank -bills. When the fire was raging Smith was heard to cry out for help. He -was seen also to put his arm through the iron grating, which, however, -was so excessively hot that it set his shirt on fire. About this time -it is supposed that he threw out his pocket-book containing the notes; -it was caught and the valuables saved. A few minutes later the floor -fell in, and both Captain Ogle and Smith were buried in the ruins. -The fire had burnt so fiercely and so fast that no one could go to the -assistance of either of these unfortunates. About four o'clock in the -morning the Lord Mayor and sheriffs arrived upon the scene, and took an -active part in the steps taken to check the fire and provide for the -safety of the prisoners. By six o'clock, there being an abundance of -water handy, the flames had greatly abated, but the fire continued to -burn till two in the afternoon, and ended by the fall of a party wall -which happily did no great damage. This was no doubt the fire at which -Mr. Akerman behaved with such intrepidity, and which has already been -described. - -After the fire it was admitted that the proper time had arrived for -"putting in execution the plan of rebuilding this inconvenient gaol, -which was thought of some time ago." Once more a committee of the -Common Council was appointed, and once more the question of site was -considered, with the result that the locality of the existing prison -was decided upon as the most suitable and convenient. The first stone -of the new gaol was laid on the 31st May, 1770, by the Lord Mayor, -William Beckford, Esquire, the founder of that family. - -Within a year or two of its completion, the new Newgate had to pass -through an ordeal which nearly ended its existence. Its boasted -strength as a place of durance was boldly set at naught, and almost -for the first and last time in this country this gaol, with others in -the metropolis, was sacked and its imprisoned inmates set free. The -occasion grew out of the so-called Lord George Gordon Riots in 1780. -These well-known disturbances had their origin in the relaxation of -the penal laws against the Roman Catholics. Such concessions raised -fanatical passion to fever pitch. Ignorance and intolerance went hand -in hand, and the malcontents, belonging mainly to the lowest strata -of society, found a champion in a weak-minded and misguided cadet of -the ducal house of Gordon. Lord George Gordon, who was a member of the -House of Commons, showed signs of eccentricity soon after he took his -seat, but it was at first more ridiculous than mischievous. Lord George -became more dangerously meddlesome when the anti-Catholic agitation -began. It was to him that the Protestant association looked for -countenance and support, and when Lord North at his instance refused to -present a petition from that society to Parliament, Lord George Gordon -promised to do so in person, provided it was backed by a multitude not -less than twenty thousand strong. - -This led to the great gathering in St. George's Fields on the 2nd -June, 1780, when thousands organized themselves into three columns, -and proceeded to the House of Commons across the three bridges, -Westminster, Blackfriars, and London Bridge. Lord George headed the -Westminster procession, and all three concentrated at St. Stephen's -between two and three in the afternoon. There the mob filled every -avenue and approach; crowds overflowed the lobbies, and would have -pushed into the body of the House. Lord George went ahead with -the monster petition, which bore some hundred and twenty thousand -signatures or "marks," and which the Commons by a negative vote of 192 -to 6 refused to receive. After this the rioters, at the instigation -of their leader, hastened _en masse_ to destroy the chapels of the -foreign ambassadors. This was followed by other outrages. While some of -their number attacked and rifled the dwellings of persons especially -obnoxious to them, others set fire to public buildings, and ransacked -the taverns. The military had been called out early in the day, and had -made many arrests. As the prisoners were taken to Newgate, the fury of -the populace was attracted to this gaol, and a large force, computed -at quite two-thirds of the rioters, proceeded thither, determined to -force open its gates. This mob was composed of the lowest scum of the -town, roughs brutal and utterly reckless, having a natural loathing -for prisons, their keepers, and all the machinery of the law. Many -already knew, and but too well, the inside of Newgate, many dreaded to -return there, either as lodgers or travellers bound on the fatal road -to Tyburn. One wild fierce desire was uppermost with all, one thought -possessed their minds to the exclusion of all others—to destroy the -hateful prison-house and raze it to the ground. - -On arriving at the Old Bailey in front of the stone façade, as grim -and solid as that of any fortress, the mob halted and demanded the -gaoler, Mr. Akerman, who appeared at a window, some say on the roof, -of his house, which forms the centre of the line of buildings facing -Newgate Street. When he appeared the mob called on him to release their -confederates and surrender the place unconditionally. Mr. Akerman -distinctly and without hesitation refused, and then, dreading what -was coming, he made the best of his way to the sheriffs, in order -to know their pleasure. As the front of the prison was beset by the -densely-packed riotous assemblage, Mr. Akerman probably made use of -the side wicket and passage which leads direct from Newgate into the -Sessions' House. The magistrates seemed to have been in doubt how to -act, and for some time did nothing. "Their timidity and negligence," -says Boswell, helped the almost incredible exertions of the mob. And -he is of opinion, that had proper aid been given to Mr. Akerman, the -sacking of Newgate would certainly have been prevented. While the -magistrates hesitated the mob were furiously active; excited to frenzy, -they tried to beat down the gate with sledge-hammers, and vainly -sought to make some impression on the massive walls. A portion of the -assailants forced their way into the governor's house, and laying -hands upon his furniture, with all other combustibles, dragged them -out and made a great pile in front of the obdurate door, which still -resisted force. The heap of wood, having been anointed with rosin and -turpentine, was kindled, and soon fanned into a mighty blaze. The door, -heavily barred and bolted, and strongly bound with iron, did not ignite -quite readily, but presently it took fire and burned steadily, though -slowly. Meanwhile the rioters fed the flames with fresh fuel, and -snatching burning brands from the fire, cast them on to the roof and -over the external wall into the wards and yards within. The prisoners -inside, who had heard without fully understanding the din, and saw the -flames without knowing whether they promised deliverance or foreboded -a dreadful death, suffered the keenest mental torture, and added their -agonized shouts to the general uproar. - -Through all this tumult and destruction the law was paralyzed. After -much delay the sheriff sent a party of constables to the gaolers' -assistance. But they came too late, and easily fell into a trap. The -rioters suffered them to pass until they were entirely encircled, then -attacked them with great fury, disarmed them, took their staves, and -quickly converted them at the fire into blazing brands, which they -threw about to extend the flames. "It is scarcely to be credited," -says a narrator, "with what celerity a gaol which to a common observer -appeared to be built with nothing that would burn, was destroyed by -the flames. So efficient were the means employed, that the work of -destruction was very rapid. Stones two or three tons in weight, -to which the doors of the cells were fastened, were raised by that -resistless species of crow known to housebreakers by the name of the -pig's foot. Such was the violence of the fire, that the great iron bars -and windows were eaten through and the adjacent stones vitrified. Nor -is it less astonishing that from a prison thus in flames a miserable -crew of felons in irons and a company of confined debtors, to the -number in the whole of more than three hundred, could all be liberated -as it were by magic, amidst flames and fire-brands, without the loss of -a single life. . . . But it is not at all to be wondered that by a body -of execrable villains thus let loose upon the public, the house of that -worthy and active magistrate, Sir John Fielding, should be the first -marked for vengeance." In the same way, even before the destruction -of Newgate, the house of Justice Hyde, whose activity the rioters -resented, had also been stripped of its furniture, which was burnt in -front of the door. - -Crabbe's account written at the time to a friend is graphic, and -contains several new details—"How Akerman, the governor, escaped," -he says, "or where he is gone, I know not; but just at the time I -speak of they set fire to his house, broke in, and threw every piece -of furniture they could find into the street, firing them also in an -instant. The engines came, but they were only suffered to preserve -the private houses near the prison. As I was standing near the spot, -there approached another body of men—I suppose five hundred—and -Lord George Gordon, in a coach drawn by the mob, towards Alderman -Bull's, bowing as he passed along. He is a lively-looking young man in -appearance and nothing more, though just now the popular hero. By eight -o'clock Akerman's house was in flames. I went close to it, and never -saw anything so dreadful. The prison was, as I have said, a remarkably -strong building; but, determined to force it, they broke the gates -with crows and other instruments, and climbed up outside of the cell -part, which joins the two great wings of the building where the felons -were confined; and I stood where I plainly saw their operations; they -broke the roof, tore away the rafters, and having got ladders, they -descended. Not Orpheus himself had more courage or better luck. Flames -all around them, and a body of soldiers expected, yet they laughed at -all opposition. The prisoners escaped. I stood and saw about twelve -women and eight men ascend from their confinement to the open air, and -they were conducted through the streets in their chains. Three of these -were to be hanged on Friday (two days later). - -"You have no conception of the frenzy of the multitude. This now being -done, and Akerman's house now a mere shell of brick-work, they kept a -store of flame for other purposes. It became red-hot, and the doors and -windows appeared like the entrance to so many volcanoes. With some -difficulty they then fired the debtors' prison, broke the doors, and -they too all made their escape. Tired of the scene, I went home, and -returned again at eleven o'clock at night. I met large bodies of horse -and foot soldiers coming to guard the Bank and some houses of Roman -Catholics near it. Newgate was at this time open to all; any one might -get in, and what was never the case before, any one might get out. I -did both, for the people were now chiefly lookers-on. The mischief was -done, and the doers of it gone to another part of the town. . . . But -I must not omit what struck me most: about ten or twelve of the mob -getting to the top of the debtors' prison whilst it was burning, to -halloo, they appeared rolled in black smoke mixed with sudden bursts of -fire—like Milton's infernals, who were as familiar with flames as with -each other." - -It should be added here that the excesses of the rioters did not end -with the burning of Newgate; they did other mischief. Five other -prisons, the new prison, Clerkenwell, the Fleet, the King's Bench, the -Borough Clink in Tooley Street, and the new Bridewell, were attacked, -their inmates released, and the buildings set on fire. At one time the -town was convulsed with terror at a report that the rioters intended -to open the gates of Bedlam, and let loose gangs of raving lunatics to -range recklessly about. They made an attempt upon the Bank of England, -but were repulsed with loss by John Wilkes and the soldiers on guard. -At one time during the night as many as thirty-six incendiary fires -were ablaze. The troops had been called upon to support the civil -power, and had acted with vigour. There was fighting in nearly all -the streets, constant firing. At times the soldiers charged with the -bayonet. The streets ran with blood. In all, before tranquillity was -restored, nearly five hundred persons had been killed and wounded, and -to this long bill of mortality must be added the fifty-nine capitally -convicted under the special commission appointed to try the rioters. - -It was in many cases cruel kindness to set the prisoners free. Numbers -of the debtors of the King's Bench were loth to leave their place of -confinement, for they had no friends and nowhere else to go. Of the -three hundred released so unexpectedly from Newgate, some returned -on their own accord a few days later and gave themselves up. It is -said that many others were drawn back by an irresistible attraction, -and were actually found loitering about the open wards of the prison. -Fifty were thus retaken within the walls the day after the fire, and -others kept dropping by twos and threes to examine their old haunts -and see for themselves what was going on. Some were found trying to -rekindle the fire; some merely prowled about the place, "being often -found asleep in the ruins, or sitting talking there, or even eating and -drinking, as in a choice retreat." - -The ringleader and prime mover, Lord George Gordon, was arrested on -the evening of the 9th, and conveyed to the Tower. His trial did not -come on till the following February at the King's Bench, where he was -indicted for high treason. He was charged with levying war against -the majesty of the king; "not having the fear of God before his eyes, -but being moved and seduced by the instigation of the devil; . . . that -he unlawfully, maliciously, and traitorously did compass, imagine, -and intend to raise and levy war, insurrection, and rebellion," and -assembled with some five hundred more, "armed and arrayed in a warlike -manner, with colours flying, and with swords, clubs, bludgeons, staves -and other weapons," in the liberty of Westminster. It was proved in -evidence that Lord George directed the Associated Protestants to meet -him at Westminster in their best clothes, and with blue cockades in -their hats, and said he should wear one himself. He was also heard to -declare that the king had broken his coronation oath, and to exhort -the mob to continue steadfast in so good and glorious a cause. For the -defence it was urged that Lord George Gordon had desired nothing but to -compass by all legal means the repeal of the Act of Toleration; that he -had no other view than the Protestant interest, and had always demeaned -himself in the most loyal manner. He had hoped that the great gathering -would be all peaceable; that the mob "should not so much as take -sticks in their hands," should abstain from all violence, surrender -at once any one riotously disposed; in a word, should exhibit the true -Protestant spirit, and if struck should turn the other cheek. Mr. -Erskine, Lord George's counsel, after pointing out that his client had -suffered already a long and rigorous imprisonment, his great youth, his -illustrious lineage and zeal in parliament for the constitution of his -country, urged that the evidence and the whole tenor of the prisoner's -conduct repelled the belief of traitorous purpose. The jury retired for -half an hour, and then brought in a verdict of not guilty. - -Lord George, unhappily, could not keep out of trouble, although -naturally of mild disposition. He was an excitable, rather weak-minded -man, easily carried away by his enthusiasm on particular points. Six -years later he espoused, with customary warmth and want of judgment, -the case of other prisoners in Newgate, and published a pamphlet -purporting to be a petition from them presented to himself, praying him -to "interfere and secure their liberties by preventing their being sent -to Botany Bay. Prisoners labouring under severe sentences cried out -from their dungeons for redress. Some were about to suffer execution -without righteousness, others to be sent off to a barbarous country." -"The records of justice have been falsified," the pamphlet went on to -say, "and the laws profanely altered by men like ourselves. The bloody -laws against us have been enforced, under a normal administration, by -mere whitened walls, men who possess only the show of justice, and who -condemned us to death contrary to law." - -That this silly production should be made the subject of a criminal -information for libel, rather justifies the belief that an exaggerated -importance was given to Lord George's vagaries, both by the Government -and his own relations and friends. No doubt he was a thorn in the side -of his family, but the ministry could well have afforded to treat him -and his utterances with contempt. He was, however, indicted at the -King's Bench for publishing the petition, which he had actually himself -written, with a view to raise a tumult among the prisoners within -Newgate, or cause a disturbance by exciting the compassion of those -without. - -The case against him was very clearly made out, and as his offence -consisted of two parts, Lord George Gordon was subjected to two -different sentences. For the first, the publication of the "prisoners' -petition," the judge awarded him three years' imprisonment in Newgate. -For the second offence, being "trespasses, contempts, and misdemeanours -against the royal consort of his most Christian Majesty," the sentence -was a fine of £500, with a further imprisonment in Newgate at the -termination of the other three; and in addition he was required to give -security for fourteen years for his good behaviour, himself in £10,000, -and two sureties of £2500 each. - -Lord George Gordon remained in Newgate till his death, from -gaol-fever, in 1793. He made two or three ineffectual attempts to put -in his bail, but they were objected to as insufficient. It was thought -to the last that the government and his friends sought pretences to -keep him in confinement and out of mischief. His somewhat premature -death must have been a relief to them. But it can hardly be denied -that hard measure was meted out to him, and if he escaped too easily -at his first trial, he was too heavily punished at the second. It -is impossible to absolve him from responsibility for the outrages -committed by the rioters in 1780, although he was doubtless shocked -at their excesses. Lord George could not have foreseen the terrible -consequences which would follow his rash agitation, and little knew -how dangerous were the elements of disturbance he unchained. But it -can hardly be denied that he meant well. Had he lived a century later, -he would probably have found a more legitimate outlet for his peculiar -tendencies, and would have figured as an ardent philanthropist and -platform orator, instead of as a criminal in the dock. - -The damages which Newgate sustained at this time were repaired at a -cost of about twenty thousand pounds. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -CELEBRATED CRIMES AND CRIMINALS - - State of crime on opening new gaol—Newgate full—Executions - very numerous—Ruthless penal code—Forgery punished - with death—The first forgery of Bank of England - notes—Gibson—Bolland—The two Perreaus—Dr. Dodd—Charles - Price, _alias_ Old Patch—Clipping still largely - practised—John Clarke hanged for it—Also William Guest, a - clerk in Bank of England—His elaborate apparatus for filing - guineas—Coining—Forty or fifty private mints for making - counterfeits—Offences against life and property—Streets - unsafe—High roads infested by robbers—No regular - police—Daring Robberies at lévees—The Duke of Beaufort robbed - by Gentleman Harry—George Barrington, the gentleman thief, - frequents Ranelagh, the Palace, the Opera House—Highwaymen - put down by the horse patrol—"Long firm" swindlers—Female - Sharpers—Elizabeth Grieve and others pretend to sell - places under the Crown—Other forms of swindling—Juvenile - depravity—A girl for sale—Prize-fighting—Early martyrs to - freedom of speech—Prynne, Bastwick and Daniel Defoe—The Press - oppressed—The "North Briton"—Wilkes—William Cobbett in - Newgate—Also the Marquis of Sligo. - - -In the years immediately following the erection of the new gaol, -crime was once more greatly in the ascendant. After the peace which -gave independence to the United States, the country was overrun with -discharged soldiers and sailors. The majority were in dire poverty, and -took to depredation almost as a matter of course. The calendars were -particularly heavy. At this date there were forty-nine persons lying in -Newgate under sentence of death, one hundred and eighty under sentence -of transportation, and prisoners of other categories, making the total -prison population up to nearly six hundred souls. - -Speaking of those times, Mr. Townshend, a veteran Bow Street runner, in -his evidence before a Parliamentary Committee in 1816, declared that -in the years 1781-7 as many as twelve, sixteen, or twenty were hanged -at one execution; twice he saw forty hanged at one time. In 1783 there -were twenty at two consecutive executions. He had known, he said, as -many as two hundred and twenty tried at one sessions. He had himself -obtained convictions of from thirteen to twenty-five for returning from -transportation. Upon the same authority we are told that in 1783 the -Secretary of State advised the King to punish with all severity. The -enormity of the offences was so great, says Mr. Townshend, and "plunder -had got to such an alarming pitch," that a letter was circulated among -judges and recorders then sitting, to the effect that His Majesty would -dispense with the recorders' reports, and that the worst criminals -should be picked out and at once ordered for execution. - -The penal code was at this period still ruthlessly severe in England. -There were some two hundred capital felonies upon the statute book. -Almost any member of parliament eager to do his share in legislation -could "create a capital felony." A story is told of Edmund Burke, -that he was leaving his house one day in a hurry, when a messenger -called him back on a matter which would not detain him a minute: -"Only a felony without benefit of clergy." Burke also told Sir -James Mackintosh, that although scarcely entitled to ask a favour -of the ministry, he thought he had influence enough to create a -capital felony. It is true that of the two hundred, not more than -five-and-twenty sorts of felonies actually entailed execution. It is -also true that some of the most outrageous and ridiculous reasons -for its infliction had disappeared. It was no longer death to take a -falcon's egg from the nest, nor was it a hanging matter to be thrice -guilty of exporting live sheep. But a man's life was still appraised -at five shillings. Stealing from the person, or in a dwelling, or in -a shop, or on a navigable river, to that amount, was punished with -death. "I think it not right nor justice," wrote Sir Thomas More in -1516, "that the loss of money should cause the loss of man's life; -for mine opinion is that all the goods in the world are not able -to countervail man's life." Three hundred years was still to pass -before the strenuous efforts of Sir Samuel Romilly bore fruit in the -amelioration of the penal code. In 1810 he carried a bill through -the House of Commons, which was, however, rejected by the Lords, to -abolish capital punishment for stealing to the amount of five shillings -in a shop. His most bitter opponents were the great lawyers of the -times, Lords Ellenborough, Eldon, and others, Lords Chancellors and -Lords Chief Justice, who opposed dangerous innovations, and viewed -with dismay any attempt "to alter laws which a century had proved to -be necessary." Lord Eldon on this occasion said that he was firmly -convinced of the wisdom of the principles and practice of the criminal -code. Romilly did not live to see the triumph of his philanthropic -endeavours. He failed to procure the repeal of the cruel laws against -which he raised his voice, but he stopped the hateful legislation which -multiplied capital felonies year by year, and his illustrious example -found many imitators. Within a few years milder and more humane ideas -very generally prevailed. In 1837 the number of offences to which the -extreme penalty could be applied was only seven, and in that year only -eight persons were executed, all of them for murders of an atrocious -character. - -Forgery, at the period of which I am now treating, was an offence -especially repugnant to the law. No one guilty of it could hope to -escape the gallows. The punishment was so certain, that as milder -principles gained ground, many benevolent persons gladly withdrew from -prosecution where they could. Instances were known in which bankers -and other opulent people compromised with the delinquent rather -than be responsible for taking away a fellow-creature's life. The -prosecutor would sometimes pretend his pockets had been picked of the -forged instrument, or he destroyed it, or refused to produce it. An -important witness sometimes kept out of the way. Persons have gone so -far as to meet forged bills of exchange, and to a large amount. In one -case it was pretty certain they would not have advanced the money had -the punishment been short of death, because the culprit had already -behaved disgracefully, and they had no desire he should escape a lesser -retribution. Prosecutors have forfeited their recognizances sooner than -appear, and have even, when duly sworn, withheld a portion of their -testimony. - -But at the time of which I am now writing the law generally took -its course. In the years between 1805 and 1818 there had been two -hundred and seven executions for forgery; more than for either murder, -burglary, or robbery from the person. It may be remarked here that the -Bank of England was by far the most bitter and implacable as regards -prosecutions for forgery. Of the above-mentioned executions for this -crime, no less than seventy-two were the victims of proceedings -instituted by the Bank of England. Forgeries upon this great monetary -corporation had been much more frequent since the stoppage of specie -payments, which had been decreed by the Parliament in 1797 to save -the Bank from collapse. Alarms of invasion had produced such a -run upon it, that on one particular day little more than a million -in cash or bullion remained in the cellars, which had already been -drained of specie for foreign subsidies and subventions. Following the -cessation of cash payments to redeem its paper in circulation, the -Bank had commenced the issue of notes to the value of less than five -pounds, and it was soon found that these, especially the one-pound -notes, were repeatedly forged. In the eight years preceding 1797 but -few prosecutions had been instituted by the Bank; but in the eight -years which followed there were one hundred and forty-six convictions -for the offence. At last, about 1818, a strong and general feeling -of dissatisfaction grew rife against these prosecutions. The crime -had continued steadily to increase, in spite of the awful penalties -conviction entailed. It was proved, moreover, that note forgery was -easily accomplished. Detection, too, was most difficult. The public -were unable to distinguish between the good and bad notes. Bank -officials were themselves often deceived, and cases were known where -the clerks had refused payment of the genuine article. Juries began -to decline to convict on the evidence of inspectors and clerks, -unless substantiated by the revelation of the private mark, a highly -inconvenient practice, which the Bank itself naturally discountenanced. -Efforts were made to improve the quality of the note, so as to defy -imitation; but this could not well be done at the price, and, as the -only effective remedy, specie payments were resumed, and the one-pound -note withdrawn from circulation. But execution for forgery continued -to be the law for many more years. Fauntleroy suffered for it in 1824; -Joseph Hunton, the Quaker linen-draper, in 1828; and Maynard, the last, -in the following year. - -I am, however, anticipating somewhat, and must retrace my steps, and -indicate briefly one or two of the early forgers who passed through -Newgate and suffered for the crime. The first case I find recorded is -that of Richard Vaughan, a linen-draper of Stafford, who was committed -to Newgate in March, 1758, for counterfeiting Bank of England notes. -He employed several artists to engrave the notes in various parts, one -of whom informed against him. The value of the note he himself added. -Twenty which he had thus filled up he had deposited in the hands of a -young lady to whom he was paying his addresses, as a guarantee of his -wealth. Vaughan no doubt suffered, although I see no record of the fact -in the Newgate Calendar. - -Mr. Gibson's was a curious case. He was a prisoner in Newgate for -eighteen months between conviction and execution, the jury having found -a special verdict, subject to the determination of the twelve judges. -As Gibson remained so long in gaol, it was the general opinion that no -further notice would be taken of the case. The prisoner himself must -have been buoyed up with this hope, as he petitioned repeatedly for -judgment. He had been sentenced in Sept. 1766, and in 1768, at Hilary -Term, the judges decided that his crime came within the meaning of the -law. Gibson had been a solicitor's clerk, who gave so much satisfaction -that he was taken into partnership. The firm was doing a large -business, and among other large affairs was intrusted with a Chancery -case, respecting an estate for which an _ad interim_ receiver had -been appointed. Gibson's way of life was immoral and extravagant. He -had urgent need of funds, and in an evil hour he forged the signature -of the Accountant-General to the Court of Chancery, and so obtained -possession of some of the rents of the above-mentioned estate. The -fraud was presently discovered; Gibson was arrested, and eventually, -as already stated, condemned. "After sentence," says the Calendar, -"his behaviour was in every way becoming his awful situation; . . . he -appeared rational, serious, and devout. His behaviour was so pious, -so resigned, and in all respects so admirably adapted to his unhappy -situation, that the tears of the commiserating multitude accompanied -his last ejaculation. He was carried to execution in a mourning coach," -an especial honour reserved for malefactors of aristocratic antecedents -and gentle birth. - -James Bolland, who was executed in 1772, deserved and certainly -obtained less sympathy. Bolland long filled the post of a sheriff's -officer, and as such became the lessee of a spunging-house, where -he practised boundless extortion. He was a man of profligate life, -whose means never equalled his extravagant self-indulgence, and he was -put to all manner of shifts to get money. More than once he arrested -debtors, was paid all claims in full, and appropriated the money to -his own use, yet escaped due retribution for his fraud. He employed -bullies, spies, and indigent attorneys to second his efforts, some -of whom were arrested and convicted of other crimes with the clothes -Bolland provided for them still on their backs. His character was so -infamous, that when he purchased the situation of upper city marshal -for £2,400, the court of aldermen would not approve of the appointment. -He tried also to succeed to a vacancy as Sergeant-at-mace, and met with -the same objection. The deposit-money paid over in both these affairs -was attached by his sureties, and he was driven to great necessities -for funds. When called upon to redeem a note of hand he had given, he -pleaded that he was short of cash, and offered another man's bill, -which, however, was refused unless endorsed. Bolland then proceeded to -endorse it with his own name, but it was declared unnegotiable, owing -to the villainous character he bore. Whereupon Bolland erased all the -letters after the capital, and substituted the letters "anks," the name -of Banks being that of a respectable victualler of Rathbone Place, in -a large way of trade. When the bill became due, Banks repudiated his -signature, and Bolland, who sought too late to meet it and hush up the -affair, was arrested for the forgery. He was tried and executed in due -course. - -The case of the twin brothers Perreau in 1776 was long the talk of the -town. It evoked much public sympathy, as they were deemed to be the -dupes of a certain Mrs. Rudd, who lived with Daniel Perreau, and passed -as his wife. Daniel was a man of reputed good means, with a house in -Harley Street, which he kept up well. His brother, Robert Perreau, was -a surgeon enjoying a large practice, and residing in Golden Square. -The forged deed was a bond for £7,500, purporting to be signed by -William Adair, a well-known agent. Daniel Perreau handed this to Robert -Drummond Perreau, who carried it to the Bank, where its validity -was questioned, and the brothers, with Mrs. Rudd, were arrested on -suspicion of forgery. Daniel on his trial solemnly declared that he had -received the instrument from Mrs. Rudd; Robert's defence was that he -had no notion the document was forged. Both were, however, convicted -of knowingly uttering the counterfeit bond. It was, however, found -impossible to prove Mrs. Rudd's complicity in the transaction, and she -was acquitted. The general feeling was, however, so strong that she was -the guilty person, that the unfortunate Perreaus became a centre of -interest. Strenuous efforts were made to obtain a reprieve for them. -Robert Perreau's wife went in deep mourning, accompanied by her three -children, to sue on their knees for pardon from the queen. Seventy-two -leading bankers and merchants signed a petition in his favour, which -was presented to the king two days before the execution: but all to no -purpose. Both of the brothers suffered the extreme penalty at Tyburn -on the 17th January, 1776, before an enormous multitude estimated at -30,000. They asserted their innocence to the last. - -In the following year a clergyman, who had at one time achieved -some eminence, also fell a victim to the vindictive laws regarding -forgery. Dr. Dodd was the son of a clergyman. He had been a wrangler -at Cambridge, and was early known as a litterateur of some repute. -While still on his promotion, and leading a gay life in London, he -made a foolish marriage, and united himself to the daughter of one -of Sir John Dolben's servants, a young lady largely endowed with -personal attractions, but certainly deficient in birth and fortune. -This sobered him, and he took orders in the year that his "Beauties of -Shakespeare" was published. He became a zealous curate at West Ham; -thence he went to St. James', Garlick Hill, and took an active part -in London church and charitable work. He was one of the promoters of -the Magdalen Hospital, also of the Humane Society, and in 1763, twelve -years after ordination, he was appointed chaplain in ordinary to the -King. About the same time he was presented to a prebend's stall in -Brecon Cathedral, and was recommended to Lord Chesterfield as tutor -to his son. He hoped to succeed to the rectory of West Ham, but being -disappointed he now came to London, and launched out into extravagance. -He had a town house, and a country house at Ealing, and he exchanged -his chariot for a coach. Having won a prize of £1,000 in a lottery, he -became interested in two proprietary chapels, but could not make them -pay. But just then he was presented with a living, that of Hockliffe, -in Bedfordshire, which he held with the vicarage of Chalgrove, and his -means were still ample. They were not sufficient, however, for his -expenditure, and in an evil moment he attempted to obtain the valuable -cure of St. George's, Hanover Square, by back-stair influence. The -living was in the gift of the Crown, and Dodd was so ill-advised as -to write to a great lady at Court, offering her £3,000 if he were -presented. The letter was forthwith passed on to the Lord Chancellor, -and the King, George III, hearing what had happened, ordered Dr. Dodd's -name to be struck off the list of his chaplains. The story was made -public, and Dodd was satirized in the press and on the stage. - -Dodd was now greatly encumbered by debts, from which the presentation -to a third living, that of Winge, in Buckinghamshire, could not relieve -him. He was in such straits that, according to his biographer, "he -descended so low as to become the editor of a newspaper," and he tried -to obtain relief in bankruptcy, but failed. At length, so sorely -pressed was he by creditors that he resolved to do a dishonest deed. -He forged the name of his old pupil, now Lord Chesterfield, who had -since become his patron, to a bond for £4,200. He applied to certain -usurers, in the name of a young nobleman who was seeking an advance. -The business was refused by many, because Dr. Dodd declared that they -could not be present at the execution of the bond. A Mr. Robertson -proved more obliging, and to him Dr. Dodd, in due course, handed a bond -for £4,200 executed by Lord Chesterfield, and witnessed by himself. A -second witness being necessary, Mr. Robertson signed his name beneath -Dr. Dodd's. The bond was no sooner presented for payment, and referred -to Lord Chesterfield, than it was repudiated. Robertson was forthwith -arrested, and soon afterwards Dr. Dodd. The latter at once, in the hope -of saving himself, returned $3,000; he gave a cheque upon his bankers -for £700, a bill of sale on his furniture worth £400 more, and the -whole sum was made up by another hundred from the brokers. Nevertheless -Dr. Dodd was taken before the Lord Mayor and charged with the forgery. -Lord Chesterfield would not stir a finger to help his old tutor, -although the poor wretch had made full restitution. Dr. Dodd, when -arraigned, declared that he had no intention to defraud, that he had -only executed the bond as a temporary resource to meet some pressing -claims. The jury after consulting only five minutes found him guilty, -and he was regularly sentenced to death. Still greater exertions -were made to obtain a reprieve for Dr. Dodd than in the case of the -Perreaus. The newspapers were filled with letters pleading for him. -All classes of people strove to help him; the parish officers went in -mourning from house to house, asking subscriptions to get up a petition -to the King, and this petition, when eventually drafted, filled -twenty-three skins of parchment. Petitions from Dodd and his wife, -both drawn up by Dr. Johnson, were laid before the King and Queen. -Even the Lord Mayor and Common Council went in a body to St. James's -Palace to beg mercy from the King. As, however, clemency had been -denied to the Perreaus, it was deemed unadvisable to extend it to Dr. -Dodd. The concourse at his execution, which took place at Tyburn, was -immense. It has been stated erroneously that Dr. Dodd preached his own -funeral sermon. He only delivered an address to his fellow-prisoners -in the prison chapel by the permission of Mr. Villette, the ordinary. -The text he chose was Psalm 51:3, "I acknowledge my faults; and my -sin is ever before me." It was delivered some three weeks before the -Doctor's execution, and subsequently printed. It is a curious fact that -among other published works of Dr. Dodd, is a sermon on the injustice -of capital punishments. He was, however, himself the chief witness -against a highwayman, who was hanged for stopping him. Among other -spectators at the execution of Dr. Dodd was the Rev. James Hackman, -who afterwards murdered Miss Reay. - -It is said that a scheme was devised to procure Dodd's escape from -Newgate. He was treated with much consideration by Mr. Akerman, allowed -to have books, papers, and a reading-desk. Food and other necessaries -were brought him from outside by a female servant daily. This woman -was found to bear a striking resemblance to the Doctor, which was the -more marked when she was dressed up in a wig and gown. She was asked if -she would coöperate in a scheme for taking the Doctor's place in gaol, -and consented. It was arranged that on a certain day, Dr. Dodd's irons -having been previously filed, he was to change clothes with the woman. -She was to seat herself at the reading-desk while Dr. Dodd, carrying a -bundle under his arm, coolly walked out of the prison. The plan would -probably have succeeded, but Dodd would not be a party to it. He was -so buoyed up with the hope of reprieve that he would not risk the -misconstruction which would have been placed upon the attempt to escape -had it failed. In his own profession Dr. Dodd was not very highly -esteemed. Dr. Newton, Bishop of Bristol, is said to have observed that -Dodd deserved pity, because he was hanged for the least crime he had -committed. - -One of the most notorious depredators in this line, whose operations -long eluded detection, was Charles Price, commonly called Old Patch. -He forged bank-notes wholesale. His plans were laid with the utmost -astuteness, and he took extraordinary precautions to avoid discovery. -He did everything for himself; made his own paper, with the proper -water-mark, engraved his own plates, and manufactured his own ink. His -method of negotiating the forged notes was most artful. He had three -homes; at one he was Price, properly married, at a second he lived -under another name with a woman who helped him in his schemes, at a -third he did the actual business of passing his notes. This business -was always effected in disguise; none of his agents or instruments saw -him except in disguise, and when his work was over he put it off to -return home. One favourite personation of his was that of an infirm -old man, wearing a long black camlet cloak, with a broad cape fastened -up close to his chin. With this he wore a big, broad-brimmed slouch -hat, and often green spectacles or a green shade. Sometimes his mouth -was covered up with red flannel, or his corpulent legs and gouty -feet were swathed in flannel. His natural appearance as Price was a -compact middle-aged man, inclined to stoutness, erect, active, and not -bad-looking, with a beaky nose, keen gray eyes, and a nutcracker chin. -His schemes were very ingenious. On one occasion he pretended, in one -disguise, to expose a swindler (himself in another disguise), whom a -respectable city merchant inveigled into his house in order to give -him up to the police. The swindler proposed to buy himself off for -£500; the offer was accepted, the money paid by a thousand-pound note, -for which the swindler got change. The note, of course, was forged. He -victimized numbers of tradesmen. Disguised as an old man, he passed six -forged fifty-pound notes on a grocer, and then as Price backed up his -victim in an action brought against the bank which refused payment of -the counterfeits. But his cleverest coup was that organized against the -lottery offices. Having in one of his disguises engaged a boy to serve -him, he sent the lad, dressed in livery, round the town to buy lottery -tickets, paying for them in large (forged) notes, for which change was -always required. By these means hundreds and hundreds of pounds were -obtained upon the counterfeits. The boy was presently arrested, and a -clever plot was laid to nab the old man his master, but Price by his -vigilance outwitted the police. Another of his dodges was to hire boys -to take forged notes to the Bank, receive the tickets from the teller, -and carry them back to him. He forthwith altered the figures, passed -them on by the same messenger to the Bank cashier, and obtained payment -for the larger amount. - -These wholesale forgeries produced something like consternation at -the Bank. It was supposed that they were executed by a large gang, -well organized and with numerous ramifications, although Price, as I -have said, really worked single-handed. The notes poured in day after -day, and still no clue was obtained as to the culprits. The Bow Street -officials were hopelessly at fault. "Old Patch" was advertised for, -described in his various garbs. It was now discovered that he had a -female accomplice. This was a Mrs. Poultney, alias Hickeringill, his -wife's aunt, a tall, rather genteel woman of thirty, with a downcast -look, thin face and person, light hair, and pitted with the small-pox. -Fate at last unexpectedly overtook Old Patch. One of many endorsements -upon a forged note was traced to a pawnbroker, who remembered to have -had the note from one Powel. The runners suspected that Powel was -Price, and that he was a member of Old Patch's gang. A watch was set -at the pawnbroker's, and the next time Powel called he was arrested, -identified as Price, searched, and found to have upon his person a -large number of notes, with a quantity of white tissue-paper, which -he declared he had bought to make into air-balloons for his children. -Price was committed to prison, and a close inquiry made into his -antecedents. He was found to be the man who had decoyed Foote the actor -into a partnership in a brewery and decamped with the profits, leaving -Foote to pay liabilities to the extent of £500. Then, he had started -an illicit still, and had been arrested and sent to Newgate till he -had paid a fine of £1,600. He was released through the intercession of -Lord Lyttleton and Foote, and forgiven the fine. He next set up as a -fraudulent lottery office keeper, and bolted with a big prize. After -this he elaborated his system of forgery, which ended in the way I have -said. Price was alert and cunning to the last. One of his first acts -was to pass out a clandestine letter to Mrs. Poultney, briefly telling -her to destroy everything. This she effected by burning the whole of -his disguises in the kitchen fire, on the pretence that the clothes -were infected by the plague. The engraving press was disposed of; the -copper plates heated red-hot, then smashed into pieces and thrown with -the water-mark wires on to a neighbouring dust-heap, where they were -subsequently discovered. Price attempted to deny his identity, but -to no purpose, and when he saw the grip of the law tightening upon -him, he committed suicide to avoid the extreme penalty. He was found -hanging behind the door of his cell, suspended from two hat-screws, -strengthened by gimlets. Price's depredations, it was said, amounted -to £200,000; but how he disposed of his ill-gotten gains, seeing that -he always lived obscurely, and neither gambled nor drank, remained an -inscrutable secret to the last. - -Persons of respectable station, sometimes, succumbed to special -temptations. William Guest was the son of a clergyman living at -Worcester, who had sufficient interest to get him a clerkship in -the Bank of England. The constant handling of piles of gold was too -much for Guest's integrity, and he presently resolved to turn his -opportunities to account. Taking a house in Broad Street Buildings, -he devoted the upper part of it to his nefarious trade. He abstracted -guineas from his drawer in the Bank, carried them home, filed them, -then remilled them in a machine he had designed for the purpose, -and returned them—now light weight—to the Bank. The filings he -converted into ingots and disposed of to the trade. No suspicion of his -malpractices transpiring, he was in due course advanced to the post -of teller. But a fellow-teller having observed him one day picking -out new guineas from a bag, watched him, and found that he did this -constantly. On another occasion he was seen to pay away guineas some of -which, on examination, proved to have been recently filed. They were -weighed, and found short weight. To test Mr. Guest still further, his -money-bags were opened one night after hours, and the contents counted -and examined. The number was short, and several guineas found which -appeared to have been recently filed, and which on weighing proved to -be light. - -A descent was forthwith made upon Guest's house, and in the upper rooms -the whole apparatus for filing was laid bare. In a nest of drawers were -found vice, files, the milling machine, two bags of gold filings, and -a hundred guineas. A flap in front of the nest of drawers could be let -down, and inside was a skin fastened to the back of the flap, with a -hole in it to button on to the waistcoat, and equip the workman after -the method of jewellers. More evidence was soon forthcoming against -Guest. His fellow-teller had seen him in possession of a substantial -bar of gold; jewellers and others swore to having bought ingots from -him, and an assayer at Guest's trial deposed to their being of the same -standard as the guinea coinage. His guilt was clearly made out to the -jury, and he was sentenced to death. A petition signed by a number of -influential persons was forwarded to the Crown, praying for mercy, but -it was decided that the law must take its course. As his crime amounted -to high treason, he went to Tyburn on a sledge, but he suffered no -other penalty than hanging. - -The flagitious trade of coining was in a most flourishing condition -during the last decades of the eighteenth and the early part of the -nineteenth centuries. The condition of the national coinage was at this -time far from creditable to the Mint. A great part of both the silver -and copper money in circulation was much worn and defaced. Imitation -thus became much easier than with coins comparatively fresh and new. -Hence the nefarious practice multiplied exceedingly. There were as -many as forty or fifty private mints constantly at work, either in -London or in the principal country towns. The process was rapid, not -too laborious, and extremely profitable. A couple of hands could turn -out in a week base silver coins worth nominally two or three hundred -pounds. The wages of a good workman were as much as a couple of guineas -a day. Much capital was invested by large dealers in the trade, who -must have made enormous sums. One admitted that his transactions in -seven years amounted to the production of £200,000 in counterfeit -half-crowns and other silver coins. So systematic was the traffic, -that orders for town and country were regularly executed by the -various manufacturers. Boxes and parcels of base coin were despatched -every morning by coach and wagon to all parts of the kingdom, like -any other goods. The trade extended to foreign countries. The law, -until it was rectified, did not provide any method of punishment for -the counterfeiting of foreign money, and French louis-d'or, Spanish -dollars, German florins, and Turkish sequins were shipped abroad in -great quantities. The Indian possessions even did not escape, and a -manufactory of spurious gold or silver pagodas was at one time most -active in London, whence they were exported to the East. The number of -persons employed in London as capitalists and agents for distribution -alone amounted to one hundred and twenty at one time; and besides -there was a strong force of skilful handicraftsmen, backed up by a -whole army of "utterers" or "smashers," constantly busy in passing the -base money into the currency. The latter comprised hawkers, peddlers, -market-women, hackney-coach drivers, all of whom attended the markets -held by the dealers in the manufactured article, and bought wholesale -to distribute retail by various devices, more particularly in giving -change. They obtained the goods at an advantage of about one hundred -per cent. When the base money lost its veneer, the dealers were ready -to repurchase it in gross, and after a repetition of the treatment, -issue it afresh at the old rates. - -Gold coins were not so much counterfeited as silver and copper, but -there were many bad guineas in circulation. The most dexterous method -of coining them was by mixing a certain amount of alloy with the pure -metal. They were the proper weight, and had some semblance of the true -ring, but their intrinsic value was not more than thirteen or fourteen -shillings, perhaps only eight or nine. The fabrication was, however, -limited by the expense and the nicety required in the process. To -counterfeit silver was a simpler operation. Of base silver money there -were five kinds; viz., flats, plated goods, plain goods, castings, -and "fig" things. The _flats_ were cut out of prepared flattened -plates composed of silver and blanched copper. When cut out the coins -were turned in a lathe, stamped in a press with the proper die, and -subjected to rubbing with various materials, including aquafortis to -bring the silver to the surface, sand-paper, cork, cream of tartar, and -last of all blacking to give the appearance of age. _Plated goods_ were -prepared from copper; the coins cut the proper size and plated, the -stamping being done afterwards. As these coins were very like silver, -they generally evaded detection. _Plain goods_ consisted of copper -blanks the size of a shilling, turned out from a lathe, then given -the colour and lustre of metal buttons, after which they were rubbed -with cream of tartar and blacking. _Castings_, as the word implies, -were coins made of blanched copper, cast in moulds of the proper die; -they were then silvered and treated like the rest. It was very common -to give this class of base money a crooked appearance, by which means -they seemed genuine, and got into circulation without suspicion. The -"_figs_" or _fig things_, were the lowest and meanest class, and were -confined chiefly to sixpences. Copper counterfeit money was principally -of two kinds, stamped and plain, made out of base metal; the profit -on them being about a hundred per cent. They were mostly halfpennies; -but farthings were also largely manufactured, the material being real -copper, but the fraud consisted in their being of light weight, and -very thin. - -The prosecutions for coining were very numerous. The register of the -solicitor to the Mint recorded as many as six hundred and fifty in a -period of seven years. The offence of uttering, till a recent date, -constituted petty treason, and met with the usual penalties. These, -in the case of female offenders, included hanging and burning at a -stake. The last woman who suffered in this way was burned before the -debtors' door, in front of Newgate, in 1788, having previously been -strangled. In the following year, as has been already stated, the law -was passed, which abolished the practice of burning women convicted of -petty treason, and thereafter persons guilty of only selling or dealing -in base money were more leniently dealt with. The offence was long only -a misdemeanour, carrying with it a sentence of imprisonment for a year -and a day, which the culprit passed not unpleasantly in Newgate, while -his friends or relations kept the business going outside, and supplied -him regularly with ample funds. - -There was as yet little security for life and property in town or -country. The streets of London were still unsafe; high roads and -bye roads leading to it were still infested by highway robbers. -The protection afforded to the public by the police continued very -inefficient. It was still limited to parochial effort; the watchmen -were appointed by the vestries, and received a bare pittance,—twelve -and sixpence a week in summer, seventeen and sixpence in winter,—which -they often eked out by taking bribes from the women of the town, or by -a share in a burglar's "swag," to whose doings they were conveniently -blind. These watchmen were generally middle-aged, often old and feeble -men, who were appointed either from charitable motives, to give them -employment, or save them from being inmates of the workhouse and a -burthen to the parish. Their hours of duty were long, from night-fall -to sunrise, during which, when so disposed, they patrolled the -streets, calling the hour, the only check on their vigilance being -the occasional rounds of the parish beadle, who visited the watchmen -on their various beats. In spite of this the watchmen were often -invisible; not to be found when most wanted, and even when present, -powerless to arrest or make head against disorderly or evilly-disposed -persons. - -Besides the watchmen there were the parish constables, nominated by -the court of burgesses, or court leet. The obligation of serving in -the office of constable might fall upon any householder in turn, but -he was at liberty to escape it by buying a substitute or purchasing -a "Tyburn ticket," exempting from service. The parish constables -were concerned with pursuit rather than prevention, with crime after -rather than before the fact. In this duty they were assisted by the -police constables, although there was no love lost between the two -classes of officer. The police constables are most familiar to us -under the name of "Bow Street runners," but they were attached to all -the police offices, and not to Bow Street alone. They were nominated -from Whitehall by the Secretary of State, the minister now best known -as the Home Secretary. The duties of the "runners" were mainly those -of detection and pursuit, in which they were engaged in London and in -the country, at home and abroad. Individuals or public bodies applied -to Bow Street, or some other office, for the services of a runner. -These officers took charge of poaching cases, of murders, burglaries, -or highway robberies. Some were constantly on duty at the court, as -depredations were frequently committed in the royal palaces, or the -royal family were "teased by lunatics." The runners were remunerated -by a regular salary of a guinea a week; but special services might be -recognized by a share in the private reward offered, or, in case of -conviction, by a portion of the public parliamentary reward of £40, -which might be granted by the bench. - -[Illustration: _Thieving Lane_ - -(_View of southern end of Thieving Lane, now Bow Street_) - - Felons were conveyed through this lane to the gate-house which - stood at the end of Tothill Street. In close proximity to the - prison, it was a resort of thieves, from which it took its - unenviable name.] - -The policy of making these grants was considered questionable. It -tended to tempt officers of justice "to forswear themselves for the -lucre of the reward," and the thirst for "blood-money," as it was -called, was aggravated till it led many to sell the lives of their -fellow-creatures for gain. There were numerous cases of this. Jonathan -Wild was one of the most notorious of the dishonest thief-takers. -In 1755 several scoundrels of the same ilk were convicted of having -obtained the conviction of innocent people, simply to pocket the -reward. Their offence did not come under penal statute, so they were -merely exposed in the pillory, where, however, the mob pelted one to -death and nearly killed another. Again, in 1816, a police officer named -Vaughan was guilty of inciting to crime, in order to betray his victims -and receive the blood-money. On the other hand, when conviction was -doubtful the offender enjoyed long immunity from arrest. Officers would -not arrest him until he "weighed his weight," as the saying was, or -until they were certain of securing the £40 reward. Another form of -remuneration was the bestowal on conviction of a "Tyburn ticket;" in -other words, of an exemption from service in parish offices. This the -officer sold for what it would bring, the price varying in different -parishes from £12 to £40. - -It was not to be wondered at that a weak and inadequate police force, -backed up by such uncertain and injudicious incentives to activity, -should generally come off second-best in its struggles with the -hydra-headed criminality of the day. Robberies and burglaries were -committed almost under the eyes of the police. It was calculated -that the value of the property stolen in the city in one month of -1808 amounted to £15,000, and none of the parties were ever known or -apprehended, although sought after night and day. Such cases as the -following were of frequent occurrence: "Seven ruffians, about eight -o'clock at night knocked at the door of Mrs. Abercrombie in Charlotte -Street, Rathbone Place, calling out 'Post!' and upon its being opened, -rushed in and took her jewels and fifty or sixty guineas in money, -with all the clothes and linen they could get. The neighbourhood was -alarmed, and a great crowd assembled, but the robbers sallied forth, -and with swords drawn and pistols presented, threatened destruction -to any who opposed them. The mob tamely suffered them to escape with -their booty without making any resistance." The officers of justice -were openly defied. There were streets, such as Duck Lane, Gravel Lane, -or Cock Lane, in which it was unsafe for any one to venture without an -escort of five or six of his fellows, as the ruffians would cut him to -pieces if he were alone. - -Still more dastardly were the wanton outrages perpetrated upon -unprotected females, often in broad daylight, and in the public -streets. These at one time increased to an alarming extent. Ladies were -attacked and wounded without warning, and apparently without cause. -The injuries were often most serious. On one occasion a young lady was -stabbed in the face by means of an instrument concealed in a bouquet of -flowers which a ruffian had begged her to smell. When consternation was -greatest, however, it was reported that the cowardly assailant was in -custody. He proved to be one Renwick Williams, now generally remembered -as "the monster." The assault for which he was arrested was made in St. -James's Street, about midnight, upon a young lady, Miss Porter, who -was returning from a ball to her father's house. Renwick struck at her -with a knife, and wounded her badly through her clothes, accompanying -the blow with the grossest language. The villain at the time escaped, -but Miss Porter recognized him six months later in St. James's Park. He -was followed by a Mr. Coleman to his quarters at No. 52, Jermyn Street, -and brought to Miss Porter's house. The young lady, crying "That is the -wretch!" fainted away at the sight of him. The prisoner indignantly -repudiated that he was "the monster" who was advertised for, but he -was indicted at the Old Bailey, and the jury found him guilty without -hesitation. His sentence was two years' imprisonment in Newgate, and he -was bound over in £400 to be of good behaviour. - -Gentlemen, some of the highest station, going or returning from court, -were often the victims of the depredations committed in the royal -precincts. In 1792 a gang of thieves dressed in court suits smuggled -themselves into a drawing-room of St. James's Palace, and tried to -hustle and rob the Prince of Wales. The Duke of Beaufort, returning -from a levee, had his "George," pendant to his ribbon of the Garter, -stolen from him in the yard of St. James's Palace. The order was set -with brilliants, worth a very large sum of money. The duke called out -to his servants, who came up and seized a gentlemanly man dressed -in black standing near. The "George" was found in this gentleman's -pocket. He proved to be one Henry Sterne, commonly called Gentleman -Harry,[82:1] who, being of good address and genteel appearance, -easily got admission to the best company, upon whom he levied his -contributions. - -George Barrington, the notorious pickpocket, also found it to his -advantage to attend levees and drawing-rooms. Barrington, or Waldron, -which was his real name, began crime early. When one of a strolling -company in Ireland, he recruited the empty theatrical treasury and -supplemented meagre receipts by stealing watches and purses, the -proceeds being divided among the rest of the actors. He found thieving -so much more profitable than acting that he abandoned the latter in -favour of the former profession, and set up as a gentleman pickpocket. -Having worked Dublin well, his native land became too hot to hold him, -and he came to London. At Ranelagh one night he relieved both the Duke -of Leinster and Sir William Draper of considerable sums. He visited -also the principal watering places, including Bath, but London was his -favourite hunting-ground. Disguised as a clergyman, he went to court on -drawing-room days, and picked pockets or removed stars and decorations -from the breasts of their wearers. At Covent Garden Theatre one night -he stole a gold snuff-box set with brilliants, and worth £30,000, -belonging to Prince Orloff, of which there had been much talk, and -which, with other celebrated jewels, Barrington had long coveted. The -Russian prince felt the thief's hand in his pocket, and immediately -seized Barrington by the throat, on which the latter slipped back -the snuff-box. But Barrington was arrested and committed for trial, -escaping this time because Prince Orloff would not prosecute. He was, -however, again arrested for picking a pocket in Drury Lane Theatre, and -sentenced to three years' hard labour on board the hulks in the Thames. - -From this he was released prematurely through the good offices of a -gentleman who pitied him, only to be reimprisoned, but in Newgate, -not the hulks, for fresh robberies at the Opera House, Pantheon, and -other places of public resort. Once more released, he betook himself -to his old evil courses, and having narrowly escaped capture in -London, wandered through the northern counties in various disguises, -till he was at length taken at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Another narrow -escape followed, through the absence of a material witness; but -he was finally arrested for picking a pocket on Epsom Downs, and -sentenced to seven years' transportation. He made an affecting speech -at his trial, urging, in extenuation of his offence, that he had -never had a fair chance of earning an honest livelihood. He may have -been sincere, and he certainly took the first opportunity offered to -prove it. On the voyage out to New South Wales there was a mutiny -on board the convict ship, which would have been successful but for -Barrington's aid on the side of authority. He held the passage to the -quarter-deck single-handed, and kept the mob of convicts at bay with -a marline-spike, till the captain and crew were able to get arms and -finally suppress the revolt. As a reward for his conduct, Barrington -was appointed to a position of trust, in charge of other prisoners at -Paramatta. Within a year or two he was advanced to the more onerous -and responsible post of chief constable, and was complimented by the -governor of the colony for his faithful performance of the duty. He -fell away in health, however, and retiring eventually upon a small -pension, died before he was fifty years of age. - -The gentlemen of the highway continued to harass and rob all -travellers. All the roads were infested. Two or three would be heard of -every morning; some on Hounslow Heath, some on Finchley Common, some on -Wimbledon Common, some on the Romford Road. Townshend, the Bow Street -runner, declared that on arriving at the office of a morning people -came in one after the other to give information of such robberies. -"Messrs. Mellish, Bosanquet, and Pole, merchants of the city," says a -contemporary chronicle, "were stopped by three highwaymen on Hounslow -Heath. After robbing them, without resistance, of their money and -their watches, one of the robbers wantonly fired into the chaise and -mortally wounded Mr. Mellish." The first successful effort made to -put down this levying of blackmail upon the king's highway was the -establishment of the police horse patrol in 1805. It was organized -by the direction of the chief magistrate at Bow Street, then Sir -Nathaniel Conant, and under the immediate orders of a conductor, Mr. -Day. This force consisted of mounted constables, who every night -regularly patrolled all the roads leading into the metropolis. They -worked singly between two stations, each starting at a fixed time from -each end, halting midway to communicate, then returning. The patrol -acted on any information received _en route_, making themselves known -as they rode along to all persons riding horses or in carriages, by -calling out in a loud tone "Bow Street Patrol." They arrested all known -offenders whom they met with, and were fully armed for their own and -the public protection. The members of this excellent force were paid -eight-and-twenty shillings a week, with turnpike tolls and forage for -their horses, which, however, they were obliged to groom and take care -of. Marked and immediate results were obtained from the establishment -of this patrol. Highway robbery ceased almost entirely, and in the rare -cases which occurred before it quite died out, the guilty parties were -invariably apprehended. - -There was as yet no very marked diminution in the number of executions, -but other forms of punishment were growing into favour. Already -transportation beyond the seas had become a fixed system. Since the -settlement of New South Wales as a penal colony in 1780, convicts were -sent out regularly, and in increasingly large batches. The period -between conviction and embarkation was spent in Newgate, thus adding -largely to its criminal population, with disastrous consequences to the -health and convenience of the place. Besides these, the most heinous -criminals, there were other lesser offenders, for whom various terms -of imprisonment was deemed a proper and sufficient penalty. Hence -gaols were growing much more crowded, and Newgate more especially, as -will presently be apparent from a brief review of some of the types -of persons who became lodgers in Newgate, not temporarily, as in the -case of all who passed quickly from the condemned cells to the gallows, -but who remained there for longer periods, whether awaiting removal as -transports, or working out a sentence of imprisonment in the course of -law. - -As London, increasing in size and life, became more complex, chances -multiplied for rogues and sharpers, who tried with chicane and -stratagem to prey upon society. Swindling was carried out more -systematically and upon a wider scale than in the days of Jenny Diver -or the sham German Princess. A woman named Robinson was arrested in -1801, who, under the pretence of being a rich heiress, had obtained -goods fraudulently from tradesmen to the value of £20,000. Again, some -years later, a gang resembling somewhat the "long firms" of modern days -carried on a fictitious trade, and obtained goods from city merchants -worth £50,000. There were many varieties of the professional swindler -in those days. Some did business under the guise of licensed and -outwardly respectable pawnbrokers, who _sub rosâ_ were traffickers in -stolen goods. Others roamed the country as hawkers, general dealers, -and peddlers, distributing exciseable articles which had been smuggled -into the country, carrying on fraudulent raffles, purchasing stolen -horses in one county and disposing of them in another. The "duffer" -went from door to door in the town, offering for sale smuggled tobacco, -muslins, or other stuffs, and, if occasion served, passing forged notes -or bad money as small change. - -Where the swindler possessed such qualifications as a pleasing manner -and a gentlemanly address, with a small capital to start with, he flew -at higher game. Alexander Day, alias Marmaduke Davenport, Esq., was -one of the first of a long line of impostors who made a great show, -in a fine house in a fashionable neighbourhood, with sham footmen in -smart liveries, and a grand carriage and pair. The latter he got in -on approval, taking care while he used them to be driven to the Duke -of Montague's and other aristocratic mansions. In the carriage too he -called on numbers of tradesmen and gave large orders for goods: yards -of Spanish point-lace, a gold "equipage" or dinner-service, silks in -long pieces, table and other linen enough to furnish several houses. -By clever excuses he postponed payment, or made off with the property -by a second door. Among other things ordered was a gold chain for his -squirrel, which already wore a silver one. The goldsmith recognized the -silver chain as one he had recently sold to a lady, and his suspicions -were aroused. On reference to her she denounced Day as a swindler, who -had cheated her out of a large sum of money. Day was forthwith arrested -and sent to Newgate. At his trial he declared that he meant to pay for -everything he had ordered, that he owned an estate in Durham worth -£1,200 a year, but that it was heavily mortgaged. The case occupied -some time, but in the end Day was sentenced to two years' imprisonment -in Newgate, to stand twice in the pillory, find security for his good -behaviour, and pay a fine of £200. - -The cleverest swindles were often effected by the softer sex. Female -sharpers infested all places of public resort. They dressed in the -best clothes, and personating ladies of the highest fashion, attended -entertainments and masquerades; they even succeeded in gaining -admission to St. James's Palace, where they got into the general -circle and pilfered right and left. One woman, the wife of a notorious -Chevalier d'Industrie, was known to have been at court at the birthday -of King George III. Her costume was in irreproachably good taste; her -husband attended her in the garb of a dignitary of the Church. Between -them they managed to levy contributions to the extent of £1,700, and -made off before these thefts were discovered or suspected. - -A notable female sharper was Elizabeth Harriet Grieve, whose line of -business was to pretend that she possessed great influence at court, -and promise preferment. She gave out that she was highly connected: -Lord North was her first cousin, the Duke of Grafton her second; she -was nearly related to Lady Fitz-Roy, and most intimate with Lord -Guildford and other peers. In those days places were shamelessly bought -and sold, and tradesmen retiring from business, or others who had -amassed a little property, invested their savings in a situation under -the Crown. When the law at length laid hands on the "Hon." Elizabeth -Harriet, as she styled herself, a great number of cases were brought -against her. A coach-carver, whose trade was declining, had paid her -£36 to obtain him a place as clerk in the Victualling Office. Another -man gave her £30 down, with a conditional bond for £250, to get the -place of a "coast" or "tide"-waiter. Both were defrauded. There were -many more proved against her, and she was eventually sentenced to -transportation. - -She was only one of many who followed the same trade. David James -Dignum was convicted in 1777 of pretending to sell places under -Government, and sentenced to hard labour on the Thames. Dignum's was -a barefaced kind of imposition. He went the length of handing his -victims, in exchange for the fees, which were never less than a -hundred guineas, a stamped parchment duly signed by the head of the -public department, with seals properly attached. In one case he got -£1,000 for pretending to secure a person the office of "writer of the -'London Gazette.'" Of course the signatures to these instruments were -forged, and the seals had been removed from some legal warrant. When -the time came for Dignum's departure for the hulks, he resolved to go -to Woolwich in state, and travelled down in a post-chaise, accompanied -by his negro servant. But on reaching the ballast lighter on which -Dignum was to work, his valet was refused admittance, and the convict -was at once put to the duty of the wheelbarrow. He made a desperate -effort to get off by forging a cheque on Drummonds, which he got others -to cash. They were arrested, but their innocence was clearly shown. -Dignum had hoped to be brought up to London for examination. He had -thought to change his lot, to exchange the hulks for Newgate, even at -the risk of winding up at Tyburn. But in this he was foiled, as the -authorities thought it best to institute no prosecution, but leave him -to work out his time at the hulks. - -That the dishonest and evilly-disposed should thus try to turn the -malversation of public patronage to their own advantage was not -strange. The traffic in places long flourished unchecked in a corrupt -age, and almost under the very eyes of careless, not to say culpable, -administrators. The evil practice culminated in the now nearly -forgotten case of Mrs. Mary Ann Clarke, who undoubtedly profited -liberally by her pernicious influence over the Duke of York when -commander-in-chief of the army. The scandal was brought prominently -before the public by Colonel Wardle, M. P., who charged her with -carrying on a traffic in military commissions, not only with the -knowledge, but the participation, of the Duke of York. A long inquiry -followed, at which extraordinary disclosures were made. Mrs. Clarke was -proved to have disposed of both military and ecclesiastical patronage. -She gave her own footman a pair of colours, and procured for an Irish -clergyman the honour of preaching before the King. Her brokership -extended to any department of state, and her lists of applicants -included numbers of persons in the best classes of society. The Duke of -York was exonerated from the charge of deriving any pecuniary benefit -from this disgraceful traffic; but it was clear that he was cognizant -of Mrs. Clarke's proceedings, and that he knowingly permitted her to -barter his patronage for filthy lucre. Mrs. Clarke was examined in -person at the bar of the house. In the end a vote acquitted the duke of -personal corruption, and the matter was allowed to drop. But a little -later Colonel Wardle was sued by an upholsterer for furniture supplied -at his order to Mrs. Clarke, and the disinterestedness of the colonel's -exposure began to be questioned. In 1814 Mrs. Clarke was sentenced to -nine months' imprisonment for a libel on the Irish Chancellor of the -Exchequer. - -A clever scheme of deception which went very near success was that -perpetrated by Robert Jaques. Jaques filled the post of "clerk of -the papers" to the warden of the Fleet, a place which he had himself -solicited, on the plea that he was a man of experience, able to guard -the warden against the tricks incident to his trust. Jaques admitted -that his own antecedents were none of the best, that he had been -frequently in gaol, but he pleaded that men like himself, who had been -guilty of the worst offences, had afterwards become the best officers. -No sooner was Jaques appointed than he began to mature a plot against -his employer. The warden of the Fleet by his office became responsible -for the debt of any prisoner in his custody who might escape. Jaques -at once cast about for some one whom he might through a third party -cause to be arrested, brought to the Fleet on a sham action, and whom -he would assist to escape. The third party's business would then be to -sue the warden for the amount of the evaded debt. Jaques applied to a -friend, Mr. Tronson, who had been a servant, an apothecary, a perfumer, -and a quack doctor. Tronson found him one Shanley, a needy Irishman, -short of stature and of fair complexion, altogether a person who might -well be disguised as a woman. Jaques next arranged that a friend should -get a warrant against Shanley for £450. Upon this, Shanley, who was -easily found, being a dressy young gentleman, fond of blue and gold, -was arrested and carried to a spunging-house. While there a second writ -was served upon Shanley for £850, at the suit of another friend of -Jaques. Shanley was next transferred to the Fleet on a Habeas, applied -for by a fictitious attorney. The very next Sunday, Jaques gave a -dinner-party, at which his wife, a brother, Mr. John Jaques, and his -wife, with some of the parties to the suits, and of course Shanley, -were present. Later in the day Shanley exchanged clothes with Mrs. -John Jaques, and, personating her, walked out of the prison. It was at -a time when an under-turnkey was on duty at the gate, and he let the -disguised prisoner pass without question. By-and-by Mrs. Jaques got -back her clothes, and also left. Shanley had meanwhile proceeded post -haste to Dover, and so reached the continent. - -As soon as the escape was discovered, suspicion fell on Jaques's -friends, who were openly taxed with connivance. The matter looked worse -for them when they laid claim to the money considered forfeited by -the disappearance of the debtor, and the law stepped in to prosecute -inquiry. The head turnkey, tracking Shanley to Calais, went in pursuit. -At the same time a correspondence which was in progress between the -conspirators on either side of the Channel was intercepted by order of -the Secretary of State, and the letters handed over to the warden's -solicitors. From these the whole plot was discovered, and the guilt -of the parties rendered the more sure by the confession of Shanley. -Jaques was arrested, tried, and convicted at the Old Bailey, receiving -the sentence of three years' imprisonment, with one public exposure -on the pillory at the Royal Exchange. A curious accident, however, -helped to obtain the premature release of Jaques from Newgate. A Sir -James Saunderson having been robbed of a large sum in cash and notes, -portion of the stolen property was brought into Newgate by some of the -thieves, who were arrested on another charge. The notes were intrusted -to Jaques, who pretended he could raise money on them. Instead of this, -he gave immediate notice to their rightful owner that he had them in -his possession. Jaques afterwards petitioned Sir James Saunderson to -interest himself in his behalf, and through this gentleman's good -offices he escaped the exposure upon the pillory, and was eventually -pardoned. - -A peculiar feature in the criminal records of the early part of the -last century was the general increase in juvenile depravity. This was -remarked and commented upon by all concerned in the administration of -justice: magistrates of all categories, police officers, gaolers, and -philanthropists. It was borne out, moreover, by the statistics of the -times. There were in the various London prisons, in the year 1816, -three thousand inmates under twenty years of age. Nearly half of -this number were under seventeen, and a thousand of these alone were -convicted of felony. Many of those sent to prison were indeed of tender -years. Some were barely nine or ten. Children began to steal when they -could scarcely crawl. Cases were known of infants of barely six charged -in the courts with crimes. This deplorable depravity was attributable -to various causes: to the profligacy prevailing in the parish schools; -the cruel and culpable neglect of parents who deserted their offspring, -leaving them in a state of utter destitution, or were guilty of the -no less disgraceful wickedness of using them as instruments for their -nefarious designs; the artfulness of astute villains—prototypes of -old Fagin—who trained the youthful idea, in their own devious ways. -The last-named was a fruitful source of juvenile crime. Children were -long permitted to commit small thefts with impunity. The offence -would have been death to those who used them as catspaws; for them -capital punishment was humanely nearly impossible; moreover, the -police officers ignored them till they "weighed their weight," or -had been guilty of a forty-pound crime. The education in iniquity -continued steadily. They went from bad to worse, and ere long became -regular inmates of "flash houses," where both sexes mixed freely with -vicious companions of their own age, and the most daring enjoyed the -hero-worship of their fellows. When thus assembled, they formed -themselves into distinct parties or gangs, each choosing one of their -number as captain, and dividing themselves into reliefs to work certain -districts, one by day and by night. When they had "collared their -swag," they returned to divide their plunder, having gained sometimes -as much as three or four hundred pounds. A list, prepared about this -date, of these horrible dens showed that there were two hundred of -them, frequented by six thousand boys and girls, who lived solely in -this way, or were the associates of thieves. These haunts were situated -in St. Giles, Drury Lane, Chick Lane, Saffron Hill, the Borough, and -Ratcliffe Highway. Others that were out of luck crowded the booths -of Covent Garden, where all slept promiscuously amongst the rotting -garbage of the stalls. During the daytime all were either actively -engaged in thieving, or were revelling in low amusements. Gambling -was a passion with them, indulged in without let or hindrance in the -open streets; and from tossing buttons there they passed on to playing -in the low publics at such games as "put," or "the rocks of Scylla," -"bumble puppy," "tumble tumble," or "nine holes." - -Still more demoralizing than the foregoing was the pernicious habit, -commonly, but happily not invariably followed, of committing these -young thieves to Newgate. Here these tyros were at once associated -with the veterans and great leaders in crime. Old house-breakers -expatiated upon their own deeds, and found eager and willing pupils -among their youthful listeners. The elder and more evilly experienced -boys soon debased and corrupted their juniors. One with twenty previous -convictions against him, who had been in Newgate as often, would have -alongside him an infant of seven or eight, sent to gaol for the first -time for stealing a hearth-broom. It was as bad or worse for the -females. Girls of twelve or thirteen were mixed up with the full-grown -felons—women who were what would be styled to-day habitual criminals, -as in the well-known case of one who had been committed thirty times to -Newgate, residing there generally nine months out of every twelve, and -who was the wardswoman or prisoner-officer, with nearly unlimited power. - -The crying evils of the system had moved private philanthropy to do -something remedial. Charitable schools were started,—the forerunners -of our modern reformatories, and the nuclei of time-honoured -institutions still flourishing, and worthy of all praise. Other -well-meaning people, each with his own pet scheme, began to theorize -and propose the construction of juvenile penitentiaries, economical -imitations mostly of the great penitentiary which was now nearly -completed at Millbank. But juvenile crime still grew and flourished, -the offences were as numerous as ever, and their character was mostly -the same. The favourite pastime was that of picking pockets. Boys then -as now were especially skilful at this in a crowd; short, active -little chaps, they slipped through quickly with their booty, and passed -it on to the master who was directing the operations. Shop-lifting, -again, was much practised, the dodge being to creep along on hands -and feet to the shop fronts of haberdashers and linen-drapers, and -snatch what they could. Again, there were clever young thieves who -could "starr" a pane in a window, and so get their hands through the -glass. There were also boys convicted of highway robbery, like Joseph -Wood and Thomas Underwood, one fourteen and the other twelve, both -of whom were hanged. Another boy, barely sixteen, was executed for -setting his master's house on fire. The young incendiary was potboy at -a public-house, and having been reprimanded for neglect, vowed revenge. -Another boy was condemned for forming one of a gang of boys and girls -in a street robbery, who fell upon a man in liquor. The girls attacked -him, and the boys stripped him of all he had. - -Perhaps the most astounding precocity in crime was that displayed by -a boy named Leary, who was tried and sentenced to death at thirteen -years of age for stealing a watch and chain from some chambers in the -Temple. He began at the early age of eight, and progressed regularly -from stealing apples to burglary and household robbery. He learned -the trade first from a companion at school. After exacting toll from -the tart-shops, he took to stealing bakers' loaves, then money from -shop-counters and tills, or breaking shop-windows and drawing their -contents through. He often appeared at school with several pounds in -his pocket, the proceeds of his depredations. He soon became captain -of a gang known as Leary's gang, who drove about, armed with pistols, -in a cart, watching for carriages with the trunks fastened outside, -which they could cut away. In these excursions the gang was often out -for a week or more, Leary's share of the profits amounting sometimes to -£100. Once, as the result of several robberies in and about London, he -amassed some £350, but the money was partly stolen from him by older -thieves, or he squandered it in gambling, or in the flash houses. After -committing innumerable depredations, he was captured in a gentleman's -dining-room in the act of abstracting a quantity of plate. He was -found guilty, but out of compassion committed to the Philanthropic -School, but escaped, was again caught, and eventually sentenced to -transportation for life. - -The prevailing tastes of the populace were in these times low and -depraved. Their amusements were brutal, their manners and customs -disreputable, their morality at the lowest ebb. It is actually on -record that little more than a hundred years ago a man and his wife -were convicted of offering their niece, "a fine young girl, apparently -fourteen years of age," for sale at the Royal Exchange. Mr. and Mrs. -Crouch were residents of Bodmin, Cornwall, to which remote spot came -a report that maidens were very scarce in London, and that they sold -there for a good price. They accordingly travelled up to town by road, -two hundred and thirty-two miles, and on arrival hawked the poor girl -about the streets. At length they "accosted an honest captain of a -ship, who instantly made known the base proposal they had made to him." -The Crouches were arrested and tried; the man was sentenced to six -months' imprisonment in Newgate, but his wife, as having acted under -his influence, was acquitted. - -Traffic in dead bodies was more actively prosecuted. The wretches who -gained the name of Resurrection men despoiled graveyards to purvey -subjects for the dissecting knife. There were dealers who traded openly -in these terrible goods, and, as has been previously described, their -agents haggled for corpses at the foot of the gallows. Sometimes the -culprits were themselves the guardians of the sacred precincts. I find -that the grave-digger of St. George's, Bloomsbury, was convicted, -with a female accomplice, of stealing a dead body, and sentenced to -imprisonment. They were also "whipped twice on their bare backs from -the end of King's Gate Street, Holborn, to Dyot Street, St. Giles, -being half a mile." There was a great development of this crime later -in the persons of Burke and Hare. - -Disorderly gatherings for the prosecution of the popular sports were -of constant occurrence. The vice of gambling was openly practised in -the streets. It was also greatly fostered by the metropolitan fairs, -of which there were eighty annually, lasting from Easter to September, -when Bartholomew Fair was held. These fairs were the resort of the idle -and the profligate, and most of the desperate characters in London were -included in the crowd. Another favourite amusement was bull-baiting or -bullock-hunting. Sunday morning was generally chosen for this pastime. -A subscription was made to pay the hire of an animal from some drover -or butcher, which was forthwith driven through the most populous -parts of the town; often across church-yards when divine service was -in progress, pursued by a yelling mob, who goaded the poor brute to -madness with sharp pointed sticks, or thrust peas into its ears. When -nearly dead the poor beast rejoined its herd, and was driven on to -Smithfield market. A system of bull-baits was introduced at Westminster -by two notorious characters known as Caleb Baldwin and Hubbersfield, -otherwise Slender Billy, which attracted great crowds, and led to -drunkenness and scenes of great disorder. - -Towards the close of the eighteenth century a still lower and more -debasing amusement sprang suddenly into widespread popularity. The -patronage of pugilism or prize-fighting was no doubt supposed by -many to be the glorification of the national virtues of courage and -endurance. It was also greatly due to the gradual disuse of the -practice of carrying side-arms, when it was thought that quarrels would -be fought out with fists instead of swords. Hence the "noble art of -self-defence," as it was styled magniloquently, found supporters in -every class of society. Prize-fights first became fashionable about -1788, following a great encounter between two noted pugilists, named -Richard Humphreys and Daniel Mendoza, a Jew. Sporting papers were -filled with accounts of the various fights, which peer and pickpocket -attended side by side, and which even a Royal Prince did not disdain -to honour. These professional bruisers owned many noble patrons. -Besides, the Prince of Wales, the Dukes of Clarence and York, the Duke -of Hamilton, Lords Barrymore and others, attended prize-fights and -sparring matches at theatres and public places. A well-known pugilist, -who was summoned for an assault at Covent Garden Theatre, brought -forward in his defence his intimacy with a number of noted people; the -very day on which he was charged, he pleaded that he had dined at the -Piazza Coffee House with General Gwynne, Colonel McDouel, Captains -Barkley and Hanbury, after which they had all gone to the theatre. -These aristocratic friends were, moreover, ready to be useful at a -pinch, and would bail out a pugilist in trouble, or give him their -countenance and support. At the trial of one William Ward, who had -killed a man in a fight, the pugilist was attended by his patrons in -court. The case was a bad one. Ward, on his way to see a fight in the -country, had been challenged by a drunken blacksmith, and proved to -him after a few rounds that he was no match for the trained bruiser. -The blacksmith did not like his "punishment," and tried to escape into -the bar, when his antagonist followed him, and actually beat him to -death. At the trial Ward was found guilty of manslaughter, fined one -shilling, and only sentenced to be imprisoned three months in Newgate. -Yet the judge who inflicted this light punishment condemned boxing as -an inhuman and disgraceful practice, a disgrace to any civilized nation. - -To the foregoing categories of undoubted criminals must be added -another somewhat numerous class of offenders, who were so deemed by the -contemporary codes, and who now frequently found themselves relegated -to Newgate. These were days when the press had far from achieved its -present independence; when writers, chafing under restraints and -reckless of consequence, were tempted into license from sheer bravado -and opposition; when others far more innocent were brought under the -same ban of the law, and suffered imprisonment and fine for a hardly -unwarrantable freedom of speech. It is to be feared that the frequent -prosecutions instituted had often their origin in political antipathy. -While ministerial prints might libel and revile the opponents of the -governments, journals which did not spare the party in power were -humiliated and brow-beaten, difficulties were thrown in the way of -their obtaining intelligence, and if they dared to express their -opinions freely, "an information _ex officio_," as it was styled, -was issued by the Attorney-General. Prosecution followed, protracted -to the bitter end. Even what seems to us the harmless practice of -parliamentary reporting was deemed a breach of privilege; it was -tolerated, but never expressly permitted. Offending journalists were -often reprimanded at the bar of the House, and any member who felt -aggrieved at the language attributed to him was at liberty to claim -the protection of the House. When legislators and executive were so -sensitive, it was hardly likely that the great ones, the supposed salt -of the earth, should be less thin-skinned. Any kind of criticism upon -princes of the blood was looked upon as rank blasphemy; the morals of -a not blameless or too reputable aristocracy were guaranteed immunity -from attack, while the ecclesiastical hierarchy was apparently not -strong enough to vindicate its tenets or position without having -recourse to the secular arm. - -As time passed, the early martyrs to freedom of speech, such men as -Prynne, Bastwick and Daniel Defoe, were followed by many victims to -similar oppression. One of the first to suffer after Defoe was the -nonjuring clergyman Lawrence Howell, who died in Newgate. He was -prosecuted about 1720 for writing a pamphlet in which he denounced -George I as a usurper. He was tried at the Old Bailey, convicted, and -sentenced to pay a fine of £500 to the king, to find sureties for an -additional sum, to be imprisoned in Newgate for three years, and during -that term to be twice whipped. He was also to be degraded and stripped -of his gown by the common executioner. Howell asked indignantly of -his judges, "Who will whip a clergyman?" "We pay no deference to your -cloth," replied the court, "because you are a disgrace to it, and have -no right to wear it." The validity of his ordination was also denied by -the court, and as Howell continued to protest, the hangman was ordered -to tear off his gown as he stood there at the Bar. The public whipping -was not inflicted, but Howell died soon afterwards in Newgate. - -Next came Nathaniel Mist, who was sentenced in 1721 to stand in the -pillory, to pay a fine, and suffer imprisonment for reflecting upon -the action of George I as regards the Protestants in the Palatinate. -His paper, the _Weekly Journal_ or _Saturday's Post_, was notoriously -Jacobite in its views. Soon afterwards he came under the displeasure -of the House of Commons for instituting comparisons between the times -of the rebellion of 1715 and those which followed, and was committed -to Newgate for uttering a "false, malicious, and scandalous libel." -This interference by the House with Mist's publications in a matter -which did not concern its privileges is characterized by Hallam as -an extraordinary assumption of parliamentary power. Tom Paine, whose -rationalist writings gained him much obloquy later on, was one of -the next in point of time to feel the arm of the law. In 1724 he -was convicted of three libels on the Government, fined £100, and -imprisoned for a year. A clergyman, William Rowland, was put in the -pillory in 1729 for commenting too freely in print on two magistrates -who had failed to convict and punish prisoners charged with unnatural -crimes. Mr. Rowland was pilloried in his canonical habit, and preached -all the time to the multitude, complaining of the injustice of his -sentence, whereupon the people, amongst whom were several women, made a -collection for him. - -About 1730, newspapers were especially established for purposes of -political party warfare, and each side libelled or prosecuted the -other in turn. The _Craftsman_ about this date sprang into the first -rank for wit and invective. Its editors were constantly in trouble; -the statesmen who supported it had to defend their bantling with -their swords. In 1738 the printer, Henry Haines, was sentenced to two -years' imprisonment for producing the paper. In 1759 Dr. Shebbeare was -fined, put in the pillory, and imprisoned for three years, his offence -being the publication of what was deemed a scandalous libel in his -"Sixth Letter to the English People." Four years later, John Wilkes, -M. P., started the _North Briton_, a Liberal print, in opposition to -Smollet's _Briton_, a Tory paper, which was subsidized and supported -by Lord Bute, then in power. John Wilkes was no doubt assisted by -Lord Temple and John Churchill the satirist. The _North Briton_ had -been intended to assail Lord Bute's government, but it was not until -its forty-fifth number that the dash and boldness of its contributors -attracted general attention. In this number a writer rashly accused -the king of falsehood. The matter was at once taken up; proceedings -were instituted against printer and publisher, who were arrested, as -was also Wilkes. These arrests subsequently formed the subject of -lengthy lawsuits; they were in the end declared illegal, and all three -got heavy damages. Wilkes was, however, expelled from the House, by -whose order the offending numbers of the _North Briton_ were burnt by -the common hangman. But these measures did not extinguish the _North -Briton_, which was continued as far as the two hundred and seventeenth -number, when Mr. William Bingley, a bookseller, who at that time owned -it, was committed to Newgate, and kept there a couple of years for -refusing to reply to interrogatories connected with an earlier number -of the paper. Wilkes, who had fled to France to escape imprisonment, -next fell under the displeasure of the House of Lords. The _London -Evening Post_, a paper which had already come into collision with the -Commons for presuming to publish reports of debates, committed the -seemingly venial offence of inserting a letter from Wilkes, in which he -commented rather freely upon a peer of the realm at that time British -Ambassador in Paris. The House of Lords could not touch Wilkes, but -they took proceedings against the printer for breach of privilege in -presuming to mention the name of one of its members, and fined him -£100. The precedent soon became popular, and in succeeding sessions -printers were constantly fined whenever they mentioned, even by -accident, the name of a peer. - -Journalism was in these days an ill-used profession. The reign of -George III must always be remembered as a time when newspapers and -those who wrote them were at the mercy of the people in power. Grant -declares that the despotic and tyrannical treatment of the press during -the several administrations under George III had no parallel in English -history. The executive was capriciously sensitive to criticism, and -readily roused to extreme measures. No newspaper indeed was safe; -the editors of Liberal prints, or their contributors, who touched on -political subjects were at the mercy of the Attorney-General. Any -morning's issue might be made the subject of a prosecution, and every -independent writer on the wrong side went in daily dread of fine, -the pillory, or committal to Newgate. Among the early records of the -great organ which custom has long honoured with the title of the -"leading journal," are several instances of the dangers journalists -encountered. The _Daily Universal Register_, started by the first Mr. -John Walter in 1785, became the _Times_ in 1788. On the 11th July, -1789, the publisher of the paper—at that time Mr. Walter himself—was -tried and convicted of alleged libels on three royal dukes, York, -Gloucester, and Cumberland, whose joy at the recovery of the king the -_Times_ dared to characterize as insincere. The sentence decreed and -inflicted was a fine of £50, imprisonment in Newgate for one year, -and exposure on the pillory at Charing Cross. A second prosecution -followed, intended to protect, and if possible rehabilitate, the Prince -of Wales, and Mr. Walter, having been brought from Newgate for the -trial, was sentenced to a further fine of £100, and a like sum for -a libel on the Duke of Clarence. Mr. Walter remained in Newgate for -eighteen months, and was released in March, 1791, having been pardoned -at the instance of the Prince of Wales. - -Nor was the law invoked in favour of these princes alone. A few years -later a foreign monarch obtained equal protection, and the editor, -printer, and publisher of the _Courier_ were fined and imprisoned for -stigmatizing the Czar of Russia as a tyrant among his own subjects, and -ridiculous to the rest of Europe. The House of Peers, including the -Bench of Bishops, continued very sensitive. In 1799 the printer of the -_Cambridge Intelligence_ was brought to the bar of the House, charged -with reflecting on the speech of the Bishop of Llandaff concerning the -union with Ireland. Lord Grenville moved that the printer should be -fined £100 and committed to Newgate; Lord Holland protested, but it was -justified by Lord Kenyon, and the motion was carried. Lord Kenyon did -not spare the unfortunates arraigned before him for libel. One Thomas -Spence, who published a pamphlet called "Spence's Restorer of Society," -in which the abolition of private ownership of land was advocated, and -its investment in parishes for the good of the public at large, was -brought before Lord Kenyon, and sentenced by him to twelve months' -imprisonment and a fine of £50. Another peer, Lord Ellenborough, who -prosecuted Messrs. White and Hart for a libel in 1808, obtained a -conviction against them, and a sentence of three years' imprisonment. - -In 1810 the House of Commons distinguished itself by a prosecution -which led to rather serious consequences. At a debate on the Walcheren -expedition, a member, Mr. Yorke, had insisted from day to day upon -the exclusion of strangers, and another, Mr. Windham, had inveighed -violently against press reporting. Upon this a question was discussed -at a debating society known as the "British Forum," as to whether Mr. -Yorke's or Mr. Windham's conduct was the greater outrage on the public -feeling. The decision was given against Mr. Yorke, and the result -announced in a placard outside. This placard was constituted a breach -of privilege, comment upon the proceedings of the House being deemed a -contravention of the Bill of Rights. A Mr. John Gale Jones confessing -himself the author of the placard, he was forthwith committed to -Newgate. Sir Francis Burdett took Jones's part, and published his -protest, signed, in Cobbett's _Weekly Register_. The House on this -ordered the Sergeant-at-arms to arrest Sir Francis and take him to -the Tower. Sir Francis resisted, and was carried off by force. A riot -occurred _en route_, the crowd attacked the escort, and the troops -fired, with fatal consequences, upon the crowd. Sir Francis appealed -to the law courts, which in the end refused to take cognizance of the -questions at issue, and he was released, returning home in triumph. -Mr. John Gale Jones claimed to be tried, and refused to leave Newgate -without it; but he was got out by a stratagem, loudly complaining -that he had been illegally imprisoned, and illegally thrust out. -Jones was sentenced in the autumn of the same year to twelve months' -imprisonment in Coldbath Fields Gaol. Another and a better known writer -found himself in Newgate about this time. In 1810 William Cobbett was -tried for animadverting too openly upon the indignity of subjecting -English soldiers to corporal punishment, for which he was sentenced -to two years' imprisonment in Newgate, and a fine of £1000. This was -not his first prosecution, but it was by far the most serious. Shorter -sentences of imprisonment were imposed on his printers and publishers, -Messrs. Hansard, Budd, and Bagshaw. - -Some other notable criminals found themselves in Newgate about this -date. In 1809 it became the place of punishment for two Government -officials who were convicted of embezzlement on a large scale. The -first, Mr. Alexander Davison, was employed to purchase barrack-stores -for the Government on commission. He was intrusted with this duty -by the barrack-master general, as a person of extensive mercantile -experience, to avoid the uncertainty of trusting to contractors. Mr. -Davison was to receive a commission of two and one-half per cent. -Instead of buying in the best and cheapest markets, he became also -the seller, thus making a profit on the goods and receiving the -commission as well; or, in the words of Mr. Justice Grose, Davison, -when "receiving a stipend to check the frauds of others, and insure -the best commodities at the cheapest rate, became the tradesman and -seller of the article, and had thereby an interest to increase his own -profit, and to commit that fraud it was his duty to prevent." Davison -disgorged some £18,000 of his ill-won profits, and this was taken into -consideration in his sentence, which was limited to imprisonment in -Newgate for twenty-one months. The other delinquent was Mr. Valentine -Jones, who had been appointed commissary-general and superintendent of -forage and provisions in the West Indies in 1795. A large British force -was at that time stationed in the West Indian Islands, which entailed -vast disbursements from the public exchequer. The whole of this money -passed through the hands of Mr. Jones. His career of fraud began as -soon as he took over his duties. Mr. Higgins, a local merchant, came to -him proposing to renew contracts for the supply of the troops, but Mr. -Jones would only consent to their renewal on condition that he shared -Mr. Higgins' profits. Higgins protested, but at length yielded. Within -three years the enormous sum of £87,000 sterling was paid over to Jones -as his share in this nefarious transaction. Mr. Jones was tried at the -King's Bench and sentenced to three years' imprisonment in Newgate. - -Soon afterwards a person of very high rank was committed to Newgate. -This was the Marquis of Sligo, who was convicted of enticing British -men-of-war's-men to desert, and sentenced to imprisonment, with a -fine of £5000. Lord Sligo went to Malta soon after leaving college, -and there hired a brig, the _Pylades_, intending to make a yachting -tour in the Grecian Archipelago. The admiral at Malta and other naval -officers helped Lord Sligo to fit out the _Pylades_, and he was -welcomed on board the various king's ships. From one of these several -trusty seamen were shortly afterwards missing. Their captain trusted -to Lord Sligo's honour that he had not decoyed these men, and that he -would not receive them; but at that moment the deserters were actually -on board the _Pylades_, having been enticed from the service by Lord -Sligo's servants. The _Pylades_ then went on her cruise along the -Mediterranean. Suspicion seems still to have rested on Lord Sligo, and -after leaving Palermo the _Pylades_ was chased and brought to by H. M. -S. _Active_. A boat boarded the _Pylades_, her crew was mustered and -examined, but the deserters had been securely hidden in the after hold, -and were not discovered. A little later Lord Sligo sailed for Patmos, -where some of the crew landed and were left behind; among them were the -men-of-war's-men, through whom the whole affair was brought to light. -Lord Sligo was arrested on his return to England, and tried at the -Old Bailey. The evidence was conclusive. In the course of the trial a -letter was put in from Lord Sligo, to the effect that if the business -was brought into court he should do his best to defend himself; if he -did not succeed, he had an ample fortune, and could pay the fines. No -money, however, could save him from incarceration, and in accordance -with the sentence of Sir William Scott, who was supported on the bench -by Lord Ellenborough and Mr. Baron Thompson, the Marquis of Sligo was -sent to Newgate for four months. