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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a4fca14 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50100 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50100) diff --git a/old/50100-0.txt b/old/50100-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 40e7567..0000000 --- a/old/50100-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3090 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Do Chemical Tricks, by A. Anderson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: How to Do Chemical Tricks - Containing Over One Hundred Highly Amusing and Instructive - Tricks With Chemicals - -Author: A. Anderson - -Release Date: September 30, 2015 [EBook #50100] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO DO CHEMICAL TRICKS *** - - - - -Produced by Craig Kirkwood, Demian Katz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (Images -courtesy of the Digital Library@Villanova University -(http://digital.library.villanova.edu/).) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_), and text -enclosed by equal signs is in bold (=bold=). - -Additional Transcriber’s Notes are at the end, including some -corrections to the text. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: HOW TO DO CHEMICAL TRICKS] - - - - -HOW TO DO CHEMICAL TRICKS. - - - Containing Over One Hundred Highly - Amusing and Instructive Tricks - With Chemicals. - - By A. ANDERSON. - - HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED. - - NEW YORK: - FRANK TOUSEY, Publisher, - 24 UNION SQUARE. - - * * * * * - -Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1898, by - -FRANK TOUSEY, - -in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D.C. - - * * * * * - -HOW TO DO CHEMICAL TRICKS. - -From the remotest ages chemistry has exercised the strongest -fascination on the minds of the curious, nor is it a matter of surprise -that boys should feel themselves drawn strongly by its mystery and -seeming magic. This attraction is undoubtedly caused by what the -ancients called the elements, earth, air, fire and water. There is -something so weird about the manifestation of air and fire, that it -is not difficult to understand how the alchemists believed them to be -forces able to be used at the bidding of spirits, who might be conjured -up by incantations and spells. - -Now it is known that these uncanny beings existed only in the -imagination of the forerunners of modern chemists. Yet what boy can -look on the brilliantly colored fires of a Fourth of July display, or -the burnished gold of the setting sun, or the fantastic pictures in the -glowing coals in a grate, and not feel that there is still something -of magic and mystery in fire still? What the boy feels, the scientist -cannot explain. Nobody knows actually what fire is. All that can be -said is that fire is produced by certain substances, such as coals, -wood, or paper, that give out heat, while passing from one state to -another. - -Now the word “element” was and is used to mean that simplest form of -matter, which, with other simplest forms goes to make up the whole -world of everything in it. The earth, animals, plants, the sea, the -atmosphere, are all made up of one or more of some seventy substances -called elements. Hence it is clear that the earth, air and water are -not, as the ancients thought, elements at all. As will be seen in this -little book, both air and water consist of mixtures of elements. In -chemistry such mixtures are called compounds. This word occurs again -and again, so its explanation should be remembered. - -One great fact must be remembered, which is at the very root of -chemistry. Nothing is really lost, however much its form may be -changed, or however many changes it may pass through. For instance, it -may seem that when a block of wood be burned that a very large amount -of it is lost. If, however, the ashes, the smoke, and the carbon that -is burned by the air be all weighed, the result would be exactly the -same as the weight of the original block of wood. - -Again take an instance of a different nature. A lump of sugar is placed -in a small glass of water. Gradually the solid is dissolved, and in -time disappears. It is not lost, however. By boiling the mixture until -all the water has evaporated the sugar will be found adhering as -crystals on the sides of the glass. If these be carefully collected, -they will be found to weigh precisely as much as the original lump of -sugar. - -Once more, take a block of ice weighing an ounce. Having removed -it into a room, the solid will in an hour or two have disappeared -entirely, but the water that has replaced the block of ice will weigh -neither more nor less than an ounce. If again heat be applied to the -water it will all disappear, but if weighed in a jam jar, the steam, -although invisible to the eye, will still weigh one ounce exactly. - -From the above-given experiments it may be seen that, however matter -may change its form it cannot really be destroyed. This truth will -appear in every experiment that can be performed, whether those given -in this little book or in the most learned treatise on chemistry. - - - - -Chemical Affinity. - - -This high-sounding term means that substances have a power of uniting -together that can be better explained by an experiment. Allow a few -drops of water to fall on a perfectly clean piece of iron. In a short -time a reddish-brown substance will appear on the iron that in ordinary -language is called rust. What does this mean? Water is a compound -substance composed of oxygen and hydrogen, but when brought into -contact with iron the oxygen prefers to unite with the iron and sets -the hydrogen free. Hence, would the chemist say, oxygen has a “stronger -affinity” for iron than for hydrogen. In this case the rust is composed -of rust, a combination of iron and oxygen called oxide of iron. What -has taken place may be shown by the following, which will be easily -understood: - - Oxygen } Water + Iron = Oxide - Hydrogen } of Iron + Hydrogen. - -So all that the chemical combination in the above means is that the -iron has taken the place of the hydrogen in the water used for the -experiment. If weighed it would be found as always, that the water -and the iron weighed precisely the same as the oxide of iron and the -hydrogen. - -It is to this same principle of chemical affinity that the curious -experiments of magic writing with sympathetic inks are possible. - - - - -Sympathetic Inks. - - -By means of these may be carried on a correspondence which is beyond -the discovery of all not in the secret. With one class of these inks -the writing becomes visible only when moistened with a particular -solution. Thus, if we write to you with a solution of sulphate of iron -the letters are invisible. On the receipt of our letter, you rub over -the sheet a feather or sponge, wet with a solution of nut-galls, and -the letters burst forth into sensible being at once, and are permanent. - -2. If we write with a solution of sugar of lead and you moisten with -a sponge or pencil dipped in water impregnated with sulphuretted -hydrogen, the letters will appear with metallic brilliancy. - -3. If we write with a weak solution of sulphate of copper, and you -apply ammonia, the letters assume a beautiful blue. When the ammonia -evaporates as it does on exposure to the sun or fire, the writing -disappears, but may be revived again as before. - -4. If you write with oil of vitriol very much diluted, so as to prevent -its destroying the paper, the manuscript will be invisible except when -held to the fire, when the letters will appear black. - -5. Write with cobalt dissolved in diluted muriatic acid; the letters -will be invisible when cold, but when warmed they will appear a bluish -green. - -Secrets thus written will not be brought to the knowledge of a -stranger, because he does not know the solution which was used in -writing, and therefore knows not what to apply to bring out the letters. - -Other forms of elective affinity produce equally novel results. Thus, -two invisible gases, when combined, form sometimes a _visible solid_. -Muriatic acid and ammonia are examples, also ammonia and carbonic acid. - -On the other hand, if a solution of sulphate of soda be mixed with a -solution of muriate of lime the whole becomes solid. - - * * * * * - -Some gases when united form liquids, as oxygen and hydrogen, which -unite and form water. Some solids when combined form liquids. - -Chemical affinity is sometimes called _elective_, or the effect of -_choice_, as if one substance exerted a kind of _preference_ for -another, and chose to be united to it rather than to that with which -it was previously combined; thus, if you pour some vinegar, which is -a weak acetic acid, upon some pearlash (a combination of potash and -carbonic acid), or some carbonate of soda (a combination of the same -acid with soda), a violent effervescence will take place, occasioned by -the escape of the carbonic acid, displaced in consequence of the potash -or soda preferring the acetic acid, and forming a compound called an -acetate. - -Then, if some sulphuric acid be poured on this new compound, the acetic -acid will, in its turn, be displaced by the greater attachment of -either of the bases, as they are termed, for the sulphuric acid. Again, -if into a solution of blue vitriol (a combination of sulphuric acid -with copper), the bright blade of a knife be introduced, the knife will -speedily be covered with a coat of copper, deposited in consequence of -the acid _preferring_ the iron of which the knife is made, a quantity -of it being dissolved in exact proportion to the quantity of copper -deposited. - -It is on the same principle that a very beautiful preparation called a -silver-tree, or a lead-tree, may be formed, thus: Fill a wide bottle, -capable of holding from half a pint to a pint, with a tolerably strong -solution of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), or acetate of lead, in -pure distilled water. Then attach a small piece of zinc by a string -to the cork or stopper of the bottle, so that the zinc shall hang -about the middle of the bottle, and set it by where it may be quite -undisturbed. In a short time brilliant plates of silver or lead, as the -case may be, will be seen to collect around the piece of zinc, assuming -more or less of the crystalline form. This is a case of elective -affinity; the acid with which the silver or lead was united _prefers_ -the zinc to either of those metals, and in consequence discards them -in order to attach the zinc to itself; and this process will continue -until the whole of the zinc is taken up, or the whole of the silver or -lead deposited. - - - - -Alum Baskets. - - -Form a small basket about the size of the hand, of iron wire or split -willow; then take some cotton, such as ladies use for running into -flounces; untwist it and wind it round every limb of the basket. Boil -eighteen ounces of alum in a quart of water, or quantities in that -proportion; stir the mixture while boiling until the alum is completely -dissolved. Pour the solution into a deep pan, or other convenient -vessel, and suspend the basket in the liquor, so that no part of the -basket shall touch the vessel, or be exposed to the air. Let the whole -remain perfectly at rest for twenty-four hours. When you then remove -the basket the alum will be found very prettily crystallized over all -the limbs of the cottoned frame. - - - - -Easy Crystallizations. - - -Saturate water _kept boiling_ with alum; then set the solution in a -cool place, suspending in it, by a hair, or fine silk thread, a cinder, -a sprig of a plant, or any other trifle. As the solution cools, a -beautiful crystallization of the salt takes place upon the cinders, -etc., which are made to resemble specimens of mineralogical spars. - - - - -To Make a Piece of Charcoal Appear as Though it were Coated with Gold. - - -Dilute a saturated solution of chloride of gold with five times its -bulk of water; place a thin strip of fresh burned charcoal into it, and -apply heat, gradually increasing it until the solution gently boils. -The heat will make the charcoal precipitate the metal on the charcoal, -in the form of brilliant spangles. - - - - -To Give a Piece of Charcoal a Rich Coat of Silver. - - -Lay a crystal of nitrate of silver upon a piece of burning charcoal; -the metallic salt will catch fire, and throw out the most beautiful -scintillations that can be imagined. The silver is reduced, and, in the -end, produces upon the charcoal a very brilliant appearance. - -Many animal and vegetable substances, consist, for the most part, of -carbon, or charcoal, united with oxygen and hydrogen, which remember, -together combined, form water. Now oil of vitriol or strong sulphuric -acid, has so powerful an affinity or so great a thirst for water, that -it will abstract it from almost any body in which it exists. If you -pour some of this acid on a lump of sugar, or place a chip of wood in a -small quantity of it, the sugar or wood will become speedily blackened, -that is charred, in consequence of the oxygen and hydrogen being -removed by the sulphuric acid, and only the carbon or charcoal left. - -When Cleopatra dissolved pearls of wondrous value in vinegar, she was -unwittingly giving an example of chemical affinity. The pearl is simply -carbonate of lime stored up by the oyster in layers. Consequently the -precious jewels were decomposed by the greater affinity or fondness -of lime for the acetic acid in the vinegar, than for the carbonic -acid with which it had been before united. This was an example of -inconstancy in strong contrast with the conduct of their owner, who -chose death rather than become the wife of her lover’s conqueror. - - - - -Combustion. - - -It is necessary to distinguish between burning and the mere appearance -of it. A gas flame is gas in a state of combustion, whereas the -electric light is no example of it, although the wire within the -glassen cylinder is red hot, and to all appearance burning. Combustion -generally takes place through the strong affinity of some element, such -as carbon in a substance for the oxygen in the atmosphere. In coal gas, -for instance, the carbon contained in it unites with the oxygen in the -air to form a colorless substance called carbonic acid gas. The latter -is unable to support life, and may be called, therefore, poisonous. It -is the presence of this gas which makes it unhealthy to burn many jets -without proper ventilation. - -Also, carbonic acid gas is given off by the lungs. It may seem -curious, but it is none the less true, that breathing is a process of -combustion. The blood brings to the surface of the lungs the carbon, -which has resulted from the waste of the internal organs of the body. -When drawing in a breath the oxygen present in the atmosphere meets the -impure blood at the surface of the lungs, and purifies it by uniting -with the carbon in it. Then, though oxygen has been breathed in, -carbonic acid gas has been breathed out. - -To prove this will be interesting: Obtain from a chemist a little lime -water--two cents worth will do. It looks like ordinary water, being -perfectly transparent and colorless. Pour some into a clean glass, and -through a glass tube blow steadily into the water. In half a minute the -hitherto colorless liquid will become milky and opaque. If allowed to -stand there will fall down at the bottom of the glass a white powder. - -What has happened in this case? The carbonic acid gas from the lungs -has formed with the lime in the lime water a substance called carbonate -of lime, which, being insoluble in water, falls to the bottom of the -glass as a white powder. - -If carbonic acid gas were not present in the air blown from the lungs, -this milkiness would not appear, for no other gas, except this, would -alter the lime water’s clearness. - - - - -Chemistry of The Air. - - -Before proceeding further, it will be well to perform one or two -experiments, to prove that the air we breathe is by no means the simple -substance it is generally supposed to be. Although it is invisible, it -must be remembered that it presses with a force of over fifteen pounds -to the square inch, over the whole surface of the earth. It extends, -too, to a height of some forty miles above the earth, and though it -cannot be seen, it can be felt in the rush of the hurricane, and heard -in the roar of the tempest. It is chiefly composed of a mixture of two -gases, oxygen and nitrogen. - -Did the air consist entirely of the former, people would breathe too -quickly, and die in a very short time in a high fever, burned up, in -fact. If only consisting of nitrogen, the human race would also die, -because this element is incapable of supporting life; people would be -suffocated, in fact. - -Therefore, a judicious mixture of the two is essential to the life -of animals. Generally, in a hundred parts of air by weight there are -seventy-six parts of nitrogen to twenty-three of oxygen. - -Besides these two gases, there is also a quantity of carbonic acid gas -in the air, given off by all the fires and animals in the world. Of -course, its amount is much greater in the great towns and manufacturing -centers than in country districts. - -Now herein must be recorded one of these charming arrangements which -Nature has designed for the benefit of her children. Carbonic acid gas -is much heavier than the air, and, therefore, sinks towards the ground, -where, if allowed to accumulate, would cause the death of every animal. -Fortunately, however, plants breathe in through their leaves carbonic -acid gas during sunshine, and break it up into carbon and oxygen. The -former, they use for building up their trunks, leaves, and flowers, -while during the night they give off oxygen into the air. - -This is the reason why plants and trees planted in the streets so -largely help to sweeten and purify the foul air of a great city. - - * * * * * - -An experiment to prove that the atmosphere does consist of nitrogen -and oxygen, may be prettily proved in the following simple manner: A -glass marmalade jar, or a soup-plate filled with water, and a piece of -phosphorus as large as a pea, are the only things necessary. Take very -great care not to touch the phosphorus, for the heat of the hand is -sufficient to set it on fire, and a terrible wound would be caused. - -Place the phosphorus in a match-box on the surface of the water, touch -it with a lighted match, and put the jar-mouth downwards over it to the -bottom of the plate. The phosphorus burns with a dazzling brilliancy, -and gives off dense white fumes. At the same time the water rises a -third of the way up the jar, but not to the top, thus showing that all -the invisible matter has not been consumed. The white soon settles into -the water and is dissolved. The phosphorus has combined with the oxygen -in the jar and forms phosphoric oxide, which dissolves in water. There -is then only the nitrogen left. The disappearance of the oxygen allows -the water to fill up the space it formerly occupied. - -This may be followed by another experiment. - -To show that oxygen is necessary for the support of combustion, fix -two or three pieces of wax taper on flat pieces of cork, and set them -floating on water in a soup-plate, light them, and invert over them a -glass jar. - -As they burn, the heat produced may perhaps at first expand the air, so -as to force a small quantity out of the jar, but the water will soon -rise in the jar, and continue to do so until the tapers expire, when -you will find that a considerable portion of the air has disappeared, -and what remains will no longer support flame. - -The oxygen has been converted partly into water, and partly into -carbonic acid gas, by uniting with the carbon and hydrogen of which -the taper consists, and the remaining air is principally nitrogen, -with some carbonic acid. The presence of the latter may be proved by -decanting some of the remaining air into a bottle, and then shaking -some lime water with it, which will absorb the carbonic acid and form -chalk. - -Into an ale glass, two thirds full of water at about 140 degrees, -drop one or two pieces of phosphorus about the size of peas, and they -will remain unaltered. Then take a bladder containing oxygen gas, to -which is attached a stop cock and a long fine tube. Pass the end of -the tube to the bottom of the water, turn the stop cock, and press the -bladder gently. As the gas reaches the phosphorus it will take fire, -and burn under the water with a brilliant flame, filling the glass with -brilliant flashes of light dashing through the water. - -Into another glass put some cold water; introduce carefully some of the -salt called chlorate of potash; upon that drop a piece of phosphorus; -then let some strong sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) trickle slowly -down the side of the glass, or introduce it by means of a dropping -bottle. - -As soon as the acid touches the salt the latter is decomposed, and -liberates a gas which ignites the phosphorus, producing much the same -appearance as in the last experiment. - -Into the half of a broken phial put some chlorate of potash, and pour -in some oil of vitriol. The phial will soon be filled with a heavy gas -of a deep yellow color. Tie a small test tube at right angles to the -end of a stick not less than a yard long, put a little ether into the -tube, and pour it gently into the phial of gas, when an instantaneous -explosion will take place, and the ether will be set on fire. This -experiment should be performed in a place where there are no articles -of furniture to be damaged, as the ingredients are often scattered by -the explosion, and the oil of vitriol destroys all animal and vegetable -substances. - -Into a jar containing oxygen gas introduce a coil of soft iron wire, -suspended to a cork that fits the neck of the jar and having attached -a small piece of charcoal to the lower part of the wire, ignite the -charcoal. The iron will take fire and burn with a brilliant light, -throwing out bright scintillations, which are oxide of iron, formed by -the union of the gas with the iron; and they are so intensely hot that -some of them will probably _melt_ their way into the sides of the jar, -if not through them. - -But by far the most intense heat, and most brilliant light, may be -produced by introducing a piece of phosphorus into a jar of oxygen. -The phosphorus may be placed in a small copper cup, with a long handle -of thick wire passing through a hole in a cork that fits the jar. The -phosphorus must first be ignited; and as soon as it is introduced into -the oxygen, it gives out a light so brilliant that no eye can bear it, -and the whole jar appears filled with an intensely luminous atmosphere. -It is well to dilute the oxygen with about one-fourth part of common -air, to moderate the intense heat, which is nearly certain to break the -jar if pure oxygen is used. - -The following experiment shows the production of heat by chemical -action alone: Bruise some fresh-prepared crystals of nitrate of copper, -spread them over a piece of tin foil, sprinkle them with a little -water; then fold up the foil tightly, as rapidly as possible, and in a -minute or two it will become red hot, the tin apparently burning away. -This heat is produced by the energetic action of the tin on the nitrate -of copper, taking away its oxygen in order to unite with the nitric -acid, for which, as well as for the oxygen the tin has a much greater -affinity than the copper has. - -[Illustration] - -Combustion without flame may be shown in a very elegant and agreeable -manner, by taking a coil of platinum wire and twisting it round the -stem of a tobacco pipe, or any cylindrical body for a dozen times or -so, leaving about an inch straight, which should be inserted into the -wick of a spirit lamp. Light the lamp, and after it has burned for a -minute or two, extinguish the flame quickly; the wire will soon become -red hot, and, if kept from draughts of air, will continue to burn -until all the spirit is consumed. - -Spongy platinum, as it is called, answers rather better than wire, and -has been employed in the formation of fumigators for the drawing-room, -in which, instead of pure spirit, some perfume, such as lavender water, -is used; by its combustion an agreeable odor is diffused through the -apartment. These little lamps were much in vogue a few years ago, but -are now nearly out of fashion. Finally, all the readers of this little -book should be very careful in performing all experiments. If possible, -he should use a room with a stone floor and no curtains, while an -outhouse with an earthen floor is still less dangerous. - - - - -Amateur Air Pump. - - -A most interesting class of experiments can be made with an air pump, a -piece of apparatus unfortunately beyond the pocket-money supply of the -average boy. Nevertheless, if the following instructions are exactly -followed and carefully carried out, a very excellent air pump can be -made at a comparatively small cost. Some pretty, as well as interesting -results will amply repay you for the trouble you take to make the pump. -Although the air seems so light in comparison with water or a heavy -metal like iron, you must remember that it really presses upon every -square inch of the earth’s surface, aye, on every square inch of your -own bodies, with a force of fourteen and a half pounds. In other words, -the weight of the air at the sea level resting on each square inch of -surface weighs fourteen and a half pounds. - -Don’t be frightened, boys, at the explanation of one word that must -be used in connection with air experiments. The word is vacuum. -Vacuum really means an empty space, devoid of all matter, even of -air. Although it seems easy to think of an empty space, it is quite -impossible to exhaust a space of all matter, even of air. For this -reason, the alchemists of the middle ages used to say: “Nature abhors -a vacuum.” This was only their way of saying how impossible it was to -make a space, such as the inside of a vessel, quite empty. Yet it is -possible to reduce the amount of air in a vessel almost to nothing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -Now for the pump. In the first place obtain three pieces of -gutta-percha tubing of the following lengths: - -No. 1.--A tube twelve and a half inches long, measuring outside two and -a half, inside one and a half inches in circumference. - -No. 2.--This must be seven and a half inches long, one and a half -inches outside, and an inch inside. - -No. 3.--This is a length of tubing about sixty inches long, two and a -half inches in outside circumference, and at least an inch thick. If an -inch and a half thick all the better, as it will be more air-tight. - -Divide tube No. 2 into two equal parts, cutting from right to left at -an angle of 45 degrees. Into one of the parts fit a plug of hard wood -pierced lengthwise by a red hot wire (fig. 1); the figure shows the -shape of it sufficiently. In the hollow side cut a small opening, and -over this tie very tightly a band of flexible india-rubber (fig. 3). -This band will serve as the valve of the piston of the pump. Figs. 3 -and 4 give a side and front view of this valve. Great care must be -taken neither to split the plug in boring the hole nor to cut the tube. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -This valve must now be inserted in the large tube No. 1, as seen in -fig. 2. - -At the other end of the large tube, which will serve as the body of -the pump, at B fig. 2, fix a similar valve to the above, but the -india-rubber band must be fixed on the other side of the valve as at B -fig. 2. The fitting A will serve for escape, the second for withdrawing -the air from the space to be exhausted. Finally fix tube No. 3 on -valves A or B, fig. 2, according to your wish to produce a vacuum or to -compress the air. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - -By means of a pedal made simply with two boards put together on hinges -(fig. 5), one pressed with the foot, the air contained in the body of -the pump (fig. 2) tends to escape. It therefore lifts the valve of the -fitting fixed at A, and escapes through the flexible elastic band tied -over the hole in the hollow side of tube No. 2. If the pressure ceases -the big tube, on account of its own elasticity, takes its former form -and sucks in the air. This time it is the valve at B which is lifted -and lets pass the air which fills the body of the pump. If one has -fixed on to the fitting at B, the long india-rubber tube No. 3, which -is plunged in a receiver--a receiver is any vessel in which the air is -exhausted, or into which it is forced--it is easily understood that -after a few moves of the pedal, the air is drawn out, and a vacuum is -obtained. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -If one wishes to have a force-pump one has only to modify slightly the -construction of the valve. Instead of a band of india-rubber fixed as -shown in fig. 3, it is altered as in fig. 4, that is to say the valve -is formed by a band of supple india-rubber fastened by two tacks only -on one side of the opening in the side of the plug. For this object it -is also necessary to take stronger tubes. - -Let us now review the few experiments that can be made with this -machine. - -In order to conduct experiments a receiver must be obtained. The best -vessel for your purpose is a large bell-jar with a ground glass stopper -and neck to insure absolute tightness. Such a jar may be cheaply -obtained at a scientific instrument maker’s for about seventy-five -cents. If you cannot get a bell-jar procure a 4-lb. jam pot and a -tightly-fitting bung. In the middle of the latter bore a hole to admit -a glass tube, some six inches long and an inch in diameter, and then -sealing-wax the whole of the upper surface of the bung so that air -cannot enter. Over the projecting end of the glass tube, bind very -tightly the free end of the long tubing affixed to the pump. To ensure -tight binding, waxed thread should be used. - - - - -Asphyxia. - - -Put a mouse--it is necessary to catch him first--into the receiver, and -work the pump. Soon the animal will show all the signs of being choked, -and eventually will die. This is proof sufficient that animals cannot -live without air. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Balloon in Vacuum. - - -Place in the receiver a small bladder, such as are sold in the streets -for a few cents. Wet it a little to make it more supple. Now, in the -ordinary way the air inside the bladder exerts the same pressure on -the skin of the bladder as does the air on the outside. Now work the -pedal so that the air in the receiver is gradually exhausted. The -bladder will be seen to gradually swell and finally burst. It bursts -because as the air in the receiver is exhausted by the pump, the air -outside the bladder exerts a less force than the air inside. But the -air inside is confined by the bladder skin, a not very strong material, -as you know, so as soon as the difference between the inside and -outside pressures is greater than the strength of the bladder, the -latter bursts. This experiment also shows the expansible power of air. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Boiling Cold Water. - - -Place in the receiver a tumbler of cold water and work the pump as -before. In a few minutes, as soon as the air is sufficiently exhausted, -the water will apparently boil. Yet you know the water does not boil -in a kettle unless heated to 212 degrees. This phenomenon is thus -explained: The vacuum causes the air-bubbles contained in the water to -escape. They easily do so, because there is scarcely any reserve on the -surface of the liquid (see fig.). - -[Illustration] - - - - -A Sucking Tube. - - -This force, the pressure of the air which you have just ascertained, -supplies various experiments in its illustration. - -Take a tin tube, for example, the tin holder of a penny pen, which you -may procure at any stationer’s. Put a little water in it and make it -boil so that the steam takes the place of the air. - -When steaming furiously stop the mouth of the tube with a small cork, -sealing the opening hermetically. Oil it a little, so it may glide with -ease. If you cool the tube by plunging it in a basin of cold water, -for example, the steam is condensed, forming a vacuum in the interior, -and under the atmospheric pressure the cork will glide down. Fasten -a string to the cork and you can withdraw it and begin the operation -again. As the water gets hot, steam is reformed; you will see the cork -come up again. - -A capital way of making this cork is to stick the tube in a piece of -potato, cutting out of the latter a perfectly-fitting cork. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Cupping. - - -Instead of a jar-receiver, take a long-necked bottle open at both ends. -If you place the hand on one of the open ends and exhaust the air, by -attaching the long tube of the pump to the other you cannot remove the -hand easily. Do not try to pump the air out entirely, as the suction -may be too strong and draw blood. It is by the rarefaction of the air -that the cupping-glass is applied to people who require bleeding. In -the antiquated surgical operation of cupping, the doctor burned a few -pieces of paper in small glass cups, which are then applied to the -skin; the air, in getting cold, contracted and produced a partial -vacuum, thus acting as the bottle did in the above experiment. - -[Illustration] - - - - -The Barometer. - - -Now you shall learn something about the pressure exercised by the -atmospheric layer which surrounds the earth to the height of about -forty miles. This is done with the aid of a very well-known instrument -called the barometer. - -You may construct one yourselves. Procure a glass tube closed at one -end, about a yard long and one tenth of an inch in diameter. Fill it -with mercury, then turn it upside down into a bowl filled with the same -metal, taking care that the air does not enter the tube. The column -will stop at a height between 29 and 30 inches. - -This, therefore is the measure of the force of the air’s pressure, for -in the upper part of the tube there is an absolute vacuum and nothing -would prevent the mercury from going higher up. The weight of the -air layer corresponds, therefore, to a height of nearly 30 inches of -mercury. - -[Illustration] - -This weight has been before stated, viz., fourteen and a half pounds, -such a weight being supported by every single square inch of the -globe’s surface. A marvelous pressure is thus exerted on the whole -earth. In other words, the weight of the air that surrounds the -earth on all sides is no less than the following enormous number of -5,184,740,000,000,000 tons. - -A man of average height, himself supports the enormous pressure of -34,171 pounds, or over 15 tons, and yet does not feel the least -inconvenience in his movements. It is because this pressure is -exercised in all directions, and a human body carries within it elastic -fluids that counterbalance that tremendous weight. - -So accustomed do people become to this weight that when the weather is -stormy, a feeling of heaviness comes on. - -However, it is just the contrary which takes place when the barometer -is lower; that is to say, the atmospheric pressure has diminished. -Consequently there is less weight to be carried. - -You would experience the same sensation when going up in a balloon. As -you rise higher and higher the weight of the air is less felt, and this -makes people so uncomfortable that at a height of about 9,000 or 10,000 -yards the liquids in our body--the blood, the water, the bile--tend to -escape outwards. Why? Because they are no longer balanced by an outside -pressure equal in force to them. In fact, if you continued to ascend, -your fate would be that of the bladder in the first experiment--you -would burst. Thus are you and all creatures attached to the face of the -earth, and it seems as if great heights were forbidden to our curiosity. - - - - -A Novel Barometer. - - -Construct a toy house of cardboard, painted, and let there be two -open doorways in the front, and let it stand on a wooden platform to -represent the ground. The two sides and back may come right down to the -ground, but there must be a slight space between the front of the house -and the ground upon which it stands. - -Next make a flat wheel or disc of wood about the thickness of a penny, -its diameter or measurement across the center to measure the same as -the distance between the two doorways of the house. The wheel disc or -turn-table must have a shaft or spindle in the middle, so that it will -revolve easily in a hole made for it in the floor or ground which your -cardboard house stands on; this pivot-hole should be just within the -house and exactly half way between the two doors. - -In the next place get two small dolls of such size that they will pass -easily through the doorways, or you may cut them out of cork or some -light substance. Dress one to represent an old man and the other as his -wife, and fix them opposite each other at the edge of the disc or wheel -in such a manner, that when it turns on its axle, the figures move in -and out of the two doorways provided for their accommodation, for it -appears that, although residing in the same house, they are not on very -good terms. When the husband goes out the wife remains at home, and as -she only ventures abroad in fine weather, her spouse is obliged to look -out when rain may be expected. - -The motive power has now to be provided and this takes the form of -a piece of catgut, such as violin strings are made of; this is a -substance very susceptible of atmospheric influences, for dry weather -contracts or tightens it, while a damp atmosphere causes it to relax. -Double your catgut and twist it, fasten one end of the rope so formed -near the back of the house inside and fasten the other to the pivot -or axle, with two or three turns round it. As the weather changes the -tightening or relaxing of the rope will cause the figures to move in -and out of the house. Of course, the figures must be arranged so that -the lady comes out when the rope is tightened by the dryness of the -atmosphere. - - - - -Compressed Air. - - -To make experiments with compressed air, you must put your wits -together to make a reservoir. Air, you know, is a gas consisting of -particles called atoms. These atoms are at a certain distance from one -another. They can be pushed further from one another as when you heat -them, or closer together by cold and compression. So compressed air -only means air whose atoms are pressed more closely together than as -the case with the air around us. - -Now you have heard that a column of air on a square inch weighs -fourteen and a half pounds. Also, you know that air in a receiver or -any other vessel presses on the vessel inside and out with a force (or -weight) of fourteen and a half pounds. - -If now into the vessel you push another quantity of air, equal to the -vessel’s capacity, you simply push the atoms of air closer together. -In fact, they are now only half as far apart as the atoms of an open -vessel. But the pressure is doubled and the compressed air, therefore, -will press on the inside of the vessel with a force of twenty-nine -pounds. - -[Illustration] - -Now to make the reservoir. Get a tin tube about 40 inches long and -four in diameter, closed at both ends. Take care that the soldering -is well done. Two openings must be made, and a small tube inserted in -each. To each of these attach an indiarubber tube, one four feet long, -and the other six. (See fig.). - -To fill this reservoir with compressed air, apply the air-pump fitted -with the valve shown in fig. 4, in the description of an air-pump. -Squeeze tightly the upper tube of the reservoir before beginning to -pump, and then it will be easy to judge the amount of compression