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[82:1] The sobriquet of Gentleman Harry was also enjoyed by Henry -Simms, a highwayman who frequented the Lewisham and Blackheath roads. -On one occasion, when travelling into Northamptonshire on a rather -fresh horse, a gentleman who was in a post-chaise remarked to him, -"Don't ride so hard, sir, or you'll soon ride away all your estate." -"Indeed I shall not," replied Simms, "for it lies in several counties," -and dismounting, he challenged the gentleman to stand, and robbed him -of a hundred and two guineas. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -NEWGATE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY - - Newgate still overcrowded—Description of interior—Debtors in - Middlesex—Debtors in Newgate—Fees extorted—Garnish—Scanty - food—Little bedding—Squalor and wretchedness prevail - throughout—Constant quarrels and fighting—Discipline - maintained only by prisoner wardsmen—Their tyranny and - extortion—A new debtors' prison indispensable—Building - of Whitecross Street—The criminal side—Indiscriminate - association of all classes—The press-yard—Recklessness - of the condemned—Cashman—The condemned cells—Summary of - glaring defects in Newgate—Crimes constantly being hatched - in Newgate—The Corporation roused to reform Newgate—Little - accomplished. - - -With criminals and misdemeanants of all shades crowding perpetually -into its narrow limits, the latter state of Newgate was worse than the -first. The new gaol fell as far short of the demands made on it as did -the old. The prison population fluctuated a great deal, but it was -almost always in excess of the accommodation available, and there were -times when the place was full to overflowing. At one time there were -three hundred debtors and nine hundred criminals in Newgate, or twelve -hundred prisoners in all. - -In order to realize the evils entailed by incarceration in Newgate in -these days, it is necessary to give some account of its interior as -it was occupied and appropriated in 1810. The gaol at that date was -divided into eight separate and more or less distinct departments, each -of which had its own wards and yard. These were as follows: the male -debtors' side; the female debtors' side; the chapel yard; the middle -yard; the master felons' side; the female felons' side; the state side; -and the press-yard. - -The squalor and uncleanness of the debtors' side was intensified by -constant overcrowding. Prisoners were committed to it quite without -reference to its capacity. No remonstrance was attended to, no steps -taken to reduce the number of committals, and the governor was obliged -to utilize the chapel as a day and night room for them. Besides this, -although the families of debtors were no longer permitted to live with -them inside the gaol, hundreds of women and children came in every -morning to spend the day in the prison, and there was no limitation to -the numbers of visitors admitted to the debtors' side. Friends arrived -about nine in the morning, and went out at nine o'clock at night, when -as many as two hundred visitors have been observed leaving the debtors' -yards at one time. The day passed in revelry and drunkenness. Although -spirituous liquors were forbidden, wine and beer might be had in any -quantity, the only limitation being that not more than one bottle of -wine or one quart of beer could be issued at one time. No account -was taken of the amount of liquors admitted in one day, and debtors -might practically have as much as they liked, if they could only pay -for it. No attempt was made to check drunkenness, beyond the penalty -of shutting out friends from any ward in which a prisoner exceeded. -Quarrelling among the debtors was not unfrequent. Blows were struck, -and fights often ensued. For this and other acts of misconduct there -was the discipline of the refractory ward, or "strong room" on the -debtors' side. Bad cases were removed to a cell on the felons' side, -and here they were locked in solitary confinement for three days at a -time. - -Order throughout the debtors' side was preserved and discipline -maintained by a system open to grave abuses, which had the prescription -of long usage, and which was never wholly rooted out for many years -to come. This was the pernicious plan of governing by prisoners, or -of setting a favoured few in authority over the many. The head of the -debtors' prison was a prisoner called the steward, who was chosen by -the whole body from six whom the keeper nominated. This steward was -practically supreme. All the allowances of food passed through his -hands; he had the control of the poor-box for chance charities, he -collected the garnish money, and distributed the weekly grant from the -prison charitable fund. - -The criminal side of Newgate consisted of the six quarters or yards, -and the inmates, distinguished from the debtors, were comprised in four -classes: those awaiting trial; persons under sentence of imprisonment -for a fixed period, or until they shall have paid certain fines; -transports awaiting removal to the colonies, and capital convicts, -condemned to death and awaiting execution. At one time all of these -different categories were thrown together pell-mell, young and old, -the untried with the convicted. An imperfect attempt at classification -was, however, made in 1812, and a yard was as far as possible set -apart for the untried, or the class, with whom, under the imperious -demand for accommodation, were also associated the misdemeanants. -This was the chapel yard, with its five wards, which were calculated -to accommodate seventy prisoners, but often held many more. A further -sub-classification was attempted by separating at night those charged -with misdemeanours from those charged with felony, but all mingled -freely during the day in the yard. The sleeping accommodation in the -chapel-yard wards, and indeed throughout the prison, consisted of a -barrack bed, which was a wooden flooring on a slightly inclined plane, -with a beam running across the top to serve as a pillow. No beds were -allowed, only two rugs per prisoner. When each sleeper had the full -lateral space allotted to him, it amounted to one foot and a half on -the barrack bed; but when the ward was obliged to accommodate double -the ordinary number, as was frequently the case, the sleepers covered -the entire floor, with the exception of a passage in the middle. All -the misdemeanants, whatever their offence, were lodged in this chapel -ward. As many various and, according to our ideas, heinous crimes came -under this head, in the then existing state of the law, the man guilty -of a common assault found himself side by side with the fraudulent, -or others who had attempted abominable crimes. In this heterogeneous -society were also thrown the unfortunate journalists to whom reference -has already been made. - -The middle yard, as far as its limits would permit, was appropriated -to felons and transports. The wards here were generally very crowded. -Constantly associated with these convicted felons were numbers of -juveniles, infants of tender years. There were frequently in the middle -yard seven or eight children, the youngest barely nine, the oldest -only twelve or thirteen, exposed to all the contaminating influences -of the place. Mr. Bennet mentions also the case of young men of better -stamp, clerks in city offices, and youths of good parentage, "in this -dreadful situation," who had been rescued from the hulks through the -kindness and attention of the Secretary of State. "Yet they had been -long enough," he goes on to say, "in the prison associated with the -lowest and vilest criminals, with convicts of all ages and characters, -to render it next to impossible but that, with the obliteration of all -sense of self-respect, the inevitable consequence of such a situation, -their morals must have been destroyed; . . . the lessons they were -taught in this academy, must have had a tendency to turn them into the -world hardened and accomplished in the ways of vice and crime." - -Felons who could pay the price were permitted, irrespective of their -character or offences, to purchase the greater ease and comfort of the -master's side. The entrance fee was at least 13_s._ 6_d._ a head, with -half-a-crown a week more for bed and bedding, the wards being furnished -with barrack bedsteads, upon which each prisoner had the regulation -allowance of sleeping room, or about a foot and a half laterally. These -fees were in reality a substantial contribution towards the expenses of -the gaol; without them the keeper declared that he could not pay the -salaries of turnkeys and servants, nor keep the prison going at all. -Besides the gaol fees, there was "garnish" of half-a-guinea, collected -by the steward, and spent in providing coals, candles, plates, knives, -and forks; while all the occupants of this part of the prison supported -themselves; they had the ration of prison bread only, but they had no -share in the prison meat or other charities, and they or their friends -found them in food. All who could scrape together the cash seem to have -gladly availed themselves of the privilege of entering the master's -side. It was the only way to escape the horrors, the distress, penury, -and rags of the common yards. Idleness was not so universally the -rule in this part of the gaol. Artisans and others were at liberty -to work at their trades, provided they were not dangerous. Tailoring -and shoemaking were permitted, but it was deemed unsafe to allow a -carpenter or blacksmith to have his tools. All the money earned by -prisoners was at their own disposal, and was spent almost habitually in -drink and wantonness. - -The best accommodation the gaol could offer was reserved for the -prisoners on the state side, from whom still higher fees were exacted, -with the same discreditable idea of swelling the revenues of the -prison. To constitute this the aristocratic quarter, unwarrantable -demands were made upon the space properly allotted to the female -felons, and no lodger was rejected, whatever his status, who offered -himself and could bring grist to the mill. The luxury of the state side -was for a long time open to all who could pay—the convicted felon, the -transport awaiting removal, the lunatic whose case was still undecided, -the misdemeanant tried or untried, the debtor who wished to avoid -the discomfort of the crowded debtors' side, the outspoken newspaper -editor, or the daring reporter of parliamentary debates. The better -class of inmate complained bitterly of this enforced companionship with -the vile, association at one time forbidden by custom, but which greed -and rapacity long made the rule. The fee for admission to the state -side, as fixed by the table of fees, was three guineas, but Mr. Newman -declared that he never took more than two. Ten and sixpence a week -more was charged as rent for a single bed; where two or more slept in -a bed the rent was seven shillings a week each. Prisoners who could -afford it sometimes paid for four beds, at the rate of twenty-eight -shillings, and so secured the luxury of a private room. A Mr. Lundy, -charged with forgery, was thus accommodated on the state side for -upwards of five years. But the keeper protested that no single prisoner -could thus monopolize space if the state side was crowded. The keeper -went still further in his efforts to make money. He continued the -ancient practice of letting out a portion of his own house, and by a -poetical fiction treated it as an annex of the state side. Mr. Davison, -sent to Newgate for embezzlement, was accommodated with a room in Mr. -Newman's house at the extravagant rental of thirty guineas per week; -Mr. Cobbett was also a lodger of Mr. Newman's; and so were any members -of the aristocracy, if they happened to be in funds. - -The female felons' wards were always full to overflowing; sometimes -double the number the rooms could accommodate were crowded into them. -There was a master's side for females who could pay the usual fees, but -they associated with the rest in the one narrow yard common to all. The -tried and the untried, young and old, were herded together; sometimes -girls of thirteen, twelve, even ten or nine years of age, were exposed -to all the contagion and profligacy which prevailed in this part of -the prison. There was no separation even for the women under sentence -of death, who lived in a common and perpetually crowded ward. Only when -the order of execution came down were those about to suffer placed -apart in one of the rooms in the arcade of the middle ward. - -The press-yard was the receptacle of the male condemned prisoners and -was generally crowded, like the rest of the prison. Except in murder -cases, where the execution was generally very promptly performed, -strange and inconceivable delay occurred in carrying out the extreme -sentences. Hence there was a terrible accumulation of prisoners in the -condemned cells. Once, during the long illness of George III, as many -as one hundred were there waiting the "Report," as it was called. At -another time there were fifty, one of whom had been under sentence a -couple of years. Mr. Bennet speaks of thirty-eight capital convicts -he found in the press-yard in February, 1817, five of whom had been -condemned the previous July, four in September, and twenty-nine -in October. This procrastination bred a certain callousness. Few -realizing that the dreadful fate would overtake them, dismissed the -prospect of death, and until the day was actually fixed, spent the -time in roystering, swearing, gambling, or playing at ball. Visitors -were permitted access to them without stint; unlimited drink was not -denied them provided it was obtained in regulated quantities at one -time. These capital convicts, says Mr. Bennet, "lessened the ennui -and despair of their situation by unbecoming merriment, or sought -relief in the constant application of intoxicating stimulants. I saw -Cashman[125:1] a few hours before his execution, smoking and drinking -with the utmost unconcern and indifference." Those who were thus -reckless reacted upon the penitent who knew their days were numbered, -and their gibes and jollity counteracted the ordinary's counsels or the -independent preacher's earnest prayers. For while Roman Catholics and -Dissenters were encouraged to see ministers of their own persuasion, -a number of amateurs were ever ready to give their gratuitous -ministrations to the condemned. - -The prisoners in the press-yard had free access during the day to the -yard and large day room; at night they were placed in the fifteen -cells, two, three, or more together, according to the total number to -be accommodated. They were never left quite alone for fear of suicide, -and for the same reason they were searched for weapons or poisons. But -they nevertheless frequently managed to secrete the means of making -away with themselves, and thus accomplished their purpose. Convicted -murderers were kept continuously in the cells on bread and water, -in couples, from the time of sentence to that of execution, which -was about three or four days generally, from Friday to Monday, so as -to include one Sunday, on which day there was a special service for -the condemned in the prison chapel. This latter was an ordeal which -all dreaded, and many avoided by denying their faith. The condemned -occupied an open pew in the centre of the chapel, hung with black; -in front of them, upon a table, was a black coffin in full view. The -chapel was filled with a curious but callous congregation, who came to -stare at the miserable people thus publicly exposed. Well might Mr. -Bennet write that the condition of the condemned side was the most -prominent of the manifold evils in the present system of Newgate, so -discreditable to the metropolis. - -The report of the Committee of the House of Commons painted so black a -picture of Newgate as then conducted, that the Corporation were roused -in very shame to undertake some kind of reform. The above-mentioned -report was ordered to be printed upon the 9th of May. Upon the 29th of -July the same year, the court of aldermen appointed a committee of its -own body, assisted by the town clerk, Mr. Dance, city surveyor, son of -the architect of Newgate, and Mr. Addison, keeper of Newgate, to make -a visitation of the gaols supposed to be the best managed, including -those of Petworth and Gloucester.[127:1] - -After much anxious consideration certain improvements were introduced. -The state side ceased to exist, and the female prisoners thus regained -the space of which their quadrangle had been robbed. The privileges -of the master's side also disappeared; fees were nominally abolished, -and garnish was scotched, although not yet killed outright. A certain -number of bedsteads were provided, and there was a slight increase in -the ration of bread. But now the Corporation took alarm at the terrible -expense adequate reform would entail and hence the most crying evils -were left untouched. If a metropolitan prison were to be erected on the -same lines as the recently built prisons of Gloucester and Petworth, -with all the space not only for air and exercise, but for day rooms and -sleeping cells, it would cover some thirty acres, and cost a great deal -more than the city could possibly afford; therefore nothing was done. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[125:1] Cashman was the only one of the Spafields rioters (1816) who -was capitally convicted and executed. Four others who were arraigned -with him were acquitted by the jury, to the astonishment of the court. -Cashman, who had been a seaman in the Royal Navy, pleaded that he had -been to the Admiralty to claim prize-money to the value of £200 on the -day of the riot. On his way home, half drunk, he had been persuaded to -join the rioters. Cashman's unconcern lasted to the end. As he appeared -on the gallows the mob groaned and hissed the Government, and Cashman -joined in the outcry until the drop fell. - -[127:1] Petworth Prison, built in 1785, and Gloucester Penitentiary, -erected in 1791, were the two first gaols established which provided a -separate sleeping cell for every prisoner. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -PHILANTHROPIC EFFORTS - - Absence of religious and moral instruction in Newgate a - hundred years ago—Chaplains not always zealous—Amateur - enthusiasts minister to the prisoners—Silas Told, his life and - work—Wesley leads him to prison visitation—Goes to Newgate - regularly—Attends the condemned to the gallows—Alexander - Cruden of the "Concordance" also visits Newgate—A neglectful - Chaplain—Private philanthropy active—Various societies - formed—Prison schools—The female side the most disgraceful - part of the prison—Elizabeth Fry's first visit—The - School—The Matron—Work obtained—Rules framed—Female prison - reformed—Newgate on exhibition. - - -Among the many drawbacks from which the inmates of Newgate suffered -through the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth centuries, -was the absence of proper religious and moral instruction. The value -of the ministrations of the ordinary, who was the official ghostly -adviser, entirely depended upon his personal qualities. Now and -again he was an earnest and devoted man, to whom the prisoners might -fully open their hearts. More often he was careless and indifferent, -satisfied to earn his salary by the slightest and most perfunctory -discharge of his sacred duties. There were ordinaries whose fame -rested rather upon their powers of digestion than polemics or pulpit -oratory. The Newgate chaplain had to say grace at city banquets, and -was sometimes called upon to eat three consecutive dinners without -rising from the table. One in particular was noted for his skill in -compounding a salad, another for his jovial companionship. But the -ordinary took life easy, and beyond conducting the services, did little -work. Only when executions were imminent was he especially busy. It -behooved him then to collect matter for his account of the previous -life and misdeeds of the condemned, and their demeanour at Tyburn; -and this, according to contemporary records, led him to get all the -information he could from the malefactors who passed through his hands. - -But while the official chaplain lacked zeal or religious fervour, there -were not wanting others more earnest and enthusiastic to add their -unprofessional but devoted efforts to the half-hearted ministrations of -the ordinary of Newgate. A prominent figure in the philanthropic annals -of Newgate is that of Silas Told, who devoted many years of his life to -the spiritual needs of the prisoners. Told's career is full of peculiar -interest. He was a pious child; both father and mother were religious -folk, and brought him up carefully. According to his own memoirs, -when quite an infant he and his sister Dulcibella were wont to wander -into the woods and fields to converse about "God and happiness." Told -passed through many trials and vicissitudes in his early years. At -thirteen he went to sea as an apprentice, and suffered much ill-usage. -He made many voyages to the West Indies and to the Guinea coast, being -a horrified and unwilling witness of some of the worst phases of the -slave trade. He fell into the hands of piratical Spaniards, was cast -away on a reef, saved almost by a miracle, last of all was pressed on -board a man-of-war. Here, on board H. M. S. _Phœnix_ his religious -tendencies were strengthened by a pious captain, and presently he -married and left the sea for ever. After this he became a schoolmaster -in Essex, then a clerk and book-keeper in London. Here he came under -the influence of John Wesley, and although predisposed against the -Methodists, he was profoundly impressed by their leader's preaching. -While listening to a sermon by John Wesley on the suddenness of -conversion, Told heard another voice say to him, "This is the truth," -and from that time forth he became a zealous Methodist. - -It was Wesley who led him to prison visitation. He was at that time -schoolmaster of the Foundry school, and his call to his long and -devoted labours in Newgate were brought about in this wise. "In the -year 1744," to quote his own words, "I attended the children one -morning at the five o'clock preaching, when Mr. Wesley took his text -out of the twenty-fifth chapter of St. Matthew. When he read 'I was -sick and in prison, and ye visited me not,' I was sensible of my -negligence in never visiting the prisoners during the course of my -life, and was filled with horror of mind beyond expression. This threw -me well-nigh into a state of despondency, as I was totally unacquainted -with the measures requisite to be pursued for that purpose. However, -the gracious God, two or three days after, sent a messenger to me in -the school, who informed me of the malefactors that were under sentence -of death, and would be glad of any of our friends who could go and pray -with them. . . . In consequence, I committed my school to my trusty -usher, and went to Newgate." - -After this first visit he went there regularly. He described the place -twenty-one years later, but still remembered it vividly, as "such -an emblem of the infernal pit as he never saw before." However, he -struggled bravely on, having a constant pressure upon his mind "to -stand up for God in the midst of them," and praying much for wisdom and -fortitude. He preached as often as he was permitted to both felons and -debtors. But for the first few years, when attending the malefactors, -he met with so many repulses from the keeper and ordinary, as well as -from the prisoners themselves, that he was often greatly discouraged. -"But notwithstanding I more vehemently pressed through all, becoming -the more resolute and taking no denial." - -He continued his labours for many years, and in 1767 he visited the -notorious Mrs. Brownrigg, who was sentenced to be hanged for whipping -her servant-maid to death, and whom he accompanied to the gallows. His -death occurred in 1779. He lived to hear of Howard's philanthropic -exertions, and to see the introduction of some small measure of prison -reform. - -While Silas Told was thus engaged, another but a more erratic and -eccentric philanthropist paid constant visits to Newgate. This -was Alexander Cruden, the well-known, painstaking compiler of the -"Concordance." For a long time he came daily to the gaol, to preach -and instruct the prisoners in the gospel, rewarding the most diligent -and attentive with money, till he found that the cash thus disbursed -was often spent in drink the moment his back was turned. Through Mr. -Cruden's solicitations a sentence of death upon a forger, Richard -Potter, was commuted to one of transportation. - -More precise details of the manner in which a Newgate ordinary -interpreted his trust will be found in the evidence of the Rev. -Brownlow Forde, LL. D., before the committee of 1814. Dr. Forde took -life pretty easy. Had a prisoner sent for him, he told the committee, -he might have gone, but as they did not send, unless they were sick -and thought themselves at death's door, he confined his ministrations -to the condemned, whom he visited twice a week in the day room of -the press-yard, or daily after the order for execution had arrived. -He repudiated the notion that he had anything to do with the state -of morals of the gaol. He felt no obligation to instruct youthful -prisoners, or attend to the spiritual needs of the little children so -often thrown into Newgate. He never went to the infirmary unless sent -for, and did not consider it his duty to visit the sick, and often knew -nothing of a prisoner's illness unless he was warned to attend the -funeral. Among other reasons, he said that as the turnkeys were always -busy, there was no one to attend him. While the chaplain was thus -careless and apathetic, the services he conducted were little likely -to be edifying or decorous. The most disgraceful scenes were common -in the prison chapel. As the prisoners trooped into the galleries -they shouted and halloed to their friends in the body of the church. -Friends interchanged greetings, and "How d'ye do, Sall?" was answered -by "Gallows well, Conkey Beau," as the men recognized their female -acquaintances, and were recognized in turn. The congregation might -be pretty quiet after the chaplain had made his appearance, but more -often it was disorderly from first to last. Any disposed to behave -well were teased and laughed at by others. Unrestricted conversation -went on, accompanied by such loud yawning, laughing, or coughing as -almost impeded the service. No one in authority attempted to preserve -order; the gatesmen, themselves prisoners, might expostulate, but the -turnkeys who were present ignored any disturbance until reminded of -their duty by the chaplain. The keeper never attended service. It was -suggested to him that he might have a pew in the chapel with a private -entrance to it from his own house, but nothing came of the proposal. -It was not incumbent upon the prisoners, except those condemned to -death, to attend chapel. Sometimes it was crowded, sometimes there was -hardly a soul. In severe weather the place, in which there was no fire, -was nearly empty. It was very lofty, very cold, and the prisoners, -ill clad, did not care to shiver through the service. On "curiosity -days," those of the condemned sermon, more came, including debtors -and visitors from outside, who thronged to see the demeanour of the -wretched convicts under the painful circumstances already described. -The service must have been conducted in a very slovenly and irreverent -manner. Dr. Forde had no clerk, unless it chanced that some one in -the condemned pew knew how to read. If not, there were sometimes no -responses, and the whole service was apt to be thrown into confusion. - -Dr. Forde seems to have been more in his element when taking the chair -at a public-house "free-and-easy." In the "Book for a Rainy Day," Mr. -Smith gives us an account of a visit which was paid to Dr. Forde at a -public-house in Hatton Garden. "Upon entering the club-room, we found -the Doctor most pompously seated in a superb masonic chair, under -a stately crimson canopy placed between the windows. The room was -clouded with smoke, whiffed to the ceiling, which gave me a better idea -of what I had heard of the 'Black Hole of Calcutta' than any place I -had seen. There were present at least a hundred associates of every -denomination." - -It is consoling to find that while officials slumbered, private -philanthropy was active, and had been in some cases for years. Various -societies and institutions had been set on foot to assist and often -replace public justice in dealing with criminals. The Marine Society -grew out of a subscription started by Justices Fielding and Welch, -in 1756, for the purpose of clothing vagrant and friendless lads and -sending them on board the fleet. The Philanthropic Society had been -established in 1789 by certain benevolent persons to supply a home for -destitute boys and girls, and this admirable institution steadily grew -and prospered. In 1794 it moved to larger premises, and in 1817 it had -an income of £6000 a year, partly from subscriptions and legacies, -partly from the profit on labour executed by its inmates.[135:1] -In 1816 another body of well-meaning people, moved by the alarming -increase of juvenile delinquency in the metropolis, formed a society -to investigate its causes, inquire into the individual cases of boys -actually under sentence, and afford such relief upon release as might -appear deserved or likely to prevent a relapse into crime. The members -of this society drew up a list containing seven hundred names of the -friends and associates of boys in Newgate, all of whom they visited -and sought to reform. They went further, and seriously discussed the -propriety of establishing a special penitentiary for juveniles, a -scheme which was not completely carried out. Another institution was -the Refuge for the Destitute, which took in boys and girls on their -discharge from prison, to teach them trades and give them a fair -start in life. There were also the Magdalen Hospital and the Female -Penitentiary, both of which did good work amongst depraved women. - -Matters had improved somewhat in Newgate after the report of the -committee in 1814, at least as regards the juveniles. A school had -been established, over which the new ordinary, Mr. Cotton, who about -this time succeeded Dr. Forde, presided, and in which he took a great -interest. The chaplain was in communication with the Philanthropic -and other institutions, and promising cases were removed to them. The -boys were kept as far as possible apart from the men, but not at first -from one another. Hence in the one long room they occupied and used -for all purposes, eating, drinking, and sleeping, the elder and more -vitiated boys were still able to exercise a baneful influence over the -young and innocent. More space became available by the removal of the -debtors to Whitecross Street, and then the boys were lodged according -to classes in four different rooms. Mr. Cotton believed that the boys -benefitted morally from the instruction and care they received. This -juvenile school was the one bright spot in the prevailing darkness of -Newgate at that particular time. Another and a still more remarkable -amelioration in the condition of the prisoners was soon to attract -universal attention. The great and good work accomplished by that noble -woman Mrs. Fry on the female side of Newgate forms an epoch in prison -history, and merits a particular description. - -Bad as were the other various courts and so called "sides" in Newgate -prison, the quadrangle appropriated to the females was far worse. Its -foul and degraded condition had attracted the sympathies of Elizabeth -Fry as early as 1813. The winter had been unusually severe, and Mrs. -Fry had been induced by several Friends, particularly by William -Forster, to visit Newgate and endeavour to alleviate the sufferings -of the female prisoners. The space allotted to the women was at that -time still curtailed by the portion given over to the state side. They -were limited to two wards and two cells, an area of about one hundred -and ninety-two superficial yards in all, into which, at the time of -Mrs. Fry's visit, some three hundred women with their children were -crowded, all classes together, felon and misdemeanant, tried and -untried; the whole under the superintendence of an old man and his -son. They slept on the floor, without so much as a mat for bedding. -Many were very nearly naked, others were in rags; some desperate from -want of food, some savage from drink, foul in language, still more -recklessly depraved in their habits and behaviour. Everything was -filthy beyond description. The smell of the place was quite disgusting. -The keeper himself, Mr. Newman, was reluctant to go amongst them. He -strove hard to dissuade Mrs. Fry from entering the wards, and failing -in that, begged her at least to leave her watch in his office, assuring -her that not even his presence would prevent its being torn from her. -Mrs. Fry's own account fully endorses all this. "All I tell thee is a -faint picture of the reality; the filth, the closeness of the rooms, -the ferocious manners and expressions of the women towards each other, -and the abandoned wickedness which everything bespoke, are quite -indescribable." "One act, the account of which I received from another -quarter, marks the degree of wretchedness to which they were reduced at -that time. Two women were seen in the act of stripping a dead child for -the purpose of clothing a living one." - -Mrs. Fry made other visits, for she wrote under date Feb. 16th, -1813: "Yesterday we were some hours in Newgate with the poor female -felons, attending to their outward necessities; we had been twice -previously. Before we went away dear Anna Buxton uttered a few words -in supplication, and very unexpectedly to myself I did also. I heard -weeping, and I thought they appeared much tendered. A very solemn quiet -was observed; it was a striking scene, with the poor people around in -their deplorable condition." Mrs. Fry's charity extended to the gift -of clothing, for it is recorded in her memoirs that many members of -her domestic circle had long a vivid recollection of the "green baize -garments," and their pleasure in assisting to prepare them. - -Nearly four years elapsed before Elizabeth Fry resumed her visits. -Newgate and what she had seen there had no doubt made a deep impression -on her mind, but a long illness and family afflictions had prevented -her from giving her philanthropic yearnings full play. She appears to -have recommenced her visits about Christmas, 1816, and on Feb. 16th, -1817, there is an entry in her journal to the effect that she had been -"lately much occupied in forming a school in Newgate for the children -of the poor prisoners, as well as the young criminals." It was in this -way that she struck at the hearts of these poor degraded wretches, -who were only too eager to save their children from a life of crime. -"The proposal was received even by the most abandoned with tears of -joy," says Mrs. Fry. The three intervening years between 1813 and -1816 had brought no improvement in the female side. Its inmates—the -very scum of the town—were filthy in their habits and disgusting in -their persons. Mrs. Fry tells us she found the railings in the inner -yard crowded with half-naked women, struggling together for the front -situations with the most boisterous violence, and begging with the -utmost vociferation. As double gratings had now been fixed at some -distance apart to prevent close communication between prisoners and -their visitors, the women had fastened wooden spoons to the end of -long sticks, which they thrust across the space as they clamoured for -alms. Mrs. Fry says that she felt as if she were going into a den of -wild beasts, and that she well recollects quite shuddering when the -door closed upon her, and she was locked in with such a herd of novel -and desperate companions. The women, according to another eyewitness, -sat about the yard on the stones, squalid in attire, ferocious in -aspect. On this occasion a woman rushed out from the ward yelling like -a wild beast; she made the circuit of the yard, brandishing her arms -and tearing the caps or coverings from the heads of the other women. -In spite of these terrible scenes, the ladies—several Friends having -joined with Mrs. Fry—continued to give their attention to the school. -"It was in our visits to the school," she afterwards observed, when -giving evidence before the Parliamentary committee of 1818, "where -some of us attended every day, that we were witnesses of the dreadful -proceedings that went forward on the female side of the prison; the -begging, swearing, gaming, fighting, singing, dancing, dressing up in -men's clothes; the scenes are too bad to be described, so that we did -not think it suitable to admit young persons with us." - -It is not strange that these miserable women should be absolutely -unsexed. They were often subjected to brutal ill-treatment even -before their arrival at Newgate. Many were brought to the prison -almost without clothes. If coming from a distance, as in the case -of transports lodged in Newgate until embarkation, they were almost -invariably ironed, and often cruelly so. One lady saw the female -prisoners from Lancaster Castle arrive, not merely handcuffed, but with -heavy irons on their legs, which had caused swelling and inflammation. -Others wore iron-hoops round their legs and arms, and were chained to -each other. On the journey these poor souls could not get up or down -from the coach without the whole of them being dragged together. A -woman travelled from Cardigan with an iron hoop round her ankle, and -fainted when it was removed. This woman's story was, that during a long -imprisonment she had worn an iron hoop round her waist, a second round -her leg above the knee, a third at the ankle, and all these connected -by chains. In the waist hoop were two bolts or fastenings, in which her -hands were confined at night when she went to bed. Her bed was only -of straw. These wretched and ill-used creatures might be forgiven if -they at times broke out into rebellion. For a long time it was the -practice with the female transports to riot previous to their departure -from Newgate, breaking windows, furniture, or whatever came in their -reach. Their outrageous conduct continued all the way from the gaol to -the water-side, whither they were conveyed in open wagons, noisy and -disorderly to the last, amidst the jeers and shouts of the assembled -crowds. - -Mrs. Fry, as I have said, endeavoured first to form a school. For -this purpose an unoccupied room was set apart by the authorities. -Although looking upon her experiment as hopeless, she received cordial -support from the sheriffs, the governor, Mr. Newman, and the ordinary -of Newgate, Mr. Cotton. The prisoners selected from among themselves -a schoolmistress, Mary Connor by name, who had been committed for -stealing a watch, and "who proved eminently qualified for her task." -The school, which was for children only and young persons under -twenty-five, prospered, and by degrees the heroic band of ladies were -encouraged to greater efforts. The conduct of the prisoners, their -entreaties not to be excluded from the benefits of the school, inspired -Mrs. Fry with confidence, and she resolved to attempt the introduction -of order, industry, and religious feeling into Newgate. In April, 1817, -eleven members of the Society of Friends and another lady, the wife of -a clergyman, formed themselves into an association for the improvement -of the female prisoners in Newgate.[143:1] These devoted persons gave -themselves up entirely to their self-imposed task. With no interval of -relaxation, and with but few intermissions from the call of other and -more imperious duties, they lived among the prisoners. They arrived, in -fact, at the hour of unlocking, and spent the whole day in the prison. - -The more crying needs of the Newgate female prison at that date are -indicated in a memorandum found among Mrs. Fry's papers. It was greatly -in need of room, she said. The women should be under the control and -supervision of female, and not, as heretofore, of male officers. The -number of visitors should be greatly curtailed, and all communications -between prisoners and their friends should take place at stated times, -under special rules. The prisoners should not be dependent on their -friends for food or clothing, but should have a sufficiency of both -from the authorities. Employment should be a part of their punishment, -and be provided for them by Government. They might work together in -company, but should be separated at night according to classes, under -a monitor. Religious instruction should be more closely considered. -It was to supply these needs that the committee devoted its efforts, -the ladies boldly promising that if a matron could be found who -would engage never to leave the prison day or night, they would find -employment for the prisoners and the necessary funds until the city -could be induced to meet the expense. - -The matron was found, and the first prison matron appointed, an -elderly respectable woman, who proved competent, and discharged her -duties with fidelity. Mrs. Fry next sought the countenance and support -of the governor and chaplain, both of whom met her at her husband's -house to listen to her views and proposals. Mr. Cotton, the ordinary, -was not encouraging; he frankly told her that this, like many other -useful and benevolent designs for the improvement of Newgate, would -inevitably fail. Mr. Newman, however, bade her not despair; but he -afterward confessed that when he came to reflect on the subject, -and especially upon the character of the prisoners, he could not -see even the possibility of success. Both, however, promised their -warmest coöperation. Mrs. Fry next saw one of the sheriffs, asking -him to obtain a salary for the matron, and a room in the prison for -the Ladies' Committee. This sheriff, Mr. Bridges, was willing to help -her if his colleagues and the Corporation agreed, but told her that -his concurrence or that of the city would avail her but little—the -concurrence of the women themselves was indispensable; and that it was -in vain to expect such untamed and turbulent spirits would submit to -the regulations of a woman armed with no legal authority, and unable -to inflict any punishment. Nevertheless, the two sheriffs met Mrs. -Fry at Newgate one Sunday afternoon. The women, seventy in number, -were assembled, and asked whether they were prepared to submit to -the new rules. All fully and unanimously agreed to abide by them, to -the surprise of the sheriffs, who doubted their submitting to such -restraints. Upon this the sheriffs addressed the prisoners, telling -them that the scheme had official support; then turning to Mrs. Fry, -one of the two magistrates said, "Well, ladies, you see your materials." - -The evidence of a gentleman who visited Newgate within a fortnight of -the adoption of the new rules may fitly be added here. He went one day -to call on Mrs. Fry at the prison, and was conducted to the women's -side. "On my approach," he says, "no loud or dissonant sounds or angry -voices indicated that I was about to enter a place which I was credibly -assured had long had for one of its titles that of 'Hell above ground.' -The court-yard into which I was admitted, instead of being peopled with -beings scarcely human, blaspheming, fighting, tearing each other's -hair, or gaming with a filthy pack of cards for the very clothes -they wore, which often did not suffice even for decency, presented -a scene where stillness and propriety reigned. I was conducted by a -decently-dressed person, the newly-appointed yards-woman, to the door -of a ward where at the head of a long table sat a lady belonging to -the Society of Friends. She was reading aloud to about sixteen women -prisoners, who were engaged in needlework around it. Each wore a -clean-looking blue apron and bib, with a ticket having a number on it -suspended from her neck by a red tape. They all rose on my entrance, -curtsied respectfully, and then at a signal given resumed their seats -and employments. Instead of a scowl, leer, or ill-suppressed laugh, I -observed upon their countenances an air of self-respect and gravity, -a sort of consciousness of their improved character, and the altered -position in which they were placed. I afterwards visited the other -wards, which were the counterparts of the first." - -The efforts of the ladies, which had been at first concentrated upon -the convicted, were soon directed also upon the untried. These still -continued in a deplorable state, quarrelling and disorderly, bolder -and more reckless because they were in doubt as to their future fate. -Unhappily the same measure of success did not wait upon the attempt -on this side. Many of these women counted upon an early release, and -would not take heartily to work, although when they did they were -really and essentially improved. Nor could it be expected that the -new régime could be established without occasional insubordination -and some backsliding. The rules were sometimes broken. Spirits had -been introduced more than once; six or seven cases of drunkenness -had occurred. But the women were careful not to break out before the -ladies; if they swore, it was out of their hearing, and although they -still played cards, it was when the ladies' backs were turned. Mrs. Fry -told the Parliamentary committee how she expostulated with the women -when she found they still gambled, and how she impressed upon them, -if it were true that there were cards in the prison, that she should -consider it a proof of their regard if they would have the candour and -kindness to bring her their packs. By and by a gentle tap came at her -door as she sat alone with the matron, and a trembling woman entered -to surrender her forbidden cards; another and another followed, till -Mrs. Fry had soon five packs of cards in her possession. The culprits -fully expected reproof but Mrs. Fry assured them that their fault -was fully condoned, and, much to their surprise, rewarded them for -their spontaneous good feeling. This reform seems to have been in -the ascendant on the whole, and at the end of the first year it was -satisfactorily proved to competent judges, the past and present Lord -Mayor, the sheriffs, gaolers, and various grand juries, the ordinary, -and others, that an extraordinary change for the better had shown -itself in the conduct of the females. - -The work done in Newgate soon obtained much publicity, to the undoubted -and manifest distaste of those who had accomplished it. It was first -noticed in the newspapers by the well-known Robert Owen, who adduced -it as a proof of the effects of kindness and regular habits. Prison -discipline was at this time attracting attention, and Mrs. Fry's -labours were very remarkable in this line. Very soon the female side -at Newgate became quite a show. Every one of any status in society, -every distinguished traveller, all people with high aims or deep -feelings, were constrained to visit the prison. Royalty for the first -time took an interest in the gaol. The Duke of Gloucester was among the -visitors, and was escorted round by Mrs. Fry in person. Another day she -was engaged with the Chancellor of the Exchequer; on a third with the -Home Secretary and the Speaker of the House of Commons. Still higher -and more public honour was done to this noble woman by the Marquis of -Lansdowne in the House of Lords, who in 1818, in a moving address on -the state of the English prisons, spoke in terms of the highest eulogy -of what had been effected by Mrs. Fry and other benevolent persons in -Newgate. After this, admission to view the interior of Newgate was -eagerly sought by numbers of persons whose applications could not well -be refused, in spite of the inconvenience occasioned by thus turning -a place of durance into a sentimental lounge. A more desirable and -useful result of these ministrations was the eagerness they bred in -others to imitate this noble example. Numbers of persons wrote to Mrs. -Fry from all parts of the country, seeking advice and encouragement -as to the formation of similar societies. Even magistrates appealed -to her regarding the management of their prisons. In consequence of -the numerous communications received by the Newgate Association, a -"corresponding committee" was formed to give information and send -replies. Letters came from various capitals of Europe, including St. -Petersburgh, Turin, and Amsterdam, which announced the formation of -Ladies' Societies for prison visiting. - -During many years following its inauguration, the "Ladies' Association" -continued their benevolent exertions with marked and well-deserved -success. They did not confine their labours to Newgate, but were -equally active in the other metropolitan prisons. They also made the -female transports their peculiar charge, and obtained many reforms -and ameliorations in the arrangement of the convict ships, and the -provision for the women on landing at the Antipodes. That the first -brilliant successes should be long and continuously maintained could -hardly be expected. As time passed and improvements were introduced, -there was not the same room for active intervention, and it was -difficult to keep alive the early fire. The energy of the Ladies' -Committee, although undiminished, came later on to be occasionally -misapplied. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[135:1] The Philanthropic Society is identical with the Farm School -at Redhill, in Surrey, one of the most prosperous and best-managed -reformatory schools at the present date. Mr. William Crawfurd, -afterwards one of the first inspectors of prisons, was long an active -member of the committee during the early days of the Society. - -[143:1] This was the germ of the Ladies' Committee, which existed down -to 1878. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE BEGINNING OF PRISON REFORM - - Prison reform generally taken up—Mr. Neild's - visitation—Howard's great work repeated—Prison Discipline - Society formed in 1817—Its distinguished members—The - society animadverts upon condition of various prisons—A - few brilliant exceptions—Newgate still a byword—Opponents - of reform—Sydney Smith laughs at efforts of Prison - Discipline Society—Prisoners' treatment—Scenes of horror in - Newgate—Serious affrays in the wards—Extra and luxurious - food admitted—Ladies' Association—No real separation of the - sexes—The Governor, Mr. Cope, an offender in this respect—The - press-yard the worst of all—Brutal behaviour of many of those - sentenced to death—Criminal lunatics allowed to remain in - Newgate—House of Commons' prisoners monopolize hospital and - best accommodation in the gaol. - - -While Elizabeth Fry was engaged upon her self-imposed task in Newgate, -other earnest people, inspired doubtless by her noble example, -were stirred up to activity in the same great work. It began to be -understood that prison reform could only be compassed by continuous -and combined effort. The pleadings, however eloquent, of a single -individual were unable to more than partially remedy the widespread -and colossal evils of British prisons. Howard's energy and devotion -were rewarded by lively sympathy, but the desire to improve which -followed his exposures was short-lived, and powerless to cope with -the persistent neglect of those intrusted with prison management. -Twenty-five years later, Mr. Neild, a second Howard, and as -indefatigable and self-sacrificing, found by personal visitation that -the condition of gaols throughout the kingdom was, with a few bright -exceptions, still deplorable and disgraceful. Mr. Neild was compelled -to admit in 1812 that "the great reformation produced by Howard was -in several places merely temporary: certain prisons which had been -ameliorated under the persuasive influence of his kind advice were -relapsing into their former horrid state of privation, filthiness, -severity, or neglect; many new dungeons had aggravated the evils -against which his sagacity could not but remonstrate; the motives for a -transient amendment were becoming paralyzed, and the effect had ceased -with the cause." - -It was in 1817 that a small band of philanthropists resolved to -form themselves into an association for the improvement of prison -discipline. They were hopeless of any general reform by the action -of the executive alone. They felt that private enterprise might with -advantage step in, and by the collection and diffusion of information, -and the reiteration of sound advice, greatly assist the good work. The -association was organized under the most promising auspices. A king's -son, the Duke of Gloucester, was the patron; among the vice-presidents -were many great peers of the realm, several bishops, and a number -of members of the House of Commons, including Mr. Manners Sutton, -Mr. Sturges Bourne, Sir James Mackintosh, Sir James Scarlett, and -William Wilberforce. An active committee was appointed, comprising -many names already well known, some of them destined to become famous -in the annals of philanthropy. One of the moving spirits was the -Honourable H. G. Bennet, M. P., whose vigorous protests against the -lamentable condition of Newgate have already been recorded. Mrs. Fry's -brother, Mr. Samuel Hoare, Junior, was chairman of the committee, on -which also served many noted members of the Society of Friends—Mr. -Gurney, Mr. Fry, Messrs. Forster, and Mr. T. F. Buxton, the coadjutor -of Wilberforce in the great anti-slavery struggle. Mr. Buxton had -already been associated with Mrs. Fry in the Newgate visitation, and -his attention had thus been drawn to the neglected state of English -prisons. These gentlemen formed the famous English Prison Discipline -Society and laboured strenuously and unceasingly in their efforts to -ameliorate the condition of English prisons. They found everywhere a -crying need for reform, although here and there were a few brilliant -exceptions to this cruel, callous neglect. Already, as early as -1818, a prison existed at Bury St. Edmunds which was a model for -imitation to others at that time, and which even fulfilled many of -the exacting requirements of modern days. The great principles of -classification, cleanliness, and employment were closely observed. -There were eighty-four separate sleeping-cells, and unless the gaol was -overcrowded, every inmate passed the night alone, and in comparative -comfort, with a bed and proper bedding. The prison stood on a dry, airy -situation outside the town. Prisoners on reception were treated as -they are now-a-days—bathed, dressed in prison clothes, and inspected -by the surgeon. No irons were worn except as a punishment. Personal -cleanliness was insisted upon, and all parts of the prison were kept -scrupulously clean. There was an infirmary, properly found and duly -looked after. No idleness was permitted among the inmates. Trades were -taught, or prisoners were allowed to follow their own if suitable. -There was, besides, a mill for grinding corn, somewhat similar to -a turn-spit, which prisoners turned by walking in rows. This made -exertion compulsory, and imposed hard labour as a proper punishment. -Another gaol, that of Ilchester, was also worthy of all commendation. -It exhibited all the good points of that at Bury. At Ilchester the -rule of employment had been carried further. A system not adopted -generally till nearly half a century later had already prevailed at -Ilchester. The new gaol had been in a great measure constructed by the -prisoners themselves. Masons, bricklayers, carpenters, painters had -been employed upon the buildings, and the work was pronounced excellent -by competent judges. Industrial labour had also been introduced -with satisfactory results. Blanket weaving and cloth spinning were -carried on prosperously, and all the material for prisoners' apparel -was manufactured in the gaol. There were work-rooms for wool-washing, -dyeing, carding, and spinning. The looms were constantly busy. Tailors -were always at work, and every article of clothing and bedding was made -up within the walls. There was a prison laundry too, where all the -prisoners' linen was regularly washed. The moral welfare of the inmates -was as closely looked after as the physical. There was an attentive -chaplain, a schoolmaster, and regular instruction. - -Compared with the last mentioned institutions Newgate compared -unfavourably. Its evils were inherent and irremediable, and the -need for reform was imperative, yet there were those who, wedded to -ancient ideas, were intolerant of change, and they would not admit the -existence of any evils. One smug alderman, a member of the House of -Commons, sneered at the ultra philanthropy of the champions of prison -improvement. Speaking in a debate on prison matters, he declared -that "our prisoners have all that prisoners ought to have, without -gentlemen think they ought to be indulged with Turkey carpets." The -Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline was taxed with a -desire to introduce a system tending to divest punishment of its just -and salutary terrors; an imputation which the Society indignantly and -very justly repudiated, the statement being, as they said, "refuted by -abundant evidence, and having no foundation whatever in truth." - -Among those whom the Society found arrayed against it was Sydney -Smith, who, in a caustic article contributed to the "Edinburgh -Review," protested against the pampering of criminals. While fully -admitting the good intentions of the Society, he condemned their -ultra humanitarianism as misplaced. He took exceptions to various of -the proposals of the Society. He thought they tended too much toward -a system of indulgence and education in gaols. He objected to the -instruction of prisoners in reading and writing. "A poor man who -is lucky enough," he said, "to have his son committed for a felony -educates him under such a system for nothing, while the virtuous -simpleton who is on the other side of the wall is paying by the quarter -for these attainments." He was altogether against too liberal a diet; -he disapproved of industrial occupations in gaols, as not calculated -to render prisons terrible. "There should be no tea and sugar, no -assemblage of female felons around the washing-tub, nothing but beating -hemp and pulling oakum and pounding bricks—no work but what was -tedious, unusual. . . . In prisons, which are really meant to keep the -multitude in order, and to be a terror to evil-doers, there must be no -sharings of profits, no visiting of friends, no education but religious -education, no freedom of diet, no weavers' looms or carpenters' -benches. There must be a great deal of solitude, coarse food, a dress -of shame, hard, incessant, irksome, eternal labour, a planned and -regulated and unrelenting exclusion of happiness and comfort." - -Undeterred by these sarcasms and misrepresentations, the Society -pursued its laudable undertaking with remarkable energy and great -singleness of purpose. After a few years of active exertion legislation -was obtained to enforce the needful change, but still Newgate continued -a bye-word. Some reforms had certainly been introduced, such as the -abolition of irons, already referred to, and the establishment of -male and female infirmaries. The regular daily visitation of the -chaplain was also insisted upon. But it was pointed out in 1823 -that defective construction must always bar the way to any radical -improvement in Newgate. Without enlargement no material change in -discipline or interior economy could possibly be introduced. The chapel -still continued incommodious and insufficient; female prisoners were -still exposed to the full view of the males, the netting in front -of the gallery being perfectly useless as a screen. In 1824 Newgate -had no glass in its windows, except in the infirmary and one ward of -the chapel yard; and the panes were filled in with oiled paper, an -insufficient protection against the weather; and as the window-frames -would not shut tight, the prisoners complained much of the cold, -especially at night. In 1827 the Society was compelled to report that -"no material change had taken place in Newgate since the passing of the -prison laws of 1823-4, and that consequently the observance of their -most important provisions was habitually neglected." - -And so it went on—the same old story—evil constantly in the -ascendant, the least criminal at the mercy of the most depraved. Under -the reckless contempt for regulations, the apathy of the authorities, -and the undue prominence of those who, as convicted felons, should have -been most sternly repressed, the most hardened and the oldest in vice -had the best of it, while the inexperienced beginner went to the wall. -Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who spent three years in Newgate from 1835, -said with justice that incredible scenes of horror occurred there. -It was, in his opinion, the greatest nursery of crime in London. The -days were passed in idleness, debauchery, riotous quarrelling, immoral -conversation, gambling, in direct contravention of parliamentary rules, -instruction in all nefarious processes, lively discourse upon past -criminal exploits, elaborate discussion of others to be perpetrated -after release. No provision whatever was made for the employment of -prisoners, no materials were purchased, no trade instructors appointed. -There was no school for adults; only the boys were taught anything, -and their instructor, with his assistant, were convicted prisoners. -Idle hands and unoccupied brains found in mischief the only means of -whiling away the long hours of incarceration. Gaming of all kinds, -although forbidden by the Gaol Acts, was habitually practised. This was -admitted in evidence by the turnkeys, and was proved by the appearance -of the prison tables, which bore the marks of gaming-boards deeply cut -into them. Prisoners confessed that it was a favourite occupation, the -chief games being "shoving halfpence" on the table, pitch in the hole, -cribbage, dominoes, and common tossing, at which as much as four or -five shillings would change hands in an hour. - -But this was not the only amusement. Most of the wards took in the -daily papers, the most popular being the "Times," "Morning Herald," -and "Morning Chronicle;" on Sunday the "Weekly Dispatch," "Bell's -Life," and the "Weekly Messenger." The newsman had free access to the -prison; he passed in unsearched and unexamined, and, unaccompanied by -an officer, went at once to his customers, who bought their paper and -paid for it themselves. The news-vendor was also a tobacconist, and he -had thus ample means of introducing to the prisoners the prohibited -but always much-coveted and generally procurable weed. In the same way -the wardsman laid in his stock to be retailed. Other light literature -besides the daily journals was in circulation: novels, flash songs, -play-books, such as "Jane Shore," "Grimm's German Tales," with -Cruikshank's illustrations, and publications which in these days would -have been made the subject of a criminal prosecution. One of these, -published by Stockdale, was stigmatized officially as a book of the -most disgusting nature. There was also a good supply of Bibles and -prayers, the donation of a philanthropic gentleman, Captain Brown, but -these, particularly the Bibles, bore little appearance of having been -used. Drink, in more or less unlimited quantities, was still to be had. -Spirits certainly were now excluded; but a potman, with full permission -of the sheriffs, brought in beer for sale from a neighbouring -public-house, and visited all the wards with no other escort than the -prisoner gatesman. The quantity to be issued per head was limited by -the prison regulations to one pint, but no steps were taken to prevent -any prisoner from obtaining more if he could pay for it. The beer-man -brought in as much as he pleased; he sold it without the controlling -presence of an officer. Not only did prisoners come again and again -for a "pint," but large quantities were carried off to the wards to be -drunk later in the day. - -There were more varied, and at times, especially when beer had -circulated freely, more uproarious diversions. Wrestling, in which legs -were occasionally broken, was freely indulged in; also such low games -as "cobham," leap-frog, puss in the corner, and "fly the garter," for -which purpose the rugs were spread out to prevent feet slipping on the -floor. Feasting alternated with fighting. The weekly introduction of -food, to which I shall presently refer, formed the basis of luxurious -banquets, washed down by liquor and enlivened by flash songs and -thrilling long-winded descriptions of robberies and other "plants." -There was much swearing and bad language, the very worst that could be -used, from the first thing in the morning to the last thing at night. -New arrivals, especially the innocent and still guileless debutant, -were tormented with rude horse-play, and assailed by the most insulting -"chaff." If any man presumed to turn in too early he was "toed," that -is to say, a string was fastened to his big toe while he was asleep, -and he was dragged from off his mat, or his bedclothes were drawn away -across the room. The ragged prisoners were very anxious to destroy the -clothes of the better dressed, and often lighted small pieces of cloth, -which they dropped smouldering into their fellow-prisoners' pockets. -Often the victim, goaded to madness, attacked his tormentors; a fight -was then certain to follow. These fights sometimes took place in the -day-time, when a ring was regularly formed, and two or three stood by -the door to watch for the officer's approach. More often they occurred -at night, and were continued to the bitter end. The prisoners in this -way administered serious punishment on one another. Black eyes and -broken noses were always to be seen. - -More cruel injuries were common enough, which did not result from -honest hand-to-hand fights. The surgeon's journal contained numerous -entries of terrible wounds inflicted in a cowardly way. "A serious -accident: one of the prisoners had a hot poker run into his eye." "A -lad named Matthew White has had a wound in his eye by a bone thrown -at him, which very nearly destroyed vision." "There was a disturbance -in the transport yard yesterday evening, and the police were called -in. During the tumult a prisoner, . . . who was one of the worst of the -rioters, was bruised about the head and body." "Watkins' knee-joint -is very severely injured." "A prisoner Baxter is in the infirmary in -consequence of a severe injury to his wrist-joint." Watkins' case, -referred to above, is made the subject of another and a special report -from the surgeon. He was in the transport side, when one of his -fellows, in endeavouring to strike another prisoner with a large poker, -missed his aim, and struck Watkins' knee. . . . Violent inflammation and -extensive suppuration ensued, and for a considerable time amputation -seemed inevitable. After severe suffering prolonged for many months, -the inflammation was subdued, but the cartilage of the knee-joint was -destroyed, and he was crippled for life. On another occasion a young -man, who was being violently teased, seized a knife and stabbed his -tormentor in the back. The prisoner who used the knife was secured, -but it was the wardsman, and not the officers, to whom the report was -made, and no official inquiry or punishment followed. - -Matters were at times still worse, and the rioting went on to such -dangerous lengths as to endanger the safety of the building. On one -occasion a disturbance was raised which was not quelled until windows -had been broken and forms and tables burned. The officers were obliged -to go in among the prisoners to restore order with drawn cutlasses, -but the presence and authority of the governor himself became -indispensable. The worst fights occurred on Sunday afternoons; but -nearly every night the act of locking up became, from the consequent -removal of all supervision, the signal for the commencement of obscene -talk, revelry, and violence. - -Other regulations laid down by the Gaol Acts were still defied. One of -these was that prisoners should be restricted to the gaol allowance -of food; but all could still obtain as much extra, and of a luxurious -kind, as their friends chose to bring them in. Visitors were still -permitted to come with supplies on given days of the week, about the -only limitation being that the food should be cooked, and cold; hot -meat, poultry, and fish were forbidden. But the inspectors found -in the ward cupboards mince-pies and other pasties, cold joints, -hams, and so forth. Many other articles were introduced by visitors, -including money, tobacco, pipes, and snuff. From the same source came -the two or three strong files found in one ward, together with four -bradawls, several large iron spikes, screws, nails, and knives; all -of them instruments calculated to facilitate attempts to break out of -prison, and capable of becoming most dangerous weapons in the hands -of desperate and determined men. The nearly indiscriminate admission -of visitors, although restricted to certain days, continued to be -an unmixed evil. The untried might see their friends three times a -week, the convicted only once. On these occasions precautions were -supposed to be taken to exclude bad characters, yet many persons of -notoriously loose life continually obtained admittance. Women saw men -if they merely pretended to be wives; even boys were visited by their -sweethearts. Decency was, however, insured by a line of demarcation, -and visitors were kept upon each side of a separated double iron -railing. But no search was made to intercept prohibited articles at -the gate, and there was no permanent gate-keeper, which would have -greatly helped to keep out bad characters. Some idea of the difficulty -and inconvenience of these lax regulations as regards visiting, may be -gathered from the statement that as many as three hundred were often -admitted on the same day—enough to altogether upset what small show -of decorum and discipline was still preserved in the prison. Perhaps -the worst feature of the visiting system was the permission accorded to -male prisoners under the name of husbands, brothers, and sons to have -access to the female side on Sundays and Wednesdays, in order to visit -their supposed relations there. - -On this female side, where the Ladies' Association still reigned -supreme, more system and a greater semblance of decorum was maintained. -But the separation of the sexes was not rigidly carried out in Newgate -as yet. We have seen that male prisoners visited their female relations -and friends on the female side. Besides this, the gatesman who prepared -the briefs had interviews with female prisoners alone while taking -their instructions; a female came alone and unaccompanied by a matron -to clean the governor's office in the male prison; male prisoners -carried coal into the female prison, when they saw and could speak or -pass letters to the female prisoners; and the men could also at any -time go for tea, coffee, and sugar to Mrs. Brown's shop, which was -inside the female gate. In the bail-dock, where most improper general -association was permitted, the female prisoners were often altogether -in the charge of male turnkeys. The governor was also personally -responsible for gross contravention of this rule of separation, and -was in the habit of drawing frequently upon the female prison for -prisoners to act as domestic servants in his own private dwelling. -Some members of the Ladies' Association observed and commented upon -the fact that a young rosy-cheeked girl had been kept by the governor -from transportation, while older women in infirm health were sent -across the seas. His excuse was that he had given the girl his promise -that she should not go, an assumption of prerogative which by no -means rested with him; but he afterwards admitted that the girl had -been recommended to him by the principal turnkey, who knew something -of her friends. This woman was really his servant, employed to help -in cleaning, and taken on whenever there was extra work to be done. -The governor had a great dislike, he said, to seeing strangers in his -house. This girl had been first engaged on account of the extra work -entailed by certain prisoners committed by the House of Commons, who -had been lodged in the governor's own house. The house at this time -was full of men and visitors; waiters came in from the taverns with -meals. Some of the prisoners had their valets, and all these were -constantly in and out of the kitchen where this female prisoner was -employed. There was revelling and roystering, as usual, with "high life -below-stairs." The governor sent down wine on festive occasions, of -which no doubt the prisoner housemaid had her share. It can hardly be -denied that the governor, in his treatment of this woman, was acting in -flagrant contravention of all rules. - -Bad as were the various parts of the gaol already dealt with, there -still remained one where the general callous indifference and -mismanagement culminated in cruel and culpable neglect. The condition -of the capitally-convicted prisoners after sentence was still very -disgraceful. The side they occupied, still known as the press-yard, -consisted of two dozen rooms and fifteen cells. In these various -chambers, until just before the inspectors made their report, all -classes of the condemned, those certain to suffer, and the larger -number who were nearly certain of a reprieve, were mingled without -discrimination, the old and the young, the murderer and the child -who had broken into a dwelling. All privacy was impossible under the -circumstances. At times the numbers congregated were very great; as -many as fifty or sixty, and even a larger number, were crowded into the -press-yard. The better-disposed complained bitterly of what they had -to endure; one man declared that the language of the condemned rooms -was disgusting, that he was dying a death every day in being compelled -to associate with such characters. In the midst of the noisy and -blasphemous talk no one could pursue his meditations; and any who tried -to pray became the sport and ridicule of his brutal fellows. - -Owing to the repeated entreaties of the criminals who could hardly hope -to escape the gallows, some show of classification was carried out, and -when the inspectors visited Newgate they found the three certain to -die in a day-room by themselves; in a second room were fourteen more -who had every hope of a reprieve. The whole of these seventeen had, -however, a common airing-yard, and took their exercise there at the -same time, so that men in the most awful situation, daily expecting -to be hanged, were associated continually with a number of those who -could look with certainty on a mitigation of punishment. The latter, -light-hearted and reckless, conducted themselves in the most unseemly -fashion, and with as much indifference as the inmates of the other -parts of the prison. They amused themselves after their own fashion; -played all day long at blind-man's-buff and leap-frog, or beat each -other with a knotted handkerchief, laughing and uproarious, utterly -unmindful of the companionship of men upon whom lay the shadow of an -impending shameful death. Men whose fate was uncertain, and those most -seriously inclined, complained of these annoyances, so subversive of -meditation, so disturbing to the thoughts; they suffered sickening -anxiety, and wished to be locked up alone. This indiscriminate -association lasted for months, during the whole of which time the -unhappy convicts who had but little hope of commutation were exposed to -the mockery of their reckless associates. - -The lax discipline maintained in Newgate was still further deteriorated -by the presence of two other classes of prisoners who ought never -to have been inmates of such a gaol. One of these were the criminal -lunatics, who were at this time and for long previous continuously -imprisoned there. As the law stood at that particular time any two of -the justices might remove a prisoner found to be insane, either on -commitment or arraignment, to an asylum, and the Secretary of State -had the same power as regards any who became insane while undergoing -sentence. These powers were not invariably put in force, and there -were in consequence many unhappy lunatics in Newgate and other gaols, -whose proper place was the asylum. At the time the Lords' Committee -sat there were eight thus retained in Newgate, and a return in the -appendix of the Lords' report gives a total of thirty-nine lunatics -confined in various gaols, many of them guilty of murder and other -serious crimes. The inspectors in the following year, on examining the -facts, found that some of these poor creatures had been in confinement -for long periods: at Newgate and York Castle as long as five years; -at Ilchester and Morpeth for seven years; at Warwick for eight years, -at Buckingham and Hereford for eleven years, at Appleby for thirteen -years, at Anglesea for fifteen years, at Exeter for sixteen years, and -at Pembroke for no less a period than twenty-four years. - -It was manifestly wrong that such persons, visited by the most dreadful -of calamities, should be detained in a common prison. Not only did -their presence tend greatly to interfere with the discipline of the -prison, but their condition was deplorable in the extreme. The lunatic -became the sport of the idle and the depraved. His cure was out of the -question; he was placed in a situation "beyond all others calculated to -confirm his malady and prolong his sufferings." The matter was still -further complicated at Newgate by the presence within the walls of -sham lunatics. Some of those included in the category had actually been -returned as sane from the asylum to which they had been sent, and there -was always some uncertainty as to who was mad and who not. Prisoners -indeed were known to boast that they had saved their necks by feigning -insanity. It was high time that the unsatisfactory state of the law -as regards the treatment of criminal lunatics should be remedied, and -not the least of the good services rendered by the new inspectors was -their inquiry into the status of these unfortunate people, and their -recommendation to improve it. - -The other inmates of the prison, of an exceptional character, and -exempted from the regular discipline, such as it was, were the ten -persons committed to Newgate by the House of Commons in 1835. These -were the gentlemen concerned in the bribery case at Ipswich in that -year. - -Many of the old customs once prevalent in the State Side, so properly -condemned and abolished, were revived for the convenience of these -gentlemen, whose incarceration was thus rendered as little like -imprisonment as possible. A certain number, who could afford the high -rate of a guinea per diem, fixed by the under sheriff, were lodged in -the governor's house, slept there, and had their meals provided for -them from the Sessions' House or London Coffee-House. A few others, who -could not afford a payment of more than half a guinea, were permitted -to monopolize a part of the prison infirmary, where the upper ward was -exclusively appropriated to their use. They also had their meals sent -in, and, with the food, wine almost _ad libitum_. A prisoner, one of -the wardsmen, waited on those in the infirmary; the occupants of the -governor's house had their own servants, or those of the governor. As -a rule, visitors, many of them persons of good position, came and went -all day long, and as late as nine at night; some to the infirmary, -many more to the governor's house. There were no restraints, cards and -backgammon were played, and the time passed in feasting and revelry. -Even Mr. Cope admitted that the committal of this class of prisoners to -Newgate was most inconvenient. - -Enough has probably been said to give a complete picture of the -disgraceful state in which Newgate still remained in the early part of -the nineteenth century. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -INTERESTING INSTANCES - - Description of the new gallows at Newgate—"The fall - of the leaf"—Great crowds at the Old Bailey, and as - brutal as of old—Enormous crowd at Governor Wall's - execution—Execution of Holloway and Haggerty—Terrible loss - of life in the crowd—Awful levity displayed—Amelioration - of the criminal code—Executions more rare—Capital - punishment gradually restricted to murderers—Dissection - of the bodies abolished—Public exhibition of bodies also - discontinued—Exhibition of the body of Williams, who - murdered the Marrs—Hanging in chains given up—Failures at - executions—Culprits fight for life—Cases of Charles White, of - Luigi Buranelli, of William Bousfield—Calcraft and his method - of hanging—Other hangmen—The cost of a hangman. - - -The discontinuance of the long-practised procession to Tyburn, and the -reasons for this change have already been fully set forth. The terrible -spectacle was as demoralizing to the public, for whose admonition -it was intended, as the exposure was brutal and cruel towards the -principal actors. The decision to remove the scene of action to the -immediate front of Newgate was in the right direction, as making the -performance shorter and diminishing the area of display. But the Old -Bailey was not exclusively used; at first, and for some few years after -1784, executions took place occasionally at a distance from Newgate. -This was partly due to the survival of the old notion that the scene -of the crime ought also to witness the retribution; partly because -residents in and about the Old Bailey raised a loud protest against the -constant erection of the scaffold in their neighbourhood. As regards -the first, I find that in 1786 John Hogan, the murderer of a Mr. Odell, -an attorney who resided in Charlotte Street, Rathbone Place, was -executed on a gibbet in front of his victim's house. Lawrence Jones, a -burglar, was in 1793 ordered for execution in Hatton Garden, near the -house he had robbed; and when he evaded the sentence by suicide, his -body was exhibited in the same neighbourhood, extended upon a plank on -the top of an open cart, in his clothes, and fettered. From 1809 to -1812, Execution Dock, on the banks of the Thames, was still retained. -Here John Sutherland, commander of the British armed transport "The -Friends," suffered on the 29th June, 1809, for the murder of his -cabin-boy, whom he stabbed after much ill-usage on board the ship as -it lay in the Tagus. On the 18th December, 1812, two sailors, Charles -Palm and Sam Tilling, were hanged at the same place for the murder of -their captain, James Keith, of the trading vessel "Adventure," upon -the high seas. They were taken in a cart to the place of execution, -amidst a vast concourse of people. "Palm, as soon as he was seated in -the cart, put a quid of tobacco into his mouth, and offered another to -his companion, who refused it with indignation. . . . Some indications -of pity were offered for the fate of Tilling; for Palm, execration -alone." - -But the Old Bailey gradually, and in spite of all objections urged, -monopolized the dread business of execution. The first affair of the -kind on this spot was on the 3rd of December, 1783, when, in pursuance -of an order issued by the Recorder to the sheriffs of Middlesex and -the keeper of His Majesty's gaol, Newgate, a scaffold was erected in -front of that prison for the execution of several convicts named by the -Recorder. "Ten were executed; the scaffold hung with black; and the -inhabitants of the neighbourhood, having petitioned the sheriffs to -remove the scene of execution to the old place, were told that the plan -had been well considered, and would be persevered in." The following -23rd April, it is stated that the malefactors ordered for execution on -the 18th inst. were brought out of Newgate about eight in the morning, -and suspended on a gallows of a new construction. "After hanging the -usual time they were taken down, and the machine cleared away in -half-an-hour. By practice the art is much improved, and there is no -part of the world in which villains are hanged in so neat a manner, and -with so little ceremony." - -A full description of this new gallows, which was erected in front -of the debtors' door, is to be found in contemporary records. "The -criminals are not exposed to view till they mount the fatal stage. -The last part of the stage, or that next to the gaol, is enclosed by -a temporary roof, under which are placed two seats for the reception -of the sheriffs, one on each side of the stairs leading to the -scaffold. Round the north, west, and south sides are erected galleries -for the reception of officers, attendants, etc., and at the distance -of five feet from the same is fixed a strong railing all round the -scaffold to enclose a place for the constables. In the middle of this -machinery is placed a movable platform, in form of a trap-door, ten -feet long by eight wide, on the middle of which is placed the gibbet, -extending from the gaol across the Old Bailey. This movable platform -is raised six inches higher than the rest of the scaffold, and on it -the convicts stand; it is supported by two beams, which are held in -their place by bolts. The movement of the lever withdraws the bolts, -the platform falls in;" and this, being much more sudden and regular -than that of a cart drawn away, had the effect of causing immediate -death. A broadsheet dated April 24th, 1787, describing an execution on -the newly invented scaffold before the debtors' door, Newgate, says, -"The scaffold on which these miserable people suffered is a temporary -machine which was drawn out of the yard of the sessions' house by -horses; . . . it is supported by strong posts fixed into grooves made in -the street; . . . the whole is temporary, being all calculated to take -to pieces, which are preserved within the prison." - -This contrivance appears to have been copied, with improvements, -from that which had been used in Dublin at a still earlier date; for -that city claims the priority in establishing the custom of hanging -criminals at the gaol itself. The Dublin "engine of death," as the -gallows are styled in the account from which the following description -is taken, consisted of an iron bar parallel to the prison wall, and -about four feet from it, but strongly affixed thereto with iron scroll -clamps. "From this bar hang several iron loops, in which the halters -are tied. Under this bar at a proper distance is a piece of flooring -or platform, projecting somewhat beyond the range of the iron bar, and -swinging upon hinges affixed to the wall. The entrance upon this floor -or leaf is from the middle window over the gate of the prison; and -this floor is supported below, while the criminals stand upon it, by -two pieces of timber, which are made to slide in and out of the prison -wall through apertures made for that purpose. When the criminals are -tied up and prepared for their fate, this floor suddenly falls down, -upon withdrawing the supporters inwards. They are both drawn at once -by a windlass, and the unhappy culprits remain suspended." This mode -of execution, it is alleged, gave rise to the old vulgar chaff, "Take -care, or you'll die at the fall of the leaf." The machinery in use in -Dublin is much the same as that employed at many gaols now-a-days. But -the fall apart and inwards of two leaves is considered superior. The -latter is the method still followed at Newgate. - -The sentences inflicted in front of Newgate were not limited to -hanging. In the few years which elapsed between the establishment of -the gallows at Newgate and the abolition of the practice of burning -females for petty treason, more than one woman suffered this penalty -at the Old Bailey. One case is preserved by Catnach, that of Phœbe -Harris, who in 1788 was "barbariously" executed and afterward burned -before Newgate for coining. She is described as a well-made little -woman, something more than thirty years of age, of a pale complexion -and not disagreeable features. "When she came out of prison she -appeared languid and terrified, and trembled greatly as she advanced -to the stake, where the apparatus for the punishment she was about to -experience seemed to strike her mind with horror and consternation, -to the exclusion of all power of recollectedness in preparation for -the approaching awful moment." She walked from the debtors' door to -a stake fixed in the ground about halfway between the scaffold and -Newgate Street. She was immediately tied by the neck to an iron bolt -fixed near the top of the stake, and after praying fervently for a few -minutes, the steps on which she stood were drawn away, and she was left -suspended. A chain fastened by nails to the stake was then put round -her body by the executioner with his assistants. Two cart-loads of -faggots were piled about her, and after she had hung for half-an-hour -the fire was kindled. The flames presently burned the halter, the body -fell a few inches, and hung then by the iron chain. The fire had not -quite burned out at twelve, in nearly four hours, that is to say. A -great concourse of people attended on this melancholy occasion. - -The change from Tyburn to the Old Bailey had worked no improvement as -regards the gathering together of the crowd or its demeanour. As many -spectators as ever thronged to see the dreadful show, and they were -packed into a more limited space, disporting themselves as heretofore -by brutal horseplay, coarse jests, and frantic yells. It was still the -custom to offer warm encouragement or bitter disapproval, according -to the character and antecedents of the sufferer. The highwayman, -whose exploits many in the crowd admired or emulated, was cheered -and bidden to die game; the man of better birth could hope for no -sympathy, whatever his crime. At the execution of Governor Wall, in -1802, the furious hatred of the mob was plainly apparent in their -appalling cries. His appearance on the scaffold was the signal for -three prolonged shouts from an innumerable populace, the brutal -effusion of one common sentiment. It was said that so large a crowd -had never collected since the execution of Mrs. Brownrigg, nor had the -public indignation risen so high. Pieman and ballad-monger did their -usual roaring trade amidst the dense throng. No sooner was the job -finished than half-a-dozen competitors appeared, each offering the -identical rope for sale at a shilling an inch. One was the "yeoman of -the halter," a Newgate official, the executioner's assistant, whom Mr. -J. T. Smith, who was present at the execution, describes as "a most -diabolical-looking little wretch—Jack Ketch's head man." The yeoman -was, however, undersold by his wife, "Rosy Emma, exuberant in talk and -hissing hot from Pie Corner, where she had taken her morning dose of -gin-and-bitters." A little further off, says Mr. Smith, was "a lath -of a fellow past threescore years and ten, who had just arrived from -the purlieus of Black Boy Alley, woebegone as Romeo's apothecary, -exclaiming, 'Here's the identical rope at sixpence an inch.'" - -Whenever the public attention had been specially called to a particular -crime, either on account of its atrocity, the doubtfulness of the -issue, or the superior position of the perpetrator, the attendance at -the execution was certain to be tumultuous, and the conduct of the mob -disorderly. This was notably the case at the execution of Holloway -and Haggerty in 1807, an event long remembered from the fatal and -disastrous consequences which followed it. They were accused by a -confederate, who, goaded by conscience, had turned approver, of the -murder of a Mr. Steele, who kept a lavender warehouse in the city, -and who had gardens at Feltham, whither he often went to distil the -lavender, returning to London the same evening. One night he was -missing, and after a long interval his dead body was discovered, -shockingly disfigured, in a ditch. Four years passed without the -detection of the murderers, but in the beginning of 1807 one of them, -at that time just sentenced to transportation, made a full confession, -and implicated Holloway and Haggerty. They were accordingly apprehended -and brought to trial, the informer, Hanfield by name, being accepted as -king's evidence. Conviction followed mainly on his testimony; but the -two men, especially Holloway, stoutly maintained their innocence to the -last. Very great excitement prevailed in the town throughout the trial, -and this greatly increased when the verdict was known. - -An enormous crowd assembled to witness the execution, amounting, it -was said, to the hitherto unparalleled number of forty thousand. By -eight o'clock not an inch of ground in front of the platform was -unoccupied. The pressure soon became so frightful that many would have -willingly escaped from the crowd; but their attempts only increased -the general confusion. Very soon women began to scream with terror; -some, especially of low stature, found it difficult to remain standing, -and several, although held up for some time by the men nearest them, -presently fell, and were at once trampled to death. Cries of Murder! -murder! were now raised, and added greatly to the horrors of the scene. -Panic became general. More women, children, and many men were borne -down, to perish beneath the feet of the rest. The most affecting and -distressing scene was at Green Arbour Lane, just opposite the debtors' -door of the prison. Here a couple of piemen had been selling their -wares; the basket of one of them, which was raised upon a four-legged -stool, was upset. The pieman stooped down to pick up his scattered -stock, and some of the mob, not seeing what had happened, stumbled over -him. No one who fell ever rose again. Among the rest was a woman with -an infant at the breast. She was killed, but in the act of falling she -forced her child into the arms of a man near her, and implored him -in God's name to save it; the man, needing all his care for his own -life, threw the child from him, and it passed along the heads of the -crowd, to be caught at last by a person who struggled with it to a cart -and deposited it there in safety. In another part of the crowd seven -persons met their death by suffocation. - -In this convulsive struggle for existence people fought fiercely with -one another, and the weakest, of course the women, went under. One -cart-load of spectators having broken down, some of its occupants fell -off the vehicle, and were instantly trampled to death. This went on for -more than an hour, until the malefactors were cut down and the gallows -removed; then the mob began to thin, and the streets were cleared by -the city marshals and a number of constables. The catastrophe exceeded -the worst anticipations. Nearly one hundred dead and dying lay about; -and after all had been removed, the bodies for identification, the -wounded to hospitals, a cart-load of shoes, hats, petticoats, and -fragments of wearing apparel were picked up. St. Bartholomew's Hospital -was converted into an impromptu morgue, and all persons who had -relatives missing were admitted to identify them. Among the dead was a -sailor lad whom no one knew; he had his pockets filled with bread and -cheese, and it was generally supposed that he had come a long distance -to see the fatal show. - -A tremendous crowd assembled when Bellingham was executed in 1812 -for the murder of Spencer Percival, at that time prime minister; but -there were no serious accidents, beyond those caused by the goring of -a maddened, over-driven ox which forced its way through the crowd. -Precautions had been taken by the erection of barriers, and the -posting of placards at all the avenues to the Old Bailey, on which -was printed, "Beware of entering the crowd! Remember thirty poor -persons were pressed to death by the crowd when Haggerty and Holloway -were executed!" The concourse was very great, notwithstanding these -warnings. It was still greater at Fauntleroy's execution in 1824, when -no less than 100,000 persons assembled, it was said. Every window -and roof which could command a view of the horrible performance was -occupied. All the avenues and approaches, places whence nothing could -be seen of the scaffold, were blocked by persons who had overflowed -from the area in front of the gaol. - -At Courvoisier's execution in 1840 it was the same, or worse. As early -as six o'clock the number assembled already exceeded that seen on -ordinary occasions; by seven o'clock the whole space was so thronged -that it was impossible to move one way or the other. Some persons -were kept for more than five hours standing against the barriers, and -many nearly fainted from exhaustion. Every window had its party of -occupants; the adjoining roofs were equally crowded. High prices were -asked and paid for front seats or good standing room. As much as £5 -was given for the attic story of the Lamb's Coffee House; £2 was a -common price for a window. At the George public-house to the south of -the drop, Sir W. Watkin Wynn, Bart., hired a room for the night and -morning, which he and a large party of friends occupied before and -during the execution; in an adjoining house, that of an undertaker, -was Lord Alfred Paget, also with several friends. Those who had hired -apartments spent the night in them, keeping up their courage with -liquids and cigars. Numbers of ladies were present, although the public -feeling was much against their attendance. One well-dressed woman fell -out of a first-floor window on to the shoulders of the crowd below, but -neither she nor any one else was greatly hurt. The city authorities -had endeavoured to take all precautions against panic and excitement -among the crowd, and caused a number of stout additional barriers to be -erected in front of the scaffold, and although one of these gave way -owing to the extraordinary pressure, no serious accident occurred. - -But there is little doubt that as executions became more rare they made -more impression on the public mind. Already a strong dislike to the -reckless and almost indiscriminate application of the extreme penalty -was apparent in all classes, and the mitigation of the criminal code, -for which Romilly had so strenuously laboured, was daily more and more -of an accomplished fact. In 1832 capital punishment was abolished for -forgery, except in cases of forging or altering wills or powers of -attorney to transfer stock. Nevertheless, after that date no person -was executed for this offence. In the same year capital punishment -was further restricted, and ceased to be the legal sentence for -coining, sheep or horse stealing, and stealing in a dwelling-house. -House-breaking, as distinguished from burglary, was similarly -exempted in the following year; next, the offences of returning from -transportation, stealing post-office letters, and sacrilege were no -longer punishable with death. In 1837 Lord John Russell's Acts swept -away a number of capital offences, including cutting and maiming, -rick-burning, robbery, burglary, and arson. Within two years the -number of persons sentenced to death in England had fallen from four -hundred and thirty-eight in 1837 to fifty-six in 1839. Gradually the -application of capital punishment became more and more restricted, and -was soon the penalty for murder alone. While in London, for instance, -in 1829, twenty-four persons had been executed for crimes other than -murder, from 1832 to 1844 not a single person had been executed in the -metropolis except for this the gravest crime. In 1837 the death penalty -was practically limited to murder or attempts to murder, and in 1841 -this was accepted as the almost universally established rule. Seven -other crimes, however, were still capital by law, and so continued till -the passing of the Criminal Consolidation Acts of 1861. - -With the amelioration of the criminal code, other cruel concomitants -of execution also disappeared. In 1832 the dissection of bodies cut -down from the gallows, which had been decreed centuries previous, was -abolished; the most recent enactment in force was that which directed -the dissection of all bodies of executed murderers, the idea being -to intensify the dread of capital punishment. That such dread was -not universal or deep-seated may be gathered from the fact that well -authenticated cases were known of criminals selling their own bodies -to surgeons for dissection. This dissection was performed for Newgate -prisoners in Surgeons' Hall, adjoining Newgate, the site of the present -Sessions' House of the Old Bailey, and the operation was witnessed by -students and a number of curious spectators. Lord Ferrers' body was -brought to Surgeons' Hall after execution in his own carriage and six; -after the post mortem had been performed, the corpse was exposed to -view in a first-floor room. - -Pennant speaks of Surgeons' Hall as a handsome building, ornamented -with Ionic pilasters, and with a double flight of steps to the first -floor. Beneath is a door for the admission of the bodies of murderers -and other felons. There were other public dissecting rooms for -criminals. One was attached to Hicks' Hall, the Clerkenwell Sessions' -House, built out of monies provided by Sir Baptist Hicks, a wealthy -alderman of the reign of James I. Persons were still living in 1855 who -had witnessed dissections at Hicks' Hall, and "whom the horrid scene, -with the additional effect of some noted criminals hanging on the -walls, drove out again sick and faint, as we have heard some relate, -and with pale and terrified features, to get a breath of air." The -dissection of executed criminals was abolished soon after the discovery -of the crime of burking, with the idea that ignominy would no longer -attach to an operation which ceased to be compulsory for the most -degraded beings; and that executors or persons having lawful possession -of the bodies of people who had died friendless, would voluntarily -surrender them for the advancement of medical science. - -Another brutal practice had nearly disappeared about the time of the -abolition of dissection. This was the public exhibition of the body, -as was done in the case of Mrs. Phipoe, the murderess, who was executed -in front of Newgate in 1798, and her body publicly exhibited in a place -built for the purpose in the Old Bailey. About this time we find that -the bodies of two murderers, Clench and Mackay, "were publicly exposed -in a stable in Little Bridge Street, near Apothecaries' Hall, Surgeons' -Hall being let to the lieutenancy of the county for the accommodation -of the militia." In 1811 Williams, who murdered the Marrs in Ratcliffe -Highway, having committed suicide in gaol to escape hanging, it was -determined that a public exhibition should be made of the body through -the neighbourhood which had been the scene of the monster's crimes. -A long procession was formed, headed by constables, who cleared the -way with their staves. Then came the newly-formed horse patrol, with -drawn cutlasses, parish officers, peace officers, the high constable of -the county of Middlesex on horseback, and then the body of Williams, -"extended at full length on an inclined platform erected on the cart, -about four feet high at the head, and gradually sloping towards the -horse, giving a full view of the body, which was dressed in blue -trousers and a blue-and-white striped waistcoat, but without a coat, -as when found in the cell. On the left side of the head the fatal -mall, and on the right the ripping chisel, with which the murders had -been committed, were exposed to view. The countenance of Williams was -ghastly in the extreme, and the whole had an appearance too horrible -for description." The procession traversed Ratcliffe twice, halting -for a quarter of an hour in front of the victims' dwelling, and was -accompanied throughout by "an immense concourse of persons, eager -to get a sight of the murderer's remains. . . . All the shops in the -neighbourhood were shut, and the windows and tops of the houses were -crowded with spectators." - -Hanging in chains upon the gibbet which had served for the execution, -or on another specially erected on some commanding spot, had fallen -into disuse by 1832. But there was an attempt to revive it at that -date, when the act for dispensing with the dissection of criminals -was passed. A clause was inserted to the effect that "the bodies of -all prisoners convicted of murder should either be hung in chains, or -buried under the gallows on which they had been executed, . . . -according to the discretion of the court before whom the prisoners -might be tried." The revival of this barbarous practice caused -much indignation in certain quarters, but it was actually tried in -two provincial towns, Leicester and Durham. At the first-named the -exhibition nearly created a tumult, and the body was taken down and -buried, but not before the greatest scandal had been caused by the -unseemly proceedings of the crowd that flocked to see the sight. A sort -of fair was held, gaming-tables were set up, cards were played under -the gibbet, to the disturbance of the public peace and the annoyance -of all decent people. At Jarrow Stake, where the Durham murderer's body -was exposed, there were similar scenes, mingled with compassion for the -culprit's family, and a subscription was set on foot for them then and -there at the foot of the gibbet. Later on, after dark, some friends of -the deceased stole the body and buried it in the sand, and this was the -end of hanging in chains. After this a law was passed which prescribed -that the bodies of all executed murderers should be buried within the -walls of the gaol. - -Although these objectionable practices had disappeared, there were -still many shocking incidents at executions, owing to the bungling and -unskilful way in which the operation was performed. The rope still -broke sometimes, although it was not often that the horrid scene at -Jersey at the beginning of the century was repeated. There the hangman -added his weight to that of the suspended culprit, and having first -pulled him sideways, then got upon his shoulders, so that the rope -broke. "To the great surprise of all who witnessed this dreadful scene, -the poor criminal rose straight upon his feet, with the hangman on his -shoulders, and immediately loosened the rope with his fingers." After -this the sheriffs sent for another rope, but the spectators interfered, -and the man was carried back to gaol. The whole case was referred to -the king, and the poor wretch, whose crime had been a military one, was -eventually pardoned. A somewhat similar event happened at Chester not -long afterwards; the ropes by which two offenders were turned off broke -a few inches from their necks. They were taken back to gaol, and were -again brought out in the afternoon, by which time fresh and stronger -ropes had been procured, and the sentence was properly and completely -carried out. Other cases might be quoted, especially that of William -Snow, _alias_ Sketch, who slipped from the gallows at Exeter and fell -to the ground. He soon rose to his feet, and, hearing the sorrowful -exclamations of the populace, coolly said, "Good people, do not be -hurried; I am not, I can wait." - -Similar cases were not wanting as regards the executions before -Newgate. Others were not less horrible, although there was no failure -of apparatus. Sometimes the condemned man made a hard fight for life. -When Charles White was executed in 1823 for arson, he arranged a -handkerchief in such a way that the executioner found a difficulty in -pinioning his hands. White managed to keep his wrists asunder, and -continued to struggle with the officials for some time. Eventually he -was pinioned with a cord in the usual manner. On the scaffold he made -a violent attempt to loosen his bonds, and succeeded in getting his -hands free. Then with a strong effort he pushed off the white cap, and -tried to liberate his neck from the halter, which by this time had been -adjusted. The hangman summoned assistance, and with help tied the cap -over White's face with a handkerchief. The miserable wretch during the -whole of this time was struggling with the most determined violence, -to the great horror of the spectators. Still he resisted, and having -got from the falling drop to the firm part of the platform, he nearly -succeeded in tearing the handkerchief from his eyes. However, the -ceremony went forward, and when the signal was given the drop sank. -The wretched man did not fall with it, but jumped on to the platform, -and seizing the rope with his hands, tried to avoid strangulation. The -spectacle was horrible; the convict was half on the platform, half -hanging, and the convulsions of his body were appalling. The crowd -vociferously yelled their disapproval, and at length the executioner -forced the struggling criminal from the platform, so that the rope -sustained his whole weight. His face was visible to the whole crowd, -and was fearful to behold. Even now his sufferings were not at an end, -and his death was not compassed until the executioner terminated his -sufferings by hanging on to his legs. - -When Luigi Buranelli was executed in 1855, through the improper -adjustment of the rope his sufferings were prolonged for five minutes; -"his chest heaved, and it was evident that his struggle was a fearful -one." A worse case still was that of William Bousfield, who, when -awaiting execution for murder, about the same date, had attempted -to throw himself upon the fire in his condemned cell. He was in -consequence so weak when brought out for execution, that he had to be -carried by four men, two supporting his body and two his legs. His -wretched, abject condition, seated in a chair under the drop, was such -as almost to unnerve the executioner Calcraft, who had been further -upset by a letter threatening to shoot him when he appeared to perform -his task. Calcraft, the moment he had adjusted the cap and rope, ran -down the steps, drew the bolt, and disappeared. "For a second or two -the body hung motionless, then, with a strength that astonished the -attendant officials, Bousfield slowly drew himself up, and rested with -his feet on the right side of the drop. One of the turnkeys rushed -forward and pushed him off. Again the wretched creature succeeded -in obtaining foothold, but this time on the left side of the drop." -Calcraft was forced to return, and he once more pushed Bousfield off, -who for the fourth time regained his foothold. Again he was repelled, -this time Calcraft adding his weight to the body, and the strangulation -was completed. - -It was stated in evidence before the Commission on Capital Punishment -in 1864, that Calcraft's method of hanging was very rough, much the -same as if he had been hanging a dog. Calcraft, of whom mention has -just been made, was by trade a lady's shoemaker, and before he took to -hanging he was employed as a watchman at Reid's brewery in Liquorpond -Street. He was at first engaged as assistant to the executioner Tom -Cheshire, but in due course rose to be chief. He was always known as -a mild-mannered man of simple tastes, much given to angling in the -New River, and a devoted rabbit fancier. He was well known in the -neighbourhood where he resided, and the street gamins cried "Jack -Ketch" as he went along the street. While Calcraft was in office other -aspirants to fame appeared in the field. One was Askern, who had been -a convicted prisoner at York, but who consented to act as hangman -when Calcraft was otherwise engaged and no other functionary could be -obtained. It was not always easy to hire a hangman. There is still -extant a curious petition presented to the Treasury by Ralph Griffith, -Esq., high sheriff of Flintshire, which sets forth that the petitioner -had been at great expense by sending clerks and agents to Liverpool and -Shrewsbury to hire an executioner. The man to be hanged belonged to -Wales, and no Welshman would do the job. Travelling expenses of these -agents cost £15, and another £10 were spent in the hire of a Shropshire -man, who deserted, and was pursued, but without success. Another man -was hired, himself a convict, whose fees for self and wife were twelve -guineas. Then came the cost of the gallows, £4. 