of -the air. For the first experiment place a light ball or sheet of paper -over the mouth of the tube, and loosen your hold on it. The object will -immediately be blown away with considerable force. - - - - -Noiseless Bell. - - -We know that sound is a succession of vibrations which must be -transmitted in a medium with weight, as air or water; in other words, -in a vacuum there can be no sound at all. To prove this, introduce -into the receiver a small bell, and as the air is extracted the sounds -become weaker and weaker, and cease altogether when the air is -completely rarified. - -[Illustration] - - - - -The Bursting Bladder. - - -Tie a thin piece of light indiarubber round the top of the bottle, and -you will notice that as the air is withdrawn, the indiarubber will -stretch, and at length form a round small balloon in the interior of -the bottle. (Fig. 1). - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -If a piece of bladder is tightly stretched and tied round the vessel -(fig. 2.) it will burst under the force of the atmospheric pressure -which acts upon it, through a vacuum having been made underneath. This -is another case of the first experiment with the air pump described -above. - - - - -Weight of the Air. - - -Another experiment will still better make you appreciate the value of -this factor: the weight of the air. - -Put a piece of supple leather in which a ring is attached under the -bottle; pump the air out of the latter and you will be astonished at -the weight you may hang on this leather without dragging it off. - -[Illustration] - -Should you not have at hand a glass receiver, a wooden reel may serve -instead (see fig.). On one of its faces place a piece of strong -cardboard, in the middle of which a hook has been fastened; when the -rarefaction is made, rather heavy weights must be hooked on before the -cardboard is detached from the face of the rest. - - - - -Spoons which will Melt in Hot Water. - - -Fuse together in a crucible, eight parts of bismuth, five of lead and -three of tin; these metals will combine and form an alloy, of which -spoons may be made, possessed of the remarkable property of melting in -boiled water. - - - - -Effect of Compression. - - -Take a wooden reel and hollow out either the top or bottom, beginning -at the hole in the center and working towards the edge. In the hollow -place a ball. Apply to the other end the indiarubber tube which -conducts the forced air, and the ball will be lifted up (see fig.). - -[Illustration] - - - - -To Cover Iron with Copper. - - -If you are about to perform a conjuring trick, you will, of course take -great care that your apparatus is ready. Therefore, clean your piece -of iron or steel from dirt. Dip a piece of polished iron--the blade -of your knife, for instance--into a solution, either of nitrate or -sulphate of copper, when it will assume the appearance of a piece of -pure copper. - - - - -The Elements. - - -Before entering into the next series of experiments the young chemist -must know that all the substances of which the world and everything in -it are made up--_i.e._, the elements are arranged in two classes, the -metals and the non-metals. The former are by far the more numerous, -altogether numbering more than fifty. Among the better known are -such well known substances as iron, mercury, copper, tin, potassium, -antimony, strontium, and nickel. The non-metals are more widely -distributed and together made up of the bulk of the universe. - -They comprise the gases--oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine, -and such substances as sulphur, carbon, phosphorus and iodine. To the -latter class also belongs a peculiar element called fluorine, which, -when combined with hydrogen, destroys glass. It is the only liquid -known which cannot be contained in a glassen or earthenware vessel, and -when used for experimental purposes must be kept in a leaden bottle. - -Of course it will be understood that the above is not a complete -list by any means, but is sufficient to give a clear idea of the -difference between the two classes. The metals generally speaking are -of a more or less sparkling, lustrous appearance. The metals, too, are -good conductors of heat and electricity, and generally heavy. These -characteristics are almost entirely wanting in the non-metals. We shall -now give some tricks with the metals. - - - - -Potassium. - - -Potassium was discovered by Sir H. Davy, in the beginning of the -present century, while acting upon potash with the enormous galvanic -battery of the Royal Institution, consisting of two thousand pairs of -four inch plates. It is a brilliant metal, so soft as to be easily cut -with a penknife, and so light as to swim upon water, on which it acts -with great energy, uniting with the oxygen and liberating the hydrogen, -which takes fire as it escapes. - -Trace some continuous lines on paper with a camel’s-hair brush dipped -in water, and place a piece of potassium about the size of a pea on one -of the lines, and it will follow the course of the pencil, taking fire -as it runs, and burning with a purplish light. - -The paper will be found covered with a solution of ordinary potash. If -turmeric paper be used, the course of the potassium will be marked with -a deep brown color. Hence if you touch potassium with wet fingers you -will burn them. - -If a small piece of the metal be placed on a piece of ice, it will -instantly take fire, and form a deep hole which will be found to -contain a solution of potash. - -In consequence of its great affinity for oxygen, potassium must be kept -in some fluid destitute of it, such as naphtha acid, which has been -displaced by the great affinity or liking of the oxygen and acid for -the copper. - -2. When the copper is no longer coated, but remains clean and bright -when immersed in the fluid, all the silver has been deposited, and the -glass now contains a solution of copper. - -Nearly all the colors used in the arts are produced by metals and -their combinations; indeed, one is named chromium, from a Greek word -signifying color, on account of the beautiful tints obtained from its -various combinations with oxygen and the other metals. All the various -tints, of green, orange, yellow and red are obtained from this metal. - -Solutions of most of the metallic salts give precipitates with -solutions of alkalies and their salts, as well as with many other -substances, such as what are usually called prussiate of potash, -hydrosulphret of ammonia, etc. The colors differ according to the metal -employed; and so small a quantity is required to produce the color, -that the solutions before mixing may be nearly colorless. - - - - -Metallic Colors. - - -To a solution of sulphate of iron add a drop or two of a solution of -prussiate of potash, and a blue color will be produced. - -2. Substitute sulphate of copper for iron, and the color will be a rich -brown. - -3. Another blue, of quite a different tint, may be produced by letting -a few drops of a solution of ammonia fall into one of sulphate of -copper, when a precipitate of a light blue falls down, which is -dissolved by an additional quantity of the ammonia, and forms a -transparent solution of the most splendid rich blue color. - -4. Into a solution of sulphate of iron, drop a few drops of strong -infusion of galls, and the color will become a bluish black--in fact -ink. A little tea will answer as well as the infusion of galls. -This is the reason why certain stuffs formerly in general use for -dressing-gowns for gentlemen were so objectionable; for as they were -indebted to a salt of iron for their color, buff as it was called, a -drop of tea accidentally spilled produced all the effect of a drop of -ink. - -5. Put into a largish test tube two or three small pieces of granulated -zinc, fill it about one-third full of water, put in a few grains of -iodine, and boil the water, which will at first acquire a dark purple -color, gradually fading as the iodine combines with the zinc. Add a -little more iodine from time to time, until the zinc is nearly all -dissolved. If a few drops of this solution be added to an equally -colorless solution of corrosive sublimate (a salt of mercury), a -precipitate will take place of a splendid scarlet color, brighter, if -possible, than vermilion, which is also a preparation of mercury. - - - - -Crystallization of Metals. - - -Some of the metals assume certain definite forms in return from the -fluid to the solid state. Bismuth shows this property more readily than -most others. - - -EXPERIMENT. - -Melt a pound or two of bismuth in an iron ladle over the fire; remove -it as soon as the whole is fluid; and when the surface has become -solid break a hole in it and pour out the still fluid metal from the -interior; what remains will exhibit beautifully formed crystals of a -cubic shape. - -Sulphur may be crystallized in the same manner, but its fumes, when -heated, are so very unpleasant that few would wish to encounter them. - -One of the most remarkable facts in chemistry--a science abounding in -wonders--is the circumstance that the mere contact of hydrogen, the -lightest body known, with the metal platinum, the heaviest when in a -state of minute division called spongy platinum, produces an intense -heat sufficient to inflame the hydrogen; of course this experiment must -be made in the presence of atmospheric air or oxygen. If a small piece -of the metal in the state above named be introduced into a mixture -of oxygen and hydrogen, it will cause them to explode. A very small -quantity of gas should be employed and placed in a jar lightly covered -with a card, or the explosion would be dangerous. - - - - -Crystallization. - - -Nearly all the metals are characterized by the crystals, which -are formed as they pass from a state of intense heat to that of -comparative coldness. It is by this process they have been formed when -in the mine or vein in the rocks. The earth was once a fiery mass -of molten matter, as seen even now when a volcano is in a state of -eruption. And it was only by the cooling of the outside shell of the -earth, or crust, as it is called, that it became habitable. - -When the crust was cooling down the metals crystallized among the -cooling rocks and gradually formed the crude arts. You may represent by -a very pretty experiment the manner in which this cooling off of the -earth took place. Obtain a little flour of sulphur and put it in a red -earthenware unglazed jar. Thrust it well into the fire and watch the -rust. As soon as the heat has penetrated the vessel the yellow powdery -sulphur becomes first of all brown, and then assumes the consistency -of thick birdlime. Take out a little of this on the end of a stick and -plunge it into cold water. It can then be pulled backwards and forwards -like cobblers’ wax. This well represents the state of the half-cooled -crust of the earth. - -Meanwhile the sulphur on the fire begins to boil, and looks very much -like bubbling treacle. Remove it from the fire and allow it to cool. -When quite cool the surface will be a flat, yellow mass, like ordinary -roll sulphur, which, when ground, give the ordinary flour of sulphur. - -With a sharp knife separate the mass from the vessel and look at the -under-surface. There it will be found to have assumed a very different -form, owing to the exclusion of the air, and consequent slower cooling. -Large six-sided crystals, transparent, and of a most exquisitely -delicate yellow, will be seen, piled on one another as appear the -masses of ore in rocks. - -Nature always works in such cases on such a gigantic scale that it -seems at first difficult to believe that such huge piles as the Giant’s -Causeway in Ireland, or Fingals in Scotland, or the lodes of tin ore in -Cornwall, worked by the Phœnicians three thousand years ago, and still -being worked, were all formed by the same process. - -The time that the earth must have taken to cool fairly staggers the -imagination, yet it is only from guessing, by means of such a study as -this, that geologists are able to form any idea of how long ago it was -that the earth’s crust became cool enough to allow animal and plant -life to exist upon it. - -The most beautiful crystalline form is perhaps the diamond, and yet -this precious gem is but the same thing, chemically, as charcoal. -Charcoal is pure carbon in the uncrystallized state, which the magic -of crystallization has transformed into the symbol of all that is -brilliant and beautiful. - - - - -Beauties of Crystallization. - - -Dissolve alum in hot water until no more can be dissolved in it; place -in it a smooth glass rod and a stick of the same size. Next day the -stick will be found covered with crystals, but the glass rod will be -free from them. In this case the crystals cling to the rough surface of -the stick, but have no hold upon the smooth surface of the glass rod. - -But if the rod be roughened with a file at certain intervals, and then -placed in the alum and water, the crystals will adhere to the rough -surfaces, and leave the smooth bright and clear. - -Tie some threads of lamp-cotton irregularly around a copper wire or -glass rod. Place it in a hot solution of blue vitriol, strong as above, -and the threads will be covered with beautiful blue crystals, while the -glass rod will be bare. - -Bore a hole through a piece of coke, and suspend it by a string from a -stick placed across a hot solution of alum. It will float. But as it -becomes loaded with crystals it will sink in the solution according to -the length of the string. Gas-coke has mostly a smooth, shining, and -almost metallic surface, which the crystals will avoid, while they will -cling only to the most irregular and porous parts. - -If powdered turmeric be added to the hot solution of alum the crystals -will be of a bright yellow. Litmus will cause them to be of a bright -red. Logwood will yield purple; and common writing ink, black. And the -more muddy the solution the finer will be the crystals. - -To keep colored alum crystals from breaking or losing their color, -place them under a glass shade with a saucer of water. - -This will preserve the atmosphere moist, and prevent the crystals -getting too dry. - -If crystals be formed on wire they will be liable to break off, from -the expansion and contraction of the wire by changes of temperature. - - - - -To Crystallize Camphor. - - -Dissolve camphor in spirit of wine, moderately heated, until the -spirit will not dissolve any more; pour some of the solution into a -cold glass, and the camphor will instantly crystallize in beautiful -tree-like forms, such as we see in the show-glasses of camphor in -druggists’ windows. - - -ANOTHER EXPERIMENT. - -Heat some blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) in an iron ladle till -all the water contained in the crystals is driven off, and the color -changes to a gray. Take the lumps out without breaking them, and -lay the dried blue vitriol on a plate. If this be moistened with -water steam is produced; and if a slice of phosphorus is then laid -on the sulphate of copper it ignites, demonstrating again that the -condensation of a liquid produces heat. The addition of the water -restores the blue color, thus proving that water was necessary to the -composition of blue vitriol. - - - - -A Solid Changed to a Liquid. - - -Mix five parts by weight of powdered sal ammoniac, five parts of nitre -in powder, and sixteen parts of water. A temperature of twenty-two -degrees below the freezing point of water is produced; and if a phial -of water, or any convenient metallic cylinder containing water, be -surrounded with a sufficient quantity of the freezing mixture, ice is -formed. The ice clings to the interior of the tube, but may easily be -removed by dipping it in tepid water. - -This experiment is the reverse of the last and proves that the sudden -reduction of a solid to the liquid condition always affords cold. - -An amusing combination of two experiments may be made by putting some -fresh-burned lime into one tea pot and this freezing mixture into -another. When water is poured on the one containing lime, it gives -out steam from the spout, while the addition of water to the other -produces so much cold that it can hardly be kept in the hand. Thus heat -and cold are afforded through the same medium, water. - - - - -Magic of Heat. - - -Melt a small quantity of the sulphate of potash and copper in a spoon -over a spirit lamp. It will be fused at a heat just below redness, -and produce a liquid of a dark-green color. Remove the spoon from the -flame, when the liquid will become a solid of a brilliant emerald green -color, and so remain until its heat sinks nearly to that of boiling -water, when suddenly a commotion will take place throughout the mass, -beginning from the surface, and each atom, as if animated, will start -up and separate itself from the rest, till in a few moments the whole -will become a heap of powder. - - - - -Sublimation by Heat. - - -Provide two small pieces of glass; sprinkle a minute portion of -sulphur upon one piece, lay thin slips of wood around it, and place -upon it the other piece of glass. Move them slowly over the flame of a -lamp or candle, and the sulphur will become sublimed, and form gray, -nebulous patches, which are very curious microscopic objects. Each -cluster consists of thousands of transparent globules, imitating in -miniature the nebulæ which we see figured in treatises on astronomy. -By observing the largest particles we shall find them to be flattened -on one side. Being very transparent, each of them acts the part of -a little lens, and forms in its focus the image of a distant light, -which can be perceived even in the smaller globules, until it vanishes -from minuteness. If they are examined again after a certain number of -hours, the smaller globules will generally be found to have retained -their transparency, while the larger ones will have become opaque, in -consequence of the sulphur having undergone some internal spontaneous -change. But the most remarkable circumstance attending this experiment -is that the globules are found adhering to the upper glass only; -the reason of which is that the upper glass is somewhat cooler than -the lower one, by which means we see that the vapor of sulphur is -very powerfully repelled by heated glass. The flattened form of the -particles is owing to the force with which they endeavor to recede from -the lower glass, and their consequent pressure against the surface of -the upper one. This experiment is considered by its originator, Mr. -H. F. Talbot, to be a satisfactory argument in favor of the repulsive -power of heat. - - - - -Heat Passing Through Glass. - - -Although glass is a bad conductor it yet allows heat to pass through -it, and the purer the glass the more easy is this done. Heat a poker -red hot, and having opened a window, apply the poker very near to -the outside of the pane, and the hand to the inside. A strong heat -will be felt at the instant, which will cease as soon as the poker is -withdrawn, and may be again renewed and made to cease as quickly as -before. It is well known that if a piece of glass be so much warmed as -to convey the impression of heat to the hand, it will retain some part -of that heat for a minute or more; but in this experiment the heat will -vanish in a moment. It will not, therefore, be the heated pane of glass -that we shall feel, but heat which has come through the glass in a free -or radiant state. - - - - -Metals Unequally Influenced by Heat. - - -All metals do not conduct heat at the same rate as may be proved by -holding in the flame of a candle at the same time a piece of silver -wire and a piece of platina wire, when the silver wire will become too -hot to hold, much sooner than the platina. Or cut a cone of each wire, -tip it with wax, and place it upon a heated plate (as a fire-shovel), -when the wax will melt at different periods. - - - - -Spontaneous Combustion. - - -Mix a small quantity of chlorate of potash with