12_s._; and finally -the funeral, cart, coffin, and other petty expenses, amounting to £7. -10_s._, making nearly £50 as the total expense. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -NEWGATE NOTORIETIES - - Diminution in certain kinds of crime—Fewer street - robberies—Corresponding increase in cases of fraud, forgeries, - jewel and bullion robberies—Great commercial frauds—Offences - against the person confined to murder and manslaughter—The - Cato Street conspiracy—Thistlewood's history—Discovery of - the plot—The conspirators' plan and its overthrow—Their - trial and execution at the Old Bailey—Attacks on the - sovereign—Oxford fires at Queen Victoria—Celebrated - frauds and forgeries—Fauntleroy—The last execution for - forgery—Joseph Hunton the Quaker—Sir Robert Peel's bill - to amend forgery laws—The Forgery Act—Latest cases of - abduction—Edward Gibbon Wakefield and Miss Turner—The most - remarkable murders of the epoch—Thurtell, Hunt, and Probert - kill Mr. Weare—Burke and Hall—Their imitators, Bishop and - Williams, in London—Greenacre and Mrs. Gale murder Hannah - Brown—Horrible means of disposing of the corpse—Detection, - trial, and sentence—Courvoisier murders his master—An - epidemic of murder. - - -The record of crime has been brought down to the second decade of the -last century. Some space should be devoted to criminal occurrences -of a more recent date, only premising that as accounts become more -voluminous I shall be compelled to deal with fewer cases, taking in -preference those which are typical and invested with peculiar interest. -It is somewhat remarkable that a marked change soon comes over -the Calendar. Certain crimes, those against the person especially, -diminished gradually. They became less easy or remunerative. Police -protection was better and more effective; the streets of London were -well lighted, the suburbs were more populous and regularly patrolled. -People, moreover, were getting into the habit of carrying but little -cash about them, and no valuables but their watches or personal -jewelry. Street robberies offered fewer inducements to depredators, -and evil-doers were compelled to adopt other methods of preying upon -their fellows. This led to a rapid and marked increase in all kinds -of fraud; and prominent in the criminal annals of Newgate in these -later years will be found numerous remarkable instances of this class -of offence—forgeries committed systematically, and for long periods, -as in the case of Fauntleroy, to cover enormous defalcations; the -fabrication of deeds, wills, and false securities for the purpose -of misappropriating funds or feloniously obtaining cash; thefts of -bullion, bank-notes, specie, and gold-dust, planned with consummate -ingenuity, eluding the keenest vigilance, and carried out with reckless -daring; jewel-boxes cleverly stolen under the very noses of owners -or care-takers. As time passed, the extraordinary extension of all -commercial operations led to many entirely novel and often gigantic -financial frauds. The credulity of investors, the unscrupulous -dishonesty of bankers, the slackness of supervision over wholly -irresponsible agents, produced many terrible monetary catastrophes, and -lodged men like Cole, Robson, and Redpath in Newgate. - -While the varying conditions of social life thus brought about many -changes in the character of offences against property, those against -the person became more and more limited to the most heinous, or those -which menaced or destroyed life. There was no increase in murder or -manslaughter; the number of such crimes remained proportionate to the -population. Nor did the methods by which they were perpetrated greatly -vary from those in times past. The causes also continued much the same. -Passion, revenge, cupidity, sudden ebullitions of homicidal rage, the -cold-blooded, calculating atrocity born of self-interest, were still -the irresistible incentives to kill. The brutal ferocity of the wild -beast once aroused, the same means, the same weapons were employed to -do the dreadful deed, the same and happily often futile precautions -taken to conceal the crime. Pegsworth, and Greenacre, and Daniel Good -merely reproduced types that had gone before, and that have since -reappeared. Esther Hibner was as inhuman in her ill-usage of the parish -apprentice whom she killed as Martha Brownrigg had been. Thurtell -and Hunt followed in the footsteps of Billings, Wood, and Catherine -Hayes. Courvoisier might have lived a century earlier. Hocker was found -upon the scene of his crime, irresistibly attracted thither, as was -Theodore Gardelle. Now and again there seemed to be a recurrence of a -murder epidemic, as there had been before; as in the year 1849, a year -memorable for the Rush murders at Norwich, the Gleeson Wilson murder -at Liverpool, that of the Mannings in London, and of many more. Men -like Mobbs, the miscreant known as "General Haynau" on account of his -blood-thirstiness, still murdered their wives; or struck in blind rage -like Cannon the chimney-sweeper, who savagely killed the policeman. - -But at various dates treason distinct and tangible still came to the -front: direct attempts to levy war against the State. The well-known -Cato Street conspiracy, which grew out of disturbed social conditions -after the last French war, amidst general distress, and when the people -were beginning to agitate for a larger share of political power, was -among the earliest, and to some extent the most desperate, of these. -Its ringleaders, Thistlewood and the rest, were after capture honoured -by committal as State prisoners to the Tower, but they came one and -all to Newgate for trial at the Old Bailey, and remained there after -conviction till they were hanged. Later on, the Chartists agitated -persistently for the concessions embraced in the so-called People's -Charter, many of which are, by more legitimate efforts, engrafted upon -the Constitution. But the Chartists sought their ends by riot and -rebellion, and gained only imprisonment for their pains. Some five -hundred in all were arrested, but only three of these were lodged in -Newgate. - -The Cato Street conspiracy would have been simply ridiculous but for -the recklessness of the desperadoes who planned it. That some thirty -or more needy men should hope to revolutionize England is a sufficient -proof of the absurdity of their attempt. But they proceeded in all -seriousness, and would have shrunk from no outrage or atrocity in -furtherance of their foolhardy enterprise. The massacre of the whole -of the Cabinet Ministers at one stroke was to be followed by an attack -upon "the old man and the old woman," as they styled the Mansion House -and the Bank of England. At the former the "Provisional Government" -was to be established, which under Thistlewood as dictator was to rule -the nation by first handing over its capital to fire and pillage. -This Thistlewood had seen many vicissitudes throughout his strange, -adventurous career. The son of a respectable Lincolnshire farmer, he -became a militia officer, and married a woman with £10,000, in which, -however, she had only a life interest. She died early, and Thistlewood, -left to his own resources, followed the profession of arms, first in -the British service, and then in that of the French revolutionary -Government. It was during this period that he was said to have imbibed -his revolutionary ideas. Returning to England, he found himself rich -in a small landed property, which he presently sold to a man who -became bankrupt before he had paid over the purchase money. After this -he tried farming, but failed. He married again and came to London, -where he soon became notorious as a reckless gambler and a politician -holding the most extreme views. In this way he formed the acquaintance -of Watson and others, with whom he was arraigned for treasonable -practices, and imprisoned. On his release he sent a challenge to Lord -Sidmouth, the Home Secretary, and was again arrested and imprisoned. On -his second release, goaded by his fancied wrongs, he began to plot a -dark and dreadful revenge, and thus the conspiracy in which he was the -prime mover took shape, and came to a head. - -The Government obtained early and full information of the nefarious -scheme. One of the conspirators, by name Edwards, made a voluntary -confession to Sir Herbert Taylor one morning at Windsor; after which -Thistlewood and his accomplices were closely watched, and measures -taken to arrest them when their plans were so far developed that no -doubt could remain as to their guilt. The day appointed for the murder -and rising actually arrived before the authorities interfered. It -was the day on which Lord Harrowby was to entertain his colleagues -at dinner in Grosvenor Square. The occasion was considered excellent -by the conspirators for disposal of the whole Cabinet at one blow, -and it was arranged that one of their number should knock at Lord -Harrowby's door on the pretence of leaving a parcel, and that when -it was opened the whole band should rush in. While a few secured the -servants, the rest were to fall upon Lord Harrowby and his guests. -Hand-grenades were to be thrown into the dining-room, and during -the noise and confusion the assassination of the ministers was to -be completed, the heads of Lord Castlereagh and Lord Sidmouth being -carried away in a bag. Lord Harrowby's dinner-party was postponed, -but the conspirators knew nothing of it, and those who watched his -house were further encouraged in their mistake by the arrival of -many carriages, bound, as it happened, to the Archbishop of York's. -Meanwhile the main body remained at their headquarters, a ruined -stable in Cato Street, Edgeware Road, completing their dispositions -for assuming supreme power after the blow had been struck. Here they -were surprised by the police, headed by a magistrate, and supported by -a strong detachment of Her Majesty's Guards. The police were the first -to arrive on the spot, the Guards having entered the street at the -wrong end. The conspirators were in a loft, approached by a ladder and -a trap-door, access through which could only be obtained one by one. -The first constable who entered Thistlewood ran through the body with a -sword, but others quickly followed, the lights were extinguished, and -a desperate conflict ensued. The Guards, headed by Lord Frederick Fitz -Clarence, now reinforced the police, and the conspirators gave way. -Nine of the latter were captured, with all the war material, cutlasses, -pistols, hand grenades, and ammunition. Thistlewood and fourteen more -succeeded for the moment in making their escape, but most of them were -subsequently taken. Thistlewood was discovered next morning in a mean -house in White Street, Moorfields. He was in bed with his breeches on -(in the pockets of which were found a number of cartridges), the black -belt he had worn at Cato Street, and a military sash. - -The trial of the conspirators came on some six weeks later, at the -Old Bailey. Thistlewood made a long and rambling defence, the chief -features of which were abuse of Lord Sidmouth, and the vilification -of the informer Edwards. Several of the other prisoners took the same -line as regards Edwards, and there seems to have been good reason for -supposing that he was a greater villain than any of those arraigned. -He had been in a state of abject misery, and when he first joined -"the reformers," as the Cato Street conspirators called themselves, -he had neither a bed to lie upon nor a coat to his back. His sudden -access to means unlimited was no doubt due to the profitable _rôle_ he -soon adopted of Government informer and spy, and it is pretty certain -that for some time he served both sides; on the one inveigling silly -enthusiasts to join in the plot, and denouncing them on the other. -The employment of Edwards, and the manner in which the conspirators -were allowed to commit themselves further and further before the law -was set in motion against them, were not altogether creditable to the -Government. It was asserted, not without foundation, at these trials, -that Edwards repeatedly incited the associates he was betraying to -commit outrage, to set fire to houses, and throw hand-grenades into -the carriages of ministers; that he was, to use Thistlewood's words, -"a contriver, instigator, and entrapper." The Government were probably -not proud of their agent, for Edwards, after the conviction had been -assured, went abroad to enjoy, it was said, an ample pension, so long -as he did not return to England. - -Five of the conspirators, Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and -Tidd, were sentenced to death, and suffered in the usual way in front -of Newgate, with the additional penalty of decapitation, as traitors, -after they had been hanged. A crowd as great as any known collected -in the Old Bailey to see the ceremony, about which there were some -peculiar features worth recording. The reckless demeanour of all -the convicts except Davidson was most marked. Thistlewood and Ings -sucked oranges on the scaffold; they with Brunt and Tidd scorned the -ordinary's ministrations, but Ings said he hoped God would be more -merciful to him than men had been. Ings was especially defiant. He -sought to cheer Davidson, who seemed affected, crying out, "Come, old -cock-of-wax, it will soon be over." As the executioner fastened the -noose, he nodded to a friend he saw in the crowd; and catching sight -of the coffins ranged around the gallows, he smiled at the show with -contemptuous indifference. He roared out snatches of a song about Death -or Liberty, and just before he was turned off, yelled out three cheers -to the populace whom he faced. - -Attacks upon the sovereign were not uncommon after the accession of -the young Queen Victoria to the English throne in 1838. It was a form -of high treason not unknown in earlier reigns. In 1786 a mad woman, -Margaret Nicholson, tried to stab George III as he was alighting -from his carriage at the gate of St. James's Palace. She was seized -before she could do any mischief, and eventually lodged in Bethlehem -Hospital, where she died after forty years' detention, at the advanced -age of one hundred. Again, a soldier, by name Hatfield, who had been -wounded in the head, and discharged from the army for unsoundness of -mind in 1800, fired a pistol at George III from the pit of Drury Lane -theatre. William IV was also the victim of a murderous outrage on Ascot -racecourse in 1832, when John Collins, "a person in the garb of a -sailor, of wretched appearance, and having a wooden leg," threw a stone -at the king, which hit him on the forehead, but did no serious injury. -Collins, when charged, pleaded that he had lost his leg in action, that -he had petitioned without success for a pension, and that, as he was -starving, he had resolved on this desperate deed, feeling, as he said, -that he might as well be shot or hanged as remain in such a state. He -was eventually sentenced to death, but the plea of lunacy was allowed, -and he was confined for life. - -None of the foregoing attempts were, however, so dastardly or -determined as that made by Oxford upon Queen Victoria two years after -she ascended the throne. The cowardly crime was probably encouraged -by the fearless and confiding manner in which the Queen, secure as -it seemed in the affections of her loyal people, freely appeared -in public. Oxford, who was only nineteen at the time his offence -was committed, had been born at Birmingham, but he came as a lad to -London, and took service as a pot-boy to a publican. From this he -was promoted to barman, and as such had charge of the business in -various public-houses. He left his last situation in April, 1840, -and established himself in lodgings in Lambeth, after which he -devoted himself to pistol practice in shooting-galleries, sometimes -in Leicester Square, sometimes in the Strand, or the West End. His -acquaintances often asked his object in this, but he kept his own -counsel till the 10th of June. On that day Oxford was on the watch -at Buckingham Palace. He saw Prince Albert return there from a visit -to Woolwich, and then passed on to Constitution Hill, there to wait -until four o'clock in the afternoon, the time at which the Queen and -Prince Consort usually took an afternoon drive. About six o'clock, the -royal carriage, a low open vehicle drawn by four horses, ridden by -postilions, left the palace. Oxford, who had been pacing backwards and -forwards with his hands under the lapels of his coat, saw the carriage -approach. He was on the right or north side of the road. Prince Albert -occupied the same side of the carriage, the Queen the left. As the -carriage came up to him Oxford turned, put his hand into his breast, -drew a pistol, and fired at the Queen. - -The shot missed, and as the carriage passed on, Oxford drew a second -pistol and fired again. The Queen saw this second movement, and stooped -to avoid the shot; the Prince too rose to shield her with his person. -Again, providentially, the bullet went wide of the mark, and the royal -party drove back to Clarence House, the Queen being anxious to give the -first news of the outrage and of her safety to her mother, the Duchess -of Kent. Meanwhile the pistol-shots had attracted the attention of the -bystanders, of whom there was a fair collection, as usual, waiting to -see the Queen pass. Oxford was seized by a person named Lowe, who was -at first mistaken for the assailant. But Oxford at once assumed the -responsibility for his crime, saying, "It was I. I did it. I'll give -myself up. There is no occasion to use violence. I will go with you." -He was taken into custody, and removed first to a police cell, thence -committed to Newgate, after he had been examined before the Privy -Council. Oxford expressed little anxiety or concern. He asked more -than once whether the Queen was hurt, and acknowledged that the pistols -were loaded with ball. - -A craze for notoriety, to be achieved at any cost, was the one -absorbing idea in young Oxford's disordered brain. After his arrest -he thought only of the excitement his attempt had raised, nothing of -its atrocity, or of the fatal consequences which might have ensued. -When brought to trial he hardly realized his position, but gazed with -complacency around the crowded court, and eagerly inquired what persons -of distinction were present. He smiled continually, and when the -indictment was read, burst into loud and discordant fits of laughter. -These antics may have been assumed to bear out the plea of insanity set -up in his defence, but that there was madness in his family, and that -he himself was of unsound mind, could not be well denied. His father, -it was proved, had been at times quite mad; and Oxford's mental state -might be inferred from his own proceedings and demeanour in court. The -whole of the evidence pointed so strongly towards insanity, that the -jury brought in a verdict of acquittal on that ground, and Oxford was -ordered to be detained during Her Majesty's pleasure. He went from -Newgate first to Bethlehem, from which he was removed to Broadmoor on -the opening of the great criminal lunatic asylum at that place. He was -released from Broadmoor in 1878, and went abroad. - -Referring again to the increase of bank forgeries, at one session -of the Old Bailey, in 1821, no less than thirty-five true bills were -found for passing forged notes. But there were other notorious cases of -forgery. That of Fauntleroy the banker, in 1824, caused much excitement -at the time on account of the magnitude of the fraud, and the seeming -probity of the culprit. Mr. Fauntleroy was a member of a banking firm, -which his father had established in conjunction with a gentleman of -the name of Marsh, and others. He had entered the house as clerk in -1800; in 1807, when only twenty-two years of age, he succeeded to his -father's share in the business. According to Fauntleroy's own case, -he found at once that the firm was heavily involved, through advances -made to various builders, and that it could only maintain its credit by -wholesale discounting. Its embarrassments were greatly increased by the -bankruptcy of two of its clients in the building trade, and the bank -became liable for a sum of £170,000. New liabilities were incurred to -the extent of £100,000 by more failures, and in 1819, by the death of -one of the partners, a large sum in cash had to be withdrawn from the -bank to pay his heirs. "During these numerous and trying difficulties," -says Mr. Fauntleroy, "the house was nearly without resources, and the -whole burthen of management falling on me, . . . I sought resources -where I could;" in other words, he forged powers of attorney and -proceeded to realize securities lodged in his bank under various -names. Among the prisoner's private papers, one was found giving full -details of the stock he had feloniously sold out, the sum amounting -to some £170,000, with a declaration in his own handwriting to the -following effect: "In order to keep up the credit of our house, I have -forged powers of attorney for the above sums and parties, and sold out -to the amount here stated, and without the knowledge of my partners. -I kept up the payments of the dividends, but made no entries of such -payments in my books. The bank began first to refuse our acceptances, -and to destroy the credit of our house; the bank shall smart for it." - -Many stories were in circulation at the time of Fauntleroy's trial -with regard to his forgeries. It was said that he had by means of -them sold out so large an amount of stock, that he paid £16,000 a -year in dividends to escape detection. Once he ran a narrow risk -of being found out. A lady in the country, who had £13,000 in the -stocks, desired her London agent to sell them out. He went to the -bank, and found that no stocks stood in her name. He called at once -upon Fauntleroy, his client's banker, for an explanation, and was -told by Mr. Fauntleroy that the lady had desired _him_ to sell out, -"which I have done," added the fraudulent banker, "and here are the -proceeds," whereupon he produced exchequer bills to the amount. Nothing -more was heard of the affair, although the lady declared that she had -never instructed Fauntleroy to sell. On another occasion the banker -forged a gentleman's name while the latter was sitting with him in his -private room, and took the instrument out to a clerk with the ink not -dry. It must be added that the Bank of England, on discovering the -forgeries, replaced the stock in the names of the original holders, -who might otherwise have been completely ruined. A newspaper report of -the time describes Fauntleroy "as a well-made man of middle stature. -His hair, though gray, was thick, and lay smooth over his forehead. -His countenance had an expression of most subdued resignation. The -impression which his appearance altogether was calculated to make was -that of the profoundest commiseration." - -The crime, long carried on without detection, was first discovered in -1820, when it was found that a sum of $10,000, standing in the name of -three trustees, of whom Fauntleroy was one, had been sold out under a -forged power of attorney. Further investigations brought other similar -frauds to light, and fixed the whole sum misappropriated at £170,000, -the first forgery dating back to 1814. A run upon the bank immediately -followed, which was only met by a suspension of payment and the closing -of its doors. Meanwhile public gossip was busy with Fauntleroy's name, -and it was openly stated in the press and in conversation that the -proceeds of these frauds had been squandered in dissipation, gambling, -and debauchery. Fauntleroy was scouted as a licentious libertine, a -deep and determined gamester, a spendthrift whose extravagance knew no -bounds. It was said that the dinners he gave were of the most sumptuous -and _recherché_ description. The story goes that one of his most -intimate friends, who attended him to the scaffold, entreated him, as -on the brink of the grave, and unable to take anything out of the world -with him, to reveal the secret of where some wonderful curaçoa was -obtained, for which Fauntleroy's cellar was famous. The veil was lifted -from his private life, and he was accused of persistent immorality. In -his defence he sought to rebut these charges, which indeed were never -clearly made out, and it is pretty certain that his own account of -the causes which led him into dishonesty was substantially true. He -called many witnesses, seventeen in all, to speak of him as they had -found him; and these, all respectable city merchants and business men, -declared that they had hitherto formed a high opinion of his honour, -integrity, and goodness of disposition, deeming him the last person -capable of a dishonourable action. - -These arguments availed little with the jury, who after a short -deliberation found Fauntleroy guilty, and he was sentenced to death. -Every endeavour was used, however, to obtain a commutation of sentence. -His case was twice argued before the judges on points of law, but -the result in both cases was unfavourable. Appeals were made to the -Home Secretary, and all possible political interest brought to bear, -but without success. Fauntleroy meanwhile lay in Newgate, not herded -with other condemned prisoners, as the custom was, but in a separate -chamber, that belonging to one of the warders of the gaol. I find in -the chaplain's journal, under date 1824, various entries relative -to this prisoner. "Visited Mr. Fauntleroy. My application for books -for him not having been granted, I had no prayer-book to give him." -"Visited Mr. Fauntleroy. The sheriffs have very kindly permitted him -to remain in the turnkey's room where he was originally placed; nor -can I omit expressing a hope that this may prove the beginning of a -better system of confinement, and that every description of persons who -may be unfortunately under sentence of death will no longer be herded -indiscriminately together." The kindliness of the city authorities to -Fauntleroy was not limited to the assignment of a separate place of -durance. - -A very curious and, in its way, amusing circumstance in connection with -this case was the offer of a certain Italian, Edmund Angelini, to take -Fauntleroy's place. Angelini wrote to the Lord Mayor to this effect, -urging that Fauntleroy was a father, a citizen: "His life is useful, -mine a burthen, to the State." He was summoned to the Mansion House, -where he repeated his request, crying, "Accordez moi cette grâce," with -much urgency. There were doubts of his sanity. He wrote afterwards to -the effect that the moment he had offered himself, an unknown assassin -came to aim a blow at him. "Let this monster give his name; I am ready -to fight him. I am still determined to put myself in the place of Mr. -Fauntleroy. If the law of this country can receive such a sacrifice, my -death will render to heaven an innocent man, and to earth a repentant -sinner." - -The concourse in front of Newgate was enormous at Fauntleroy's -execution, but much sympathy was evinced for this unfortunate victim -to human weakness and ruthless laws. A report was, moreover, widely -circulated, and the impression long prevailed, that he actually -escaped death. It was said that strangulation had been prevented -by the insertion of a silver tube in his wind-pipe, and that after -hanging for the regulated time he was taken down and easily restored -to consciousness. Afterwards, according to the common rumour, he went -abroad and lived there for many years; but the story is not only wholly -unsubstantiated, but there is good evidence to show that the body after -execution was handed over to his friends and interred privately. - -Some years were still to elapse before capital punishment ceased to -be the penalty for forgery, and in the interval several persons were -sentenced and suffered death for this crime. There were two notable -capital convictions for forgery in 1828. One was that of Captain -Montgomery, who assumed the aliases of Colonel Wallace and Colonel -Morgan. His offence was uttering forged notes, and there was strong -suspicion that he had long subsisted entirely by this fraud. The -act for which he was taken into custody was the payment of a forged -ten-pound note for half-a-dozen silver spoons. Montgomery was an adept -at forgery. He had gone wrong early. Although born of respectable -parents, and gazetted to a commission in the army, he soon left the -service and betook himself to dishonest ways. His first forgery was the -marvellous imitation of the signature of the Hon. Mr. Neville, M. P., -who wrote an extremely cramped and curious hand. He was not prosecuted -for this fraud on account of the respectability of his family, and -soon after this escape he came to London, where he practised as a -professional swindler and cheat. For a long time justice did not -overtake him for any criminal offence, but he was frequently in Newgate -and in the King's Bench for debt. After three years' confinement -in the latter prison he passed himself off as his brother, Colonel -Montgomery, a distinguished officer, and would have married an heiress -had not the imposture been discovered in time. He then took to forging -bank-notes, and was arrested as I have described above. Montgomery was -duly sentenced to death, but he preferred suicide to the gallows. After -sentence his demeanour was serious yet firm. The night previous to that -fixed for his execution he wrote several letters, one of them being to -Edward Gibbon Wakefield, a fellow-prisoner, and listened attentively to -the ordinary, who read him the well-known address written and delivered -by Dr. Dodd previous to his own execution for forgery. But next morning -he was found dead in his cell. In one corner after much search a phial -was found labelled "Prussic acid," which it was asserted he had been -in the habit of carrying about his person ever since he had taken to -passing forged notes, as an "antidote against disgrace." This phial -he had managed to retain in his possession in spite of the frequent -searches to which he was subjected in Newgate. - -The second conviction for forgery in 1828 was that of the Quaker -Joseph Hunton, a man previously of the highest repute in the city of -London. He had prospered in early life, was a slop-seller on a large -scale at Bury St. Edmunds, and a sugar-baker in the metropolis. He -married a lady also belonging to the Society of Friends, who brought -him a large fortune, which, together with his own money, he put into -a city firm, that of Dickson and Company. Soon after he became deeply -involved in Stock Exchange speculations, and losing heavily, to meet -the claims upon him he put out a number of forged bills of exchange -or acceptances, to which the signature of one Wilkins of Abingdon was -found to be forged. Hunton tried to fly the country on the detection -of the fraud, but was arrested at Plymouth just as he was on the point -of leaving England in the New York packet. He had gone on board in -his Quaker dress, but when captured was found in a light-green frock, -a pair of light-gray pantaloons, a black stock and a foraging cap. -Hunton was put upon his trial at the Old Bailey, and in due course -sentenced to death. His defence was that the forged acceptances would -have been met on coming to maturity, and that he had no real desire to -defraud. Hunton accepted his sentence with great resignation, although -he protested against the inhumanity of the laws which condemned him -to death. On entering Newgate he said, "I wish after this day to -have communication with nobody; let me take leave of my wife, and -family, and friends. I have already suffered an execution; my heart -has undergone that horrible penalty." He was, however, visited by and -received his wife, and several members of the Society of Friends. Two -elders of the meeting sat up with him in the press-yard the whole of -the night previous to execution, and a third, Mr. Sparks Moline, came -to attend him to the scaffold. He met his death with unshaken firmness, -only entreating that a certain blue handkerchief, to which he seemed -fondly attached, should be used to bandage his eyes, which request was -readily granted. - -Hunton's execution no doubt aroused public attention to the cruelty -and futility of the capital law against forgery. A society which had -already been started against capital punishment devoted its efforts -first to a mitigation of the forgery statute, but could not immediately -accomplish much. In 1829 the gallows claimed two more victims for this -offence. One was Richard Gifford, a well-educated youth who had been -at Christ's Hospital, and afterwards in the National Debt Office. -Unfortunately he took to drink, lost his appointment, and fell from -bad to worse. Suddenly, after reaching the lowest depths, he emerged, -and was found by his friends living in comfort in the Waterloo Road. -His funds, which he pretended came to him with a rich wife, were -really the proceeds of frauds upon the Bank of England. He forged the -names of people who held stock on the Bank books, and got the value -of the stock; he also forged dividend receipts and got the dividends. -He was only six-and-twenty when he was hanged. The other and the last -criminal executed for forgery in England was one Maynard, who was -convicted of a fraud upon the Custom House. In conjunction with two -others, one of whom was a clerk in the Custom House, and had access to -the official records, he forged a warrant for £1,973, and was paid the -money by the comptroller general. Maynard was convicted of uttering the -forged document, Jones of being an accessory; the third prisoner was -acquitted. Maynard was the only one who suffered death. - -This execution was on the last day of the year 1829. In the following -session Sir Robert Peel brought in a bill to consolidate the acts -relating to forgery. Upon the third reading of this bill Sir James -Macintosh moved as an amendment that capital punishment should be -abolished for all crimes of forgery, except the forgery of wills and -powers of attorney. This amendment was strongly supported outside the -House, and a petition in favour of its passing was presented, signed by -more than a thousand members of banking firms. Macintosh's amendment -was carried in the Commons, but the new law did not pass the Lords, who -re-enacted the capital penalty. Still no sentence of death was carried -out for the offence, and in 1832 the Attorney-General introduced a -bill to entirely abolish capital punishment for forgery. It passed the -Commons, but opposition was again encountered in the Lords. This time -they sent the bill back, re-enacting only the two penalties for will -forging and the forging of powers of attorney; in other words, they -had advanced in 1832 to the point at which the Lower House had arrived -in 1830. There were at the moment in Newgate six convicts sentenced to -death for forging wills. The question was whether the Government would -dare to take their lives at the bidding of the House of Lords, and in -defiance of the vote of the assembly which more accurately represented -public opinion. It was indeed announced that their fate was sealed; but -Mr. Joseph Hume pressed the Government hard, and obtained an assurance -that the men should not be executed. The new Forgery Act with the -Lords' amendment passed into law, but the latter proved perfectly -harmless, and no person ever after suffered death for any variety of -this crime. - -One of the last instances of a crime which in time past had invariably -been visited with the death penalty,[217:1] and which was of a -distinctly fraudulent nature should be noted here. The abduction of -Miss Turner by the brothers Wakefield bore a strong resemblance to the -carrying off and forcible marrying of heiresses as already described in -a previous chapter. Miss Turner was a school-girl of barely fifteen, -only child of a gentleman of large property in Cheshire, of which -county he was actually high sheriff at the time of his daughter's -abduction. The elder brother, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, the prime mover -in the abduction, was a barrister not exactly briefless, but without -a large practice. He had, it was said, a good private income, and -was already a widower with two children at the time he committed the -offence for which he was subsequently tried. He had eloped with his -first wife from school. While on a visit to Macclesfield he heard by -chance of Miss Turner, and that she would inherit all her father's -possessions. He thereupon conceived an idea of carrying her off and -marrying her willy nilly at Gretna Green. The two brothers started -at once for Liverpool, where Miss Turner was at school with a Mrs. -Daulby. At Manchester, _en route_, a travelling carriage was purchased, -which was driven up to Mrs. Daulby's door at eight in the morning, and -a servant hurriedly alighted from it, bearing a letter for Miss Turner. -This purported to be from the medical attendant of Mr. Turner, written -at Shrigley, Mr. Turner's place of residence; and it stated that Mrs. -Turner had been stricken with paralysis. She was not in immediate -danger, but she wished to see her daughter, "as it was possible she -might soon become incapable of recognizing any one." Miss Turner, -greatly agitated, accompanied the messenger who had brought this news, -a disguised servant of Wakefield's, who had plausibly explained that -he had only recently been engaged at Shrigley. The road taken was viâ -Manchester, where the servant said a Dr. Hull was to be picked up to go -on with them to Shrigley. - -At Manchester, however, the carriage stopped at the Albion Hotel. -Miss Turner was shown into a private room, where Mr. Wakefield soon -presented himself. Miss Turner, not knowing him, would have left the -room, but he said he came from her father, and she remained. Wakefield, -in reply to her inquiries, satisfied her that her mother was well, -and that the real reason for summoning her from school was the state -of her father's affairs. Mr. Turner was on the verge of bankruptcy. -He was at that moment at Kendal, and wished her to join him there at -once. Miss Turner consented to go on, and they travelled night and -day towards the north. But at Kendal there was no Mr. Turner, and, to -allay Miss Turner's growing anxiety, Wakefield found it necessary to -become more explicit regarding her father's affairs. He now pretended -that Mr. Turner was also on his way to the border, pursued by sheriffs' -officers. The fact was, Wakefield went on to say, an uncle of his had -advanced Mr. Turner £60,000, which had temporarily staved off ruin. -But another bank had since failed, and nothing could save Mr. Turner -but the transfer of some property to Miss Turner, and its settlement -on her, so that it might become the exclusive property of her husband, -"whoever he might be." Wakefield added that it had been suggested -he should marry Miss Turner, but that he had laughed at the idea. -Wakefield's uncle took the matter more seriously, and declared that -unless the marriage came off Mr. Turner must be sold up. Miss Turner, -thus pressed, consented to go on to Gretna Green. Passing through -Carlisle, she was told that Mr. Turner was in the town, but could -not show himself. Nothing could release him from his trouble but the -arrival of the marriage certificate from Gretna Green. Filial affection -rose superior to all scruples, and Miss Turner, having crossed the -border, was married to Wakefield by the blacksmith in the usual way. -Returning to Carlisle, she now heard that her father had been set -free, and had gone home to Shrigley, whither they were to follow him. -They set out, but at Leeds Wakefield found himself called suddenly to -Paris; the other brother was accordingly sent on a pretended mission -to Shrigley to bring Mr. Turner on to London, whither Wakefield and -Miss Turner also proceeded. On arrival, Wakefield pretended that -they had missed Mr. Turner, and must follow him over to France. The -strangely-married couple thereupon pressed on to Dover, and crossed -over to Calais. - -The fact of the abduction did not transpire for some days. Then Mrs. -Daulby learned that Miss Turner had not arrived at Shrigley, but that -she had gone to Manchester. Friends went in pursuit and traced her to -Huddersfield and further north. The terror and dismay of her parents -were soon intensified by the receipt of a letter from Wakefield, at -Carlisle, announcing the marriage. Mr. Turner at once set off for -London, where he sought the assistance of the police, and presently -ascertained that Wakefield had gone to the Continent with his -involuntary bride. An uncle of Miss Wakefield's, accompanied by his -solicitor and a Bow Street runner, at once went in pursuit. Meanwhile, -a second letter turned up from Wakefield at Calais, in which he assured -Mrs. Turner that Miss Turner was fondly attached to him, and went on to -say, "I do assure you, madam, that it shall be the anxious endeavour of -my life to promote her happiness by every means in my power." The game, -however, was nearly up. Miss Turner was met by her uncle on Calais -pier as she was walking with Wakefield. The uncle claimed her. The -husband resisted. M. le Maire was appealed to, and decided to leave it -to the young lady, who at once abandoned Wakefield. As he still urged -his rights over his wife, Miss Turner cried out in protest, "No, no, I -am not his wife; he carried me away by fraud and stratagem, and forced -me to accompany him to Gretna Green. . . . By the same forcible means I -was compelled to quit England, and to trust myself to the protection -of this person, whom I never saw until I was taken from Liverpool, and -never want to see again." On this Wakefield gave in. He surrendered the -bride who had never been a wife, and she returned to England with her -friends, while Wakefield went on alone to Paris. - -Mr. William Wakefield was arrested at Dover, conveyed to Chester, -and committed to Lancaster Gaol for trial at the next assizes, when -indictments were preferred against both brothers "for having carried -away Ellen Turner, spinster, then a maid and heir apparent unto her -father, for the sake of the lucre of her substance; and for having -afterwards unlawfully and against her will married the said Ellen -Turner." They were tried in March of the following year, Edward -Wakefield having apparently given himself up, and found guilty, -remaining in Lancaster Gaol for a couple of months, when they were -brought up to the court of King's Bench for judgment. The prosecution -pressed for a severe penalty. Edward Wakefield pleaded that his trial -had already cost him £3,000. Mr. Justice Bayley, in summing up, spoke -severely of the gross deception practised upon an innocent girl, and -sentenced the brothers each to three years' imprisonment, William -Wakefield in Lancaster Gaol, and Edward Gibbon Wakefield in Newgate, -which sentences were duly enforced. The marriage was annulled by an -Act of Parliament, although Wakefield petitioned against it, and was -brought from Newgate, at his own request, to oppose the second reading -of the bill. He also wrote and published a pamphlet from the gaol to -show that Miss Turner had been a consenting party to the marriage, and -was really his wife. Neither his address nor his pamphlet availed much, -for the bill for the divorce passed both Houses. - -Having brought down the record of great frauds and forgeries to the -third and fourth decades of the nineteenth century some account must be -given of the more remarkable murders during that period. - -No murder has created greater sensation and horror throughout England -than that of Mr. Weare by Thurtell, Hunt and Probert. The principal -actor was tried and executed at Hertford, but Probert, who turned -King's evidence and materially assisted conviction, was tried at -the Old Bailey the following year for horse-stealing, and hanged -in front of Newgate. The murder was still fresh in the memory of -the populace, and Probert was all but lynched on his way to gaol. -According to his statement, when sentenced to death, he had been driven -to horse-stealing by the execration which had pursued him after the -murder. Every door had been closed against him, every hope of future -support blasted. "Since the calamitous event that happened at Hertford, -I have been a lost man." The event which he styles calamitous we may -well characterize as one of the most deliberately atrocious murders -on record. Thurtell was a gambler, and Weare had won a good deal of -money from him. Weare was supposed to carry a "private bank" about -with him in a pocket in his under waistcoat. To obtain possession of -this, Thurtell with his two associates resolved to kill him. The victim -was invited to visit Probert's cottage in the country near Elstree. -Thurtell drove him down in a gig, "to be killed as he travelled," in -Thurtell's own words. The others followed, and on overtaking Thurtell, -found he had done the job alone in a retired part of the road known -as Gill's Hill Lane. The murderer explained that he had first fired a -pistol at Weare's head, but the shot glanced off his cheek. Then he -attacked the other's throat with a penknife, and last of all drove -the pistol barrel into his forehead. After the murder the villains -divided the spoil, and went on to Probert's cottage, and supped off -pork-chops brought down on purpose. During the night they sought to -dispose of the body by throwing it into a pond, but two days later -had to throw it into another pond. Meanwhile the discovery of pistol -and knife spattered with human blood and brains raised the alarm, and -suspicion fell upon the three murderers, who were arrested. The crime -was brought home to Thurtell by the confession of Hunt, one of his -accomplices, who took the police to the pond, where the remains of -the unfortunate Mr. Weare were discovered, sunk in a sack weighted by -stones. Probert was then admitted as a witness, and the case was fully -proved against Thurtell, who was hanged in front of Hertford Gaol. -Hunt, in consideration of the information he had given, escaped death, -and was sentenced to transportation for life. - -Widespread horror and indignation was evoked throughout the kingdom -by the discovery of the series of atrocious murders perpetrated in -Edinburgh by the miscreants Burke and Hare, the first of whom has added -to the British language a synonym for illegal suppression. The crimes -of these inhuman purveyors to medical science do not fall within the -limits of this work. But Burke and Hare had their imitators further -south, and of these Bishop and Williams, who were guilty of many -peculiar atrocities, ended their murderous careers in front of the -debtors' door at Newgate. Bishop, whose real name was Head, married a -half-sister of Williams'. Williams was a professional resurrectionist, -or body-snatcher, a trade almost openly countenanced when "subjects" -for the anatomy schools were only to be got by rifling graves, or -worse. Bishop was a carpenter, but having been suddenly thrown out -of work, he joined his brother-in-law in his line of business. After -a little Bishop got weary of the dangers and fatigues of exhumation, -and proposed to Williams that instead of disinterring they should -murder their subjects. Bishop confessed that he was moved to this -by the example of Burke and Hare. They pursued their terrible trade -for five years without scruple and without detection. Eventually the -law overtook them, but almost by accident. They presented themselves -about noon one day at the dissecting room of King's College Hospital, -accompanied by a third man, an avowed "snatcher" and _habitué_ of the -"Fortune of War," a public-house in Smithfield frequented openly by men -of this awful profession. This man, May, asked the porter at King's -College if "he wanted anything?" the euphemism for offering a body. -The porter asked what he had got, and the answer was, a male subject. -Reference was made to Mr. Partridge, the demonstrator in anatomy, -and after some haggling they agreed on a price, and in the afternoon -the snatchers brought a hamper which contained a body in a sack. The -porter received it, but from its freshness became suspicious of foul -play. Mr. Partridge was sent for, and he with some of the students soon -decided that the corpse had not died a natural death. The snatchers -were detained, the police sent for, and arrest followed as a matter of -course. - -An inquest was held on the body, which was identified as that of an -Italian boy, Carlo Ferrari, who made a living by exhibiting white mice -about the streets, and the jury returned a verdict of wilful murder -against persons unknown, expressing a strong opinion that Bishop, -Williams, and May had been concerned in the transaction. Meanwhile, -a search had been made at Nova Scotia Gardens, Bethnal Green, where -Bishop and Williams lived. At first nothing peculiar was found; but at -a second search the back-garden ground was dug up, and in one corner, -at some depth, a bundle of clothes were unearthed, which, with a hairy -cap, were known to be what Ferrari had worn when last seen. In another -portion of the garden more clothing, partly male and partly female, was -discovered, plainly pointing to the perpetration of other crimes. These -facts were represented before the police magistrate who examined Bishop -and his fellows, and further incriminating evidence adduced, to the -effect that the prisoners had bartered for a coach to carry "a stiff -'un;" they had also been seen to leave their cottage, carrying out a -sack with something heavy inside. On this they were fully committed to -Newgate for trial. This trial came off in due course at the Central -Criminal Court, where the prisoners were charged on two counts, one -that of the murder of the Italian boy, the other that of a boy unknown. -The evidence from first to last was circumstantial, but the jury, -after a short deliberation, did not hesitate to bring in a verdict of -guilty, and all three were condemned to death. - -Shortly before the day fixed for execution, Bishop made a full -confession, the bulk of which bore the impress of truth, although -it included statements that were improbable and unsubstantiated. He -asserted that the victim was a Lincolnshire lad, and not an Italian -boy, although the latter was fully proved. According to the confession, -death had been inflicted by drowning in a well, whereas the medical -evidence all pointed to violence. It was, however, pretty clear that -this victim, like preceding ones, had been lured to Nova Scotia -Gardens, and there drugged with a large dose of laudanum. While they -were in a state of insensibility the murder was committed. Bishop's -confession was endorsed by Williams, and the immediate result was the -respite of May. A very painful scene occurred in Newgate when the news -of his escape from death was imparted to May. He fainted, and the -warrant of mercy nearly proved his death-blow. The other two looked -on at his agitation with an indifference amounting to apathy. The -execution took place a week or two later, in the presence of such a -crowd as had not been seen near Newgate for years. - -The murder of Hannah Brown is still fresh in the minds of Londoners, -although half a century has passed since it was committed. The horror -with which Greenacre's crime struck the town was unparalleled -since the time when Catherine Hayes slew her husband. There were -many features of resemblance in these crimes. The decapitation and -dismemberment, the bestowal of the remains in various parts of the -town, the preservation of the head in spirits of wine, in the hope -that the features might some day be recognized, were alike in both. -The murder in both cases was long a profound mystery. In this which -I am now describing, a bricklayer found a human trunk near some new -buildings in the Edgeware Road one morning in the last week of 1836. -The inquest on these remains, which medical examination showed to be -those of a female, returned a verdict of wilful murder against some -person unknown. Early in January, 1837, the lockman of "Ben Jonson -lock," in Stepney Fields, found a human head jammed into the lock -gates. Closer investigation proved that it belonged to the trunk -already discovered as mentioned above. A further discovery was made -in an osier bed near Cold Harbour Lane, Camberwell, where a workman -found a bundle containing two human legs, in a drain. These were the -missing members of the same mutilated trunk, and there was now evidence -sufficient to establish conclusively that the woman thus collected -piecemeal had been barbarously done to death. But the affair still -remained a profound mystery. No light was thrown upon it till, towards -the end of March, a Mr. Gay of Goodge Street came to view the head, -and immediately recognized it as that of a widowed sister, Hannah -Brown, who had been missing since the previous Christmas Day. - -The murdered individual was thus identified. The next step was to -ascertain where and with whom she had last been seen. This brought -suspicion on to a certain James Greenacre, whom she was to have -married, and in whose company she had left her own lodgings to visit -his in Camberwell. The police wished to refer to Greenacre, but as -he was not forthcoming, a warrant was issued for his apprehension, -which was effected at Kennington on the 24th March. A woman named -Gale, who lived with him, was arrested at the same time. The prisoners -were examined at the Marylebone police court. Greenacre, a stout, -middle-aged man, wrapped in a brown greatcoat, assumed an air of -insolent bravado; but his despair must have been great, as was evident -from his attempt to strangle himself in the station-house. Suspicion -grew almost to a certainty as the evidence was unfolded. Mrs. Brown was -a washerwoman, supposed to be worth some money; hence Greenacre's offer -of marriage. She had realized all her effects, and brought them with -her furniture to Greenacre's lodgings. The two when married were to -emigrate to Hudson's Bay. Whether it was greed or a quarrel that drove -Greenacre to the desperate deed remains obscure. They were apparently -good friends when last seen together at a neighbour's, where they -seemed "perfectly happy and sociable, and eager for the wedding day." -But Greenacre in his confession pretended that he and his intended had -quarrelled over her property or the want of it, and that in a moment -of anger he knocked her down. He thought he had killed her, and in his -terror began at once to consider how he might dispose of the body and -escape arrest. While she was senseless, but really still alive, he cut -off her head, and dismembered the body in the manner already described. -It is scarcely probable that he would have gone to this extremity if he -had had no previous evil intention, and the most probable inference is -that he inveigled Mrs. Brown to his lodgings with the set purpose of -taking her life. - -His measures for the disposal of the _corpus delicti_ remind us of -those taken by Mrs. Hayes and her associates, or of Gardelle's frantic -efforts to conceal his crime. The most ghastly part of the story is -that which deals with his disposal of the head. This, wrapped up in -a silk handkerchief, he carried under his coat-flaps through the -streets, and afterwards on his cap in a crowded city omnibus. It was -not until he left the 'bus, and walked up by the Regent's Canal, that -he conceived the idea of throwing the head into the water. Another -day elapsed before he got rid of the rest of the body, all of which, -according to his own confession, made with the idea of exonerating Mrs. -Gale, he accomplished without her assistance. On the other hand, it was -adduced in evidence that Mrs. Gale had been at his lodgings the very -day after the murder, and was seen to be busily engaged in washing down -the house with bucket and mop. - -Greenacre, when tried at the Old Bailey, admitted that he had been -guilty of manslaughter. While conversing with Mrs. Brown, he declared -the unfortunate woman was rocking herself to and fro in a chair; as she -leaned back he put his foot against the chair, and so tilted it over. -Mrs. Brown fell with it, and Greenacre, to his horror, found that she -was dead. But the medical evidence was clear that the decapitation had -been effected during life, and the jury, after a short deliberation, -without hesitation brought in a verdict of wilful murder. The woman -Gale was also found guilty, but sentence of death was passed only -on Greenacre. The execution was, as usual, attended by an immense -concourse, and Greenacre died amidst the loudest execrations. Gale was -sentenced to penal servitude for life. - -The gravest crimes continued at intervals to inspire the town with -horror, and concentrate public attention upon the gaol of Newgate, -and the murderers immured within its walls. Courvoisier's case -made a great stir. There was unusual atrocity in this murder of an -aged, infirm gentleman, a scion of the ducal house of Bedford, by -his confidential valet and personal attendant. Lord William Russell -lived alone in Norfolk Street, Park Lane. He was a widower, and -seventy-three years of age. One morning in May his lordship was found -dead in his bed with his throat cut. The fact of the murder was first -discovered by the housemaid, who, on going down early, was surprised -to find the dining-room in a state of utter confusion; the furniture -turned upside down, the drawers of the escritoire open and rifled, a -bundle lying on the floor, as though thieves had been interrupted in -the act. The housemaid summoned the cook, and both went to call the -valet, Courvoisier, who came from his room ready dressed, a suspicious -circumstance, as he was always late in the morning. The housemaid -suggested that they should see if his lordship was all right, and the -three went to his bed-room. While Courvoisier opened the shutters, the -housemaid, approaching the bed, saw that the pillow was saturated with -blood. - -The discovery of the murdered man immediately followed. The -neighbourhood was alarmed, the police sent for, and a close inquiry -forthwith commenced. That Lord William Russell had committed suicide -was at once declared impossible. It was also clearly proved that -no forcible entry had been made into the house; the fresh marks of -violence upon the door had evidently been made inside, and not from -outside; moreover, the instruments, poker and chisel, by which they -had no doubt been effected, were found in the butler's pantry, used -by Courvoisier. The researches of the police soon laid bare other -suspicious facts. The bundle found in the dining-room contained, with -clothes, various small articles of plate and jewelry which a thief -would probably have put into his pocket. Upstairs in the bed-room a -_rouleaux_ box for sovereigns had been broken open, also the jewel-box -and note-case, from the latter of which was abstracted a ten-pound note -known to have been in the possession of the deceased. His lordship's -watch was gone. Further suspicion was caused by the position of a book -and a wax candle by the bedside. The latter was so placed that it would -throw no light on the book, which was a "Life of Sir Samuel Romilly." -The intention of the real murderer to shift the crime to burglars was -evident although futile, and the police, feeling convinced that the -crime had been committed by some inmate of the house, took Courvoisier -into custody, and placed the two female servants under surveillance. -The valet's strange demeanour had attracted attention from the first. -He had hung over the body in a state of dreadful agitation, answering -no questions, and taking no part in the proceedings. - -Three days later a close search of the butler's pantry produced fresh -circumstantial evidence. Behind the skirting board several of his -lordship's rings were discovered; near it was his Waterloo medal, and -the above-mentioned ten-pound note. Further investigation was rewarded -by the discovery in the pantry of a split gold ring, used by Lord -William, to carry his keys on; next, and in the same place, a chased -gold key; and at last his lordship's watch was found secreted under -the leads of the sink. All this was evidence sufficient to warrant -Courvoisier's committal for trial; but still he found friends, and a -liberal subscription was raised among the foreign servants in London -to provide funds for his defence. Courvoisier, when put on his trial, -pleaded not guilty; but on the second day the discovery of fresh -evidence, more particularly the recovery of some of Lord William's -stolen plate, induced the prisoner to make a full confession of his -crime to the lawyers who defended him. This placed them in a position -of much embarrassment. To have thrown up their brief would have been -to have secured Courvoisier's conviction. Mr. Phillips, who led in -the case, went to the other extreme, and in an impassioned address -implored the jury not to send an innocent man to the gallows. It will -be remembered that the question whether Mr. Phillips had not exceeded -the limits usually allowed to counsel was much debated at the time. - -The jury without hesitation found Courvoisier guilty, and he was -sentenced to death. The prisoner's demeanour had greatly changed during -the trial. Coolness amounting almost to effrontery gave way to hopeless -dejection. On his removal to Newgate after sentence, he admitted that -he had been justly convicted, and expressed great anxiety that his -fellow-servants should be relieved from all suspicion. Later in the -day he tried to commit suicide by cramming a towel down his throat, -but was prevented. Next morning he made a full confession in presence -of his attorney, and the governor, Mr. Cope. In this he gave as the -motives of his crime a quarrel he had with his master, who threatened -to discharge him without a character. Lord William, according to the -valet, was of a peevish, difficult temper; he was annoyed with his -man for various small omissions and acts of forgetfulness, and on the -night of the murder had taken Courvoisier to task rather sharply. -Finally, on coming downstairs after bed-time, Lord William had found -Courvoisier in the dining-room. "What are you doing here?" asked his -lordship. "You can have no good intentions; you must quit my service -to-morrow morning." This seems to have decided Courvoisier, who took -a carving-knife from the side-board in the dining-room, went upstairs -to Lord William's bed-room, and drew the knife across his throat. "He -appeared to die instantly," said the murderer, in conclusion. His -account of his acts and movements after the deed varied so considerably -in the several documents he left behind, that too much reliance cannot -be placed upon his confession. His last statement contains the words, -"The public now think I am a liar, and they will not believe me when -I say the truth." This was no doubt the case, but this much truth -his confession may be taken to contain: that Courvoisier was idle, -discontented, ready to take offence, greedy of gain; that he could not -resist the opportunity of robbery offered him by his situation at Lord -William Russell's; that when vexed with his master he did not shrink -from murder, both for revenge and to conceal his other crimes. - -Courvoisier wished to commit suicide in Newgate, but was prevented by -the vigilant supervision to which he was subjected while in gaol. The -attempt was to have been made by opening a vein and allowing himself -to bleed to death. The Sunday night before his execution he would not -go to bed when ordered. The governor insisted, but Courvoisier showed -great reluctance to strip. The order was, however, at length obeyed, -and the whole of the prisoner's clothes were minutely searched. In -the pocket of the coat Mr. Cope, the governor, found a neatly folded -cloth, and asked what it was for. Courvoisier admitted that he had -intended to bind it tightly round his arm and bleed himself to death -in the night. The next inquiry was how he hoped to open a vein. "With -a bit of sharpened stick picked out of the ordinary firewood." "Where -is it?" asked the governor. The prisoner replied that he had left it in -the mattress of which he had just been deprived. The bed was searched, -but no piece of sharpened wood was found. It was thought that it might -have been lost in changing the mattresses. The cloth above referred to -belonged to the inner seam of his trousers, which he had managed to -tear out. There is nothing to show that Courvoisier really contemplated -self-destruction. - -A murder which reproduced many of the features of that committed by -Greenacre soon followed, and excited the public mind even more than -that of Courvoisier's. Daniel Good's crime might have remained long -undiscovered but for his own careless stupidity. He was coachman to -a gentleman at Roehampton. One day he went into a pawnbroker's at -Wandsworth, and bought a pair of breeches on credit. At the same time -he was seen to steal and secrete a pair of trousers. The shop-boy gave -information. Good was followed to his stables by a policeman, but -obstinately denied the theft. The policeman insisted on searching the -premises, at which Good displayed some uneasiness. This increased when -the officer, accompanied by two others, a neighbour and a bailiff, -entered one of the stables. Good now offered to go to Wandsworth and -satisfy the pawnbroker. Just at this moment, however, the searchers -found concealed under two trusses of hay a woman's headless and -dismembered trunk. At the constable's cry of alarm Good rushed from -the stable and locked the door behind him. Some time elapsed before -the imprisoned party could force open the doors, and by then the -fugitive had escaped. Medical assistance having been summoned, it was -ascertained how the dismemberment had been effected. At the same time -an overpowering odour attracted them to the adjoining harness-room, -where the missing remains were raked out half consumed in the ashes of -a wood fire. In the same room a large axe and saw were found covered -with blood. - -Inquiry into the character of Good exposed him as a loose liver, who -"kept company" with several women. One called his sister, but supposed -to be his wife, had occupied a room in South Street, Manchester -Square, with a son of Good's by a former wife. Another wife, real or -fictitious, existed in Spitalfields, and evidence was given of close -relation between Good and a third woman, a girl named Butcher, residing -at Woolwich. The victim was the first of these three. Good had told -her, much to her perturbation, that she was to move from South Street -to Roehampton, and one day he fetched her. They were seen together on -Barnes Common, and again in Putney Park Lane, where they were talking -loud and angrily. The poor creature was never seen again alive. The -actual method of the murder was never exactly ascertained. Good himself -remained at large for some weeks. He had tramped as far as Tunbridge, -where he obtained work as a bricklayer's labourer; he there gave -satisfaction for industry, but he was taciturn, and would hold no -converse with his fellows. The woman where he lodged noticed that he -was very restless at night, moaning and sighing much. Detection came -unexpectedly. He was recognized by an ex-policeman who had known him -at Roehampton, and immediately arrested. In his effects were found the -clothes he had on at the time of his escape from the stables, and under -the jacket he was wearing was a piece of a woman's calico apron stained -with blood, which he had used to save the pressure on his shoulder -by the hod. Good was committed to Newgate, and tried at the Central -Criminal Court before a crowded court. He made a rambling defence, -ending by saying, "Good ladies and gentlemen all, I have a great deal -more to say, but I am so bad I cannot say it." The case was clearly -proved against him, and he was condemned, sentenced, and duly executed. - -Hocker's murder is in its way interesting, as affording another proof -of the extraordinary way in which the culprit returned to the scene of -his guilt. The cries of his victim, a Mr. Delarue, brought passers-by -and policemen to the spot, a lonely place near a dead wall beyond -Belsize Hall, Hampstead, but too late to give substantial aid. While -the body lay there still warm, battered and bleeding from the cruel -blows inflicted upon him by his cowardly assailant, a man came by -singing. He entered into conversation with the policemen, and learned, -as it seemed for the first time, what had happened. His remark was, "It -is a nasty job;" he took hold of the dead hand, and confessed that he -felt "queer" at the shocking sight. This sight was his own handiwork, -yet he could not overcome the strange fascination it had for him, and -remained by the side of the corpse till the stretcher came. Even then -he followed it as far as Belsize Lane. It was here that the others -engaged in their dismal office of removing the dead first got a good -look at the stranger's face. He wanted a light for a cigar, and got it -from a lantern which was lifted up and fully betrayed his features. It -was noticed that he wore a mackintosh. Next day the police, in making -a careful search of the scene of the murder, picked up a coat-button, -which afterwards played an important part in the identification of -the murderer. A letter, which afforded an additional clue, was also -found in the pocket of the deceased. Still it was many weeks before -any arrest was made. In the meantime the police were not idle. It -came out by degrees that the person who had been seen in Belsize Lane -on the night the body was found was a friend of the deceased. His -name was Hocker; he was by trade a ladies' shoemaker; and it was also -ascertained that after the day of the murder he was flush of money. He -was soon afterwards arrested on suspicion, and a search of his lodgings -brought to light several garments saturated with blood; a coat among -them much torn and stained, with three buttons missing, one of which -corresponded with that picked up at Hampstead. The letter found in -the pocket of the deceased was sealed with a wafer marked F, and many -of the same sort were found in the possession of the accused. This -was enough to obtain a committal, after several remands; but the case -contained elements of doubt, and the evidence at the trial was entirely -circumstantial. A witness deposed to meeting Hocker, soon after the -cries of murder were heard, running at a dog-trot into London, and -others swore that they plainly recognized him as the man seen soon -afterwards in the lane. A woman whom he called on the same evening -declared he had worn a mackintosh, his coat was much torn, there was a -stain of blood on his shirt-cuff, and he was in possession, the first -time to her knowledge, of a watch. This was Delarue's watch, fully -identified as such, which Hocker told his brother Delarue had given him -the morning of the murder. - -These were damnatory facts which well supported the prosecution. The -prisoner made an elaborate defence, in which he sought to vilify the -character of the deceased as the seducer of an innocent girl to whom -he (Hocker) had been fondly attached. When her ruin was discovered -her brother panted for revenge. Hocker, whose skill in counterfeiting -handwriting was known, was asked to fabricate a letter making an -assignation with Delarue in a lonely part of Hampstead. Hocker and -the brother went to the spot, where the latter left him to meet his -sister's seducer alone. Soon afterwards Hocker heard cries of "murder," -and proceeding to where they came from, found Delarue dead, slain -by the furious brother. Hocker was so overcome, feeling himself the -principal cause of the tragedy, that he rushed to a slaughter-house -in Hampstead and purposely stained his clothes with blood. Such an -extravagant defence did not weigh with judge or jury; the first -summed up dead against the prisoner, and the latter, after retiring -for ten minutes, found him guilty. Hocker's conduct in Newgate while -under sentence of death was most extraordinary. He drew up several -long statements, containing narratives purely fictitious, imputing -crimes to his victim, and repeating his line of defence, that Delarue -had suffered by the hands of imaginary outraged brothers acting as -the avengers of females deeply injured by him. Hocker made several -pretended confessions and revelations, all of which were proved to be -absolutely false by the police on inquiry. His demeanour was a strange -compound of wickedness, falsehood, and deceit. But at the fatal hour -his hardihood forsook him, and he was almost insensible when taken out -of his cell for execution. Restoratives were applied, but he was in a -fainting condition when tied, and had to be supported by the assistant -executioner while Calcraft adjusted the noose. - -There was an epidemic of murder in the United Kingdom about 1848-9. -In November of the first-named year occurred the wholesale slaughter -of the Jermys in their house, Stanfield Hall, by the miscreant Rush. -Soon afterwards, in Gloucestershire, a maidservant, Sarah Thomas, -murdered her mistress, an aged woman, by beating out her brains with a -stone. Next year John Gleeson Wilson, at Liverpool, murdered a woman, -Ann Henrichson, also a maidservant and two children; while in Ireland -a wife dashed out her husband's brains with a hammer. London did not -escape the contagion, and prominent among the detestable crimes of -the period stands that of the Mannings at Bermondsey. These great -criminals suffered at Horsemonger Lane Gaol, but they were tried at -the Central Criminal Court, and were for some time inmates of Newgate. -Their victim was a man named Patrick O'Connor, a Custom-House gauger, -who had been a suitor of Marie de Roux before she became Mrs. Manning. -Marie de Roux up to the time of her marriage had been in service as -lady's-maid to Lady Blantyre, daughter of the Duchess of Sutherland, -and Manning hoped to get some small Government appointment through -his wife's interest. He had failed in this as well as in the business -of a publican, which he had at one time adopted. After the marriage a -close intimacy was still maintained between O'Connor and the Mannings. -He lived at Mile End, whence he walked often to call at No. 3, Minver -Place, Bermondsey, the residence of his old love. O'Connor was a -man of substance. He had long followed the profitable trade of a -money-lender, and by dint of usurious interest on small sums advanced -to needy neighbours, had amassed as much as ten thousand pounds. His -wealth was well known to "Maria," as he called Mrs. Manning, who made -several ineffectual attempts to get money out of him. At last this -fiendish woman made up her mind to murder O'Connor and appropriate -all his possessions. Her husband, to whom she coolly confided her -intention, a heavy brutish fellow, was yet aghast at his wife's -resolve, and tried hard to dissuade her from her bad purpose. In his -confession after sentence he declared that she plied him well with -brandy at this period, and that during the whole time he was never in -his right senses. Meanwhile this woman, unflinching in her cold, bloody -determination, carefully laid all her plans for the consummation of the -deed. - -One fine afternoon in August, O'Connor was met walking in the direction -of Bermondsey. He was dressed with particular care, as he was to dine -at the Mannings, and meet friends, one a young lady. He was seen -afterwards smoking and talking with his hosts in their back parlour, -and never seen again alive. It came out in the husband's confession -that Mrs. Manning induced O'Connor to go down to the kitchen to wash -his hands, that she followed him to the basement, that she stood behind -him as he stood near the open grave she herself had dug for him, and -which he mistook for a drain, and that while he was speaking to her she -put the muzzle of the pistol close to the back of his head and shot him -down. She ran upstairs, told her husband, made him go down and look -at her handiwork, and as O'Connor was not quite dead, Manning gave -the _coup de grâce_ with a crowbar. After this Mrs. Manning changed -her dress and went off in a cab to O'Connor's lodgings, which, having -possessed herself of the murdered man's keys, she rifled from end to -end. Returning to her own home, where Manning meantime had been calmly -smoking and talking to the neighbours over the basement wall, the -corpse lying just inside the kitchen all the while, the two set to -work to strip the body and hide it under the stones of the floor. This -job was not completed till the following day, as the hole had to be -enlarged, and the only tool they had was a dust-shovel. A quantity of -quicklime was thrown in with the body to destroy all identification. -This was on a Thursday evening. For the remainder of that week and -part of the next the murderers stayed in the house, and occupied the -kitchen, close to the remains of their victim. On the Sunday Mrs. -Manning roasted a goose at this same kitchen fire, and ate it with -relish in the afternoon. This cold-blooded indifference after the event -was only outdone by the premeditation of this horrible murder. The hole -must have been excavated and the quicklime purchased quite three weeks -before O'Connor met his death, and during that time he must frequently -have stood or sat over his own grave. - -Discovery of the murder came in this wise. O'Connor, a punctual and -well-conducted official, was at once missed at the London Docks. On the -third day his friends began to inquire for him, and at their request -two police officers were sent to Bermondsey to inquire for him at the -Mannings, with whom it was well known that he was very intimate. The -Mannings had seen or heard nothing of him, of course. As O'Connor still -did not turn up, the police after a couple of days returned to Minver -Place. The house was empty, bare and stripped of all its furniture, and -its former occupants had decamped. The circumstance was suspicious, and -a search was at once made of the whole premises. In the back kitchen -one of the detectives remarked that the cement between certain stones -looked lighter than the rest, and on trying it with a knife, he found -that it was soft and new, while elsewhere it was set and hard. The -stones were at once taken up; beneath them was a layer of fresh mortar, -beneath that a lot of loose earth, amongst which a stocking was turned -up, and presently a human toe. Six inches lower the body of O'Connor -was uncovered. He was lying on his face, his legs tied up to his hips -so as to allow of the body fitting into the hole. The lime had done its -work so rapidly that the features would have been indistinguishable but -for the prominent chin and a set of false teeth. - -The corpse settled all doubts, and the next point was to lay hands -upon the Mannings. It was soon ascertained that the wife had gone off -in a cab with a quantity of luggage. Part of this she had deposited to -be left till called for at one station, while she had gone herself to -another, that at Euston Square. At the first, the boxes were impounded, -opened, and found to contain many of O'Connor's effects. At the second, -exact information was obtained of Mrs. Manning's movements. She had -gone to Edinburgh. A telegraphic message, then newly adapted to the -purposes of criminal detection, advised the Edinburgh police of the -whole affair, and within an hour an answer was telegraphed stating -that Mrs. Manning was in custody. She had been to brokers to negotiate -the sale of certain foreign railway stock, with which they had been -warned from London not to deal, and they had given information to the -police. Her arrest was planned, and, when the telegram arrived from -London, completed. An examination of her boxes disclosed a quantity of -O'Connor's property. Mrs. Manning was transferred to London and lodged -in the Horsemonger Lane Gaol, where her husband soon afterwards joined -her. He had fled to Jersey, where he was recognized and arrested. Each -tried to throw the blame on the other; Manning declared his wife had -committed the murder, Mrs. Manning indignantly denying the charge. - -The prisoners were in due course transferred to Newgate, to be put -upon their trial at the Central Criminal Court. A great number of -distinguished people assembled as usual at the Old Bailey on the day -of trial. The Mannings were arraigned together; the husband standing -at one of the front corners of the dock, his wife at the other end. -Manning, who was dressed in black, appeared to be a heavy, bull-necked, -repulsive-looking man, with a very fair complexion and light hair. Mrs. -Manning was not without personal charms; her face was comely, she had -dark hair and good eyes, and was above the middle height, yet inclined -to be stout. She was smartly dressed in a plaid shawl, a white lace -cap; her hair was dressed in long _crêpe_ bands. She had lace ruffles -at her wrist, and wore primrose-coloured kid gloves. The case rested -upon the facts which have been already set forth, and was proved to the -satisfaction of the jury, who brought in a verdict of guilty. Manning, -when sentence of death was passed on him, said nothing; but Mrs. -Manning, speaking in a foreign accent, addressed the court with great -fluency and vehemence. She complained that she had no justice; there -was no law for her, she had found no protection either from judges, the -prosecutor, or her husband. She had not been treated like a Christian, -but like a wild beast of the forest. She declared that the money found -in her possession had been sent her from abroad; that O'Connor had been -more to her than her husband, that she ought to have married him. It -was against common sense to charge her with murdering the only friend -she had in the world: the culprit was really her husband, who killed -O'Connor out of jealousy and revengeful feelings. When the judge -assumed the black cap Mrs. Manning became still more violent, shouting, -"No, no, I will not stand it! You ought to be ashamed of yourselves!" -and would have left the dock had not Mr. Cope, the governor of Newgate, -restrained her. After judgment was passed, she repeatedly cried out -"Shame!" and stretching out her hand, she gathered up a quantity of the -rue which, following ancient custom dating from the days of the gaol -fever, was strewn in front of the dock, and sprinkled it towards the -bench with a contemptuous gesture. - -On being removed to Newgate from the court Mrs. Manning became -perfectly furious. She uttered loud imprecations, cursing judge, jury, -barristers, witnesses, and all who stood around. Her favourite and -most often-repeated expression was, "D—n seize you all." They had to -handcuff her by force against the most violent resistance, and still -she raged and stormed, shaking her clenched and manacled hands in the -officers' faces. From Newgate the Mannings were taken in separate -cabs to Horsemonger Lane Gaol. On this journey her manner changed -completely. She became flippant, joked with the officers, asked how -they liked her "resolution" in the dock, and expressed the utmost -contempt for her husband, whom she never intended to acknowledge or -speak to again. Later her mood changed to abject despair. On reaching -the condemned cell she threw herself upon the floor and shrieked in -an hysterical agony of tears. After this, until the day of execution, -she recovered her spirits, and displayed reckless effrontery, -mocking at the chaplain, and turning a deaf ear to the counsels of -a benevolent lady who came to visit. Now she abused the jury, now -called Manning a vagabond, and through all ate heartily at every meal, -slept soundly at nights, and talked with cheerfulness on almost any -subject. Nevertheless, she attempted to commit suicide by driving -her nails, purposely left long, into her throat. She was discovered -just as she was getting black in the face. Manning's demeanour was -more in harmony with his situation, and the full confession he made -elucidated all dark and uncertain points in connection with the crime. -The actual execution, which took place at another prison than Newgate, -is rather beyond the scope of this work. But it may be mentioned that -the concourse was so enormous that it drew down the well-merited and -trenchant disapproval of Charles Dickens, who wrote to the _Times_ in -the following words: "A sight so inconceivably awful as the wickedness -and levity of the immense crowd collected at the execution this morning -could be imagined by no man, and presented by no heathen land under -the sun. The horrors of the gibbet, and of the crime which brought -the wretched murderers to it, faded in my mind before the atrocious -bearing, looks and language of the assembled spectators. When I came -upon the scene at midnight, the shrillness of the cries and howls that -were raised from time to time, denoting that they came from a concourse -of boys and girls already assembled in the best places, made my blood -run cold." It will be in the memory of many that Mrs. Manning appeared -on the scaffold in a black satin dress, which was bound tightly round -her waist. This preference brought the costly stuff into disrepute, and -its unpopularity lasted for nearly thirty years. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[217:1] At Liverpool, in 1842, there was a case of abduction, and the -well-known case of Mr. Carden and Miss Arbuthnot in Ireland occurred as -late as 1854. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -LATER RECORDS - - Later records of crimes—First private execution under the - new law—Poisoning, revived and more terrible—Palmer's - case—His imitators—Dove—Dr. Smethurst—Catherine - Wilson—Piracy and murder—The "Flowery Land"—Arrest of the - mutineers—Their trial and sentence—Murder of Mr. Briggs - in a railway carriage—Pursuit of murderer and his arrest - in New York—Müller's conviction—Confesses guilt—A forged - pardon—The Muswell Hill murder—Bidwell brothers defraud the - Bank of England of £100,000—Sentenced to penal servitude - for life—Pentonville erected—The best type of prison - construction—Gradual reformation in Newgate—The new prison at - Holloway—The end of Newgate. - - -Executions long continued to be in public, in spite of remonstrance -and reprobation. The old prejudices, such as that which enlisted Dr. -Johnson on the side of the Tyburn procession, still lingered and -prevented any change. It was thought that capital punishment would lose -its deterrent effect if it ceased to be public, and the _raison d'être_ -of the penalty, which in principle so many opposed, would be gone. This -line of argument prevailed over the manifest horrors of the spectacle. - -Already the urgent necessity for abolishing public executions had -been brought before the House of Commons by Mr. Hibbert, and the -question, as part of the whole subject of capital punishment, had been -referred to a royal commission in January of 1864. Full evidence was -taken on all points, and on that regarding public executions there -was a great preponderance of opinion towards their abolition, yet the -witnesses were not unanimous. Some of the judges would have retained -the public spectacle; the ordinary of Newgate was not certain that -public executions were not the best. Another distinguished witness -feared that any secrecy in the treatment of the condemned would invest -them with a new and greater interest, which was much to be deprecated. -Foreign witnesses, too, were in favour of publicity. On the other hand, -Lords Cranworth and Wensleydale recommended private executions, as did -Mr. Spencer Walpole, M. P. Sir George Grey thought there was a growing -feeling in favour of executions within the prison precincts. Colonel -(Sir Edmund) Henderson was strongly in favour of them, based on his own -experience in Western Australia. He not only thought them likely to be -more deterrent, but believed that a public ceremony destroyed the whole -value of an execution. Other officials, great lawyers, governors of -prisons, and chaplains supported this view. The only doubts expressed -were as to the sufficiency of the safeguards, as to the certainty -of death and its subsequent publication. But these, it was thought, -might be provided by the admission of the press and the holding of a -coroner's inquest. - -Duly impressed with the weight of evidence in favour of abolition, -the commission recommended that death sentences should be carried -out within the gaol, "under such regulations as might be considered -necessary to prevent abuses and satisfy the public that the law had -been complied with." But it is curious to note that there were several -dissentients among the commissioners to this paragraph of the report. -The judge of the Admiralty Court, the Right Hon. Stephen Lushington, -the Right Hon. James Moncrieff, Lord Advocate, Mr. Charles Neate, -Mr. William Ewart, and last, but not least, Mr. John Bright declared -that they were not prepared to agree to the resolution respecting -private executions. Nevertheless, in the very next session a bill was -introduced by Mr. Hibbert, M. P., and accepted by the Government, -providing for the future carrying out of executions within prisons. It -was read for the first time in March, 1866, but did not become law till -1868. - -The last public execution in front of Newgate was that of the Fenian -Michael Barrett, who was convicted of complicity in the Clerkenwell -explosion, intended to effect the release of Burke and Casey from -Clerkenwell prison, by which many persons lost their lives. Unusual -precautions were taken upon this occasion, as some fresh outrage -was apprehended. There was no interference with the crowd, which -collected as usual, although not to the customary extent. But Newgate -and its neighbourhood were carefully held by the police, both city and -metropolitan. In the houses opposite the prison numbers of detectives -mixed with the spectators; inside the gaol was Colonel Frazer, the -chief commissioner of the city police, and at no great distance, -although in the background, troops were held in readiness to act if -required. Everything passed off quietly, however, and Calcraft, who -had been threatened with summary retribution if he executed Barrett, -carried out the sentence without mishap. The sufferer was stolid and -reticent to the last. - -The first private execution under the new law took place within the -precincts of Maidstone Gaol. The sufferer was a porter on the London, -Chatham, and Dover railway, sentenced to death for shooting the -station-master at Dover. The ceremony, which was witnessed by only a -few officials and representatives of the press, was performed with the -utmost decency and decorum. The fact that the execution was to take -place within the privacy of the gloomy walls, a fact duly advertised -as completed by the hoisting of the black flag over the gaol, had -undoubtedly a solemn, impressive effect upon those outside. The same -was realized in the first private execution within Newgate, that of -Alexander Mackay, who murdered his mistress at Norton Folgate by -beating her with a rolling-pin and furnace-rake, and who expiated his -crime on the 8th September, 1868. A more marked change from the old -scene can hardly be conceived. Instead of the roar of the brutalized -crowd, the officials spoke in whispers; there was but little moving -to and fro. Almost absolute silence prevailed until the great bell -began to toll its deep note, and broke the stillness with its regular -and monotonous clangour, and the ordinary, in a voice trembling with -emotion, read the burial service aloud. Mackay's fortitude, which had -been great, broke down at the supreme moment before the horror of the -stillness, the awful impressiveness of the scene in which he was the -principal actor. No time was lost in carrying out the dread ceremony; -but it was not completed without some of the officials turning sick, -and the moment it was over, all who could were glad to escape from the -last act of the ghastly drama at which they had assisted. - -Private executions at their first introduction were not popular with -the Newgate officials, and for intelligible reasons. The change added -greatly to the responsibilities of the governor and his subordinates. -Hitherto the public had seemed to assist at the ceremony; the moment -too that the condemned man had passed through the debtors' door on -to the scaffold the prison had done with him, and the great outside -world shared in the completion of the sacrifice. This feeling was the -stronger because all the ghastly paraphernalia, the gallows itself -and the process of erecting and removing it, rested with the city -architect, and not with the prison officials. Moreover, after the -execution, under the old system, the latter had only to receive the -body for burial after it had been cut down by the hangman, and placed -decently in a shell by the workmen who removed the gallows. Under -the new system the whole of the arrangements from first to last fell -upon the officers. It was they who formed the chief part of the small -select group of spectators; upon them devolved the painful duty of -cutting down the body and preparing for the inquest. All that the -hangman, whoever he may be, does under the new regime is to unhook -the halter and remove the pinioning straps. The interment in a shell -filled with quicklime in the passage-way leading to the Old Bailey -is also a part of the duty of the prison officials. This strange -burial-ground is one of the most ghastly of the remaining "sights" -in Newgate. It was sometimes used as an exercising yard, and for the -greater security of prisoners it is roofed in with iron bars, which -gives it, at least overhead, the aspect of a huge cage. Underfoot and -upon the walls roughly cut into the stones, are single initial letters, -the brief epitaphs of those who lie below. As this burial-ground leads -to the adjacent Central Criminal Court, accused murderers, on going -to and returning from trial, literally walked over what, in case of -conviction, would be their own graves. - -The older officers, with several of whom I have conversed, have thus -had unusual opportunities of watching the demeanour of murderers -both before trial and after sentence. All, as a rule, unless poignant -remorse has brought a desire to court their richly-merited retribution, -are buoyed up with hope to the last. There is always the chance -of a flaw in the indictment, of a missing witness, or extenuating -circumstances. Even when in the condemned cell, with a shameful death -within measurable distance, many cling still to life, expecting much -from the intercession of friends or the humanitarianism of the age. -All almost without exception sleep soundly at night, except the -first after sentence, when the first shock of the verdict and the -solemn notification of the impending blow keeps nearly all awake, or -at least disturbs their night's rest. But the uneasiness soon wears -off. The second night sleep comes readily, and is sound; many of the -most abandoned murderers snore peacefully their eight hours, even -on the night immediately preceding execution. All too have a fairly -good appetite, and eat with relish up to the last moment. A few go -further, and are almost gluttonous. Giovanni Lanni, the Italian boy -who murdered a Frenchwoman in the Haymarket, and was arrested on board -ship just as he was about to leave the country, had a little spare -cash, which he devoted entirely to the purchase of extra food. He ate -constantly and voraciously after sentence, as though eager to cram -as many meals as possible into the few hours still left him to live. -Jeffrey, who murdered his own child, an infant of six, by hanging him -in a cellar in Seven Dials, called for a roast duck directly he entered -the condemned cell. The request was not granted, as the old custom of -allowing capital convicts whatever they asked for in the way of food -has not been the rule in Newgate. The diet of the condemned is the -ordinary diet of the prison, but to which additions are sometimes made, -chiefly of stimulants, if deemed necessary, by the medical officer -of the gaol. The craving for tobacco which so dominates the habitual -smoker often leads the convicted to plead hard for a last smoke. As -a special favour Wainwright was allowed a cigar the night before -execution, which he smoked in the prison yard, walking up and down with -the governor, Mr. Sydney Smith. - -Wainwright's demeanour was one of reckless effrontery steadily -maintained to the last. His conversation turned always upon his -influence over the weaker sex, and the extraordinary success he had -achieved. No woman could resist him, he calmly assured Mr. Smith that -night as they walked together, and he recounted his villainies one -by one. His effrontery was only outdone by his cool contempt for the -consolations of religion. The man who had made a pious life a cloak for -his misdeeds, the once exemplary young man and indefatigable Sunday -school teacher, went impenitent to the gallows. The only sign of -feeling he showed was in asking to be allowed to choose the hymns on -the Sunday the condemned sermon was preached in the prison chapel, and -this was probably only that he might hear the singing of a lady with a -magnificent voice who generally attended the prison services. During -the singing of these hymns Wainwright fainted, but whether from real -emotion or the desire to make a sensation was never exactly known. On -the fatal morning he came gaily out of his cell, nodded pleasantly to -the governor, who stood just opposite, and then walked briskly towards -the execution shed, smiling as he went along. There was a smile on -his face when it was last seen, and just as the terrible white cap -was drawn over it. Wainwright's execution was within the gaol, but -only nominally private. No less than sixty-seven persons were present, -admitted by special permission of the sheriff. Rumour even went so far -as to assert that among the spectators were several women, disguised -in male habiliments; but the story was never substantiated, and we may -hope that it rested only on the idle gossip of the day. - -Many, like Wainwright, were calm and imperturbable throughout their -trying ordeal. Catherine Wilson, the poisoner, was reserved and -reticent to the last, expressing no contrition, but also no fear—a -tall, gaunt, repulsive-looking woman, who no more shrank from cowardly, -secret crimes than from the penalty they entailed. Kate Webster, who -was tried at the Central Criminal Court, and passed through Newgate, -although she suffered at Wandsworth, is remembered at the former -prison as a defiant, brutal creature who showed no remorse, but was -subject to fits of ungovernable passion, when she broke out into the -most appalling language. The man Marley displayed fortitude of a less -repulsive kind. He acknowledged his guilt from the first. When the -sheriff offered him counsel for his defence, he declined, saying he -wished to make none—"the witnesses for the prosecution spoke the -truth." During the trial and after sentence he remained perfectly cool -and collected. When visited one day in the condemned cell, just as St. -Sepulchre's clock was striking, he looked up and said laughingly, "Go -along, clock; come along, gallows." He tripped up the chapel-stairs to -hear the condemned sermon, and came out with cheerful alacrity on the -morning he was to die. - -Some condemned convicts converse but little with the warders who -have them unceasingly in charge. Others talk freely enough on -various topics, but principally upon their own cases. When vanity is -strongly developed there is the keen anxiety to hear what is being -said about them outside. One was vexed to think that his victims had -a finer funeral than he would have. The only subject another showed -any interest in was the theatres and the new pieces that were being -produced. A third, Christian Sattler, laughed and jested with the -officers about "Jack Ketch," who, through the postponement of the -execution, would lose his Christmas dinner. When they brought in the -two watchers to relieve guard one night, Sattler said, "Two fresh -men! May I speak to them? Yes! I must caution you," he went on to the -warders, "not to go to sleep, or I shall be off through that little -hole," pointing to an aperture for ventilating the cell. On the morning -of execution he asked how far it was to the gallows, and was told it -was quite close. "Then I shall not wear my coat," he cried; "Jack Ketch -shall not have it," being under the erroneous impression that the -convict's clothes were still the executioner's perquisite. - -Often the convicts give way to despair. They are too closely watched to -be allowed to do themselves much mischief, or suicides would probably -be more frequent. But it is neither easy to obtain the instruments of -self-destruction nor to elude the vigilance of their guard. Miller, the -Chelsea murderer, who packed his victim's body in a box, and tried to -send it by parcels delivery, tried to kill himself, but ineffectively, -by running his head against his cell wall. A few other cases of the -kind have occurred, but they have been rare of late years, whether in -Newgate or elsewhere. - -The crime of poisoning has always been viewed with peculiar loathing -and terror in this country. It will be remembered that as far back as -the reign of Henry VIII a new and most cruel penalty was devised for -the punishment of the Bishop of Rochester's cook, who had poisoned his -master and many of his dependents. Sir Thomas Overbury was undoubtedly -poisoned by Lord Rochester in the reign of James I, and it is hinted -that James himself nearly fell a victim to a nefarious attempt of the -Duke of Buckingham. But secret poisoning on a wholesale scale such -as was practised in Italy and France was happily never popularized -in England. The well-known and lethal aqua Toffania, so called after -its inventress, a Roman woman named Toffania, and which was so widely -adopted by ladies anxious to get rid of their husbands, was never -introduced into this country. Its admission was probably checked by -the increased vigilance at the custom houses, the necessity for which -was urged by Mr. Addison, when Secretary of State, in 1717. The cases -of poisoning in the British calendars are rare, nor indeed was the -guilt of the accused always clearly established. It is quite possible -that Catherine Blandy, who poisoned her father at the instigation of -her lover, was ignorant of the destructive character of the powders, -probably arsenic, which she administered. Captain Donellan, who was -convicted of poisoning his brother-in-law, Sir Theodosius Broughton, -and executed for it, would probably have had the benefit in these -days of the doubts raised at his trial. A third case, more especially -interesting to us as having passed through Newgate, was that of Eliza -Fenning, who was convicted of an attempt to poison a whole family by -putting arsenic in the dumplings she had prepared for them. The charge -rested entirely on circumstantial evidence, and as Fenning, although -convicted and executed, protested her innocence in the most solemn -manner to the last, the justice of the sentence was doubted at the -time. Yet it was clearly proved that the dumplings contained arsenic, -that she, and she alone, had made the dough, that arsenic was within -her reach in the house, that she had had a quarrel with her mistress, -and that the latter with all others who tasted the dumplings were -similarly attacked, although no one died. - -The crime of poisoning is essentially one which will be most prevalent -in a high state of civilization, when the spread of scientific -knowledge places nefarious