spirit of wine in a -strong saucer; add a little sulphuric acid, and an orange vapor will -arise and burst into flame with a loud crackling sound. - - - - -Inequality of Heat in Fire-Irons. - - -Place before a fire a set of polished fire-irons, and beside them a -rough, unpolished poker, such as is used in the kitchen, instead -of a bright poker. The polished irons will remain for a long time -without becoming warmer than the temperature of the room, because -the heat radiated from the fire is all reflected, or thrown off, by -the polished surface of the irons, and none of it is absorbed. The -rough poker will, however, become speedily hot, so as not to be used -without inconvenience. Hence, the polish of fire-irons is not merely -ornamental, but useful. - - - - -Expansion of Metal by Heat. - - -Provide an iron rod, and fit it exactly into a metal ring; heat the rod -red hot, and it will no longer enter the ring. - -Observe an iron gate on a warm day, when it will shut with difficulty; -whereas it will shut loosely and easily on a cold day. - - - - -The Alchemist’s Ink. - - -Dissolve in water a small quantity, about as much as will lay on a -ten-cent piece, of chloride of cobalt, which is of a bluish-green -color, and the solution will be pink; write with it and the characters -will scarcely be visible; but if gently heated they will appear in -brilliant green, which will disappear as the paper cools. - -Dissolve in water a few grains of prussiate of potash; write with this -liquid, which is invisible when dry; wash over with a dilute solution -of iron, made by dissolving a nail in a little aqua fortis; a blue and -legible writing is immediately apparent. - - - - -Chameleon Liquids. - - -Put a small portion of the compound called mineral chameleon into -several glasses. Pour upon each water at different temperatures and -the contents of each glass will exhibit a different shade of color. A -very hot solution will be of a beautiful green color; a cold one a deep -purple. - -Make a colorless solution of sulphate of copper; add to it a little -ammonia equally colorless, and the mixture will be of an intense blue -color; add to it a little sulphuric acid, and the blue color will -disappear; pour in a little solution of caustic ammonia, and the blue -color will be restored. Thus may the liquor be changed at pleasure. - - - - -Magic Dyes. - - -Dissolve indigo in diluted sulphuric acid, and add to it an equal -quantity of solution of carbonate of potash. If a piece of white cloth -be dipped in the mixture it will be changed to blue; yellow cloth, in -the same mixture, may be changed to green; red to purple; and blue -litmus paper to red. - -Nearly fill a wine glass with the juice of beet-root, which is of -a deep red color; add a little lime water and the mixture will be -colorless; dip into it a piece of white cloth, dry it rapidly, and in a -few hours the cloth will become red. - - - - -Wine Changed into Water. - - -Mix a little solution of subacetate of lead with port wine; filter -the mixture through blotting-paper, and a colorless liquid will pass -through; to this add a small quantity of dry salt of tartar; distill in -a retort, when a spirit will arise, which may be inflamed. - - - - -The Chemistry of Water. - - -More than two-thirds of the earth’s surface is water, so that in mere -quantity alone it is the most important substance with which we are -acquainted. Without it life would be impossible, for, owing to its -quality of dissolving other bodies, it may be regarded as the great -purifier, as well as the vehicle which brings nourishment to plants and -animals alike. - -Not only is water useful, but is among the most beautiful of Nature’s -products. It has carved the valleys between mountain ranges by its slow -dropping for ages, and has made the fairy glens by rushing down their -sides in torrents. The stately rivers and the roaring oceans are but -forms of its might. - -In another state it works out those fantastic grottoes, mountains and -fields of glittering white, that make the Polar seas the very head -center of dreamland. - -In still another form it paints the rainbow in the sky, and hangs like -a veil over the landscape, passing from the most delicate blue over the -plain to the deep purple clinging to distant hills. - -To it the golden and red hues of sunrise and sunset are due. The light -fleecy clouds that speak the beauty of spring, and the great thunder -stocks that gleam, with lightning flashes are all composed of water, -and water alone. - -It drives our engines and machinery, and speeds our ships across the -sea. Neither is it confined to this earth alone, for astronomers tell -us that vast seas and even clouds can be seen on the next great planet -to the earth, Mars. - -Surely, then, as this wondrous substance is examined, the ancients can -be excused for worshiping the ocean as a god, and the old alchemists -for believing it to be an element. - -Nevertheless, water is not a simple substance. It is composed of two -gases, which must be combined before water is produced. These gases are -oxygen and hydrogen. Every atom of water consists of one part of the -former gas and two parts by volume of the latter. This you may prove in -the following way: - -Buy a piece of sodium, a metal that must not be touched with the -fingers, and thrust it into a small one-ounce jar half full of water; -cork the jar tightly. - -Through a hole in the cork pass a glass tube, the outer end being drawn -in a flame to a fine point. Apply a light at the end of the tube. The -escaping gas will catch fire and burn with a light blue flame. This gas -is hydrogen. - -Next empty the jar and fill with warm water, and place by means of -another cork a small glass jar on to the tube. Into the lower jar drop -a piece of blazing hot platinum. Repeat this again and again with the -same piece of platinum, being careful not to uncork the upper jar, so -that every time the metal is dropped into the lower jar, you remove -the upper jar with the tube and two corks. After doing this a dozen -times or more take a match that is still glowing after having been -extinguished, and plunge it into the upper jar. It will burst into -flame immediately, and the gas in the upper jar is oxygen. - - - - -Two Bitters Make a Sweet. - - -It has been discovered that a mixture of nitrate of silver with -hyposulphite of soda, both of which are remarkably bitter, will produce -the sweetest known substance. - - - - -Visible and Invisible. - - -Write with French chalk on a looking-glass; wipe it with a handkerchief -and the lines will disappear; breathe on it and they will reappear. -This alteration will take place for a great number of times, and after -the lapse of a considerable period. - - - - -To Form a Liquid from Two Solids. - - -Rub together in a mortar a small quantity of sulphate of soda and -acetate of lead, and as they mix they will become liquid. - -Carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of copper, previously reduced to -powder separately, will also, when mixed, become liquid, and acquire a -most splendid blue color. - -The greater number of salts have a tendency to assume regular forms, or -become _crystallized_, when passing from the fluid to the solid state; -and the size and regularity of the crystals depends in a great measure -on the slow or rapid escape of the fluid in which they were dissolved. - -Sugar is a capital example of this property; the ordinary loaf-sugar -being rapidly boiled down, as it is called; while to make rock-candy, -which is nothing but sugar in a crystallized form, the solution is -allowed to evaporate slowly, and as it cools it forms into those -beautiful crystals termed rock-candy. The threads found in the center -of some of the crystals are merely placed for the purpose of hastening -the formation of the crystals. - - - - -Restoration of Color by Water. - - -Water being a colorous fluid ought, one would imagine when mixed with -other substances of no decided color, to produce a colorless compound. -Nevertheless, it is to water only that blue vitriol or sulphate of -copper owes its vivid blueness, as will be plainly evinced by the -following simple experiment. Heat a few crystals of the vitriol in -a fire-shovel, pulverize them, and the powder will be of a dull and -dirty white appearance. Pour a little water upon this when a slight -hissing noise will be heard, and at the same moment the blue color will -instantly reappear. - -Under the microscope the beauty of this experiment will be increased, -for the instant that a drop of water is placed in contact with the -vitriol, the powder may be seen to shoot into blue prisms. If a crystal -of prussiate of potash be similarly heated its yellow color will -vanish, but reappear on being dropped into water. - - - - -Two Liquids Make a Solid. - - -Dissolve chloride of lime in water until it will dissolve no more; -measure out an equal quantity of oil of vitriol; both will be -transparent fluids; but if equal quantities of each be slowly mixed and -stirred together, they will become a solid mass, with the evolution of -smoke or fumes. - - - - -Two Solids Make a Liquid. - - -Rub together in a mortar equal quantities of the crystals of Glauber -salts and nitrate of ammonia, and the two salts will slowly become a -liquid. - - - - -A Solid Opaque Mass Makes a Transparent Liquid. - - -Take the solid mixture of the solutions of muriate of lime and -carbonate of potash, pour upon it a very little nitric acid, and the -solid opaque mass will be changed to a transparent liquid. - - - - -Two Cold Liquids Make a Hot One. - - -Mix four drams of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) with one dram of cold -water, suddenly, in a cup, and the mixture will be nearly half as hot -again as boiling water. - - - - -To Make Ice. - - -Although this trick is performed by means of chemicals, yet its product -is obtained really by the use of mechanical laws. We must remember that -ice is exactly the same thing as water so far as its composition is -concerned, differing only in its state of density. - -Ice, water, and steam differ in density through the possession of a -greater or less quantity of heat. Hence, the turning of water into ice -really is a case of the operation of mechanical laws. - -Now for the experiment. Put into a wide-mouthed jam-jar a smaller -glass vessel containing the water to be frozen. Around the latter put -a mixture of sulphate of soda (Glauber’s salt) and hydrochloric acid -(spirits of salts). The proportions must be eight parts of the former -to five of the latter. - -The action of these two chemicals on one another is to cause a cold of -fifteen to seventeen degrees below zero, or forty-seven degrees below -freezing point. - -The same result may be obtained by mixing equal parts of nitrate of -ammonia and water. In winter-time when the snow is on the ground, with -a mixture of one part snow and one part common table salt an intense -cold of twenty degrees below zero is obtained. - -From this last fact we see how stupid are those people who sprinkle the -salt on the pavements to get rid of the snow. True, the latter melts, -but only after the production of intense cold, which is the cause of -many diseases, not only slight ones like colds and chilblains, but too -often the forerunners of consumption and other lung troubles. - - - - -Curious Change of Colors. - - -Let there be no other light than a taper in the room; then put on a -pair of dark-green spectacles, and having closed one eye view the taper -with the other. Suddenly remove the spectacles and the taper will -assume a bright red appearance; but if the spectacles be instantly -replaced, the eye will be unable to distinguish anything for a second -or two. The order of colors will therefore be as follows: green, red, -green, black. - - - - -The Protean Light. - - -Soak a cotton wick in a strong solution of salt and water, dry it, -place it in a spirit lamp, and when lit it will give a bright yellow -light for a long time. If you look through a piece of blue glass at the -flame, it will lose all its yellow light and you will only perceive -feeble violet rays. If before the blue glass you place a pale yellow -glass, the lamp will be absolutely invisible, though a candle may be -distinctly seen through the same glasses. - - - - -To Change the Colors of Flowers. - - -Hold over a lighted match a purple columbine or a blue larkspur, and -it will change first to pink and then to black. The yellow of other -flowers held as above will continue unchanged. - -Thus, the purple tint will instantly disappear from a heart’s-ease, but -the yellow will remain; and the yellow of a wall-flower will continue -the same, though the brown streak will be discharged. If a scarlet, -crimson, or maroon dahlia be tried, the color will change to yellow, -a fact known to gardeners, who by this mode variegate their growing -dahlias. - - - - -Changes of the Poppy. - - -Some flowers which are red, become blue by merely bruising them. Thus, -if the petals of the common corn-poppy be rubbed upon white paper, they -will stain it purple, which may be made green by washing it over with a -strong solution of potash in water. Put poppy petals into very dilute -muriatic acid, and the infusion will be of a florid red color; by -adding a little chalk, it will become the color of port wine; and this -tint, by the addition of potash may be changed to green or yellow. - - - - -Changes of the Rose. - - -Hold a red rose over the blue flame of a common match and the color -will be discharged wherever the fume touches the leaves of the flower, -so as to render it beautifully variegated, or entirely white. If it be -then dipped into water, the redness, after a time, will be restored. - - - - -Marking Indelibly. - - -Write upon linen with permanent ink (which is a strong solution of -nitrate of silver), and the characters will be scarcely visible; remove -the linen to a dark room, and they will not change; but expose them to -a strong light, and they will be of an indelible black. - - - - -Visible Growth. - - -Cut a circular piece of card to fit the top of a hyacinth glass, so as -to rest upon the ledge, and exclude the air. Pierce a hole through the -center of the card, and pass through it a strong thread, having a small -piece of wood tied to one end, which, resting transversely on the card, -prevents it being drawn through. To the other end of the thread attach -an acorn; and having half filled the glass with water, suspend the -acorn at a short distance from the surface. - -The glass must be kept in a warm room, and in a few days the steam will -hang from the acorn in a drop, the skin will burst, and the root will -protrude and thrust itself in the water, and in a few days more a stem -will shoot out at the other end, and rising upwards, will press against -the card, in which an orifice must be made to allow it to pass through. -From this stem small leaves will soon be observed to sprout; and in -the course of a few weeks you will have a handsome oak plant, several -inches in height. - - - - -Colored Flames. - - -A variety of rays of light are exhibited by colored flames, which are -not to be seen in white light. Thus pure hydrogen gas will burn with a -blue flame, in which many of the rays of light are wanting. - -The flame of an oil lamp contains most of the rays which are wanting in -the sunlight. Alcohol mixed with water, when heated or burned, affords -a flame with no other rays but yellow. The following salts, if finely -powdered, and introduced into the exterior flame of a candle, or into -the wick of a spirit lamp, will communicate to the flame their peculiar -colors: - - Chloride of Soda (common salt) Yellow. - “ of Potash Pale violet. - “ of Lime Brick red. - “ of Strontia Bright crimson. - “ of Lithia Red. - “ of Baryta Apple green. - “ of Copper Bluish green. - Borax Yellow. - -Or either of the above salts may be mixed with spirit of wine, as -directed, for Red Fire. - - -ORANGE COLORED FLAME. - -Burn spirit of wine on chloride of calcium, a substance obtained by -evaporating muriate of lime to dryness. - - -EMERALD GREEN FLAME. - -Burn spirit of wine on a little powdered nitrate of silver. - - -INSTANTANEOUS FLAME. - -Heat together potassium and sulphur, and they will instantly burn very -vividly. - -Heat a little nitre on a fire-shovel, sprinkle on it flour of sulphur, -and it will instantly burn. If iron filings be thrown upon red hot -nitre, they will detonate and burn. - - - - -Water of Different Temperatures in the Same Vessel. - - -Of heat and cold, as of wit and madness, it may be said that “thin -partitions do their bounds divide.” Thus, paint one half of the surface -of a tin pot with a mixture of lamp black and size, and leave the other -half or side bright; fill the vessel with boiling water, and by dipping -a thermometer, or even the finger, into it shortly after, it will be -found to cool much more rapidly upon the blackened than the bright side -of the pot. - - - - -Warmth of Different Colors. - - -Place upon the surface of snow, as upon the window-sill, in bright -daylight or sunshine, pieces of cloth of the same size and quality, but -of different colors, black, blue, green, yellow and white; the black -cloth will soon melt the snow beneath it, and sink downwards; next the -blue, and then the green; the yellow but slightly; but the snow beneath -the white cloth will be as firm as at first. - - - - -Laughing Gas. - - -The above fanciful appellation has been given to nitrous oxide, from -the very agreeable sensations excited by inhaling it. In its pure state -it destroys animal life, but loses this noxious quality when inhaled, -because it becomes blended with the atmospheric air which it meets in -the lungs. This gas is made by putting three or four drams of nitrate -of ammonia in crystals into a small glass retort, which being held -over a spirit lamp, the crystals will melt, and the gas be evolved. - -Having thus produced the gas, it is to be passed into a large bladder -having a stop-cock; and when you are desirous of exhibiting its effects -you cause the person who wishes to experience them to first exhale -the atmospheric air from the lungs, and then quickly placing the cock -in his mouth you turn it, and bid him inhale the gas. Immediately a -sense of extraordinary cheerfulness, fanciful flights of imagination, -an uncontrollable propensity to laughter, and a consciousness of being -capable of great muscular exertion, supervene. It does not operate -in exactly the same manner on all persons; but in most cases the -sensations are agreeable, and have this important difference from those -produced by wine or spirituous liquors, that they are not succeeded by -any depression of mind. - - - - -Magic Vapor. - - -Provide a glass tube about three feet long and half an inch in -diameter; nearly fill it with water, upon the surface of which pour a -little colored ether; then close the open end of the tube carefully -with the palm of the hand, invert it in a basin of water, and rest the -tube against the wall. The ether will rise through the water to the -upper end of the tube; pour a little hot water over the tube, and it -will soon cause the ether to boil within, and its vapor may thus be -made to drive nearly all of the water out of the tube into the basin. -If, however, you then cool the tube by pouring cold water over it, the -vaporized ether will again become a liquid, and float upon the water as -before. - - - - -Gas from the Union of Metals. - - -Nearly fill a wine glass with diluted sulphuric acid, and place in it a -wire of silver and another of zinc, taking care that they do not touch -each other, when the zinc will be changed by the acid, but the silver -will remain inert. But cause the upper ends of the wires to touch each -other, and a stream of gas will issue from them. - - - - -Green Fire. - - -A beautiful green fire may be thus made: Take of flour of sulphur -thirteen parts, nitrate of baryta seventy-seven, chlorate of potash -five, metallic arsenic two, and charcoal three. Let the nitrate -of baryta be well dried and powdered; then add to it the other -ingredients, all finely pulverized, and exceedingly well mixed and -rubbed together. Place a portion of the composition in a small tin -pan, having a polished reflector fitted to one side, and set light to -it, when a splendid green illumination will be the result. By adding a -little calamine it will burn more slowly. - - - - -Combustion of Three Metals. - - -Mix a grain or two of potassium with an equal quantity of sodium; add -a globule of quicksilver, and the three metals, when shaken, will take -fire and burn vividly. - - - - -To Make Paper Apparently Incombustible. - - -Take a smooth cylindrical piece of metal, about one inch and a half in -diameter, and eight inches long. Wrap very closely round it a piece of -clean writing paper, then hold the paper in the flame of a spirit lamp, -and it will not take fire. But it may be held there for a considerable -time without being in the least affected by the flame. If the paper be -strained over a cylinder of wood it is quickly scorched. - - - - -Heat Not to be Estimated by Touch. - - -Hold both hands in water which causes the thermometer to rise to ninety -degrees, and when the liquid has become still, you will be insensible -to the heat, and that the hand is touching anybody. Then remove one -hand to water that causes the thermometer to rise to two hundred -degrees, and the other in water at thirty-two degrees. - -After holding the hands thus for some time remove them, and again -immerse them in the water at ninety degrees. Then you will find warmth -in one hand and cold in the other. To the hand which had been immersed -in the water at thirty-two degrees, the water at ninety degrees will -feel hot; and to the hand which had been immersed in the water at two -hundred degrees, the water at ninety degrees will feel cool. If, -therefore, the touch in this case be trusted, the same water will be -judged to be hot and cold at the same time. - - - - -Flame Upon Water. - - -Fill a wine glass with cold water, pour lightly upon its surface a -little ether; light it by a slip of paper, and it will burn for some -time. - - - - -Rose-colored Flame Upon Water. - - -Drop a globule of potassium, about the size of a large pea, into a -small cup nearly full of water containing a drop or two of strong -nitric acid; the moment that the metal touches the liquid it will float -upon its surface, enveloped with a beautiful rose-colored flame, and -entirely dissolve. - - - - -Currents in Boiling Water. - - -Fill a large glass tube with water, and throw into it a few particles -of bruised amber or shreds of litmus; then hold the tube by a handle -for the purpose, upright in the flame of a lamp, and as the water -becomes warm it will be seen that currents, carrying with them the -pieces of amber will begin to ascend in the center, and to descend -towards the circumference of the tube. These currents will soon become -rapid in their motions, and continue till the water boils. - - - - -Hot Water Lighter than Cold. - - -Pour into a glass tube, about ten inches long and one inch in diameter, -a little water colored with pink or other dye; then fill it up -gradually and carefully with colorless water, so as not to mix them; -apply heat at the bottom of the tube, and the colored water will ascend -and be diffused throughout the whole. - - - - -Expansion of Water by Cold. - - -All fluids except water diminish in bulk till they freeze. Thus, fill -a large thermometer tube with water, say of the temperature of eighty -degrees, and then plunge the bulb into pounded ice and salt, or any -other freezing mixture; the water will go on shrinking in the tube -till it has attained the temperature of about forty degrees, and -then, instead of continuing to contract till it freezes, it will be -seen slowly to expand, and consequently to rise in the tube until it -congeals. - -In this case the expansion below forty degrees and above forty degrees -seem to be equal, so that the water will be of the same bulk at -thirty-two degrees as at forty-eight degrees, that is, at eight degrees -above or below forty degrees. - - - - -The Cup of Tantalus. - - -This pretty toy may be purchased at any optician’s for seventy-five -cents. It consists of a cup in which is placed a human standing figure -concealing a syphon or bent tube, with one end longer than the other. -This rises in one leg of the figure to reach the chin, and descends -through the other leg, through the bottom of the cup to a reservoir -beneath. If you pour water in the cup it will rise in the shorter leg -by its upward pressure, driving out the air before it through the -longer leg; and when the cup is filled above the bend of the syphon, -that is, level with the chin of the figure, the pressure of the water -will force it over into the longer leg of the syphon, and the cup -will be emptied, the toy thus imitating Tantalus, of mythology, who -is represented by the poets as punished in Erebus with an insatiable -thirst, and placed up to the chin in a pool of water, which, however, -flowed away as soon as he attempted to taste it. - - - - -The Magic Whirlpool. - - -Fill a glass tumbler with water, throw upon its surface a few fragments -or thin shavings of camphor, and they will instantly begin to move, and -acquire a motion both progressive and rotary, which will continue for -a considerable time. During these rotations if the water be touched -by any substance which is at all greasy, the floating particles will -quickly dart back, and, as if by a stroke of magic, be instantly -deprived of their motion and vivacity. - -In like manner, if thin slices of cork be steeped in sulphuric ether in -a closed bottle for two or three days, and then placed upon the water, -they will rotate for several minutes, like the camphor, until the -slices of cork, having discharged all their ether, and become soaked -with water, they will keep at rest. - -If the water be made hot the motion of the camphor will be more -rapid than in cold water, but it will cease in proportionately less -time. Thus, provide two glasses, one containing water at fifty-eight -degrees, and the other at two hundred and ten degrees; place raspings -of camphor upon each at the same time; the camphor in the first glass -will rotate for about five hours, until all but a very minute portion -has evaporated, while the rotation of the camphor in the hot water -will last only nineteen minutes. About half the camphor will pass off -and the remaining pieces, instead of being dull, white and opaque, -will be vitreous and transparent, and evidently soaked with water. -The gyrations, too, which at first will be very rapid, will gradually -decline in velocity until they become quite sluggish. - -The stilling influence of oil upon waves has become proverbial. The -extraordinary manner in which a small quantity of oil instantly spreads -over a very large surface of troubled water, and the stealthy manner in -which even a rough wind glides over it must have excited the admiration -of all who have witnessed it. - -By the same principle a drop of oil may be made to stop the motion of -the camphor, as follows: Throw some camphor, both in slices and in -small particles, upon the surface of water, and while they are rotating -dip a glass rod into oil of turpentine. Then allow a single drop -thereof to trickle down the inner side of the glass to the surface of -the water. The camphor will instantly dart to the opposite point of the -liquid surface, and cease to rotate. - -If a few drops of sulphuric or muriatic acid be let fall into the -water, they will gradually stop the motion of the camphor, but if -camphor be dropped into nitric acid, diluted with its own bulk of -water, it will rotate rapidly for a few seconds and then stop. - -If a piece of the rotating camphor be attentively examined with a lens, -the currents of the water can be well distinguished, jetting out, -chiefly from the corners of the camphor, and bearing it round with -irregular force. - -The currents, as given out by the camphor, may also be seen by means of -the microscope; a drop or two of pure water being placed upon a slip -of glass, with a particle of camphor floating upon it. By this means -the current may be detected, and it will be seen that they cause the -rotations. - -A flat watch-glass may be employed, raised a few inches and supported -on a wire ring, kept steady by thrusting one end into an upright piece -of wood like a retort stand. Then put the camphor and water in the -watch-glass, and place under the frame a sheet of white paper, so that -it may receive the shadow of the glass, camphor, etc., to be cast by a -steady light, placed above, and somewhat on one side of the watch-glass. - -On observing the shadow, which may be considered a magnified -representation of the object itself, the rotations and currents can be -distinguished. - - - - -Fire Under Water. - - -Put thirty grains of phosphorus into a bottle which contains three -or four ounces of water. Place the vessel over a lamp and give it a -boiling heat. Balls of fire will soon be seen to issue from the water -after the manner of an artificial firework, attended with the most -beautiful coruscations. - - - - -To Light Steel. - - -Make a piece of steel red in the fire, then hold it with a pair of -pincers or tongs; take in the other hand a stick of brimstone and touch -the piece of steel with it. Immediately after their contact you will -see the steel melt and drop like a liquid. - - - - -A Test of Love. - - -Put into a phial some sulphuric ether, color it red with alkanet, then -saturate the tincture with spermaceti. This preparation is solid ten -degrees above freezing point, and melts and boils at twenty degrees. -Place the phial which contains it in a lady’s hand and tell her that if -in love, the solid mass will dissolve. In a few minutes the substance -will become fluid. - - - - -An Egg Pushed Into a Wine Bottle. - - -To accomplish this seemingly incredible act requires the following -preparation: You must take an egg and soak it in strong vinegar, and -in process of time its shell will become quite soft so that it may -be extended lengthways without breaking; then insert it into the -neck of a small bottle, and by pouring cold water upon it, it will -reassume its former figure and hardness. This is really a complete -curiosity, and baffles those who are not in the secret to find out -how it is accomplished. If the vinegar used to saturate the egg is -not sufficiently strong to produce the required softness of shell, -add one teaspoonful of strong acetic acid to every two tablespoonfuls -of vinegar. This will render the egg perfectly flexible, and of easy -insertion into the bottle, which must then be filled with cold water. - - - - -A Chemical Fountain. - - -Take two small glass jars and close them with corks. In each of these -pierce two holes and introduce a glass tube curved in the form of a -lengthened V. The two extremities of this tube must not reach further -than just a little below the inner surface of the corks. In one jar -pour water until it is three-quarters full, and pass through the second -hole of the cork a straight glass tube, open at both ends and reaching -nearly the bottom. This jar must be hermetically corked. (If necessary, -seal the top.) In the other jar put some chalk, and in the second hole -of the cork, left free, pass the extremity of a paper funnel in which -you place a pellet of wax or putty. - -Your apparatus thus being ready, through the funnel pour some vinegar, -or better still, some sulphuric acid. The latter ingredient coming in -contact with the chalk, forms carbonic acid, which, not being able to -escape through the funnel closed by the pellet, passes through the -curved tube into the other jar and is dissolved in the water. - -[Illustration] - -After some time a strong pressure will be exercised on the liquid, and -the water rising rapidly up through the vertical tube, will spout out -as from a fountain. - -This experiment may be varied and reduced to a simpler one. Take one -jar, fill it up two-thirds with water, and fit it with a cork with two -holes, through which pass two tubes; the one going to the bottom, the -other resting just over the surface of the liquid. The latter should be -fitted with a receiver. - -Seal the cork so as to render it air-tight. In the top receiver pour -water, which will go down into the jar and raise the level of the water -already contained in it. - -The air, being compressed, will act upon the liquid mass in the lower -jar, and the water will escape through the free tube in a jet with more -or less force according to the pressure exercised. - - - - -Weighing Gases. - - -Do not be cast down because you see another term to be explained. A -gas is, you may have already guessed, simply a fluid. Matter exists in -three states, solid, liquid and gaseous. Everything can exist in these -three states under different conditions of heat and pressure. - -For instance, ice, water, and steam are precisely the same thing, a -mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, though in different states. Hence steam -is simply the gaseous form of ice or water. Now some gases are heavier -than air, and among them is carbonic acid, a gas given off from the -lungs in breathing. - -By means of a very simply-constructed balance, you can prove this gas -to be heavier than air. Sounds queer, doesn’t it? to talk of weighing -something that you cannot handle or see. - -It is not difficult to do. Bend some wire, minding that the beams of -the balance are curved as in the figure. - -For one side of the scales a strong cardboard box will answer -admirably; for the other the lid of a round box will serve. Hang the -whole on a string and adjust it by putting some grains of sand in the -round scale on which the weights are placed, to make each side balance -one another and the scales are ready for use. - -[Illustration] - -The production of carbonic acid is easy. Pour a little sulphuric acid -and water over some chalk. Collect the gas given off in a bottle or -jar. In doing so you need not be afraid that it will escape, since it -is heavier than the air. - -In pouring it in the box of the scale, you will see the box sink down, -which is clearly an indication that the gas, which has just been poured -into the scale is heavier than the air, whose place it has taken. This -experiment may be tried in other curious ways. - - - - -In Water but not Wet. - - -With some lycopodium, powder the surface of a large or small vessel of -water; you may then challenge any one to drop a piece of money into -the water, and that you will get it with the hand without wetting your -skin. The lycopodium adheres to the hand, and prevents its contact -with the water. A little shake of the hand after the feat is over will -dislodge the powder. - - - - -Image of a Volcano. - - -This is another experiment on the density of liquids. In a small jar -put some wine or colored alcohol, and close it with a cork, through -which you have passed a small tube, a quill or a hollow straw. In -lowering this jar gently in a pail full of water, you will soon see the -liquid escape and rise to the surface of the water, describing spirals -which resemble smoke, and give a pretty good image, considerably -diminished, of a volcano. - - - - -Reciprocal Images. - - -Make two holes in the wainscot of a room, each a foot high and ten -inches wide, and about a foot distant from each other. Let these -apertures be about the height of a man’s head, and in each of them -place a transparent glass in a frame like a common mirror. - -Behind the partition, and directly facing each aperture, place two -mirrors inclosed in the wainscot, in an angle of forty-five degrees. -These mirrors are each to be eighteen inches square, and all the space -between must be inclosed with pasteboard painted black, and well closed -that no light can enter; let there be also two curtains to cover them, -which you may draw aside at pleasure. - -When a person looks into one of these fictitious mirrors, instead -of seeing his own face, he will see the object that is in front of -the other; thus, if two persons stand at the same time before these -mirrors, instead of each seeing himself, they will reciprocally see -each other. - -There should be a sconce with a lighted candle placed on each side of -the two glasses in the wainscot, to enlighten the faces of the persons -who look in them, or the experiment will not have so remarkable an -effect. - - - - -Imitation of Animal Tints. - - -To accomplish this metamorphosis, it is necessary to have earthen -vases which have little edges or rims near their mouths, and should -be of a size sufficiently large to hold suspended the bird or flower -which you intend placing in them. You should likewise be provided -with stoppers of cork, of a diameter equal to that of their mouths. -To make an experiment upon some bird, it is necessary to commence by -making a hole in the stopper, sufficiently large to contain the neck -of the bird without strangling it. This done, you divide the diameter -of the stopper into two equal parts so as to facilitate the placing -of it around the neck without doing injury to the bird. The two parts -being brought together, you place at the bottom of the vase an ounce -of quicklime, and beneath that a quarter of an ounce of sal ammoniac. -When you perceive the effervescence commence to take place, you -promptly insert the stopper, to which the bird is attached, leaving the -neck outside. The plumage of the body, exposed to this effervescent -vapor, will become impregnated with the various colors produced by this -chemical combination. - - - - -Melting a Coin. - - -Fix three pins in the table and lay the piece of money upon them; then -place a heap of the flour of sulphur below the piece of money, and -another above it, and set fire to them. When the flame is extinct, you -will find on the upper part of the piece a thin plate of metal, which -has been detached from it. - - - - -Explosive Gas. - - -Mix two drachms of the filings of iron with one ounce of concentrated -spirit of vitriol in a strong bottle that holds about a quarter of a -pint; stop it close, and in a few moments shake the bottle; then taking -out the cork, put a lighted candle near its mouth which should be a -little inclined, and you will soon observe an inflammation arise from -the bottle, attended with a loud explosion. - -To guard against the danger of the bottle bursting, the best way would -be to bury it in the ground and apply the light to the mouth by means -of a taper fastened to the end of a long stick. - - - - -Cold from Evaporation. - - -Ether poured upon a glass tube in a thin stream will evaporate and cool -it to such a degree that water contained in it may be frozen. - - - - -Self-Dancing Egg. - - -Fill a quill with quicksilver; seal it at both ends with good hard wax; -then have an egg boiled; take a small piece of the shell off the small -end and thrust in the quill with the quicksilver; lay it on the ground -and it will not cease tumbling about as long as any heat remains in it; -or if you put quicksilver into a small bladder and blow it up, then -warm the bladder, it will skip about as long as heat remains in it. - - - - -Flash of Fire in a Room. - - -Dissolve camphor in spirits of wine and deposit the vessel containing -the solution in a very close room, where the spirits of wine must -be made to evaporate by strong and speedy boiling. If any one then -enters the room with a lighted candle the air will inflame, while the -combustion will be so sudden and of so short a duration as to occasion -no danger. - - - - -Cast Iron Drops. - - -Bring a bar of iron to a white heat and then apply to it a roll of -sulphur. The iron will immediately melt and run into drops. - -The experiment should be performed over a basin of water, in which -the drops that fall down will be quenched. These drops will be found -reduced into a