means at the disposal of many, instead of -limiting them, as in the days of the Borgias and Brinvilliers, to -the specially informed and unscrupulously powerful few. The first -intimation conveyed to society of the new terror which threatened -it was in the arrest and arraignment of William Palmer, a medical -practitioner, charged with doing to death persons who relied upon his -professional skill. The case contained elements of much uncertainty, -and yet it was so essential to the interests and the due protection -of the public that the fullest and fairest inquiry should be made, -that the trial was transferred to the Central Criminal Court, under -the authority of an Act passed for this purpose, known as the Trial -of Offences Act, and sometimes as Lord Campbell's Act. That the -administration of justice should never be interfered with by local -prejudice or local feeling is obviously of paramount importance, and -the powers granted by this Act have been frequently put in practice -since. The trial of Catherine Winsor, the baby farmer, was thus brought -to the Central Criminal Court from Exeter assizes, and that of the -Stauntons from Maidstone. - -Palmer's trial caused the most intense excitement. The direful -suspicions which surrounded the case filled the whole country with -uneasiness and misgiving, and the deepest anxiety was felt that -the crime, if crime there had been, should be brought home to its -perpetrator. The Central Criminal Court was crowded to suffocation. -Great personages occupied seats upon the bench; the rest of the -available space was allotted by ticket, to secure which the greatest -influence was necessary. People came to stare at the supposed -cold-blooded prisoner; with morbid curiosity to scan his features and -watch his demeanour through the shifting, nicely-balanced phases of his -protracted trial. Palmer, who was only thirty-one at the time of his -trial, was in appearance short and stout, with a round head covered -rather scantily with light sandy hair. His skin was extraordinarily -fair, his cheeks fresh and ruddy; altogether his face, though -commonplace, was not exactly ugly; there was certainly nothing in it -which indicated cruel cunning or deliberate truculence. His features -were not careworn, but rather set, and he looked older than his age. -Throughout his trial he preserved an impassive countenance, but he -clearly took a deep interest in all that passed. Although the strain -lasted fourteen days, he showed no signs of exhaustion, either physical -or mental. On returning to gaol each day he talked freely and without -reserve to the warders in charge of him, chiefly on incidents in the -day's proceedings. He was confident to the very last that it would be -impossible to find him guilty; even after sentence, and until within -a few hours of execution, he was buoyed up with the hope of reprieve. -The conviction that he would escape had taken so firm a hold of him, -that he steadily refused to confess his guilt lest it should militate -against his chances. In the condemned cell he frequently repeated, "I -go to my death a murdered man." He made no distinct admissions even on -the scaffold; but when the chaplain at the last moment exhorted him to -confess, he made use of the remarkable words, "If it is necessary for -my soul's sake to confess this murder (that of Cook, for which he was -tried and sentenced to death), I ought also to confess the others: I -mean my wife and my brother's." Yet he was silent when specifically -pressed to confess that he had killed his wife and his brother. - -Palmer was ably defended, but the weight of evidence was clearly -with the prosecution, led by Sir Alexander Cockburn. A government -prosecution was instituted, and Palmer was brought to Newgate for -trial at the Central Criminal Court. There was not much reserve about -him when there. He frequently declared before and during the trial that -it would be impossible to find him guilty. He never actually said that -he was not guilty, but he was confident he would not be convicted. He -relied on the absence of the strychnia. But the chain of circumstantial -evidence was strong enough to satisfy the jury, who agreed to their -verdict in an hour. At the last moment Palmer tossed a bit of paper -over to his counsel, on which he had written, "I think there will be -a verdict of 'Not' Guilty." Even after the death sentence had been -passed upon him he clung to the hope that the Government would grant -him a reprieve. To the last, therefore, he played the part of a man -wrongfully convicted, and did not abandon hope even when the high -sheriff had told him there was no possibility of a reprieve, within a -few hours of execution. He suffered at Stafford in front of the gaol. - -Palmer speedily found imitators. Within a few weeks occurred the Leeds -poisoning case, in which the murderer undoubtedly was inspired by the -facts made public at Palmer's trial. Dove, a fiendish brute, found -from the evidence in that case that he could kill his wife, whom he -hated, with exquisite torture, and with a poison that would leave, as -he thought, no trace. In the latter hope he was happily disappointed. -But as this case is beyond my subject, I merely mention it as one -of the group already referred to. Three years later came the case -of Dr. Smethurst, presenting still greater features of resemblance -with Palmer's, for both were medical men, and both raised difficult -questions of medical jurisprudence. In both the jury had no doubt as -to the guilt of the accused, only in Smethurst's case the then Home -Secretary, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, could not divest his mind of -serious doubt, of which the murderer got the full benefit. Smethurst's -escape may have influenced the jury in the Poplar poisoning case, which -followed close on its heels, although in that the verdict of "Not -Guilty" was excusable, as the evidence was entirely circumstantial. -There was no convincing proof that the accused had administered the -poison, although beyond question that poison had occasioned the death. - -Catherine Wilson was a female poisoner who did business wholesale. She -was tried in April, 1862, on suspicion of having attempted to poison -a neighbour with oil of vitriol. The circumstances were strange. Mrs. -Wilson had gone to the chemist's for medicine, and on her return had -administered a dose of something which burned the mouth badly, but did -not prove fatal. She was acquitted on this charge, but other suspicious -facts cropped up while she was in Newgate. It appeared that several -persons with whom she was intimate had succumbed suddenly. In all -cases the symptoms were much the same, vomiting, violent retching, -purging, such as are visible in cholera, and all dated from the time -when she knew a young man named Dixon, who had been in the habit of -taking colchicum for rheumatism. Mrs. Wilson heard then casually from -a medical man that it was a very dangerous medicine, and she profited -by what she had heard. Soon afterwards Dixon died, showing all the -symptoms already described. A little later a friend, Mrs. Atkinson, -came to London from Westmoreland, and stayed in Mrs. Wilson's house. -She was in good health on leaving home, and had with her a large sum of -money. While with Mrs. Wilson she became suddenly and alarmingly ill, -and died in great agony. Her husband, who came up to town, would not -allow a post-mortem, and again Mrs. Wilson escaped. Mrs. Atkinson's -symptoms had been the same as Dixon's. Then Mrs. Wilson went to live -with a man named Taylor, who was presently attacked in the same way as -the others, but, thanks to the prompt administration of remedies, he -recovered. After this came the charge of administering oil of vitriol, -which failed, as has been described. Last of all Mrs. Wilson poisoned -her landlady, Mrs. Soames, under precisely the same conditions as the -foregoing. - -Here, however, the evidence was strong and sufficient. It was proved -that Mrs. Wilson had given Mrs. Soames something peculiar to drink, -that immediately afterwards Mrs. Soames was taken ill with vomiting -and purging, and that Mrs. Wilson administered the same medicine -again and again. The last time Mrs. Soames showed great reluctance -to take it, but Wilson said it would certainly do her good. This -mysterious medicine Wilson kept carefully locked up, and allowed no -one to see it, but its nature was betrayed when this last victim also -died. The first post-mortem indicated death from natural causes, but -a more careful investigation attributed it beyond doubt to over-doses -of colchicum. Dr. Alfred Taylor, the great authority and writer on -medical jurisprudence, corroborated this, and in his evidence on the -trial fairly electrified the court by declaring it his opinion that -many deaths, supposed to be from cholera, were really due to poison. -This fact was referred to by the judge in his summing up, who said that -he feared it was only too true that secret poisoning was at that time -very rife in the metropolis. Wilson was duly sentenced to death, and -suffered impenitent, hardened, and without any confession of her guilt. - -Although murder by insidious methods had become more common, cases -where violence of the most deadly and determined kind was offered -had not quite disappeared. Two cases of this class are of the most -interest; one accompanied with piracy on the high seas, the other -perpetrated in a railway-carriage, and showing the promptitude with -which criminals accept and utilize altered conditions of life, more -particularly as regards locomotion. - -The first case was that of the _Flowery Land_, which left London for -Singapore on the 28th July, 1863, with a cargo of wine and other goods. -Her captain was John Smith; the first and second mates, Karswell and -Taffir; there were two other Englishmen on board, and the rest of -the crew were a polyglot lot, most of them, as was proved by their -subsequent acts, blackguards of the deepest dye. Six were Spaniards, or -rather natives of Manila, and men of colour; one was a Greek, another -a Turk; there were also a Frenchman, a Norwegian (the carpenter), -three Chinamen, a "Slavonian," and a black on board. Navigation -and discipline could not be easy with such a nondescript crew. The -captain was kindly but somewhat intemperate, the first mate a man of -some determination, and punishment such as rope's-ending and tying -to the bulwarks had to be applied to get the work properly done. The -six Spaniards, the Greek, and the Turk were in the same watch, eight -truculent and reckless scoundrels, who, brooding over their fancied -wrongs, and burning for revenge, hatched amongst them a plot to murder -their officers and seize the ship. The mutiny was organized with great -secrecy, and broke out most unexpectedly in the middle of the night. -A simultaneous attack was made upon the captain and the first mate. -The latter had the watch on deck. One half of the mutineers fell upon -him unawares with handspikes and capstan-bars. He was struck down, -imploring mercy, but they beat him about the head and face till every -feature was obliterated, and then, still living, flung him into the -sea. Meanwhile the captain, roused from his berth, came out of the -cabin, was caught near the "companion" by the rest of the mutineers, -and promptly despatched with daggers. His body was found lying in a -pool of blood in a night-dress, stabbed over and over again in the left -side. The captain's brother, a passenger on board the _Flowery Land_, -was also stabbed to death and his body thrown overboard. - -The second mate, who had heard the hammering of the capstan-bars and -the handspikes, with the first mate's and captain's agonized cries, -had come out, verified the murderers, and then shut himself up in his -cabin. He was soon summoned on deck, but as he would not move, the -mutineers came down and stood in a circle round his berth. Leon, or -Lyons, who spoke English, when asked said they would spare his life -if he would navigate the ship for them to the River Plate or Buenos -Ayres. Taffir agreed, but constantly went in fear of his life for the -remainder of the voyage; and although the mutineers spared him, they -ill-treated the Chinamen, and cut one badly with knives. Immediately -after the murder, cases of champagne, which formed part of the cargo, -were brought on deck and emptied; the captain's cabin ransacked, his -money and clothes divided amongst the mutineers, as well as much of -the merchandise on board. Leon wished to make every one on board share -and share alike, so as to implicate the innocent with the guilty; but -Vartos, or Watto, the Turk, would not allow any but the eight mutineers -to have anything. The murders were perpetrated on the 10th September, -and the ship continued her voyage for nearly three weeks, meeting and -speaking one ship only. On the 2nd October they sighted land, ten miles -distant; the mutineers took command of the ship, put her about till -nightfall, by which time they had scuttled her, got out the boats, and -all left the ship. The rest of the crew were also permitted to embark, -except the Chinamen, one of whom was thrown into the water and drowned, -while the other two were left to go down in the ship, and were seen -clinging to the tops until the waters closed over them. - -The boats reached the shore on the 4th October. Leon had prepared a -plausible tale to the effect that they belonged to an American ship -from Peru bound to Bordeaux, which had foundered at sea; that they had -been in the boats five days and nights, but that the captain and others -had been lost. The place at which they landed was not far from the -entrance to the River Plate. A farmer took them in for the night, and -drove them next day to Rocha, a place north of Maldonado. Taffir, the -mate, finding there was a man who could speak English at another place -twenty miles off, repaired there secretly, and so gave information -to the Brazilian authorities. The mutineers were arrested, the case -inquired into by a naval court-martial, and the prisoners eventually -surrendered to the British authorities, brought to England, and lodged -in Newgate. Their trial followed at the Central Criminal Court. Eight -were arraigned at the same time: six Spaniards; Leon, Lopez, Blanco, -Duranno, Santos, and Marsolino; Vartos, a Turk, and Carlos, a Greek. -Seven were found guilty of murder on the high seas, and one, Carlos, -acquitted. Two of the seven, Santos and Marsolino, were reprieved, and -their sentences commuted to penal servitude for life; the remaining -five were executed in one batch. They were an abject, miserable crew, -cowards at heart; but some, especially Lopez, continued bloodthirsty to -the last. Lopez took a violent dislike to the officer of the ward in -charge of them, and often expressed a keen desire to do for him. They -none of them spoke much English except Leon, commonly called Lyons. -After condemnation, as the rules now kept capital convicts strictly -apart, they could not be lodged in the two condemned cells, and they -were each kept in an ordinary separate cell of the newly-constructed -block, with the "traps," or square openings in the cell door, let down. -A full view of them was thus at all times obtainable by the officers -who, without intermission, day and night patrolled the ward. On the -morning of execution the noise of fixing the gallows in the street -outside awoke one or two of them. Lyons asked the time, and was told it -was only five. "Ah!" he remarked, "they will have to wait for us then -till eight." Lopez was more talkative. When the warder went in to call -him he asked for his clothes. He was told he would have to wear his -own. "Not give clothes? In Russia, Italy, always give chaps clothes." -Then he wanted to know when the policemen would arrive, and was told -none would come. "The soldiers then?" No soldiers either. "What, you -not afraid let us go all by ourselves? Not so in Russia or Spain." -The convicts were pinioned one by one and sent singly out to the -gallows. As the first to appear would have some time to wait for his -fellows, a difficult and painful ordeal, the seemingly most courageous -was selected to lead the way. This was Duranno; but the sight of the -heaving mass of uplifted, impassioned faces was too much for his -nerves, and he so nearly fainted that he had to be seated in a chair. -The execution went off without mishap. - -In July, 1864, occurred the murder of Mr. Briggs, a gentleman advanced -in years and chief clerk in Robarts' bank. As the circumstances under -which it was perpetrated were somewhat novel,[274:1] and as some time -elapsed before the discovery and apprehension of the supposed murderer, -the public mind was greatly agitated by the affair for several months. -The story of the murder must be pretty familiar to most of my readers. -Mr. Briggs left the bank one afternoon as usual, dined with his -daughter at Peckham, then returned to the city to take the train from -Fenchurch Street home, travelling by the North London Railway. He lived -at Hackney, but he never reached it alive. When the train arrived -at Hackney station, a passenger who was about to enter one of the -carriages found the cushions soaked with blood. Inside the carriage -was a hat, a walking-stick, and a small black leather bag. About the -same time a body was discovered on the line near the railway-bridge by -Victoria Park. It was that of an aged man, whose head had been battered -in by a life-preserver. There was a deep wound just over the ear, the -skull was fractured, and there were several other blows and wounds on -the head. Strange to say, the unfortunate man was not yet dead, and he -actually survived more than four-and-twenty hours. His identity was -established by a bundle of letters in his pocket, which bore his full -address: "T. Briggs, Esq., Robarts & Co., Lombard Street." - -The friends of Mr. Briggs were communicated with, and it was -ascertained that when he left home the morning of the murderous attack, -he wore gold-rimmed eye-glasses and a gold watch and chain. The stick -and bag were his, but not the hat. A desperate and deadly struggle -must have taken place in the carriage, and the stain of a bloody hand -marked the door. The facts of the murder and its object, robbery, -were thus conclusively proved. It was also easily established that -the hat found in the carriage had been bought at Walker's, a hatter's -in Crawford Street, Marylebone; while within a few days Mr. Briggs' -gold chain was traced to a jeweller's in Cheapside, Mr. Death, who had -given another in exchange for it to a man supposed to be a foreigner. -More precise clues to the murderer were not long wanting; indeed the -readiness with which they were produced and followed up showed how -greatly the publicity and wide dissemination of the news regarding -murder facilitate the detection of crime. In little more than a week -a cabman came forward and voluntarily made a statement which at once -drew suspicion to a German, Franz Müller, who had been a lodger of his. -Müller had given the cabman's little daughter a jeweller's cardboard -box bearing the name of Mr. Death. A photograph of Müller shown the -jeweller was identified as the likeness of the man who had exchanged -Mr. Briggs' chain. Last of all, the cabman swore that he had bought the -very hat found in the carriage for Müller at the hatter's, Walker's of -Crawford Street. - -This fixed the crime pretty certainly upon Müller, who had already -left the country, thus increasing the suspicion under which he lay. -There was no mystery about his departure; he had gone to Canada by the -_Victoria_ sailing ship, starting from the London docks, and bound -to New York. Directly the foregoing facts were established, a couple -of detective officers, armed with a warrant to arrest Müller, and -accompanied by Mr. Death the jeweller and the cabman, went down to -Liverpool and took the first steamer across the Atlantic. This was the -_City of Manchester_, which was expected to arrive some days before -the _Victoria_, and did so. The officers went on board the _Victoria_ -at once, Müller was identified by Mr. Death, and the arrest was made. -In searching the prisoner's box, Mr. Briggs' watch was found wrapped -up in a piece of leather, and Müller at the time of his capture was -actually wearing Mr. Briggs' hat, cut down and somewhat altered. The -prisoner was forthwith extradited and sent back to England, which he -reached with his escort on the 17th September the same year. His trial -followed at the next sessions of the Central Criminal Court, and ended -in his conviction. The case was one of circumstantial evidence, but, -as Sir Robert Collyer, the Solicitor-General, pointed out, it was the -strongest circumstantial evidence which had ever been brought forward -in a murder case. It was really evidence of facts which could not be -controverted or explained away. There was the prisoner's poverty, -his inability to account for himself on the night of the murder, and -his possession of the property of the murdered man. An alibi was set -up for the defence, but not well substantiated, and the jury without -hesitation returned a verdict of guilty. - -Müller protested after sentence of death had been passed upon him -that he had been convicted on a false statement of facts. He adhered -to this almost to the very last. His case had been warmly espoused by -the Society for the Protection of Germans in this country, and powerful -influence was exerted both here and abroad to obtain a reprieve. -Müller knew that any confession would ruin his chances of escape. His -arguments were specious and evasive when pressed to confess. "Why -should man confess to man?" he replied; "man cannot forgive man, only -God can do so. Man is therefore only accountable to God." But on the -gallows, when the cap was over his eyes and the rope had been adjusted -round his neck, and within a second of the moment when he would be -launched into eternity, he whispered in the ear of the German pastor -who attended him on the scaffold, "I did it." While in the condemned -cell he conversed freely with the warders in broken English or through -an interpreter. He is described as not a bad-looking man, with a square -German type of face, blue eyes which were generally half closed, and -very fair hair. He was short in stature, his legs were light for the -upper part of his body, which was powerful, almost herculean. It is -generally supposed that he committed the murder under a sudden access -of covetousness and greed. He saw Mr. Briggs' watch-chain, and followed -him instantly into the carriage, determined to have it at all costs. - -An interesting case is that of old Dr. Watson, the headmaster of -Stockwell Grammar School, who escaped the final retribution of death -because, as he pleaded for himself: "In a fit of fury I have killed -my wife. Often and often have I endeavoured to restrain myself but my -rage overcame me and I struck her down. Her body will be found in the -little room off the library. I hope she will be buried as becomes a -lady of birth and position. She is an Irish lady and her name is Anne." -Here were unmistakably signs of feeble intellect, and yet when the -deed was done he was sufficiently sensible and self-possessed to make -a cunning attempt to conceal his crime. His great desire, as so often -happens with murderers, was to dispose of the chief evidence of his -guilt and he was quite cool and collected when he gave his orders to a -packing-case maker to prepare him a large chest. "And I want it done -sharp; it must be air and water tight, for it is to go by rail." Then -he seems to have broken down and bought poison which failed of effect -and led to the discovery of the crime. - -Henry Wainwright's murder of Harriet Lane was a crime on a parity -with many others of earlier date. It was a curious instance of how -"murder will out," and how the devices employed to hide the crime help -really to expose it. Too much chloride of lime had been employed to -consume the buried corpse with the result that the body was preserved -instead of destroyed. Again, a mere chance led to the discovery; the -carelessness of the murderer when he had exhumed the body for removal -to some safer place, in entrusting the parcel to a stranger's hands -who was curious as to its contents. The plea set up by the accused -that the girl had committed suicide led to the shrewd remark of the -judge, Chief Justice Goulbourne, that it was very unusual for suicides -to bury themselves after death. Henry Wainwright's was one of the last -executions at Newgate. - -A case, almost unique, may be quoted of a nearly successful attempt -to interfere with the course of justice by means of a forged order -of pardon. A convict on the point of execution, a man named Shurety, -was actually in the hangman's hands when a letter was brought to the -governor of Newgate purporting to come from the Home Office and signed -"A. F. Liddell," then Under-secretary of State, countermanding the -execution. The signature was so cleverly copied that it seemed genuine, -but a closer examination of the letter, envelope and seal satisfied -the authorities that the document was spurious and they took upon -themselves to send Shurety to the gallows. A couple of months later -the forgery was brought home to a surgeon, Mr. Caleb C. Whiteford, -who had interested himself in the case and having failed to save the -man by lawful means had adopted this course, which brought upon him -a sentence of fine and imprisonment. Another curious case was the -utter discomfiture of certain ultra-sentimentalists who had laboured -strenuously to obtain a pardon for a Jew, Israel Lipski, alleged to -have been wrongly convicted. Great excitement prevailed while he lay -awaiting execution; numerous petitions were addressed to the Home -Secretary, and his steadfast refusal to extend mercy was hysterically -denounced by a section of the Press. Just when it was still asserted -that judicial murder was on the point of being perpetrated, the convict -made full confession of his crime and the ill-advised action of -these busybodies was very properly overthrown. One or two more cases -must serve to complete the list of the last great crimes expiated in -Newgate. Mrs. Pearcey, who murdered her friend Mrs. Hogg, no doubt -allowed her temper to get the better of her and what was at first -a small quarrel unhappily degenerated into a murderous attack. The -circumstances of the crime were commonplace; the special interest was -in the method of removing the murdered remains. Mrs. Hogg's body with -the throat cut had been found on Hampstead Heath and shortly afterwards -her infant child was found dead in close proximity. It came out in -the course of inquiry that Mrs. Pearcey had wheeled a perambulator -containing the dead bodies all the way from St. John's Wood to -Hampstead. - -But for the lucky chance which so often assists the detection of great -crimes, the Muswell Hill murder would hardly have been brought home -to its perpetrators. This was a burglary which cost the life of the -unfortunate victim, a Mr. Henry Smith, an aged gentleman who lived -alone in a small villa on Muswell Hill, one of the northern suburbs -of London. He was a man of some means who was weak enough to keep his -cash receipts for rents and dividends in his own safe at home. He was -a tall stout man of active habits and fairly robust health who "did -for himself," rising early, cleaning his house, cooking his food and -living his own simple life. His habits were watched and they marked -him down as open to attack and robbery. One morning his gardener, the -only servant he employed, and who lived away from the house, arrived -as usual to find the premises still locked up. There were unmistakable -signs that a forcible entry had been made and a wire connected with -an alarm gun behind the house had been disconnected. Calling upon the -neighbours for assistance, the gardener entered the house and saw -Mr. Smith's body lying lifeless on the floor. The safe stood open -and had been evidently rifled; drawers had been pulled out and a tin -box emptied. The murder had been committed with very brutal violence -as the state of the body amply testified. Various small clues were -forthcoming; a bull's eye lantern, two pocket knives upon the floor -near the deceased and some bread and cheese which the murderers had -been consuming after the deed. There were footprints in the garden -leading down into the woods back of the house. Two sets of footprints, -one of large boots with a very broad tread and no nails, the other of -smaller boots with pointed toes. The footprints ended at the garden -fence where there were many marks and scratches to show that someone -had climbed over. A small tobacco box was also picked up on the -footpath leading to the wood, the property of someone who did not live -at the villa, for neither the murdered man nor the gardener were in the -habit of smoking. - -It is customary with the police in cases of this gravity to search -their records and ascertain what known offenders likely to be guilty -of such a crime were then at large. Two ex-convicts, Albert Milsom and -Henry Fowler, stood upon the list and at once attracted the attention -of the police as habitual criminals addicted to burglary, but there was -no specific evidence against them until suspicion was raised by a young -lady who resided near Muswell Hill. She thought it her duty to inform -the police that she had been accosted by two men, a little before the -murder, who had made many inquiries about the woods behind Mr. Smith's -house. Another lady had seen the same man on the very day of the murder -walking in a neighbouring lane. This was sufficient to cause inquiry -to be made for the two men in question who were soon identified as the -above mentioned Milsom and Fowler. Suspicion deepened when it became -known that after the day of the murder they were flush of money and had -bought new clothes. Then a damaging fact turned up when the bull's eye -lantern picked up on the scene of the crime was claimed by Milsom's -brother-in-law as his property. He proved his ownership by pointing out -changes he had made in it and further that it had been abstracted from -him some little time before the murder, and that the next time he saw -it was in the hands of the police. The same lad recognized the tobacco -box as one that Albert Milsom constantly used. - -The next step was to "run in" the two men so strongly suspected. They -were "wanted" for some weeks and although they seem to have still hung -about London it was believed they had gone abroad. Towards the end of -February they left for Liverpool and then moved south to Cardiff, where -they joined forces with an itinerant showman having bought a share in -his business. They moved to and fro in South Wales and then worked back -to Chippenham and Bath where the police, ever hot on their track, came -upon them and captured them after a desperate struggle. Fowler was a -strong man of large frame and he fought like a tiger but was knocked on -the head with the butt end of a revolver and overpowered. He owed his -confederate Milsom a deep grudge and on more than one occasion made a -murderous attempt on his life, once in the exercising yard at Holloway -while awaiting trial, an affair which the present writer myself -witnessed. The two men were walking in a circle some distance apart, -but Fowler ran after him and was only prevented by the officers from -doing him serious mischief. Again at the Old Bailey when the jury had -retired to consider their verdict, Fowler jumped out of the dock and -attacked his companion but was restrained in time. Milsom had enraged -him by making full confession of the murder and the manner in which it -had been committed. Fowler, he said, had done the deed alone but had -bitterly upbraided Milsom for giving no assistance. Both criminals were -executed in Newgate. - -The last great case of fraud upon the Bank of England will fitly find a -place in the later criminal records of Newgate. This was the well and -astutely devised plot of the brothers Bidwell, assisted by Macdonell -and Noyes, all of them citizens of the United States, by which the bank -lost upwards of £100,000. The commercial experience of these clever -rogues was cosmopolitan. Their operations were no less world-wide. In -1871 they crossed the Channel, and by means of forged letters of credit -and introduction from London, obtained large sums from continental -banks in Berlin, Dresden, Bordeaux, Marseilles and Lyons. With this -as capital they came back to England via Buenos Ayres, and Austin -Bidwell opened a bona fide credit in the Burlington or West End Branch -of the Bank of England, to which he was introduced by a well known -tailor in Saville Row. After this the other conspirators travelled -to obtain genuine bills and master the system of the leading houses -at home and abroad. When all was ready, Bidwell first "refreshed -his credit" at the Bank of England, as well as disarmed suspicion, -by paying in a genuine bill of Messrs. Rothschilds' for £4,500 which -was duly discounted. Then he explained to the bank manager that his -transactions at Birmingham would shortly be very large, owing to the -development of his business there in the alleged manufacture of Pullman -cars. The ground thus cleared, the forgers poured in from Birmingham -numbers of forged acceptances to the value of £102,217, all of which -were discounted. The fraud was rendered possible by the absence of a -check customary in the United States. There such bills would be sent to -the drawer to be initialled, and the forgery would have been at once -detected. It was the discovery of this flaw in the banking system which -had encouraged the Americans to attempt this crime. - -Time was clearly an important factor in the fraud, hence the bills were -sent forward in quick succession. Long before they came to maturity the -forgers hoped to be well beyond arrest. They had, moreover, sought to -destroy all clue. The sums obtained by Bidwell in the name of "Warren" -at the Bank of England were lodged at once by drafts to "Horton" -another alias, in the Continental Bank. For these cash was obtained in -notes; the notes were exchanged by one of the conspirators for gold -at the Bank of England and again the same day a second conspirator -exchanged the gold for notes. But just as all promised well, the -frauds were detected through the carelessness of the forgers. They had -omitted to insert the dates in certain bills. The bills were sent as a -matter of form to the drawer to have the date added, and the forgery -was at once detected. Noyes was seized without difficulty, as it was a -part of the scheme that he should act as the dupe, and remain on the -spot in London till all the money was obtained. Through Noyes the rest -of the conspirators were eventually apprehended. Very little if any of -the ill-gotten proceeds, however, was ever recovered. Large sums as -they were realized were transmitted to the United States and invested -in various American securities, where probably the money still remains. - -The prisoners, who were committed to Newgate for trial, had undoubtedly -the command of large funds while there, and would have readily -disbursed it to effect their enlargement. A plot was soon discovered, -deep laid, and with many ramifications, by which some of the Newgate -warders were to be bribed to allow the prisoners to escape from their -cells at night. Certain friends of the prisoners were watched and -found to be in communication with these warders, to whom it was said -£100 apiece had been given down as the price of their infidelity. -Further sums were to have been paid after the escape; and one warder -admitted that he was to have £1,000 more paid to him and to be provided -with a passage to Australia. The vigilance of the Newgate officials -assisted by the city police, completely frustrated this plot. A second -was nevertheless set on foot in which the plan of action was changed, -and the freedom of the prisoners was to be obtained by means of a -rescue from the dock during the trial. An increase of policemen on -duty sufficed to prevent any attempt of this kind. Nor were these two -abortive efforts all that were planned. A year or two after, when the -prisoners were undergoing their life sentences of penal servitude, much -uneasiness was caused at one of the convict prisons by information that -bribery on a large scale was again at work amongst the officials. But -extra precautions and close supervision have so far proved effectual -and the prisoners were still in custody after a lapse of ten years. - -The time came at length when the old City Gaol must fall in with the -steady and persistent march towards prison reform. The movement had -been initiated by the legislative and certain improvements were made -imperative, notably that which recognized the unalterable principle -that every individual should be confined separately and singly in one -cell or apartment. Already steps had been taken and public moneys -voted to construct a prison on the most approved plan to serve as a -model for all. The result was Pentonville, erected in 1842 at a great -outlay and on such intelligent lines that in due course it fulfilled -its first aim and became a model for imitation. Pentonville has been -universally adopted as the best form of building and its system the -best contrived to effect the chief desiderata of a penal establishment, -such as coercion, repression and reformation. It is to be seen to-day -with small variation in almost every country of the world and is -generally considered the best type of prison construction. In England, -jurisdictions were ready to recognize their duties and responsibilities -and fine prisons arose in the large provincial cities and wide areas of -population, although others still lagged behind deterred by parsimony -and the lack of public spirit. Newgate, the gaol of the richest -corporation in the world, was one of the latter and an official report -published in 1850 animadverted strongly on its still unsatisfactory -condition. - -Not much had been done to remedy the old defects; radical improvement -was generally considered impossible. The great evil, however, had been -sensibly diminished. There was no longer, or at worst but rarely, and -for short periods, the same overcrowding. This was obviated by the -frequent sessions of the Central Criminal Court, and the utilization of -the two subsidiary prisons in Giltspur Street and Southwark. The prison -population of Newgate was still subject to great fluctuations, but it -seldom rose above two hundred and fifty or three hundred at the most -crowded periods, or just before the sessional gaol delivery; and at its -lowest it fell sometimes to fifty or sixty. These numbers would have -still further decreased, and the gaol would have been almost empty, -but for the misdemeanants who were still sent to Newgate at times on -long terms of imprisonment, and for the transports, whom the Home -Office was often, as of old, slow to remove. The old wards, day rooms -and sleeping rooms combined, now seldom contained more than ten or a -dozen occupants. Some sort of decorum was maintained in the day-time. -Drinking and gaming, the indiscriminate visitation of friends, and the -almost unlimited admission of extra food, had disappeared. - -But reformation was only skin deep. Below the surface many of the old -evils still rankled. There was as yet no control over the prisoners -after locking-up time; which occurred in summer at eight, but in the -winter months took place at dusk, and was often as early as four or -five o'clock. The prisoners were still left to themselves till next -morning's unlocking, and they spent some fourteen or fifteen hours in -total darkness, and almost without check or control. The only attempt -at supervision was exercised by the night watchman stationed on the -leads, who might hear what went on inside. If any disturbance reached -his ears, he reported the case to the governor, who next morning -visited the ward in fault, and asked for the culprit. The enforcement -of discipline depended upon the want of honour among thieves. Unless -the guilty prisoner was given up, the whole ward was punished, either -by the exclusion of visitors or the deprivation of fire, sharp tests -which generally broke down the fidelity of the inmates of the ward to -one another. Later on a more efficacious but still imperfect method of -supervision was introduced. Iron cages, which are still to be seen in -Newgate, were constructed on the landings, ensconced in which warders -spent the night, on duty, and alert to watch the sleepers below, and -check by remonstrance or threat of punishment all who broke the peace -of the prison. - -These disciplinary improvements were, however, only slowly and -gradually introduced. Other changes affecting the condition and -proper treatment of prisoners were not made until repeatedly urged -and recommended. Thus the wards, which, as I have said, were left in -complete darkness, were now to be lighted with gas; and after this most -salutary addition, the personal superintendence of night officers, -as already described, became possible. The rule became general as -regards the prison dress; hitherto clothing had been issued only to -such as were destitute or in rags, and all classes of prisoners, -those for trial, and those sentenced for short terms or long, wore -no distinguishing costume, although its use was admitted, not only -for cleanliness, but as a badge of condition, and a security against -escape. Renewed recommendations to provide employment resulted in -the provision of a certain amount of oakum for picking, and one or -two men were allowed to mend clothes and make shoes. The rules made -by the Secretary of State were hung up in conspicuous parts of the -prison; more officers were appointed, as the time of so many of those -already on the staff was monopolized by attendance at the Central -Criminal Court. Another custom which had led to disorder was abolished; -prisoners who had been acquitted were not permitted to return to the -prison to show their joy and receive the congratulations of their -unfortunate fellows. The Corporation seems to have introduced these -salutary changes without hesitation. It was less prompt apparently in -dealing with structural alterations and improvements. Well-founded -complaints had been made of the want of heating appliances in the gaol. -The wards had open fires, but the separate cells were not warmed at -all. It was long before a scheme for heating the whole prison with hot -water pipes was accepted and introduced. - -At last the authorities realized that all idea of reconstruction on -proper lines was out of the question. It was imperative to begin at the -beginning, select a sufficiently spacious piece of ground and erect a -prison thereon, which from foundations to roofs should be in conformity -with the newest ideas. - -Now for the first time the Tuffnell estate in Holloway was mentioned. -The Corporation owned lands there covering from nineteen to twenty -acres. Why not move the city prison bodily into this more rural spot, -with its purer air and greater breathing space? Eventually Holloway -was decided upon as a site for the new city prison. The necessary -preliminaries took some time, but the contracts for the new building -were completed in 1849, when the works were commenced. The prison -was to contain four hundred and four prisoners, and the estimated -expenditure was £79,000. It was to accommodate all convicted prisoners -sentenced to terms short of penal servitude, and after its completion -the uses of Newgate were narrowed almost entirely to those of a prison -of detention. It was intended, as far as possible, that no prisoner -should find himself relegated to Newgate except when awaiting trial. - -With the reduction of numbers to be accommodated, there was ample space -in Newgate for its reconstruction on the most approved modern lines. -In 1857 the erection of a wing or large block of cells was commenced -within the original walls of the prison, and upon the north or male -side. This block contained one hundred and thirty cells, embracing -every modern improvement; it also contained eleven reception cells, -six punishment cells, and a couple of cells for condemned criminals. -This block was completed in 1859, after which the hitherto unavoidable -and long-continued promiscuous association of prisoners came to an -end. In 1861 a similar work was undertaken to provide separate cell -accommodation for the female inmates of Newgate, and by the following -year forty-seven new cells had been built on the most approved -plan. During this reconstruction the female prisoners were lodged in -Holloway, and when it was completed, both sides of the prison were -brought into harmony with modern ideas. The old buildings were entirely -disused, and the entire number of those at Newgate were kept constantly -in separate confinement. - -With the last re-edification of Newgate, a work executed some seven -centuries after the first stone of the old gaol was laid, the -architectural records of the prison end. Nothing much was done at -Newgate in the way of building, outside or inside, after 1862. The Act -for private executions led to the erection of the gallows shed in the -exercising yard, and at the flank of the passage from the condemned -cells. The first "glass house," or room in which prisoners could talk -in private with their attorneys, and still be seen by the warder on the -watch, had been constructed, and others were subsequently added. But no -structural alterations were made from the date first quoted until in -1902 the prison ceased to exist as such. - -A few words will suffice in closing the record of this old-world -prison, which after seven centuries of existence has no longer a place -in the heart of the great overgrown city. It has been crowded out, the -space it occupied was far too limited and yet too valuable to remain -the centre of Metropolitan criminal procedure. It was imperative that -the famous assize court of the Old Bailey should be enlarged and the -ground upon which the prison stood was urgently needed for extension. -The chief prison authority, the State itself which had administered to -the powers so long exercised by local jurisdiction, decided to remove -the last vestige of prison business from the ancient site. A prison -already standing in the suburb of Brixton was enlarged and appropriated -to meet the purposes which Newgate had fulfilled almost to the last. -For it continued until yesterday to serve as the last resting place -of malefactors condemned to death. It was still the succursal of the -assize court, sheltering the accused during the trial and holding them -after conviction until they stood finally under the drop and the fatal -bolt was drawn. But Newgate in 1882 ceased to be more than a temporary -prison receiving lodgers about to take the last long journey from which -no traveller returns, and in this way old Newgate continued to be -associated with all capital offences in London. - -Many pages might still be filled with painful stories often reproducing -almost exactly the criminal episodes of the past and proving that -there is literally nothing new under the sun. The latest Newgate -records exhibited the same fatal consequences of overpowering greed, -unappeasable rage, brutal passions uncontrolled; the same fierce thirst -for vengeance; the same bitter jealousy, only to be assuaged in blood -under the maddened impulse of minds on the borderland of insanity. -Great crimes may be rarer nowadays, but they still present the same -familiar features as of old, and will no doubt do so while the world -lasts. - - * * * * * - -NOTE. Occasional references to the Tower have been made in the -preceding chapters. Its history in full would be the history of England -and far too extended for the scope of this work; therefore an outline -only is given, with reference in brief to many important prisoners who -were confined or suffered within its gloomy walls. - -[Illustration: _Great Court of the Tower of London_ - - Ancient palace-citadel of London, and famous state prison, - whose history began with William the Conqueror. The chief - buildings of the group are the work of Norman kings and Henry - III. Familiar as the place of durance and scene of death of - many prisoners of royal blood and political importance.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[274:1] They have since been repeated, but accompanied by more -premeditation, in the case of Lefroy, who murdered Mr. Gould in a -first-class carriage on the Brighton line in 1881. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE TOWER OF LONDON - - Location—Traditions of ancient fortifications—William - the Conqueror and Gundulf the Builder—Additions by other - kings—The first prisoners—Royal tenants—Richard Duke of - Gloucester and the "Two Little Princes"—Increase in number - of prisoners during Tudor period—Anne Boleyn's two visits - to the Tower—Another queen's fate—The "Nine Days' Queen" - and her friends—Spanish influence fills the Tower—Sir - Walter Raleigh—Lady Arabella Stuart—Executions grow - fewer—Culloden—The last man beheaded in England—Present uses - of the Tower. - - -On the north bank of the Thames, a half mile below London Bridge and -just east of the old city of London, stands an irregular pile of -buildings with walls, battlements and moat which fires the imagination, -and grips the fancy as no other group in the world can do. - -The Tower of London, in turn fortress, palace and prison—sometimes all -three simultaneously—and now a storehouse and museum, has a continuous -existence almost as long as England's history. Tradition says that the -Britons had a stronghold here before Cæsar came; that the great Roman -himself ordered the walls strengthened; that the Saxon kings held court -on the site. Certainly excavations for various purposes made from time -to time have revealed masonry and relics of all three periods. - -The Tower as we have it to-day goes back only to the Norman kings. -William the Conqueror's keen eye saw the advantage of this low hill -and wished a fortress which should command the river and help to -overawe the turbulent city to the west. Gundulf, a Benedictine monk, -whom he had made Bishop of Rochester, and who had shown his ability -by rebuilding the cathedral there, set to work in 1078 or 1079 on the -keep, or White Tower. - -This great building stands to-day his monument. The solid masonry -walls twelve to sixteen feet thick enclose the vaults formerly used as -torture chambers when occasion demanded, the main floor, the banqueting -floor and the state floor. The chapel of St. John the Evangelist rises -through two floors in the southeast corner, while the low towers at -the four corners command the scene for miles. Old Gundulf built well, -and completed also St. Peter's chapel and the Hall tower. The other -towers with their connecting walls enclosing the Inner Ward were built -later, many of them by Henry III. The Beauchamp tower, the Belfry, the -Garden or Bloody tower, the Lantern, the Salt tower, the Broad Arrow -tower, the Constable tower, the Martin tower, the Brick tower, the -Flint tower, the Bowyer tower and the Develin tower, were all built in -the wall for purposes of defence, but all have sheltered prisoners from -time to time. - -Within this Inner Ward, besides the buildings already named were royal -apartments and a Great Hall of justice (long since destroyed), the -mint, which remained until 1810, residences for officers, barracks, -etc. Around all this was a second strong wall protected by other strong -towers, which was planned and partially constructed by Henry III. Of -these towers on the outer wall, St. Thomas' tower on the river—better -known as the Traitors' Gate—is the most important. Under this tower -prisoners were landed from the river. The space enclosed by the outer -wall is about thirteen acres, and around all was a broad moat flooded -from the Thames. - -The importance of the Tower as a fortress diminished with the invention -of gunpowder, but it continued to be used as a royal residence, at -intervals, until the accession of Charles II. Here Henry III lived -and planned great structures; during the wars of the Roses, York and -Lancaster held court in turn; Henry VII schemed for greater wealth, and -his son was led to defy the Pope while keeping a residence here. - -But it is with the Tower as a prison that we are most concerned. The -roll of the prisoners tells England's history. The petty intrigues of -court favourites; the greatness or the meanness of kings; the struggle -for power among great families; the truckling to foreign power which -brought Raleigh to the block, and the great struggle for religious and -political freedom are all set forth in the story of this great prison. - -The first prisoner confined within the walls appears to have been -Ralph Flambard, (the Firebrand), Bishop of Durham, who as treasurer -of William the Conqueror had been forced to find the funds for old -Gundulf's work. Hated by the commons for his exactions, he was taken -into custody on the accession of Henry Beauclerc and was lodged in an -upper room of the White tower, as yet unsurrounded by walls. He was -well treated and allowed many privileges, but his efforts to secure -his release were unsuccessful. One night in February, 1101, when he -had caused all his guards to drink heavily of wine brought in at his -expense, he drew a rope from one of the casks, tied it to the window -sixty-five feet from the ground, and descended. Though the rope was -short and he fell heavily, his servants were waiting, and he made good -his escape to France, there to remain until forgiven and restored to -his bishopric. - -Another important early prisoner was the victim of King John's unlawful -love, Maud Fitzwalter, the daughter of one of his powerful barons, -who refused to grant his will. The coward king attempted to break -her spirit by confinement in an uncomfortable cell, and banished her -family. Bravely resisting the king's desires to the end, she died, -perhaps by poison. Her father returned and placed himself at the head -of that band of bishops and barons who compelled the king to sign the -Great Charter at Runnymede. - -Next we hear of the incarceration of six hundred Jews charged by -Edward I with tampering with the coinage. The same king brought John -de Baliol, king of Scotland, and David Bruce to the Tower in 1298, and -William Wallace, the hero of Scotland, was imprisoned here in 1305 -before his execution at Smithfield. During this reign also Griffin, -Prince of Wales, who had been first confined by Henry III, attempted to -escape by the same method which Flambard had used so successfully, but -his cord, made from strips of his bed coverings, was too weak and his -neck was broken by the fall. - -During the unhappy reign of Edward II court was kept in the Tower with -a splendour before unknown. Here the king's children were born, and -here Roger Mortimer, although a captive, began the guilty intrigue with -Queen Isabella which ended in disaster and disgrace for all. - -More royal tenants appeared under Edward III. King David of Scotland -was confined in 1347, and in 1358, after Poitiers, King John of France -and his son joined the great number of French nobles whom the fortunes -of war had brought hither. It was in the Tower also that Edward's -unworthy grandson, Richard II, saw his favourite, Simon Burley, seized -by the indignant nobles and finally taken to Tower Hill. It is said -that this was the first public execution on Tower Hill, just north of -the Tower itself. In the Tower also Sir John Oldcastle suffered, and -the old walls saw Richard yield to Henry of Lancaster the crown which -he was too weak to hold. - -With the accession of Henry V the war with France was renewed and -again many French nobles became tenants of the pile. One of them, -Charles of Orleans, grandson of Charles V, is described by Shakespeare. -Wounded and captured at Agincourt, the impossible ransom of 300,000 -crowns was demanded by his unsuccessful rival, Henry V, who had failed -to win the love of Isabella, widow of Richard II of England. Indeed -Henry preferred that he remain a perpetual prisoner; and a prisoner -he remained for twenty-five years, spending his time with his books -and his verses, many addressed to his dead wife. Finally released, he -married Mary of Cleves, and their son was Louis XII, who married Mary, -the sister of Henry VIII of England. - -With the Wars of the Roses, the records became more bloody, and the -sanguinary tinge continues through the Tudor period. During the first -period it was great house against great house, but during the Tudor -period began the great struggle for political freedom, which at times -seemed hopeless of attainment. - -No figure so dominates the first period as the sinister, humpbacked -brother of Edward IV, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Richard III of -England. His influence is felt in the sober history as well as in the -plays of Shakespeare. He is said to have stabbed with his own hand the -imbecile Henry VI, who had already at a previous time spent five years -a prisoner in the Tower. Tradition persists that he drowned his brother -the Duke of Clarence, in a butt of the latter's favourite wine. We know -of his denunciation of Lord Hastings on charge of witchcraft and of the -murder of that unhappy nobleman. We know that he kept Jane Shore, the -mistress of his brother, in prison here until all her charms were faded. - -But the mysterious disappearance of the two little princes has done -most to damn his memory. As the result of the marriage with Elizabeth -Woodville, Edward IV left two sons, Edward V, aged twelve, and Richard, -aged eight. Gloucester was Protector but with diabolical cunning threw -doubt upon the legitimacy of the boys placed under his charge. They -were confided to Sir John Brackenbury, the lieutenant of the Tower, -while the preparations for the coronation went on. Their mother, filled -with unhappy forebodings for them and fearful of her own fate, was in -sanctuary at Westminster. - -The tale as we have it runs thus: Richard left for the north after -sending a plain message to the lieutenant of the Tower. At Warwick, -Richard was informed that the worthy knight refused to do his bidding. -Nothing daunted, Richard sent orders that for one night only he should -give up his command to Sir James Tyrrell. That officer, who lived in -mortal fear of Richard, came to the Tower accompanied by two ruffians, -secured the keys and the passwords, went down to the Garden tower and -sent his ruffians up-stairs. Shortly they called him to see that the -work was done. There lay the princes, dead. The oldest account says -that one was smothered while the throat of the other was cut. Quickly a -priest was called and the bodies consigned to earth. Later this priest -moved them secretly, where, no one knew, and shortly after died. As the -bodies could not be shown some doubted the death of the little princes, -and later we have the claim of Perkin Warbeck that he was one of the -princes, escaped from the Tower and marvellously spared. Perhaps he may -have been Edward's son, for that king ruined many women beside Jane -Shore. - -Two hundred years later, while making some changes in the White -tower, workmen found underneath the stone staircase near the chapel -the bones of two boys, apparently corresponding in age and stature to -the princes. Rigid investigation confirmed the guess, and Charles II -ordered their removal to Westminster Abbey, where they now lie among -their royal kindred in the chapel of Henry VII. - -When Henry VIII set to work to get rid of his Spanish queen, and take -in her place the pretty maid of honour, Anne Boleyn, he let loose -forces which kept the Tower full of distinguished prisoners and gave -the axeman much work. The desire for the divorce led him further than -he anticipated. When he demanded that he be received as the head of the -church, one man, the wisest counsellor of the time, who had held high -office and whose talents fitted him to adorn any station, refused to go -so far. Sir Thomas More, author of Utopia, statesman and philosopher, -after enduring confinement for a few months went to the block and is -buried in St. Peter's chapel, though tradition says that his head -was secured by his faithful daughter, who preserved it carefully and -finally had it buried with her in her tomb. - -A mad "maid of Kent" began to prophesy against the divorce. She ordered -the king to put Anne Boleyn away and to take Catherine back, and -finally began to threaten. When the king acted, he acted vigorously. -The maid and her associates went to Tyburn, and Bishop Fisher, just -then appointed cardinal, who had listened at least, if he had not -encouraged the maid, went to the Tower and soon to the block. - -For six years Henry had sought a legal method of freeing himself from -his matrimonial chains. Then he took matters into his own hands. On -the twenty-fifth of January, 1533, the barge bearing Anne Boleyn, now -acknowledged as queen, attended by fifty others reached the Tower, and -she climbed the Queen's Stairway, where her impatient husband awaited -her. Three years later a barge again bore her along the stream, this -time attended by armed men, but now she was landed at the Traitors' -Gate, a prisoner charged with adultery, and destined to lose her head -upon Tower Green. We know that she bore herself well, protesting her -innocence to the last, and winning the pity of all. The story goes that -no coffin had been prepared for her and that her body was jammed into -an elm chest which happened to be conveniently empty. A few years ago, -in restoring St. Peter's chapel, her bones were found jumbled together, -apparently confirming the story that she had not been permitted to lie -decently buried at full length. - -Only a few years later another queen of England came a prisoner to -the Tower and a victim of the axeman on the Green. Katherine Howard's -hold upon the affections of her fickle lord was no stronger than Anne -Boleyn's, and also charged with misconduct she was beheaded Feb. -15, 1542. With her died her companion and alleged accomplice, Jane, -Viscountess Rochford. - -But the block on Tower Hill outside the walls where the public -executions took place was not idle. Wolsey's death of chagrin saved -him from the Tower and perhaps from the axe, but Thomas Cromwell, -whose devotion to his king had humbled so many, was not so fortunate -as Wolsey. Many things combined to lose him the favour of his royal -master, but nothing perhaps more than his recommendation of Anne of -Cleves as a wife for the fastidious, fickle king. She was so plain -and so awkward that the king was disgusted, and in 1540 Cromwell went -to the Tower and the block as Edward Stafford, the great Duke of -Buckingham, had done twenty years before. - -The death of Henry made a delicate boy of nine years king, as Edward -VI. If, as seemed probable, he should die without descendants, where -would the crown go? Both of his sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, had in -turn been declared illegitimate and out of the succession. Mary was -Spanish in blood on her mother's side, and entirely so in education and -feeling. The young Elizabeth was an unknown quantity. - -John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who had helped to send the king's -uncle, the Duke of Somerset, to the block, again began to plot. Henry -VIII's sister Mary, who married Charles Brandon after the death of -her first husband, Louis XII of France, had left a daughter Frances, -who married Henry Grey, later Duke of Suffolk, and had a daughter -whose right to the throne, if Mary and Elizabeth were put away, was at -least as good as any. So Dudley arranged a marriage between his fourth -son, Guilford, a boy of nineteen, and Lady Jane Grey, a sweet girl of -sixteen, whose pitiful history has power to stir a heart of stone. - -King Edward died July 6, 1553, and Dudley showed what purported to be -his will passing the succession to his cousin, Lady Jane, and next -attempted to secure the person of Princess Mary, who had however been -warned of his purpose. On Monday, July 10, Lady Jane was proclaimed -Queen of England and many great nobles gathered around her. The people -showed no enthusiasm. They knew Dudley, and they felt that Mary was -the rightful heir. So pronounced was public sentiment that the politic -began to gather around Mary, who was proclaimed July 19, and Jane -descended from the throne which she had unwillingly accepted, after a -reign of only nine days. - -Immediately the Tower filled. Lady Jane herself, and her foolish -husband, her father, Dudley and his four other sons and dozens of -less degree were confined, and the axeman was to reap a bloody -harvest. Dudley and his eldest son, the Earl of Warwick, went to the -block almost immediately. Robert Dudley, the husband of Amy Robsart, -afterward the favourite of Queen Elizabeth, and Guilford Dudley lodged -in the Beauchamp tower. Today one sees their names and inscriptions -carved in the soft stone and Guilford, perhaps, twice cut the name, -JANE. - -Mary would have spared her unfortunate cousin if she could have induced -her to conform to the old faith, but Jane's Protestantism was too -firmly fixed, and she had a will of iron beneath her soft and gentle -exterior. Refusing to yield her faith, the Nine Days' Queen went to -Tower Green, her husband to Tower Hill, and shortly afterward her -father followed his friends and his children. - -The queen under the influence of Renard, the agent of Charles V, began -the series of executions for conscience's sake which has given her the -awful title of Bloody Mary. Those who disliked either the Spaniard -or the old church had good cause to fear. Elizabeth was confined in -the Tower for a time, but Mary could not bring herself to order her -execution though strongly advised to do so. But Sir Thomas Wyat, Thomas -Cobham and then the three bishops, Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley, with -hundreds of others crowded the Tower until it overflowed into Newgate -and the Fleet. - -With the accession of Elizabeth the headsman rested. For a century -hardly a year had passed without political executions. During the long -reign of Elizabeth they were few, and for twelve years there were none -at all. Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, who engaged in the plot to -raise Mary Queen of Scots to the throne, was the first; the Earl of -Northumberland was mysteriously murdered in the Bloody tower in 1585, -and Philip, Earl of Arundel, died on the block in 1595. Nor must we -forget Elizabeth's darling, Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, who died -on Tower Green inside the walls in 1601, though the loving but jealous -queen was longing to grant his pardon if he would only ask it. - -But the grim old walls held many tenants, even if the extreme -penalties were not invoked. Margaret, Countess of Lennox, mother of -Lord Darnley, and so grandmother of James I, lived in the Belfry -until after Darnley's death, when she was released, a broken old -woman. Philip Howard, son of Thomas mentioned above, though guilty of -high treason in aiding the enemies of his country, finally died in -the Beauchamp tower. It was during Elizabeth's reign that Sir Walter -Raleigh endured the first of his four imprisonments, this time for the -seduction of the queen's maid of honour and his subsequent disobedience. - -At the accession of James I Raleigh returned to the Tower, as a -concession to Spain, against whose power and influence he had done so -much. He was tried, convicted on perjured testimony and sent back to -remain fourteen years a prisoner. The cowardly king feared to put the -sentence into effect, and so first in the Bloody tower and then in the -Garden house he received his friends, studied geography and chemistry, -seeking a method to sweeten sea water, distilling his wonderful elixir, -and awaiting further evidences of the king's petty nature. The story -that in a little dark cell in the White tower his History of the World -was written has no foundation. That work was written in the Garden -house. On his return from his unsuccessful and unhappy voyage, he lived -in the Brick tower for a little while, was then removed to the Wardrobe -tower, and then brought back to the Brick tower and tempted to commit -suicide. Meanwhile the Spanish court continued to clamour for his -blood, and James, crazed by the hope of the Spanish marriage for his -son, at length signed the death warrant of, perhaps, the greatest man -in England. - -The king's cousin, Lady Arabella Stuart, because of her birth spent -most of her life as a prisoner of state, though she was not brought to -the Tower until after her unsuccessful attempt to escape to France in -1611. From that time until her death in 1615, she was a resident of the -old prison. - -It is said that James would sometimes come to see prisoners tortured -in the gloomy crypt under the White tower, the place where Guy Fawkes -suffered after the discovery of the Gunpowder plot in 1606, before his -execution. - -Executions for treason grow fewer as the years go on. Charles I saw -his unpopular minister, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, go first -to prison and then to Tower Hill in 1641, and the more unpopular Laud, -Archbishop of Canterbury, spent many weary months here in 1645, before -the procession to the scaffold. Cromwell kept George Monk, afterward -Duke of Albemarle, in confinement 1643-46, but during the reign of -Charles II there is less of interest, though Algernon Sydney suffered -the extreme penalty for alleged complicity in the Rye House Plot in -1683, and George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, had three separate terms -here. - -During the short but turbulent reign of James II, the bastard son of -Charles II, James, Duke of Monmouth, spent three days in the Tower, -begging for mercy, after his disastrous defeat at Sedgmoor. The "Seven -Bishops" were confined here awaiting their trial for daring to resist -the king's will, and the infamous Chief Justice Jeffreys, captured -while attempting to escape, died in April, 1689, while awaiting trial. - -After the destruction of Jacobite hopes at Culloden, three Scottish -lords, Kilmarnock, Balmerino and Fraser of Lovat awaited trial for -their devotion to the old line. The first two were executed in 1746, -and the last in 1747, the last man legally beheaded in England. - -A few scattered individuals occupy the pile during the next -seventy-five years. John Wilkes, the great demagogue, was here in 1763, -and Lord George Gordon in 1780. In 1820 seven persons charged with -conspiracy were here, but the days of the Tower as a great prison were -past. - -For many years no persons have been confined within its walls, but -every year thousands go to see the Crown Jewels, the arms and armour, -the instruments of torture and the relics of the kings. They study -the inscriptions upon the walls of the Beauchamp tower, carved by the -fingers of men who knew not what the morrow would bring forth, and -stand upon the ground where England's worst and England's noblest have -stood. - - - - -TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - - -The following corrections have been made to the original text: - - Page 7: by the ruffians who ruled the roost[original has - "roast"] - - Page 40: which was thought of some time ago."[quotation mark - missing in original] - - Page 67: was asked if she would coöperate[original has - "co/operate" split across a line break] - - Page 140: women, according[original has "acording"] to another - eyewitness - - Page 156: full[original has "ful"] view of the males - - Page 160: watch for the officer's approach[original has - "aproach"] - - Page 179: They were accordingly[original has "acordingly"] - apprehended - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History and Romance of Crime, -Chronicles of Newgate, Vol 2, by Arthur Griffiths - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRONICLES OF NEWGATE, VOL 2 *** - -***** This file should be named 50514-0.txt or 50514-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/1/50514/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The History and Romance of Crime, Chronicles of Newgate, Vol 2 - -Author: Arthur Griffiths - -Release Date: November 20, 2015 [EBook #50514] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRONICLES OF NEWGATE, VOL 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/seriestitle.jpg" width="485" height="800" alt="History and Romance of Crime" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<p class="seriestitle"> -The History and<br /> -Romance of<br /> -Crime</p> -</div> - -<p class="tpsubtitle">FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES<br /> -TO THE PRESENT DAY</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/colophon_small.jpg" width="25" height="25" alt="colophon" /> -</div> - -<p class="tppublisher">THE GROLIER SOCIETY</p> - -<p class="tppublisher">LONDON</p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="newchapter" /> - <div class="figcenter"> - <a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a><img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="800" height="506" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><i>The Chapel at Newgate</i></div> - </div> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> - <hr class="newchapter" /> - <div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/newgate_vol2.jpg" width="477" height="800" alt="Chronicles of Newgate Vol. 1 title page" /> - </div> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="title"> -<h1>Chronicles of Newgate<br /> - -<small>FROM THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY<br /> -TO ITS DEMOLITION<br /> -A SKETCH OF THE TOWER</small></h1> -</div> - -<p class="tpauthor"><i>by</i><br /> - -MAJOR ARTHUR GRIFFITHS<br /> - -<i>Late Inspector of Prisons in Great Britain</i></p> - -<p class="tpother"><i>Author of<br /> -"The Mysteries of Police and Crime"<br /> -"Fifty Years of Public Service," etc.</i></p> - -<p class="tpvolume">In Two Volumes<br /> - -Volume II</p> - -<p class="tppublisher">THE GROLIER SOCIETY</p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<p class="sectctr">EDITION NATIONALE</p> -</div> - -<p class="sectctr">Limited to one thousand registered and numbered sets.</p> - -<p class="center">NUMBER 307</p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<p><!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The gaol of Newgate may be taken as the type of all the early prisons, -the physical expression of manifold neglect and mismanagement from the -thirteenth century down to our own times. The case of all prisoners in -England was desperate, their sufferings heartrending, their treatment -an indelible disgrace to a nation claiming to be civilized. The place -of durance was sometimes underground, a dungeon, or subterranean -cellar, into which the prisoners were lowered, to fight with rats for -the meagre pittance of food thrown to them through a trap-door. These -terrible <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">oubliettes</i> were too often damp and noisome, half a foot -deep in water, or with an open sewer running through the centre of -the floor. They had no chimneys, no fire-place, no barrack beds; the -wretched inmates huddled together for warmth upon heaps of filthy rags -or bundles of rotten straw reeking with foul exhalations. There was -not the slightest attempt at ventilation, as we understand the word. -The windows, when they existed, were seldom if ever opened, nor the -doors; the spaces within the prison walls were generally too limited to -<!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>allow of daily exercise, and the prisoners were thus kept continuously -under lock and key. Water, another necessary of life, was doled out in -the scantiest quantities, too small for proper ablutions or cleansing -purposes, and hardly sufficient to assuage thirst. John Howard, the -great philanthropist, tells us of one prison where the daily allowance -of water was only three pints per head, and even this was dependent -upon the good will of the keepers, who brought it or not, as they felt -disposed. At another prison, water could only be had on payment, the -price being a halfpenny for three gallons.</p> - -<p>The rations of food were equally meagre. In some prisons almost nothing -was given; in others, the prisoners subsisted on water-soup—"bread -boiled in mere water." The poor debtors were the worst off. For the -felon, thief, murderer, or highwayman there was a grant either in -money or in kind—a pennyworth of bread per diem, or a shilling's -worth per week, or a certain weight of bread: but the debtors, who -formed three-fourths of the permanent prison population, and whose -liabilities on an average did not exceed ten or fifteen pounds a piece, -were almost starved to death. The bequests of charitable people, -especially intended for their support, were devoted to other uses; -creditors seldom if ever paid the "groat," or fourpence per diem for -the subsistence of their imprisoned debtors required by the Act. Any -alms collected within the prison by direct mendicancy <!-- Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>were commonly -intercepted by the ruffians who ruled the roost. When gaolers applied -to the magistrates for food for the debtors the answer was, "Let them -work or starve;" yet work was forbidden, lest the tools they used might -fall into the hands of criminal prisoners, and furnish means of escape. -At Exeter the prisoners were marched about the city soliciting charity -in the streets. One Christmas-tide, so Howard says, the person who -conducted them broke open the alms-box and absconded with the contents. -The debtors' ward in this gaol was called the "shew," because the -debtors begged by letting down a <em>shoe</em> from the window.</p> - -<p>Prison buildings were mostly inconvenient, ill-planned, and but little -adapted for the purposes of incarceration. Many of them were ancient -strongholds—the gate of some fortified city, the keep or castle or -embattled residence of a great personage. Some lords, spiritual and -temporal, with peculiar powers in their own districts, once had their -prisons, so to speak, under their own roof. Their prisons lingered long -after the power lapsed, and in Howard's time many of the worst prisons -were the private property of individuals, who protected the keepers, -their lessees, and pocketed the gains wrung from the wretched lodgers. -The Duke of Portland was the proprietor of Chesterfield gaol, which -consisted of one room with a cellar under it. For this accommodation, -and the privilege it conferred upon him of demanding gaol fees, the -keeper paid the <!-- Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>Duke an annual rent of eighteen guineas. "The cellar," -Howard says, "had not been cleaned for months, nor the prison door -opened for several weeks." Another disgraceful prison was that owned -by the Bishop of Ely. One bishop had been compelled to rebuild it in -part fourteen years before Howard's visit, but it was still bad. It had -been so insecure that the keeper resorted to a most cruel contrivance -in order to ensure safe custody. Prisoners were chained down upon their -backs upon a floor, across which were several iron bars, with an iron -collar with spikes about their necks, and a heavy iron bar over their -legs. This barbarous treatment formed the subject of a special petition -to the king, supported by a drawing, "with which His Majesty was much -affected, and gave immediate orders for a proper inquiry and redress."</p> - -<p>Loading prisoners with irons was very generally practised, although its -legality was questioned even then. Lord Coke gave his opinion against -the oppression. Bracton affirmed that a sentence condemning a man to -be confined in irons was illegal, and in "Blackstone Commentaries" is -this passage: "The law will not justify jailers in fettering a prisoner -unless when he is unruly, or has attempted an escape." In 1728 the -judges reprimanded the warders of the Fleet prison, and declared that -a jailer could not answer the ironing of a man before he was found -guilty of a crime. When a keeper pleaded necessity for safe custody to -Lord Chief <!-- Page 9 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>Justice King, the judge bade him "build higher his prison -walls." As Buxton observes, the neglect of this legal precaution was no -excuse for the infliction of an illegal punishment. Prisoners should -not suffer because authorities neglect their duty. "Very rarely is a -man ironed for his own misdeeds, but frequently for those of others; -traditional irons on his person are cheaper than additional elevation -to the walls. Thus we cover our own negligence by increased severity to -our captives."</p> - -<p>The irons were so heavy that walking and even lying down to sleep was -difficult and painful. In some county gaols women did not escape this -severity, Howard tells us, but London was more humane. In the London -prisons the custom of ironing even the untried males was long and -firmly established. An interesting letter is extant from John Wilkes, -dated 1771, the year of his shrievalty to the keeper of Newgate, Mr. -Akerman. This letter expresses satisfaction with his general conduct, -and admits his humanity to the unhappy persons under his care. But -Wilkes takes strong exceptions to the practice of keeping the prisoners -in irons at the time of arraignment and trial, which he conceives to be -alike repugnant to the laws of England and humanity.</p> - -<p>"Every person at so critical a moment ought to be without any bodily -pain or restraint, that the mind may be perfectly free to deliberate on -its most interesting and awful concerns, in so alarming a <!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>situation. -It is cruelty to aggravate the feelings of the unhappy in such a state -of distraction, and injustice to deprive them of any means for the -defence of supposed innocence by calling off the attention by bodily -torture at the great moment when the full exertion of every faculty is -most wanting. No man in England ought to be obliged to plead while in -chains; we therefore are determined to abolish the present illegal and -inhuman practice, and we direct you to take off the irons before any -prisoner is sent to the bar either for arraignment or trial."</p> - -<p>Avarice was no doubt a primary cause of the ill-treatment of prisoners, -and heavy fees were exacted to obtain "easement" or "choice" of irons. -This idea of turning gaols to profit underlaid the whole system of -prison management. The gaolers bought or rented their places, and -they had to recoup themselves as best they could. A pernicious vested -interest was thus established, which even the legislature acknowledged. -The sale of strong drink within the prison, and the existence of a -prison tap or bar, were recognized and regulated by law. Drunkenness in -consequence prevailed in all prisons, fostered by the evil practice of -claiming garnish, which did not disappear till well on into the past -century. Another universal method of grinding money out of all who -came within the grip of the law was the extortion of gaol fees. It was -the enormity of demanding such payment from innocent men, acquitted -after a fair trial, who in default were <!-- Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>hauled back to prison, that -first moved Howard to inquire into the custom at various prisons. -As early as 1732 the Corporation of London had promulgated an order -that all prisoners acquitted at the Old Bailey should be released -without fees. But when Howard visited Newgate forty years later, Mr. -Akerman the keeper showed him a table of fees "which was given him -for his direction when he commenced keeper." The sums demanded varied -from 8<i>s.</i> 10<i>d.</i> for a debtor's discharge, to 18<i>s.</i> 10<i>d.</i> for a -felon's, and £3 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> for a bailable warrant. The exactions for -fees, whether for innocent or guilty, tried or untried, was pretty -general throughout the kingdom, although Howard found a few prisons -where there were none. Even in his suggestions for the improvement of -gaols, although recommending the abolition of fees and the substitution -of a regular salary to the gaoler, he was evidently doubtful of -securing so great a reform, for he expresses a hope that if fees were -not altogether abolished they may at least be reduced. However, the -philanthropist found a welcome support from Mr. Popham, M. P. for -Taunton, who in 1773 brought in a bill abolishing gaolers' fees, and -substituting for them fixed salaries payable out of the county rates, -which bill passed into law the following year in an amended form. This -Act provided that acquitted prisoners should be immediately set at -large in open court. Yet the law was openly evaded by the clerks of -assize and clerks of the <!-- Page 12 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>peace, who declared that their fees were not -cancelled by the Act, and who endeavoured to indemnify themselves by -demanding a fee from the gaoler for a certificate of acquittal. In one -case at Durham, Judge Gould at the assizes in 1775 fined the keeper -£50 for detaining acquitted prisoners under this demand of the clerk -of assize, but the fine was remitted on explanation. Still another -pretence often put forward for detaining acquitted prisoners until -after the judge had left the town was, that other indictments might be -laid against them; or yet again, prisoners were taken back to prison to -have their irons knocked off, irons with which, as free, unconvicted -men, they were manacled illegally and unjustly.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most hideous and terrible of all evils was the disgraceful -and almost indiscriminate overcrowding of the gaols. It was immediate -parent of gaol fever. The rarity of gaol deliveries was a proximate -cause of the overcrowding.</p> - -<p>The expense of entertaining the judges was alleged as an excuse for -not holding assizes more than once a year; but at some places—Hull, -for instance—there had been only one gaol delivery in seven years, -although, according to Howard, it had latterly been reduced to three. -Often in the lapse of time principal witnesses died, and there was -an acquittal with a failure of justice. Nor was it only the accused -and unconvicted who lingered out their lives in gaol, but numbers of -perfectly innocent folk <!-- Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>helped to crowd the narrow limits of the -prison-house. Either the mistaken leniency, or more probably the -absolutely callous indifference of gaol-rulers, suffered debtors to -surround themselves with their families, pure women and tender children -brought thus into continuous intercourse with felons and murderers, and -doomed to lose their moral sense in the demoralizing atmosphere. The -prison population was daily increased by a host of visitors, improper -characters, friends and associates of thieves, who had free access to -all parts of the gaol. In every filthy, unventilated cell-chamber the -number of occupants was constantly excessive. The air space for each -was often less than 150 cubic feet, and this air was never changed. Of -one room, with its beds in tiers, its windows looking only into a dark -entry, its fireplace used for the cooking of food for forty persons, -it was said that the man who planned it could not well have contrived -a place of the same dimensions more effectually calculated to destroy -his fellow-creatures. The loathsome corruption that festered unchecked -or unalleviated within the prison houses was never revealed until -John Howard began his self-sacrificing visitations, and it is to the -pages of his "State of Prisons" that we must refer for full details, -some of which would be incredible were they not vouched for on the -unimpeachable testimony of the great philanthropist.</p> - -<p><!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<p><!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - - -<table summary="Table of Contents" border="0"> - <tr> - <th>CHAPTER</th> - <th> </th> - <th>PAGE</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">Introduction</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">5</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">I.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">The Gaol Fever</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">19</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">II.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">The Rebuilding of Newgate</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">37</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">III.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">Celebrated Crimes and Criminals</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">IV.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangscpad">Newgate in the Nineteenth Century</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">116</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">V.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">Philanthropic Efforts</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">128</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">VI.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">The Beginning of Prison Reform</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">150</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">VII.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">Interesting Instances</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">171</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">Newgate Notorieties</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">193</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">IX.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">Later Records</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">251</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdright">X.</td> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">The Tower of London</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">297</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<p><!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="List_of_Illustrations" id="List_of_Illustrations"></a>List of Illustrations</h2> -</div> - - -<table summary="List of Illustrations" border="0"> - <tr> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">Newgate Chapel</td> - <td class="tdpage"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">Compter, Giltspur St., London</td> - <td class="tdpage"><i>Page</i> <a href="#Compter">31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlefthangsc">Thieving Lane (Bow Street)</td> - <td class="tdpage"><i>Page</i> <a href="#Thieving_Lane">78</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdlefthangscpad">The Great Court of the Tower, London</td> - <td class="tdpage"><i>Page</i> <a href="#Great_Court">297</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p><!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<p><!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> -<p class="firsttitle">CHRONICLES OF<br /> -NEWGATE</p> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<br /> - -<small>THE GAOL FEVER</small></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">The gaol fever the visible exponent of foul state of -gaols—Neither sufficient light, air or space—Meagre -rations—Its ravages—Extends from prisons to court-houses—To -villages—Into the army and the fleet—The Black -Assize—The sickness of the House at the King's Bench -prison—The gaol fever in the 17th century—Its outbreaks -in the 18th—The Taunton Assize—Originated in Newgate -in 1750—Extends to Old Bailey with deadly results—The -Corporation alarmed—Seek to provide a remedy—Enquiry -into the sanitary condition of Newgate—Statistics of -deaths—No regular doctor at Newgate—Mr. Akerman's -brave and judicious conduct at a fire in prison—The -sexes intermixed—Debauchery—Gaming—Drunkenness—Moral -contamination—Criminals willingly took military service to -escape confinement in Newgate.</p> -</div> - - -<p>The gaol fever or distemper, which originated in Newgate in 1750, -was the natural product of unsanitary conditions. This fell epidemic -exercised strange terrors by the mystery which once surrounded it; -but this has now been dispelled by the search-light of modern medical -science. All authorities are agreed that it was nothing but that typhus -<!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>fever, which inevitably goes hand in hand with the herding and packing -together of human beings, whether in prisons, workhouses, hospitals, or -densely-populated quarters of a town. The disease is likely to crop up -"wherever men and women live together in places small in proportion to -their numbers, with neglect of cleanliness and ventilation, surrounded -by offensive effluvia, without proper exercise, and scantily supplied -with food." It is easy to understand that the poison would be generated -in gaol establishments such as Newgate; still more, that prisoners -would be saturated with it so as to infect even healthy persons whom -they approached. This is precisely what happened, and it is through the -ravages committed by the disorder beyond the prison walls that we learn -the most. The decimation it caused within the gaol might have passed -unnoticed, but the many authentic cases of the terrible mortality it -occasioned elsewhere forced it upon the attention of the chronicler. It -made the administration of the law a service of real danger, while its -fatal effects can be traced far beyond the limits of the court-house. -Prisoners carried home the contagion to the bosoms of their families, -whence the disease spread into town or village. They took it on board -ship, and imported it into our fleets. "The first English fleet sent -to America lost by it above 2,000 men; . . . the seeds of infection were -carried from the guardships into the <!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>squadrons; and the mortality -thence occasioned was greater than by all other diseases or means of -death put together." It was the same with the army: regiments and -garrisons were infected by comrades who brought the fever from the -gaol; sometimes the escorts returning with deserters temporarily lodged -in prison also sickened and died.</p> - -<p>The earliest mention of a gaol distemper is that quoted by Howard from -Stowe, under date 1414, when "the gaolers of Newgate and Ludgate died, -and prisoners in Newgate to the number of sixty-four." In "Wood's -History of Oxford" there is a record of a contagious fever which broke -out at the assize of Cambridge in 1521. The justices, gentlemen, -bailiffs, and others "resorting thither took such an infection that -many of them died, and almost all that were present fell desperately -sick, and narrowly escaped with their lives." After this comes the -Black Assize at Oxford in 1577, when, Holinshed says, "there arose -amidst the people such a dampe that almost all were smouldered, very -few escaping . . . the jurors presently dying, and shortly after Sir -Robert Bell, Lord Chief Baron." To this account we may add that of -"Baker's Chronicle," which states that all present died within forty -hours, the Lord Chief Baron, the sheriff, and three hundred more. -The contagion spread into the city of Oxford, and thence into the -neighbourhood, where there were many more deaths. Stowe has another -reference to the fever about this date, and <!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>tells us that in the -King's Bench Prison, in the six years preceding the year 1579, a -hundred died of a certain contagion called "the sickness of the house." -Another outbreak occurred at Exeter, 1586, on the occasion of holding -the city assizes, when "a sudden and strange sickness," which had -appeared first among the prisoners in the gaol, was dispersed at their -trial through the audience in court, "whereof more died than escaped," -and of those that succumbed, some were constables, some reeves, some -tithing men or jurors. No wonder that Lord Bacon, in writing on the -subject, should characterize "the smell of the jail the most pernicious -infection, next to the plague. When prisoners have been long and close -and nastily kept, whereof we have had in our time experience twice or -thrice, both judges that sat upon the trial, and numbers of those that -attended the business or were present, sickened upon it and died."</p> - -<p>The gaol distemper is but sparingly mentioned throughout the -seventeenth century, but as the conditions were precisely the same, -it is pretty certain that the disease existed then, as before and -after. But in the first half of the eighteenth century we have detailed -accounts of three serious and fatal outbreaks. The first was at the -Lent Assizes held in Taunton in 1730, "when," Howard says, "some -prisoners who were brought thither from the Ilchester gaol infected the -court; and Lord Chief Baron Pengelly, Sir James Shepherd, sergeant, -<!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>John Pigott, Esq., sheriff, and some hundreds besides, died of the -gaol distemper." The second case occurred also in the west country, -at Launceston, where "a fever which took its rise in the prisons was -disseminated far and near by the county assizes, occasioned the death -of numbers, and foiled frequently the best advice." It is described -as a contagious, putrid, and very pestilential fever, attended -with tremblings, twitchings, restlessness, delirium, with, in some -instances, early frenzy and lethargy; while the victims broke out often -into livid pustules and purple spots. The third case of gaol fever -was in London in 1750, and it undoubtedly had its origin in Newgate. -At the May Sessions at the Old Bailey there was a more than usually -heavy calendar, and the court was excessively crowded. The prisoners -awaiting trial numbered a hundred, and these were mostly lodged in two -rooms fourteen feet by seven, and only seven feet in height; but some, -and no doubt all in turn, were put into the bail dock; many had long -lain close confined in the pestiferous wards of Newgate. The court -itself was of limited dimensions, being barely thirty feet square, and -in direct communication with the bail dock and rooms beyond, whence -an open window, at the farther end of the room, carried a draught -poisoned with infection towards the judges' bench. Of these four, viz., -Sir Samuel Pennant, the Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Abney and Baron Clark, -the judges, and Sir Daniel Lambert, alderman, <!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>were seized with the -distemper, and speedily died; others, to the number of forty, were also -attacked and succumbed. Among them were some of the under-sheriffs, -several members of the bar and of the jury; while in others of lesser -note the disease showed itself more tardily, but they also eventually -succumbed. Indeed, with the exception of two or three, none of -those attacked escaped. The symptoms were the same as these already -described, including the delirium and the spots on the skin.</p> - -<p>The Corporation of London, moved thereto by a letter from the Lord -Chief Justice, and not unnaturally alarmed themselves at the ravages of -a pestilence which spared neither Lord Mayor nor aldermen, set about -inquiring into its origin. A committee was appointed for this purpose -in October, 1750, five months after the last outbreak, and their -instructions were to ascertain "the best means for procuring in Newgate -such a purity of air as might prevent the rise of those infectious -distempers." . . . The committee consulted the Rev. Dr. Hales and Dr. -Pringle, F. R. S., and the latter subsequently published a paper in the -"Transactions of the Philosophical Society," containing much curious -information concerning the disease. The remedy suggested by Dr. Hales, -and eventually approved of by the committee, was to further try the -ventilator which some time previously had been placed upon the top of -Newgate. Nothing less than the reconstruction on an extended plan of -the prison, <!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>which was acknowledged to be too small for its average -population, would have really sufficed, but this, although mooted, -had not yet taken practical shape. The existing ventilator was in -the nature of a main trunk or shaft, into which other air-pipes led -from various parts of the prison. But these were neither numerous nor -effective, while there was no process of extraction or of obtaining -an updraught. To effect this a machine was erected upon the leads -of Newgate with large arms like those of a windmill. Nevertheless, -throughout the execution of the work and afterwards the air of Newgate -continued pestiferous and fatal to all who breathed it.</p> - -<p>The gaol fever or its germs must indeed have been constantly present in -Newgate. The more crowded the prison the more sickly it was. The worst -seasons were the middle of winter or the middle of summer, or when the -weather was damp and wet. The place was seldom without some illness or -other; but in one year, according to Mr. Akerman, about sixteen died in -one month from the gaol distemper. Mr. Akerman declared that the fever -was all over the gaol, and that in ten years he had buried eight or -ten of his servants. He also gave a return to the Commons' committee, -which showed that eighty-three prisoners had died between 1758 and -1765, besides several wives who had come to visit their husbands, and -a number of children born in the gaol. This statement was supported by -<!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>the evidence of the coroner for Middlesex, Mr. Beach, who went even -further, and made out that one hundred and thirty-two had died between -1755 and 1765, or forty-nine more in the two additional years. In 1763 -the deaths had been twenty-eight, all of them of contagion, according -to Mr. Beach, who was also of opinion that a large percentage of all -the deaths which had occurred were due to the gaol fever.</p> - -<p>Twenty years later, when Howard was visiting prisons, he heard it -constantly affirmed by county gaolers that the gaol distemper was -brought into their prisons by those removed under Habeas Corpus from -Newgate. In May, 1763, I find an inquisition was held in the new gaol, -Southwark, upon the body of Henry Vincent, one of five prisoners -removed there from Newgate. It then appeared that the Southwark -prisoners had been healthy till those from Newgate arrived, all five -being infected. About this date too, according to the coroner for -Middlesex, there were several deaths in the new gaol, of prisoners -brought from Newgate who had caught the fever in that prison. This same -coroner had taken eleven "inquisitions" at Newgate in a couple of days, -all of whom he thought had died of the gaol distemper. He was also made -ill himself by going to Newgate. Again in 1772 there was a new alarm -of epidemic. In the sessions of the preceding year there had been an -outbreak of malignant distemper, of which several <!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>had died. An attempt -was made to remodel the ventilator, and other precautions were taken. -Among the latter was a plan to convey the fumes of vinegar through -pipes into the Sessions' House while the courts were sitting. At this -date there was no regular medical officer in attendance on the Newgate -prisoners, although an apothecary was paid something for visiting -occasionally. Howard expresses his opinion strongly on the want. "To -this capital prison," he says, "the magistrates would, in my humble -opinion, do well to appoint a physician, a surgeon, and an apothecary." -The new prison and the last, built by Dance, was just then in process -of erection, and was intended to embody all requirements in prison -construction. But Howard was dissatisfied with it. Although it would -avoid many inconveniences of the old gaol, yet it had some manifest -errors. "It is too late," he goes on, "to point out particulars. All I -say is, that without more than ordinary care, the prisoners in it will -be in great danger of gaol fever."</p> - -<p>William Smith, M. D., who, from a charitable desire to afford medical -assistance to the sick, inspected and reported in 1776 upon the -sanitary conditions of all the London prisons, had not a better opinion -of the new Newgate than had Howard. The gaol had now a regular medical -attendant, but "it was filled with nasty ragged inhabitants, swarming -with vermin, though Mr. Akerman the keeper is extremely humane in -keeping the place as wholesome <!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>as possible. The new prison is built -upon the old principle of a great number being crowded together into -one ward, with a yard for them to assemble in in the day, and a tap -where they may get drink when they please and have the money to pay." -Dr. Smith states that he had no fault to find with the wards, which -were large, airy, high, and as clean as could well be expected where -such a motley crew are lodged. But he condemns the prison, on which so -much had been already spent, and which still required an immense sum to -finish it. Its site was, he thought, altogether faulty. "The situation -of a gaol should be high and dry in an open field, and at a distance -from the town, the building spacious, to obviate the bad effects of a -putrid accumulation of infectious air, and extended in breadth rather -than height. The wards should have many divisions to keep the prisoners -from associating." Dr. Smith found that the numbers who sickened and -died of breathing the impure and corrupted air were much greater than -was imagined. Hence, he says, the absolute necessity for a sufficiency -of fresh air, "the earth was made for us all, why should so small a -portion of it be denied to those unhappy creatures, while so many large -parts lay waste and uncultivated?"</p> - -<p>Another person, well entitled to speak from his own knowledge and -practical experience, declared that the new gaol contrasted very -favourably with the old. This was Mr. Akerman the keeper, who <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>was -the friend of Johnson and Boswell, and whom Dr. Smith and others -call extremely humane. But Mr. Akerman, in giving evidence before a -committee of the House of Commons in 1779, while urging that few were -unhealthy in the new prison, admitted that he had often observed a -dejection of spirits among the prisoners in Newgate which had the -effect of disease, and that many had died broken-hearted. Mr. Akerman -clearly did his best to alleviate the sufferings of those in his -charge. For the poor convicted prisoner, unable to add by private means -or the gifts of friends to the meagre allowance of the penny loaf -per diem, which was often fraudulently under weight, the kind keeper -provided soup out of his own pocket, made of the coarse meat commonly -called clods and stickings.</p> - -<p>Mr. Akerman had many good friends. He was an intimate acquaintance of -Mr. James Boswell, their friendship no doubt having originated in some -civility shown to Dr. Johnson's biographer at one of the executions -which it was Boswell's craze to attend. Boswell cannot speak too highly -of Mr. Akerman. After describing the Lord George Gordon Riots, he says, -"I should think myself very much to blame did I here neglect to do -justice to my esteemed friend Mr. Akerman, keeper of Newgate, who long -discharged a very important trust with an uniform intrepid firmness, -and at the same time a tenderness and a liberal charity, which entitles -him to be recorded with distinguished honour." <!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>He goes on to describe -in detail an incident which certainly proves Mr. Akerman's presence of -mind and capacity as a gaol governor. The story has been often quoted, -but it is so closely connected with the chronicles of Newgate that its -recital cannot be deemed inappropriate here. "Many years ago a fire -broke out in the brick part, which was built as an addition to the -old gaol of Newgate. The prisoners were in consternation and tumult, -calling out, 'We shall be burnt! we shall be burnt! down with the gate! -down with the gate!' Mr. Akerman hastened to them, showed himself at -the gate, and after some confused vociferations of 'Hear him! hear -him!' having obtained silent attention, he calmly told them that the -gate must not go down; that they were under his care, and that they -should not be permitted to escape; but that he could assure them they -need not be afraid of being burnt, for that the fire was not in the -prison properly so called, which was strongly built with stone; and -that if they would engage to be quiet he himself would come to them -and conduct them to the further end of the building, and would not -go out till they gave him leave. To this proposal they agreed; upon -which Mr. Akerman, having first made them fall back from the gate, -went in, and with a determined resolution ordered the outer turnkey -upon no account to open the gate, even though the prisoners (though -he trusted they would not) should break their word and by force bring -himself to order it. <!