sort of cast iron. - - - - -Explosion without Heat. - - -Take a crystal or two of the nitrate of copper and bruise them; then -moisten them with water and roll them up quickly in a piece of tinfoil, -and in half a minute or little more, the tinfoil will begin to smoke -and soon after take fire and explode with a slight noise. Unless the -crystals of the nitrate of copper are moistened, no heat will be -produced. - - - - -Fiery Powder. - - -Put three ounces of rock alum and one ounce of honey or sugar into a -new earthen dish, glazed, and which is capable of standing a strong -heat; keep the mixture over the fire, stirring it continually until it -becomes very dry and hard; then remove it from the fire and pound it -to a coarse powder. Put this powder into a long-necked bottle, leaving -a part of the vessel empty; and having placed it in the crucible, fill -up the crucible with fine sand and surround it with burning coals. -When the bottle has been kept at a red heat for about seven or eight -minutes, and no more vapor issues from it, remove it from the fire, -then stop it with a piece of cork; and, having suffered it to cool, -preserve the mixture in small bottles, well closed. - -If you unclose one of these bottles and let fall a few grains of this -powder on a bit of paper, or any other very dry substance it will first -become blue, then brown, and will at last burn the paper or other -substance on which it has fallen. - - - - -Illumination. - - -A very pleasing exhibition may be made, with very little trouble or -expense, in the following manner: Provide a box, which you can fit up -with architectural designs cut on pasteboard; prick small holes into -those parts of the building where you wish the illuminations to appear, -observing that, in proportion to the perspective, the holes are to be -made smaller, and on the near objects the holes are to be made larger. -Behind these designs thus perforated you fix a lamp or candle, but in -such a manner that the reflection of the light shall only shine through -the hole: then placing a light of just sufficient brilliancy to show -the design of the buildings before it, and making a hole for the sight -at the front end of the box, you will have a tolerable representation -of illuminated buildings. - -The best way of throwing the light in front is to place an oiled -paper before it, which will cast a mellow gleam over the scenery, and -not diminish the effect of the illumination. This can be very easily -planned, both not to obstruct the sight, nor be seen to disadvantage. -The lights behind the picture should be very strong, and if a -magnifying glass were placed in the sight hole it would tend greatly to -increase the effect. The box must be covered in, leaving an aperture -for the smoke of the lights to pass through. - -The above exhibition can only be shown at candle light; but there is -another way, by fixing small pieces of gold on the building, instead -of drilling the holes, which gives something like the appearance of -illumination, but by no means equal to the foregoing experiment. - -N. B.--It would be an improvement if paper of various colors, rendered -transparent by oil, were placed between the lights behind the aperture -in the buildings, as they would then resemble lamps of different -colors. - - - - -Sun and Spirit. - - -Put a small quantity of spirits of wine into a glass, and put a cent or -coin in with it; then direct the rays of the sun by means of a burning -glass upon the coin, and in a short time it will become so hot as to -inflame the spirits. - - - - -Stars in Water. - - -Put half a drachm of solid phosphorus into a large pint flask--holding -it slanting that the phosphorus may not break the glass. Pour upon -it a gill and a half of water and place the whole over a tea-kettle -lamp, or any common tin lamp filled with spirits of wine. Light the -wick which should be almost half an inch from the flask; and as soon -as the water is heated, streams of fire will issue from the water by -starts, resembling sky-rockets; some particles will adhere to the -sides of the glass, representing stars, and will frequently display -brilliant rays. These appearances will continue at times till the water -begins to simmer, when immediately a curious aurora borealis begins, -and gradually ascends till it collects to a pointed flame; when it has -continued half a minute, blow out the flame of the lamp and the point -that was formed will rush down, forming beautiful illuminated clouds -of fire, rolling over each other for some time, which, disappearing, a -splendid hemisphere of stars presents itself; after waiting a minute -or two, light the lamp again, and nearly the same phenomenon will be -displayed as from the beginning. Let the repetition of lighting and -blowing out the lamp be made for three or four times at least, that -the stars may be increased. After the third or fourth time of blowing -out the lamp, in a few minutes after the internal surface of the flask -is dry, many of the stars will shoot with great splendor from side -to side, and some of them will fire off with brilliant rays; these -appearances will continue several minutes. What remains in the flask -will serve for the same experiment several times, and without adding -any more water. Care should be taken after the operation is over, to -lay the flask and water in a cool, secure place. - - - - -Parlor Ballooning. - - -It is an interesting and amusing experiment to inflate a balloon made -of gold-beater’s skin (using a little gum arabic to close any holes or -fissures), filling it from a bladder or jar, and tying a thread around -the mouth of it, to prevent the escape of the gas. When fully blown, -attach a fanciful car of colored paper, or very thin pasteboard, to it, -and let it float in a large room; it will soon gain the ceiling, where -it will remain for any length of time; if it be let off in the open -air it will soon ascend out of sight. This experiment may be varied by -putting small grains of shot into the car, in order to ascertain the -difference between the weight of hydrogen gas and atmospheric air. - - - - -Marvelous. - - -Wrap up a very smooth ball of lead in a piece of paper, taking care -that there be no wrinkles in it, and that it be everywhere in contact -with the ball; if it be held in this state over the flame of a taper, -the lead will be melted without the paper being burnt. The lead, -indeed, when once fused will not fail in a short time to pierce the -paper, and run through. - - - - -Mutability. - - -Infuse a few shavings of logwood in common water, and when the liquid -is sufficiently red pour it into a bottle. Then take three drinking -glasses and rinse one of them with strong vinegar; throw into the -second a small quantity of pounded alum, which will not be observed if -the glass has been washed, and leave the third without any preparation. -If the red liquor in the bottle be poured into the first glass, it will -appear of a straw color; if the second it will pass gradually from a -bluish gray to black, when stirred with a key or any piece of iron -which has been previously dipped in strong vinegar. In the third glass -the red liquor will assume a violet tint. - -[Illustration: THE END.] - - * * * * * - -OUR TEN CENT HAND BOOKS. - -USEFUL, INSTRUCTIVE AND AMUSING. - -Containing valuable information on almost every subject, such as -=Writing=, =Speaking=, =Dancing=, =Cooking=; also =Rules of Etiquette=, -=The Art of Ventriloquism=, =Gymnastic Exercises=, and =The Science of -Self-Defense=, =etc.=, =etc.= - - 1 Napoleon’s Oraculum and Dream Book. - 2 How to Do Tricks. - 3 How to Flirt. - 4 How to Dance. - 5 How to Make Love. - 6 How to Become an Athlete. - 7 How to Keep Birds. - 8 How to Become a Scientist. - 9 How to Become a Ventriloquist. - 10 How to Box. - 11 How to Write Love Letters. - 12 How to Write Letters to Ladies. - 13 How to Do It; or, Book of Etiquette. - 14 How to Make Candy. - 15 How to Become Rich. - 16 How to Keep a Window Garden. - 17 How to Dress. - 18 How to Become Beautiful. - 19 Frank Tousey’s U. S. 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Such) - -p. 22: “entirely. As” changed to “entirely, as” (out entirely, as) - -p. 28: “valve shown in fig. 4” should be “valve shown in fig. 6” - -p. 45: “with” inserted (ground, with a) - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's How to Do Chemical Tricks, by A. 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Anderson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: How to Do Chemical Tricks - Containing Over One Hundred Highly Amusing and Instructive - Tricks With Chemicals - -Author: A. Anderson - -Release Date: September 30, 2015 [EBook #50100] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO DO CHEMICAL TRICKS *** - - - - -Produced by Craig Kirkwood, Demian Katz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (Images -courtesy of the Digital Library@Villanova University -(http://digital.library.villanova.edu/).) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 534px;"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/i_001.jpg" width="534" height="850" alt="HOW TO DO Chemical TRICKS" /> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;"> -<img src="images/i_002.jpg" width="383" height="650" alt="" /> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<h1>HOW TO DO<br /> -<span class="smcap">Chemical Tricks</span>.</h1> - - -<p class="center topmargin2">Containing Over One Hundred Highly<br /> -Amusing and Instructive Tricks<br /> -With Chemicals.</p> - -<p class="center topmargin2 xlargefont">By A. ANDERSON.</p> - -<p class="center topmargin2 largefont">HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED.</p> - -<p class="center topmargin2"><span class="smcap">New York</span>:<br /> -FRANK TOUSEY, Publisher,<br /> -24 <span class="smcap">Union Square</span>. -</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p> - -<p class="center">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1898, by</p> - -<p class="center">FRANK TOUSEY,</p> - -<p class="center">in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D.C.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> -<p class="center xlargefont"><b>HOW TO DO<br /> -<span class="xxlargefont">CHEMICAL TRICKS.</span></b></p> - - -<div><img class="drop-capi" src="images/i_004.jpg" width="54" height="58" alt="" /></div> -<p class="drop-capi">From the remotest ages chemistry has exercised the -strongest fascination on the minds of the curious, -nor is it a matter of surprise that boys should feel -themselves drawn strongly by its mystery and -seeming magic. This attraction is undoubtedly caused by -what the ancients called the elements, earth, air, fire and -water. There is something so weird about the manifestation -of air and fire, that it is not difficult to understand -how the alchemists believed them to be forces able to be -used at the bidding of spirits, who might be conjured up -by incantations and spells.</p> - -<p>Now it is known that these uncanny beings existed only -in the imagination of the forerunners of modern chemists. -Yet what boy can look on the brilliantly colored fires of a -Fourth of July display, or the burnished gold of the setting -sun, or the fantastic pictures in the glowing coals in -a grate, and not feel that there is still something of magic -and mystery in fire still? What the boy feels, the scientist -cannot explain. Nobody knows actually what fire is. All -that can be said is that fire is produced by certain substances, -such as coals, wood, or paper, <span id="TN_3">that</span> give out heat, while -passing from one state to another.</p> - -<p>Now the word “element” was and is used to mean that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -simplest form of matter, which, with other simplest forms -goes to make up the whole world of everything in it. The -earth, animals, plants, the sea, the atmosphere, are all -made up of one or more of some seventy substances called -elements. Hence it is clear that the earth, air and water -are not, as the ancients thought, elements at all. As will -be seen in this little book, both air and water consist of -mixtures of elements. In chemistry such mixtures are -called compounds. This word occurs again and again, so -its explanation should be remembered.</p> - -<p>One great fact must be remembered, which is at the very -root of chemistry. Nothing is really lost, however much -its form may be changed, or however many changes it may -pass through. For instance, it may seem that when a -block of wood be burned that a very large amount of it is -lost. If, however, the ashes, the smoke, and the carbon -that is burned by the air be all weighed, the result would -be exactly the same as the weight of the original block of -wood.</p> - -<p>Again take an instance of a different nature. A lump of -sugar is placed in a small glass of water. Gradually the solid -is dissolved, and in time disappears. It is not lost, however. -By boiling the mixture until all the water has -evaporated the sugar will be found adhering as crystals on -the sides of the glass. If these be carefully collected, they -will be found to weigh precisely as much as the original -lump of sugar.</p> - -<p>Once more, take a block of ice weighing an ounce. Having -removed it into a room, the solid will in an hour or two -have disappeared entirely, but the water that has replaced -the block of ice will weigh neither more nor less than an -ounce. If again heat be applied to the water it will all disappear, -but if weighed in a jam jar, the steam, although -invisible to the eye, will still weigh one ounce exactly.</p> - -<p>From the above-given experiments it may be seen that, -however matter may change its form it cannot really be -destroyed. This truth will appear in every experiment that -can be performed, whether those given in this little book or -in the most learned treatise on chemistry.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>Chemical Affinity.</h2> - - -<p>This high-sounding term means that substances have a -power of uniting together that can be better explained by -an experiment. Allow a few drops of water to fall on a -perfectly clean piece of iron. In a short time a reddish-brown -substance will appear on the iron that in ordinary -language is called rust. What does this mean? Water is -a compound substance composed of oxygen and hydrogen, -but when brought into contact with iron the oxygen prefers -to unite with the iron and sets the hydrogen free. -Hence, would the chemist say, oxygen has a “stronger affinity” -for iron than for hydrogen. In this case the rust is -composed of rust, a combination of iron and oxygen called -oxide of iron. What has taken place may be shown by the -following, which will be easily understood:</p> - -<div class="center"> -<p class="displayinline"> -Oxygen<br /> -Hydrogen -</p> - -<p class="displayinline" style="font-size:225%; vertical-align:12%; -margin-top:-1em; margin-bottom:-1em;">}</p> - -<p class="displayinline"> -Water + Iron = Oxide<br /> -of Iron + Hydrogen. -</p> -</div> - -<p>So all that the chemical combination in the above means is -that the iron has taken the place of the hydrogen in the -water used for the experiment. If weighed it would be -found as always, that the water and the iron weighed precisely -the same as the oxide of iron and the hydrogen.</p> - -<p>It is to this same principle of chemical affinity that the -curious experiments of magic writing with sympathetic -inks are possible.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Sympathetic Inks.</h2> - - -<p>By means of these may be carried on a correspondence -which is beyond the discovery of all not in the secret. With -one class of these inks the writing becomes visible only -when moistened with a particular solution. Thus, if we -write to you with a solution of sulphate of iron the letters -are invisible. On the receipt of our letter, you rub over the -sheet a feather or sponge, wet with a solution of nut-galls, -and the letters burst forth into sensible being at once, and -are permanent.</p> - -<p>2. If we write with a solution of sugar of lead and you -moisten with a sponge or pencil dipped in water impregnated -with sulphuretted hydrogen, the letters will appear -with metallic brilliancy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> - -<p>3. If we write with a weak solution of sulphate of copper, -and you apply ammonia, the letters assume a beautiful -blue. When the ammonia evaporates as it does on exposure -to the sun or fire, the writing disappears, but may be -revived again as before.</p> - -<p>4. If you write with oil of vitriol very much diluted, so -as to prevent its destroying the paper, the manuscript will -be invisible except when held to the fire, when the letters -will appear black.</p> - -<p>5. Write with cobalt dissolved in diluted muriatic acid; -the letters will be invisible when cold, but when warmed -they will appear a bluish green.</p> - -<p>Secrets thus written will not be brought to the knowledge -of a stranger, because he does not know the solution -which was used in writing, and therefore knows not what -to apply to bring out the letters.</p> - -<p>Other forms of elective affinity produce equally novel results. -Thus, two invisible gases, when combined, form -sometimes a <em>visible solid</em>. Muriatic acid and ammonia are -examples, also ammonia and carbonic acid.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, if a solution of sulphate of soda be -mixed with a solution of muriate of lime the whole becomes -solid.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Some gases when united form liquids, as oxygen and hydrogen, -which unite and form water. Some solids when -combined form liquids.</p> - -<p>Chemical affinity is sometimes called <em>elective</em>, or the effect -of <em>choice</em>, as if one substance exerted a kind of <em>preference</em> -for another, and <span id="TN_6">chose</span> to be united to it rather than -to that with which it was previously combined; thus, if you -pour some vinegar, which is a weak acetic acid, upon some -pearlash (a combination of potash and carbonic acid), or -some carbonate of soda (a combination of the same acid -with soda), a violent effervescence will take place, occasioned -by the escape of the carbonic acid, displaced in -consequence of the potash or soda preferring the acetic -acid, and forming a compound called an acetate.</p> - -<p>Then, if some sulphuric acid be poured on this new compound, -the acetic acid will, in its turn, be displaced by the -greater attachment of either of the bases, as they are -termed, for the sulphuric acid. Again, if into a solution<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -of blue vitriol (a combination of sulphuric acid with copper), -the bright blade of a knife be introduced, the knife -will speedily be covered with a coat of copper, deposited -in consequence of the acid <em>preferring</em> the iron of which -the knife is made, a quantity of it being dissolved in exact -proportion to the quantity of copper deposited.</p> - -<p>It is on the same principle that a very beautiful preparation -called a silver-tree, or a lead-tree, may be formed, -thus: Fill a wide bottle, capable of holding from half a -pint to a pint, with a tolerably strong solution of nitrate -of silver (lunar caustic), or acetate of lead, in pure distilled -water. Then attach a small piece of zinc by a string to the -cork or stopper of the bottle, so that the zinc shall hang -about the middle of the bottle, and set it by where it may -be quite undisturbed. In a short time brilliant plates of -silver or lead, as the case may be, will be seen to collect -around the piece of zinc, assuming more or less of the crystalline -form. This is a case of elective affinity; the acid -with which the silver or lead was united <em>prefers</em> the zinc -to either of those metals, and in consequence discards -them in order to attach the zinc to itself; and this process -will continue until the whole of the zinc is taken up, or the -whole of the silver or lead deposited.