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>'Never mind me,' he said, 'should that happen.' -The prisoners peaceably followed him while he conducted them through -passages of which he had the keys to the extremity of the gaol which -was most distant from the fire. Having by this very judicious conduct -fully satisfied them that there was no immediate risk, if any at all, -he then addressed them thus: 'Gentlemen, you are now convinced that I -told you true. I have no doubt that the engines will soon extinguish -the fire; if they should not, a sufficient guard will come, and you -shall be all taken out and lodged in the compters. I assure you, upon -my word and honour, that I have not a farthing insured. I have left my -house that I might take care of you. I will keep my promise and stay -with you if you insist upon it; but if you will allow me to go out and -look after my family and property I shall be obliged to you.' Struck -with his behaviour, they called out, 'Master Akerman, you have done -bravely; it was very kind in you; by all means go and take care of your -own concerns.' He did so accordingly, while they remained and were all -preserved." Akerman received still higher praise for this, which was -generally admitted to be courageous conduct. Dr. Johnson, according to -Boswell, had been heard to relate the substance of the foregoing story -"with high praise, in which he was joined by Mr. Edmund Burke." Johnson -also touched upon Akerman's kindness to his prisoners, and "pronounced -this eulogy upon his character. He who <!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>has long had constantly in -his view the worst of mankind, and is yet eminent for the humanity of -his disposition, must have had it originally in a great degree, and -continued to cultivate it very carefully."</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a name="Compter" id="Compter"></a><img src="images/compter.jpg" width="640" height="408" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><i>Compter, Giltspur Street, London</i></div> -</div> - -<p>Another tribute to Akerman's worth comes from a less distinguished -but probably not less genuine source. In the letters of the wretched -Hackman (who killed Miss Reay) he speaks in terms of warm eulogy of -this humane gaoler. "Let me pay a small tribute of praise," he says. -"How often have you and I complained of familiarity's blunting the edge -of every sense on which she lays her hand? . . . what then is the praise -of that gaoler who, in the midst of misery, crimes, and death, sets -familiarity at defiance and still preserves the feelings of a man? The -author of the 'Life of Savage' gives celebrity to the Bristol gaoler, -by whose humanity the latter part of that strange man's life was -rendered more comfortable. Shall no one give celebrity to the present -keeper of Newgate? Mr. Akerman marks every day of his existence by more -than one such deed as this. Know, ye rich and powerful, ye who might -save hundreds of your fellow creatures from starving by the sweepings -of your tables, know that among the various feelings of almost every -wretch who quits Newgate for Tyburn, a concern neither last nor least -is that which he feels upon leaving the gaol of which this man is the -keeper."</p> - -<p>Life in Newgate, with its debauchery and foul discomfort, the nastiness -and squalor of its <!-- Page 33 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>surroundings, the ever-present infectious -sickness, and the utter absence of all cleanliness, or efforts at -sanitation, must have been terrible. Evil practices went on without -let or hindrance inside its walls. There is clear evidence to show -that the sexes were intermixed during the daytime. The occupants of -the various wards had free intercourse with each other: they had a -reciprocal conversation, exchanged visits, and assisted each other with -such accommodation as the extension of their wretched circumstances -permitted. Dinner was at two in the afternoon, and when prisoners -possessed any variety or novelty in food, they were ready to trade or -barter with it among themselves. After dinner the rest of the day and -night was spent at "cards, draughts, fox and geese," or, as gambling -was not interdicted, at games of chance, which led to numerous frauds -and quarrels. Rapid moral deterioration was inevitable in this criminal -sty. The prison was still and long continued a school of depravity, -to which came tyros, some already viciously inclined, some still -innocent, to be quickly taught all manner of iniquity, and to graduate -and take honours in crime. It is on record that daring robberies were -concocted in Newgate between felons incarcerated and others at large, -who came and went as they pleased. The gaol was the receptacle for -smuggled or stolen goods; false money was coined in the dark recesses -of its gloomy wards and passed out into circulation. Such work was the -natural employment <!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>of otherwise unoccupied brains and idle hands. -Thefts inside the gaol were of common occurrence. The prisoners picked -the pockets of visitors whenever they had the chance, or robbed one -another. There is a brief account of Newgate about this period in -the "Memoirs of Casanova," who saw the interior of the prison while -awaiting bail for an assault. Casanova was committed in ball dress, and -was received with hisses, which increased to furious abuse when they -found he did not answer their questions, being ignorant of English. He -felt as if he was in one of the most horrible circles of Dante's hell. -He saw, "Des figures fauves, des regards de vipères, des sinistres -sourires tous les caractères de l'envie de la rage, du desespoir; -c'était un spectacle epouvantable."</p> - -<p>It was not strange that the inmates of Newgate should hold this -miserable life of theirs pretty cheap, and be ready to risk it in any -way to compass enlargement from gaol. Newgate was always constantly -drawn upon by those who wanted men for any desperate enterprise. In -the early days of inoculation, soon after it had been introduced -from the East by Lady Mary Wortly Montague, and when it was still -styled engrafting, the process was first tried upon seven condemned -prisoners, with a certain success. Again, a reprieve was granted to -another convict under sentence of death, on condition that he permit -an experiment to be performed on his ear. The process, which was the -invention of a <!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>Mr. Charles Elden, was intended to cure deafness by -cutting the tympanum. Sometimes a convicted criminal was allowed to -choose between a year's imprisonment in Newgate or taking service under -the Crown. There are also many entries in the State Papers of prisoners -pardoned to join His Majesty's forces. Not that these very questionable -recruits were willingly accepted. I find on 13th May, 1767, in reply -to a letter forwarding a list of convicts so pardoned, a protest from -the Secretary of War, who says that commanding officers are very much -averse to accepting the services of these gaol-birds, and have often -solicited him not to send them out to their regiments. The practice -was the more objectionable as at that time the term of service for -free volunteers was for life, while the ex-convicts only joined the -colours for a limited period. The point was not pressed therefore in -its entirety, but the concession made, that these convicts should be -enlarged for special service on the west coast of Africa. It was argued -that "considering the unhealthiness of the climate, His Majesty is -desirous that the troops stationed there should be recruited rather -with such men as must look upon that duty as a mitigation of their -sentences than with deserving volunteers." But to this again objections -were raised by the agent to the troops at Senegal, who pointed out -the extreme danger to life and property of sending nineteen sturdy -cut-throats armed and accoutred to reside within the walls of a feeble -place, <!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>having a total garrison of sixty men, adding that, "should -this embarkation of thieves take place he would be glad to insure his -property at seventy-five per cent."</p> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<p><!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<br /> - -<small>THE REBUILDING OF NEWGATE</small></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">In 1762 Press-yard destroyed by fire—Two prisoners burnt to -death—It is decided to rebuild—Lord Mayor Beckford lays -first stone in 1770—The new gaol is gutted in the Lord George -Gordon riots—Origin of these riots—Lord George, at head -of procession, presents petition to House of Commons—Mob -attracted to Newgate—The gaoler, Mr. Akerman, summoned -to surrender, and release his prisoners—Rioters storm -Newgate—Sack Governor's house—Rioters, headed by Dennis the -hangman, rush in and set inmates free—Other gaols attacked and -burnt—The military called out—Lord George arrested, lodged -in the Tower, and tried for high treason, but acquitted, and -sentenced to fines and imprisonment in Newgate—Dies in Newgate -of gaol fever, 1793.</p> -</div> - - -<p>In 1757 the residents in the immediate neighbourhood of Newgate raised -their protest against the gaol, and petitioned the Corporation, -"setting forth their apprehensions from their vicinity to Newgate, -and from the stenches proceeding therefrom, of being subject to an -infectious disease called the gaol distemper." Upon receipt of this -petition, the Common Council appointed a fresh committee, and the -various allegations were gone into seriatim. They next surveyed the -gaol itself and the surrounding premises, examined the site with -a view to rebuilding, and had plans prepared with estimates and -<!-- Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>specifications as to cost of ground and construction. The projected -design embraced a series of quadrangles, one for the debtors and -another for the felons, with an area for each. The probable expense -for the work which the committee were of the opinion was greatly -needed would amount to about £40,000, for which sum "they did resolve -to petition Parliament for a grant." This petition was, however, -never presented. Mr. Alderman Dickens, having spoken privately to the -Chancellor of the Exchequer on the subject, was informed that no public -money would be forthcoming, and the project again fell through.</p> - -<p>It did not entirely drop notwithstanding. To the credit of the -Corporation it must be stated, that many attempts were made to grapple -with the difficulties of ways and means. Application was made to -Parliament more than once for power to raise money for the work by some -proportionable tax on the city and county, but always without avail. -Parties differed as to the manner in which funds should be obtained, -yet all were agreed upon the "immediate necessity for converting this -seat of misery and disease, this dangerous source of contagion, into -a secure and wholesome place of confinement." The matter became more -urgent, the occasion more opportune, when that part of the prison -styled the press-yard was destroyed by fire in 1762.</p> - -<p>Some account of this fire may be inserted here. <!-- Page 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>It broke out in the -middle of the night at the back of the staircase in the press-yard, -and in a few hours consumed all the apartments in that place, and -greatly damaged the chapel. Other adjoining premises, particularly -that of a stocking-trimmer in Phœnix Court, were greatly injured -by the fire. Worst of all, two prisoners perished in the flames. One -was Captain Ogle, who had been tried for murdering the cook of the -Vine Tavern, near Dover St., Piccadilly, but had been found insane on -arraignment, and had accordingly been detained in prison "during His -Majesty's pleasure." There was no Broadmoor asylum in those days for -criminal lunatics and Newgate was a poor substitute for the palatial -establishment now standing among the Berkshire pine woods. The fire -was supposed to have originated in Captain Ogle's room. Beneath it -was one occupied by Thomas Smith, a horse-dealer, committed to prison -on suspicion of stealing corn from Alderman Masters. Smith's wife -the night before the conflagration had carried him the whole of his -effects, amounting to some five or six hundred pounds in notes and bank -bills. When the fire was raging Smith was heard to cry out for help. He -was seen also to put his arm through the iron grating, which, however, -was so excessively hot that it set his shirt on fire. About this time -it is supposed that he threw out his pocket-book containing the notes; -it was caught and the valuables saved. A few minutes later the floor -fell in, and <!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>both Captain Ogle and Smith were buried in the ruins. -The fire had burnt so fiercely and so fast that no one could go to the -assistance of either of these unfortunates. About four o'clock in the -morning the Lord Mayor and sheriffs arrived upon the scene, and took an -active part in the steps taken to check the fire and provide for the -safety of the prisoners. By six o'clock, there being an abundance of -water handy, the flames had greatly abated, but the fire continued to -burn till two in the afternoon, and ended by the fall of a party wall -which happily did no great damage. This was no doubt the fire at which -Mr. Akerman behaved with such intrepidity, and which has already been -described.</p> - -<p>After the fire it was admitted that the proper time had arrived for -"putting in execution the plan of rebuilding this inconvenient gaol, -which was thought of some time ago." Once more a committee of the -Common Council was appointed, and once more the question of site was -considered, with the result that the locality of the existing prison -was decided upon as the most suitable and convenient. The first stone -of the new gaol was laid on the 31st May, 1770, by the Lord Mayor, -William Beckford, Esquire, the founder of that family.</p> - -<p>Within a year or two of its completion, the new Newgate had to pass -through an ordeal which nearly ended its existence. Its boasted -strength as a place of durance was boldly set at naught, and almost -for the first and last time in this country <!-- Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>this gaol, with others in -the metropolis, was sacked and its imprisoned inmates set free. The -occasion grew out of the so-called Lord George Gordon Riots in 1780. -These well-known disturbances had their origin in the relaxation of -the penal laws against the Roman Catholics. Such concessions raised -fanatical passion to fever pitch. Ignorance and intolerance went hand -in hand, and the malcontents, belonging mainly to the lowest strata -of society, found a champion in a weak-minded and misguided cadet of -the ducal house of Gordon. Lord George Gordon, who was a member of the -House of Commons, showed signs of eccentricity soon after he took his -seat, but it was at first more ridiculous than mischievous. Lord George -became more dangerously meddlesome when the anti-Catholic agitation -began. It was to him that the Protestant association looked for -countenance and support, and when Lord North at his instance refused to -present a petition from that society to Parliament, Lord George Gordon -promised to do so in person, provided it was backed by a multitude not -less than twenty thousand strong.</p> - -<p>This led to the great gathering in St. George's Fields on the 2nd -June, 1780, when thousands organized themselves into three columns, -and proceeded to the House of Commons across the three bridges, -Westminster, Blackfriars, and London Bridge. Lord George headed the -Westminster procession, and all three concentrated at St. Stephen's -<!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>between two and three in the afternoon. There the mob filled every -avenue and approach; crowds overflowed the lobbies, and would have -pushed into the body of the House. Lord George went ahead with -the monster petition, which bore some hundred and twenty thousand -signatures or "marks," and which the Commons by a negative vote of 192 -to 6 refused to receive. After this the rioters, at the instigation -of their leader, hastened <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en masse</i> to destroy the chapels of the -foreign ambassadors. This was followed by other outrages. While some of -their number attacked and rifled the dwellings of persons especially -obnoxious to them, others set fire to public buildings, and ransacked -the taverns. The military had been called out early in the day, and had -made many arrests. As the prisoners were taken to Newgate, the fury of -the populace was attracted to this gaol, and a large force, computed -at quite two-thirds of the rioters, proceeded thither, determined to -force open its gates. This mob was composed of the lowest scum of the -town, roughs brutal and utterly reckless, having a natural loathing -for prisons, their keepers, and all the machinery of the law. Many -already knew, and but too well, the inside of Newgate, many dreaded to -return there, either as lodgers or travellers bound on the fatal road -to Tyburn. One wild fierce desire was uppermost with all, one thought -possessed their minds to the exclusion of all others—to destroy the -hateful prison-house and raze it to the ground.</p> - -<p><!-- Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p><p>On arriving at the Old Bailey in front of the stone façade, as grim -and solid as that of any fortress, the mob halted and demanded the -gaoler, Mr. Akerman, who appeared at a window, some say on the roof, -of his house, which forms the centre of the line of buildings facing -Newgate Street. When he appeared the mob called on him to release their -confederates and surrender the place unconditionally. Mr. Akerman -distinctly and without hesitation refused, and then, dreading what -was coming, he made the best of his way to the sheriffs, in order -to know their pleasure. As the front of the prison was beset by the -densely-packed riotous assemblage, Mr. Akerman probably made use of -the side wicket and passage which leads direct from Newgate into the -Sessions' House. The magistrates seemed to have been in doubt how to -act, and for some time did nothing. "Their timidity and negligence," -says Boswell, helped the almost incredible exertions of the mob. And -he is of opinion, that had proper aid been given to Mr. Akerman, the -sacking of Newgate would certainly have been prevented. While the -magistrates hesitated the mob were furiously active; excited to frenzy, -they tried to beat down the gate with sledge-hammers, and vainly -sought to make some impression on the massive walls. A portion of the -assailants forced their way into the governor's house, and laying -hands upon his furniture, with all other combustibles, dragged them -out and made a great <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>pile in front of the obdurate door, which still -resisted force. The heap of wood, having been anointed with rosin and -turpentine, was kindled, and soon fanned into a mighty blaze. The door, -heavily barred and bolted, and strongly bound with iron, did not ignite -quite readily, but presently it took fire and burned steadily, though -slowly. Meanwhile the rioters fed the flames with fresh fuel, and -snatching burning brands from the fire, cast them on to the roof and -over the external wall into the wards and yards within. The prisoners -inside, who had heard without fully understanding the din, and saw the -flames without knowing whether they promised deliverance or foreboded -a dreadful death, suffered the keenest mental torture, and added their -agonized shouts to the general uproar.</p> - -<p>Through all this tumult and destruction the law was paralyzed. After -much delay the sheriff sent a party of constables to the gaolers' -assistance. But they came too late, and easily fell into a trap. The -rioters suffered them to pass until they were entirely encircled, then -attacked them with great fury, disarmed them, took their staves, and -quickly converted them at the fire into blazing brands, which they -threw about to extend the flames. "It is scarcely to be credited," -says a narrator, "with what celerity a gaol which to a common observer -appeared to be built with nothing that would burn, was destroyed by -the flames. So efficient were the means employed, that the work of -destruction was <!-- Page 45 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>very rapid. Stones two or three tons in weight, -to which the doors of the cells were fastened, were raised by that -resistless species of crow known to housebreakers by the name of the -pig's foot. Such was the violence of the fire, that the great iron bars -and windows were eaten through and the adjacent stones vitrified. Nor -is it less astonishing that from a prison thus in flames a miserable -crew of felons in irons and a company of confined debtors, to the -number in the whole of more than three hundred, could all be liberated -as it were by magic, amidst flames and fire-brands, without the loss of -a single life. . . . But it is not at all to be wondered that by a body of -execrable villains thus let loose upon the public, the house of that -worthy and active magistrate, Sir John Fielding, should be the first -marked for vengeance." In the same way, even before the destruction -of Newgate, the house of Justice Hyde, whose activity the rioters -resented, had also been stripped of its furniture, which was burnt in -front of the door.</p> - -<p>Crabbe's account written at the time to a friend is graphic, and -contains several new details—"How Akerman, the governor, escaped," -he says, "or where he is gone, I know not; but just at the time I -speak of they set fire to his house, broke in, and threw every piece -of furniture they could find into the street, firing them also in an -instant. The engines came, but they were only suffered to preserve -the private houses near the prison. As I <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>was standing near the spot, -there approached another body of men—I suppose five hundred—and -Lord George Gordon, in a coach drawn by the mob, towards Alderman -Bull's, bowing as he passed along. He is a lively-looking young man in -appearance and nothing more, though just now the popular hero. By eight -o'clock Akerman's house was in flames. I went close to it, and never -saw anything so dreadful. The prison was, as I have said, a remarkably -strong building; but, determined to force it, they broke the gates -with crows and other instruments, and climbed up outside of the cell -part, which joins the two great wings of the building where the felons -were confined; and I stood where I plainly saw their operations; they -broke the roof, tore away the rafters, and having got ladders, they -descended. Not Orpheus himself had more courage or better luck. Flames -all around them, and a body of soldiers expected, yet they laughed at -all opposition. The prisoners escaped. I stood and saw about twelve -women and eight men ascend from their confinement to the open air, and -they were conducted through the streets in their chains. Three of these -were to be hanged on Friday (two days later).</p> - -<p>"You have no conception of the frenzy of the multitude. This now being -done, and Akerman's house now a mere shell of brick-work, they kept a -store of flame for other purposes. It became red-hot, and the doors and -windows appeared like the <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>entrance to so many volcanoes. With some -difficulty they then fired the debtors' prison, broke the doors, and -they too all made their escape. Tired of the scene, I went home, and -returned again at eleven o'clock at night. I met large bodies of horse -and foot soldiers coming to guard the Bank and some houses of Roman -Catholics near it. Newgate was at this time open to all; any one might -get in, and what was never the case before, any one might get out. I -did both, for the people were now chiefly lookers-on. The mischief was -done, and the doers of it gone to another part of the town. . . . But -I must not omit what struck me most: about ten or twelve of the mob -getting to the top of the debtors' prison whilst it was burning, to -halloo, they appeared rolled in black smoke mixed with sudden bursts of -fire—like Milton's infernals, who were as familiar with flames as with -each other."</p> - -<p>It should be added here that the excesses of the rioters did not end -with the burning of Newgate; they did other mischief. Five other -prisons, the new prison, Clerkenwell, the Fleet, the King's Bench, the -Borough Clink in Tooley Street, and the new Bridewell, were attacked, -their inmates released, and the buildings set on fire. At one time the -town was convulsed with terror at a report that the rioters intended -to open the gates of Bedlam, and let loose gangs of raving lunatics to -range recklessly about. They made an attempt upon the Bank of England, -but were repulsed with loss by <!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>John Wilkes and the soldiers on guard. -At one time during the night as many as thirty-six incendiary fires -were ablaze. The troops had been called upon to support the civil -power, and had acted with vigour. There was fighting in nearly all -the streets, constant firing. At times the soldiers charged with the -bayonet. The streets ran with blood. In all, before tranquillity was -restored, nearly five hundred persons had been killed and wounded, and -to this long bill of mortality must be added the fifty-nine capitally -convicted under the special commission appointed to try the rioters.</p> - -<p>It was in many cases cruel kindness to set the prisoners free. Numbers -of the debtors of the King's Bench were loth to leave their place of -confinement, for they had no friends and nowhere else to go. Of the -three hundred released so unexpectedly from Newgate, some returned -on their own accord a few days later and gave themselves up. It is -said that many others were drawn back by an irresistible attraction, -and were actually found loitering about the open wards of the prison. -Fifty were thus retaken within the walls the day after the fire, and -others kept dropping by twos and threes to examine their old haunts -and see for themselves what was going on. Some were found trying to -rekindle the fire; some merely prowled about the place, "being often -found asleep in the ruins, or sitting talking there, or even eating and -drinking, as in a choice retreat."</p> - -<p><!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p><p>The ringleader and prime mover, Lord George Gordon, was arrested on -the evening of the 9th, and conveyed to the Tower. His trial did not -come on till the following February at the King's Bench, where he was -indicted for high treason. He was charged with levying war against -the majesty of the king; "not having the fear of God before his eyes, -but being moved and seduced by the instigation of the devil; . . . that -he unlawfully, maliciously, and traitorously did compass, imagine, -and intend to raise and levy war, insurrection, and rebellion," and -assembled with some five hundred more, "armed and arrayed in a warlike -manner, with colours flying, and with swords, clubs, bludgeons, staves -and other weapons," in the liberty of Westminster. It was proved in -evidence that Lord George directed the Associated Protestants to meet -him at Westminster in their best clothes, and with blue cockades in -their hats, and said he should wear one himself. He was also heard to -declare that the king had broken his coronation oath, and to exhort -the mob to continue steadfast in so good and glorious a cause. For the -defence it was urged that Lord George Gordon had desired nothing but to -compass by all legal means the repeal of the Act of Toleration; that he -had no other view than the Protestant interest, and had always demeaned -himself in the most loyal manner. He had hoped that the great gathering -would be all peaceable; that the mob "should not so much as take -sticks in their <!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>hands," should abstain from all violence, surrender -at once any one riotously disposed; in a word, should exhibit the true -Protestant spirit, and if struck should turn the other cheek. Mr. -Erskine, Lord George's counsel, after pointing out that his client had -suffered already a long and rigorous imprisonment, his great youth, his -illustrious lineage and zeal in parliament for the constitution of his -country, urged that the evidence and the whole tenor of the prisoner's -conduct repelled the belief of traitorous purpose. The jury retired for -half an hour, and then brought in a verdict of not guilty.</p> - -<p>Lord George, unhappily, could not keep out of trouble, although -naturally of mild disposition. He was an excitable, rather weak-minded -man, easily carried away by his enthusiasm on particular points. Six -years later he espoused, with customary warmth and want of judgment, -the case of other prisoners in Newgate, and published a pamphlet -purporting to be a petition from them presented to himself, praying him -to "interfere and secure their liberties by preventing their being sent -to Botany Bay. Prisoners labouring under severe sentences cried out -from their dungeons for redress. Some were about to suffer execution -without righteousness, others to be sent off to a barbarous country." -"The records of justice have been falsified," the pamphlet went on to -say, "and the laws profanely altered by men like ourselves. The bloody -laws against us have been enforced, under a normal administration, <!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>by -mere whitened walls, men who possess only the show of justice, and who -condemned us to death contrary to law."</p> - -<p>That this silly production should be made the subject of a criminal -information for libel, rather justifies the belief that an exaggerated -importance was given to Lord George's vagaries, both by the Government -and his own relations and friends. No doubt he was a thorn in the side -of his family, but the ministry could well have afforded to treat him -and his utterances with contempt. He was, however, indicted at the -King's Bench for publishing the petition, which he had actually himself -written, with a view to raise a tumult among the prisoners within -Newgate, or cause a disturbance by exciting the compassion of those -without.</p> - -<p>The case against him was very clearly made out, and as his offence -consisted of two parts, Lord George Gordon was subjected to two -different sentences. For the first, the publication of the "prisoners' -petition," the judge awarded him three years' imprisonment in Newgate. -For the second offence, being "trespasses, contempts, and misdemeanours -against the royal consort of his most Christian Majesty," the sentence -was a fine of £500, with a further imprisonment in Newgate at the -termination of the other three; and in addition he was required to give -security for fourteen years for his good behaviour, himself in £10,000, -and two sureties of £2500 each.</p> - -<p><!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p><p>Lord George Gordon remained in Newgate till his death, from -gaol-fever, in 1793. He made two or three ineffectual attempts to put -in his bail, but they were objected to as insufficient. It was thought -to the last that the government and his friends sought pretences to -keep him in confinement and out of mischief. His somewhat premature -death must have been a relief to them. But it can hardly be denied -that hard measure was meted out to him, and if he escaped too easily -at his first trial, he was too heavily punished at the second. It -is impossible to absolve him from responsibility for the outrages -committed by the rioters in 1780, although he was doubtless shocked -at their excesses. Lord George could not have foreseen the terrible -consequences which would follow his rash agitation, and little knew -how dangerous were the elements of disturbance he unchained. But it -can hardly be denied that he meant well. Had he lived a century later, -he would probably have found a more legitimate outlet for his peculiar -tendencies, and would have figured as an ardent philanthropist and -platform orator, instead of as a criminal in the dock.</p> - -<p>The damages which Newgate sustained at this time were repaired at a -cost of about twenty thousand pounds.</p> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<br /> - -<small>CELEBRATED CRIMES AND CRIMINALS</small></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">State of crime on opening new gaol—Newgate full—Executions -very numerous—Ruthless penal code—Forgery punished -with death—The first forgery of Bank of England -notes—Gibson—Bolland—The two Perreaus—Dr. Dodd—Charles -Price, <em>alias</em> Old Patch—Clipping still largely -practised—John Clarke hanged for it—Also William Guest, a -clerk in Bank of England—His elaborate apparatus for filing -guineas—Coining—Forty or fifty private mints for making -counterfeits—Offences against life and property—Streets -unsafe—High roads infested by robbers—No regular -police—Daring Robberies at lévees—The Duke of Beaufort robbed -by Gentleman Harry—George Barrington, the gentleman thief, -frequents Ranelagh, the Palace, the Opera House—Highwaymen -put down by the horse patrol—"Long firm" swindlers—Female -Sharpers—Elizabeth Grieve and others pretend to sell -places under the Crown—Other forms of swindling—Juvenile -depravity—A girl for sale—Prize-fighting—Early martyrs to -freedom of speech—Prynne, Bastwick and Daniel Defoe—The Press -oppressed—The "North Briton"—Wilkes—William Cobbett in -Newgate—Also the Marquis of Sligo.</p> -</div> - - -<p>In the years immediately following the erection of the new gaol, -crime was once more greatly in the ascendant. After the peace which -gave independence to the United States, the country was overrun with -discharged soldiers and sailors. The majority were in dire poverty, and -took to depredation <!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>almost as a matter of course. The calendars were -particularly heavy. At this date there were forty-nine persons lying in -Newgate under sentence of death, one hundred and eighty under sentence -of transportation, and prisoners of other categories, making the total -prison population up to nearly six hundred souls.</p> - -<p>Speaking of those times, Mr. Townshend, a veteran Bow Street runner, in -his evidence before a Parliamentary Committee in 1816, declared that -in the years 1781-7 as many as twelve, sixteen, or twenty were hanged -at one execution; twice he saw forty hanged at one time. In 1783 there -were twenty at two consecutive executions. He had known, he said, as -many as two hundred and twenty tried at one sessions. He had himself -obtained convictions of from thirteen to twenty-five for returning from -transportation. Upon the same authority we are told that in 1783 the -Secretary of State advised the King to punish with all severity. The -enormity of the offences was so great, says Mr. Townshend, and "plunder -had got to such an alarming pitch," that a letter was circulated among -judges and recorders then sitting, to the effect that His Majesty would -dispense with the recorders' reports, and that the worst criminals -should be picked out and at once ordered for execution.</p> - -<p>The penal code was at this period still ruthlessly severe in England. -There were some two hundred <!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>capital felonies upon the statute book. -Almost any member of parliament eager to do his share in legislation -could "create a capital felony." A story is told of Edmund Burke, -that he was leaving his house one day in a hurry, when a messenger -called him back on a matter which would not detain him a minute: -"Only a felony without benefit of clergy." Burke also told Sir -James Mackintosh, that although scarcely entitled to ask a favour -of the ministry, he thought he had influence enough to create a -capital felony. It is true that of the two hundred, not more than -five-and-twenty sorts of felonies actually entailed execution. It is -also true that some of the most outrageous and ridiculous reasons -for its infliction had disappeared. It was no longer death to take a -falcon's egg from the nest, nor was it a hanging matter to be thrice -guilty of exporting live sheep. But a man's life was still appraised -at five shillings. Stealing from the person, or in a dwelling, or in -a shop, or on a navigable river, to that amount, was punished with -death. "I think it not right nor justice," wrote Sir Thomas More in -1516, "that the loss of money should cause the loss of man's life; -for mine opinion is that all the goods in the world are not able -to countervail man's life." Three hundred years was still to pass -before the strenuous efforts of Sir Samuel Romilly bore fruit in the -amelioration of the penal code. In 1810 he carried a bill through -the House of Commons, which was, however, rejected by the Lords, <!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>to -abolish capital punishment for stealing to the amount of five shillings -in a shop. His most bitter opponents were the great lawyers of the -times, Lords Ellenborough, Eldon, and others, Lords Chancellors and -Lords Chief Justice, who opposed dangerous innovations, and viewed -with dismay any attempt "to alter laws which a century had proved to -be necessary." Lord Eldon on this occasion said that he was firmly -convinced of the wisdom of the principles and practice of the criminal -code. Romilly did not live to see the triumph of his philanthropic -endeavours. He failed to procure the repeal of the cruel laws against -which he raised his voice, but he stopped the hateful legislation which -multiplied capital felonies year by year, and his illustrious example -found many imitators. Within a few years milder and more humane ideas -very generally prevailed. In 1837 the number of offences to which the -extreme penalty could be applied was only seven, and in that year only -eight persons were executed, all of them for murders of an atrocious -character.</p> - -<p>Forgery, at the period of which I am now treating, was an offence -especially repugnant to the law. No one guilty of it could hope to -escape the gallows. The punishment was so certain, that as milder -principles gained ground, many benevolent persons gladly withdrew from -prosecution where they could. Instances were known in which bankers -and other opulent people compromised with the delinquent <!-- Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>rather -than be responsible for taking away a fellow-creature's life. The -prosecutor would sometimes pretend his pockets had been picked of the -forged instrument, or he destroyed it, or refused to produce it. An -important witness sometimes kept out of the way. Persons have gone so -far as to meet forged bills of exchange, and to a large amount. In one -case it was pretty certain they would not have advanced the money had -the punishment been short of death, because the culprit had already -behaved disgracefully, and they had no desire he should escape a lesser -retribution. Prosecutors have forfeited their recognizances sooner than -appear, and have even, when duly sworn, withheld a portion of their -testimony.</p> - -<p>But at the time of which I am now writing the law generally took -its course. In the years between 1805 and 1818 there had been two -hundred and seven executions for forgery; more than for either murder, -burglary, or robbery from the person. It may be remarked here that the -Bank of England was by far the most bitter and implacable as regards -prosecutions for forgery. Of the above-mentioned executions for this -crime, no less than seventy-two were the victims of proceedings -instituted by the Bank of England. Forgeries upon this great monetary -corporation had been much more frequent since the stoppage of specie -payments, which had been decreed by the Parliament in 1797 to save -the Bank from collapse. Alarms of invasion had produced <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>such a -run upon it, that on one particular day little more than a million -in cash or bullion remained in the cellars, which had already been -drained of specie for foreign subsidies and subventions. Following the -cessation of cash payments to redeem its paper in circulation, the -Bank had commenced the issue of notes to the value of less than five -pounds, and it was soon found that these, especially the one-pound -notes, were repeatedly forged. In the eight years preceding 1797 but -few prosecutions had been instituted by the Bank; but in the eight -years which followed there were one hundred and forty-six convictions -for the offence. At last, about 1818, a strong and general feeling -of dissatisfaction grew rife against these prosecutions. The crime -had continued steadily to increase, in spite of the awful penalties -conviction entailed. It was proved, moreover, that note forgery was -easily accomplished. Detection, too, was most difficult. The public -were unable to distinguish between the good and bad notes. Bank -officials were themselves often deceived, and cases were known where -the clerks had refused payment of the genuine article. Juries began -to decline to convict on the evidence of inspectors and clerks, -unless substantiated by the revelation of the private mark, a highly -inconvenient practice, which the Bank itself naturally discountenanced. -Efforts were made to improve the quality of the note, so as to defy -imitation; but this could not well be done at the price, and, as the -only effective <!-- Page 59 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>remedy, specie payments were resumed, and the one-pound -note withdrawn from circulation. But execution for forgery continued -to be the law for many more years. Fauntleroy suffered for it in 1824; -Joseph Hunton, the Quaker linen-draper, in 1828; and Maynard, the last, -in the following year.</p> - -<p>I am, however, anticipating somewhat, and must retrace my steps, and -indicate briefly one or two of the early forgers who passed through -Newgate and suffered for the crime. The first case I find recorded is -that of Richard Vaughan, a linen-draper of Stafford, who was committed -to Newgate in March, 1758, for counterfeiting Bank of England notes. -He employed several artists to engrave the notes in various parts, one -of whom informed against him. The value of the note he himself added. -Twenty which he had thus filled up he had deposited in the hands of a -young lady to whom he was paying his addresses, as a guarantee of his -wealth. Vaughan no doubt suffered, although I see no record of the fact -in the Newgate Calendar.</p> - -<p>Mr. Gibson's was a curious case. He was a prisoner in Newgate for -eighteen months between conviction and execution, the jury having found -a special verdict, subject to the determination of the twelve judges. -As Gibson remained so long in gaol, it was the general opinion that no -further notice would be taken of the case. The prisoner himself must -have been buoyed up with this hope, as he petitioned repeatedly for -judgment. He had been <!-- Page 60 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>sentenced in Sept. 1766, and in 1768, at Hilary -Term, the judges decided that his crime came within the meaning of the -law. Gibson had been a solicitor's clerk, who gave so much satisfaction -that he was taken into partnership. The firm was doing a large -business, and among other large affairs was intrusted with a Chancery -case, respecting an estate for which an <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad interim</i> receiver had -been appointed. Gibson's way of life was immoral and extravagant. He -had urgent need of funds, and in an evil hour he forged the signature -of the Accountant-General to the Court of Chancery, and so obtained -possession of some of the rents of the above-mentioned estate. The -fraud was presently discovered; Gibson was arrested, and eventually, -as already stated, condemned. "After sentence," says the Calendar, -"his behaviour was in every way becoming his awful situation; . . . he -appeared rational, serious, and devout. His behaviour was so pious, -so resigned, and in all respects so admirably adapted to his unhappy -situation, that the tears of the commiserating multitude accompanied -his last ejaculation. He was carried to execution in a mourning coach," -an especial honour reserved for malefactors of aristocratic antecedents -and gentle birth.</p> - -<p>James Bolland, who was executed in 1772, deserved and certainly -obtained less sympathy. Bolland long filled the post of a sheriff's -officer, and as such became the lessee of a spunging-house, where -he practised boundless extortion. He was <!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>a man of profligate life, -whose means never equalled his extravagant self-indulgence, and he was -put to all manner of shifts to get money. More than once he arrested -debtors, was paid all claims in full, and appropriated the money to -his own use, yet escaped due retribution for his fraud. He employed -bullies, spies, and indigent attorneys to second his efforts, some -of whom were arrested and convicted of other crimes with the clothes -Bolland provided for them still on their backs. His character was so -infamous, that when he purchased the situation of upper city marshal -for £2,400, the court of aldermen would not approve of the appointment. -He tried also to succeed to a vacancy as Sergeant-at-mace, and met with -the same objection. The deposit-money paid over in both these affairs -was attached by his sureties, and he was driven to great necessities -for funds. When called upon to redeem a note of hand he had given, he -pleaded that he was short of cash, and offered another man's bill, -which, however, was refused unless endorsed. Bolland then proceeded to -endorse it with his own name, but it was declared unnegotiable, owing -to the villainous character he bore. Whereupon Bolland erased all the -letters after the capital, and substituted the letters "anks," the name -of Banks being that of a respectable victualler of Rathbone Place, in -a large way of trade. When the bill became due, Banks repudiated his -signature, and Bolland, who sought too late to meet it and hush up the -affair, was arrested for <!-- Page 62 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>the forgery. He was tried and executed in due -course.</p> - -<p>The case of the twin brothers Perreau in 1776 was long the talk of the -town. It evoked much public sympathy, as they were deemed to be the -dupes of a certain Mrs. Rudd, who lived with Daniel Perreau, and passed -as his wife. Daniel was a man of reputed good means, with a house in -Harley Street, which he kept up well. His brother, Robert Perreau, was -a surgeon enjoying a large practice, and residing in Golden Square. -The forged deed was a bond for £7,500, purporting to be signed by -William Adair, a well-known agent. Daniel Perreau handed this to Robert -Drummond Perreau, who carried it to the Bank, where its validity -was questioned, and the brothers, with Mrs. Rudd, were arrested on -suspicion of forgery. Daniel on his trial solemnly declared that he had -received the instrument from Mrs. Rudd; Robert's defence was that he -had no notion the document was forged. Both were, however, convicted -of knowingly uttering the counterfeit bond. It was, however, found -impossible to prove Mrs. Rudd's complicity in the transaction, and she -was acquitted. The general feeling was, however, so strong that she was -the guilty person, that the unfortunate Perreaus became a centre of -interest. Strenuous efforts were made to obtain a reprieve for them. -Robert Perreau's wife went in deep mourning, accompanied by her three -children, to sue on their <!-- Page 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>knees for pardon from the queen. Seventy-two -leading bankers and merchants signed a petition in his favour, which -was presented to the king two days before the execution: but all to no -purpose. Both of the brothers suffered the extreme penalty at Tyburn -on the 17th January, 1776, before an enormous multitude estimated at -30,000. They asserted their innocence to the last.</p> - -<p>In the following year a clergyman, who had at one time achieved -some eminence, also fell a victim to the vindictive laws regarding -forgery. Dr. Dodd was the son of a clergyman. He had been a wrangler -at Cambridge, and was early known as a litterateur of some repute. -While still on his promotion, and leading a gay life in London, he -made a foolish marriage, and united himself to the daughter of one -of Sir John Dolben's servants, a young lady largely endowed with -personal attractions, but certainly deficient in birth and fortune. -This sobered him, and he took orders in the year that his "Beauties of -Shakespeare" was published. He became a zealous curate at West Ham; -thence he went to St. James', Garlick Hill, and took an active part -in London church and charitable work. He was one of the promoters of -the Magdalen Hospital, also of the Humane Society, and in 1763, twelve -years after ordination, he was appointed chaplain in ordinary to the -King. About the same time he was presented to a prebend's stall in -Brecon Cathedral, and was recommended to Lord Chesterfield <!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>as tutor -to his son. He hoped to succeed to the rectory of West Ham, but being -disappointed he now came to London, and launched out into extravagance. -He had a town house, and a country house at Ealing, and he exchanged -his chariot for a coach. Having won a prize of £1,000 in a lottery, he -became interested in two proprietary chapels, but could not make them -pay. But just then he was presented with a living, that of Hockliffe, -in Bedfordshire, which he held with the vicarage of Chalgrove, and his -means were still ample. They were not sufficient, however, for his -expenditure, and in an evil moment he attempted to obtain the valuable -cure of St. George's, Hanover Square, by back-stair influence. The -living was in the gift of the Crown, and Dodd was so ill-advised as -to write to a great lady at Court, offering her £3,000 if he were -presented. The letter was forthwith passed on to the Lord Chancellor, -and the King, George III, hearing what had happened, ordered Dr. Dodd's -name to be struck off the list of his chaplains. The story was made -public, and Dodd was satirized in the press and on the stage.</p> - -<p>Dodd was now greatly encumbered by debts, from which the presentation -to a third living, that of Winge, in Buckinghamshire, could not relieve -him. He was in such straits that, according to his biographer, "he -descended so low as to become the editor of a newspaper," and he tried -to obtain relief in bankruptcy, but failed. At length, so sorely -<!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>pressed was he by creditors that he resolved to do a dishonest deed. -He forged the name of his old pupil, now Lord Chesterfield, who had -since become his patron, to a bond for £4,200. He applied to certain -usurers, in the name of a young nobleman who was seeking an advance. -The business was refused by many, because Dr. Dodd declared that they -could not be present at the execution of the bond. A Mr. Robertson -proved more obliging, and to him Dr. Dodd, in due course, handed a bond -for £4,200 executed by Lord Chesterfield, and witnessed by himself. A -second witness being necessary, Mr. Robertson signed his name beneath -Dr. Dodd's. The bond was no sooner presented for payment, and referred -to Lord Chesterfield, than it was repudiated. Robertson was forthwith -arrested, and soon afterwards Dr. Dodd. The latter at once, in the hope -of saving himself, returned $3,000; he gave a cheque upon his bankers -for £700, a bill of sale on his furniture worth £400 more, and the -whole sum was made up by another hundred from the brokers. Nevertheless -Dr. Dodd was taken before the Lord Mayor and charged with the forgery. -Lord Chesterfield would not stir a finger to help his old tutor, -although the poor wretch had made full restitution. Dr. Dodd, when -arraigned, declared that he had no intention to defraud, that he had -only executed the bond as a temporary resource to meet some pressing -claims. The jury after consulting only five minutes found him guilty, -and he <!-- Page 66 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>was regularly sentenced to death. Still greater exertions -were made to obtain a reprieve for Dr. Dodd than in the case of the -Perreaus. The newspapers were filled with letters pleading for him. -All classes of people strove to help him; the parish officers went in -mourning from house to house, asking subscriptions to get up a petition -to the King, and this petition, when eventually drafted, filled -twenty-three skins of parchment. Petitions from Dodd and his wife, -both drawn up by Dr. Johnson, were laid before the King and Queen. -Even the Lord Mayor and Common Council went in a body to St. James's -Palace to beg mercy from the King. As, however, clemency had been -denied to the Perreaus, it was deemed unadvisable to extend it to Dr. -Dodd. The concourse at his execution, which took place at Tyburn, was -immense. It has been stated erroneously that Dr. Dodd preached his own -funeral sermon. He only delivered an address to his fellow-prisoners -in the prison chapel by the permission of Mr. Villette, the ordinary. -The text he chose was Psalm 51:3, "I acknowledge my faults; and my -sin is ever before me." It was delivered some three weeks before the -Doctor's execution, and subsequently printed. It is a curious fact that -among other published works of Dr. Dodd, is a sermon on the injustice -of capital punishments. He was, however, himself the chief witness -against a highwayman, who was hanged for stopping him. Among other -spectators at the execution of Dr. <!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>Dodd was the Rev. James Hackman, -who afterwards murdered Miss Reay.</p> - -<p>It is said that a scheme was devised to procure Dodd's escape from -Newgate. He was treated with much consideration by Mr. Akerman, allowed -to have books, papers, and a reading-desk. Food and other necessaries -were brought him from outside by a female servant daily. This woman -was found to bear a striking resemblance to the Doctor, which was the -more marked when she was dressed up in a wig and gown. She was asked if -she would coöperate in a scheme for taking the Doctor's place in gaol, -and consented. It was arranged that on a certain day, Dr. Dodd's irons -having been previously filed, he was to change clothes with the woman. -She was to seat herself at the reading-desk while Dr. Dodd, carrying a -bundle under his arm, coolly walked out of the prison. The plan would -probably have succeeded, but Dodd would not be a party to it. He was -so buoyed up with the hope of reprieve that he would not risk the -misconstruction which would have been placed upon the attempt to escape -had it failed. In his own profession Dr. Dodd was not very highly -esteemed. Dr. Newton, Bishop of Bristol, is said to have observed that -Dodd deserved pity, because he was hanged for the least crime he had -committed.</p> - -<p>One of the most notorious depredators in this line, whose operations -long eluded detection, was Charles Price, commonly called Old Patch. -He <!-- Page 68 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>forged bank-notes wholesale. His plans were laid with the utmost -astuteness, and he took extraordinary precautions to avoid discovery. -He did everything for himself; made his own paper, with the proper -water-mark, engraved his own plates, and manufactured his own ink. His -method of negotiating the forged notes was most artful. He had three -homes; at one he was Price, properly married, at a second he lived -under another name with a woman who helped him in his schemes, at a -third he did the actual business of passing his notes. This business -was always effected in disguise; none of his agents or instruments saw -him except in disguise, and when his work was over he put it off to -return home. One favourite personation of his was that of an infirm -old man, wearing a long black camlet cloak, with a broad cape fastened -up close to his chin. With this he wore a big, broad-brimmed slouch -hat, and often green spectacles or a green shade. Sometimes his mouth -was covered up with red flannel, or his corpulent legs and gouty -feet were swathed in flannel. His natural appearance as Price was a -compact middle-aged man, inclined to stoutness, erect, active, and not -bad-looking, with a beaky nose, keen gray eyes, and a nutcracker chin. -His schemes were very ingenious. On one occasion he pretended, in one -disguise, to expose a swindler (himself in another disguise), whom a -respectable city merchant inveigled into his house in order to give -him up to the police. <!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>The swindler proposed to buy himself off for -£500; the offer was accepted, the money paid by a thousand-pound note, -for which the swindler got change. The note, of course, was forged. He -victimized numbers of tradesmen. Disguised as an old man, he passed six -forged fifty-pound notes on a grocer, and then as Price backed up his -victim in an action brought against the bank which refused payment of -the counterfeits. But his cleverest coup was that organized against the -lottery offices. Having in one of his disguises engaged a boy to serve -him, he sent the lad, dressed in livery, round the town to buy lottery -tickets, paying for them in large (forged) notes, for which change was -always required. By these means hundreds and hundreds of pounds were -obtained upon the counterfeits. The boy was presently arrested, and a -clever plot was laid to nab the old man his master, but Price by his -vigilance outwitted the police. Another of his dodges was to hire boys -to take forged notes to the Bank, receive the tickets from the teller, -and carry them back to him. He forthwith altered the figures, passed -them on by the same messenger to the Bank cashier, and obtained payment -for the larger amount.</p> - -<p>These wholesale forgeries produced something like consternation at -the Bank. It was supposed that they were executed by a large gang, -well organized and with numerous ramifications, although Price, as I -have said, really worked single-handed. <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>The notes poured in day after -day, and still no clue was obtained as to the culprits. The Bow Street -officials were hopelessly at fault. "Old Patch" was advertised for, -described in his various garbs. It was now discovered that he had a -female accomplice. This was a Mrs. Poultney, alias Hickeringill, his -wife's aunt, a tall, rather genteel woman of thirty, with a downcast -look, thin face and person, light hair, and pitted with the small-pox. -Fate at last unexpectedly overtook Old Patch. One of many endorsements -upon a forged note was traced to a pawnbroker, who remembered to have -had the note from one Powel. The runners suspected that Powel was -Price, and that he was a member of Old Patch's gang. A watch was set -at the pawnbroker's, and the next time Powel called he was arrested, -identified as Price, searched, and found to have upon his person a -large number of notes, with a quantity of white tissue-paper, which -he declared he had bought to make into air-balloons for his children. -Price was committed to prison, and a close inquiry made into his -antecedents. He was found to be the man who had decoyed Foote the actor -into a partnership in a brewery and decamped with the profits, leaving -Foote to pay liabilities to the extent of £500. Then, he had started -an illicit still, and had been arrested and sent to Newgate till he -had paid a fine of £1,600. He was released through the intercession of -Lord Lyttleton and Foote, and forgiven the fine. He next set up as <!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>a -fraudulent lottery office keeper, and bolted with a big prize. After -this he elaborated his system of forgery, which ended in the way I have -said. Price was alert and cunning to the last. One of his first acts -was to pass out a clandestine letter to Mrs. Poultney, briefly telling -her to destroy everything. This she effected by burning the whole of -his disguises in the kitchen fire, on the pretence that the clothes -were infected by the plague. The engraving press was disposed of; the -copper plates heated red-hot, then smashed into pieces and thrown with -the water-mark wires on to a neighbouring dust-heap, where they were -subsequently discovered. Price attempted to deny his identity, but -to no purpose, and when he saw the grip of the law tightening upon -him, he committed suicide to avoid the extreme penalty. He was found -hanging behind the door of his cell, suspended from two hat-screws, -strengthened by gimlets. Price's depredations, it was said, amounted -to £200,000; but how he disposed of his ill-gotten gains, seeing that -he always lived obscurely, and neither gambled nor drank, remained an -inscrutable secret to the last.</p> - -<p>Persons of respectable station, sometimes, succumbed to special -temptations. William Guest was the son of a clergyman living at -Worcester, who had sufficient interest to get him a clerkship in -the Bank of England. The constant handling of piles of gold was too -much for Guest's integrity, and he presently resolved to turn his -opportunities to <!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>account. Taking a house in Broad Street Buildings, -he devoted the upper part of it to his nefarious trade. He abstracted -guineas from his drawer in the Bank, carried them home, filed them, -then remilled them in a machine he had designed for the purpose, -and returned them—now light weight—to the Bank. The filings he -converted into ingots and disposed of to the trade. No suspicion of his -malpractices transpiring, he was in due course advanced to the post -of teller. But a fellow-teller having observed him one day picking -out new guineas from a bag, watched him, and found that he did this -constantly. On another occasion he was seen to pay away guineas some of -which, on examination, proved to have been recently filed. They were -weighed, and found short weight. To test Mr. Guest still further, his -money-bags were opened one night after hours, and the contents counted -and examined. The number was short, and several guineas found which -appeared to have been recently filed, and which on weighing proved to -be light.</p> - -<p>A descent was forthwith made upon Guest's house, and in the upper rooms -the whole apparatus for filing was laid bare. In a nest of drawers were -found vice, files, the milling machine, two bags of gold filings, and -a hundred guineas. A flap in front of the nest of drawers could be let -down, and inside was a skin fastened to the back of the flap, with a -hole in it to button on to the waistcoat, and equip the workman after -the method of jewellers. More <!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>evidence was soon forthcoming against -Guest. His fellow-teller had seen him in possession of a substantial -bar of gold; jewellers and others swore to having bought ingots from -him, and an assayer at Guest's trial deposed to their being of the same -standard as the guinea coinage. His guilt was clearly made out to the -jury, and he was sentenced to death. A petition signed by a number of -influential persons was forwarded to the Crown, praying for mercy, but -it was decided that the law must take its course. As his crime amounted -to high treason, he went to Tyburn on a sledge, but he suffered no -other penalty than hanging.</p> - -<p>The flagitious trade of coining was in a most flourishing condition -during the last decades of the eighteenth and the early part of the -nineteenth centuries. The condition of the national coinage was at this -time far from creditable to the Mint. A great part of both the silver -and copper money in circulation was much worn and defaced. Imitation -thus became much easier than with coins comparatively fresh and new. -Hence the nefarious practice multiplied exceedingly. There were as -many as forty or fifty private mints constantly at work, either in -London or in the principal country towns. The process was rapid, not -too laborious, and extremely profitable. A couple of hands could turn -out in a week base silver coins worth nominally two or three hundred -pounds. The wages of a good workman were as much as a couple of guineas -a <!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>day. Much capital was invested by large dealers in the trade, who -must have made enormous sums. One admitted that his transactions in -seven years amounted to the production of £200,000 in counterfeit -half-crowns and other silver coins. So systematic was the traffic, -that orders for town and country were regularly executed by the -various manufacturers. Boxes and parcels of base coin were despatched -every morning by coach and wagon to all parts of the kingdom, like -any other goods. The trade extended to foreign countries. The law, -until it was rectified, did not provide any method of punishment for -the counterfeiting of foreign money, and French louis-d'or, Spanish -dollars, German florins, and Turkish sequins were shipped abroad in -great quantities. The Indian possessions even did not escape, and a -manufactory of spurious gold or silver pagodas was at one time most -active in London, whence they were exported to the East. The number of -persons employed in London as capitalists and agents for distribution -alone amounted to one hundred and twenty at one time; and besides -there was a strong force of skilful handicraftsmen, backed up by a -whole army of "utterers" or "smashers," constantly busy in passing the -base money into the currency. The latter comprised hawkers, peddlers, -market-women, hackney-coach drivers, all of whom attended the markets -held by the dealers in the manufactured article, and bought wholesale -to distribute retail by various <!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>devices, more particularly in giving -change. They obtained the goods at an advantage of about one hundred -per cent. When the base money lost its veneer, the dealers were ready -to repurchase it in gross, and after a repetition of the treatment, -issue it afresh at the old rates.</p> - -<p>Gold coins were not so much counterfeited as silver and copper, but -there were many bad guineas in circulation. The most dexterous method -of coining them was by mixing a certain amount of alloy with the pure -metal. They were the proper weight, and had some semblance of the true -ring, but their intrinsic value was not more than thirteen or fourteen -shillings, perhaps only eight or nine. The fabrication was, however, -limited by the expense and the nicety required in the process. To -counterfeit silver was a simpler operation. Of base silver money there -were five kinds; viz., flats, plated goods, plain goods, castings, -and "fig" things. The <em>flats</em> were cut out of prepared flattened -plates composed of silver and blanched copper. When cut out the coins -were turned in a lathe, stamped in a press with the proper die, and -subjected to rubbing with various materials, including aquafortis to -bring the silver to the surface, sand-paper, cork, cream of tartar, and -last of all blacking to give the appearance of age. <em>Plated goods</em> were -prepared from copper; the coins cut the proper size and plated, the -stamping being done afterwards. As these coins were very like silver, -they generally evaded <!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>detection. <em>Plain goods</em> consisted of copper -blanks the size of a shilling, turned out from a lathe, then given -the colour and lustre of metal buttons, after which they were rubbed -with cream of tartar and blacking. <em>Castings</em>, as the word implies, -were coins made of blanched copper, cast in moulds of the proper die; -they were then silvered and treated like the rest. It was very common -to give this class of base money a crooked appearance, by which means -they seemed genuine, and got into circulation without suspicion. The -"<em>figs</em>" or <em>fig things</em>, were the lowest and meanest class, and were -confined chiefly to sixpences. Copper counterfeit money was principally -of two kinds, stamped and plain, made out of base metal; the profit -on them being about a hundred per cent. They were mostly halfpennies; -but farthings were also largely manufactured, the material being real -copper, but the fraud consisted in their being of light weight, and -very thin.</p> - -<p>The prosecutions for coining were very numerous. The register of the -solicitor to the Mint recorded as many as six hundred and fifty in a -period of seven years. The offence of uttering, till a recent date, -constituted petty treason, and met with the usual penalties. These, -in the case of female offenders, included hanging and burning at a -stake. The last woman who suffered in this way was burned before the -debtors' door, in front of Newgate, in 1788, having previously been -strangled. In the following year, as has been <!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>already stated, the law -was passed, which abolished the practice of burning women convicted of -petty treason, and thereafter persons guilty of only selling or dealing -in base money were more leniently dealt with. The offence was long only -a misdemeanour, carrying with it a sentence of imprisonment for a year -and a day, which the culprit passed not unpleasantly in Newgate, while -his friends or relations kept the business going outside, and supplied -him regularly with ample funds.</p> - -<p>There was as yet little security for life and property in town or -country. The streets of London were still unsafe; high roads and -bye roads leading to it were still infested by highway robbers. -The protection afforded to the public by the police continued very -inefficient. It was still limited to parochial effort; the watchmen -were appointed by the vestries, and received a bare pittance,—twelve -and sixpence a week in summer, seventeen and sixpence in winter,—which -they often eked out by taking bribes from the women of the town, or by -a share in a burglar's "swag," to whose doings they were conveniently -blind. These watchmen were generally middle-aged, often old and feeble -men, who were appointed either from charitable motives, to give them -employment, or save them from being inmates of the workhouse and a -burthen to the parish. Their hours of duty were long, from night-fall -to sunrise, during which, when so disposed, they patrolled the -streets, calling the hour, <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>the only check on their vigilance being -the occasional rounds of the parish beadle, who visited the watchmen -on their various beats. In spite of this the watchmen were often -invisible; not to be found when most wanted, and even when present, -powerless to arrest or make head against disorderly or evilly-disposed -persons.</p> - -<p>Besides the watchmen there were the parish constables, nominated by -the court of burgesses, or court leet. The obligation of serving in -the office of constable might fall upon any householder in turn, but -he was at liberty to escape it by buying a substitute or purchasing -a "Tyburn ticket," exempting from service. The parish constables -were concerned with pursuit rather than prevention, with crime after -rather than before the fact. In this duty they were assisted by the -police constables, although there was no love lost between the two -classes of officer. The police constables are most familiar to us -under the name of "Bow Street runners," but they were attached to all -the police offices, and not to Bow Street alone. They were nominated -from Whitehall by the Secretary of State, the minister now best known -as the Home Secretary. The duties of the "runners" were mainly those -of detection and pursuit, in which they were engaged in London and in -the country, at home and abroad. Individuals or public bodies applied -to Bow Street, or some other office, for the services of a runner. -These officers took charge of poaching cases, of murders, <!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>burglaries, -or highway robberies. Some were constantly on duty at the court, as -depredations were frequently committed in the royal palaces, or the -royal family were "teased by lunatics." The runners were remunerated -by a regular salary of a guinea a week; but special services might be -recognized by a share in the private reward offered, or, in case of -conviction, by a portion of the public parliamentary reward of £40, -which might be granted by the bench.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"> - <a name="Thieving_Lane" id="Thieving_Lane"></a><img src="images/thieving_lane.jpg" width="390" height="633" alt="" /> - <p class="caption"><i>Thieving Lane</i><br /> - - (<i>View of southern end of Thieving Lane, now Bow Street</i>)</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Felons were conveyed through this lane to the gate-house which -stood at the end of Tothill Street. In close proximity to the -prison, it was a resort of thieves, from which it took its -unenviable name.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The policy of making these grants was considered questionable. It -tended to tempt officers of justice "to forswear themselves for the -lucre of the reward," and the thirst for "blood-money," as it was -called, was aggravated till it led many to sell the lives of their -fellow-creatures for gain. There were numerous cases of this. Jonathan -Wild was one of the most notorious of the dishonest thief-takers. -In 1755 several scoundrels of the same ilk were convicted of having -obtained the conviction of innocent people, simply to pocket the -reward. Their offence did not come under penal statute, so they were -merely exposed in the pillory, where, however, the mob pelted one to -death and nearly killed another. Again, in 1816, a police officer named -Vaughan was guilty of inciting to crime, in order to betray his victims -and receive the blood-money. On the other hand, when conviction was -doubtful the offender enjoyed long immunity from arrest. Officers would -not arrest him until he "weighed his weight," as <!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>the saying was, or -until they were certain of securing the £40 reward. Another form of -remuneration was the bestowal on conviction of a "Tyburn ticket;" in -other words, of an exemption from service in parish offices. This the -officer sold for what it would bring, the price varying in different -parishes from £12 to £40.</p> - -<p>It was not to be wondered at that a weak and inadequate police force, -backed up by such uncertain and injudicious incentives to activity, -should generally come off second-best in its struggles with the -hydra-headed criminality of the day. Robberies and burglaries were -committed almost under the eyes of the police. It was calculated -that the value of the property stolen in the city in one month of -1808 amounted to £15,000, and none of the parties were ever known or -apprehended, although sought after night and day. Such cases as the -following were of frequent occurrence: "Seven ruffians, about eight -o'clock at night knocked at the door of Mrs. Abercrombie in Charlotte -Street, Rathbone Place, calling out 'Post!' and upon its being opened, -rushed in and took her jewels and fifty or sixty guineas in money, -with all the clothes and linen they could get. The neighbourhood was -alarmed, and a great crowd assembled, but the robbers sallied forth, -and with swords drawn and pistols presented, threatened destruction -to any who opposed them. The mob tamely suffered them to escape with -their booty without making any resistance." The officers <!-- Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>of justice -were openly defied. There were streets, such as Duck Lane, Gravel Lane, -or Cock Lane, in which it was unsafe for any one to venture without an -escort of five or six of his fellows, as the ruffians would cut him to -pieces if he were alone.</p> - -<p>Still more dastardly were the wanton outrages perpetrated upon -unprotected females, often in broad daylight, and in the public -streets. These at one time increased to an alarming extent. Ladies were -attacked and wounded without warning, and apparently without cause. -The injuries were often most serious. On one occasion a young lady was -stabbed in the face by means of an instrument concealed in a bouquet of -flowers which a ruffian had begged her to smell. When consternation was -greatest, however, it was reported that the cowardly assailant was in -custody. He proved to be one Renwick Williams, now generally remembered -as "the monster." The assault for which he was arrested was made in St. -James's Street, about midnight, upon a young lady, Miss Porter, who -was returning from a ball to her father's house. Renwick struck at her -with a knife, and wounded her badly through her clothes, accompanying -the blow with the grossest language. The villain at the time escaped, -but Miss Porter recognized him six months later in St. James's Park. He -was followed by a Mr. Coleman to his quarters at No. 52, Jermyn Street, -and brought to Miss Porter's house. The young lady, crying "That is the -wretch!" fainted <!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>away at the sight of him. The prisoner indignantly -repudiated that he was "the monster" who was advertised for, but he -was indicted at the Old Bailey, and the jury found him guilty without -hesitation. His sentence was two years' imprisonment in Newgate, and he -was bound over in £400 to be of good behaviour.</p> - -<p>Gentlemen, some of the highest station, going or returning from court, -were often the victims of the depredations committed in the royal -precincts. In 1792 a gang of thieves dressed in court suits smuggled -themselves into a drawing-room of St. James's Palace, and tried to -hustle and rob the Prince of Wales. The Duke of Beaufort, returning -from a levee, had his "George," pendant to his ribbon of the Garter, -stolen from him in the yard of St. James's Palace. The order was set -with brilliants, worth a very large sum of money. The duke called out -to his servants, who came up and seized a gentlemanly man dressed -in black standing near. The "George" was found in this gentleman's -pocket. He proved to be one Henry Sterne, commonly called Gentleman -Harry,<a name="FNanchor_82:1_1" id="FNanchor_82:1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_82:1_1" class="fnanchor">[82:1]</a> who, being of good address and genteel <!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>appearance, -easily got admission to the best company, upon whom he levied his -contributions.</p> - -<p>George Barrington, the notorious pickpocket, also found it to his -advantage to attend levees and drawing-rooms. Barrington, or Waldron, -which was his real name, began crime early. When one of a strolling -company in Ireland, he recruited the empty theatrical treasury and -supplemented meagre receipts by stealing watches and purses, the -proceeds being divided among the rest of the actors. He found thieving -so much more profitable than acting that he abandoned the latter in -favour of the former profession, and set up as a gentleman pickpocket. -Having worked Dublin well, his native land became too hot to hold him, -and he came to London. At Ranelagh one night he relieved both the Duke -of Leinster and Sir William Draper of considerable sums. He visited -also the principal watering places, including Bath, but London was his -favourite hunting-ground. Disguised as a clergyman, he went to court on -drawing-room days, and picked pockets or removed stars and decorations -from the breasts of their wearers. At Covent Garden Theatre one night -he stole a gold snuff-box set with brilliants, and worth £30,000, -belonging to Prince Orloff, of which there had been much talk, and -which, with other celebrated jewels, Barrington had long coveted. The -Russian prince felt the thief's hand in his pocket, and immediately -seized Barrington by the throat, on which the latter slipped back -the snuff-box. <!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>But Barrington was arrested and committed for trial, -escaping this time because Prince Orloff would not prosecute. He was, -however, again arrested for picking a pocket in Drury Lane Theatre, and -sentenced to three years' hard labour on board the hulks in the Thames.</p> - -<p>From this he was released prematurely through the good offices of a -gentleman who pitied him, only to be reimprisoned, but in Newgate, -not the hulks, for fresh robberies at the Opera House, Pantheon, and -other places of public resort. Once more released, he betook himself -to his old evil courses, and having narrowly escaped capture in -London, wandered through the northern counties in various disguises, -till he was at length taken at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Another narrow -escape followed, through the absence of a material witness; but -he was finally arrested for picking a pocket on Epsom Downs, and -sentenced to seven years' transportation. He made an affecting speech -at his trial, urging, in extenuation of his offence, that he had -never had a fair chance of earning an honest livelihood. He may have -been sincere, and he certainly took the first opportunity offered to -prove it. On the voyage out to New South Wales there was a mutiny -on board the convict ship, which would have been successful but for -Barrington's aid on the side of authority. He held the passage to the -quarter-deck single-handed, and kept the mob of convicts at bay with -a marline-spike, till the captain <!-- Page 85 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>and crew were able to get arms and -finally suppress the revolt. As a reward for his conduct, Barrington -was appointed to a position of trust, in charge of other prisoners at -Paramatta. Within a year or two he was advanced to the more onerous -and responsible post of chief constable, and was complimented by the -governor of the colony for his faithful performance of the duty. He -fell away in health, however, and retiring eventually upon a small -pension, died before he was fifty years of age.</p> - -<p>The gentlemen of the highway continued to harass and rob all -travellers. All the roads were infested. Two or three would be heard of -every morning; some on Hounslow Heath, some on Finchley Common, some on -Wimbledon Common, some on the Romford Road. Townshend, the Bow Street -runner, declared that on arriving at the office of a morning people -came in one after the other to give information of such robberies. -"Messrs. Mellish, Bosanquet, and Pole, merchants of the city," says a -contemporary chronicle, "were stopped by three highwaymen on Hounslow -Heath. After robbing them, without resistance, of their money and -their watches, one of the robbers wantonly fired into the chaise and -mortally wounded Mr. Mellish." The first successful effort made to -put down this levying of blackmail upon the king's highway was the -establishment of the police horse patrol in 1805. It was organized -by the direction <!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>of the chief magistrate at Bow Street, then Sir -Nathaniel Conant, and under the immediate orders of a conductor, Mr. -Day. This force consisted of mounted constables, who every night -regularly patrolled all the roads leading into the metropolis. They -worked singly between two stations, each starting at a fixed time from -each end, halting midway to communicate, then returning. The patrol -acted on any information received <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en route</i>, making themselves known -as they rode along to all persons riding horses or in carriages, by -calling out in a loud tone "Bow Street Patrol." They arrested all known -offenders whom they met with, and were fully armed for their own and -the public protection. The members of this excellent force were paid -eight-and-twenty shillings a week, with turnpike tolls and forage for -their horses, which, however, they were obliged to groom and take care -of. Marked and immediate results were obtained from the establishment -of this patrol. Highway robbery ceased almost entirely, and in the rare -cases which occurred before it quite died out, the guilty parties were -invariably apprehended.</p> - -<p>There was as yet no very marked diminution in the number of executions, -but other forms of punishment were growing into favour. Already -transportation beyond the seas had become a fixed system. Since the -settlement of New South Wales as a penal colony in 1780, convicts were -sent out regularly, and in increasingly large batches. The <!-- Page 87 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>period -between conviction and embarkation was spent in Newgate, thus adding -largely to its criminal population, with disastrous consequences to the -health and convenience of the place. Besides these, the most heinous -criminals, there were other lesser offenders, for whom various terms -of imprisonment was deemed a proper and sufficient penalty. Hence -gaols were growing much more crowded, and Newgate more especially, as -will presently be apparent from a brief review of some of the types -of persons who became lodgers in Newgate, not temporarily, as in the -case of all who passed quickly from the condemned cells to the gallows, -but who remained there for longer periods, whether awaiting removal as -transports, or working out a sentence of imprisonment in the course of -law.</p> - -<p>As London, increasing in size and life, became more complex, chances -multiplied for rogues and sharpers, who tried with chicane and -stratagem to prey upon society. Swindling was carried out more -systematically and upon a wider scale than in the days of Jenny Diver -or the sham German Princess. A woman named Robinson was arrested in -1801, who, under the pretence of being a rich heiress, had obtained -goods fraudulently from tradesmen to the value of £20,000. Again, some -years later, a gang resembling somewhat the "long firms" of modern days -carried on a fictitious trade, and obtained goods from city merchants -worth £50,000. There <!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>were many varieties of the professional swindler -in those days. Some did business under the guise of licensed and -outwardly respectable pawnbrokers, who <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">sub rosâ</i> were traffickers in -stolen goods. Others roamed the country as hawkers, general dealers, -and peddlers, distributing exciseable articles which had been smuggled -into the country, carrying on fraudulent raffles, purchasing stolen -horses in one county and disposing of them in another. The "duffer" -went from door to door in the town, offering for sale smuggled tobacco, -muslins, or other stuffs, and, if occasion served, passing forged notes -or bad money as small change.</p> - -<p>Where the swindler possessed such qualifications as a pleasing manner -and a gentlemanly address, with a small capital to start with, he flew -at higher game. Alexander Day, alias Marmaduke Davenport, Esq., was -one of the first of a long line of impostors who made a great show, -in a fine house in a fashionable neighbourhood, with sham footmen in -smart liveries, and a grand carriage and pair. The latter he got in -on approval, taking care while he used them to be driven to the Duke -of Montague's and other aristocratic mansions. In the carriage too he -called on numbers of tradesmen and gave large orders for goods: yards -of Spanish point-lace, a gold "equipage" or dinner-service, silks in -long pieces, table and other linen enough to furnish several houses. -By clever excuses he postponed payment, or made off with the property -<!-- Page 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>by a second door. Among other things ordered was a gold chain for his -squirrel, which already wore a silver one. The goldsmith recognized the -silver chain as one he had recently sold to a lady, and his suspicions -were aroused. On reference to her she denounced Day as a swindler, who -had cheated her out of a large sum of money. Day was forthwith arrested -and sent to Newgate. At his trial he declared that he meant to pay for -everything he had ordered, that he owned an estate in Durham worth -£1,200 a year, but that it was heavily mortgaged. The case occupied -some time, but in the end Day was sentenced to two years' imprisonment -in Newgate, to stand twice in the pillory, find security for his good -behaviour, and pay a fine of £200.</p> - -<p>The cleverest swindles were often effected by the softer sex. Female -sharpers infested all places of public resort. They dressed in the -best clothes, and personating ladies of the highest fashion, attended -entertainments and masquerades; they even succeeded in gaining -admission to St. James's Palace, where they got into the general -circle and pilfered right and left. One woman, the wife of a notorious -Chevalier d'Industrie, was known to have been at court at the birthday -of King George III. Her costume was in irreproachably good taste; her -husband attended her in the garb of a dignitary of the Church. Between -them they managed to levy contributions to the extent of £1,700, <!-- Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>and -made off before these thefts were discovered or suspected.</p> - -<p>A notable female sharper was Elizabeth Harriet Grieve, whose line of -business was to pretend that she possessed great influence at court, -and promise preferment. She gave out that she was highly connected: -Lord North was her first cousin, the Duke of Grafton her second; she -was nearly related to Lady Fitz-Roy, and most intimate with Lord -Guildford and other peers. In those days places were shamelessly bought -and sold, and tradesmen retiring from business, or others who had -amassed a little property, invested their savings in a situation under -the Crown. When the law at length laid hands on the "Hon." Elizabeth -Harriet, as she styled herself, a great number of cases were brought -against her. A coach-carver, whose trade was declining, had paid her -£36 to obtain him a place as clerk in the Victualling Office. Another -man gave her £30 down, with a conditional bond for £250, to get the -place of a "coast" or "tide"-waiter. Both were defrauded. There were -many more proved against her, and she was eventually sentenced to -transportation.</p> - -<p>She was only one of many who followed the same trade. David James -Dignum was convicted in 1777 of pretending to sell places under -Government, and sentenced to hard labour on the Thames. Dignum's was -a barefaced kind of imposition. He went the length of handing his -victims, in exchange <!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>for the fees, which were never less than a -hundred guineas, a stamped parchment duly signed by the head of the -public department, with seals properly attached. In one case he got -£1,000 for pretending to secure a person the office of "writer of the -'London Gazette.'" Of course the signatures to these instruments were -forged, and the seals had been removed from some legal warrant. When -the time came for Dignum's departure for the hulks, he resolved to go -to Woolwich in state, and travelled down in a post-chaise, accompanied -by his negro servant. But on reaching the ballast lighter on which -Dignum was to work, his valet was refused admittance, and the convict -was at once put to the duty of the wheelbarrow. He made a desperate -effort to get off by forging a cheque on Drummonds, which he got others -to cash. They were arrested, but their innocence was clearly shown. -Dignum had hoped to be brought up to London for examination. He had -thought to change his lot, to exchange the hulks for Newgate, even at -the risk of winding up at Tyburn. But in this he was foiled, as the -authorities thought it best to institute no prosecution, but leave him -to work out his time at the hulks.</p> - -<p>That the dishonest and evilly-disposed should thus try to turn the -malversation of public patronage to their own advantage was not -strange. The traffic in places long flourished unchecked in a corrupt -age, and almost under the very eyes of <!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>careless, not to say culpable, -administrators. The evil practice culminated in the now nearly -forgotten case of Mrs. Mary Ann Clarke, who undoubtedly profited -liberally by her pernicious influence over the Duke of York when -commander-in-chief of the army. The scandal was brought prominently -before the public by Colonel Wardle, M. P., who charged her with -carrying on a traffic in military commissions, not only with the -knowledge, but the participation, of the Duke of York. A long inquiry -followed, at which extraordinary disclosures were made. Mrs. Clarke was -proved to have disposed of both military and ecclesiastical patronage. -She gave her own footman a pair of colours, and procured for an Irish -clergyman the honour of preaching before the King. Her brokership -extended to any department of state, and her lists of applicants -included numbers of persons in the best classes of society. The Duke of -York was exonerated from the charge of deriving any pecuniary benefit -from this disgraceful traffic; but it was clear that he was cognizant -of Mrs. Clarke's proceedings, and that he knowingly permitted her to -barter his patronage for filthy lucre. Mrs. Clarke was examined in -person at the bar of the house. In the end a vote acquitted the duke of -personal corruption, and the matter was allowed to drop. But a little -later Colonel Wardle was sued by an upholsterer for furniture supplied -at his order to Mrs. Clarke, and the disinterestedness of the colonel's -exposure <!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>began to be questioned. In 1814 Mrs. Clarke was sentenced to -nine months' imprisonment for a libel on the Irish Chancellor of the -Exchequer.</p> - -<p>A clever scheme of deception which went very near success was that -perpetrated by Robert Jaques. Jaques filled the post of "clerk of -the papers" to the warden of the Fleet, a place which he had himself -solicited, on the plea that he was a man of experience, able to guard -the warden against the tricks incident to his trust. Jaques admitted -that his own antecedents were none of the best, that he had been -frequently in gaol, but he pleaded that men like himself, who had been -guilty of the worst offences, had afterwards become the best officers. -No sooner was Jaques appointed than he began to mature a plot against -his employer. The warden of the Fleet by his office became responsible -for the debt of any prisoner in his custody who might escape. Jaques -at once cast about for some one whom he might through a third party -cause to be arrested, brought to the Fleet on a sham action, and whom -he would assist to escape. The third party's business would then be to -sue the warden for the amount of the evaded debt. Jaques applied to a -friend, Mr. Tronson, who had been a servant, an apothecary, a perfumer, -and a quack doctor. Tronson found him one Shanley, a needy Irishman, -short of stature and of fair complexion, altogether a person who might -well be disguised as a woman. Jaques next arranged that a friend should -get a warrant against <!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>Shanley for £450. Upon this, Shanley, who was -easily found, being a dressy young gentleman, fond of blue and gold, -was arrested and carried to a spunging-house. While there a second writ -was served upon Shanley for £850, at the suit of another friend of -Jaques. Shanley was next transferred to the Fleet on a Habeas, applied -for by a fictitious attorney. The very next Sunday, Jaques gave a -dinner-party, at which his wife, a brother, Mr. John Jaques, and his -wife, with some of the parties to the suits, and of course Shanley, -were present. Later in the day Shanley exchanged clothes with Mrs. -John Jaques, and, personating her, walked out of the prison. It was at -a time when an under-turnkey was on duty at the gate, and he let the -disguised prisoner pass without question. By-and-by Mrs. Jaques got -back her clothes, and also left. Shanley had meanwhile proceeded post -haste to Dover, and so reached the continent.</p> - -<p>As soon as the escape was discovered, suspicion fell on Jaques's -friends, who were openly taxed with connivance. The matter looked worse -for them when they laid claim to the money considered forfeited by -the disappearance of the debtor, and the law stepped in to prosecute -inquiry. The head turnkey, tracking Shanley to Calais, went in pursuit. -At the same time a correspondence which was in progress between the -conspirators on either side of the Channel was intercepted by order of -the Secretary of State, and the letters handed over to the <!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>warden's -solicitors. From these the whole plot was discovered, and the guilt -of the parties rendered the more sure by the confession of Shanley. -Jaques was arrested, tried, and convicted at the Old Bailey, receiving -the sentence of three years' imprisonment, with one public exposure -on the pillory at the Royal Exchange. A curious accident, however, -helped to obtain the premature release of Jaques from Newgate. A Sir -James Saunderson having been robbed of a large sum in cash and notes, -portion of the stolen property was brought into Newgate by some of the -thieves, who were arrested on another charge. The notes were intrusted -to Jaques, who pretended he could raise money on them. Instead of this, -he gave immediate notice to their rightful owner that he had them in -his possession. Jaques afterwards petitioned Sir James Saunderson to -interest himself in his behalf, and through this gentleman's good -offices he escaped the exposure upon the pillory, and was eventually -pardoned.</p> - -<p>A peculiar feature in the criminal records of the early part of the -last century was the general increase in juvenile depravity. This was -remarked and commented upon by all concerned in the administration of -justice: magistrates of all categories, police officers, gaolers, and -philanthropists. It was borne out, moreover, by the statistics of the -times. There were in the various London prisons, in the year 1816, -three thousand inmates under <!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>twenty years of age. Nearly half of -this number were under seventeen, and a thousand of these alone were -convicted of felony. Many of those sent to prison were indeed of tender -years. Some were barely nine or ten. Children began to steal when they -could scarcely crawl. Cases were known of infants of barely six charged -in the courts with crimes. This deplorable depravity was attributable -to various causes: to the profligacy prevailing in the parish schools; -the cruel and culpable neglect of parents who deserted their offspring, -leaving them in a state of utter destitution, or were guilty of the -no less disgraceful wickedness of using them as instruments for their -nefarious designs; the artfulness of astute villains—prototypes of -old Fagin—who trained the youthful idea, in their own devious ways. -The last-named was a fruitful source of juvenile crime. Children were -long permitted to commit small thefts with impunity. The offence -would have been death to those who used them as catspaws; for them -capital punishment was humanely nearly impossible; moreover, the -police officers ignored them till they "weighed their weight," or -had been guilty of a forty-pound crime. The education in iniquity -continued steadily. They went from bad to worse, and ere long became -regular inmates of "flash houses," where both sexes mixed freely with -vicious companions of their own age, and the most daring enjoyed the -hero-worship of their fellows. When thus assembled, they <!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>formed -themselves into distinct parties or gangs, each choosing one of their -number as captain, and dividing themselves into reliefs to work certain -districts, one by day and by night. When they had "collared their -swag," they returned to divide their plunder, having gained sometimes -as much as three or four hundred pounds. A list, prepared about this -date, of these horrible dens showed that there were two hundred of -them, frequented by six thousand boys and girls, who lived solely in -this way, or were the associates of thieves. These haunts were situated -in St. Giles, Drury Lane, Chick Lane, Saffron Hill, the Borough, and -Ratcliffe Highway. Others that were out of luck crowded the booths -of Covent Garden, where all slept promiscuously amongst the rotting -garbage of the stalls. During the daytime all were either actively -engaged in thieving, or were revelling in low amusements. Gambling -was a passion with them, indulged in without let or hindrance in the -open streets; and from tossing buttons there they passed on to playing -in the low publics at such games as "put," or "the rocks of Scylla," -"bumble puppy," "tumble tumble," or "nine holes."</p> - -<p>Still more demoralizing than the foregoing was the pernicious habit, -commonly, but happily not invariably followed, of committing these -young thieves to Newgate. Here these tyros were at once associated -with the veterans and great leaders in crime. Old house-breakers -expatiated upon their <!-- Page 98 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>own deeds, and found eager and willing pupils -among their youthful listeners. The elder and more evilly experienced -boys soon debased and corrupted their juniors. One with twenty previous -convictions against him, who had been in Newgate as often, would have -alongside him an infant of seven or eight, sent to gaol for the first -time for stealing a hearth-broom. It was as bad or worse for the -females. Girls of twelve or thirteen were mixed up with the full-grown -felons—women who were what would be styled to-day habitual criminals, -as in the well-known case of one who had been committed thirty times to -Newgate, residing there generally nine months out of every twelve, and -who was the wardswoman or prisoner-officer, with nearly unlimited power.</p> - -<p>The crying evils of the system had moved private philanthropy to do -something remedial. Charitable schools were started,—the forerunners -of our modern reformatories, and the nuclei of time-honoured -institutions still flourishing, and worthy of all praise. Other -well-meaning people, each with his own pet scheme, began to theorize -and propose the construction of juvenile penitentiaries, economical -imitations mostly of the great penitentiary which was now nearly -completed at Millbank. But juvenile crime still grew and flourished, -the offences were as numerous as ever, and their character was mostly -the same. The favourite pastime was that of picking pockets. Boys then -as now were <!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>especially skilful at this in a crowd; short, active -little chaps, they slipped through quickly with their booty, and passed -it on to the master who was directing the operations. Shop-lifting, -again, was much practised, the dodge being to creep along on hands -and feet to the shop fronts of haberdashers and linen-drapers, and -snatch what they could. Again, there were clever young thieves who -could "starr" a pane in a window, and so get their hands through the -glass. There were also boys convicted of highway robbery, like Joseph -Wood and Thomas Underwood, one fourteen and the other twelve, both -of whom were hanged. Another boy, barely sixteen, was executed for -setting his master's house on fire. The young incendiary was potboy at -a public-house, and having been reprimanded for neglect, vowed revenge. -Another boy was condemned for forming one of a gang of boys and girls -in a street robbery, who fell upon a man in liquor. The girls attacked -him, and the boys stripped him of all he had.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most astounding precocity in crime was that displayed by -a boy named Leary, who was tried and sentenced to death at thirteen -years of age for stealing a watch and chain from some chambers in the -Temple. He began at the early age of eight, and progressed regularly -from stealing apples to burglary and household robbery. He learned -the trade first from a companion at school. After exacting toll from -the tart-shops, he took to stealing bakers' loaves, then money from -shop-counters and <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>tills, or breaking shop-windows and drawing their -contents through. He often appeared at school with several pounds in -his pocket, the proceeds of his depredations. He soon became captain -of a gang known as Leary's gang, who drove about, armed with pistols, -in a cart, watching for carriages with the trunks fastened outside, -which they could cut away. In these excursions the gang was often out -for a week or more, Leary's share of the profits amounting sometimes to -£100. Once, as the result of several robberies in and about London, he -amassed some £350, but the money was partly stolen from him by older -thieves, or he squandered it in gambling, or in the flash houses. After -committing innumerable depredations, he was captured in a gentleman's -dining-room in the act of abstracting a quantity of plate. He was -found guilty, but out of compassion committed to the Philanthropic -School, but escaped, was again caught, and eventually sentenced to -transportation for life.</p> - -<p>The prevailing tastes of the populace were in these times low and -depraved. Their amusements were brutal, their manners and customs -disreputable, their morality at the lowest ebb. It is actually on -record that little more than a hundred years ago a man and his wife -were convicted of offering their niece, "a fine young girl, apparently -fourteen years of age," for sale at the Royal Exchange. Mr. and Mrs. -Crouch were residents of Bodmin, Cornwall, to which remote spot came -a report that <!-- Page 101 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>maidens were very scarce in London, and that they sold -there for a good price. They accordingly travelled up to town by road, -two hundred and thirty-two miles, and on arrival hawked the poor girl -about the streets. At length they "accosted an honest captain of a -ship, who instantly made known the base proposal they had made to him." -The Crouches were arrested and tried; the man was sentenced to six -months' imprisonment in Newgate, but his wife, as having acted under -his influence, was acquitted.</p> - -<p>Traffic in dead bodies was more actively prosecuted. The wretches who -gained the name of Resurrection men despoiled graveyards to purvey -subjects for the dissecting knife. There were dealers who traded openly -in these terrible goods, and, as has been previously described, their -agents haggled for corpses at the foot of the gallows. Sometimes the -culprits were themselves the guardians of the sacred precincts. I find -that the grave-digger of St. George's, Bloomsbury, was convicted, -with a female accomplice, of stealing a dead body, and sentenced to -imprisonment. They were also "whipped twice on their bare backs from -the end of King's Gate Street, Holborn, to Dyot Street, St. Giles, -being half a mile." There was a great development of this crime later -in the persons of Burke and Hare.</p> - -<p>Disorderly gatherings for the prosecution of the popular sports were -of constant occurrence. The <!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>vice of gambling was openly practised in -the streets. It was also greatly fostered by the metropolitan fairs, -of which there were eighty annually, lasting from Easter to September, -when Bartholomew Fair was held. These fairs were the resort of the idle -and the profligate, and most of the desperate characters in London were -included in the crowd. Another favourite amusement was bull-baiting or -bullock-hunting. Sunday morning was generally chosen for this pastime. -A subscription was made to pay the hire of an animal from some drover -or butcher, which was forthwith driven through the most populous -parts of the town; often across church-yards when divine service was -in progress, pursued by a yelling mob, who goaded the poor brute to -madness with sharp pointed sticks, or thrust peas into its ears. When -nearly dead the poor beast rejoined its herd, and was driven on to -Smithfield market. A system of bull-baits was introduced at Westminster -by two notorious characters known as Caleb Baldwin and Hubbersfield, -otherwise Slender Billy, which attracted great crowds, and led to -drunkenness and scenes of great disorder.</p> - -<p>Towards the close of the eighteenth century a still lower and more -debasing amusement sprang suddenly into widespread popularity. The -patronage of pugilism or prize-fighting was no doubt supposed by -many to be the glorification of the national virtues of courage and -endurance. It was also <!-- Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>greatly due to the gradual disuse of the -practice of carrying side-arms, when it was thought that quarrels would -be fought out with fists instead of swords. Hence the "noble art of -self-defence," as it was styled magniloquently, found supporters in -every class of society. Prize-fights first became fashionable about -1788, following a great encounter between two noted pugilists, named -Richard Humphreys and Daniel Mendoza, a Jew. Sporting papers were -filled with accounts of the various fights, which peer and pickpocket -attended side by side, and which even a Royal Prince did not disdain -to honour. These professional bruisers owned many noble patrons. -Besides, the Prince of Wales, the Dukes of Clarence and York, the Duke -of Hamilton, Lords Barrymore and others, attended prize-fights and -sparring matches at theatres and public places. A well-known pugilist, -who was summoned for an assault at Covent Garden Theatre, brought -forward in his defence his intimacy with a number of noted people; the -very day on which he was charged, he pleaded that he had dined at the -Piazza Coffee House with General Gwynne, Colonel McDouel, Captains -Barkley and Hanbury, after which they had all gone to the theatre. -These aristocratic friends were, moreover, ready to be useful at a -pinch, and would bail out a pugilist in trouble, or give him their -countenance and support. At the trial of one William Ward, who had -killed a man in a fight, the pugilist was attended by his <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>patrons in -court. The case was a bad one. Ward, on his way to see a fight in the -country, had been challenged by a drunken blacksmith, and proved to -him after a few rounds that he was no match for the trained bruiser. -The blacksmith did not like his "punishment," and tried to escape into -the bar, when his antagonist followed him, and actually beat him to -death. At the trial Ward was found guilty of manslaughter, fined one -shilling, and only sentenced to be imprisoned three months in Newgate. -Yet the judge who inflicted this light punishment condemned boxing as -an inhuman and disgraceful practice, a disgrace to any civilized nation.</p> - -<p>To the foregoing categories of undoubted criminals must be added -another somewhat numerous class of offenders, who were so deemed by the -contemporary codes, and who now frequently found themselves relegated -to Newgate. These were days when the press had far from achieved its -present independence; when writers, chafing under restraints and -reckless of consequence, were tempted into license from sheer bravado -and opposition; when others far more innocent were brought under the -same ban of the law, and suffered imprisonment and fine for a hardly -unwarrantable freedom of speech. It is to be feared that the frequent -prosecutions instituted had often their origin in political antipathy. -While ministerial prints might libel and revile the opponents of the -governments, journals <!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>which did not spare the party in power were -humiliated and brow-beaten, difficulties were thrown in the way of -their obtaining intelligence, and if they dared to express their -opinions freely, "an information <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ex officio</i>," as it was styled, -was issued by the Attorney-General. Prosecution followed, protracted -to the bitter end. Even what seems to us the harmless practice of -parliamentary reporting was deemed a breach of privilege; it was -tolerated, but never expressly permitted. Offending journalists were -often reprimanded at the bar of the House, and any member who felt -aggrieved at the language attributed to him was at liberty to claim -the protection of the House. When legislators and executive were so -sensitive, it was hardly likely that the great ones, the supposed salt -of the earth, should be less thin-skinned. Any kind of criticism upon -princes of the blood was looked upon as rank blasphemy; the morals of -a not blameless or too reputable aristocracy were guaranteed immunity -from attack, while the ecclesiastical hierarchy was apparently not -strong enough to vindicate its tenets or position without having -recourse to the secular arm.</p> - -<p>As time passed, the early martyrs to freedom of speech, such men as -Prynne, Bastwick and Daniel Defoe, were followed by many victims to -similar oppression. One of the first to suffer after Defoe was the -nonjuring clergyman Lawrence Howell, who died in Newgate. He was -prosecuted about 1720 for writing a pamphlet in which he denounced -<!-- Page 106 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>George I as a usurper. He was tried at the Old Bailey, convicted, and -sentenced to pay a fine of £500 to the king, to find sureties for an -additional sum, to be imprisoned in Newgate for three years, and during -that term to be twice whipped. He was also to be degraded and stripped -of his gown by the common executioner. Howell asked indignantly of -his judges, "Who will whip a clergyman?" "We pay no deference to your -cloth," replied the court, "because you are a disgrace to it, and have -no right to wear it." The validity of his ordination was also denied by -the court, and as Howell continued to protest, the hangman was ordered -to tear off his gown as he stood there at the Bar. The public whipping -was not inflicted, but Howell died soon afterwards in Newgate.</p> - -<p>Next came Nathaniel Mist, who was sentenced in 1721 to stand in the -pillory, to pay a fine, and suffer imprisonment for reflecting upon -the action of George I as regards the Protestants in the Palatinate. -His paper, the <cite>Weekly Journal</cite> or <cite>Saturday's Post</cite>, was notoriously -Jacobite in its views. Soon afterwards he came under the displeasure -of the House of Commons for instituting comparisons between the times -of the rebellion of 1715 and those which followed, and was committed -to Newgate for uttering a "false, malicious, and scandalous libel." -This interference by the House with Mist's publications in a matter -which did not concern its privileges is characterized by Hallam <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>as -an extraordinary assumption of parliamentary power. Tom Paine, whose -rationalist writings gained him much obloquy later on, was one of -the next in point of time to feel the arm of the law. In 1724 he -was convicted of three libels on the Government, fined £100, and -imprisoned for a year. A clergyman, William Rowland, was put in the -pillory in 1729 for commenting too freely in print on two magistrates -who had failed to convict and punish prisoners charged with unnatural -crimes. Mr. Rowland was pilloried in his canonical habit, and preached -all the time to the multitude, complaining of the injustice of his -sentence, whereupon the people, amongst whom were several women, made a -collection for him.</p> - -<p>About 1730, newspapers were especially established for purposes of -political party warfare, and each side libelled or prosecuted the -other in turn. The <cite>Craftsman</cite> about this date sprang into the first -rank for wit and invective. Its editors were constantly in trouble; -the statesmen who supported it had to defend their bantling with -their swords. In 1738 the printer, Henry Haines, was sentenced to two -years' imprisonment for producing the paper. In 1759 Dr. Shebbeare was -fined, put in the pillory, and imprisoned for three years, his offence -being the publication of what was deemed a scandalous libel in his -"Sixth Letter to the English People." Four years later, John Wilkes, -M. P., started the <cite>North Briton</cite>, a Liberal print, in <!-- Page 108 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>opposition to -Smollet's <cite>Briton</cite>, a Tory paper, which was subsidized and supported -by Lord Bute, then in power. John Wilkes was no doubt assisted by -Lord Temple and John Churchill the satirist. The <cite>North Briton</cite> had -been intended to assail Lord Bute's government, but it was not until -its forty-fifth number that the dash and boldness of its contributors -attracted general attention. In this number a writer rashly accused -the king of falsehood. The matter was at once taken up; proceedings -were instituted against printer and publisher, who were arrested, as -was also Wilkes. These arrests subsequently formed the subject of -lengthy lawsuits; they were in the end declared illegal, and all three -got heavy damages. Wilkes was, however, expelled from the House, by -whose order the offending numbers of the <cite>North Briton</cite> were burnt by -the common hangman. But these measures did not extinguish the <cite>North -Briton</cite>, which was continued as far as the two hundred and seventeenth -number, when Mr. William Bingley, a bookseller, who at that time owned -it, was committed to Newgate, and kept there a couple of years for -refusing to reply to interrogatories connected with an earlier number -of the paper. Wilkes, who had fled to France to escape imprisonment, -next fell under the displeasure of the House of Lords. The <cite>London -Evening Post</cite>, a paper which had already come into collision with the -Commons for presuming to publish reports of debates, committed <!-- Page 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>the -seemingly venial offence of inserting a letter from Wilkes, in which he -commented rather freely upon a peer of the realm at that time British -Ambassador in Paris. The House of Lords could not touch Wilkes, but -they took proceedings against the printer for breach of privilege in -presuming to mention the name of one of its members, and fined him -£100. The precedent soon became popular, and in succeeding sessions -printers were constantly fined whenever they mentioned, even by -accident, the name of a peer.</p> - -<p>Journalism was in these days an ill-used profession. The reign of -George III must always be remembered as a time when newspapers and -those who wrote them were at the mercy of the people in power. Grant -declares that the despotic and tyrannical treatment of the press during -the several administrations under George III had no parallel in English -history. The executive was capriciously sensitive to criticism, and -readily roused to extreme measures. No newspaper indeed was safe; -the editors of Liberal prints, or their contributors, who touched on -political subjects were at the mercy of the Attorney-General. Any -morning's issue might be made the subject of a prosecution, and every -independent writer on the wrong side went in daily dread of fine, -the pillory, or committal to Newgate. Among the early records of the -great organ which custom has long honoured with the title of the -"leading journal," are several instances of the <!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>dangers journalists -encountered. The <cite>Daily Universal Register</cite>, started by the first Mr. -John Walter in 1785, became the <cite>Times</cite> in 1788. On the 11th July, -1789, the publisher of the paper—at that time Mr. Walter himself—was -tried and convicted of alleged libels on three royal dukes, York, -Gloucester, and Cumberland, whose joy at the recovery of the king the -<cite>Times</cite> dared to characterize as insincere. The sentence decreed and -inflicted was a fine of £50, imprisonment in Newgate for one year, -and exposure on the pillory at Charing Cross. A second prosecution -followed, intended to protect, and if possible rehabilitate, the Prince -of Wales, and Mr. Walter, having been brought from Newgate for the -trial, was sentenced to a further fine of £100, and a like sum for -a libel on the Duke of Clarence. Mr. Walter remained in Newgate for -eighteen months, and was released in March, 1791, having been pardoned -at the instance of the Prince of Wales.</p> - -<p>Nor was the law invoked in favour of these princes alone. A few years -later a foreign monarch obtained equal protection, and the editor, -printer, and publisher of the <cite>Courier</cite> were fined and imprisoned for -stigmatizing the Czar of Russia as a tyrant among his own subjects, and -ridiculous to the rest of Europe. The House of Peers, including the -Bench of Bishops, continued very sensitive. In 1799 the printer of the -<cite>Cambridge Intelligence</cite> was brought to the bar of the House, <!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>charged -with reflecting on the speech of the Bishop of Llandaff concerning the -union with Ireland. Lord Grenville moved that the printer should be -fined £100 and committed to Newgate; Lord Holland protested, but it was -justified by Lord Kenyon, and the motion was carried. Lord Kenyon did -not spare the unfortunates arraigned before him for libel. One Thomas -Spence, who published a pamphlet called "Spence's Restorer of Society," -in which the abolition of private ownership of land was advocated, and -its investment in parishes for the good of the public at large, was -brought before Lord Kenyon, and sentenced by him to twelve months' -imprisonment and a fine of £50. Another peer, Lord Ellenborough, who -prosecuted Messrs. White and Hart for a libel in 1808, obtained a -conviction against them, and a sentence of three years' imprisonment.</p> - -<p>In 1810 the House of Commons distinguished itself by a prosecution -which led to rather serious consequences. At a debate on the Walcheren -expedition, a member, Mr. Yorke, had insisted from day to day upon -the exclusion of strangers, and another, Mr. Windham, had inveighed -violently against press reporting. Upon this a question was discussed -at a debating society known as the "British Forum," as to whether Mr. -Yorke's or Mr. Windham's conduct was the greater outrage on the public -feeling. The decision was given against Mr. Yorke, and the result -announced in a placard <!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>outside. This placard was constituted a breach -of privilege, comment upon the proceedings of the House being deemed a -contravention of the Bill of Rights. A Mr. John Gale Jones confessing -himself the author of the placard, he was forthwith committed to -Newgate. Sir Francis Burdett took Jones's part, and published his -protest, signed, in Cobbett's <cite>Weekly Register</cite>. The House on this -ordered the Sergeant-at-arms to arrest Sir Francis and take him to -the Tower. Sir Francis resisted, and was carried off by force. A riot -occurred <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en route</i>, the crowd attacked the escort, and the troops -fired, with fatal consequences, upon the crowd. Sir Francis appealed -to the law courts, which in the end refused to take cognizance of the -questions at issue, and he was released, returning home in triumph. -Mr. John Gale Jones claimed to be tried, and refused to leave Newgate -without it; but he was got out by a stratagem, loudly complaining -that he had been illegally imprisoned, and illegally thrust out. -Jones was sentenced in the autumn of the same year to twelve months' -imprisonment in Coldbath Fields Gaol. Another and a better known writer -found himself in Newgate about this time. In 1810 William Cobbett was -tried for animadverting too openly upon the indignity of subjecting -English soldiers to corporal punishment, for which he was sentenced -to two years' imprisonment in Newgate, and a fine of £1000. This was -not his first prosecution, but it was by far the most serious. Shorter -sentences <!-- Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>of imprisonment were imposed on his printers and publishers, -Messrs. Hansard, Budd, and Bagshaw.</p> - -<p>Some other notable criminals found themselves in Newgate about this -date. In 1809 it became the place of punishment for two Government -officials who were convicted of embezzlement on a large scale. The -first, Mr. Alexander Davison, was employed to purchase barrack-stores -for the Government on commission. He was intrusted with this duty -by the barrack-master general, as a person of extensive mercantile -experience, to avoid the uncertainty of trusting to contractors. Mr. -Davison was to receive a commission of two and one-half per cent. -Instead of buying in the best and cheapest markets, he became also -the seller, thus making a profit on the goods and receiving the -commission as well; or, in the words of Mr. Justice Grose, Davison, -when "receiving a stipend to check the frauds of others, and insure -the best commodities at the cheapest rate, became the tradesman and -seller of the article, and had thereby an interest to increase his own -profit, and to commit that fraud it was his duty to prevent." Davison -disgorged some £18,000 of his ill-won profits, and this was taken into -consideration in his sentence, which was limited to imprisonment in -Newgate for twenty-one months. The other delinquent was Mr. Valentine -Jones, who had been appointed commissary-general and superintendent of -forage and provisions in the West Indies in 1795. A large British force -<!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>was at that time stationed in the West Indian Islands, which entailed -vast disbursements from the public exchequer. The whole of this money -passed through the hands of Mr. Jones. His career of fraud began as -soon as he took over his duties. Mr. Higgins, a local merchant, came to -him proposing to renew contracts for the supply of the troops, but Mr. -Jones would only consent to their renewal on condition that he shared -Mr. Higgins' profits. Higgins protested, but at length yielded. Within -three years the enormous sum of £87,000 sterling was paid over to Jones -as his share in this nefarious transaction. Mr. Jones was tried at the -King's Bench and sentenced to three years' imprisonment in Newgate.</p> - -<p>Soon afterwards a person of very high rank was committed to Newgate. -This was the Marquis of Sligo, who was convicted of enticing British -men-of-war's-men to desert, and sentenced to imprisonment, with a -fine of £5000. Lord Sligo went to Malta soon after leaving college, -and there hired a brig, the <i>Pylades</i>, intending to make a yachting -tour in the Grecian Archipelago. The admiral at Malta and other naval -officers helped Lord Sligo to fit out the <i>Pylades</i>, and he was -welcomed on board the various king's ships. From one of these several -trusty seamen were shortly afterwards missing. Their captain trusted -to Lord Sligo's honour that he had not decoyed these men, and that he -would not receive them; but at that moment the <!-- Page 115 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>deserters were actually -on board the <i>Pylades</i>, having been enticed from the service by Lord -Sligo's servants. The <i>Pylades</i> then went on her cruise along the -Mediterranean. Suspicion seems still to have rested on Lord Sligo, and -after leaving Palermo the <i>Pylades</i> was chased and brought to by H. M. -S. <i>Active</i>. A boat boarded the <i>Pylades</i>, her crew was mustered and -examined, but the deserters had been securely hidden in the after hold, -and were not discovered. A little later Lord Sligo sailed for Patmos, -where some of the crew landed and were left behind; among them were the -men-of-war's-men, through whom the whole affair was brought to light. -Lord Sligo was arrested on his return to England, and tried at the -Old Bailey. The evidence was conclusive. In the course of the trial a -letter was put in from Lord Sligo, to the effect that if the business -was brought into court he should do his best to defend himself; if he -did not succeed, he had an ample fortune, and could pay the fines. No -money, however, could save him from incarceration, and in accordance -with the sentence of Sir William Scott, who was supported on the bench -by Lord Ellenborough and Mr. Baron Thompson, the Marquis of Sligo was -sent to Newgate for four months.</p> - - -<hr class="footnotes" /> -<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82:1_1" id="Footnote_82:1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82:1_1"><span class="label">[82:1]</span></a> The sobriquet of Gentleman Harry was also enjoyed by -Henry Simms, a highwayman who frequented the Lewisham and Blackheath -roads. On one occasion, when travelling into Northamptonshire on a -rather fresh horse, a gentleman who was in a post-chaise remarked -to him, "Don't ride so hard, sir, or you'll soon ride away all your -estate." "Indeed I shall not," replied Simms, "for it lies in several -counties," and dismounting, he challenged the gentleman to stand, and -robbed him of a hundred and two guineas.</p></div> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<small>NEWGATE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY</small></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">Newgate still overcrowded—Description of interior—Debtors in -Middlesex—Debtors in Newgate—Fees extorted—Garnish—Scanty -food—Little bedding—Squalor and wretchedness prevail -throughout—Constant quarrels and fighting—Discipline -maintained only by prisoner wardsmen—Their tyranny and -extortion—A new debtors' prison indispensable—Building -of Whitecross Street—The criminal side—Indiscriminate -association of all classes—The press-yard—Recklessness -of the condemned—Cashman—The condemned cells—Summary of -glaring defects in Newgate—Crimes constantly being hatched -in Newgate—The Corporation roused to reform Newgate—Little -accomplished.</p> -</div> - - -<p>With criminals and misdemeanants of all shades crowding perpetually -into its narrow limits, the latter state of Newgate was worse than the -first. The new gaol fell as far short of the demands made on it as did -the old. The prison population fluctuated a great deal, but it was -almost always in excess of the accommodation available, and there were -times when the place was full to overflowing. At one time there were -three hundred debtors and nine hundred criminals in Newgate, or twelve -hundred prisoners in all.</p> - -<p>In order to realize the evils entailed by incarceration <!-- Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>in Newgate in -these days, it is necessary to give some account of its interior as -it was occupied and appropriated in 1810. The gaol at that date was -divided into eight separate and more or less distinct departments, each -of which had its own wards and yard. These were as follows: the male -debtors' side; the female debtors' side; the chapel yard; the middle -yard; the master felons' side; the female felons' side; the state side; -and the press-yard.</p> - -<p>The squalor and uncleanness of the debtors' side was intensified by -constant overcrowding. Prisoners were committed to it quite without -reference to its capacity. No remonstrance was attended to, no steps -taken to reduce the number of committals, and the governor was obliged -to utilize the chapel as a day and night room for them. Besides this, -although the families of debtors were no longer permitted to live with -them inside the gaol, hundreds of women and children came in every -morning to spend the day in the prison, and there was no limitation to -the numbers of visitors admitted to the debtors' side. Friends arrived -about nine in the morning, and went out at nine o'clock at night, when -as many as two hundred visitors have been observed leaving the debtors' -yards at one time. The day passed in revelry and drunkenness. Although -spirituous liquors were forbidden, wine and beer might be had in any -quantity, the only limitation being that not more than one bottle of -<!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>wine or one quart of beer could be issued at one time. No account -was taken of the amount of liquors admitted in one day, and debtors -might practically have as much as they liked, if they could only pay -for it. No attempt was made to check drunkenness, beyond the penalty -of shutting out friends from any ward in which a prisoner exceeded. -Quarrelling among the debtors was not unfrequent. Blows were struck, -and fights often ensued. For this and other acts of misconduct there -was the discipline of the refractory ward, or "strong room" on the -debtors' side. Bad cases were removed to a cell on the felons' side, -and here they were locked in solitary confinement for three days at a -time.</p> - -<p>Order throughout the debtors' side was preserved and discipline -maintained by a system open to grave abuses, which had the prescription -of long usage, and which was never wholly rooted out for many years -to come. This was the pernicious plan of governing by prisoners, or -of setting a favoured few in authority over the many. The head of the -debtors' prison was a prisoner called the steward, who was chosen by -the whole body from six whom the keeper nominated. This steward was -practically supreme. All the allowances of food passed through his -hands; he had the control of the poor-box for chance charities, he -collected the garnish money, and distributed the weekly grant from the -prison charitable fund.</p> - -<p>The criminal side of Newgate consisted of the six <!-- Page 119 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>quarters or yards, -and the inmates, distinguished from the debtors, were comprised in four -classes: those awaiting trial; persons under sentence of imprisonment -for a fixed period, or until they shall have paid certain fines; -transports awaiting removal to the colonies, and capital convicts, -condemned to death and awaiting execution. At one time all of these -different categories were thrown together pell-mell, young and old, -the untried with the convicted. An imperfect attempt at classification -was, however, made in 1812, and a yard was as far as possible set -apart for the untried, or the class, with whom, under the imperious -demand for accommodation, were also associated the misdemeanants. -This was the chapel yard, with its five wards, which were calculated -to accommodate seventy prisoners, but often held many more. A further -sub-classification was attempted by separating at night those charged -with misdemeanours from those charged with felony, but all mingled -freely during the day in the yard. The sleeping accommodation in the -chapel-yard wards, and indeed throughout the prison, consisted of a -barrack bed, which was a wooden flooring on a slightly inclined plane, -with a beam running across the top to serve as a pillow. No beds were -allowed, only two rugs per prisoner. When each sleeper had the full -lateral space allotted to him, it amounted to one foot and a half on -the barrack bed; but when the ward was obliged to accommodate double -the ordinary number, as was <!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>frequently the case, the sleepers covered -the entire floor, with the exception of a passage in the middle. All -the misdemeanants, whatever their offence, were lodged in this chapel -ward. As many various and, according to our ideas, heinous crimes came -under this head, in the then existing state of the law, the man guilty -of a common assault found himself side by side with the fraudulent, -or others who had attempted abominable crimes. In this heterogeneous -society were also thrown the unfortunate journalists to whom reference -has already been made.</p> - -<p>The middle yard, as far as its limits would permit, was appropriated -to felons and transports. The wards here were generally very crowded. -Constantly associated with these convicted felons were numbers of -juveniles, infants of tender years. There were frequently in the middle -yard seven or eight children, the youngest barely nine, the oldest -only twelve or thirteen, exposed to all the contaminating influences -of the place. Mr. Bennet mentions also the case of young men of better -stamp, clerks in city offices, and youths of good parentage, "in this -dreadful situation," who had been rescued from the hulks through the -kindness and attention of the Secretary of State. "Yet they had been -long enough," he goes on to say, "in the prison associated with the -lowest and vilest criminals, with convicts of all ages and characters, -to render it next to impossible but that, with the obliteration of all -sense of self-respect, the inevitable consequence of <!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>such a situation, -their morals must have been destroyed; . . . the lessons they were taught -in this academy, must have had a tendency to turn them into the world -hardened and accomplished in the ways of vice and crime."</p> - -<p>Felons who could pay the price were permitted, irrespective of their -character or offences, to purchase the greater ease and comfort of the -master's side. The entrance fee was at least 13<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a head, with -half-a-crown a week more for bed and bedding, the wards being furnished -with barrack bedsteads, upon which each prisoner had the regulation -allowance of sleeping room, or about a foot and a half laterally. These -fees were in reality a substantial contribution towards the expenses of -the gaol; without them the keeper declared that he could not pay the -salaries of turnkeys and servants, nor keep the prison going at all. -Besides the gaol fees, there was "garnish" of half-a-guinea, collected -by the steward, and spent in providing coals, candles, plates, knives, -and forks; while all the occupants of this part of the prison supported -themselves; they had the ration of prison bread only, but they had no -share in the prison meat or other charities, and they or their friends -found them in food. All who could scrape together the cash seem to have -gladly availed themselves of the privilege of entering the master's -side. It was the only way to escape the horrors, the distress, penury, -and rags of the common yards. Idleness was not so <!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>universally the -rule in this part of the gaol. Artisans and others were at liberty -to work at their trades, provided they were not dangerous. Tailoring -and shoemaking were permitted, but it was deemed unsafe to allow a -carpenter or blacksmith to have his tools. All the money earned by -prisoners was at their own disposal, and was spent almost habitually in -drink and wantonness.</p> - -<p>The best accommodation the gaol could offer was reserved for the -prisoners on the state side, from whom still higher fees were exacted, -with the same discreditable idea of swelling the revenues of the -prison. To constitute this the aristocratic quarter, unwarrantable -demands were made upon the space properly allotted to the female -felons, and no lodger was rejected, whatever his status, who offered -himself and could bring grist to the mill. The luxury of the state side -was for a long time open to all who could pay—the convicted felon, the -transport awaiting removal, the lunatic whose case was still undecided, -the misdemeanant tried or untried, the debtor who wished to avoid -the discomfort of the crowded debtors' side, the outspoken newspaper -editor, or the daring reporter of parliamentary debates. The better -class of inmate complained bitterly of this enforced companionship with -the vile, association at one time forbidden by custom, but which greed -and rapacity long made the rule. The fee for admission to the state -side, as fixed by the table of fees, was three guineas, but Mr. Newman -<!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>declared that he never took more than two. Ten and sixpence a week -more was charged as rent for a single bed; where two or more slept in -a bed the rent was seven shillings a week each. Prisoners who could -afford it sometimes paid for four beds, at the rate of twenty-eight -shillings, and so secured the luxury of a private room. A Mr. Lundy, -charged with forgery, was thus accommodated on the state side for -upwards of five years. But the keeper protested that no single prisoner -could thus monopolize space if the state side was crowded. The keeper -went still further in his efforts to make money. He continued the -ancient practice of letting out a portion of his own house, and by a -poetical fiction treated it as an annex of the state side. Mr. Davison, -sent to Newgate for embezzlement, was accommodated with a room in Mr. -Newman's house at the extravagant rental of thirty guineas per week; -Mr. Cobbett was also a lodger of Mr. Newman's; and so were any members -of the aristocracy, if they happened to be in funds.</p> - -<p>The female felons' wards were always full to overflowing; sometimes -double the number the rooms could accommodate were crowded into them. -There was a master's side for females who could pay the usual fees, but -they associated with the rest in the one narrow yard common to all. The -tried and the untried, young and old, were herded together; sometimes -girls of thirteen, twelve, even ten or nine years of age, were exposed -to all the <!-- Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>contagion and profligacy which prevailed in this part of -the prison. There was no separation even for the women under sentence -of death, who lived in a common and perpetually crowded ward. Only when -the order of execution came down were those about to suffer placed -apart in one of the rooms in the arcade of the middle ward.</p> - -<p>The press-yard was the receptacle of the male condemned prisoners and -was generally crowded, like the rest of the prison. Except in murder -cases, where the execution was generally very promptly performed, -strange and inconceivable delay occurred in carrying out the extreme -sentences. Hence there was a terrible accumulation of prisoners in the -condemned cells. Once, during the long illness of George III, as many -as one hundred were there waiting the "Report," as it was called. At -another time there were fifty, one of whom had been under sentence a -couple of years. Mr. Bennet speaks of thirty-eight capital convicts -he found in the press-yard in February, 1817, five of whom had been -condemned the previous July, four in September, and twenty-nine -in October. This procrastination bred a certain callousness. Few -realizing that the dreadful fate would overtake them, dismissed the -prospect of death, and until the day was actually fixed, spent the -time in roystering, swearing, gambling, or playing at ball. Visitors -were permitted access to them without stint; unlimited drink was not -denied them provided it was <!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>obtained in regulated quantities at one -time. These capital convicts, says Mr. Bennet, "lessened the ennui -and despair of their situation by unbecoming merriment, or sought -relief in the constant application of intoxicating stimulants. I saw -Cashman<a name="FNanchor_125:1_2" id="FNanchor_125:1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_125:1_2" class="fnanchor">[125:1]</a> a few hours before his execution, smoking and drinking -with the utmost unconcern and indifference." Those who were thus -reckless reacted upon the penitent who knew their days were numbered, -and their gibes and jollity counteracted the ordinary's counsels or the -independent preacher's earnest prayers. For while Roman Catholics and -Dissenters were encouraged to see ministers of their own persuasion, -a number of amateurs were ever ready to give their gratuitous -ministrations to the condemned.</p> - -<p>The prisoners in the press-yard had free access during the day to the -yard and large day room; at night they were placed in the fifteen -cells, two, three, or more together, according to the total number to -be accommodated. They were never left <!-- Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>quite alone for fear of suicide, -and for the same reason they were searched for weapons or poisons. But -they nevertheless frequently managed to secrete the means of making -away with themselves, and thus accomplished their purpose. Convicted -murderers were kept continuously in the cells on bread and water, -in couples, from the time of sentence to that of execution, which -was about three or four days generally, from Friday to Monday, so as -to include one Sunday, on which day there was a special service for -the condemned in the prison chapel. This latter was an ordeal which -all dreaded, and many avoided by denying their faith. The condemned -occupied an open pew in the centre of the chapel, hung with black; -in front of them, upon a table, was a black coffin in full view. The -chapel was filled with a curious but callous congregation, who came to -stare at the miserable people thus publicly exposed. Well might Mr. -Bennet write that the condition of the condemned side was the most -prominent of the manifold evils in the present system of Newgate, so -discreditable to the metropolis.</p> - -<p>The report of the Committee of the House of Commons painted so black a -picture of Newgate as then conducted, that the Corporation were roused -in very shame to undertake some kind of reform. The above-mentioned -report was ordered to be printed upon the 9th of May. Upon the 29th of -July the same year, the court of aldermen appointed a <!-- Page 127 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>committee of its -own body, assisted by the town clerk, Mr. Dance, city surveyor, son of -the architect of Newgate, and Mr. Addison, keeper of Newgate, to make -a visitation of the gaols supposed to be the best managed, including -those of Petworth and Gloucester.<a name="FNanchor_127:1_3" id="FNanchor_127:1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_127:1_3" class="fnanchor">[127:1]</a></p> - -<p>After much anxious consideration certain improvements were introduced. -The state side ceased to exist, and the female prisoners thus regained -the space of which their quadrangle had been robbed. The privileges -of the master's side also disappeared; fees were nominally abolished, -and garnish was scotched, although not yet killed outright. A certain -number of bedsteads were provided, and there was a slight increase in -the ration of bread. But now the Corporation took alarm at the terrible -expense adequate reform would entail and hence the most crying evils -were left untouched. If a metropolitan prison were to be erected on the -same lines as the recently built prisons of Gloucester and Petworth, -with all the space not only for air and exercise, but for day rooms and -sleeping cells, it would cover some thirty acres, and cost a great deal -more than the city could possibly afford; therefore nothing was done.</p> - - -<hr class="footnotes" /> -<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125:1_2" id="Footnote_125:1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125:1_2"><span class="label">[125:1]</span></a> Cashman was the only one of the Spafields rioters -(1816) who was capitally convicted and executed. Four others who were -arraigned with him were acquitted by the jury, to the astonishment of -the court. Cashman, who had been a seaman in the Royal Navy, pleaded -that he had been to the Admiralty to claim prize-money to the value -of £200 on the day of the riot. On his way home, half drunk, he had -been persuaded to join the rioters. Cashman's unconcern lasted to the -end. As he appeared on the gallows the mob groaned and hissed the -Government, and Cashman joined in the outcry until the drop fell.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127:1_3" id="Footnote_127:1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127:1_3"><span class="label">[127:1]</span></a> Petworth Prison, built in 1785, and Gloucester -Penitentiary, erected in 1791, were the two first gaols established -which provided a separate sleeping cell for every prisoner.</p></div> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<br /> - -<small>PHILANTHROPIC EFFORTS</small></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">Absence of religious and moral instruction in Newgate a -hundred years ago—Chaplains not always zealous—Amateur -enthusiasts minister to the prisoners—Silas Told, his life and -work—Wesley leads him to prison visitation—Goes to Newgate -regularly—Attends the condemned to the gallows—Alexander -Cruden of the "Concordance" also visits Newgate—A neglectful -Chaplain—Private philanthropy active—Various societies -formed—Prison schools—The female side the most disgraceful -part of the prison—Elizabeth Fry's first visit—The -School—The Matron—Work obtained—Rules framed—Female prison -reformed—Newgate on exhibition.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Among the many drawbacks from which the inmates of Newgate suffered -through the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth centuries, -was the absence of proper religious and moral instruction. The value -of the ministrations of the ordinary, who was the official ghostly -adviser, entirely depended upon his personal qualities. Now and -again he was an earnest and devoted man, to whom the prisoners might -fully open their hearts. More often he was careless and indifferent, -satisfied to earn his salary by the slightest and most perfunctory -discharge of his sacred duties. There were ordinaries whose fame -rested rather upon their powers of <!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>digestion than polemics or pulpit -oratory. The Newgate chaplain had to say grace at city banquets, and -was sometimes called upon to eat three consecutive dinners without -rising from the table. One in particular was noted for his skill in -compounding a salad, another for his jovial companionship. But the -ordinary took life easy, and beyond conducting the services, did little -work. Only when executions were imminent was he especially busy. It -behooved him then to collect matter for his account of the previous -life and misdeeds of the condemned, and their demeanour at Tyburn; -and this, according to contemporary records, led him to get all the -information he could from the malefactors who passed through his hands.</p> - -<p>But while the official chaplain lacked zeal or religious fervour, there -were not wanting others more earnest and enthusiastic to add their -unprofessional but devoted efforts to the half-hearted ministrations of -the ordinary of Newgate. A prominent figure in the philanthropic annals -of Newgate is that of Silas Told, who devoted many years of his life to -the spiritual needs of the prisoners. Told's career is full of peculiar -interest. He was a pious child; both father and mother were religious -folk, and brought him up carefully. According to his own memoirs, -when quite an infant he and his sister Dulcibella were wont to wander -into the woods and fields to converse about "God and happiness." Told -passed through many trials <!-- Page 130 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>and vicissitudes in his early years. At -thirteen he went to sea as an apprentice, and suffered much ill-usage. -He made many voyages to the West Indies and to the Guinea coast, being -a horrified and unwilling witness of some of the worst phases of the -slave trade. He fell into the hands of piratical Spaniards, was cast -away on a reef, saved almost by a miracle, last of all was pressed on -board a man-of-war. Here, on board H. M. S. <i>Phœnix</i> his religious -tendencies were strengthened by a pious captain, and presently he -married and left the sea for ever. After this he became a schoolmaster -in Essex, then a clerk and book-keeper in London. Here he came under -the influence of John Wesley, and although predisposed against the -Methodists, he was profoundly impressed by their leader's preaching. -While listening to a sermon by John Wesley on the suddenness of -conversion, Told heard another voice say to him, "This is the truth," -and from that time forth he became a zealous Methodist.</p> - -<p>It was Wesley who led him to prison visitation. He was at that time -schoolmaster of the Foundry school, and his call to his long and -devoted labours in Newgate were brought about in this wise. "In the -year 1744," to quote his own words, "I attended the children one -morning at the five o'clock preaching, when Mr. Wesley took his text -out of the twenty-fifth chapter of St. Matthew. When he read 'I was -sick and in prison, and ye visited me <!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>not,' I was sensible of my -negligence in never visiting the prisoners during the course of my -life, and was filled with horror of mind beyond expression. This threw -me well-nigh into a state of despondency, as I was totally unacquainted -with the measures requisite to be pursued for that purpose. However, -the gracious God, two or three days after, sent a messenger to me in -the school, who informed me of the malefactors that were under sentence -of death, and would be glad of any of our friends who could go and pray -with them. . . . In consequence, I committed my school to my trusty usher, -and went to Newgate."</p> - -<p>After this first visit he went there regularly. He described the place -twenty-one years later, but still remembered it vividly, as "such -an emblem of the infernal pit as he never saw before." However, he -struggled bravely on, having a constant pressure upon his mind "to -stand up for God in the midst of them," and praying much for wisdom and -fortitude. He preached as often as he was permitted to both felons and -debtors. But for the first few years, when attending the malefactors, -he met with so many repulses from the keeper and ordinary, as well as -from the prisoners themselves, that he was often greatly discouraged. -"But notwithstanding I more vehemently pressed through all, becoming -the more resolute and taking no denial."</p> - -<p>He continued his labours for many years, and <!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>in 1767 he visited the -notorious Mrs. Brownrigg, who was sentenced to be hanged for whipping -her servant-maid to death, and whom he accompanied to the gallows. His -death occurred in 1779. He lived to hear of Howard's philanthropic -exertions, and to see the introduction of some small measure of prison -reform.</p> - -<p>While Silas Told was thus engaged, another but a more erratic and -eccentric philanthropist paid constant visits to Newgate. This -was Alexander Cruden, the well-known, painstaking compiler of the -"Concordance." For a long time he came daily to the gaol, to preach -and instruct the prisoners in the gospel, rewarding the most diligent -and attentive with money, till he found that the cash thus disbursed -was often spent in drink the moment his back was turned. Through Mr. -Cruden's solicitations a sentence of death upon a forger, Richard -Potter, was commuted to one of transportation.</p> - -<p>More precise details of the manner in which a Newgate ordinary -interpreted his trust will be found in the evidence of the Rev. -Brownlow Forde, LL. D., before the committee of 1814. Dr. Forde took -life pretty easy. Had a prisoner sent for him, he told the committee, -he might have gone, but as they did not send, unless they were sick -and thought themselves at death's door, he confined his ministrations -to the condemned, whom he visited twice a week in the day room of -the press-yard, or daily after the order for execution had arrived. -He <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>repudiated the notion that he had anything to do with the state -of morals of the gaol. He felt no obligation to instruct youthful -prisoners, or attend to the spiritual needs of the little children so -often thrown into Newgate. He never went to the infirmary unless sent -for, and did not consider it his duty to visit the sick, and often knew -nothing of a prisoner's illness unless he was warned to attend the -funeral. Among other reasons, he said that as the turnkeys were always -busy, there was no one to attend him. While the chaplain was thus -careless and apathetic, the services he conducted were little likely -to be edifying or decorous. The most disgraceful scenes were common -in the prison chapel. As the prisoners trooped into the galleries -they shouted and halloed to their friends in the body of the church. -Friends interchanged greetings, and "How d'ye do, Sall?" was answered -by "Gallows well, Conkey Beau," as the men recognized their female -acquaintances, and were recognized in turn. The congregation might -be pretty quiet after the chaplain had made his appearance, but more -often it was disorderly from first to last. Any disposed to behave -well were teased and laughed at by others. Unrestricted conversation -went on, accompanied by such loud yawning, laughing, or coughing as -almost impeded the service. No one in authority attempted to preserve -order; the gatesmen, themselves prisoners, might expostulate, but the -turnkeys who were present ignored any disturbance until <!-- Page 134 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>reminded of -their duty by the chaplain. The keeper never attended service. It was -suggested to him that he might have a pew in the chapel with a private -entrance to it from his own house, but nothing came of the proposal. -It was not incumbent upon the prisoners, except those condemned to -death, to attend chapel. Sometimes it was crowded, sometimes there was -hardly a soul. In severe weather the place, in which there was no fire, -was nearly empty. It was very lofty, very cold, and the prisoners, -ill clad, did not care to shiver through the service. On "curiosity -days," those of the condemned sermon, more came, including debtors -and visitors from outside, who thronged to see the demeanour of the -wretched convicts under the painful circumstances already described. -The service must have been conducted in a very slovenly and irreverent -manner. Dr. Forde had no clerk, unless it chanced that some one in -the condemned pew knew how to read. If not, there were sometimes no -responses, and the whole service was apt to be thrown into confusion.</p> - -<p>Dr. Forde seems to have been more in his element when taking the chair -at a public-house "free-and-easy." In the "Book for a Rainy Day," Mr. -Smith gives us an account of a visit which was paid to Dr. Forde at a -public-house in Hatton Garden. "Upon entering the club-room, we found -the Doctor most pompously seated in a superb masonic chair, under -a stately crimson canopy placed <!-- Page 135 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>between the windows. The room was -clouded with smoke, whiffed to the ceiling, which gave me a better idea -of what I had heard of the 'Black Hole of Calcutta' than any place I -had seen. There were present at least a hundred associates of every -denomination."</p> - -<p>It is consoling to find that while officials slumbered, private -philanthropy was active, and had been in some cases for years. Various -societies and institutions had been set on foot to assist and often -replace public justice in dealing with criminals. The Marine Society -grew out of a subscription started by Justices Fielding and Welch, -in 1756, for the purpose of clothing vagrant and friendless lads and -sending them on board the fleet. The Philanthropic Society had been -established in 1789 by certain benevolent persons to supply a home for -destitute boys and girls, and this admirable institution steadily grew -and prospered. In 1794 it moved to larger premises, and in 1817 it had -an income of £6000 a year, partly from subscriptions and legacies, -partly from the profit on labour executed by its inmates.<a name="FNanchor_135:1_4" id="FNanchor_135:1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_135:1_4" class="fnanchor">[135:1]</a> -In 1816 another body of well-meaning people, moved by the alarming -increase of juvenile delinquency in the metropolis, <!-- Page 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>formed a society -to investigate its causes, inquire into the individual cases of boys -actually under sentence, and afford such relief upon release as might -appear deserved or likely to prevent a relapse into crime. The members -of this society drew up a list containing seven hundred names of the -friends and associates of boys in Newgate, all of whom they visited -and sought to reform. They went further, and seriously discussed the -propriety of establishing a special penitentiary for juveniles, a -scheme which was not completely carried out. Another institution was -the Refuge for the Destitute, which took in boys and girls on their -discharge from prison, to teach them trades and give them a fair -start in life. There were also the Magdalen Hospital and the Female -Penitentiary, both of which did good work amongst depraved women.</p> - -<p>Matters had improved somewhat in Newgate after the report of the -committee in 1814, at least as regards the juveniles. A school had -been established, over which the new ordinary, Mr. Cotton, who about -this time succeeded Dr. Forde, presided, and in which he took a great -interest. The chaplain was in communication with the Philanthropic -and other institutions, and promising cases were removed to them. The -boys were kept as far as possible apart from the men, but not at first -from one another. Hence in the one long room they occupied and used -for all purposes, eating, drinking, and sleeping, the elder and more -vitiated boys <!-- Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>were still able to exercise a baneful influence over the -young and innocent. More space became available by the removal of the -debtors to Whitecross Street, and then the boys were lodged according -to classes in four different rooms. Mr. Cotton believed that the boys -benefitted morally from the instruction and care they received. This -juvenile school was the one bright spot in the prevailing darkness of -Newgate at that particular time. Another and a still more remarkable -amelioration in the condition of the prisoners was soon to attract -universal attention. The great and good work accomplished by that noble -woman Mrs. Fry on the female side of Newgate forms an epoch in prison -history, and merits a particular description.</p> - -<p>Bad as were the other various courts and so called "sides" in Newgate -prison, the quadrangle appropriated to the females was far worse. Its -foul and degraded condition had attracted the sympathies of Elizabeth -Fry as early as 1813. The winter had been unusually severe, and Mrs. -Fry had been induced by several Friends, particularly by William -Forster, to visit Newgate and endeavour to alleviate the sufferings -of the female prisoners. The space allotted to the women was at that -time still curtailed by the portion given over to the state side. They -were limited to two wards and two cells, an area of about one hundred -and ninety-two superficial yards in all, into which, at the time of -Mrs. Fry's visit, some three hundred women with their <!-- Page 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>children were -crowded, all classes together, felon and misdemeanant, tried and -untried; the whole under the superintendence of an old man and his -son. They slept on the floor, without so much as a mat for bedding. -Many were very nearly naked, others were in rags; some desperate from -want of food, some savage from drink, foul in language, still more -recklessly depraved in their habits and behaviour. Everything was -filthy beyond description. The smell of the place was quite disgusting. -The keeper himself, Mr. Newman, was reluctant to go amongst them. He -strove hard to dissuade Mrs. Fry from entering the wards, and failing -in that, begged her at least to leave her watch in his office, assuring -her that not even his presence would prevent its being torn from her. -Mrs. Fry's own account fully endorses all this. "All I tell thee is a -faint picture of the reality; the filth, the closeness of the rooms, -the ferocious manners and expressions of the women towards each other, -and the abandoned wickedness which everything bespoke, are quite -indescribable." "One act, the account of which I received from another -quarter, marks the degree of wretchedness to which they were reduced at -that time. Two women were seen in the act of stripping a dead child for -the purpose of clothing a living one."</p> - -<p>Mrs. Fry made other visits, for she wrote under date Feb. 16th, -1813: "Yesterday we were some hours in Newgate with the poor female -felons, <!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>attending to their outward necessities; we had been twice -previously. Before we went away dear Anna Buxton uttered a few words -in supplication, and very unexpectedly to myself I did also. I heard -weeping, and I thought they appeared much tendered. A very solemn quiet -was observed; it was a striking scene, with the poor people around in -their deplorable condition." Mrs. Fry's charity extended to the gift -of clothing, for it is recorded in her memoirs that many members of -her domestic circle had long a vivid recollection of the "green baize -garments," and their pleasure in assisting to prepare them.</p> - -<p>Nearly four years elapsed before Elizabeth Fry resumed her visits. -Newgate and what she had seen there had no doubt made a deep impression -on her mind, but a long illness and family afflictions had prevented -her from giving her philanthropic yearnings full play. She appears to -have recommenced her visits about Christmas, 1816, and on Feb. 16th, -1817, there is an entry in her journal to the effect that she had been -"lately much occupied in forming a school in Newgate for the children -of the poor prisoners, as well as the young criminals." It was in this -way that she struck at the hearts of these poor degraded wretches, -who were only too eager to save their children from a life of crime. -"The proposal was received even by the most abandoned with tears of -joy," says Mrs. Fry. The three intervening years between <!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>1813 and -1816 had brought no improvement in the female side. Its inmates—the -very scum of the town—were filthy in their habits and disgusting in -their persons. Mrs. Fry tells us she found the railings in the inner -yard crowded with half-naked women, struggling together for the front -situations with the most boisterous violence, and begging with the -utmost vociferation. As double gratings had now been fixed at some -distance apart to prevent close communication between prisoners and -their visitors, the women had fastened wooden spoons to the end of -long sticks, which they thrust across the space as they clamoured for -alms. Mrs. Fry says that she felt as if she were going into a den of -wild beasts, and that she well recollects quite shuddering when the -door closed upon her, and she was locked in with such a herd of novel -and desperate companions. The women, according to another eyewitness, -sat about the yard on the stones, squalid in attire, ferocious in -aspect. On this occasion a woman rushed out from the ward yelling like -a wild beast; she made the circuit of the yard, brandishing her arms -and tearing the caps or coverings from the heads of the other women. -In spite of these terrible scenes, the ladies—several Friends having -joined with Mrs. Fry—continued to give their attention to the school. -"It was in our visits to the school," she afterwards observed, when -giving evidence before the Parliamentary committee of 1818, "where -some of us attended every day, that we <!-- Page 141 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>were witnesses of the dreadful -proceedings that went forward on the female side of the prison; the -begging, swearing, gaming, fighting, singing, dancing, dressing up in -men's clothes; the scenes are too bad to be described, so that we did -not think it suitable to admit young persons with us."</p> - -<p>It is not strange that these miserable women should be absolutely -unsexed. They were often subjected to brutal ill-treatment even -before their arrival at Newgate. Many were brought to the prison -almost without clothes. If coming from a distance, as in the case -of transports lodged in Newgate until embarkation, they were almost -invariably ironed, and often cruelly so. One lady saw the female -prisoners from Lancaster Castle arrive, not merely handcuffed, but with -heavy irons on their legs, which had caused swelling and inflammation. -Others wore iron-hoops round their legs and arms, and were chained to -each other. On the journey these poor souls could not get up or down -from the coach without the whole of them being dragged together. A -woman travelled from Cardigan with an iron hoop round her ankle, and -fainted when it was removed. This woman's story was, that during a long -imprisonment she had worn an iron hoop round her waist, a second round -her leg above the knee, a third at the ankle, and all these connected -by chains. In the waist hoop were two bolts or fastenings, in which her -hands were confined at night when she went to bed. Her bed was <!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>only -of straw. These wretched and ill-used creatures might be forgiven if -they at times broke out into rebellion. For a long time it was the -practice with the female transports to riot previous to their departure -from Newgate, breaking windows, furniture, or whatever came in their -reach. Their outrageous conduct continued all the way from the gaol to -the water-side, whither they were conveyed in open wagons, noisy and -disorderly to the last, amidst the jeers and shouts of the assembled -crowds.</p> - -<p>Mrs. Fry, as I have said, endeavoured first to form a school. For -this purpose an unoccupied room was set apart by the authorities. -Although looking upon her experiment as hopeless, she received cordial -support from the sheriffs, the governor, Mr. Newman, and the ordinary -of Newgate, Mr. Cotton. The prisoners selected from among themselves -a schoolmistress, Mary Connor by name, who had been committed for -stealing a watch, and "who proved eminently qualified for her task." -The school, which was for children only and young persons under -twenty-five, prospered, and by degrees the heroic band of ladies were -encouraged to greater efforts. The conduct of the prisoners, their -entreaties not to be excluded from the benefits of the school, inspired -Mrs. Fry with confidence, and she resolved to attempt the introduction -of order, industry, and religious feeling into Newgate. In April, 1817, -eleven members of the Society of <!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>Friends and another lady, the wife of -a clergyman, formed themselves into an association for the improvement -of the female prisoners in Newgate.<a name="FNanchor_143:1_5" id="FNanchor_143:1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_143:1_5" class="fnanchor">[143:1]</a> These devoted persons gave -themselves up entirely to their self-imposed task. With no interval of -relaxation, and with but few intermissions from the call of other and -more imperious duties, they lived among the prisoners. They arrived, in -fact, at the hour of unlocking, and spent the whole day in the prison.</p> - -<p>The more crying needs of the Newgate female prison at that date are -indicated in a memorandum found among Mrs. Fry's papers. It was greatly -in need of room, she said. The women should be under the control and -supervision of female, and not, as heretofore, of male officers. The -number of visitors should be greatly curtailed, and all communications -between prisoners and their friends should take place at stated times, -under special rules. The prisoners should not be dependent on their -friends for food or clothing, but should have a sufficiency of both -from the authorities. Employment should be a part of their punishment, -and be provided for them by Government. They might work together in -company, but should be separated at night according to classes, under -a monitor. Religious instruction should be more closely considered. -It was to supply these needs that the <!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>committee devoted its efforts, -the ladies boldly promising that if a matron could be found who -would engage never to leave the prison day or night, they would find -employment for the prisoners and the necessary funds until the city -could be induced to meet the expense.</p> - -<p>The matron was found, and the first prison matron appointed, an -elderly respectable woman, who proved competent, and discharged her -duties with fidelity. Mrs. Fry next sought the countenance and support -of the governor and chaplain, both of whom met her at her husband's -house to listen to her views and proposals. Mr. Cotton, the ordinary, -was not encouraging; he frankly told her that this, like many other -useful and benevolent designs for the improvement of Newgate, would -inevitably fail. Mr. Newman, however, bade her not despair; but he -afterward confessed that when he came to reflect on the subject, -and especially upon the character of the prisoners, he could not -see even the possibility of success. Both, however, promised their -warmest coöperation. Mrs. Fry next saw one of the sheriffs, asking -him to obtain a salary for the matron, and a room in the prison for -the Ladies' Committee. This sheriff, Mr. Bridges, was willing to help -her if his colleagues and the Corporation agreed, but told her that -his concurrence or that of the city would avail her but little—the -concurrence of the women themselves was indispensable; and that it was -in vain to expect such untamed and <!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>turbulent spirits would submit to -the regulations of a woman armed with no legal authority, and unable -to inflict any punishment. Nevertheless, the two sheriffs met Mrs. -Fry at Newgate one Sunday afternoon. The women, seventy in number, -were assembled, and asked whether they were prepared to submit to -the new rules. All fully and unanimously agreed to abide by them, to -the surprise of the sheriffs, who doubted their submitting to such -restraints. Upon this the sheriffs addressed the prisoners, telling -them that the scheme had official support; then turning to Mrs. Fry, -one of the two magistrates said, "Well, ladies, you see your materials."</p> - -<p>The evidence of a gentleman who visited Newgate within a fortnight of -the adoption of the new rules may fitly be added here. He went one day -to call on Mrs. Fry at the prison, and was conducted to the women's -side. "On my approach," he says, "no loud or dissonant sounds or angry -voices indicated that I was about to enter a place which I was credibly -assured had long had for one of its titles that of 'Hell above ground.' -The court-yard into which I was admitted, instead of being peopled with -beings scarcely human, blaspheming, fighting, tearing each other's -hair, or gaming with a filthy pack of cards for the very clothes -they wore, which often did not suffice even for decency, presented -a scene where stillness and propriety reigned. I was conducted by a -decently-dressed person, the <!-- Page 146 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>newly-appointed yards-woman, to the door -of a ward where at the head of a long table sat a lady belonging to -the Society of Friends. She was reading aloud to about sixteen women -prisoners, who were engaged in needlework around it. Each wore a -clean-looking blue apron and bib, with a ticket having a number on it -suspended from her neck by a red tape. They all rose on my entrance, -curtsied respectfully, and then at a signal given resumed their seats -and employments. Instead of a scowl, leer, or ill-suppressed laugh, I -observed upon their countenances an air of self-respect and gravity, -a sort of consciousness of their improved character, and the altered -position in which they were placed. I afterwards visited the other -wards, which were the counterparts of the first."</p> - -<p>The efforts of the ladies, which had been at first concentrated upon -the convicted, were soon directed also upon the untried. These still -continued in a deplorable state, quarrelling and disorderly, bolder -and more reckless because they were in doubt as to their future fate. -Unhappily the same measure of success did not wait upon the attempt -on this side. Many of these women counted upon an early release, and -would not take heartily to work, although when they did they were -really and essentially improved. Nor could it be expected that the -new régime could be established without occasional insubordination -and some backsliding. The rules were sometimes broken. Spirits had -been introduced <!-- Page 147 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>more than once; six or seven cases of drunkenness -had occurred. But the women were careful not to break out before the -ladies; if they swore, it was out of their hearing, and although they -still played cards, it was when the ladies' backs were turned. Mrs. Fry -told the Parliamentary committee how she expostulated with the women -when she found they still gambled, and how she impressed upon them, -if it were true that there were cards in the prison, that she should -consider it a proof of their regard if they would have the candour and -kindness to bring her their packs. By and by a gentle tap came at her -door as she sat alone with the matron, and a trembling woman entered -to surrender her forbidden cards; another and another followed, till -Mrs. Fry had soon five packs of cards in her possession. The culprits -fully expected reproof but Mrs. Fry assured them that their fault -was fully condoned, and, much to their surprise, rewarded them for -their spontaneous good feeling. This reform seems to have been in -the ascendant on the whole, and at the end of the first year it was -satisfactorily proved to competent judges, the past and present Lord -Mayor, the sheriffs, gaolers, and various grand juries, the ordinary, -and others, that an extraordinary change for the better had shown -itself in the conduct of the females.</p> - -<p>The work done in Newgate soon obtained much publicity, to the undoubted -and manifest distaste of those who had accomplished it. It was first -<!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>noticed in the newspapers by the well-known Robert Owen, who adduced -it as a proof of the effects of kindness and regular habits. Prison -discipline was at this time attracting attention, and Mrs. Fry's -labours were very remarkable in this line. Very soon the female side -at Newgate became quite a show. Every one of any status in society, -every distinguished traveller, all people with high aims or deep -feelings, were constrained to visit the prison. Royalty for the first -time took an interest in the gaol. The Duke of Gloucester was among the -visitors, and was escorted round by Mrs. Fry in person. Another day she -was engaged with the Chancellor of the Exchequer; on a third with the -Home Secretary and the Speaker of the House of Commons. Still higher -and more public honour was done to this noble woman by the Marquis of -Lansdowne in the House of Lords, who in 1818, in a moving address on -the state of the English prisons, spoke in terms of the highest eulogy -of what had been effected by Mrs. Fry and other benevolent persons in -Newgate. After this, admission to view the interior of Newgate was -eagerly sought by numbers of persons whose applications could not well -be refused, in spite of the inconvenience occasioned by thus turning -a place of durance into a sentimental lounge. A more desirable and -useful result of these ministrations was the eagerness they bred in -others to imitate this noble example. Numbers of persons wrote to Mrs. -Fry from all parts <!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>of the country, seeking advice and encouragement -as to the formation of similar societies. Even magistrates appealed -to her regarding the management of their prisons. In consequence of -the numerous communications received by the Newgate Association, a -"corresponding committee" was formed to give information and send -replies. Letters came from various capitals of Europe, including St. -Petersburgh, Turin, and Amsterdam, which announced the formation of -Ladies' Societies for prison visiting.</p> - -<p>During many years following its inauguration, the "Ladies' Association" -continued their benevolent exertions with marked and well-deserved -success. They did not confine their labours to Newgate, but were -equally active in the other metropolitan prisons. They also made the -female transports their peculiar charge, and obtained many reforms -and ameliorations in the arrangement of the convict ships, and the -provision for the women on landing at the Antipodes. That the first -brilliant successes should be long and continuously maintained could -hardly be expected. As time passed and improvements were introduced, -there was not the same room for active intervention, and it was -difficult to keep alive the early fire. The energy of the Ladies' -Committee, although undiminished, came later on to be occasionally -misapplied.</p> - - -<hr class="footnotes" /> -<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135:1_4" id="Footnote_135:1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135:1_4"><span class="label">[135:1]</span></a> The Philanthropic Society is identical with the -Farm School at Redhill, in Surrey, one of the most prosperous and -best-managed reformatory schools at the present date. Mr. William -Crawfurd, afterwards one of the first inspectors of prisons, was long -an active member of the committee during the early days of the Society.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143:1_5" id="Footnote_143:1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143:1_5"><span class="label">[143:1]</span></a> This was the germ of the Ladies' Committee, which -existed down to 1878.</p></div> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<small>THE BEGINNING OF PRISON REFORM</small></h2> -</div> - - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">Prison reform generally taken up—Mr. Neild's -visitation—Howard's great work repeated—Prison Discipline -Society formed in 1817—Its distinguished members—The -society animadverts upon condition of various prisons—A -few brilliant exceptions—Newgate still a byword—Opponents -of reform—Sydney Smith laughs at efforts of Prison -Discipline Society—Prisoners' treatment—Scenes of horror in -Newgate—Serious affrays in the wards—Extra and luxurious -food admitted—Ladies' Association—No real separation of the -sexes—The Governor, Mr. Cope, an offender in this respect—The -press-yard the worst of all—Brutal behaviour of many of those -sentenced to death—Criminal lunatics allowed to remain in -Newgate—House of Commons' prisoners monopolize hospital and -best accommodation in the gaol.</p> -</div> - - -<p>While Elizabeth Fry was engaged upon her self-imposed task in Newgate, -other earnest people, inspired doubtless by her noble example, -were stirred up to activity in the same great work. It began to be -understood that prison reform could only be compassed by continuous -and combined effort. The pleadings, however eloquent, of a single -individual were unable to more than partially remedy the widespread -and colossal evils of British prisons. Howard's energy and devotion -were rewarded by lively sympathy, but the desire to improve which -followed <!-- Page 151 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>his exposures was short-lived, and powerless to cope with -the persistent neglect of those intrusted with prison management. -Twenty-five years later, Mr. Neild, a second Howard, and as -indefatigable and self-sacrificing, found by personal visitation that -the condition of gaols throughout the kingdom was, with a few bright -exceptions, still deplorable and disgraceful. Mr. Neild was compelled -to admit in 1812 that "the great reformation produced by Howard was -in several places merely temporary: certain prisons which had been -ameliorated under the persuasive influence of his kind advice were -relapsing into their former horrid state of privation, filthiness, -severity, or neglect; many new dungeons had aggravated the evils -against which his sagacity could not but remonstrate; the motives for a -transient amendment were becoming paralyzed, and the effect had ceased -with the cause."</p> - -<p>It was in 1817 that a small band of philanthropists resolved to -form themselves into an association for the improvement of prison -discipline. They were hopeless of any general reform by the action -of the executive alone. They felt that private enterprise might with -advantage step in, and by the collection and diffusion of information, -and the reiteration of sound advice, greatly assist the good work. The -association was organized under the most promising auspices. A king's -son, the Duke of Gloucester, was the patron; among the vice-presidents -were many great peers of the realm, <!-- Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>several bishops, and a number -of members of the House of Commons, including Mr. Manners Sutton, -Mr. Sturges Bourne, Sir James Mackintosh, Sir James Scarlett, and -William Wilberforce. An active committee was appointed, comprising -many names already well known, some of them destined to become famous -in the annals of philanthropy. One of the moving spirits was the -Honourable H. G. Bennet, M. P., whose vigorous protests against the -lamentable condition of Newgate have already been recorded. Mrs. Fry's -brother, Mr. Samuel Hoare, Junior, was chairman of the committee, on -which also served many noted members of the Society of Friends—Mr. -Gurney, Mr. Fry, Messrs. Forster, and Mr. T. F. Buxton, the coadjutor -of Wilberforce in the great anti-slavery struggle. Mr. Buxton had -already been associated with Mrs. Fry in the Newgate visitation, and -his attention had thus been drawn to the neglected state of English -prisons. These gentlemen formed the famous English Prison Discipline -Society and laboured strenuously and unceasingly in their efforts to -ameliorate the condition of English prisons. They found everywhere a -crying need for reform, although here and there were a few brilliant -exceptions to this cruel, callous neglect. Already, as early as -1818, a prison existed at Bury St. Edmunds which was a model for -imitation to others at that time, and which even fulfilled many of -the exacting requirements of modern days. The great principles of -classification, <!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>cleanliness, and employment were closely observed. -There were eighty-four separate sleeping-cells, and unless the gaol was -overcrowded, every inmate passed the night alone, and in comparative -comfort, with a bed and proper bedding. The prison stood on a dry, airy -situation outside the town. Prisoners on reception were treated as -they are now-a-days—bathed, dressed in prison clothes, and inspected -by the surgeon. No irons were worn except as a punishment. Personal -cleanliness was insisted upon, and all parts of the prison were kept -scrupulously clean. There was an infirmary, properly found and duly -looked after. No idleness was permitted among the inmates. Trades were -taught, or prisoners were allowed to follow their own if suitable. -There was, besides, a mill for grinding corn, somewhat similar to -a turn-spit, which prisoners turned by walking in rows. This made -exertion compulsory, and imposed hard labour as a proper punishment. -Another gaol, that of Ilchester, was also worthy of all commendation. -It exhibited all the good points of that at Bury. At Ilchester the -rule of employment had been carried further. A system not adopted -generally till nearly half a century later had already prevailed at -Ilchester. The new gaol had been in a great measure constructed by the -prisoners themselves. Masons, bricklayers, carpenters, painters had -been employed upon the buildings, and the work was pronounced excellent -by competent judges. Industrial labour <!-- Page 154 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>had also been introduced -with satisfactory results. Blanket weaving and cloth spinning were -carried on prosperously, and all the material for prisoners' apparel -was manufactured in the gaol. There were work-rooms for wool-washing, -dyeing, carding, and spinning. The looms were constantly busy. Tailors -were always at work, and every article of clothing and bedding was made -up within the walls. There was a prison laundry too, where all the -prisoners' linen was regularly washed. The moral welfare of the inmates -was as closely looked after as the physical. There was an attentive -chaplain, a schoolmaster, and regular instruction.</p> - -<p>Compared with the last mentioned institutions Newgate compared -unfavourably. Its evils were inherent and irremediable, and the -need for reform was imperative, yet there were those who, wedded to -ancient ideas, were intolerant of change, and they would not admit the -existence of any evils. One smug alderman, a member of the House of -Commons, sneered at the ultra philanthropy of the champions of prison -improvement. Speaking in a debate on prison matters, he declared -that "our prisoners have all that prisoners ought to have, without -gentlemen think they ought to be indulged with Turkey carpets." The -Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline was taxed with a -desire to introduce a system tending to divest punishment of its just -and salutary terrors; an imputation which the Society indignantly and -very justly <!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>repudiated, the statement being, as they said, "refuted by -abundant evidence, and having no foundation whatever in truth."</p> - -<p>Among those whom the Society found arrayed against it was Sydney -Smith, who, in a caustic article contributed to the "Edinburgh -Review," protested against the pampering of criminals. While fully -admitting the good intentions of the Society, he condemned their -ultra humanitarianism as misplaced. He took exceptions to various of -the proposals of the Society. He thought they tended too much toward -a system of indulgence and education in gaols. He objected to the -instruction of prisoners in reading and writing. "A poor man who -is lucky enough," he said, "to have his son committed for a felony -educates him under such a system for nothing, while the virtuous -simpleton who is on the other side of the wall is paying by the quarter -for these attainments." He was altogether against too liberal a diet; -he disapproved of industrial occupations in gaols, as not calculated -to render prisons terrible. "There should be no tea and sugar, no -assemblage of female felons around the washing-tub, nothing but beating -hemp and pulling oakum and pounding bricks—no work but what was -tedious, unusual. . . . In prisons, which are really meant to keep the -multitude in order, and to be a terror to evil-doers, there must be no -sharings of profits, no visiting of friends, no education but religious -education, no freedom of diet, no <!-- Page 156 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>weavers' looms or carpenters' -benches. There must be a great deal of solitude, coarse food, a dress -of shame, hard, incessant, irksome, eternal labour, a planned and -regulated and unrelenting exclusion of happiness and comfort."</p> - -<p>Undeterred by these sarcasms and misrepresentations, the Society -pursued its laudable undertaking with remarkable energy and great -singleness of purpose. After a few years of active exertion legislation -was obtained to enforce the needful change, but still Newgate continued -a bye-word. Some reforms had certainly been introduced, such as the -abolition of irons, already referred to, and the establishment of -male and female infirmaries. The regular daily visitation of the -chaplain was also insisted upon. But it was pointed out in 1823 -that defective construction must always bar the way to any radical -improvement in Newgate. Without enlargement no material change in -discipline or interior economy could possibly be introduced. The chapel -still continued incommodious and insufficient; female prisoners were -still exposed to the full view of the males, the netting in front -of the gallery being perfectly useless as a screen. In 1824 Newgate -had no glass in its windows, except in the infirmary and one ward of -the chapel yard; and the panes were filled in with oiled paper, an -insufficient protection against the weather; and as the window-frames -would not shut tight, the prisoners complained much of the cold, -especially at night. In <!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>1827 the Society was compelled to report that -"no material change had taken place in Newgate since the passing of the -prison laws of 1823-4, and that consequently the observance of their -most important provisions was habitually neglected."</p> - -<p>And so it went on—the same old story—evil constantly in the -ascendant, the least criminal at the mercy of the most depraved. Under -the reckless contempt for regulations, the apathy of the authorities, -and the undue prominence of those who, as convicted felons, should have -been most sternly repressed, the most hardened and the oldest in vice -had the best of it, while the inexperienced beginner went to the wall. -Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who spent three years in Newgate from 1835, -said with justice that incredible scenes of horror occurred there. -It was, in his opinion, the greatest nursery of crime in London. The -days were passed in idleness, debauchery, riotous quarrelling, immoral -conversation, gambling, in direct contravention of parliamentary rules, -instruction in all nefarious processes, lively discourse upon past -criminal exploits, elaborate discussion of others to be perpetrated -after release. No provision whatever was made for the employment of -prisoners, no materials were purchased, no trade instructors appointed. -There was no school for adults; only the boys were taught anything, -and their instructor, with his assistant, were convicted prisoners. -Idle hands and unoccupied brains found in mischief the only means of -<!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>whiling away the long hours of incarceration. Gaming of all kinds, -although forbidden by the Gaol Acts, was habitually practised. This was -admitted in evidence by the turnkeys, and was proved by the appearance -of the prison tables, which bore the marks of gaming-boards deeply cut -into them. Prisoners confessed that it was a favourite occupation, the -chief games being "shoving halfpence" on the table, pitch in the hole, -cribbage, dominoes, and common tossing, at which as much as four or -five shillings would change hands in an hour.</p> - -<p>But this was not the only amusement. Most of the wards took in the -daily papers, the most popular being the "Times," "Morning Herald," -and "Morning Chronicle;" on Sunday the "Weekly Dispatch," "Bell's -Life," and the "Weekly Messenger." The newsman had free access to the -prison; he passed in unsearched and unexamined, and, unaccompanied by -an officer, went at once to his customers, who bought their paper and -paid for it themselves. The news-vendor was also a tobacconist, and he -had thus ample means of introducing to the prisoners the prohibited -but always much-coveted and generally procurable weed. In the same way -the wardsman laid in his stock to be retailed. Other light literature -besides the daily journals was in circulation: novels, flash songs, -play-books, such as "Jane Shore," "Grimm's German Tales," with -Cruikshank's <!-- Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>illustrations, and publications which in these days would -have been made the subject of a criminal prosecution. One of these, -published by Stockdale, was stigmatized officially as a book of the -most disgusting nature. There was also a good supply of Bibles and -prayers, the donation of a philanthropic gentleman, Captain Brown, but -these, particularly the Bibles, bore little appearance of having been -used. Drink, in more or less unlimited quantities, was still to be had. -Spirits certainly were now excluded; but a potman, with full permission -of the sheriffs, brought in beer for sale from a neighbouring -public-house, and visited all the wards with no other escort than the -prisoner gatesman. The quantity to be issued per head was limited by -the prison regulations to one pint, but no steps were taken to prevent -any prisoner from obtaining more if he could pay for it. The beer-man -brought in as much as he pleased; he sold it without the controlling -presence of an officer. Not only did prisoners come again and again -for a "pint," but large quantities were carried off to the wards to be -drunk later in the day.</p> - -<p>There were more varied, and at times, especially when beer had -circulated freely, more uproarious diversions. Wrestling, in which legs -were occasionally broken, was freely indulged in; also such low games -as "cobham," leap-frog, puss in the corner, and "fly the garter," for -which purpose the rugs were spread out to prevent feet slipping on the -<!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>floor. Feasting alternated with fighting. The weekly introduction of -food, to which I shall presently refer, formed the basis of luxurious -banquets, washed down by liquor and enlivened by flash songs and -thrilling long-winded descriptions of robberies and other "plants." -There was much swearing and bad language, the very worst that could be -used, from the first thing in the morning to the last thing at night. -New arrivals, especially the innocent and still guileless debutant, -were tormented with rude horse-play, and assailed by the most insulting -"chaff." If any man presumed to turn in too early he was "toed," that -is to say, a string was fastened to his big toe while he was asleep, -and he was dragged from off his mat, or his bedclothes were drawn away -across the room. The ragged prisoners were very anxious to destroy the -clothes of the better dressed, and often lighted small pieces of cloth, -which they dropped smouldering into their fellow-prisoners' pockets. -Often the victim, goaded to madness, attacked his tormentors; a fight -was then certain to follow. These fights sometimes took place in the -day-time, when a ring was regularly formed, and two or three stood by -the door to watch for the officer's approach. More often they occurred -at night, and were continued to the bitter end. The prisoners in this -way administered serious punishment on one another. Black eyes and -broken noses were always to be seen.</p> - -<p>More cruel injuries were common enough, which <!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>did not result from -honest hand-to-hand fights. The surgeon's journal contained numerous -entries of terrible wounds inflicted in a cowardly way. "A serious -accident: one of the prisoners had a hot poker run into his eye." "A -lad named Matthew White has had a wound in his eye by a bone thrown -at him, which very nearly destroyed vision." "There was a disturbance -in the transport yard yesterday evening, and the police were called -in. During the tumult a prisoner, . . . who was one of the worst of the -rioters, was bruised about the head and body." "Watkins' knee-joint -is very severely injured." "A prisoner Baxter is in the infirmary in -consequence of a severe injury to his wrist-joint." Watkins' case, -referred to above, is made the subject of another and a special report -from the surgeon. He was in the transport side, when one of his -fellows, in endeavouring to strike another prisoner with a large poker, -missed his aim, and struck Watkins' knee. . . . Violent inflammation and -extensive suppuration ensued, and for a considerable time amputation -seemed inevitable. After severe suffering prolonged for many months, -the inflammation was subdued, but the cartilage of the knee-joint was -destroyed, and he was crippled for life. On another occasion a young -man, who was being violently teased, seized a knife and stabbed his -tormentor in the back. The prisoner who used the knife was secured, -but it was the wardsman, and not the officers, to whom the report <!-- Page 162 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>was -made, and no official inquiry or punishment followed.</p> - -<p>Matters were at times still worse, and the rioting went on to such -dangerous lengths as to endanger the safety of the building. On one -occasion a disturbance was raised which was not quelled until windows -had been broken and forms and tables burned. The officers were obliged -to go in among the prisoners to restore order with drawn cutlasses, -but the presence and authority of the governor himself became -indispensable. The worst fights occurred on Sunday afternoons; but -nearly every night the act of locking up became, from the consequent -removal of all supervision, the signal for the commencement of obscene -talk, revelry, and violence.</p> - -<p>Other regulations laid down by the Gaol Acts were still defied. One of -these was that prisoners should be restricted to the gaol allowance -of food; but all could still obtain as much extra, and of a luxurious -kind, as their friends chose to bring them in. Visitors were still -permitted to come with supplies on given days of the week, about the -only limitation being that the food should be cooked, and cold; hot -meat, poultry, and fish were forbidden. But the inspectors found -in the ward cupboards mince-pies and other pasties, cold joints, -hams, and so forth. Many other articles were introduced by visitors, -including money, tobacco, pipes, and snuff. From the same source came -the two or three strong <!-- Page 163 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>files found in one ward, together with four -bradawls, several large iron spikes, screws, nails, and knives; all -of them instruments calculated to facilitate attempts to break out of -prison, and capable of becoming most dangerous weapons in the hands -of desperate and determined men. The nearly indiscriminate admission -of visitors, although restricted to certain days, continued to be -an unmixed evil. The untried might see their friends three times a -week, the convicted only once. On these occasions precautions were -supposed to be taken to exclude bad characters, yet many persons of -notoriously loose life continually obtained admittance. Women saw men -if they merely pretended to be wives; even boys were visited by their -sweethearts. Decency was, however, insured by a line of demarcation, -and visitors were kept upon each side of a separated double iron -railing. But no search was made to intercept prohibited articles at -the gate, and there was no permanent gate-keeper, which would have -greatly helped to keep out bad characters. Some idea of the difficulty -and inconvenience of these lax regulations as regards visiting, may be -gathered from the statement that as many as three hundred were often -admitted on the same day—enough to altogether upset what small show -of decorum and discipline was still preserved in the prison. Perhaps -the worst feature of the visiting system was the permission accorded to -male prisoners under the name of husbands, brothers, and sons to have -access <!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>to the female side on Sundays and Wednesdays, in order to visit -their supposed relations there.</p> - -<p>On this female side, where the Ladies' Association still reigned -supreme, more system and a greater semblance of decorum was maintained. -But the separation of the sexes was not rigidly carried out in Newgate -as yet. We have seen that male prisoners visited their female relations -and friends on the female side. Besides this, the gatesman who prepared -the briefs had interviews with female prisoners alone while taking -their instructions; a female came alone and unaccompanied by a matron -to clean the governor's office in the male prison; male prisoners -carried coal into the female prison, when they saw and could speak or -pass letters to the female prisoners; and the men could also at any -time go for tea, coffee, and sugar to Mrs. Brown's shop, which was -inside the female gate. In the bail-dock, where most improper general -association was permitted, the female prisoners were often altogether -in the charge of male turnkeys. The governor was also personally -responsible for gross contravention of this rule of separation, and -was in the habit of drawing frequently upon the female prison for -prisoners to act as domestic servants in his own private dwelling. -Some members of the Ladies' Association observed and commented upon -the fact that a young rosy-cheeked girl had been kept by the governor -from transportation, while older women in infirm health were sent -across <!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>the seas. His excuse was that he had given the girl his promise -that she should not go, an assumption of prerogative which by no -means rested with him; but he afterwards admitted that the girl had -been recommended to him by the principal turnkey, who knew something -of her friends. This woman was really his servant, employed to help -in cleaning, and taken on whenever there was extra work to be done. -The governor had a great dislike, he said, to seeing strangers in his -house. This girl had been first engaged on account of the extra work -entailed by certain prisoners committed by the House of Commons, who -had been lodged in the governor's own house. The house at this time -was full of men and visitors; waiters came in from the taverns with -meals. Some of the prisoners had their valets, and all these were -constantly in and out of the kitchen where this female prisoner was -employed. There was revelling and roystering, as usual, with "high life -below-stairs." The governor sent down wine on festive occasions, of -which no doubt the prisoner housemaid had her share. It can hardly be -denied that the governor, in his treatment of this woman, was acting in -flagrant contravention of all rules.</p> - -<p>Bad as were the various parts of the gaol already dealt with, there -still remained one where the general callous indifference and -mismanagement culminated in cruel and culpable neglect. The condition -of the capitally-convicted prisoners after sentence was still very -disgraceful. The side they <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>occupied, still known as the press-yard, -consisted of two dozen rooms and fifteen cells. In these various -chambers, until just before the inspectors made their report, all -classes of the condemned, those certain to suffer, and the larger -number who were nearly certain of a reprieve, were mingled without -discrimination, the old and the young, the murderer and the child -who had broken into a dwelling. All privacy was impossible under the -circumstances. At times the numbers congregated were very great; as -many as fifty or sixty, and even a larger number, were crowded into the -press-yard. The better-disposed complained bitterly of what they had -to endure; one man declared that the language of the condemned rooms -was disgusting, that he was dying a death every day in being compelled -to associate with such characters. In the midst of the noisy and -blasphemous talk no one could pursue his meditations; and any who tried -to pray became the sport and ridicule of his brutal fellows.</p> - -<p>Owing to the repeated entreaties of the criminals who could hardly hope -to escape the gallows, some show of classification was carried out, and -when the inspectors visited Newgate they found the three certain to -die in a day-room by themselves; in a second room were fourteen more -who had every hope of a reprieve. The whole of these seventeen had, -however, a common airing-yard, and took their exercise there at the -same time, so that men in the most awful situation, daily expecting -to be hanged, were <!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>associated continually with a number of those who -could look with certainty on a mitigation of punishment. The latter, -light-hearted and reckless, conducted themselves in the most unseemly -fashion, and with as much indifference as the inmates of the other -parts of the prison. They amused themselves after their own fashion; -played all day long at blind-man's-buff and leap-frog, or beat each -other with a knotted handkerchief, laughing and uproarious, utterly -unmindful of the companionship of men upon whom lay the shadow of an -impending shameful death. Men whose fate was uncertain, and those most -seriously inclined, complained of these annoyances, so subversive of -meditation, so disturbing to the thoughts; they suffered sickening -anxiety, and wished to be locked up alone. This indiscriminate -association lasted for months, during the whole of which time the -unhappy convicts who had but little hope of commutation were exposed to -the mockery of their reckless associates.</p> - -<p>The lax discipline maintained in Newgate was still further deteriorated -by the presence of two other classes of prisoners who ought never -to have been inmates of such a gaol. One of these were the criminal -lunatics, who were at this time and for long previous continuously -imprisoned there. As the law stood at that particular time any two of -the justices might remove a prisoner found to be insane, either on -commitment or arraignment, to an asylum, and the Secretary of State -had the same <!-- Page 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>power as regards any who became insane while undergoing -sentence. These powers were not invariably put in force, and there -were in consequence many unhappy lunatics in Newgate and other gaols, -whose proper place was the asylum. At the time the Lords' Committee -sat there were eight thus retained in Newgate, and a return in the -appendix of the Lords' report gives a total of thirty-nine lunatics -confined in various gaols, many of them guilty of murder and other -serious crimes. The inspectors in the following year, on examining the -facts, found that some of these poor creatures had been in confinement -for long periods: at Newgate and York Castle as long as five years; -at Ilchester and Morpeth for seven years; at Warwick for eight years, -at Buckingham and Hereford for eleven years, at Appleby for thirteen -years, at Anglesea for fifteen years, at Exeter for sixteen years, and -at Pembroke for no less a period than twenty-four years.</p> - -<p>It was manifestly wrong that such persons, visited by the most dreadful -of calamities, should be detained in a common prison. Not only did -their presence tend greatly to interfere with the discipline of the -prison, but their condition was deplorable in the extreme. The lunatic -became the sport of the idle and the depraved. His cure was out of the -question; he was placed in a situation "beyond all others calculated to -confirm his malady and prolong his sufferings." The matter was still -further <!-- Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>complicated at Newgate by the presence within the walls of -sham lunatics. Some of those included in the category had actually been -returned as sane from the asylum to which they had been sent, and there -was always some uncertainty as to who was mad and who not. Prisoners -indeed were known to boast that they had saved their necks by feigning -insanity. It was high time that the unsatisfactory state of the law -as regards the treatment of criminal lunatics should be remedied, and -not the least of the good services rendered by the new inspectors was -their inquiry into the status of these unfortunate people, and their -recommendation to improve it.</p> - -<p>The other inmates of the prison, of an exceptional character, and -exempted from the regular discipline, such as it was, were the ten -persons committed to Newgate by the House of Commons in 1835. These -were the gentlemen concerned in the bribery case at Ipswich in that -year.</p> - -<p>Many of the old customs once prevalent in the State Side, so properly -condemned and abolished, were revived for the convenience of these -gentlemen, whose incarceration was thus rendered as little like -imprisonment as possible. A certain number, who could afford the high -rate of a guinea per diem, fixed by the under sheriff, were lodged in -the governor's house, slept there, and had their meals provided for -them from the Sessions' House or London Coffee-House. A few others, who -could not afford <!-- Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>a payment of more than half a guinea, were permitted -to monopolize a part of the prison infirmary, where the upper ward was -exclusively appropriated to their use. They also had their meals sent -in, and, with the food, wine almost <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">ad libitum</i>. A prisoner, one of -the wardsmen, waited on those in the infirmary; the occupants of the -governor's house had their own servants, or those of the governor. As -a rule, visitors, many of them persons of good position, came and went -all day long, and as late as nine at night; some to the infirmary, -many more to the governor's house. There were no restraints, cards and -backgammon were played, and the time passed in feasting and revelry. -Even Mr. Cope admitted that the committal of this class of prisoners to -Newgate was most inconvenient.</p> - -<p>Enough has probably been said to give a complete picture of the -disgraceful state in which Newgate still remained in the early part of -the nineteenth century.</p> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><!-- Page 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /> - -<small>INTERESTING INSTANCES</small></h2> -</div> - - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">Description of the new gallows at Newgate—"The fall -of the leaf"—Great crowds at the Old Bailey, and as -brutal as of old—Enormous crowd at Governor Wall's -execution—Execution of Holloway and Haggerty—Terrible loss -of life in the crowd—Awful levity displayed—Amelioration -of the criminal code—Executions more rare—Capital -punishment gradually restricted to murderers—Dissection -of the bodies abolished—Public exhibition of bodies also -discontinued—Exhibition of the body of Williams, who -murdered the Marrs—Hanging in chains given up—Failures at -executions—Culprits fight for life—Cases of Charles White, of -Luigi Buranelli, of William Bousfield—Calcraft and his method -of hanging—Other hangmen—The cost of a hangman.</p> -</div> - - -<p>The discontinuance of the long-practised procession to Tyburn, and the -reasons for this change have already been fully set forth. The terrible -spectacle was as demoralizing to the public, for whose admonition -it was intended, as the exposure was brutal and cruel towards the -principal actors. The decision to remove the scene of action to the -immediate front of Newgate was in the right direction, as making the -performance shorter and diminishing the area of display. But the Old -Bailey was not exclusively used; at first, and for some few years after -1784, executions took place occasionally at a <!-- Page 172 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>distance from Newgate. -This was partly due to the survival of the old notion that the scene -of the crime ought also to witness the retribution; partly because -residents in and about the Old Bailey raised a loud protest against the -constant erection of the scaffold in their neighbourhood. As regards -the first, I find that in 1786 John Hogan, the murderer of a Mr. Odell, -an attorney who resided in Charlotte Street, Rathbone Place, was -executed on a gibbet in front of his victim's house. Lawrence Jones, a -burglar, was in 1793 ordered for execution in Hatton Garden, near the -house he had robbed; and when he evaded the sentence by suicide, his -body was exhibited in the same neighbourhood, extended upon a plank on -the top of an open cart, in his clothes, and fettered. From 1809 to -1812, Execution Dock, on the banks of the Thames, was still retained. -Here John Sutherland, commander of the British armed transport "The -Friends," suffered on the 29th June, 1809, for the murder of his -cabin-boy, whom he stabbed after much ill-usage on board the ship as -it lay in the Tagus. On the 18th December, 1812, two sailors, Charles -Palm and Sam Tilling, were hanged at the same place for the murder of -their captain, James Keith, of the trading vessel "Adventure," upon -the high seas. They were taken in a cart to the place of execution, -amidst a vast concourse of people. "Palm, as soon as he was seated in -the cart, put a quid of tobacco into his mouth, and offered another to -his companion, who refused it <!