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Alum Baskets.</h2> - - -<p>Form a small basket about the size of the hand, of iron -wire or split willow; then take some cotton, such as ladies -use for running into flounces; untwist it and wind it -round every limb of the basket. Boil eighteen ounces of -alum in a quart of water, or quantities in that proportion; -stir the mixture while boiling until the alum is completely -dissolved. Pour the solution into a deep pan, or other convenient -vessel, and suspend the basket in the liquor, so -that no part of the basket shall touch the vessel, or be exposed -to the air. Let the whole remain perfectly at rest -for twenty-four hours. When you then remove the basket -the alum will be found very prettily crystallized over all -the limbs of the cottoned frame.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>Easy Crystallizations.</h2> - - -<p>Saturate water <em>kept boiling</em> with alum; then set the -solution in a cool place, suspending in it, by a hair, or fine -silk thread, a cinder, a sprig of a plant, or any other trifle. -As the solution cools, a beautiful crystallization of the salt -takes place upon the cinders, etc., which are made to resemble -specimens of mineralogical spars.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>To Make a Piece of Charcoal Appear as Though it were Coated with Gold.</h2> - - -<p>Dilute a saturated solution of chloride of gold with five -times its bulk of water; place a thin strip of fresh burned -charcoal into it, and apply heat, gradually increasing it until -the solution gently boils. The heat will make the charcoal -precipitate the metal on the charcoal, in the form of -brilliant spangles.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>To Give a Piece of Charcoal a Rich Coat of Silver.</h2> - - -<p>Lay a crystal of nitrate of silver upon a piece of burning -charcoal; the metallic salt will catch fire, and throw out -the most beautiful scintillations that can be imagined. -The silver is reduced, and, in the end, produces upon the -charcoal a very brilliant appearance.</p> - -<p>Many animal and vegetable substances, consist, for the -most part, of carbon, or charcoal, united with oxygen and -hydrogen, which remember, together combined, form -water. Now oil of vitriol or strong sulphuric acid, has so -powerful an affinity or so great a thirst for water, that it -will abstract it from almost any body in which it exists. -If you pour some of this acid on a lump of sugar, or place -a chip of wood in a small quantity of it, the sugar or wood -will become speedily blackened, that is charred, in consequence -of the oxygen and hydrogen being removed by the -sulphuric acid, and only the carbon or charcoal left.</p> - -<p>When Cleopatra dissolved pearls of wondrous value in -vinegar, she was unwittingly giving an example of chemical -affinity. The pearl is simply carbonate of lime stored up -by the oyster in layers. Consequently the precious jewels -were decomposed by the greater affinity or fondness of lime -for the acetic acid in the vinegar, than for the carbonic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -acid with which it had been before united. This was an -example of inconstancy in strong contrast with the conduct -of their owner, who chose death rather than become -the wife of her lover’s conqueror.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Combustion.</h2> - - -<p>It is necessary to distinguish between burning and the -mere appearance of it. A gas flame is gas in a state of -combustion, whereas the electric light is no example of it, -although the wire within the glassen cylinder is red hot, -and to all appearance burning. Combustion generally -takes place through the strong affinity of some element, -such as carbon in a substance for the oxygen in the atmosphere. -In coal gas, for instance, the carbon contained in -it unites with the oxygen in the air to form a colorless substance -called carbonic acid gas. The latter is unable to -support life, and may be called, therefore, poisonous. It is -the presence of this gas which makes it unhealthy to burn -many jets without proper ventilation.</p> - -<p>Also, carbonic acid gas is given off by the lungs. It may -seem curious, but it is none the less true, that breathing is -a process of combustion. The blood brings to the surface -of the lungs the carbon, which has resulted from the waste -of the internal organs of the body. When drawing in a -breath the oxygen present in the atmosphere meets the impure -blood at the surface of the lungs, and purifies it by -uniting with the carbon in it. Then, though oxygen has -been breathed in, carbonic acid gas has been breathed out.</p> - -<p>To prove this will be interesting: Obtain from a chemist -a little lime water—two cents worth will do. It looks -like ordinary water, being perfectly transparent and colorless. -Pour some into a clean glass, and through a glass -tube blow steadily into the water. In half a minute the -hitherto colorless liquid will become milky and opaque. -If allowed to stand there will fall down at the bottom of -the glass a white powder.</p> - -<p>What has happened in this case? The carbonic acid gas -from the lungs has formed with the lime in the lime water -a substance called carbonate of lime, which, being insoluble -in water, falls to the bottom of the glass as a white -powder.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> - -<p>If carbonic acid gas were not present in the air blown -from the lungs, this milkiness would not appear, for no -other gas, except this, would alter the lime water’s clearness.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Chemistry of The Air.</h2> - - -<p>Before proceeding further, it will be well to perform -one or two experiments, to prove that the air we breathe -is by no means the simple substance it is generally supposed -to be. Although it is invisible, it must be remembered -that it presses with a force of over fifteen pounds -to the square inch, over the whole surface of the earth. -It extends, too, to a height of some forty miles above the -earth, and though it cannot be seen, it can be felt in the -rush of the hurricane, and heard in the roar of the tempest. -It is chiefly composed of a mixture of two gases, -oxygen and nitrogen.</p> - -<p>Did the air consist entirely of the former, people would -breathe too quickly, and die in a very short time in a high -fever, burned up, in fact. If only consisting of nitrogen, -the human race would also die, because this element is incapable -of supporting life; people would be suffocated, in -fact.</p> - -<p>Therefore, a judicious mixture of the two is essential to -the life of animals. Generally, in a hundred parts of -air by weight there are seventy-six parts of nitrogen to -twenty-three of oxygen.</p> - -<p>Besides these two gases, there is also a quantity of carbonic -acid gas in the air, given off by all the fires and animals -in the world. Of course, its amount is much greater -in the great towns and manufacturing centers than in -country districts.</p> - -<p>Now herein must be recorded one of these charming arrangements -which Nature has designed for the benefit of -her children. Carbonic acid gas is much heavier than the -air, and, therefore, sinks towards the ground, where, if -allowed to accumulate, would cause the death of every animal. -Fortunately, however, plants breathe in through -their leaves carbonic acid gas during sunshine, and break -it up into carbon and oxygen. The former, they use for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -building up their trunks, leaves, and flowers, while during -the night they give off oxygen into the air.</p> - -<p>This is the reason why plants and trees planted in the -streets so largely help to sweeten and purify the foul air -of a great city.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>An experiment to prove that the atmosphere does consist -of nitrogen and oxygen, may be prettily proved in the -following simple manner: A glass marmalade jar, <span id="TN_11">or a -soup-plate</span> filled with water, and a piece of phosphorus -as large as a pea, are the only things necessary. Take -very great care not to touch the phosphorus, for the heat -of the hand is sufficient to set it on fire, and a terrible -wound would be caused.</p> - -<p>Place the phosphorus in a match-box on the surface of -the water, touch it with a lighted match, and put the jar-mouth -downwards over it to the bottom of the plate. The -phosphorus burns with a dazzling brilliancy, and gives off -dense white fumes. At the same time the water rises a -third of the way up the jar, but not to the top, thus showing -that all the invisible matter has not been consumed. -The white soon settles into the water and is dissolved. -The phosphorus has combined with the oxygen in the jar -and forms phosphoric oxide, which dissolves in water. -There is then only the nitrogen left. The disappearance -of the oxygen allows the water to fill up the space it formerly -occupied.</p> - -<p>This may be followed by another experiment.</p> - -<p>To show that oxygen is necessary for the support of -combustion, fix two or three pieces of wax taper on flat -pieces of cork, and set them floating on water in a soup-plate, -light them, and invert over them a glass jar.</p> - -<p>As they burn, the heat produced may perhaps at first expand -the air, so as to force a small quantity out of the jar, -but the water will soon rise in the jar, and continue to do -so until the tapers expire, when you will find that a considerable -portion of the air has disappeared, and what remains -will no longer support flame.</p> - -<p>The oxygen has been converted partly into water, and -partly into carbonic acid gas, by uniting with the carbon -and hydrogen of which the taper consists, and the remaining -air is principally nitrogen, with some carbonic acid.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -The presence of the latter may be proved by decanting -some of the remaining air into a bottle, and then shaking -some lime water with it, which will absorb the carbonic -acid and form chalk.</p> - -<p>Into an ale glass, two thirds full of water at about 140 degrees, -drop one or two pieces of phosphorus about the size -of peas, and they will remain unaltered. Then take a -bladder containing oxygen gas, to which is attached a stop -cock and a long fine tube. Pass the end of the tube to the -bottom of the water, turn the stop cock, and press the -bladder gently. As the gas reaches the phosphorus it -will take fire, and burn under the water with a brilliant -flame, filling the glass with brilliant flashes of light dashing -through the water.</p> - -<p>Into another glass put some cold water; introduce carefully -some of the salt called chlorate of potash; upon that -drop a piece of phosphorus; then let some strong sulphuric -acid (oil of vitriol) trickle slowly down the side of the -glass, or introduce it by means of a dropping bottle.</p> - -<p>As soon as the acid touches the salt the latter is decomposed, -and liberates a gas which ignites the phosphorus, -producing much the same appearance as in the last experiment.</p> - -<p>Into the half of a broken phial put some chlorate of potash, -and pour in some oil of vitriol. The phial will soon -be filled with a heavy gas of a deep yellow color. Tie a -small test tube at right angles to the end of a stick not less -than a yard long, put a little ether into the tube, and pour -it gently into the phial of gas, when an instantaneous explosion -will take place, and the ether will be set on fire. -This experiment should be performed in a place where -there are no articles of furniture to be damaged, as the ingredients -are often scattered by the explosion, and the oil -of vitriol destroys all animal and vegetable substances.</p> - -<p>Into a jar containing oxygen gas introduce a coil of soft -iron wire, suspended to a cork that fits the neck of the jar -and having attached a small piece of charcoal to the lower -part of the wire, ignite the charcoal. The iron will take -fire and burn with a brilliant light, throwing out bright -scintillations, which are oxide of iron, formed by the union -of the gas with the iron; and they are so intensely hot<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -that some of them will probably <em>melt</em> their way into the -sides of the jar, if not through them.</p> - -<p>But by far the most intense heat, and most brilliant light, -may be produced by introducing a piece of phosphorus into -a jar of oxygen. The phosphorus may be placed in a small -copper cup, with a long handle of thick wire passing -through a hole in a cork that fits the jar. The phosphorus -must first be ignited; and as soon as it is introduced into -the oxygen, it gives out a light so brilliant that no eye -can bear it, and the whole jar appears filled with an intensely -luminous atmosphere. It is well to dilute the -oxygen with about one-fourth part of common air, to moderate -the intense heat, which is nearly certain to break the -jar if pure oxygen is used.</p> - -<p>The following experiment shows the production of heat -by chemical action alone: Bruise some fresh-prepared -crystals of nitrate of copper, spread them over a piece of -tin foil, sprinkle them with a little water; then fold up the -foil tightly, as rapidly as possible, and in a minute or two -it will become red hot, the tin apparently burning away. -This heat is produced by the energetic action of the tin on -the nitrate of copper, taking away its oxygen in order to -unite with the nitric acid, for which, as well as for the oxygen -the tin has a much greater affinity than the copper has.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> -<img src="images/i_014.jpg" width="150" height="183" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Combustion without flame may be shown in a very -elegant and agreeable manner, by taking a coil of platinum -wire and twisting it round the stem of a tobacco pipe, or -any cylindrical body for a dozen times or so, leaving about -an inch straight, which should be inserted into the wick -of a spirit lamp. Light the lamp, and after it has burned -for a minute or two, extinguish the flame quickly; the -wire will soon become red hot, and, if kept from draughts<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -of air, will continue to burn until all the spirit is consumed.</p> - -<p>Spongy platinum, as it is called, answers rather better -than wire, and has been employed in the formation of -fumigators for the drawing-room, in which, instead of -pure spirit, some perfume, such as lavender water, is used; -by its combustion an agreeable odor is diffused through -the apartment. These little lamps were much in vogue a -few years ago, but are now nearly out of fashion. Finally, -all the readers of this little book should be very careful in -performing all experiments. If possible, he should use a -room with a stone floor and no curtains, while an outhouse -with an earthen floor is still less dangerous.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Amateur Air Pump.</h2> - - -<p>A most interesting class of experiments can be made -with an air pump, a piece of apparatus unfortunately beyond -the pocket-money supply of the average boy. Nevertheless, -if the following instructions are exactly followed -and carefully carried out, a very excellent air pump can be -made at a comparatively small cost. Some pretty, as well -as interesting results will amply repay you for the trouble -you take to make the pump. Although the air seems so -light in comparison with water or a heavy metal like iron, -you must remember that it really presses upon every -square inch of the earth’s surface, aye, on every square -inch of your own bodies, with a force of fourteen and a -half pounds. In other words, the weight of the air at the -sea level resting on each square inch of surface weighs -fourteen and a half pounds.</p> - -<p>Don’t be frightened, boys, at the explanation of one word -that must be used in connection with air experiments. The -word is vacuum. Vacuum really means an empty space, -devoid of all matter, even of air. Although it seems easy -to think of an empty space, it is quite impossible to exhaust -a space of all matter, even of air. For this reason, -the alchemists of the middle ages used to say: “Nature abhors -a vacuum.” This was only their way of saying how -impossible it was to make a space, such as the inside of a -vessel, quite empty. Yet it is possible to reduce the -amount of air in a vessel almost to nothing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter displayinline" style="width: 185px;"> -<img src="images/i_016a.jpg" width="185" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="displayinline figcenter" style="width: 123px;"> -<img src="images/i_016b.jpg" width="123" height="650" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> - -<p>Now for the pump. In the first place obtain three pieces -of gutta-percha tubing of the following lengths:</p> - -<p>No. 1.—A tube twelve and a half inches long, measuring -outside two and a half, inside one and a half inches in circumference.</p> - -<p>No. 2.—This must be seven and a half inches long, one -and a half inches outside, and an inch inside.</p> - -<p>No. 3.—This is a length of tubing about sixty inches long, -two and a half inches in outside circumference, and at -least an inch thick. If an inch and a half thick all the -better, as it will be more air-tight.</p> - -<p>Divide tube No. 2 into two equal parts, cutting from right -to left at an angle of 45 degrees. Into one of the parts fit -a plug of hard wood pierced lengthwise by a red hot wire -(fig. 1); the figure shows the shape of it sufficiently. In -the hollow side cut a small opening, and over this tie very -tightly a band of flexible india-rubber (fig. 3). This band -will serve as the valve of the piston of the pump. Figs. 3 -and 4 give a side and front view of this valve. Great care -must be taken neither to split the plug in boring the hole -nor to cut the tube.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="displayinline figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> -<img src="images/i_017a.jpg" width="180" height="126" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div id="Fig_4" class="displayinline figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_017b.jpg" width="300" height="153" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span></p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>This valve must now be inserted in the large tube No. 1, -as seen in fig. 2.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> - -<p>At the other end of the large tube, which will serve as -the body of the pump, at B fig. 2, fix a similar valve to the -above, but the india-rubber band must be fixed on the other -side of the valve as at B fig. 2. The fitting A will serve -for escape, the second for withdrawing the air from the -space to be exhausted. Finally fix tube No. 3 on valves A -or B, fig. 2, according to your wish to produce a vacuum or -to compress the air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_018.jpg" width="600" height="461" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p>By means of a pedal made simply with two boards put -together on hinges (fig. 5), one pressed with the foot, the -air contained in the body of the pump (fig. 2) tends to escape. -It therefore lifts the valve of the fitting fixed at A, -and escapes through the flexible elastic band tied over the -hole in the hollow side of tube No. 2. If the pressure -ceases the big tube, on account of its own elasticity, takes -its former form and sucks in the air. This time it is the -valve at B which is lifted and lets pass the air which fills -the body of the pump. If one has fixed on to the fitting at -B, the long india-rubber tube No. 3, which is plunged in a -receiver—a receiver is any vessel in which the air is exhausted, -or into which it is forced—it is easily understood<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -that after a few moves of the pedal, the air is drawn out, -and a vacuum is obtained.