-- Page 173 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>with indignation. . . . Some indications of -pity were offered for the fate of Tilling; for Palm, execration alone."</p> - -<p>But the Old Bailey gradually, and in spite of all objections urged, -monopolized the dread business of execution. The first affair of the -kind on this spot was on the 3rd of December, 1783, when, in pursuance -of an order issued by the Recorder to the sheriffs of Middlesex and -the keeper of His Majesty's gaol, Newgate, a scaffold was erected in -front of that prison for the execution of several convicts named by the -Recorder. "Ten were executed; the scaffold hung with black; and the -inhabitants of the neighbourhood, having petitioned the sheriffs to -remove the scene of execution to the old place, were told that the plan -had been well considered, and would be persevered in." The following -23rd April, it is stated that the malefactors ordered for execution on -the 18th inst. were brought out of Newgate about eight in the morning, -and suspended on a gallows of a new construction. "After hanging the -usual time they were taken down, and the machine cleared away in -half-an-hour. By practice the art is much improved, and there is no -part of the world in which villains are hanged in so neat a manner, and -with so little ceremony."</p> - -<p>A full description of this new gallows, which was erected in front -of the debtors' door, is to be found in contemporary records. "The -criminals are not exposed to view till they mount the fatal stage. -<!-- Page 174 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>The last part of the stage, or that next to the gaol, is enclosed by -a temporary roof, under which are placed two seats for the reception -of the sheriffs, one on each side of the stairs leading to the -scaffold. Round the north, west, and south sides are erected galleries -for the reception of officers, attendants, etc., and at the distance -of five feet from the same is fixed a strong railing all round the -scaffold to enclose a place for the constables. In the middle of this -machinery is placed a movable platform, in form of a trap-door, ten -feet long by eight wide, on the middle of which is placed the gibbet, -extending from the gaol across the Old Bailey. This movable platform -is raised six inches higher than the rest of the scaffold, and on it -the convicts stand; it is supported by two beams, which are held in -their place by bolts. The movement of the lever withdraws the bolts, -the platform falls in;" and this, being much more sudden and regular -than that of a cart drawn away, had the effect of causing immediate -death. A broadsheet dated April 24th, 1787, describing an execution on -the newly invented scaffold before the debtors' door, Newgate, says, -"The scaffold on which these miserable people suffered is a temporary -machine which was drawn out of the yard of the sessions' house by -horses; . . . it is supported by strong posts fixed into grooves made in -the street; . . . the whole is temporary, being all calculated to take to -pieces, which are preserved within the prison."</p> - -<p><!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p><p>This contrivance appears to have been copied, with improvements, -from that which had been used in Dublin at a still earlier date; for -that city claims the priority in establishing the custom of hanging -criminals at the gaol itself. The Dublin "engine of death," as the -gallows are styled in the account from which the following description -is taken, consisted of an iron bar parallel to the prison wall, and -about four feet from it, but strongly affixed thereto with iron scroll -clamps. "From this bar hang several iron loops, in which the halters -are tied. Under this bar at a proper distance is a piece of flooring -or platform, projecting somewhat beyond the range of the iron bar, and -swinging upon hinges affixed to the wall. The entrance upon this floor -or leaf is from the middle window over the gate of the prison; and -this floor is supported below, while the criminals stand upon it, by -two pieces of timber, which are made to slide in and out of the prison -wall through apertures made for that purpose. When the criminals are -tied up and prepared for their fate, this floor suddenly falls down, -upon withdrawing the supporters inwards. They are both drawn at once -by a windlass, and the unhappy culprits remain suspended." This mode -of execution, it is alleged, gave rise to the old vulgar chaff, "Take -care, or you'll die at the fall of the leaf." The machinery in use in -Dublin is much the same as that employed at many gaols now-a-days. But -the fall apart and inwards of two leaves is <!-- Page 176 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>considered superior. The -latter is the method still followed at Newgate.</p> - -<p>The sentences inflicted in front of Newgate were not limited to -hanging. In the few years which elapsed between the establishment of -the gallows at Newgate and the abolition of the practice of burning -females for petty treason, more than one woman suffered this penalty -at the Old Bailey. One case is preserved by Catnach, that of Phœbe -Harris, who in 1788 was "barbariously" executed and afterward burned -before Newgate for coining. She is described as a well-made little -woman, something more than thirty years of age, of a pale complexion -and not disagreeable features. "When she came out of prison she -appeared languid and terrified, and trembled greatly as she advanced -to the stake, where the apparatus for the punishment she was about to -experience seemed to strike her mind with horror and consternation, -to the exclusion of all power of recollectedness in preparation for -the approaching awful moment." She walked from the debtors' door to -a stake fixed in the ground about halfway between the scaffold and -Newgate Street. She was immediately tied by the neck to an iron bolt -fixed near the top of the stake, and after praying fervently for a few -minutes, the steps on which she stood were drawn away, and she was left -suspended. A chain fastened by nails to the stake was then put round -her body by the executioner with his assistants. Two cart-loads of -<!-- Page 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>faggots were piled about her, and after she had hung for half-an-hour -the fire was kindled. The flames presently burned the halter, the body -fell a few inches, and hung then by the iron chain. The fire had not -quite burned out at twelve, in nearly four hours, that is to say. A -great concourse of people attended on this melancholy occasion.</p> - -<p>The change from Tyburn to the Old Bailey had worked no improvement as -regards the gathering together of the crowd or its demeanour. As many -spectators as ever thronged to see the dreadful show, and they were -packed into a more limited space, disporting themselves as heretofore -by brutal horseplay, coarse jests, and frantic yells. It was still the -custom to offer warm encouragement or bitter disapproval, according -to the character and antecedents of the sufferer. The highwayman, -whose exploits many in the crowd admired or emulated, was cheered -and bidden to die game; the man of better birth could hope for no -sympathy, whatever his crime. At the execution of Governor Wall, in -1802, the furious hatred of the mob was plainly apparent in their -appalling cries. His appearance on the scaffold was the signal for -three prolonged shouts from an innumerable populace, the brutal -effusion of one common sentiment. It was said that so large a crowd -had never collected since the execution of Mrs. Brownrigg, nor had the -public indignation risen so high. Pieman and ballad-monger did their -usual roaring trade amidst <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>the dense throng. No sooner was the job -finished than half-a-dozen competitors appeared, each offering the -identical rope for sale at a shilling an inch. One was the "yeoman of -the halter," a Newgate official, the executioner's assistant, whom Mr. -J. T. Smith, who was present at the execution, describes as "a most -diabolical-looking little wretch—Jack Ketch's head man." The yeoman -was, however, undersold by his wife, "Rosy Emma, exuberant in talk and -hissing hot from Pie Corner, where she had taken her morning dose of -gin-and-bitters." A little further off, says Mr. Smith, was "a lath -of a fellow past threescore years and ten, who had just arrived from -the purlieus of Black Boy Alley, woebegone as Romeo's apothecary, -exclaiming, 'Here's the identical rope at sixpence an inch.'"</p> - -<p>Whenever the public attention had been specially called to a particular -crime, either on account of its atrocity, the doubtfulness of the -issue, or the superior position of the perpetrator, the attendance at -the execution was certain to be tumultuous, and the conduct of the mob -disorderly. This was notably the case at the execution of Holloway -and Haggerty in 1807, an event long remembered from the fatal and -disastrous consequences which followed it. They were accused by a -confederate, who, goaded by conscience, had turned approver, of the -murder of a Mr. Steele, who kept a lavender warehouse in the city, -and who had gardens at Feltham, whither he often went to distil the -lavender, returning <!-- Page 179 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>to London the same evening. One night he was -missing, and after a long interval his dead body was discovered, -shockingly disfigured, in a ditch. Four years passed without the -detection of the murderers, but in the beginning of 1807 one of them, -at that time just sentenced to transportation, made a full confession, -and implicated Holloway and Haggerty. They were accordingly apprehended -and brought to trial, the informer, Hanfield by name, being accepted as -king's evidence. Conviction followed mainly on his testimony; but the -two men, especially Holloway, stoutly maintained their innocence to the -last. Very great excitement prevailed in the town throughout the trial, -and this greatly increased when the verdict was known.</p> - -<p>An enormous crowd assembled to witness the execution, amounting, it -was said, to the hitherto unparalleled number of forty thousand. By -eight o'clock not an inch of ground in front of the platform was -unoccupied. The pressure soon became so frightful that many would have -willingly escaped from the crowd; but their attempts only increased -the general confusion. Very soon women began to scream with terror; -some, especially of low stature, found it difficult to remain standing, -and several, although held up for some time by the men nearest them, -presently fell, and were at once trampled to death. Cries of Murder! -murder! were now raised, and added greatly to the horrors of the scene. -Panic became general. More women, <!-- Page 180 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>children, and many men were borne -down, to perish beneath the feet of the rest. The most affecting and -distressing scene was at Green Arbour Lane, just opposite the debtors' -door of the prison. Here a couple of piemen had been selling their -wares; the basket of one of them, which was raised upon a four-legged -stool, was upset. The pieman stooped down to pick up his scattered -stock, and some of the mob, not seeing what had happened, stumbled over -him. No one who fell ever rose again. Among the rest was a woman with -an infant at the breast. She was killed, but in the act of falling she -forced her child into the arms of a man near her, and implored him -in God's name to save it; the man, needing all his care for his own -life, threw the child from him, and it passed along the heads of the -crowd, to be caught at last by a person who struggled with it to a cart -and deposited it there in safety. In another part of the crowd seven -persons met their death by suffocation.</p> - -<p>In this convulsive struggle for existence people fought fiercely with -one another, and the weakest, of course the women, went under. One -cart-load of spectators having broken down, some of its occupants fell -off the vehicle, and were instantly trampled to death. This went on for -more than an hour, until the malefactors were cut down and the gallows -removed; then the mob began to thin, and the streets were cleared by -the city marshals and a number of constables. The catastrophe exceeded -the <!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>worst anticipations. Nearly one hundred dead and dying lay about; -and after all had been removed, the bodies for identification, the -wounded to hospitals, a cart-load of shoes, hats, petticoats, and -fragments of wearing apparel were picked up. St. Bartholomew's Hospital -was converted into an impromptu morgue, and all persons who had -relatives missing were admitted to identify them. Among the dead was a -sailor lad whom no one knew; he had his pockets filled with bread and -cheese, and it was generally supposed that he had come a long distance -to see the fatal show.</p> - -<p>A tremendous crowd assembled when Bellingham was executed in 1812 -for the murder of Spencer Percival, at that time prime minister; but -there were no serious accidents, beyond those caused by the goring of -a maddened, over-driven ox which forced its way through the crowd. -Precautions had been taken by the erection of barriers, and the -posting of placards at all the avenues to the Old Bailey, on which -was printed, "Beware of entering the crowd! Remember thirty poor -persons were pressed to death by the crowd when Haggerty and Holloway -were executed!" The concourse was very great, notwithstanding these -warnings. It was still greater at Fauntleroy's execution in 1824, when -no less than 100,000 persons assembled, it was said. Every window -and roof which could command a view of the horrible performance was -occupied. All the avenues and approaches, places <!-- Page 182 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>whence nothing could -be seen of the scaffold, were blocked by persons who had overflowed -from the area in front of the gaol.</p> - -<p>At Courvoisier's execution in 1840 it was the same, or worse. As early -as six o'clock the number assembled already exceeded that seen on -ordinary occasions; by seven o'clock the whole space was so thronged -that it was impossible to move one way or the other. Some persons -were kept for more than five hours standing against the barriers, and -many nearly fainted from exhaustion. Every window had its party of -occupants; the adjoining roofs were equally crowded. High prices were -asked and paid for front seats or good standing room. As much as £5 -was given for the attic story of the Lamb's Coffee House; £2 was a -common price for a window. At the George public-house to the south of -the drop, Sir W. Watkin Wynn, Bart., hired a room for the night and -morning, which he and a large party of friends occupied before and -during the execution; in an adjoining house, that of an undertaker, -was Lord Alfred Paget, also with several friends. Those who had hired -apartments spent the night in them, keeping up their courage with -liquids and cigars. Numbers of ladies were present, although the public -feeling was much against their attendance. One well-dressed woman fell -out of a first-floor window on to the shoulders of the crowd below, but -neither she nor any one else was greatly hurt. The city authorities -had <!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>endeavoured to take all precautions against panic and excitement -among the crowd, and caused a number of stout additional barriers to be -erected in front of the scaffold, and although one of these gave way -owing to the extraordinary pressure, no serious accident occurred.</p> - -<p>But there is little doubt that as executions became more rare they made -more impression on the public mind. Already a strong dislike to the -reckless and almost indiscriminate application of the extreme penalty -was apparent in all classes, and the mitigation of the criminal code, -for which Romilly had so strenuously laboured, was daily more and more -of an accomplished fact. In 1832 capital punishment was abolished for -forgery, except in cases of forging or altering wills or powers of -attorney to transfer stock. Nevertheless, after that date no person -was executed for this offence. In the same year capital punishment -was further restricted, and ceased to be the legal sentence for -coining, sheep or horse stealing, and stealing in a dwelling-house. -House-breaking, as distinguished from burglary, was similarly -exempted in the following year; next, the offences of returning from -transportation, stealing post-office letters, and sacrilege were no -longer punishable with death. In 1837 Lord John Russell's Acts swept -away a number of capital offences, including cutting and maiming, -rick-burning, robbery, burglary, and arson. Within two years the -number of persons sentenced to death in England <!-- Page 184 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>had fallen from four -hundred and thirty-eight in 1837 to fifty-six in 1839. Gradually the -application of capital punishment became more and more restricted, and -was soon the penalty for murder alone. While in London, for instance, -in 1829, twenty-four persons had been executed for crimes other than -murder, from 1832 to 1844 not a single person had been executed in the -metropolis except for this the gravest crime. In 1837 the death penalty -was practically limited to murder or attempts to murder, and in 1841 -this was accepted as the almost universally established rule. Seven -other crimes, however, were still capital by law, and so continued till -the passing of the Criminal Consolidation Acts of 1861.</p> - -<p>With the amelioration of the criminal code, other cruel concomitants -of execution also disappeared. In 1832 the dissection of bodies cut -down from the gallows, which had been decreed centuries previous, was -abolished; the most recent enactment in force was that which directed -the dissection of all bodies of executed murderers, the idea being -to intensify the dread of capital punishment. That such dread was -not universal or deep-seated may be gathered from the fact that well -authenticated cases were known of criminals selling their own bodies -to surgeons for dissection. This dissection was performed for Newgate -prisoners in Surgeons' Hall, adjoining Newgate, the site of the present -Sessions' House of the Old Bailey, and the operation was <!-- Page 185 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>witnessed by -students and a number of curious spectators. Lord Ferrers' body was -brought to Surgeons' Hall after execution in his own carriage and six; -after the post mortem had been performed, the corpse was exposed to -view in a first-floor room.</p> - -<p>Pennant speaks of Surgeons' Hall as a handsome building, ornamented -with Ionic pilasters, and with a double flight of steps to the first -floor. Beneath is a door for the admission of the bodies of murderers -and other felons. There were other public dissecting rooms for -criminals. One was attached to Hicks' Hall, the Clerkenwell Sessions' -House, built out of monies provided by Sir Baptist Hicks, a wealthy -alderman of the reign of James I. Persons were still living in 1855 who -had witnessed dissections at Hicks' Hall, and "whom the horrid scene, -with the additional effect of some noted criminals hanging on the -walls, drove out again sick and faint, as we have heard some relate, -and with pale and terrified features, to get a breath of air." The -dissection of executed criminals was abolished soon after the discovery -of the crime of burking, with the idea that ignominy would no longer -attach to an operation which ceased to be compulsory for the most -degraded beings; and that executors or persons having lawful possession -of the bodies of people who had died friendless, would voluntarily -surrender them for the advancement of medical science.</p> - -<p>Another brutal practice had nearly disappeared about the time of the -abolition of dissection. This <!-- Page 186 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>was the public exhibition of the body, -as was done in the case of Mrs. Phipoe, the murderess, who was executed -in front of Newgate in 1798, and her body publicly exhibited in a place -built for the purpose in the Old Bailey. About this time we find that -the bodies of two murderers, Clench and Mackay, "were publicly exposed -in a stable in Little Bridge Street, near Apothecaries' Hall, Surgeons' -Hall being let to the lieutenancy of the county for the accommodation -of the militia." In 1811 Williams, who murdered the Marrs in Ratcliffe -Highway, having committed suicide in gaol to escape hanging, it was -determined that a public exhibition should be made of the body through -the neighbourhood which had been the scene of the monster's crimes. -A long procession was formed, headed by constables, who cleared the -way with their staves. Then came the newly-formed horse patrol, with -drawn cutlasses, parish officers, peace officers, the high constable of -the county of Middlesex on horseback, and then the body of Williams, -"extended at full length on an inclined platform erected on the cart, -about four feet high at the head, and gradually sloping towards the -horse, giving a full view of the body, which was dressed in blue -trousers and a blue-and-white striped waistcoat, but without a coat, -as when found in the cell. On the left side of the head the fatal -mall, and on the right the ripping chisel, with which the murders had -been committed, were exposed to view. The countenance of <!-- Page 187 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>Williams was -ghastly in the extreme, and the whole had an appearance too horrible -for description." The procession traversed Ratcliffe twice, halting -for a quarter of an hour in front of the victims' dwelling, and was -accompanied throughout by "an immense concourse of persons, eager -to get a sight of the murderer's remains. . . . All the shops in the -neighbourhood were shut, and the windows and tops of the houses were -crowded with spectators."</p> - -<p>Hanging in chains upon the gibbet which had served for the execution, -or on another specially erected on some commanding spot, had fallen -into disuse by 1832. But there was an attempt to revive it at that -date, when the act for dispensing with the dissection of criminals -was passed. A clause was inserted to the effect that "the bodies of -all prisoners convicted of murder should either be hung in chains, or -buried under the gallows on which they had been executed, . . . according -to the discretion of the court before whom the prisoners might be -tried." The revival of this barbarous practice caused much indignation -in certain quarters, but it was actually tried in two provincial -towns, Leicester and Durham. At the first-named the exhibition nearly -created a tumult, and the body was taken down and buried, but not -before the greatest scandal had been caused by the unseemly proceedings -of the crowd that flocked to see the sight. A sort of fair was held, -gaming-tables were set up, cards were played under the gibbet, to -the disturbance of the <!-- Page 188 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>public peace and the annoyance of all decent -people. At Jarrow Stake, where the Durham murderer's body was exposed, -there were similar scenes, mingled with compassion for the culprit's -family, and a subscription was set on foot for them then and there -at the foot of the gibbet. Later on, after dark, some friends of the -deceased stole the body and buried it in the sand, and this was the end -of hanging in chains. After this a law was passed which prescribed that -the bodies of all executed murderers should be buried within the walls -of the gaol.</p> - -<p>Although these objectionable practices had disappeared, there were -still many shocking incidents at executions, owing to the bungling and -unskilful way in which the operation was performed. The rope still -broke sometimes, although it was not often that the horrid scene at -Jersey at the beginning of the century was repeated. There the hangman -added his weight to that of the suspended culprit, and having first -pulled him sideways, then got upon his shoulders, so that the rope -broke. "To the great surprise of all who witnessed this dreadful scene, -the poor criminal rose straight upon his feet, with the hangman on his -shoulders, and immediately loosened the rope with his fingers." After -this the sheriffs sent for another rope, but the spectators interfered, -and the man was carried back to gaol. The whole case was referred to -the king, and the poor wretch, whose crime had been a military one, was -eventually pardoned. A somewhat <!-- Page 189 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>similar event happened at Chester not -long afterwards; the ropes by which two offenders were turned off broke -a few inches from their necks. They were taken back to gaol, and were -again brought out in the afternoon, by which time fresh and stronger -ropes had been procured, and the sentence was properly and completely -carried out. Other cases might be quoted, especially that of William -Snow, <em>alias</em> Sketch, who slipped from the gallows at Exeter and fell -to the ground. He soon rose to his feet, and, hearing the sorrowful -exclamations of the populace, coolly said, "Good people, do not be -hurried; I am not, I can wait."</p> - -<p>Similar cases were not wanting as regards the executions before -Newgate. Others were not less horrible, although there was no failure -of apparatus. Sometimes the condemned man made a hard fight for life. -When Charles White was executed in 1823 for arson, he arranged a -handkerchief in such a way that the executioner found a difficulty in -pinioning his hands. White managed to keep his wrists asunder, and -continued to struggle with the officials for some time. Eventually he -was pinioned with a cord in the usual manner. On the scaffold he made -a violent attempt to loosen his bonds, and succeeded in getting his -hands free. Then with a strong effort he pushed off the white cap, and -tried to liberate his neck from the halter, which by this time had been -adjusted. The hangman summoned assistance, and with help tied the <!-- Page 190 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>cap -over White's face with a handkerchief. The miserable wretch during the -whole of this time was struggling with the most determined violence, -to the great horror of the spectators. Still he resisted, and having -got from the falling drop to the firm part of the platform, he nearly -succeeded in tearing the handkerchief from his eyes. However, the -ceremony went forward, and when the signal was given the drop sank. -The wretched man did not fall with it, but jumped on to the platform, -and seizing the rope with his hands, tried to avoid strangulation. The -spectacle was horrible; the convict was half on the platform, half -hanging, and the convulsions of his body were appalling. The crowd -vociferously yelled their disapproval, and at length the executioner -forced the struggling criminal from the platform, so that the rope -sustained his whole weight. His face was visible to the whole crowd, -and was fearful to behold. Even now his sufferings were not at an end, -and his death was not compassed until the executioner terminated his -sufferings by hanging on to his legs.</p> - -<p>When Luigi Buranelli was executed in 1855, through the improper -adjustment of the rope his sufferings were prolonged for five minutes; -"his chest heaved, and it was evident that his struggle was a fearful -one." A worse case still was that of William Bousfield, who, when -awaiting execution for murder, about the same date, had attempted -to throw himself upon the fire in his condemned cell. <!-- Page 191 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>He was in -consequence so weak when brought out for execution, that he had to be -carried by four men, two supporting his body and two his legs. His -wretched, abject condition, seated in a chair under the drop, was such -as almost to unnerve the executioner Calcraft, who had been further -upset by a letter threatening to shoot him when he appeared to perform -his task. Calcraft, the moment he had adjusted the cap and rope, ran -down the steps, drew the bolt, and disappeared. "For a second or two -the body hung motionless, then, with a strength that astonished the -attendant officials, Bousfield slowly drew himself up, and rested with -his feet on the right side of the drop. One of the turnkeys rushed -forward and pushed him off. Again the wretched creature succeeded -in obtaining foothold, but this time on the left side of the drop." -Calcraft was forced to return, and he once more pushed Bousfield off, -who for the fourth time regained his foothold. Again he was repelled, -this time Calcraft adding his weight to the body, and the strangulation -was completed.</p> - -<p>It was stated in evidence before the Commission on Capital Punishment -in 1864, that Calcraft's method of hanging was very rough, much the -same as if he had been hanging a dog. Calcraft, of whom mention has -just been made, was by trade a lady's shoemaker, and before he took to -hanging he was employed as a watchman at Reid's brewery in Liquorpond -Street. He was at first engaged as <!-- Page 192 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>assistant to the executioner Tom -Cheshire, but in due course rose to be chief. He was always known as -a mild-mannered man of simple tastes, much given to angling in the -New River, and a devoted rabbit fancier. He was well known in the -neighbourhood where he resided, and the street gamins cried "Jack -Ketch" as he went along the street. While Calcraft was in office other -aspirants to fame appeared in the field. One was Askern, who had been -a convicted prisoner at York, but who consented to act as hangman -when Calcraft was otherwise engaged and no other functionary could be -obtained. It was not always easy to hire a hangman. There is still -extant a curious petition presented to the Treasury by Ralph Griffith, -Esq., high sheriff of Flintshire, which sets forth that the petitioner -had been at great expense by sending clerks and agents to Liverpool and -Shrewsbury to hire an executioner. The man to be hanged belonged to -Wales, and no Welshman would do the job. Travelling expenses of these -agents cost £15, and another £10 were spent in the hire of a Shropshire -man, who deserted, and was pursued, but without success. Another man -was hired, himself a convict, whose fees for self and wife were twelve -guineas. Then came the cost of the gallows, £4. 12<i>s.</i>; and finally -the funeral, cart, coffin, and other petty expenses, amounting to £7. -10<i>s.</i>, making nearly £50 as the total expense.</p> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><!-- Page 193 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<small>NEWGATE NOTORIETIES</small></h2> -</div> - - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">Diminution in certain kinds of crime—Fewer street -robberies—Corresponding increase in cases of fraud, forgeries, -jewel and bullion robberies—Great commercial frauds—Offences -against the person confined to murder and manslaughter—The -Cato Street conspiracy—Thistlewood's history—Discovery of -the plot—The conspirators' plan and its overthrow—Their -trial and execution at the Old Bailey—Attacks on the -sovereign—Oxford fires at Queen Victoria—Celebrated -frauds and forgeries—Fauntleroy—The last execution for -forgery—Joseph Hunton the Quaker—Sir Robert Peel's bill -to amend forgery laws—The Forgery Act—Latest cases of -abduction—Edward Gibbon Wakefield and Miss Turner—The most -remarkable murders of the epoch—Thurtell, Hunt, and Probert -kill Mr. Weare—Burke and Hall—Their imitators, Bishop and -Williams, in London—Greenacre and Mrs. Gale murder Hannah -Brown—Horrible means of disposing of the corpse—Detection, -trial, and sentence—Courvoisier murders his master—An -epidemic of murder.</p> -</div> - - -<p>The record of crime has been brought down to the second decade of the -last century. Some space should be devoted to criminal occurrences -of a more recent date, only premising that as accounts become more -voluminous I shall be compelled to deal with fewer cases, taking in -preference those which are typical and invested with peculiar interest. -It is <!-- Page 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>somewhat remarkable that a marked change soon comes over -the Calendar. Certain crimes, those against the person especially, -diminished gradually. They became less easy or remunerative. Police -protection was better and more effective; the streets of London were -well lighted, the suburbs were more populous and regularly patrolled. -People, moreover, were getting into the habit of carrying but little -cash about them, and no valuables but their watches or personal -jewelry. Street robberies offered fewer inducements to depredators, -and evil-doers were compelled to adopt other methods of preying upon -their fellows. This led to a rapid and marked increase in all kinds -of fraud; and prominent in the criminal annals of Newgate in these -later years will be found numerous remarkable instances of this class -of offence—forgeries committed systematically, and for long periods, -as in the case of Fauntleroy, to cover enormous defalcations; the -fabrication of deeds, wills, and false securities for the purpose -of misappropriating funds or feloniously obtaining cash; thefts of -bullion, bank-notes, specie, and gold-dust, planned with consummate -ingenuity, eluding the keenest vigilance, and carried out with reckless -daring; jewel-boxes cleverly stolen under the very noses of owners -or care-takers. As time passed, the extraordinary extension of all -commercial operations led to many entirely novel and often gigantic -financial frauds. The credulity of investors, the unscrupulous -<!-- Page 195 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>dishonesty of bankers, the slackness of supervision over wholly -irresponsible agents, produced many terrible monetary catastrophes, and -lodged men like Cole, Robson, and Redpath in Newgate.</p> - -<p>While the varying conditions of social life thus brought about many -changes in the character of offences against property, those against -the person became more and more limited to the most heinous, or those -which menaced or destroyed life. There was no increase in murder or -manslaughter; the number of such crimes remained proportionate to the -population. Nor did the methods by which they were perpetrated greatly -vary from those in times past. The causes also continued much the same. -Passion, revenge, cupidity, sudden ebullitions of homicidal rage, the -cold-blooded, calculating atrocity born of self-interest, were still -the irresistible incentives to kill. The brutal ferocity of the wild -beast once aroused, the same means, the same weapons were employed to -do the dreadful deed, the same and happily often futile precautions -taken to conceal the crime. Pegsworth, and Greenacre, and Daniel Good -merely reproduced types that had gone before, and that have since -reappeared. Esther Hibner was as inhuman in her ill-usage of the parish -apprentice whom she killed as Martha Brownrigg had been. Thurtell -and Hunt followed in the footsteps of Billings, Wood, and Catherine -Hayes. Courvoisier might have lived a century earlier. Hocker was found -upon the scene of his <!-- Page 196 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>crime, irresistibly attracted thither, as was -Theodore Gardelle. Now and again there seemed to be a recurrence of a -murder epidemic, as there had been before; as in the year 1849, a year -memorable for the Rush murders at Norwich, the Gleeson Wilson murder -at Liverpool, that of the Mannings in London, and of many more. Men -like Mobbs, the miscreant known as "General Haynau" on account of his -blood-thirstiness, still murdered their wives; or struck in blind rage -like Cannon the chimney-sweeper, who savagely killed the policeman.</p> - -<p>But at various dates treason distinct and tangible still came to the -front: direct attempts to levy war against the State. The well-known -Cato Street conspiracy, which grew out of disturbed social conditions -after the last French war, amidst general distress, and when the people -were beginning to agitate for a larger share of political power, was -among the earliest, and to some extent the most desperate, of these. -Its ringleaders, Thistlewood and the rest, were after capture honoured -by committal as State prisoners to the Tower, but they came one and -all to Newgate for trial at the Old Bailey, and remained there after -conviction till they were hanged. Later on, the Chartists agitated -persistently for the concessions embraced in the so-called People's -Charter, many of which are, by more legitimate efforts, engrafted upon -the Constitution. But the Chartists sought their ends by riot and -rebellion, and gained only imprisonment for their <!-- Page 197 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>pains. Some five -hundred in all were arrested, but only three of these were lodged in -Newgate.</p> - -<p>The Cato Street conspiracy would have been simply ridiculous but for -the recklessness of the desperadoes who planned it. That some thirty -or more needy men should hope to revolutionize England is a sufficient -proof of the absurdity of their attempt. But they proceeded in all -seriousness, and would have shrunk from no outrage or atrocity in -furtherance of their foolhardy enterprise. The massacre of the whole -of the Cabinet Ministers at one stroke was to be followed by an attack -upon "the old man and the old woman," as they styled the Mansion House -and the Bank of England. At the former the "Provisional Government" -was to be established, which under Thistlewood as dictator was to rule -the nation by first handing over its capital to fire and pillage. -This Thistlewood had seen many vicissitudes throughout his strange, -adventurous career. The son of a respectable Lincolnshire farmer, he -became a militia officer, and married a woman with £10,000, in which, -however, she had only a life interest. She died early, and Thistlewood, -left to his own resources, followed the profession of arms, first in -the British service, and then in that of the French revolutionary -Government. It was during this period that he was said to have imbibed -his revolutionary ideas. Returning to England, he found himself rich -in a small landed property, which he presently sold to a man who -<!-- Page 198 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>became bankrupt before he had paid over the purchase money. After this -he tried farming, but failed. He married again and came to London, -where he soon became notorious as a reckless gambler and a politician -holding the most extreme views. In this way he formed the acquaintance -of Watson and others, with whom he was arraigned for treasonable -practices, and imprisoned. On his release he sent a challenge to Lord -Sidmouth, the Home Secretary, and was again arrested and imprisoned. On -his second release, goaded by his fancied wrongs, he began to plot a -dark and dreadful revenge, and thus the conspiracy in which he was the -prime mover took shape, and came to a head.</p> - -<p>The Government obtained early and full information of the nefarious -scheme. One of the conspirators, by name Edwards, made a voluntary -confession to Sir Herbert Taylor one morning at Windsor; after which -Thistlewood and his accomplices were closely watched, and measures -taken to arrest them when their plans were so far developed that no -doubt could remain as to their guilt. The day appointed for the murder -and rising actually arrived before the authorities interfered. It -was the day on which Lord Harrowby was to entertain his colleagues -at dinner in Grosvenor Square. The occasion was considered excellent -by the conspirators for disposal of the whole Cabinet at one blow, -and it was arranged that one of their number should <!-- Page 199 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>knock at Lord -Harrowby's door on the pretence of leaving a parcel, and that when -it was opened the whole band should rush in. While a few secured the -servants, the rest were to fall upon Lord Harrowby and his guests. -Hand-grenades were to be thrown into the dining-room, and during -the noise and confusion the assassination of the ministers was to -be completed, the heads of Lord Castlereagh and Lord Sidmouth being -carried away in a bag. Lord Harrowby's dinner-party was postponed, -but the conspirators knew nothing of it, and those who watched his -house were further encouraged in their mistake by the arrival of -many carriages, bound, as it happened, to the Archbishop of York's. -Meanwhile the main body remained at their headquarters, a ruined -stable in Cato Street, Edgeware Road, completing their dispositions -for assuming supreme power after the blow had been struck. Here they -were surprised by the police, headed by a magistrate, and supported by -a strong detachment of Her Majesty's Guards. The police were the first -to arrive on the spot, the Guards having entered the street at the -wrong end. The conspirators were in a loft, approached by a ladder and -a trap-door, access through which could only be obtained one by one. -The first constable who entered Thistlewood ran through the body with a -sword, but others quickly followed, the lights were extinguished, and -a desperate conflict ensued. The Guards, headed by Lord Frederick Fitz -Clarence, now reinforced <!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>the police, and the conspirators gave way. -Nine of the latter were captured, with all the war material, cutlasses, -pistols, hand grenades, and ammunition. Thistlewood and fourteen more -succeeded for the moment in making their escape, but most of them were -subsequently taken. Thistlewood was discovered next morning in a mean -house in White Street, Moorfields. He was in bed with his breeches on -(in the pockets of which were found a number of cartridges), the black -belt he had worn at Cato Street, and a military sash.</p> - -<p>The trial of the conspirators came on some six weeks later, at the -Old Bailey. Thistlewood made a long and rambling defence, the chief -features of which were abuse of Lord Sidmouth, and the vilification -of the informer Edwards. Several of the other prisoners took the same -line as regards Edwards, and there seems to have been good reason for -supposing that he was a greater villain than any of those arraigned. -He had been in a state of abject misery, and when he first joined -"the reformers," as the Cato Street conspirators called themselves, -he had neither a bed to lie upon nor a coat to his back. His sudden -access to means unlimited was no doubt due to the profitable <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">rôle</i> he -soon adopted of Government informer and spy, and it is pretty certain -that for some time he served both sides; on the one inveigling silly -enthusiasts to join in the plot, and denouncing them on the other. -The employment of Edwards, and the manner in <!-- Page 201 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>which the conspirators -were allowed to commit themselves further and further before the law -was set in motion against them, were not altogether creditable to the -Government. It was asserted, not without foundation, at these trials, -that Edwards repeatedly incited the associates he was betraying to -commit outrage, to set fire to houses, and throw hand-grenades into -the carriages of ministers; that he was, to use Thistlewood's words, -"a contriver, instigator, and entrapper." The Government were probably -not proud of their agent, for Edwards, after the conviction had been -assured, went abroad to enjoy, it was said, an ample pension, so long -as he did not return to England.</p> - -<p>Five of the conspirators, Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and -Tidd, were sentenced to death, and suffered in the usual way in front -of Newgate, with the additional penalty of decapitation, as traitors, -after they had been hanged. A crowd as great as any known collected -in the Old Bailey to see the ceremony, about which there were some -peculiar features worth recording. The reckless demeanour of all -the convicts except Davidson was most marked. Thistlewood and Ings -sucked oranges on the scaffold; they with Brunt and Tidd scorned the -ordinary's ministrations, but Ings said he hoped God would be more -merciful to him than men had been. Ings was especially defiant. He -sought to cheer Davidson, who seemed affected, crying out, "Come, old -cock-of-wax, it will soon be over." As the <!-- Page 202 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>executioner fastened the -noose, he nodded to a friend he saw in the crowd; and catching sight -of the coffins ranged around the gallows, he smiled at the show with -contemptuous indifference. He roared out snatches of a song about Death -or Liberty, and just before he was turned off, yelled out three cheers -to the populace whom he faced.</p> - -<p>Attacks upon the sovereign were not uncommon after the accession of -the young Queen Victoria to the English throne in 1838. It was a form -of high treason not unknown in earlier reigns. In 1786 a mad woman, -Margaret Nicholson, tried to stab George III as he was alighting -from his carriage at the gate of St. James's Palace. She was seized -before she could do any mischief, and eventually lodged in Bethlehem -Hospital, where she died after forty years' detention, at the advanced -age of one hundred. Again, a soldier, by name Hatfield, who had been -wounded in the head, and discharged from the army for unsoundness of -mind in 1800, fired a pistol at George III from the pit of Drury Lane -theatre. William IV was also the victim of a murderous outrage on Ascot -racecourse in 1832, when John Collins, "a person in the garb of a -sailor, of wretched appearance, and having a wooden leg," threw a stone -at the king, which hit him on the forehead, but did no serious injury. -Collins, when charged, pleaded that he had lost his leg in action, that -he had petitioned without success for a pension, and that, as he was -starving, he had resolved on this <!-- Page 203 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>desperate deed, feeling, as he said, -that he might as well be shot or hanged as remain in such a state. He -was eventually sentenced to death, but the plea of lunacy was allowed, -and he was confined for life.</p> - -<p>None of the foregoing attempts were, however, so dastardly or -determined as that made by Oxford upon Queen Victoria two years after -she ascended the throne. The cowardly crime was probably encouraged -by the fearless and confiding manner in which the Queen, secure as -it seemed in the affections of her loyal people, freely appeared -in public. Oxford, who was only nineteen at the time his offence -was committed, had been born at Birmingham, but he came as a lad to -London, and took service as a pot-boy to a publican. From this he -was promoted to barman, and as such had charge of the business in -various public-houses. He left his last situation in April, 1840, -and established himself in lodgings in Lambeth, after which he -devoted himself to pistol practice in shooting-galleries, sometimes -in Leicester Square, sometimes in the Strand, or the West End. His -acquaintances often asked his object in this, but he kept his own -counsel till the 10th of June. On that day Oxford was on the watch -at Buckingham Palace. He saw Prince Albert return there from a visit -to Woolwich, and then passed on to Constitution Hill, there to wait -until four o'clock in the afternoon, the time at which the Queen and -Prince Consort usually took an afternoon drive. About six o'clock, the -royal <!-- Page 204 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>carriage, a low open vehicle drawn by four horses, ridden by -postilions, left the palace. Oxford, who had been pacing backwards and -forwards with his hands under the lapels of his coat, saw the carriage -approach. He was on the right or north side of the road. Prince Albert -occupied the same side of the carriage, the Queen the left. As the -carriage came up to him Oxford turned, put his hand into his breast, -drew a pistol, and fired at the Queen.</p> - -<p>The shot missed, and as the carriage passed on, Oxford drew a second -pistol and fired again. The Queen saw this second movement, and stooped -to avoid the shot; the Prince too rose to shield her with his person. -Again, providentially, the bullet went wide of the mark, and the royal -party drove back to Clarence House, the Queen being anxious to give the -first news of the outrage and of her safety to her mother, the Duchess -of Kent. Meanwhile the pistol-shots had attracted the attention of the -bystanders, of whom there was a fair collection, as usual, waiting to -see the Queen pass. Oxford was seized by a person named Lowe, who was -at first mistaken for the assailant. But Oxford at once assumed the -responsibility for his crime, saying, "It was I. I did it. I'll give -myself up. There is no occasion to use violence. I will go with you." -He was taken into custody, and removed first to a police cell, thence -committed to Newgate, after he had been examined before the Privy -Council. Oxford expressed little anxiety or concern. He asked <!-- Page 205 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>more -than once whether the Queen was hurt, and acknowledged that the pistols -were loaded with ball.</p> - -<p>A craze for notoriety, to be achieved at any cost, was the one -absorbing idea in young Oxford's disordered brain. After his arrest -he thought only of the excitement his attempt had raised, nothing of -its atrocity, or of the fatal consequences which might have ensued. -When brought to trial he hardly realized his position, but gazed with -complacency around the crowded court, and eagerly inquired what persons -of distinction were present. He smiled continually, and when the -indictment was read, burst into loud and discordant fits of laughter. -These antics may have been assumed to bear out the plea of insanity set -up in his defence, but that there was madness in his family, and that -he himself was of unsound mind, could not be well denied. His father, -it was proved, had been at times quite mad; and Oxford's mental state -might be inferred from his own proceedings and demeanour in court. The -whole of the evidence pointed so strongly towards insanity, that the -jury brought in a verdict of acquittal on that ground, and Oxford was -ordered to be detained during Her Majesty's pleasure. He went from -Newgate first to Bethlehem, from which he was removed to Broadmoor on -the opening of the great criminal lunatic asylum at that place. He was -released from Broadmoor in 1878, and went abroad.</p> - -<p>Referring again to the increase of bank forgeries, <!-- Page 206 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>at one session -of the Old Bailey, in 1821, no less than thirty-five true bills were -found for passing forged notes. But there were other notorious cases of -forgery. That of Fauntleroy the banker, in 1824, caused much excitement -at the time on account of the magnitude of the fraud, and the seeming -probity of the culprit. Mr. Fauntleroy was a member of a banking firm, -which his father had established in conjunction with a gentleman of -the name of Marsh, and others. He had entered the house as clerk in -1800; in 1807, when only twenty-two years of age, he succeeded to his -father's share in the business. According to Fauntleroy's own case, -he found at once that the firm was heavily involved, through advances -made to various builders, and that it could only maintain its credit by -wholesale discounting. Its embarrassments were greatly increased by the -bankruptcy of two of its clients in the building trade, and the bank -became liable for a sum of £170,000. New liabilities were incurred to -the extent of £100,000 by more failures, and in 1819, by the death of -one of the partners, a large sum in cash had to be withdrawn from the -bank to pay his heirs. "During these numerous and trying difficulties," -says Mr. Fauntleroy, "the house was nearly without resources, and the -whole burthen of management falling on me, . . . I sought resources where -I could;" in other words, he forged powers of attorney and proceeded -to realize securities lodged in his bank under various <!-- Page 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>names. Among -the prisoner's private papers, one was found giving full details of the -stock he had feloniously sold out, the sum amounting to some £170,000, -with a declaration in his own handwriting to the following effect: -"In order to keep up the credit of our house, I have forged powers of -attorney for the above sums and parties, and sold out to the amount -here stated, and without the knowledge of my partners. I kept up the -payments of the dividends, but made no entries of such payments in my -books. The bank began first to refuse our acceptances, and to destroy -the credit of our house; the bank shall smart for it."</p> - -<p>Many stories were in circulation at the time of Fauntleroy's trial -with regard to his forgeries. It was said that he had by means of -them sold out so large an amount of stock, that he paid £16,000 a -year in dividends to escape detection. Once he ran a narrow risk -of being found out. A lady in the country, who had £13,000 in the -stocks, desired her London agent to sell them out. He went to the -bank, and found that no stocks stood in her name. He called at once -upon Fauntleroy, his client's banker, for an explanation, and was -told by Mr. Fauntleroy that the lady had desired <em>him</em> to sell out, -"which I have done," added the fraudulent banker, "and here are the -proceeds," whereupon he produced exchequer bills to the amount. Nothing -more was heard of the affair, although the lady declared that she had -never instructed Fauntleroy <!-- Page 208 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>to sell. On another occasion the banker -forged a gentleman's name while the latter was sitting with him in his -private room, and took the instrument out to a clerk with the ink not -dry. It must be added that the Bank of England, on discovering the -forgeries, replaced the stock in the names of the original holders, -who might otherwise have been completely ruined. A newspaper report of -the time describes Fauntleroy "as a well-made man of middle stature. -His hair, though gray, was thick, and lay smooth over his forehead. -His countenance had an expression of most subdued resignation. The -impression which his appearance altogether was calculated to make was -that of the profoundest commiseration."</p> - -<p>The crime, long carried on without detection, was first discovered in -1820, when it was found that a sum of $10,000, standing in the name of -three trustees, of whom Fauntleroy was one, had been sold out under a -forged power of attorney. Further investigations brought other similar -frauds to light, and fixed the whole sum misappropriated at £170,000, -the first forgery dating back to 1814. A run upon the bank immediately -followed, which was only met by a suspension of payment and the closing -of its doors. Meanwhile public gossip was busy with Fauntleroy's name, -and it was openly stated in the press and in conversation that the -proceeds of these frauds had been squandered in dissipation, gambling, -and debauchery. Fauntleroy was scouted <!-- Page 209 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>as a licentious libertine, a -deep and determined gamester, a spendthrift whose extravagance knew no -bounds. It was said that the dinners he gave were of the most sumptuous -and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">recherché</i> description. The story goes that one of his most -intimate friends, who attended him to the scaffold, entreated him, as -on the brink of the grave, and unable to take anything out of the world -with him, to reveal the secret of where some wonderful curaçoa was -obtained, for which Fauntleroy's cellar was famous. The veil was lifted -from his private life, and he was accused of persistent immorality. In -his defence he sought to rebut these charges, which indeed were never -clearly made out, and it is pretty certain that his own account of -the causes which led him into dishonesty was substantially true. He -called many witnesses, seventeen in all, to speak of him as they had -found him; and these, all respectable city merchants and business men, -declared that they had hitherto formed a high opinion of his honour, -integrity, and goodness of disposition, deeming him the last person -capable of a dishonourable action.</p> - -<p>These arguments availed little with the jury, who after a short -deliberation found Fauntleroy guilty, and he was sentenced to death. -Every endeavour was used, however, to obtain a commutation of sentence. -His case was twice argued before the judges on points of law, but -the result in both cases was unfavourable. Appeals were made to the -Home <!-- Page 210 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>Secretary, and all possible political interest brought to bear, -but without success. Fauntleroy meanwhile lay in Newgate, not herded -with other condemned prisoners, as the custom was, but in a separate -chamber, that belonging to one of the warders of the gaol. I find in -the chaplain's journal, under date 1824, various entries relative -to this prisoner. "Visited Mr. Fauntleroy. My application for books -for him not having been granted, I had no prayer-book to give him." -"Visited Mr. Fauntleroy. The sheriffs have very kindly permitted him -to remain in the turnkey's room where he was originally placed; nor -can I omit expressing a hope that this may prove the beginning of a -better system of confinement, and that every description of persons who -may be unfortunately under sentence of death will no longer be herded -indiscriminately together." The kindliness of the city authorities to -Fauntleroy was not limited to the assignment of a separate place of -durance.</p> - -<p>A very curious and, in its way, amusing circumstance in connection with -this case was the offer of a certain Italian, Edmund Angelini, to take -Fauntleroy's place. Angelini wrote to the Lord Mayor to this effect, -urging that Fauntleroy was a father, a citizen: "His life is useful, -mine a burthen, to the State." He was summoned to the Mansion House, -where he repeated his request, crying, "Accordez moi cette grâce," with -much urgency. There were doubts of his sanity. He wrote afterwards <!-- Page 211 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>to -the effect that the moment he had offered himself, an unknown assassin -came to aim a blow at him. "Let this monster give his name; I am ready -to fight him. I am still determined to put myself in the place of Mr. -Fauntleroy. If the law of this country can receive such a sacrifice, my -death will render to heaven an innocent man, and to earth a repentant -sinner."</p> - -<p>The concourse in front of Newgate was enormous at Fauntleroy's -execution, but much sympathy was evinced for this unfortunate victim -to human weakness and ruthless laws. A report was, moreover, widely -circulated, and the impression long prevailed, that he actually -escaped death. It was said that strangulation had been prevented -by the insertion of a silver tube in his wind-pipe, and that after -hanging for the regulated time he was taken down and easily restored -to consciousness. Afterwards, according to the common rumour, he went -abroad and lived there for many years; but the story is not only wholly -unsubstantiated, but there is good evidence to show that the body after -execution was handed over to his friends and interred privately.</p> - -<p>Some years were still to elapse before capital punishment ceased to -be the penalty for forgery, and in the interval several persons were -sentenced and suffered death for this crime. There were two notable -capital convictions for forgery in 1828. One was that of Captain -Montgomery, who <!-- Page 212 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>assumed the aliases of Colonel Wallace and Colonel -Morgan. His offence was uttering forged notes, and there was strong -suspicion that he had long subsisted entirely by this fraud. The -act for which he was taken into custody was the payment of a forged -ten-pound note for half-a-dozen silver spoons. Montgomery was an adept -at forgery. He had gone wrong early. Although born of respectable -parents, and gazetted to a commission in the army, he soon left the -service and betook himself to dishonest ways. His first forgery was the -marvellous imitation of the signature of the Hon. Mr. Neville, M. P., -who wrote an extremely cramped and curious hand. He was not prosecuted -for this fraud on account of the respectability of his family, and -soon after this escape he came to London, where he practised as a -professional swindler and cheat. For a long time justice did not -overtake him for any criminal offence, but he was frequently in Newgate -and in the King's Bench for debt. After three years' confinement -in the latter prison he passed himself off as his brother, Colonel -Montgomery, a distinguished officer, and would have married an heiress -had not the imposture been discovered in time. He then took to forging -bank-notes, and was arrested as I have described above. Montgomery was -duly sentenced to death, but he preferred suicide to the gallows. After -sentence his demeanour was serious yet firm. The night previous to that -fixed for his execution he wrote several letters, one <!-- Page 213 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>of them being to -Edward Gibbon Wakefield, a fellow-prisoner, and listened attentively to -the ordinary, who read him the well-known address written and delivered -by Dr. Dodd previous to his own execution for forgery. But next morning -he was found dead in his cell. In one corner after much search a phial -was found labelled "Prussic acid," which it was asserted he had been -in the habit of carrying about his person ever since he had taken to -passing forged notes, as an "antidote against disgrace." This phial -he had managed to retain in his possession in spite of the frequent -searches to which he was subjected in Newgate.</p> - -<p>The second conviction for forgery in 1828 was that of the Quaker -Joseph Hunton, a man previously of the highest repute in the city of -London. He had prospered in early life, was a slop-seller on a large -scale at Bury St. Edmunds, and a sugar-baker in the metropolis. He -married a lady also belonging to the Society of Friends, who brought -him a large fortune, which, together with his own money, he put into -a city firm, that of Dickson and Company. Soon after he became deeply -involved in Stock Exchange speculations, and losing heavily, to meet -the claims upon him he put out a number of forged bills of exchange -or acceptances, to which the signature of one Wilkins of Abingdon was -found to be forged. Hunton tried to fly the country on the detection -of the fraud, but was arrested at Plymouth just as he was on the point -of <!-- Page 214 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>leaving England in the New York packet. He had gone on board in -his Quaker dress, but when captured was found in a light-green frock, -a pair of light-gray pantaloons, a black stock and a foraging cap. -Hunton was put upon his trial at the Old Bailey, and in due course -sentenced to death. His defence was that the forged acceptances would -have been met on coming to maturity, and that he had no real desire to -defraud. Hunton accepted his sentence with great resignation, although -he protested against the inhumanity of the laws which condemned him -to death. On entering Newgate he said, "I wish after this day to -have communication with nobody; let me take leave of my wife, and -family, and friends. I have already suffered an execution; my heart -has undergone that horrible penalty." He was, however, visited by and -received his wife, and several members of the Society of Friends. Two -elders of the meeting sat up with him in the press-yard the whole of -the night previous to execution, and a third, Mr. Sparks Moline, came -to attend him to the scaffold. He met his death with unshaken firmness, -only entreating that a certain blue handkerchief, to which he seemed -fondly attached, should be used to bandage his eyes, which request was -readily granted.</p> - -<p>Hunton's execution no doubt aroused public attention to the cruelty -and futility of the capital law against forgery. A society which had -already been started against capital punishment devoted its <!-- Page 215 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>efforts -first to a mitigation of the forgery statute, but could not immediately -accomplish much. In 1829 the gallows claimed two more victims for this -offence. One was Richard Gifford, a well-educated youth who had been -at Christ's Hospital, and afterwards in the National Debt Office. -Unfortunately he took to drink, lost his appointment, and fell from -bad to worse. Suddenly, after reaching the lowest depths, he emerged, -and was found by his friends living in comfort in the Waterloo Road. -His funds, which he pretended came to him with a rich wife, were -really the proceeds of frauds upon the Bank of England. He forged the -names of people who held stock on the Bank books, and got the value -of the stock; he also forged dividend receipts and got the dividends. -He was only six-and-twenty when he was hanged. The other and the last -criminal executed for forgery in England was one Maynard, who was -convicted of a fraud upon the Custom House. In conjunction with two -others, one of whom was a clerk in the Custom House, and had access to -the official records, he forged a warrant for £1,973, and was paid the -money by the comptroller general. Maynard was convicted of uttering the -forged document, Jones of being an accessory; the third prisoner was -acquitted. Maynard was the only one who suffered death.</p> - -<p>This execution was on the last day of the year 1829. In the following -session Sir Robert Peel brought in a bill to consolidate the acts -relating to <!-- Page 216 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>forgery. Upon the third reading of this bill Sir James -Macintosh moved as an amendment that capital punishment should be -abolished for all crimes of forgery, except the forgery of wills and -powers of attorney. This amendment was strongly supported outside the -House, and a petition in favour of its passing was presented, signed by -more than a thousand members of banking firms. Macintosh's amendment -was carried in the Commons, but the new law did not pass the Lords, who -re-enacted the capital penalty. Still no sentence of death was carried -out for the offence, and in 1832 the Attorney-General introduced a -bill to entirely abolish capital punishment for forgery. It passed the -Commons, but opposition was again encountered in the Lords. This time -they sent the bill back, re-enacting only the two penalties for will -forging and the forging of powers of attorney; in other words, they -had advanced in 1832 to the point at which the Lower House had arrived -in 1830. There were at the moment in Newgate six convicts sentenced to -death for forging wills. The question was whether the Government would -dare to take their lives at the bidding of the House of Lords, and in -defiance of the vote of the assembly which more accurately represented -public opinion. It was indeed announced that their fate was sealed; but -Mr. Joseph Hume pressed the Government hard, and obtained an assurance -that the men should not be executed. The new Forgery Act with the -Lords' <!-- Page 217 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>amendment passed into law, but the latter proved perfectly -harmless, and no person ever after suffered death for any variety of -this crime.</p> - -<p>One of the last instances of a crime which in time past had invariably -been visited with the death penalty,<a name="FNanchor_217:1_6" id="FNanchor_217:1_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_217:1_6" class="fnanchor">[217:1]</a> and which was of a -distinctly fraudulent nature should be noted here. The abduction of -Miss Turner by the brothers Wakefield bore a strong resemblance to the -carrying off and forcible marrying of heiresses as already described in -a previous chapter. Miss Turner was a school-girl of barely fifteen, -only child of a gentleman of large property in Cheshire, of which -county he was actually high sheriff at the time of his daughter's -abduction. The elder brother, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, the prime mover -in the abduction, was a barrister not exactly briefless, but without -a large practice. He had, it was said, a good private income, and -was already a widower with two children at the time he committed the -offence for which he was subsequently tried. He had eloped with his -first wife from school. While on a visit to Macclesfield he heard by -chance of Miss Turner, and that she would inherit all her father's -possessions. He thereupon conceived an idea of carrying her off and -marrying her willy nilly at Gretna Green. The two brothers started -at once for Liverpool, where Miss <!-- Page 218 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>Turner was at school with a Mrs. -Daulby. At Manchester, <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en route</i>, a travelling carriage was purchased, -which was driven up to Mrs. Daulby's door at eight in the morning, and -a servant hurriedly alighted from it, bearing a letter for Miss Turner. -This purported to be from the medical attendant of Mr. Turner, written -at Shrigley, Mr. Turner's place of residence; and it stated that Mrs. -Turner had been stricken with paralysis. She was not in immediate -danger, but she wished to see her daughter, "as it was possible she -might soon become incapable of recognizing any one." Miss Turner, -greatly agitated, accompanied the messenger who had brought this news, -a disguised servant of Wakefield's, who had plausibly explained that -he had only recently been engaged at Shrigley. The road taken was viâ -Manchester, where the servant said a Dr. Hull was to be picked up to go -on with them to Shrigley.</p> - -<p>At Manchester, however, the carriage stopped at the Albion Hotel. -Miss Turner was shown into a private room, where Mr. Wakefield soon -presented himself. Miss Turner, not knowing him, would have left the -room, but he said he came from her father, and she remained. Wakefield, -in reply to her inquiries, satisfied her that her mother was well, -and that the real reason for summoning her from school was the state -of her father's affairs. Mr. Turner was on the verge of bankruptcy. -He was at that moment at Kendal, and wished her to join <!-- Page 219 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>him there at -once. Miss Turner consented to go on, and they travelled night and -day towards the north. But at Kendal there was no Mr. Turner, and, to -allay Miss Turner's growing anxiety, Wakefield found it necessary to -become more explicit regarding her father's affairs. He now pretended -that Mr. Turner was also on his way to the border, pursued by sheriffs' -officers. The fact was, Wakefield went on to say, an uncle of his had -advanced Mr. Turner £60,000, which had temporarily staved off ruin. -But another bank had since failed, and nothing could save Mr. Turner -but the transfer of some property to Miss Turner, and its settlement -on her, so that it might become the exclusive property of her husband, -"whoever he might be." Wakefield added that it had been suggested -he should marry Miss Turner, but that he had laughed at the idea. -Wakefield's uncle took the matter more seriously, and declared that -unless the marriage came off Mr. Turner must be sold up. Miss Turner, -thus pressed, consented to go on to Gretna Green. Passing through -Carlisle, she was told that Mr. Turner was in the town, but could -not show himself. Nothing could release him from his trouble but the -arrival of the marriage certificate from Gretna Green. Filial affection -rose superior to all scruples, and Miss Turner, having crossed the -border, was married to Wakefield by the blacksmith in the usual way. -Returning to Carlisle, she now heard that her father had been set -free, and had <!-- Page 220 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>gone home to Shrigley, whither they were to follow him. -They set out, but at Leeds Wakefield found himself called suddenly to -Paris; the other brother was accordingly sent on a pretended mission -to Shrigley to bring Mr. Turner on to London, whither Wakefield and -Miss Turner also proceeded. On arrival, Wakefield pretended that -they had missed Mr. Turner, and must follow him over to France. The -strangely-married couple thereupon pressed on to Dover, and crossed -over to Calais.</p> - -<p>The fact of the abduction did not transpire for some days. Then Mrs. -Daulby learned that Miss Turner had not arrived at Shrigley, but that -she had gone to Manchester. Friends went in pursuit and traced her to -Huddersfield and further north. The terror and dismay of her parents -were soon intensified by the receipt of a letter from Wakefield, at -Carlisle, announcing the marriage. Mr. Turner at once set off for -London, where he sought the assistance of the police, and presently -ascertained that Wakefield had gone to the Continent with his -involuntary bride. An uncle of Miss Wakefield's, accompanied by his -solicitor and a Bow Street runner, at once went in pursuit. Meanwhile, -a second letter turned up from Wakefield at Calais, in which he assured -Mrs. Turner that Miss Turner was fondly attached to him, and went on to -say, "I do assure you, madam, that it shall be the anxious endeavour of -my life to promote her happiness by every means in my power." The game, -however, <!-- Page 221 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>was nearly up. Miss Turner was met by her uncle on Calais -pier as she was walking with Wakefield. The uncle claimed her. The -husband resisted. M. le Maire was appealed to, and decided to leave it -to the young lady, who at once abandoned Wakefield. As he still urged -his rights over his wife, Miss Turner cried out in protest, "No, no, I -am not his wife; he carried me away by fraud and stratagem, and forced -me to accompany him to Gretna Green. . . . By the same forcible means I -was compelled to quit England, and to trust myself to the protection -of this person, whom I never saw until I was taken from Liverpool, and -never want to see again." On this Wakefield gave in. He surrendered the -bride who had never been a wife, and she returned to England with her -friends, while Wakefield went on alone to Paris.</p> - -<p>Mr. William Wakefield was arrested at Dover, conveyed to Chester, -and committed to Lancaster Gaol for trial at the next assizes, when -indictments were preferred against both brothers "for having carried -away Ellen Turner, spinster, then a maid and heir apparent unto her -father, for the sake of the lucre of her substance; and for having -afterwards unlawfully and against her will married the said Ellen -Turner." They were tried in March of the following year, Edward -Wakefield having apparently given himself up, and found guilty, -remaining in Lancaster Gaol for a couple of months, when they were -brought up to the court of King's <!-- Page 222 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>Bench for judgment. The prosecution -pressed for a severe penalty. Edward Wakefield pleaded that his trial -had already cost him £3,000. Mr. Justice Bayley, in summing up, spoke -severely of the gross deception practised upon an innocent girl, and -sentenced the brothers each to three years' imprisonment, William -Wakefield in Lancaster Gaol, and Edward Gibbon Wakefield in Newgate, -which sentences were duly enforced. The marriage was annulled by an -Act of Parliament, although Wakefield petitioned against it, and was -brought from Newgate, at his own request, to oppose the second reading -of the bill. He also wrote and published a pamphlet from the gaol to -show that Miss Turner had been a consenting party to the marriage, and -was really his wife. Neither his address nor his pamphlet availed much, -for the bill for the divorce passed both Houses.</p> - -<p>Having brought down the record of great frauds and forgeries to the -third and fourth decades of the nineteenth century some account must be -given of the more remarkable murders during that period.</p> - -<p>No murder has created greater sensation and horror throughout England -than that of Mr. Weare by Thurtell, Hunt and Probert. The principal -actor was tried and executed at Hertford, but Probert, who turned -King's evidence and materially assisted conviction, was tried at -the Old Bailey the following year for horse-stealing, and hanged -in front of <!-- Page 223 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>Newgate. The murder was still fresh in the memory of -the populace, and Probert was all but lynched on his way to gaol. -According to his statement, when sentenced to death, he had been driven -to horse-stealing by the execration which had pursued him after the -murder. Every door had been closed against him, every hope of future -support blasted. "Since the calamitous event that happened at Hertford, -I have been a lost man." The event which he styles calamitous we may -well characterize as one of the most deliberately atrocious murders -on record. Thurtell was a gambler, and Weare had won a good deal of -money from him. Weare was supposed to carry a "private bank" about -with him in a pocket in his under waistcoat. To obtain possession of -this, Thurtell with his two associates resolved to kill him. The victim -was invited to visit Probert's cottage in the country near Elstree. -Thurtell drove him down in a gig, "to be killed as he travelled," in -Thurtell's own words. The others followed, and on overtaking Thurtell, -found he had done the job alone in a retired part of the road known -as Gill's Hill Lane. The murderer explained that he had first fired a -pistol at Weare's head, but the shot glanced off his cheek. Then he -attacked the other's throat with a penknife, and last of all drove -the pistol barrel into his forehead. After the murder the villains -divided the spoil, and went on to Probert's cottage, and supped off -pork-chops brought down on purpose. During the night they sought to -dispose of the body <!-- Page 224 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>by throwing it into a pond, but two days later -had to throw it into another pond. Meanwhile the discovery of pistol -and knife spattered with human blood and brains raised the alarm, and -suspicion fell upon the three murderers, who were arrested. The crime -was brought home to Thurtell by the confession of Hunt, one of his -accomplices, who took the police to the pond, where the remains of -the unfortunate Mr. Weare were discovered, sunk in a sack weighted by -stones. Probert was then admitted as a witness, and the case was fully -proved against Thurtell, who was hanged in front of Hertford Gaol. -Hunt, in consideration of the information he had given, escaped death, -and was sentenced to transportation for life.</p> - -<p>Widespread horror and indignation was evoked throughout the kingdom -by the discovery of the series of atrocious murders perpetrated in -Edinburgh by the miscreants Burke and Hare, the first of whom has added -to the British language a synonym for illegal suppression. The crimes -of these inhuman purveyors to medical science do not fall within the -limits of this work. But Burke and Hare had their imitators further -south, and of these Bishop and Williams, who were guilty of many -peculiar atrocities, ended their murderous careers in front of the -debtors' door at Newgate. Bishop, whose real name was Head, married a -half-sister of Williams'. Williams was a professional resurrectionist, -or body-snatcher, a trade almost openly <!-- Page 225 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>countenanced when "subjects" -for the anatomy schools were only to be got by rifling graves, or -worse. Bishop was a carpenter, but having been suddenly thrown out -of work, he joined his brother-in-law in his line of business. After -a little Bishop got weary of the dangers and fatigues of exhumation, -and proposed to Williams that instead of disinterring they should -murder their subjects. Bishop confessed that he was moved to this -by the example of Burke and Hare. They pursued their terrible trade -for five years without scruple and without detection. Eventually the -law overtook them, but almost by accident. They presented themselves -about noon one day at the dissecting room of King's College Hospital, -accompanied by a third man, an avowed "snatcher" and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">habitué</i> of the -"Fortune of War," a public-house in Smithfield frequented openly by men -of this awful profession. This man, May, asked the porter at King's -College if "he wanted anything?" the euphemism for offering a body. -The porter asked what he had got, and the answer was, a male subject. -Reference was made to Mr. Partridge, the demonstrator in anatomy, -and after some haggling they agreed on a price, and in the afternoon -the snatchers brought a hamper which contained a body in a sack. The -porter received it, but from its freshness became suspicious of foul -play. Mr. Partridge was sent for, and he with some of the students soon -decided that the corpse had not died a natural death. The snatchers -were detained, <!-- Page 226 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>the police sent for, and arrest followed as a matter of -course.</p> - -<p>An inquest was held on the body, which was identified as that of an -Italian boy, Carlo Ferrari, who made a living by exhibiting white mice -about the streets, and the jury returned a verdict of wilful murder -against persons unknown, expressing a strong opinion that Bishop, -Williams, and May had been concerned in the transaction. Meanwhile, -a search had been made at Nova Scotia Gardens, Bethnal Green, where -Bishop and Williams lived. At first nothing peculiar was found; but at -a second search the back-garden ground was dug up, and in one corner, -at some depth, a bundle of clothes were unearthed, which, with a hairy -cap, were known to be what Ferrari had worn when last seen. In another -portion of the garden more clothing, partly male and partly female, was -discovered, plainly pointing to the perpetration of other crimes. These -facts were represented before the police magistrate who examined Bishop -and his fellows, and further incriminating evidence adduced, to the -effect that the prisoners had bartered for a coach to carry "a stiff -'un;" they had also been seen to leave their cottage, carrying out a -sack with something heavy inside. On this they were fully committed to -Newgate for trial. This trial came off in due course at the Central -Criminal Court, where the prisoners were charged on two counts, one -that of the murder of the Italian boy, the other that of a boy unknown. -<!-- Page 227 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>The evidence from first to last was circumstantial, but the jury, -after a short deliberation, did not hesitate to bring in a verdict of -guilty, and all three were condemned to death.</p> - -<p>Shortly before the day fixed for execution, Bishop made a full -confession, the bulk of which bore the impress of truth, although -it included statements that were improbable and unsubstantiated. He -asserted that the victim was a Lincolnshire lad, and not an Italian -boy, although the latter was fully proved. According to the confession, -death had been inflicted by drowning in a well, whereas the medical -evidence all pointed to violence. It was, however, pretty clear that -this victim, like preceding ones, had been lured to Nova Scotia -Gardens, and there drugged with a large dose of laudanum. While they -were in a state of insensibility the murder was committed. Bishop's -confession was endorsed by Williams, and the immediate result was the -respite of May. A very painful scene occurred in Newgate when the news -of his escape from death was imparted to May. He fainted, and the -warrant of mercy nearly proved his death-blow. The other two looked -on at his agitation with an indifference amounting to apathy. The -execution took place a week or two later, in the presence of such a -crowd as had not been seen near Newgate for years.</p> - -<p>The murder of Hannah Brown is still fresh in the minds of Londoners, -although half a century has passed since it was committed. The horror -with <!-- Page 228 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>which Greenacre's crime struck the town was unparalleled -since the time when Catherine Hayes slew her husband. There were -many features of resemblance in these crimes. The decapitation and -dismemberment, the bestowal of the remains in various parts of the -town, the preservation of the head in spirits of wine, in the hope -that the features might some day be recognized, were alike in both. -The murder in both cases was long a profound mystery. In this which -I am now describing, a bricklayer found a human trunk near some new -buildings in the Edgeware Road one morning in the last week of 1836. -The inquest on these remains, which medical examination showed to be -those of a female, returned a verdict of wilful murder against some -person unknown. Early in January, 1837, the lockman of "Ben Jonson -lock," in Stepney Fields, found a human head jammed into the lock -gates. Closer investigation proved that it belonged to the trunk -already discovered as mentioned above. A further discovery was made -in an osier bed near Cold Harbour Lane, Camberwell, where a workman -found a bundle containing two human legs, in a drain. These were the -missing members of the same mutilated trunk, and there was now evidence -sufficient to establish conclusively that the woman thus collected -piecemeal had been barbarously done to death. But the affair still -remained a profound mystery. No light was thrown upon it till, towards -the end of March, a Mr. Gay of Goodge Street came to view <!-- Page 229 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>the head, -and immediately recognized it as that of a widowed sister, Hannah -Brown, who had been missing since the previous Christmas Day.</p> - -<p>The murdered individual was thus identified. The next step was to -ascertain where and with whom she had last been seen. This brought -suspicion on to a certain James Greenacre, whom she was to have -married, and in whose company she had left her own lodgings to visit -his in Camberwell. The police wished to refer to Greenacre, but as -he was not forthcoming, a warrant was issued for his apprehension, -which was effected at Kennington on the 24th March. A woman named -Gale, who lived with him, was arrested at the same time. The prisoners -were examined at the Marylebone police court. Greenacre, a stout, -middle-aged man, wrapped in a brown greatcoat, assumed an air of -insolent bravado; but his despair must have been great, as was evident -from his attempt to strangle himself in the station-house. Suspicion -grew almost to a certainty as the evidence was unfolded. Mrs. Brown was -a washerwoman, supposed to be worth some money; hence Greenacre's offer -of marriage. She had realized all her effects, and brought them with -her furniture to Greenacre's lodgings. The two when married were to -emigrate to Hudson's Bay. Whether it was greed or a quarrel that drove -Greenacre to the desperate deed remains obscure. They were apparently -good friends when last seen together at a neighbour's, where they -seemed <!-- Page 230 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>"perfectly happy and sociable, and eager for the wedding day." -But Greenacre in his confession pretended that he and his intended had -quarrelled over her property or the want of it, and that in a moment -of anger he knocked her down. He thought he had killed her, and in his -terror began at once to consider how he might dispose of the body and -escape arrest. While she was senseless, but really still alive, he cut -off her head, and dismembered the body in the manner already described. -It is scarcely probable that he would have gone to this extremity if he -had had no previous evil intention, and the most probable inference is -that he inveigled Mrs. Brown to his lodgings with the set purpose of -taking her life.</p> - -<p>His measures for the disposal of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">corpus delicti</i> remind us of -those taken by Mrs. Hayes and her associates, or of Gardelle's frantic -efforts to conceal his crime. The most ghastly part of the story is -that which deals with his disposal of the head. This, wrapped up in -a silk handkerchief, he carried under his coat-flaps through the -streets, and afterwards on his cap in a crowded city omnibus. It was -not until he left the 'bus, and walked up by the Regent's Canal, that -he conceived the idea of throwing the head into the water. Another -day elapsed before he got rid of the rest of the body, all of which, -according to his own confession, made with the idea of exonerating Mrs. -Gale, he accomplished without her assistance. On the other hand, it was -adduced in evidence that Mrs. Gale had been at his lodgings the <!-- Page 231 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>very -day after the murder, and was seen to be busily engaged in washing down -the house with bucket and mop.</p> - -<p>Greenacre, when tried at the Old Bailey, admitted that he had been -guilty of manslaughter. While conversing with Mrs. Brown, he declared -the unfortunate woman was rocking herself to and fro in a chair; as she -leaned back he put his foot against the chair, and so tilted it over. -Mrs. Brown fell with it, and Greenacre, to his horror, found that she -was dead. But the medical evidence was clear that the decapitation had -been effected during life, and the jury, after a short deliberation, -without hesitation brought in a verdict of wilful murder. The woman -Gale was also found guilty, but sentence of death was passed only -on Greenacre. The execution was, as usual, attended by an immense -concourse, and Greenacre died amidst the loudest execrations. Gale was -sentenced to penal servitude for life.</p> - -<p>The gravest crimes continued at intervals to inspire the town with -horror, and concentrate public attention upon the gaol of Newgate, -and the murderers immured within its walls. Courvoisier's case -made a great stir. There was unusual atrocity in this murder of an -aged, infirm gentleman, a scion of the ducal house of Bedford, by -his confidential valet and personal attendant. Lord William Russell -lived alone in Norfolk Street, Park Lane. He was a widower, and -seventy-three years of age. One morning in May his lordship was found -dead in his <!-- Page 232 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>bed with his throat cut. The fact of the murder was first -discovered by the housemaid, who, on going down early, was surprised -to find the dining-room in a state of utter confusion; the furniture -turned upside down, the drawers of the escritoire open and rifled, a -bundle lying on the floor, as though thieves had been interrupted in -the act. The housemaid summoned the cook, and both went to call the -valet, Courvoisier, who came from his room ready dressed, a suspicious -circumstance, as he was always late in the morning. The housemaid -suggested that they should see if his lordship was all right, and the -three went to his bed-room. While Courvoisier opened the shutters, the -housemaid, approaching the bed, saw that the pillow was saturated with -blood.</p> - -<p>The discovery of the murdered man immediately followed. The -neighbourhood was alarmed, the police sent for, and a close inquiry -forthwith commenced. That Lord William Russell had committed suicide -was at once declared impossible. It was also clearly proved that -no forcible entry had been made into the house; the fresh marks of -violence upon the door had evidently been made inside, and not from -outside; moreover, the instruments, poker and chisel, by which they -had no doubt been effected, were found in the butler's pantry, used -by Courvoisier. The researches of the police soon laid bare other -suspicious facts. The bundle found in the dining-room contained, with -clothes, various small articles of plate and jewelry which a thief -would <!-- Page 233 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>probably have put into his pocket. Upstairs in the bed-room a -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">rouleaux</i> box for sovereigns had been broken open, also the jewel-box -and note-case, from the latter of which was abstracted a ten-pound note -known to have been in the possession of the deceased. His lordship's -watch was gone. Further suspicion was caused by the position of a book -and a wax candle by the bedside. The latter was so placed that it would -throw no light on the book, which was a "Life of Sir Samuel Romilly." -The intention of the real murderer to shift the crime to burglars was -evident although futile, and the police, feeling convinced that the -crime had been committed by some inmate of the house, took Courvoisier -into custody, and placed the two female servants under surveillance. -The valet's strange demeanour had attracted attention from the first. -He had hung over the body in a state of dreadful agitation, answering -no questions, and taking no part in the proceedings.</p> - -<p>Three days later a close search of the butler's pantry produced fresh -circumstantial evidence. Behind the skirting board several of his -lordship's rings were discovered; near it was his Waterloo medal, and -the above-mentioned ten-pound note. Further investigation was rewarded -by the discovery in the pantry of a split gold ring, used by Lord -William, to carry his keys on; next, and in the same place, a chased -gold key; and at last his lordship's watch was found secreted under -the leads of the sink. All this was evidence sufficient to warrant -<!-- Page 234 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>Courvoisier's committal for trial; but still he found friends, and a -liberal subscription was raised among the foreign servants in London -to provide funds for his defence. Courvoisier, when put on his trial, -pleaded not guilty; but on the second day the discovery of fresh -evidence, more particularly the recovery of some of Lord William's -stolen plate, induced the prisoner to make a full confession of his -crime to the lawyers who defended him. This placed them in a position -of much embarrassment. To have thrown up their brief would have been -to have secured Courvoisier's conviction. Mr. Phillips, who led in -the case, went to the other extreme, and in an impassioned address -implored the jury not to send an innocent man to the gallows. It will -be remembered that the question whether Mr. Phillips had not exceeded -the limits usually allowed to counsel was much debated at the time.</p> - -<p>The jury without hesitation found Courvoisier guilty, and he was -sentenced to death. The prisoner's demeanour had greatly changed during -the trial. Coolness amounting almost to effrontery gave way to hopeless -dejection. On his removal to Newgate after sentence, he admitted that -he had been justly convicted, and expressed great anxiety that his -fellow-servants should be relieved from all suspicion. Later in the -day he tried to commit suicide by cramming a towel down his throat, -but was prevented. Next morning he made a full confession in presence -of his attorney, and the governor, Mr. <!-- Page 235 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>Cope. In this he gave as the -motives of his crime a quarrel he had with his master, who threatened -to discharge him without a character. Lord William, according to the -valet, was of a peevish, difficult temper; he was annoyed with his -man for various small omissions and acts of forgetfulness, and on the -night of the murder had taken Courvoisier to task rather sharply. -Finally, on coming downstairs after bed-time, Lord William had found -Courvoisier in the dining-room. "What are you doing here?" asked his -lordship. "You can have no good intentions; you must quit my service -to-morrow morning." This seems to have decided Courvoisier, who took -a carving-knife from the side-board in the dining-room, went upstairs -to Lord William's bed-room, and drew the knife across his throat. "He -appeared to die instantly," said the murderer, in conclusion. His -account of his acts and movements after the deed varied so considerably -in the several documents he left behind, that too much reliance cannot -be placed upon his confession. His last statement contains the words, -"The public now think I am a liar, and they will not believe me when -I say the truth." This was no doubt the case, but this much truth -his confession may be taken to contain: that Courvoisier was idle, -discontented, ready to take offence, greedy of gain; that he could not -resist the opportunity of robbery offered him by his situation at Lord -William Russell's; that when vexed with his master he did not shrink -from <!-- Page 236 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>murder, both for revenge and to conceal his other crimes.</p> - -<p>Courvoisier wished to commit suicide in Newgate, but was prevented by -the vigilant supervision to which he was subjected while in gaol. The -attempt was to have been made by opening a vein and allowing himself -to bleed to death. The Sunday night before his execution he would not -go to bed when ordered. The governor insisted, but Courvoisier showed -great reluctance to strip. The order was, however, at length obeyed, -and the whole of the prisoner's clothes were minutely searched. In -the pocket of the coat Mr. Cope, the governor, found a neatly folded -cloth, and asked what it was for. Courvoisier admitted that he had -intended to bind it tightly round his arm and bleed himself to death -in the night. The next inquiry was how he hoped to open a vein. "With -a bit of sharpened stick picked out of the ordinary firewood." "Where -is it?" asked the governor. The prisoner replied that he had left it in -the mattress of which he had just been deprived. The bed was searched, -but no piece of sharpened wood was found. It was thought that it might -have been lost in changing the mattresses. The cloth above referred to -belonged to the inner seam of his trousers, which he had managed to -tear out. There is nothing to show that Courvoisier really contemplated -self-destruction.</p> - -<p>A murder which reproduced many of the features of that committed by -Greenacre soon followed, and <!-- Page 237 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>excited the public mind even more than -that of Courvoisier's. Daniel Good's crime might have remained long -undiscovered but for his own careless stupidity. He was coachman to -a gentleman at Roehampton. One day he went into a pawnbroker's at -Wandsworth, and bought a pair of breeches on credit. At the same time -he was seen to steal and secrete a pair of trousers. The shop-boy gave -information. Good was followed to his stables by a policeman, but -obstinately denied the theft. The policeman insisted on searching the -premises, at which Good displayed some uneasiness. This increased when -the officer, accompanied by two others, a neighbour and a bailiff, -entered one of the stables. Good now offered to go to Wandsworth and -satisfy the pawnbroker. Just at this moment, however, the searchers -found concealed under two trusses of hay a woman's headless and -dismembered trunk. At the constable's cry of alarm Good rushed from -the stable and locked the door behind him. Some time elapsed before -the imprisoned party could force open the doors, and by then the -fugitive had escaped. Medical assistance having been summoned, it was -ascertained how the dismemberment had been effected. At the same time -an overpowering odour attracted them to the adjoining harness-room, -where the missing remains were raked out half consumed in the ashes of -a wood fire. In the same room a large axe and saw were found covered -with blood.</p> - -<p>Inquiry into the character of Good exposed him <!-- Page 238 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>as a loose liver, who -"kept company" with several women. One called his sister, but supposed -to be his wife, had occupied a room in South Street, Manchester -Square, with a son of Good's by a former wife. Another wife, real or -fictitious, existed in Spitalfields, and evidence was given of close -relation between Good and a third woman, a girl named Butcher, residing -at Woolwich. The victim was the first of these three. Good had told -her, much to her perturbation, that she was to move from South Street -to Roehampton, and one day he fetched her. They were seen together on -Barnes Common, and again in Putney Park Lane, where they were talking -loud and angrily. The poor creature was never seen again alive. The -actual method of the murder was never exactly ascertained. Good himself -remained at large for some weeks. He had tramped as far as Tunbridge, -where he obtained work as a bricklayer's labourer; he there gave -satisfaction for industry, but he was taciturn, and would hold no -converse with his fellows. The woman where he lodged noticed that he -was very restless at night, moaning and sighing much. Detection came -unexpectedly. He was recognized by an ex-policeman who had known him -at Roehampton, and immediately arrested. In his effects were found the -clothes he had on at the time of his escape from the stables, and under -the jacket he was wearing was a piece of a woman's calico apron stained -with blood, which he had used to save the pressure on his shoulder -by the <!-- Page 239 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>hod. Good was committed to Newgate, and tried at the Central -Criminal Court before a crowded court. He made a rambling defence, -ending by saying, "Good ladies and gentlemen all, I have a great deal -more to say, but I am so bad I cannot say it." The case was clearly -proved against him, and he was condemned, sentenced, and duly executed.</p> - -<p>Hocker's murder is in its way interesting, as affording another proof -of the extraordinary way in which the culprit returned to the scene of -his guilt. The cries of his victim, a Mr. Delarue, brought passers-by -and policemen to the spot, a lonely place near a dead wall beyond -Belsize Hall, Hampstead, but too late to give substantial aid. While -the body lay there still warm, battered and bleeding from the cruel -blows inflicted upon him by his cowardly assailant, a man came by -singing. He entered into conversation with the policemen, and learned, -as it seemed for the first time, what had happened. His remark was, "It -is a nasty job;" he took hold of the dead hand, and confessed that he -felt "queer" at the shocking sight. This sight was his own handiwork, -yet he could not overcome the strange fascination it had for him, and -remained by the side of the corpse till the stretcher came. Even then -he followed it as far as Belsize Lane. It was here that the others -engaged in their dismal office of removing the dead first got a good -look at the stranger's face. He wanted a light for a cigar, and got it -from a lantern which was lifted up and fully <!-- Page 240 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>betrayed his features. It -was noticed that he wore a mackintosh. Next day the police, in making -a careful search of the scene of the murder, picked up a coat-button, -which afterwards played an important part in the identification of -the murderer. A letter, which afforded an additional clue, was also -found in the pocket of the deceased. Still it was many weeks before -any arrest was made. In the meantime the police were not idle. It -came out by degrees that the person who had been seen in Belsize Lane -on the night the body was found was a friend of the deceased. His -name was Hocker; he was by trade a ladies' shoemaker; and it was also -ascertained that after the day of the murder he was flush of money. He -was soon afterwards arrested on suspicion, and a search of his lodgings -brought to light several garments saturated with blood; a coat among -them much torn and stained, with three buttons missing, one of which -corresponded with that picked up at Hampstead. The letter found in -the pocket of the deceased was sealed with a wafer marked F, and many -of the same sort were found in the possession of the accused. This -was enough to obtain a committal, after several remands; but the case -contained elements of doubt, and the evidence at the trial was entirely -circumstantial. A witness deposed to meeting Hocker, soon after the -cries of murder were heard, running at a dog-trot into London, and -others swore that they plainly recognized him as the man seen soon -afterwards in <!-- Page 241 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>the lane. A woman whom he called on the same evening -declared he had worn a mackintosh, his coat was much torn, there was a -stain of blood on his shirt-cuff, and he was in possession, the first -time to her knowledge, of a watch. This was Delarue's watch, fully -identified as such, which Hocker told his brother Delarue had given him -the morning of the murder.</p> - -<p>These were damnatory facts which well supported the prosecution. The -prisoner made an elaborate defence, in which he sought to vilify the -character of the deceased as the seducer of an innocent girl to whom -he (Hocker) had been fondly attached. When her ruin was discovered -her brother panted for revenge. Hocker, whose skill in counterfeiting -handwriting was known, was asked to fabricate a letter making an -assignation with Delarue in a lonely part of Hampstead. Hocker and -the brother went to the spot, where the latter left him to meet his -sister's seducer alone. Soon afterwards Hocker heard cries of "murder," -and proceeding to where they came from, found Delarue dead, slain -by the furious brother. Hocker was so overcome, feeling himself the -principal cause of the tragedy, that he rushed to a slaughter-house -in Hampstead and purposely stained his clothes with blood. Such an -extravagant defence did not weigh with judge or jury; the first -summed up dead against the prisoner, and the latter, after retiring -for ten minutes, found him guilty. Hocker's conduct in Newgate while -under <!-- Page 242 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>sentence of death was most extraordinary. He drew up several -long statements, containing narratives purely fictitious, imputing -crimes to his victim, and repeating his line of defence, that Delarue -had suffered by the hands of imaginary outraged brothers acting as -the avengers of females deeply injured by him. Hocker made several -pretended confessions and revelations, all of which were proved to be -absolutely false by the police on inquiry. His demeanour was a strange -compound of wickedness, falsehood, and deceit. But at the fatal hour -his hardihood forsook him, and he was almost insensible when taken out -of his cell for execution. Restoratives were applied, but he was in a -fainting condition when tied, and had to be supported by the assistant -executioner while Calcraft adjusted the noose.</p> - -<p>There was an epidemic of murder in the United Kingdom about 1848-9. -In November of the first-named year occurred the wholesale slaughter -of the Jermys in their house, Stanfield Hall, by the miscreant Rush. -Soon afterwards, in Gloucestershire, a maidservant, Sarah Thomas, -murdered her mistress, an aged woman, by beating out her brains with a -stone. Next year John Gleeson Wilson, at Liverpool, murdered a woman, -Ann Henrichson, also a maidservant and two children; while in Ireland -a wife dashed out her husband's brains with a hammer. London did not -escape the contagion, and prominent among the detestable crimes of -the <!-- Page 243 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>period stands that of the Mannings at Bermondsey. These great -criminals suffered at Horsemonger Lane Gaol, but they were tried at -the Central Criminal Court, and were for some time inmates of Newgate. -Their victim was a man named Patrick O'Connor, a Custom-House gauger, -who had been a suitor of Marie de Roux before she became Mrs. Manning. -Marie de Roux up to the time of her marriage had been in service as -lady's-maid to Lady Blantyre, daughter of the Duchess of Sutherland, -and Manning hoped to get some small Government appointment through -his wife's interest. He had failed in this as well as in the business -of a publican, which he had at one time adopted. After the marriage a -close intimacy was still maintained between O'Connor and the Mannings. -He lived at Mile End, whence he walked often to call at No. 3, Minver -Place, Bermondsey, the residence of his old love. O'Connor was a -man of substance. He had long followed the profitable trade of a -money-lender, and by dint of usurious interest on small sums advanced -to needy neighbours, had amassed as much as ten thousand pounds. His -wealth was well known to "Maria," as he called Mrs. Manning, who made -several ineffectual attempts to get money out of him. At last this -fiendish woman made up her mind to murder O'Connor and appropriate -all his possessions. Her husband, to whom she coolly confided her -intention, a heavy brutish fellow, was yet aghast at his wife's -resolve, and tried hard to dissuade her <!-- Page 244 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>from her bad purpose. In his -confession after sentence he declared that she plied him well with -brandy at this period, and that during the whole time he was never in -his right senses. Meanwhile this woman, unflinching in her cold, bloody -determination, carefully laid all her plans for the consummation of the -deed.</p> - -<p>One fine afternoon in August, O'Connor was met walking in the direction -of Bermondsey. He was dressed with particular care, as he was to dine -at the Mannings, and meet friends, one a young lady. He was seen -afterwards smoking and talking with his hosts in their back parlour, -and never seen again alive. It came out in the husband's confession -that Mrs. Manning induced O'Connor to go down to the kitchen to wash -his hands, that she followed him to the basement, that she stood behind -him as he stood near the open grave she herself had dug for him, and -which he mistook for a drain, and that while he was speaking to her she -put the muzzle of the pistol close to the back of his head and shot him -down. She ran upstairs, told her husband, made him go down and look -at her handiwork, and as O'Connor was not quite dead, Manning gave -the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup de grâce</i> with a crowbar. After this Mrs. Manning changed -her dress and went off in a cab to O'Connor's lodgings, which, having -possessed herself of the murdered man's keys, she rifled from end to -end. Returning to her own home, where Manning meantime had been calmly -smoking and talking to the neighbours <!-- Page 245 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>over the basement wall, the -corpse lying just inside the kitchen all the while, the two set to -work to strip the body and hide it under the stones of the floor. This -job was not completed till the following day, as the hole had to be -enlarged, and the only tool they had was a dust-shovel. A quantity of -quicklime was thrown in with the body to destroy all identification. -This was on a Thursday evening. For the remainder of that week and -part of the next the murderers stayed in the house, and occupied the -kitchen, close to the remains of their victim. On the Sunday Mrs. -Manning roasted a goose at this same kitchen fire, and ate it with -relish in the afternoon. This cold-blooded indifference after the event -was only outdone by the premeditation of this horrible murder. The hole -must have been excavated and the quicklime purchased quite three weeks -before O'Connor met his death, and during that time he must frequently -have stood or sat over his own grave.</p> - -<p>Discovery of the murder came in this wise. O'Connor, a punctual and -well-conducted official, was at once missed at the London Docks. On the -third day his friends began to inquire for him, and at their request -two police officers were sent to Bermondsey to inquire for him at the -Mannings, with whom it was well known that he was very intimate. The -Mannings had seen or heard nothing of him, of course. As O'Connor still -did not turn up, the police after a couple of days returned to <!-- Page 246 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>Minver -Place. The house was empty, bare and stripped of all its furniture, and -its former occupants had decamped. The circumstance was suspicious, and -a search was at once made of the whole premises. In the back kitchen -one of the detectives remarked that the cement between certain stones -looked lighter than the rest, and on trying it with a knife, he found -that it was soft and new, while elsewhere it was set and hard. The -stones were at once taken up; beneath them was a layer of fresh mortar, -beneath that a lot of loose earth, amongst which a stocking was turned -up, and presently a human toe. Six inches lower the body of O'Connor -was uncovered. He was lying on his face, his legs tied up to his hips -so as to allow of the body fitting into the hole. The lime had done its -work so rapidly that the features would have been indistinguishable but -for the prominent chin and a set of false teeth.</p> - -<p>The corpse settled all doubts, and the next point was to lay hands -upon the Mannings. It was soon ascertained that the wife had gone off -in a cab with a quantity of luggage. Part of this she had deposited to -be left till called for at one station, while she had gone herself to -another, that at Euston Square. At the first, the boxes were impounded, -opened, and found to contain many of O'Connor's effects. At the second, -exact information was obtained of Mrs. Manning's movements. She had -gone to Edinburgh. A telegraphic message, then newly adapted to the -purposes of criminal detection, <!-- Page 247 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>advised the Edinburgh police of the -whole affair, and within an hour an answer was telegraphed stating -that Mrs. Manning was in custody. She had been to brokers to negotiate -the sale of certain foreign railway stock, with which they had been -warned from London not to deal, and they had given information to the -police. Her arrest was planned, and, when the telegram arrived from -London, completed. An examination of her boxes disclosed a quantity of -O'Connor's property. Mrs. Manning was transferred to London and lodged -in the Horsemonger Lane Gaol, where her husband soon afterwards joined -her. He had fled to Jersey, where he was recognized and arrested. Each -tried to throw the blame on the other; Manning declared his wife had -committed the murder, Mrs. Manning indignantly denying the charge.</p> - -<p>The prisoners were in due course transferred to Newgate, to be put -upon their trial at the Central Criminal Court. A great number of -distinguished people assembled as usual at the Old Bailey on the day -of trial. The Mannings were arraigned together; the husband standing -at one of the front corners of the dock, his wife at the other end. -Manning, who was dressed in black, appeared to be a heavy, bull-necked, -repulsive-looking man, with a very fair complexion and light hair. Mrs. -Manning was not without personal charms; her face was comely, she had -dark hair and good eyes, and was above the middle height, yet inclined -to be stout. <!-- Page 248 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>She was smartly dressed in a plaid shawl, a white lace -cap; her hair was dressed in long <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">crêpe</i> bands. She had lace ruffles -at her wrist, and wore primrose-coloured kid gloves. The case rested -upon the facts which have been already set forth, and was proved to the -satisfaction of the jury, who brought in a verdict of guilty. Manning, -when sentence of death was passed on him, said nothing; but Mrs. -Manning, speaking in a foreign accent, addressed the court with great -fluency and vehemence. She complained that she had no justice; there -was no law for her, she had found no protection either from judges, the -prosecutor, or her husband. She had not been treated like a Christian, -but like a wild beast of the forest. She declared that the money found -in her possession had been sent her from abroad; that O'Connor had been -more to her than her husband, that she ought to have married him. It -was against common sense to charge her with murdering the only friend -she had in the world: the culprit was really her husband, who killed -O'Connor out of jealousy and revengeful feelings. When the judge -assumed the black cap Mrs. Manning became still more violent, shouting, -"No, no, I will not stand it! You ought to be ashamed of yourselves!" -and would have left the dock had not Mr. Cope, the governor of Newgate, -restrained her. After judgment was passed, she repeatedly cried out -"Shame!" and stretching out her hand, she gathered up a quantity of the -rue which, following <!-- Page 249 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>ancient custom dating from the days of the gaol -fever, was strewn in front of the dock, and sprinkled it towards the -bench with a contemptuous gesture.</p> - -<p>On being removed to Newgate from the court Mrs. Manning became -perfectly furious. She uttered loud imprecations, cursing judge, jury, -barristers, witnesses, and all who stood around. Her favourite and -most often-repeated expression was, "D—n seize you all." They had to -handcuff her by force against the most violent resistance, and still -she raged and stormed, shaking her clenched and manacled hands in the -officers' faces. From Newgate the Mannings were taken in separate -cabs to Horsemonger Lane Gaol. On this journey her manner changed -completely. She became flippant, joked with the officers, asked how -they liked her "resolution" in the dock, and expressed the utmost -contempt for her husband, whom she never intended to acknowledge or -speak to again. Later her mood changed to abject despair. On reaching -the condemned cell she threw herself upon the floor and shrieked in -an hysterical agony of tears. After this, until the day of execution, -she recovered her spirits, and displayed reckless effrontery, -mocking at the chaplain, and turning a deaf ear to the counsels of -a benevolent lady who came to visit. Now she abused the jury, now -called Manning a vagabond, and through all ate heartily at every meal, -slept soundly at nights, and talked with cheerfulness on almost any -subject. Nevertheless, she <!-- Page 250 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>attempted to commit suicide by driving -her nails, purposely left long, into her throat. She was discovered -just as she was getting black in the face. Manning's demeanour was -more in harmony with his situation, and the full confession he made -elucidated all dark and uncertain points in connection with the crime. -The actual execution, which took place at another prison than Newgate, -is rather beyond the scope of this work. But it may be mentioned that -the concourse was so enormous that it drew down the well-merited and -trenchant disapproval of Charles Dickens, who wrote to the <cite>Times</cite> in -the following words: "A sight so inconceivably awful as the wickedness -and levity of the immense crowd collected at the execution this morning -could be imagined by no man, and presented by no heathen land under -the sun. The horrors of the gibbet, and of the crime which brought -the wretched murderers to it, faded in my mind before the atrocious -bearing, looks and language of the assembled spectators. When I came -upon the scene at midnight, the shrillness of the cries and howls that -were raised from time to time, denoting that they came from a concourse -of boys and girls already assembled in the best places, made my blood -run cold." It will be in the memory of many that Mrs. Manning appeared -on the scaffold in a black satin dress, which was bound tightly round -her waist. This preference brought the costly stuff into disrepute, and -its unpopularity lasted for nearly thirty years.</p> - - -<hr class="footnotes" /> -<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217:1_6" id="Footnote_217:1_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217:1_6"><span class="label">[217:1]</span></a> At Liverpool, in 1842, there was a case of abduction, -and the well-known case of Mr. Carden and Miss Arbuthnot in Ireland -occurred as late as 1854.</p></div> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><!-- Page 251 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<br /> - -<small>LATER RECORDS</small></h2> -</div> - - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">Later records of crimes—First private execution under the -new law—Poisoning, revived and more terrible—Palmer's -case—His imitators—Dove—Dr. Smethurst—Catherine -Wilson—Piracy and murder—The "Flowery Land"—Arrest of the -mutineers—Their trial and sentence—Murder of Mr. Briggs -in a railway carriage—Pursuit of murderer and his arrest -in New York—Müller's conviction—Confesses guilt—A forged -pardon—The Muswell Hill murder—Bidwell brothers defraud the -Bank of England of £100,000—Sentenced to penal servitude -for life—Pentonville erected—The best type of prison -construction—Gradual reformation in Newgate—The new prison at -Holloway—The end of Newgate.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Executions long continued to be in public, in spite of remonstrance -and reprobation. The old prejudices, such as that which enlisted Dr. -Johnson on the side of the Tyburn procession, still lingered and -prevented any change. It was thought that capital punishment would lose -its deterrent effect if it ceased to be public, and the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">raison d'être</i> -of the penalty, which in principle so many opposed, would be gone. This -line of argument prevailed over the manifest horrors of the spectacle.</p> - -<p>Already the urgent necessity for abolishing <!-- Page 252 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>public executions had -been brought before the House of Commons by Mr. Hibbert, and the -question, as part of the whole subject of capital punishment, had been -referred to a royal commission in January of 1864. Full evidence was -taken on all points, and on that regarding public executions there -was a great preponderance of opinion towards their abolition, yet the -witnesses were not unanimous. Some of the judges would have retained -the public spectacle; the ordinary of Newgate was not certain that -public executions were not the best. Another distinguished witness -feared that any secrecy in the treatment of the condemned would invest -them with a new and greater interest, which was much to be deprecated. -Foreign witnesses, too, were in favour of publicity. On the other hand, -Lords Cranworth and Wensleydale recommended private executions, as did -Mr. Spencer Walpole, M. P. Sir George Grey thought there was a growing -feeling in favour of executions within the prison precincts. Colonel -(Sir Edmund) Henderson was strongly in favour of them, based on his own -experience in Western Australia. He not only thought them likely to be -more deterrent, but believed that a public ceremony destroyed the whole -value of an execution. Other officials, great lawyers, governors of -prisons, and chaplains supported this view. The only doubts expressed -were as to the sufficiency of the safeguards, as to the certainty -of death and its subsequent publication. But these, it was thought, -might <!-- Page 253 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>be provided by the admission of the press and the holding of a -coroner's inquest.</p> - -<p>Duly impressed with the weight of evidence in favour of abolition, -the commission recommended that death sentences should be carried -out within the gaol, "under such regulations as might be considered -necessary to prevent abuses and satisfy the public that the law had -been complied with." But it is curious to note that there were several -dissentients among the commissioners to this paragraph of the report. -The judge of the Admiralty Court, the Right Hon. Stephen Lushington, -the Right Hon. James Moncrieff, Lord Advocate, Mr. Charles Neate, -Mr. William Ewart, and last, but not least, Mr. John Bright declared -that they were not prepared to agree to the resolution respecting -private executions. Nevertheless, in the very next session a bill was -introduced by Mr. Hibbert, M. P., and accepted by the Government, -providing for the future carrying out of executions within prisons. It -was read for the first time in March, 1866, but did not become law till -1868.</p> - -<p>The last public execution in front of Newgate was that of the Fenian -Michael Barrett, who was convicted of complicity in the Clerkenwell -explosion, intended to effect the release of Burke and Casey from -Clerkenwell prison, by which many persons lost their lives. Unusual -precautions were taken upon this occasion, as some fresh outrage -was apprehended. There was no interference with the <!-- Page 254 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>crowd, which -collected as usual, although not to the customary extent. But Newgate -and its neighbourhood were carefully held by the police, both city and -metropolitan. In the houses opposite the prison numbers of detectives -mixed with the spectators; inside the gaol was Colonel Frazer, the -chief commissioner of the city police, and at no great distance, -although in the background, troops were held in readiness to act if -required. Everything passed off quietly, however, and Calcraft, who -had been threatened with summary retribution if he executed Barrett, -carried out the sentence without mishap. The sufferer was stolid and -reticent to the last.</p> - -<p>The first private execution under the new law took place within the -precincts of Maidstone Gaol. The sufferer was a porter on the London, -Chatham, and Dover railway, sentenced to death for shooting the -station-master at Dover. The ceremony, which was witnessed by only a -few officials and representatives of the press, was performed with the -utmost decency and decorum. The fact that the execution was to take -place within the privacy of the gloomy walls, a fact duly advertised -as completed by the hoisting of the black flag over the gaol, had -undoubtedly a solemn, impressive effect upon those outside. The same -was realized in the first private execution within Newgate, that of -Alexander Mackay, who murdered his mistress at Norton Folgate by -beating her with a rolling-pin and furnace-rake, and who expiated his -crime on the <!-- Page 255 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>8th September, 1868. A more marked change from the old -scene can hardly be conceived. Instead of the roar of the brutalized -crowd, the officials spoke in whispers; there was but little moving -to and fro. Almost absolute silence prevailed until the great bell -began to toll its deep note, and broke the stillness with its regular -and monotonous clangour, and the ordinary, in a voice trembling with -emotion, read the burial service aloud. Mackay's fortitude, which had -been great, broke down at the supreme moment before the horror of the -stillness, the awful impressiveness of the scene in which he was the -principal actor. No time was lost in carrying out the dread ceremony; -but it was not completed without some of the officials turning sick, -and the moment it was over, all who could were glad to escape from the -last act of the ghastly drama at which they had assisted.</p> - -<p>Private executions at their first introduction were not popular with -the Newgate officials, and for intelligible reasons. The change added -greatly to the responsibilities of the governor and his subordinates. -Hitherto the public had seemed to assist at the ceremony; the moment -too that the condemned man had passed through the debtors' door on -to the scaffold the prison had done with him, and the great outside -world shared in the completion of the sacrifice. This feeling was the -stronger because all the ghastly paraphernalia, the gallows itself -and the process of erecting and removing it, rested with the <!-- Page 256 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>city -architect, and not with the prison officials. Moreover, after the -execution, under the old system, the latter had only to receive the -body for burial after it had been cut down by the hangman, and placed -decently in a shell by the workmen who removed the gallows. Under -the new system the whole of the arrangements from first to last fell -upon the officers. It was they who formed the chief part of the small -select group of spectators; upon them devolved the painful duty of -cutting down the body and preparing for the inquest. All that the -hangman, whoever he may be, does under the new regime is to unhook -the halter and remove the pinioning straps. The interment in a shell -filled with quicklime in the passage-way leading to the Old Bailey -is also a part of the duty of the prison officials. This strange -burial-ground is one of the most ghastly of the remaining "sights" -in Newgate. It was sometimes used as an exercising yard, and for the -greater security of prisoners it is roofed in with iron bars, which -gives it, at least overhead, the aspect of a huge cage. Underfoot and -upon the walls roughly cut into the stones, are single initial letters, -the brief epitaphs of those who lie below. As this burial-ground leads -to the adjacent Central Criminal Court, accused murderers, on going -to and returning from trial, literally walked over what, in case of -conviction, would be their own graves.</p> - -<p>The older officers, with several of whom I have conversed, have thus -had unusual opportunities of <!-- Page 257 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>watching the demeanour of murderers -both before trial and after sentence. All, as a rule, unless poignant -remorse has brought a desire to court their richly-merited retribution, -are buoyed up with hope to the last. There is always the chance -of a flaw in the indictment, of a missing witness, or extenuating -circumstances. Even when in the condemned cell, with a shameful death -within measurable distance, many cling still to life, expecting much -from the intercession of friends or the humanitarianism of the age. -All almost without exception sleep soundly at night, except the -first after sentence, when the first shock of the verdict and the -solemn notification of the impending blow keeps nearly all awake, or -at least disturbs their night's rest. But the uneasiness soon wears -off. The second night sleep comes readily, and is sound; many of the -most abandoned murderers snore peacefully their eight hours, even -on the night immediately preceding execution. All too have a fairly -good appetite, and eat with relish up to the last moment. A few go -further, and are almost gluttonous. Giovanni Lanni, the Italian boy -who murdered a Frenchwoman in the Haymarket, and was arrested on board -ship just as he was about to leave the country, had a little spare -cash, which he devoted entirely to the purchase of extra food. He ate -constantly and voraciously after sentence, as though eager to cram -as many meals as possible into the few hours still left him to live. -Jeffrey, who <!-- Page 258 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>murdered his own child, an infant of six, by hanging him -in a cellar in Seven Dials, called for a roast duck directly he entered -the condemned cell. The request was not granted, as the old custom of -allowing capital convicts whatever they asked for in the way of food -has not been the rule in Newgate. The diet of the condemned is the -ordinary diet of the prison, but to which additions are sometimes made, -chiefly of stimulants, if deemed necessary, by the medical officer -of the gaol. The craving for tobacco which so dominates the habitual -smoker often leads the convicted to plead hard for a last smoke. As -a special favour Wainwright was allowed a cigar the night before -execution, which he smoked in the prison yard, walking up and down with -the governor, Mr. Sydney Smith.</p> - -<p>Wainwright's demeanour was one of reckless effrontery steadily -maintained to the last. His conversation turned always upon his -influence over the weaker sex, and the extraordinary success he had -achieved. No woman could resist him, he calmly assured Mr. Smith that -night as they walked together, and he recounted his villainies one -by one. His effrontery was only outdone by his cool contempt for the -consolations of religion. The man who had made a pious life a cloak for -his misdeeds, the once exemplary young man and indefatigable Sunday -school teacher, went impenitent to the gallows. The only sign of -feeling he showed was in asking to be allowed to choose the hymns on -the <!-- Page 259 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>Sunday the condemned sermon was preached in the prison chapel, and -this was probably only that he might hear the singing of a lady with a -magnificent voice who generally attended the prison services. During -the singing of these hymns Wainwright fainted, but whether from real -emotion or the desire to make a sensation was never exactly known. On -the fatal morning he came gaily out of his cell, nodded pleasantly to -the governor, who stood just opposite, and then walked briskly towards -the execution shed, smiling as he went along. There was a smile on -his face when it was last seen, and just as the terrible white cap -was drawn over it. Wainwright's execution was within the gaol, but -only nominally private. No less than sixty-seven persons were present, -admitted by special permission of the sheriff. Rumour even went so far -as to assert that among the spectators were several women, disguised -in male habiliments; but the story was never substantiated, and we may -hope that it rested only on the idle gossip of the day.</p> - -<p>Many, like Wainwright, were calm and imperturbable throughout their -trying ordeal. Catherine Wilson, the poisoner, was reserved and -reticent to the last, expressing no contrition, but also no fear—a -tall, gaunt, repulsive-looking woman, who no more shrank from cowardly, -secret crimes than from the penalty they entailed. Kate Webster, who -was tried at the Central Criminal Court, and passed through Newgate, -although she suffered at <!-- Page 260 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>Wandsworth, is remembered at the former -prison as a defiant, brutal creature who showed no remorse, but was -subject to fits of ungovernable passion, when she broke out into the -most appalling language. The man Marley displayed fortitude of a less -repulsive kind. He acknowledged his guilt from the first. When the -sheriff offered him counsel for his defence, he declined, saying he -wished to make none—"the witnesses for the prosecution spoke the -truth." During the trial and after sentence he remained perfectly cool -and collected. When visited one day in the condemned cell, just as St. -Sepulchre's clock was striking, he looked up and said laughingly, "Go -along, clock; come along, gallows." He tripped up the chapel-stairs to -hear the condemned sermon, and came out with cheerful alacrity on the -morning he was to die.</p> - -<p>Some condemned convicts converse but little with the warders who -have them unceasingly in charge. Others talk freely enough on -various topics, but principally upon their own cases. When vanity is -strongly developed there is the keen anxiety to hear what is being -said about them outside. One was vexed to think that his victims had -a finer funeral than he would have. The only subject another showed -any interest in was the theatres and the new pieces that were being -produced. A third, Christian Sattler, laughed and jested with the -officers about "Jack Ketch," who, through the postponement of the -execution, would lose his Christmas <!-- Page 261 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>dinner. When they brought in the -two watchers to relieve guard one night, Sattler said, "Two fresh -men! May I speak to them? Yes! I must caution you," he went on to the -warders, "not to go to sleep, or I shall be off through that little -hole," pointing to an aperture for ventilating the cell. On the morning -of execution he asked how far it was to the gallows, and was told it -was quite close. "Then I shall not wear my coat," he cried; "Jack Ketch -shall not have it," being under the erroneous impression that the -convict's clothes were still the executioner's perquisite.</p> - -<p>Often the convicts give way to despair. They are too closely watched to -be allowed to do themselves much mischief, or suicides would probably -be more frequent. But it is neither easy to obtain the instruments of -self-destruction nor to elude the vigilance of their guard. Miller, the -Chelsea murderer, who packed his victim's body in a box, and tried to -send it by parcels delivery, tried to kill himself, but ineffectively, -by running his head against his cell wall. A few other cases of the -kind have occurred, but they have been rare of late years, whether in -Newgate or elsewhere.</p> - -<p>The crime of poisoning has always been viewed with peculiar loathing -and terror in this country. It will be remembered that as far back as -the reign of Henry VIII a new and most cruel penalty was devised for -the punishment of the Bishop of Rochester's cook, who had poisoned his -master and many <!-- Page 262 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>of his dependents. Sir Thomas Overbury was undoubtedly -poisoned by Lord Rochester in the reign of James I, and it is hinted -that James himself nearly fell a victim to a nefarious attempt of the -Duke of Buckingham. But secret poisoning on a wholesale scale such -as was practised in Italy and France was happily never popularized -in England. The well-known and lethal aqua Toffania, so called after -its inventress, a Roman woman named Toffania, and which was so widely -adopted by ladies anxious to get rid of their husbands, was never -introduced into this country. Its admission was probably checked by -the increased vigilance at the custom houses, the necessity for which -was urged by Mr. Addison, when Secretary of State, in 1717. The cases -of poisoning in the British calendars are rare, nor indeed was the -guilt of the accused always clearly established. It is quite possible -that Catherine Blandy, who poisoned her father at the instigation of -her lover, was ignorant of the destructive character of the powders, -probably arsenic, which she administered. Captain Donellan, who was -convicted of poisoning his brother-in-law, Sir Theodosius Broughton, -and executed for it, would probably have had the benefit in these -days of the doubts raised at his trial. A third case, more especially -interesting to us as having passed through Newgate, was that of Eliza -Fenning, who was convicted of an attempt to poison a whole family by -putting arsenic in the dumplings she had prepared <!-- Page 263 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>for them. The charge -rested entirely on circumstantial evidence, and as Fenning, although -convicted and executed, protested her innocence in the most solemn -manner to the last, the justice of the sentence was doubted at the -time. Yet it was clearly proved that the dumplings contained arsenic, -that she, and she alone, had made the dough, that arsenic was within -her reach in the house, that she had had a quarrel with her mistress, -and that the latter with all others who tasted the dumplings were -similarly attacked, although no one died.</p> - -<p>The crime of poisoning is essentially one which will be most prevalent -in a high state of civilization, when the spread of scientific -knowledge places nefarious means at the disposal of many, instead of -limiting them, as in the days of the Borgias and Brinvilliers, to -the specially informed and unscrupulously powerful few. The first -intimation conveyed to society of the new terror which threatened -it was in the arrest and arraignment of William Palmer, a medical -practitioner, charged with doing to death persons who relied upon his -professional skill. The case contained elements of much uncertainty, -and yet it was so essential to the interests and the due protection -of the public that the fullest and fairest inquiry should be made, -that the trial was transferred to the Central Criminal Court, under -the authority of an Act passed for this purpose, known as the Trial -of Offences Act, and sometimes as Lord Campbell's Act. That the -administration <!-- Page 264 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>of justice should never be interfered with by local -prejudice or local feeling is obviously of paramount importance, and -the powers granted by this Act have been frequently put in practice -since. The trial of Catherine Winsor, the baby farmer, was thus brought -to the Central Criminal Court from Exeter assizes, and that of the -Stauntons from Maidstone.</p> - -<p>Palmer's trial caused the most intense excitement. The direful -suspicions which surrounded the case filled the whole country with -uneasiness and misgiving, and the deepest anxiety was felt that -the crime, if crime there had been, should be brought home to its -perpetrator. The Central Criminal Court was crowded to suffocation. -Great personages occupied seats upon the bench; the rest of the -available space was allotted by ticket, to secure which the greatest -influence was necessary. People came to stare at the supposed -cold-blooded prisoner; with morbid curiosity to scan his features and -watch his demeanour through the shifting, nicely-balanced phases of his -protracted trial. Palmer, who was only thirty-one at the time of his -trial, was in appearance short and stout, with a round head covered -rather scantily with light sandy hair. His skin was extraordinarily -fair, his cheeks fresh and ruddy; altogether his face, though -commonplace, was not exactly ugly; there was certainly nothing in it -which indicated cruel cunning or deliberate truculence. His features -were not careworn, but <!-- Page 265 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>rather set, and he looked older than his age. -Throughout his trial he preserved an impassive countenance, but he -clearly took a deep interest in all that passed. Although the strain -lasted fourteen days, he showed no signs of exhaustion, either physical -or mental. On returning to gaol each day he talked freely and without -reserve to the warders in charge of him, chiefly on incidents in the -day's proceedings. He was confident to the very last that it would be -impossible to find him guilty; even after sentence, and until within -a few hours of execution, he was buoyed up with the hope of reprieve. -The conviction that he would escape had taken so firm a hold of him, -that he steadily refused to confess his guilt lest it should militate -against his chances. In the condemned cell he frequently repeated, "I -go to my death a murdered man." He made no distinct admissions even on -the scaffold; but when the chaplain at the last moment exhorted him to -confess, he made use of the remarkable words, "If it is necessary for -my soul's sake to confess this murder (that of Cook, for which he was -tried and sentenced to death), I ought also to confess the others: I -mean my wife and my brother's." Yet he was silent when specifically -pressed to confess that he had killed his wife and his brother.</p> - -<p>Palmer was ably defended, but the weight of evidence was clearly -with the prosecution, led by Sir Alexander Cockburn. A government -prosecution was instituted, and Palmer was brought to <!-- Page 266 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>Newgate for -trial at the Central Criminal Court. There was not much reserve about -him when there. He frequently declared before and during the trial that -it would be impossible to find him guilty. He never actually said that -he was not guilty, but he was confident he would not be convicted. He -relied on the absence of the strychnia. But the chain of circumstantial -evidence was strong enough to satisfy the jury, who agreed to their -verdict in an hour. At the last moment Palmer tossed a bit of paper -over to his counsel, on which he had written, "I think there will be -a verdict of 'Not' Guilty." Even after the death sentence had been -passed upon him he clung to the hope that the Government would grant -him a reprieve. To the last, therefore, he played the part of a man -wrongfully convicted, and did not abandon hope even when the high -sheriff had told him there was no possibility of a reprieve, within a -few hours of execution. He suffered at Stafford in front of the gaol.</p> - -<p>Palmer speedily found imitators. Within a few weeks occurred the Leeds -poisoning case, in which the murderer undoubtedly was inspired by the -facts made public at Palmer's trial. Dove, a fiendish brute, found -from the evidence in that case that he could kill his wife, whom he -hated, with exquisite torture, and with a poison that would leave, as -he thought, no trace. In the latter hope he was happily disappointed. -But as this case is beyond my subject, I merely mention it as one -of the group <!-- Page 267 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>already referred to. Three years later came the case -of Dr. Smethurst, presenting still greater features of resemblance -with Palmer's, for both were medical men, and both raised difficult -questions of medical jurisprudence. In both the jury had no doubt as -to the guilt of the accused, only in Smethurst's case the then Home -Secretary, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, could not divest his mind of -serious doubt, of which the murderer got the full benefit. Smethurst's -escape may have influenced the jury in the Poplar poisoning case, which -followed close on its heels, although in that the verdict of "Not -Guilty" was excusable, as the evidence was entirely circumstantial. -There was no convincing proof that the accused had administered the -poison, although beyond question that poison had occasioned the death.</p> - -<p>Catherine Wilson was a female poisoner who did business wholesale. She -was tried in April, 1862, on suspicion of having attempted to poison -a neighbour with oil of vitriol. The circumstances were strange. Mrs. -Wilson had gone to the chemist's for medicine, and on her return had -administered a dose of something which burned the mouth badly, but did -not prove fatal. She was acquitted on this charge, but other suspicious -facts cropped up while she was in Newgate. It appeared that several -persons with whom she was intimate had succumbed suddenly. In all -cases the symptoms were much the same, vomiting, violent retching, -purging, such as <!-- Page 268 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>are visible in cholera, and all dated from the time -when she knew a young man named Dixon, who had been in the habit of -taking colchicum for rheumatism. Mrs. Wilson heard then casually from -a medical man that it was a very dangerous medicine, and she profited -by what she had heard. Soon afterwards Dixon died, showing all the -symptoms already described. A little later a friend, Mrs. Atkinson, -came to London from Westmoreland, and stayed in Mrs. Wilson's house. -She was in good health on leaving home, and had with her a large sum of -money. While with Mrs. Wilson she became suddenly and alarmingly ill, -and died in great agony. Her husband, who came up to town, would not -allow a post-mortem, and again Mrs. Wilson escaped. Mrs. Atkinson's -symptoms had been the same as Dixon's. Then Mrs. Wilson went to live -with a man named Taylor, who was presently attacked in the same way as -the others, but, thanks to the prompt administration of remedies, he -recovered. After this came the charge of administering oil of vitriol, -which failed, as has been described. Last of all Mrs. Wilson poisoned -her landlady, Mrs. Soames, under precisely the same conditions as the -foregoing.</p> - -<p>Here, however, the evidence was strong and sufficient. It was proved -that Mrs. Wilson had given Mrs. Soames something peculiar to drink, -that immediately afterwards Mrs. Soames was taken ill with vomiting -and purging, and that Mrs. Wilson <!-- Page 269 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>administered the same medicine -again and again. The last time Mrs. Soames showed great reluctance -to take it, but Wilson said it would certainly do her good. This -mysterious medicine Wilson kept carefully locked up, and allowed no -one to see it, but its nature was betrayed when this last victim also -died. The first post-mortem indicated death from natural causes, but -a more careful investigation attributed it beyond doubt to over-doses -of colchicum. Dr. Alfred Taylor, the great authority and writer on -medical jurisprudence, corroborated this, and in his evidence on the -trial fairly electrified the court by declaring it his opinion that -many deaths, supposed to be from cholera, were really due to poison. -This fact was referred to by the judge in his summing up, who said that -he feared it was only too true that secret poisoning was at that time -very rife in the metropolis. Wilson was duly sentenced to death, and -suffered impenitent, hardened, and without any confession of her guilt.</p> - -<p>Although murder by insidious methods had become more common, cases -where violence of the most deadly and determined kind was offered -had not quite disappeared. Two cases of this class are of the most -interest; one accompanied with piracy on the high seas, the other -perpetrated in a railway-carriage, and showing the promptitude with -which criminals accept and utilize altered conditions of life, more -particularly as regards locomotion.</p> - -<p>The first case was that of the <i>Flowery Land</i>, <!-- Page 270 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>which left London for -Singapore on the 28th July, 1863, with a cargo of wine and other goods. -Her captain was John Smith; the first and second mates, Karswell and -Taffir; there were two other Englishmen on board, and the rest of -the crew were a polyglot lot, most of them, as was proved by their -subsequent acts, blackguards of the deepest dye. Six were Spaniards, or -rather natives of Manila, and men of colour; one was a Greek, another -a Turk; there were also a Frenchman, a Norwegian (the carpenter), -three Chinamen, a "Slavonian," and a black on board. Navigation -and discipline could not be easy with such a nondescript crew. The -captain was kindly but somewhat intemperate, the first mate a man of -some determination, and punishment such as rope's-ending and tying -to the bulwarks had to be applied to get the work properly done. The -six Spaniards, the Greek, and the Turk were in the same watch, eight -truculent and reckless scoundrels, who, brooding over their fancied -wrongs, and burning for revenge, hatched amongst them a plot to murder -their officers and seize the ship. The mutiny was organized with great -secrecy, and broke out most unexpectedly in the middle of the night. -A simultaneous attack was made upon the captain and the first mate. -The latter had the watch on deck. One half of the mutineers fell upon -him unawares with handspikes and capstan-bars. He was struck down, -imploring mercy, but they beat him about the head and face till every -feature was <!-- Page 271 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>obliterated, and then, still living, flung him into the -sea. Meanwhile the captain, roused from his berth, came out of the -cabin, was caught near the "companion" by the rest of the mutineers, -and promptly despatched with daggers. His body was found lying in a -pool of blood in a night-dress, stabbed over and over again in the left -side. The captain's brother, a passenger on board the <i>Flowery Land</i>, -was also stabbed to death and his body thrown overboard.</p> - -<p>The second mate, who had heard the hammering of the capstan-bars and -the handspikes, with the first mate's and captain's agonized cries, -had come out, verified the murderers, and then shut himself up in his -cabin. He was soon summoned on deck, but as he would not move, the -mutineers came down and stood in a circle round his berth. Leon, or -Lyons, who spoke English, when asked said they would spare his life -if he would navigate the ship for them to the River Plate or Buenos -Ayres. Taffir agreed, but constantly went in fear of his life for the -remainder of the voyage; and although the mutineers spared him, they -ill-treated the Chinamen, and cut one badly with knives. Immediately -after the murder, cases of champagne, which formed part of the cargo, -were brought on deck and emptied; the captain's cabin ransacked, his -money and clothes divided amongst the mutineers, as well as much of -the merchandise on board. Leon wished to make every one on board share -and share alike, <!-- Page 272 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>so as to implicate the innocent with the guilty; but -Vartos, or Watto, the Turk, would not allow any but the eight mutineers -to have anything. The murders were perpetrated on the 10th September, -and the ship continued her voyage for nearly three weeks, meeting and -speaking one ship only. On the 2nd October they sighted land, ten miles -distant; the mutineers took command of the ship, put her about till -nightfall, by which time they had scuttled her, got out the boats, and -all left the ship. The rest of the crew were also permitted to embark, -except the Chinamen, one of whom was thrown into the water and drowned, -while the other two were left to go down in the ship, and were seen -clinging to the tops until the waters closed over them.</p> - -<p>The boats reached the shore on the 4th October. Leon had prepared a -plausible tale to the effect that they belonged to an American ship -from Peru bound to Bordeaux, which had foundered at sea; that they had -been in the boats five days and nights, but that the captain and others -had been lost. The place at which they landed was not far from the -entrance to the River Plate. A farmer took them in for the night, and -drove them next day to Rocha, a place north of Maldonado. Taffir, the -mate, finding there was a man who could speak English at another place -twenty miles off, repaired there secretly, and so gave information -to the Brazilian authorities. The mutineers were arrested, the case -inquired into by a naval court-martial, and the prisoners eventually -<!-- Page 273 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>surrendered to the British authorities, brought to England, and lodged -in Newgate. Their trial followed at the Central Criminal Court. Eight -were arraigned at the same time: six Spaniards; Leon, Lopez, Blanco, -Duranno, Santos, and Marsolino; Vartos, a Turk, and Carlos, a Greek. -Seven were found guilty of murder on the high seas, and one, Carlos, -acquitted. Two of the seven, Santos and Marsolino, were reprieved, and -their sentences commuted to penal servitude for life; the remaining -five were executed in one batch. They were an abject, miserable crew, -cowards at heart; but some, especially Lopez, continued bloodthirsty to -the last. Lopez took a violent dislike to the officer of the ward in -charge of them, and often expressed a keen desire to do for him. They -none of them spoke much English except Leon, commonly called Lyons. -After condemnation, as the rules now kept capital convicts strictly -apart, they could not be lodged in the two condemned cells, and they -were each kept in an ordinary separate cell of the newly-constructed -block, with the "traps," or square openings in the cell door, let down. -A full view of them was thus at all times obtainable by the officers -who, without intermission, day and night patrolled the ward. On the -morning of execution the noise of fixing the gallows in the street -outside awoke one or two of them. Lyons asked the time, and was told it -was only five. "Ah!" he remarked, "they will have to wait for us then -till eight." <!-- Page 274 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>Lopez was more talkative. When the warder went in to call -him he asked for his clothes. He was told he would have to wear his -own. "Not give clothes? In Russia, Italy, always give chaps clothes." -Then he wanted to know when the policemen would arrive, and was told -none would come. "The soldiers then?" No soldiers either. "What, you -not afraid let us go all by ourselves? Not so in Russia or Spain." -The convicts were pinioned one by one and sent singly out to the -gallows. As the first to appear would have some time to wait for his -fellows, a difficult and painful ordeal, the seemingly most courageous -was selected to lead the way. This was Duranno; but the sight of the -heaving mass of uplifted, impassioned faces was too much for his -nerves, and he so nearly fainted that he had to be seated in a chair. -The execution went off without mishap.</p> - -<p>In July, 1864, occurred the murder of Mr. Briggs, a gentleman advanced -in years and chief clerk in Robarts' bank. As the circumstances under -which it was perpetrated were somewhat novel,<a name="FNanchor_274:1_7" id="FNanchor_274:1_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_274:1_7" class="fnanchor">[274:1]</a> and as some time -elapsed before the discovery and apprehension of the supposed murderer, -the public mind was greatly agitated by the affair for several months. -The story of the murder must be pretty familiar to most of my readers. -Mr. Briggs left the <!-- Page 275 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>bank one afternoon as usual, dined with his -daughter at Peckham, then returned to the city to take the train from -Fenchurch Street home, travelling by the North London Railway. He lived -at Hackney, but he never reached it alive. When the train arrived -at Hackney station, a passenger who was about to enter one of the -carriages found the cushions soaked with blood. Inside the carriage -was a hat, a walking-stick, and a small black leather bag. About the -same time a body was discovered on the line near the railway-bridge by -Victoria Park. It was that of an aged man, whose head had been battered -in by a life-preserver. There was a deep wound just over the ear, the -skull was fractured, and there were several other blows and wounds on -the head. Strange to say, the unfortunate man was not yet dead, and he -actually survived more than four-and-twenty hours. His identity was -established by a bundle of letters in his pocket, which bore his full -address: "T. Briggs, Esq., Robarts & Co., Lombard Street."</p> - -<p>The friends of Mr. Briggs were communicated with, and it was -ascertained that when he left home the morning of the murderous attack, -he wore gold-rimmed eye-glasses and a gold watch and chain. The stick -and bag were his, but not the hat. A desperate and deadly struggle -must have taken place in the carriage, and the stain of a bloody hand -marked the door. The facts of the murder and its object, robbery, -were thus conclusively proved. <!-- Page 276 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>It was also easily established that -the hat found in the carriage had been bought at Walker's, a hatter's -in Crawford Street, Marylebone; while within a few days Mr. Briggs' -gold chain was traced to a jeweller's in Cheapside, Mr. Death, who had -given another in exchange for it to a man supposed to be a foreigner. -More precise clues to the murderer were not long wanting; indeed the -readiness with which they were produced and followed up showed how -greatly the publicity and wide dissemination of the news regarding -murder facilitate the detection of crime. In little more than a week -a cabman came forward and voluntarily made a statement which at once -drew suspicion to a German, Franz Müller, who had been a lodger of his. -Müller had given the cabman's little daughter a jeweller's cardboard -box bearing the name of Mr. Death. A photograph of Müller shown the -jeweller was identified as the likeness of the man who had exchanged -Mr. Briggs' chain. Last of all, the cabman swore that he had bought the -very hat found in the carriage for Müller at the hatter's, Walker's of -Crawford Street.</p> - -<p>This fixed the crime pretty certainly upon Müller, who had already -left the country, thus increasing the suspicion under which he lay. -There was no mystery about his departure; he had gone to Canada by the -<i>Victoria</i> sailing ship, starting from the London docks, and bound -to New York. Directly the foregoing facts were established, a couple -<!-- Page 277 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>of detective officers, armed with a warrant to arrest Müller, and -accompanied by Mr. Death the jeweller and the cabman, went down to -Liverpool and took the first steamer across the Atlantic. This was the -<i>City of Manchester</i>, which was expected to arrive some days before -the <i>Victoria</i>, and did so. The officers went on board the <i>Victoria</i> -at once, Müller was identified by Mr. Death, and the arrest was made. -In searching the prisoner's box, Mr. Briggs' watch was found wrapped -up in a piece of leather, and Müller at the time of his capture was -actually wearing Mr. Briggs' hat, cut down and somewhat altered. The -prisoner was forthwith extradited and sent back to England, which he -reached with his escort on the 17th September the same year. His trial -followed at the next sessions of the Central Criminal Court, and ended -in his conviction. The case was one of circumstantial evidence, but, -as Sir Robert Collyer, the Solicitor-General, pointed out, it was the -strongest circumstantial evidence which had ever been brought forward -in a murder case. It was really evidence of facts which could not be -controverted or explained away. There was the prisoner's poverty, -his inability to account for himself on the night of the murder, and -his possession of the property of the murdered man. An alibi was set -up for the defence, but not well substantiated, and the jury without -hesitation returned a verdict of guilty.</p> - -<p>Müller protested after sentence of death had been <!-- Page 278 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>passed upon him -that he had been convicted on a false statement of facts. He adhered -to this almost to the very last. His case had been warmly espoused by -the Society for the Protection of Germans in this country, and powerful -influence was exerted both here and abroad to obtain a reprieve. -Müller knew that any confession would ruin his chances of escape. His -arguments were specious and evasive when pressed to confess. "Why -should man confess to man?" he replied; "man cannot forgive man, only -God can do so. Man is therefore only accountable to God." But on the -gallows, when the cap was over his eyes and the rope had been adjusted -round his neck, and within a second of the moment when he would be -launched into eternity, he whispered in the ear of the German pastor -who attended him on the scaffold, "I did it." While in the condemned -cell he conversed freely with the warders in broken English or through -an interpreter. He is described as not a bad-looking man, with a square -German type of face, blue eyes which were generally half closed, and -very fair hair. He was short in stature, his legs were light for the -upper part of his body, which was powerful, almost herculean. It is -generally supposed that he committed the murder under a sudden access -of covetousness and greed. He saw Mr. Briggs' watch-chain, and followed -him instantly into the carriage, determined to have it at all costs.</p> - -<p>An interesting case is that of old Dr. Watson, the <!-- Page 279 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>headmaster of -Stockwell Grammar School, who escaped the final retribution of death -because, as he pleaded for himself: "In a fit of fury I have killed -my wife. Often and often have I endeavoured to restrain myself but my -rage overcame me and I struck her down. Her body will be found in the -little room off the library. I hope she will be buried as becomes a -lady of birth and position. She is an Irish lady and her name is Anne." -Here were unmistakably signs of feeble intellect, and yet when the -deed was done he was sufficiently sensible and self-possessed to make -a cunning attempt to conceal his crime. His great desire, as so often -happens with murderers, was to dispose of the chief evidence of his -guilt and he was quite cool and collected when he gave his orders to a -packing-case maker to prepare him a large chest. "And I want it done -sharp; it must be air and water tight, for it is to go by rail." Then -he seems to have broken down and bought poison which failed of effect -and led to the discovery of the crime.</p> - -<p>Henry Wainwright's murder of Harriet Lane was a crime on a parity -with many others of earlier date. It was a curious instance of how -"murder will out," and how the devices employed to hide the crime help -really to expose it. Too much chloride of lime had been employed to -consume the buried corpse with the result that the body was preserved -instead of destroyed. Again, a mere chance led to the discovery; the -carelessness of the murderer <!-- Page 280 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>when he had exhumed the body for removal -to some safer place, in entrusting the parcel to a stranger's hands -who was curious as to its contents. The plea set up by the accused -that the girl had committed suicide led to the shrewd remark of the -judge, Chief Justice Goulbourne, that it was very unusual for suicides -to bury themselves after death. Henry Wainwright's was one of the last -executions at Newgate.</p> - -<p>A case, almost unique, may be quoted of a nearly successful attempt -to interfere with the course of justice by means of a forged order -of pardon. A convict on the point of execution, a man named Shurety, -was actually in the hangman's hands when a letter was brought to the -governor of Newgate purporting to come from the Home Office and signed -"A. F. Liddell," then Under-secretary of State, countermanding the -execution. The signature was so cleverly copied that it seemed genuine, -but a closer examination of the letter, envelope and seal satisfied -the authorities that the document was spurious and they took upon -themselves to send Shurety to the gallows. A couple of months later -the forgery was brought home to a surgeon, Mr. Caleb C. Whiteford, -who had interested himself in the case and having failed to save the -man by lawful means had adopted this course, which brought upon him -a sentence of fine and imprisonment. Another curious case was the -utter discomfiture of certain ultra-sentimentalists who had laboured -strenuously <!-- Page 281 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>to obtain a pardon for a Jew, Israel Lipski, alleged to -have been wrongly convicted. Great excitement prevailed while he lay -awaiting execution; numerous petitions were addressed to the Home -Secretary, and his steadfast refusal to extend mercy was hysterically -denounced by a section of the Press. Just when it was still asserted -that judicial murder was on the point of being perpetrated, the convict -made full confession of his crime and the ill-advised action of -these busybodies was very properly overthrown. One or two more cases -must serve to complete the list of the last great crimes expiated in -Newgate. Mrs. Pearcey, who murdered her friend Mrs. Hogg, no doubt -allowed her temper to get the better of her and what was at first -a small quarrel unhappily degenerated into a murderous attack. The -circumstances of the crime were commonplace; the special interest was -in the method of removing the murdered remains. Mrs. Hogg's body with -the throat cut had been found on Hampstead Heath and shortly afterwards -her infant child was found dead in close proximity. It came out in -the course of inquiry that Mrs. Pearcey had wheeled a perambulator -containing the dead bodies all the way from St. John's Wood to -Hampstead.</p> - -<p>But for the lucky chance which so often assists the detection of great -crimes, the Muswell Hill murder would hardly have been brought home -to its perpetrators. This was a burglary which cost the life of the -unfortunate victim, a Mr. Henry <!-- Page 282 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>Smith, an aged gentleman who lived -alone in a small villa on Muswell Hill, one of the northern suburbs -of London. He was a man of some means who was weak enough to keep his -cash receipts for rents and dividends in his own safe at home. He was -a tall stout man of active habits and fairly robust health who "did -for himself," rising early, cleaning his house, cooking his food and -living his own simple life. His habits were watched and they marked -him down as open to attack and robbery. One morning his gardener, the -only servant he employed, and who lived away from the house, arrived -as usual to find the premises still locked up. There were unmistakable -signs that a forcible entry had been made and a wire connected with -an alarm gun behind the house had been disconnected. Calling upon the -neighbours for assistance, the gardener entered the house and saw -Mr. Smith's body lying lifeless on the floor. The safe stood open -and had been evidently rifled; drawers had been pulled out and a tin -box emptied. The murder had been committed with very brutal violence -as the state of the body amply testified. Various small clues were -forthcoming; a bull's eye lantern, two pocket knives upon the floor -near the deceased and some bread and cheese which the murderers had -been consuming after the deed. There were footprints in the garden -leading down into the woods back of the house. Two sets of footprints, -one of large boots with a very broad tread and no nails, <!-- Page 283 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>the other of -smaller boots with pointed toes. The footprints ended at the garden -fence where there were many marks and scratches to show that someone -had climbed over. A small tobacco box was also picked up on the -footpath leading to the wood, the property of someone who did not live -at the villa, for neither the murdered man nor the gardener were in the -habit of smoking.</p> - -<p>It is customary with the police in cases of this gravity to search -their records and ascertain what known offenders likely to be guilty -of such a crime were then at large. Two ex-convicts, Albert Milsom and -Henry Fowler, stood upon the list and at once attracted the attention -of the police as habitual criminals addicted to burglary, but there was -no specific evidence against them until suspicion was raised by a young -lady who resided near Muswell Hill. She thought it her duty to inform -the police that she had been accosted by two men, a little before the -murder, who had made many inquiries about the woods behind Mr. Smith's -house. Another lady had seen the same man on the very day of the murder -walking in a neighbouring lane. This was sufficient to cause inquiry -to be made for the two men in question who were soon identified as the -above mentioned Milsom and Fowler. Suspicion deepened when it became -known that after the day of the murder they were flush of money and had -bought new clothes. Then a damaging fact turned up when the bull's eye -lantern picked <!-- Page 284 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>up on the scene of the crime was claimed by Milsom's -brother-in-law as his property. He proved his ownership by pointing out -changes he had made in it and further that it had been abstracted from -him some little time before the murder, and that the next time he saw -it was in the hands of the police. The same lad recognized the tobacco -box as one that Albert Milsom constantly used.</p> - -<p>The next step was to "run in" the two men so strongly suspected. They -were "wanted" for some weeks and although they seem to have still hung -about London it was believed they had gone abroad. Towards the end of -February they left for Liverpool and then moved south to Cardiff, where -they joined forces with an itinerant showman having bought a share in -his business. They moved to and fro in South Wales and then worked back -to Chippenham and Bath where the police, ever hot on their track, came -upon them and captured them after a desperate struggle. Fowler was a -strong man of large frame and he fought like a tiger but was knocked on -the head with the butt end of a revolver and overpowered. He owed his -confederate Milsom a deep grudge and on more than one occasion made a -murderous attempt on his life, once in the exercising yard at Holloway -while awaiting trial, an affair which the present writer myself -witnessed. The two men were walking in a circle some distance apart, -but Fowler ran after him and was only prevented by the officers from -doing him <!-- Page 285 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>serious mischief. Again at the Old Bailey when the jury had -retired to consider their verdict, Fowler jumped out of the dock and -attacked his companion but was restrained in time. Milsom had enraged -him by making full confession of the murder and the manner in which it -had been committed. Fowler, he said, had done the deed alone but had -bitterly upbraided Milsom for giving no assistance. Both criminals were -executed in Newgate.</p> - -<p>The last great case of fraud upon the Bank of England will fitly find a -place in the later criminal records of Newgate. This was the well and -astutely devised plot of the brothers Bidwell, assisted by Macdonell -and Noyes, all of them citizens of the United States, by which the bank -lost upwards of £100,000. The commercial experience of these clever -rogues was cosmopolitan. Their operations were no less world-wide. In -1871 they crossed the Channel, and by means of forged letters of credit -and introduction from London, obtained large sums from continental -banks in Berlin, Dresden, Bordeaux, Marseilles and Lyons. With this -as capital they came back to England via Buenos Ayres, and Austin -Bidwell opened a bona fide credit in the Burlington or West End Branch -of the Bank of England, to which he was introduced by a well known -tailor in Saville Row. After this the other conspirators travelled -to obtain genuine bills and master the system of the leading houses -at home and abroad. When all was ready, Bidwell first <!-- Page 286 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>"refreshed -his credit" at the Bank of England, as well as disarmed suspicion, -by paying in a genuine bill of Messrs. Rothschilds' for £4,500 which -was duly discounted. Then he explained to the bank manager that his -transactions at Birmingham would shortly be very large, owing to the -development of his business there in the alleged manufacture of Pullman -cars. The ground thus cleared, the forgers poured in from Birmingham -numbers of forged acceptances to the value of £102,217, all of which -were discounted. The fraud was rendered possible by the absence of a -check customary in the United States. There such bills would be sent to -the drawer to be initialled, and the forgery would have been at once -detected. It was the discovery of this flaw in the banking system which -had encouraged the Americans to attempt this crime.</p> - -<p>Time was clearly an important factor in the fraud, hence the bills were -sent forward in quick succession. Long before they came to maturity the -forgers hoped to be well beyond arrest. They had, moreover, sought to -destroy all clue. The sums obtained by Bidwell in the name of "Warren" -at the Bank of England were lodged at once by drafts to "Horton" -another alias, in the Continental Bank. For these cash was obtained in -notes; the notes were exchanged by one of the conspirators for gold -at the Bank of England and again the same day a second conspirator -exchanged the gold for notes. But just as all promised well, <!-- Page 287 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>the -frauds were detected through the carelessness of the forgers. They had -omitted to insert the dates in certain bills. The bills were sent as a -matter of form to the drawer to have the date added, and the forgery -was at once detected. Noyes was seized without difficulty, as it was a -part of the scheme that he should act as the dupe, and remain on the -spot in London till all the money was obtained. Through Noyes the rest -of the conspirators were eventually apprehended. Very little if any of -the ill-gotten proceeds, however, was ever recovered. Large sums as -they were realized were transmitted to the United States and invested -in various American securities, where probably the money still remains.</p> - -<p>The prisoners, who were committed to Newgate for trial, had undoubtedly -the command of large funds while there, and would have readily -disbursed it to effect their enlargement. A plot was soon discovered, -deep laid, and with many ramifications, by which some of the Newgate -warders were to be bribed to allow the prisoners to escape from their -cells at night. Certain friends of the prisoners were watched and -found to be in communication with these warders, to whom it was said -£100 apiece had been given down as the price of their infidelity. -Further sums were to have been paid after the escape; and one warder -admitted that he was to have £1,000 more paid to him and to be provided -with a passage to Australia. The vigilance of the <!-- Page 288 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>Newgate officials -assisted by the city police, completely frustrated this plot. A second -was nevertheless set on foot in which the plan of action was changed, -and the freedom of the prisoners was to be obtained by means of a -rescue from the dock during the trial. An increase of policemen on -duty sufficed to prevent any attempt of this kind. Nor were these two -abortive efforts all that were planned. A year or two after, when the -prisoners were undergoing their life sentences of penal servitude, much -uneasiness was caused at one of the convict prisons by information that -bribery on a large scale was again at work amongst the officials. But -extra precautions and close supervision have so far proved effectual -and the prisoners were still in custody after a lapse of ten years.</p> - -<p>The time came at length when the old City Gaol must fall in with the -steady and persistent march towards prison reform. The movement had -been initiated by the legislative and certain improvements were made -imperative, notably that which recognized the unalterable principle -that every individual should be confined separately and singly in one -cell or apartment. Already steps had been taken and public moneys -voted to construct a prison on the most approved plan to serve as a -model for all. The result was Pentonville, erected in 1842 at a great -outlay and on such intelligent lines that in due course it fulfilled -its first aim and became a model for imitation. Pentonville has been -universally <!-- Page 289 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>adopted as the best form of building and its system the -best contrived to effect the chief desiderata of a penal establishment, -such as coercion, repression and reformation. It is to be seen to-day -with small variation in almost every country of the world and is -generally considered the best type of prison construction. In England, -jurisdictions were ready to recognize their duties and responsibilities -and fine prisons arose in the large provincial cities and wide areas of -population, although others still lagged behind deterred by parsimony -and the lack of public spirit. Newgate, the gaol of the richest -corporation in the world, was one of the latter and an official report -published in 1850 animadverted strongly on its still unsatisfactory -condition.</p> - -<p>Not much had been done to remedy the old defects; radical improvement -was generally considered impossible. The great evil, however, had been -sensibly diminished. There was no longer, or at worst but rarely, and -for short periods, the same overcrowding. This was obviated by the -frequent sessions of the Central Criminal Court, and the utilization of -the two subsidiary prisons in Giltspur Street and Southwark. The prison -population of Newgate was still subject to great fluctuations, but it -seldom rose above two hundred and fifty or three hundred at the most -crowded periods, or just before the sessional gaol delivery; and at its -lowest it fell sometimes to fifty or sixty. These numbers would <!-- Page 290 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>have -still further decreased, and the gaol would have been almost empty, -but for the misdemeanants who were still sent to Newgate at times on -long terms of imprisonment, and for the transports, whom the Home -Office was often, as of old, slow to remove. The old wards, day rooms -and sleeping rooms combined, now seldom contained more than ten or a -dozen occupants. Some sort of decorum was maintained in the day-time. -Drinking and gaming, the indiscriminate visitation of friends, and the -almost unlimited admission of extra food, had disappeared.</p> - -<p>But reformation was only skin deep. Below the surface many of the old -evils still rankled. There was as yet no control over the prisoners -after locking-up time; which occurred in summer at eight, but in the -winter months took place at dusk, and was often as early as four or -five o'clock. The prisoners were still left to themselves till next -morning's unlocking, and they spent some fourteen or fifteen hours in -total darkness, and almost without check or control. The only attempt -at supervision was exercised by the night watchman stationed on the -leads, who might hear what went on inside. If any disturbance reached -his ears, he reported the case to the governor, who next morning -visited the ward in fault, and asked for the culprit. The enforcement -of discipline depended upon the want of honour among thieves. Unless -the guilty prisoner was given up, the whole ward was punished, <!-- Page 291 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>either -by the exclusion of visitors or the deprivation of fire, sharp tests -which generally broke down the fidelity of the inmates of the ward to -one another. Later on a more efficacious but still imperfect method of -supervision was introduced. Iron cages, which are still to be seen in -Newgate, were constructed on the landings, ensconced in which warders -spent the night, on duty, and alert to watch the sleepers below, and -check by remonstrance or threat of punishment all who broke the peace -of the prison.</p> - -<p>These disciplinary improvements were, however, only slowly and -gradually introduced. Other changes affecting the condition and -proper treatment of prisoners were not made until repeatedly urged -and recommended. Thus the wards, which, as I have said, were left in -complete darkness, were now to be lighted with gas; and after this most -salutary addition, the personal superintendence of night officers, -as already described, became possible. The rule became general as -regards the prison dress; hitherto clothing had been issued only to -such as were destitute or in rags, and all classes of prisoners, -those for trial, and those sentenced for short terms or long, wore -no distinguishing costume, although its use was admitted, not only -for cleanliness, but as a badge of condition, and a security against -escape. Renewed recommendations to provide employment resulted in -the provision of a certain amount of oakum for picking, and one or -two men were allowed to mend clothes and make shoes. <!-- Page 292 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>The rules made -by the Secretary of State were hung up in conspicuous parts of the -prison; more officers were appointed, as the time of so many of those -already on the staff was monopolized by attendance at the Central -Criminal Court. Another custom which had led to disorder was abolished; -prisoners who had been acquitted were not permitted to return to the -prison to show their joy and receive the congratulations of their -unfortunate fellows. The Corporation seems to have introduced these -salutary changes without hesitation. It was less prompt apparently in -dealing with structural alterations and improvements. Well-founded -complaints had been made of the want of heating appliances in the gaol. -The wards had open fires, but the separate cells were not warmed at -all. It was long before a scheme for heating the whole prison with hot -water pipes was accepted and introduced.</p> - -<p>At last the authorities realized that all idea of reconstruction on -proper lines was out of the question. It was imperative to begin at the -beginning, select a sufficiently spacious piece of ground and erect a -prison thereon, which from foundations to roofs should be in conformity -with the newest ideas.</p> - -<p>Now for the first time the Tuffnell estate in Holloway was mentioned. -The Corporation owned lands there covering from nineteen to twenty -acres. Why not move the city prison bodily into this more rural spot, -with its purer air and greater breathing <!-- Page 293 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>space? Eventually Holloway -was decided upon as a site for the new city prison. The necessary -preliminaries took some time, but the contracts for the new building -were completed in 1849, when the works were commenced. The prison -was to contain four hundred and four prisoners, and the estimated -expenditure was £79,000. It was to accommodate all convicted prisoners -sentenced to terms short of penal servitude, and after its completion -the uses of Newgate were narrowed almost entirely to those of a prison -of detention. It was intended, as far as possible, that no prisoner -should find himself relegated to Newgate except when awaiting trial.</p> - -<p>With the reduction of numbers to be accommodated, there was ample space -in Newgate for its reconstruction on the most approved modern lines. -In 1857 the erection of a wing or large block of cells was commenced -within the original walls of the prison, and upon the north or male -side. This block contained one hundred and thirty cells, embracing -every modern improvement; it also contained eleven reception cells, -six punishment cells, and a couple of cells for condemned criminals. -This block was completed in 1859, after which the hitherto unavoidable -and long-continued promiscuous association of prisoners came to an -end. In 1861 a similar work was undertaken to provide separate cell -accommodation for the female inmates of Newgate, and by the following -year forty-seven new <!-- Page 294 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>cells had been built on the most approved -plan. During this reconstruction the female prisoners were lodged in -Holloway, and when it was completed, both sides of the prison were -brought into harmony with modern ideas. The old buildings were entirely -disused, and the entire number of those at Newgate were kept constantly -in separate confinement.</p> - -<p>With the last re-edification of Newgate, a work executed some seven -centuries after the first stone of the old gaol was laid, the -architectural records of the prison end. Nothing much was done at -Newgate in the way of building, outside or inside, after 1862. The Act -for private executions led to the erection of the gallows shed in the -exercising yard, and at the flank of the passage from the condemned -cells. The first "glass house," or room in which prisoners could talk -in private with their attorneys, and still be seen by the warder on the -watch, had been constructed, and others were subsequently added. But no -structural alterations were made from the date first quoted until in -1902 the prison ceased to exist as such.</p> - -<p>A few words will suffice in closing the record of this old-world -prison, which after seven centuries of existence has no longer a place -in the heart of the great overgrown city. It has been crowded out, the -space it occupied was far too limited and yet too valuable to remain -the centre of Metropolitan criminal procedure. It was imperative that -the <!-- Page 295 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>famous assize court of the Old Bailey should be enlarged and the -ground upon which the prison stood was urgently needed for extension. -The chief prison authority, the State itself which had administered to -the powers so long exercised by local jurisdiction, decided to remove -the last vestige of prison business from the ancient site. A prison -already standing in the suburb of Brixton was enlarged and appropriated -to meet the purposes which Newgate had fulfilled almost to the last. -For it continued until yesterday to serve as the last resting place -of malefactors condemned to death. It was still the succursal of the -assize court, sheltering the accused during the trial and holding them -after conviction until they stood finally under the drop and the fatal -bolt was drawn. But Newgate in 1882 ceased to be more than a temporary -prison receiving lodgers about to take the last long journey from which -no traveller returns, and in this way old Newgate continued to be -associated with all capital offences in London.</p> - -<p>Many pages might still be filled with painful stories often reproducing -almost exactly the criminal episodes of the past and proving that -there is literally nothing new under the sun. The latest Newgate -records exhibited the same fatal consequences of overpowering greed, -unappeasable rage, brutal passions uncontrolled; the same fierce thirst -for vengeance; the same bitter jealousy, only to be assuaged in blood -under the maddened impulse <!-- Page 296 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>of minds on the borderland of insanity. -Great crimes may be rarer nowadays, but they still present the same -familiar features as of old, and will no doubt do so while the world -lasts.</p> - -<hr class="thoughtbreak" /> - -<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span> Occasional references to the Tower have been made in the -preceding chapters. Its history in full would be the history of England -and far too extended for the scope of this work; therefore an outline -only is given, with reference in brief to many important prisoners who -were confined or suffered within its gloomy walls.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"> - <a name="Great_Court" id="Great_Court"></a><img src="images/great_court.jpg" width="640" height="417" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><i>Great Court of the Tower of London</i></div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Ancient palace-citadel of London, and famous state prison, -whose history began with William the Conqueror. The chief -buildings of the group are the work of Norman kings and Henry -III. Familiar as the place of durance and scene of death of -many prisoners of royal blood and political importance.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="footnotes" /> -<p class="sectctrfn">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274:1_7" id="Footnote_274:1_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274:1_7"><span class="label">[274:1]</span></a> They have since been repeated, but accompanied by -more premeditation, in the case of Lefroy, who murdered Mr. Gould in a -first-class carriage on the Brighton line in 1881.</p></div> - - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><!-- Page 297 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak"><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<br /> - -<small>THE TOWER OF LONDON</small></h2> -</div> - - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p class="hang">Location—Traditions of ancient fortifications—William -the Conqueror and Gundulf the Builder—Additions by other -kings—The first prisoners—Royal tenants—Richard Duke of -Gloucester and the "Two Little Princes"—Increase in number -of prisoners during Tudor period—Anne Boleyn's two visits -to the Tower—Another queen's fate—The "Nine Days' Queen" -and her friends—Spanish influence fills the Tower—Sir -Walter Raleigh—Lady Arabella Stuart—Executions grow -fewer—Culloden—The last man beheaded in England—Present uses -of the Tower.</p> -</div> - - -<p>On the north bank of the Thames, a half mile below London Bridge and -just east of the old city of London, stands an irregular pile of -buildings with walls, battlements and moat which fires the imagination, -and grips the fancy as no other group in the world can do.</p> - -<p>The Tower of London, in turn fortress, palace and prison—sometimes all -three simultaneously—and now a storehouse and museum, has a continuous -existence almost as long as England's history. Tradition says that the -Britons had a stronghold here before Cæsar came; that the great Roman -himself ordered the walls strengthened; that the Saxon kings held court -on the site. Certainly excavations for various purposes made from time -to <!-- Page 298 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>time have revealed masonry and relics of all three periods.</p> - -<p>The Tower as we have it to-day goes back only to the Norman kings. -William the Conqueror's keen eye saw the advantage of this low hill -and wished a fortress which should command the river and help to -overawe the turbulent city to the west. Gundulf, a Benedictine monk, -whom he had made Bishop of Rochester, and who had shown his ability -by rebuilding the cathedral there, set to work in 1078 or 1079 on the -keep, or White Tower.</p> - -<p>This great building stands to-day his monument. The solid masonry -walls twelve to sixteen feet thick enclose the vaults formerly used as -torture chambers when occasion demanded, the main floor, the banqueting -floor and the state floor. The chapel of St. John the Evangelist rises -through two floors in the southeast corner, while the low towers at -the four corners command the scene for miles. Old Gundulf built well, -and completed also St. Peter's chapel and the Hall tower. The other -towers with their connecting walls enclosing the Inner Ward were built -later, many of them by Henry III. The Beauchamp tower, the Belfry, the -Garden or Bloody tower, the Lantern, the Salt tower, the Broad Arrow -tower, the Constable tower, the Martin tower, the Brick tower, the -Flint tower, the Bowyer tower and the Develin tower, were all built in -the wall for purposes of defence, but all have sheltered prisoners from -time to time.</p> - -<p><!-- Page 299 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p><p>Within this Inner Ward, besides the buildings already named were royal -apartments and a Great Hall of justice (long since destroyed), the -mint, which remained until 1810, residences for officers, barracks, -etc. Around all this was a second strong wall protected by other strong -towers, which was planned and partially constructed by Henry III. Of -these towers on the outer wall, St. Thomas' tower on the river—better -known as the Traitors' Gate—is the most important. Under this tower -prisoners were landed from the river. The space enclosed by the outer -wall is about thirteen acres, and around all was a broad moat flooded -from the Thames.</p> - -<p>The importance of the Tower as a fortress diminished with the invention -of gunpowder, but it continued to be used as a royal residence, at -intervals, until the accession of Charles II. Here Henry III lived -and planned great structures; during the wars of the Roses, York and -Lancaster held court in turn; Henry VII schemed for greater wealth, and -his son was led to defy the Pope while keeping a residence here.</p> - -<p>But it is with the Tower as a prison that we are most concerned. The -roll of the prisoners tells England's history. The petty intrigues of -court favourites; the greatness or the meanness of kings; the struggle -for power among great families; the truckling to foreign power which -brought Raleigh to the block, and the great struggle for religious <!-- Page 300 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>and -political freedom are all set forth in the story of this great prison.</p> - -<p>The first prisoner confined within the walls appears to have been -Ralph Flambard, (the Firebrand), Bishop of Durham, who as treasurer -of William the Conqueror had been forced to find the funds for old -Gundulf's work. Hated by the commons for his exactions, he was taken -into custody on the accession of Henry Beauclerc and was lodged in an -upper room of the White tower, as yet unsurrounded by walls. He was -well treated and allowed many privileges, but his efforts to secure -his release were unsuccessful. One night in February, 1101, when he -had caused all his guards to drink heavily of wine brought in at his -expense, he drew a rope from one of the casks, tied it to the window -sixty-five feet from the ground, and descended. Though the rope was -short and he fell heavily, his servants were waiting, and he made good -his escape to France, there to remain until forgiven and restored to -his bishopric.</p> - -<p>Another important early prisoner was the victim of King John's unlawful -love, Maud Fitzwalter, the daughter of one of his powerful barons, -who refused to grant his will. The coward king attempted to break -her spirit by confinement in an uncomfortable cell, and banished her -family. Bravely resisting the king's desires to the end, she died, -perhaps by poison. Her father returned and placed himself at the head -of that band of bishops <!-- Page 301 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>and barons who compelled the king to sign the -Great Charter at Runnymede.</p> - -<p>Next we hear of the incarceration of six hundred Jews charged by -Edward I with tampering with the coinage. The same king brought John -de Baliol, king of Scotland, and David Bruce to the Tower in 1298, and -William Wallace, the hero of Scotland, was imprisoned here in 1305 -before his execution at Smithfield. During this reign also Griffin, -Prince of Wales, who had been first confined by Henry III, attempted to -escape by the same method which Flambard had used so successfully, but -his cord, made from strips of his bed coverings, was too weak and his -neck was broken by the fall.</p> - -<p>During the unhappy reign of Edward II court was kept in the Tower with -a splendour before unknown. Here the king's children were born, and -here Roger Mortimer, although a captive, began the guilty intrigue with -Queen Isabella which ended in disaster and disgrace for all.</p> - -<p>More royal tenants appeared under Edward III. King David of Scotland -was confined in 1347, and in 1358, after Poitiers, King John of France -and his son joined the great number of French nobles whom the fortunes -of war had brought hither. It was in the Tower also that Edward's -unworthy grandson, Richard II, saw his favourite, Simon Burley, seized -by the indignant nobles and finally taken to Tower Hill. It is said -that this was the first public execution on Tower Hill, just north of -<!-- Page 302 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>the Tower itself. In the Tower also Sir John Oldcastle suffered, and -the old walls saw Richard yield to Henry of Lancaster the crown which -he was too weak to hold.</p> - -<p>With the accession of Henry V the war with France was renewed and -again many French nobles became tenants of the pile. One of them, -Charles of Orleans, grandson of Charles V, is described by Shakespeare. -Wounded and captured at Agincourt, the impossible ransom of 300,000 -crowns was demanded by his unsuccessful rival, Henry V, who had failed -to win the love of Isabella, widow of Richard II of England. Indeed -Henry preferred that he remain a perpetual prisoner; and a prisoner -he remained for twenty-five years, spending his time with his books -and his verses, many addressed to his dead wife. Finally released, he -married Mary of Cleves, and their son was Louis XII, who married Mary, -the sister of Henry VIII of England.</p> - -<p>With the Wars of the Roses, the records became more bloody, and the -sanguinary tinge continues through the Tudor period. During the first -period it was great house against great house, but during the Tudor -period began the great struggle for political freedom, which at times -seemed hopeless of attainment.</p> - -<p>No figure so dominates the first period as the sinister, humpbacked -brother of Edward IV, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Richard III of -England. His influence is felt in the sober history as well as <!-- Page 303 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span>in the -plays of Shakespeare. He is said to have stabbed with his own hand the -imbecile Henry VI, who had already at a previous time spent five years -a prisoner in the Tower. Tradition persists that he drowned his brother -the Duke of Clarence, in a butt of the latter's favourite wine. We know -of his denunciation of Lord Hastings on charge of witchcraft and of the -murder of that unhappy nobleman. We know that he kept Jane Shore, the -mistress of his brother, in prison here until all her charms were faded.</p> - -<p>But the mysterious disappearance of the two little princes has done -most to damn his memory. As the result of the marriage with Elizabeth -Woodville, Edward IV left two sons, Edward V, aged twelve, and Richard, -aged eight. Gloucester was Protector but with diabolical cunning threw -doubt upon the legitimacy of the boys placed under his charge. They -were confided to Sir John Brackenbury, the lieutenant of the Tower, -while the preparations for the coronation went on. Their mother, filled -with unhappy forebodings for them and fearful of her own fate, was in -sanctuary at Westminster.</p> - -<p>The tale as we have it runs thus: Richard left for the north after -sending a plain message to the lieutenant of the Tower. At Warwick, -Richard was informed that the worthy knight refused to do his bidding. -Nothing daunted, Richard sent orders that for one night only he should -give up <!-- Page 304 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>his command to Sir James Tyrrell. That officer, who lived in -mortal fear of Richard, came to the Tower accompanied by two ruffians, -secured the keys and the passwords, went down to the Garden tower and -sent his ruffians up-stairs. Shortly they called him to see that the -work was done. There lay the princes, dead. The oldest account says -that one was smothered while the throat of the other was cut. Quickly a -priest was called and the bodies consigned to earth. Later this priest -moved them secretly, where, no one knew, and shortly after died. As the -bodies could not be shown some doubted the death of the little princes, -and later we have the claim of Perkin Warbeck that he was one of the -princes, escaped from the Tower and marvellously spared. Perhaps he may -have been Edward's son, for that king ruined many women beside Jane -Shore.</p> - -<p>Two hundred years later, while making some changes in the White -tower, workmen found underneath the stone staircase near the chapel -the bones of two boys, apparently corresponding in age and stature to -the princes. Rigid investigation confirmed the guess, and Charles II -ordered their removal to Westminster Abbey, where they now lie among -their royal kindred in the chapel of Henry VII.</p> - -<p>When Henry VIII set to work to get rid of his Spanish queen, and take -in her place the pretty maid of honour, Anne Boleyn, he let loose -forces <!-- Page 305 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>which kept the Tower full of distinguished prisoners and gave -the axeman much work. The desire for the divorce led him further than -he anticipated. When he demanded that he be received as the head of the -church, one man, the wisest counsellor of the time, who had held high -office and whose talents fitted him to adorn any station, refused to go -so far. Sir Thomas More, author of Utopia, statesman and philosopher, -after enduring confinement for a few months went to the block and is -buried in St. Peter's chapel, though tradition says that his head -was secured by his faithful daughter, who preserved it carefully and -finally had it buried with her in her tomb.</p> - -<p>A mad "maid of Kent" began to prophesy against the divorce. She ordered -the king to put Anne Boleyn away and to take Catherine back, and -finally began to threaten. When the king acted, he acted vigorously. -The maid and her associates went to Tyburn, and Bishop Fisher, just -then appointed cardinal, who had listened at least, if he had not -encouraged the maid, went to the Tower and soon to the block.</p> - -<p>For six years Henry had sought a legal method of freeing himself from -his matrimonial chains. Then he took matters into his own hands. On -the twenty-fifth of January, 1533, the barge bearing Anne Boleyn, now -acknowledged as queen, attended by fifty others reached the Tower, and -she climbed the Queen's Stairway, where her impatient husband <!-- Page 306 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>awaited -her. Three years later a barge again bore her along the stream, this -time attended by armed men, but now she was landed at the Traitors' -Gate, a prisoner charged with adultery, and destined to lose her head -upon Tower Green. We know that she bore herself well, protesting her -innocence to the last, and winning the pity of all. The story goes that -no coffin had been prepared for her and that her body was jammed into -an elm chest which happened to be conveniently empty. A few years ago, -in restoring St. Peter's chapel, her bones were found jumbled together, -apparently confirming the story that she had not been permitted to lie -decently buried at full length.</p> - -<p>Only a few years later another queen of England came a prisoner to -the Tower and a victim of the axeman on the Green. Katherine Howard's -hold upon the affections of her fickle lord was no stronger than Anne -Boleyn's, and also charged with misconduct she was beheaded Feb. -15, 1542. With her died her companion and alleged accomplice, Jane, -Viscountess Rochford.</p> - -<p>But the block on Tower Hill outside the walls where the public -executions took place was not idle. Wolsey's death of chagrin saved -him from the Tower and perhaps from the axe, but Thomas Cromwell, -whose devotion to his king had humbled so many, was not so fortunate -as Wolsey. Many things combined to lose him the favour of his royal -master, but nothing perhaps more than his <!-- Page 307 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>recommendation of Anne of -Cleves as a wife for the fastidious, fickle king. She was so plain -and so awkward that the king was disgusted, and in 1540 Cromwell went -to the Tower and the block as Edward Stafford, the great Duke of -Buckingham, had done twenty years before.</p> - -<p>The death of Henry made a delicate boy of nine years king, as Edward -VI. If, as seemed probable, he should die without descendants, where -would the crown go? Both of his sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, had in -turn been declared illegitimate and out of the succession. Mary was -Spanish in blood on her mother's side, and entirely so in education and -feeling. The young Elizabeth was an unknown quantity.</p> - -<p>John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who had helped to send the king's -uncle, the Duke of Somerset, to the block, again began to plot. Henry -VIII's sister Mary, who married Charles Brandon after the death of -her first husband, Louis XII of France, had left a daughter Frances, -who married Henry Grey, later Duke of Suffolk, and had a daughter -whose right to the throne, if Mary and Elizabeth were put away, was at -least as good as any. So Dudley arranged a marriage between his fourth -son, Guilford, a boy of nineteen, and Lady Jane Grey, a sweet girl of -sixteen, whose pitiful history has power to stir a heart of stone.</p> - -<p>King Edward died July 6, 1553, and Dudley showed what purported to be -his will passing the <!-- Page 308 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span>succession to his cousin, Lady Jane, and next -attempted to secure the person of Princess Mary, who had however been -warned of his purpose. On Monday, July 10, Lady Jane was proclaimed -Queen of England and many great nobles gathered around her. The people -showed no enthusiasm. They knew Dudley, and they felt that Mary was -the rightful heir. So pronounced was public sentiment that the politic -began to gather around Mary, who was proclaimed July 19, and Jane -descended from the throne which she had unwillingly accepted, after a -reign of only nine days.</p> - -<p>Immediately the Tower filled. Lady Jane herself, and her foolish -husband, her father, Dudley and his four other sons and dozens of -less degree were confined, and the axeman was to reap a bloody -harvest. Dudley and his eldest son, the Earl of Warwick, went to the -block almost immediately. Robert Dudley, the husband of Amy Robsart, -afterward the favourite of Queen Elizabeth, and Guilford Dudley lodged -in the Beauchamp tower. Today one sees their names and inscriptions -carved in the soft stone and Guilford, perhaps, twice cut the name, -<strong>Jane</strong>.</p> - -<p>Mary would have spared her unfortunate cousin if she could have induced -her to conform to the old faith, but Jane's Protestantism was too -firmly fixed, and she had a will of iron beneath her soft and gentle -exterior. Refusing to yield her faith, the Nine Days' Queen went to -Tower Green, her <!-- Page 309 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span>husband to Tower Hill, and shortly afterward her -father followed his friends and his children.</p> - -<p>The queen under the influence of Renard, the agent of Charles V, began -the series of executions for conscience's sake which has given her the -awful title of Bloody Mary. Those who disliked either the Spaniard -or the old church had good cause to fear. Elizabeth was confined in -the Tower for a time, but Mary could not bring herself to order her -execution though strongly advised to do so. But Sir Thomas Wyat, Thomas -Cobham and then the three bishops, Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley, with -hundreds of others crowded the Tower until it overflowed into Newgate -and the Fleet.</p> - -<p>With the accession of Elizabeth the headsman rested. For a century -hardly a year had passed without political executions. During the long -reign of Elizabeth they were few, and for twelve years there were none -at all. Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, who engaged in the plot to -raise Mary Queen of Scots to the throne, was the first; the Earl of -Northumberland was mysteriously murdered in the Bloody tower in 1585, -and Philip, Earl of Arundel, died on the block in 1595. Nor must we -forget Elizabeth's darling, Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, who died -on Tower Green inside the walls in 1601, though the loving but jealous -queen was longing to grant his pardon if he would only ask it.</p> - -<p>But the grim old walls held many tenants, even <!-- Page 310 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>if the extreme -penalties were not invoked. Margaret, Countess of Lennox, mother of -Lord Darnley, and so grandmother of James I, lived in the Belfry -until after Darnley's death, when she was released, a broken old -woman. Philip Howard, son of Thomas mentioned above, though guilty of -high treason in aiding the enemies of his country, finally died in -the Beauchamp tower. It was during Elizabeth's reign that Sir Walter -Raleigh endured the first of his four imprisonments, this time for the -seduction of the queen's maid of honour and his subsequent disobedience.</p> - -<p>At the accession of James I Raleigh returned to the Tower, as a -concession to Spain, against whose power and influence he had done so -much. He was tried, convicted on perjured testimony and sent back to -remain fourteen years a prisoner. The cowardly king feared to put the -sentence into effect, and so first in the Bloody tower and then in the -Garden house he received his friends, studied geography and chemistry, -seeking a method to sweeten sea water, distilling his wonderful elixir, -and awaiting further evidences of the king's petty nature. The story -that in a little dark cell in the White tower his History of the World -was written has no foundation. That work was written in the Garden -house. On his return from his unsuccessful and unhappy voyage, he lived -in the Brick tower for a little while, was then removed to the Wardrobe -tower, and then brought back to the Brick <!-- Page 311 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>tower and tempted to commit -suicide. Meanwhile the Spanish court continued to clamour for his -blood, and James, crazed by the hope of the Spanish marriage for his -son, at length signed the death warrant of, perhaps, the greatest man -in England.</p> - -<p>The king's cousin, Lady Arabella Stuart, because of her birth spent -most of her life as a prisoner of state, though she was not brought to -the Tower until after her unsuccessful attempt to escape to France in -1611. From that time until her death in 1615, she was a resident of the -old prison.</p> - -<p>It is said that James would sometimes come to see prisoners tortured -in the gloomy crypt under the White tower, the place where Guy Fawkes -suffered after the discovery of the Gunpowder plot in 1606, before his -execution.</p> - -<p>Executions for treason grow fewer as the years go on. Charles I saw -his unpopular minister, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, go first -to prison and then to Tower Hill in 1641, and the more unpopular Laud, -Archbishop of Canterbury, spent many weary months here in 1645, before -the procession to the scaffold. Cromwell kept George Monk, afterward -Duke of Albemarle, in confinement 1643-46, but during the reign of -Charles II there is less of interest, though Algernon Sydney suffered -the extreme penalty for alleged complicity in the Rye House Plot in -1683, and George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, had three separate terms -here.</p> - -<p><!-- Page 312 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p><p>During the short but turbulent reign of James II, the bastard son of -Charles II, James, Duke of Monmouth, spent three days in the Tower, -begging for mercy, after his disastrous defeat at Sedgmoor. The "Seven -Bishops" were confined here awaiting their trial for daring to resist -the king's will, and the infamous Chief Justice Jeffreys, captured -while attempting to escape, died in April, 1689, while awaiting trial.</p> - -<p>After the destruction of Jacobite hopes at Culloden, three Scottish -lords, Kilmarnock, Balmerino and Fraser of Lovat awaited trial for -their devotion to the old line. The first two were executed in 1746, -and the last in 1747, the last man legally beheaded in England.</p> - -<p>A few scattered individuals occupy the pile during the next -seventy-five years. John Wilkes, the great demagogue, was here in 1763, -and Lord George Gordon in 1780. In 1820 seven persons charged with -conspiracy were here, but the days of the Tower as a great prison were -past.</p> - -<p>For many years no persons have been confined within its walls, but -every year thousands go to see the Crown Jewels, the arms and armour, -the instruments of torture and the relics of the kings. They study -the inscriptions upon the walls of the Beauchamp tower, carved by the -fingers of men who knew not what the morrow would bring forth, and -stand upon the ground where England's worst and England's noblest have -stood.</p> - - - -<hr class="newchapter" /> -<div class="notebox"> -<p class="tnhead">TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</p> - - -<p>Pages 14, 16, and 18 are blank in the original.</p> - -<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation remain as in the original.</p> - -<p>Ellipses match the original.</p> - -<p>The following corrections have been made to the original text:</p> - -<div class="tnblock"> - -<p>Page 7: by the ruffians who ruled the roost[original has -"roast"]</p> - -<p>Page 40: which was thought of some time ago."[quotation mark -missing in original]</p> - -<p>Page 67: was asked if she would coöperate[original has -"co/operate" split across a line break]</p> - -<p>Page 140: women, according[original has "acording"] to another -eyewitness</p> - -<p>Page 156: full[original has "ful"] view of the males</p> - -<p>Page 160: watch for the officer's approach[original has -"aproach"]</p> - -<p>Page 179: They were accordingly[original has "acordingly"] -apprehended</p> -</div> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History and Romance of Crime, -Chronicles of Newgate, Vol 2, by Arthur Griffiths - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRONICLES OF NEWGATE, VOL 2 *** - -***** This file should be named 50514-h.htm or 50514-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/1/50514/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Lisa Reigel, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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