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="300" height="639" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p>If one wishes to have a force-pump one has only to modify -slightly the construction of the valve. Instead of a -band of india-rubber fixed as shown in fig. 3, it is<span id="TN_18a"> altered -as in fig. 4</span>, that is to say the valve is formed by a band of -supple india-rubber fastened by two tacks only on one side -of the opening in the side of the plug. For this object it is -also necessary to take stronger tubes.</p> - -<p>Let us now review the few experiments that can be made -with this machine.</p> - -<p>In order to conduct experiments a receiver must be obtained. -The best vessel for your purpose is a large bell-jar -with a ground glass stopper and neck to insure absolute <span id="TN_18b">tightness</span>. -Such a jar may be cheaply obtained at a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -scientific instrument maker’s for about seventy-five cents. -If you cannot get a bell-jar procure a 4-lb. jam pot and a -tightly-fitting bung. In the middle of the latter bore a hole -to admit a glass tube, some six inches long and an inch in -diameter, and then sealing-wax the whole of the upper surface -of the bung so that air cannot enter. Over the projecting -end of the glass tube, bind very tightly the free -end of the long tubing affixed to the pump. To ensure -tight binding, waxed thread should be used.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Asphyxia.</h2> - - -<p>Put a mouse—it is necessary to catch him first—into the -receiver, and work the pump. Soon the animal will show -all the signs of being choked, and eventually will die. This -is proof sufficient that animals cannot live without air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_020.jpg" width="400" height="484" alt="" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Balloon in Vacuum.</h2> - - -<p>Place in the receiver a small bladder, such as are sold in -the streets for a few cents. Wet it a little to make it more -supple. Now, in the ordinary way the air inside the bladder<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -exerts the same pressure on the skin of the bladder as -does the air on the outside. Now work the pedal so that -the air in the receiver is gradually exhausted. The bladder -will be seen to gradually swell and finally burst. It bursts -because as the air in the receiver is exhausted by the pump, -the air outside the bladder exerts a less force than the air -inside. But the air inside is confined by the bladder skin, -a not very strong material, as you know, so as soon as the -difference between the inside and outside pressures is -greater than the strength of the bladder, the latter bursts. -This experiment also shows the expansible power of air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_021.jpg" width="400" height="514" alt="" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Boiling Cold Water.</h2> - - -<p>Place in the receiver a tumbler of cold water and work -the pump as before. In a few minutes, as soon as the air is -sufficiently exhausted, the water will apparently boil. Yet -you know the water does not boil in a kettle unless heated -to 212 degrees. This phenomenon is thus explained: The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -vacuum causes the air-bubbles contained in the water to -escape. They easily do so, because there is scarcely any reserve -on the surface of the liquid (see fig.).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="400" height="466" alt="" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>A Sucking Tube.</h2> - - -<p>This force, the pressure of the air which you have just -ascertained, supplies various experiments in its illustration.</p> - -<p>Take a tin tube, for example, the tin holder of a penny -pen, which you may procure at any stationer’s. Put a little -water in it and make it boil so that the steam takes the -place of the air.</p> - -<p>When steaming furiously stop the mouth of the tube -with a small cork, sealing the opening hermetically. Oil -it a little, so it may glide with ease. If you cool the tube -by plunging it in a basin of cold water, for example, the -steam is condensed, forming a vacuum in the interior, and -under the atmospheric pressure the cork will glide down. -Fasten a string to the cork and you can withdraw it and -begin the operation again. As the water gets hot, steam is -reformed; you will see the cork come up again.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p> - -<p>A capital way of making this cork is to stick the tube in -a piece of potato, cutting out of the latter a perfectly-fitting -cork.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;"> -<img src="images/i_023.jpg" width="296" height="650" alt="" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Cupping.</h2> - - -<p>Instead of a jar-receiver, take a long-necked bottle open -at both ends. If you place the hand on one of the open -ends and exhaust the air, by attaching the long tube of the -pump to the other you cannot remove the hand easily. Do -not try to pump the air out <span id="TN_22">entirely, as</span> the suction may -be too strong and draw blood. It is by the rarefaction of -the air that the cupping-glass is applied to people who require -bleeding. In the antiquated surgical operation of -cupping, the doctor burned a few pieces of paper in small<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -glass cups, which are then applied to the skin; the air, in -getting cold, contracted and produced a partial vacuum, -thus acting as the bottle did in the above experiment.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="600" height="600" alt="" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>The Barometer.</h2> - - -<p>Now you shall learn something about the pressure exercised -by the atmospheric layer which surrounds the -earth to the height of about forty miles. This is done -with the aid of a very well-known instrument called the -barometer.</p> - -<p>You may construct one yourselves. Procure a glass tube -closed at one end, about a yard long and one tenth of an -inch in diameter. Fill it with mercury, then turn it upside -down into a bowl filled with the same metal, taking care -that the air does not enter the tube. The column will stop -at a height between 29 and 30 inches.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> - -<p>This, therefore is the measure of the force of the air’s -pressure, for in the upper part of the tube there is an absolute -vacuum and nothing would prevent the mercury from -going higher up. The weight of the air layer corresponds, -therefore, to a height of nearly 30 inches of mercury.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 161px;"> -<img src="images/i_025.jpg" width="161" height="650" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>This weight has been before stated, viz., fourteen and a -half pounds, such a weight being supported by every single -square inch of the globe’s surface. A marvelous pressure -is thus exerted on the whole earth. In other words, the -weight of the air that surrounds the earth on all sides<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -is no less than the following enormous number of 5,184,740,000,000,000 -tons.</p> - -<p>A man of average height, himself supports the enormous -pressure of 34,171 pounds, or over 15 tons, and yet does not -feel the least inconvenience in his movements. It is because -this pressure is exercised in all directions, and a human -body carries within it elastic fluids that counterbalance -that tremendous weight.</p> - -<p>So accustomed do people become to this weight that -when the weather is stormy, a feeling of heaviness comes -on.</p> - -<p>However, it is just the contrary which takes place when -the barometer is lower; that is to say, the atmospheric pressure -has diminished. Consequently there is less weight to -be carried.</p> - -<p>You would experience the same sensation when going -up in a balloon. As you rise higher and higher the weight -of the air is less felt, and this makes people so uncomfortable -that at a height of about 9,000 or 10,000 yards the liquids -in our body—the blood, the water, the bile—tend to escape -outwards. Why? Because they are no longer balanced by -an outside pressure equal in force to them. In fact, if you -continued to ascend, your fate would be that of the bladder -in the first experiment—you would burst. Thus are you -and all creatures attached to the face of the earth, and it -seems as if great heights were forbidden to our curiosity.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>A Novel Barometer.</h2> - - -<p>Construct a toy house of cardboard, painted, and let -there be two open doorways in the front, and let it stand -on a wooden platform to represent the ground. The two -sides and back may come right down to the ground, but -there must be a slight space between the front of the house -and the ground upon which it stands.</p> - -<p>Next make a flat wheel or disc of wood about the thickness -of a penny, its diameter or measurement across the -center to measure the same as the distance between the two -doorways of the house. The wheel disc or turn-table must -have a shaft or spindle in the middle, so that it will revolve -easily in a hole made for it in the floor or ground which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -your cardboard house stands on; this pivot-hole should be -just within the house and exactly half way between the -two doors.</p> - -<p>In the next place get two small dolls of such size that -they will pass easily through the doorways, or you may -cut them out of cork or some light substance. Dress one -to represent an old man and the other as his wife, and fix -them opposite each other at the edge of the disc or wheel -in such a manner, that when it turns on its axle, the figures -move in and out of the two doorways provided for -their accommodation, for it appears that, although residing -in the same house, they are not on very good terms. When -the husband goes out the wife remains at home, and as she -only ventures abroad in fine weather, her spouse is obliged -to look out when rain may be expected.</p> - -<p>The motive power has now to be provided and this takes -the form of a piece of catgut, such as violin strings are -made of; this is a substance very susceptible of atmospheric -influences, for dry weather contracts or tightens it, while -a damp atmosphere causes it to relax. Double your catgut -and twist it, fasten one end of the rope so formed near the -back of the house inside and fasten the other to the pivot -or axle, with two or three turns round it. As the weather -changes the tightening or relaxing of the rope will cause -the figures to move in and out of the house. Of course, the -figures must be arranged so that the lady comes out when -the rope is tightened by the dryness of the atmosphere.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Compressed Air.</h2> - - -<p>To make experiments with compressed air, you must put -your wits together to make a reservoir. Air, you know, is -a gas consisting of particles called atoms. These atoms -are at a certain distance from one another. They can be -pushed further from one another as when you heat them, -or closer together by cold and compression. So compressed -air only means air whose atoms are pressed more closely together -than as the case with the air around us.</p> - -<p>Now you have heard that a column of air on a square inch -weighs fourteen and a half pounds. Also, you know that -air in a receiver or any other vessel presses on the vessel<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -inside and out with a force (or weight) of fourteen and a -half pounds.</p> - -<p>If now into the vessel you push another quantity of air, -equal to the vessel’s capacity, you simply push the atoms -of air closer together. In fact, they are now only half as far -apart as the atoms of an open vessel. But the pressure is -doubled and the compressed air, therefore, will press on the -inside of the vessel with a force of twenty-nine pounds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_028.jpg" width="600" height="320" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Now to make the reservoir. Get a tin tube about 40<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -inches long and four in diameter, closed at both ends. -Take care that the soldering is well done. Two openings -must be made, and a small tube inserted in each. To each -of these attach an indiarubber tube, one four feet long, and -the other six. (See fig.).</p> - -<p>To fill this reservoir with compressed air, apply the air-pump -fitted with the <span id="TN_28">valve shown in <a href="#Fig_4">fig. 4</a></span>, in the description -of an air-pump. Squeeze tightly the upper tube of the -reservoir before beginning to pump, and then it will -be easy to judge the amount of compression of the air. For -the first experiment place a light ball or sheet of paper over -the mouth of the tube, and loosen your hold on it. The object -will immediately be blown away with considerable -force.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Noiseless Bell.</h2> - - -<p>We know that sound is a succession of vibrations which -must be transmitted in a medium with weight, as air or -water; in other words, in a vacuum there can be no sound -at all. To prove this, introduce into the receiver a small -bell, and as the air is extracted the sounds become weaker<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -and weaker, and cease altogether when the air is completely -rarified.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/i_029.jpg" width="400" height="464" alt="" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>The Bursting Bladder.</h2> - - -<p>Tie a thin piece of light indiarubber round the top of the -bottle, and you will notice that as the air is withdrawn, -the indiarubber will stretch, and at length form a round -small balloon in the interior of the bottle. (Fig. 1).</p> - -<div class="center"> -<div class="figcenter displayinline" style="width: 240px;"> -<img src="images/i_030a.jpg" width="240" height="576" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter displayinline" style="width: 240px;"> -<img src="images/i_030b.jpg" width="240" height="526" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>If a piece of bladder is tightly stretched and tied round -the vessel (fig. 2.) it will burst under the force of the atmospheric -pressure which acts upon it, through a vacuum having -been made underneath. This is another case of the -first experiment with the air pump described above.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Weight of the Air.</h2> - - -<p>Another experiment will still better make you appreciate -the value of this factor: the weight of the air.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> - -<p>Put a piece of supple leather in which a ring is attached -under the bottle; pump the air out of the latter and you -will be astonished at the weight you may hang on this -leather without dragging it off.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="600" height="522" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Should you not have at hand a glass receiver, a wooden -reel may serve instead (see fig.). On one of its faces place -a piece of strong cardboard, in the middle of which a hook -has been fastened; when the rarefaction is made, rather -heavy weights must be hooked on before the cardboard is -detached from the face of the rest.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Spoons which will Melt in Hot Water.</h2> - - -<p>Fuse together in a crucible, eight parts of bismuth, five -of lead and three of tin; these metals will combine and -form an alloy, of which spoons may be made, possessed of -the remarkable property of melting in boiled water.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Effect of Compression.</h2> - - -<p>Take a wooden reel and hollow out either the top or bottom,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -beginning at the hole in the center and working towards -the edge. In the hollow place a ball. Apply to the -other end the indiarubber tube which conducts the forced -air, and the ball will be lifted up (see fig.).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"> -<img src="images/i_032.jpg" width="180" height="336" alt="" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>To Cover Iron with Copper.</h2> - - -<p>If you are about to perform a conjuring trick, you will, -of course take great care that your apparatus is ready. -Therefore, clean your piece of iron or steel from dirt. Dip -a piece of polished iron—the blade of your knife, for instance—into -a solution, either of nitrate or sulphate of copper, -when it will assume the appearance of a piece of pure -copper.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>The Elements.</h2> - - -<p>Before entering into the next series of experiments the -young chemist must know that all the substances of which -the world and everything in it are made up—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i>, the elements -are arranged in two classes, the metals and the non-metals. -The former are by far the more numerous, altogether -numbering more than fifty. Among the better -known are such well known substances as iron, mercury, -copper, tin, potassium, antimony, strontium, and nickel. -The non-metals are more widely distributed and together -made up of the bulk of the universe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> - -<p>They comprise the gases—oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, -and chlorine, and such substances as sulphur, carbon, phosphorus -and iodine. To the latter class also belongs a peculiar -element called fluorine, which, when combined with -hydrogen, destroys glass. It is the only liquid known -which cannot be contained in a glassen or earthenware -vessel, and when used for experimental purposes must be -kept in a leaden bottle.</p> - -<p>Of course it will be understood that the above is not a -complete list by any means, but is sufficient to give a clear -idea of the difference between the two classes. The metals -generally speaking are of a more or less sparkling, lustrous -appearance. The metals, too, are good conductors of -heat and electricity, and generally heavy. These characteristics -are almost entirely wanting in the non-metals. -We shall now give some tricks with the metals.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Potassium.</h2> - - -<p>Potassium was discovered by Sir H. Davy, in the beginning -of the present century, while acting upon potash with -the enormous galvanic battery of the Royal Institution, -consisting of two thousand pairs of four inch plates. It is -a brilliant metal, so soft as to be easily cut with a penknife, -and so light as to swim upon water, on which it acts -with great energy, uniting with the oxygen and liberating -the hydrogen, which takes fire as it escapes.</p> - -<p>Trace some continuous lines on paper with a camel’s-hair -brush dipped in water, and place a piece of potassium about -the size of a pea on one of the lines, and it will follow the -course of the pencil, taking fire as it runs, and burning -with a purplish light.</p> - -<p>The paper will be found covered with a solution of ordinary -potash. If turmeric paper be used, the course of the -potassium will be marked with a deep brown color. Hence -if you touch potassium with wet fingers you will burn -them.</p> - -<p>If a small piece of the metal be placed on a piece of ice, -it will instantly take fire, and form a deep hole which will -be found to contain a solution of potash.</p> - -<p>In consequence of its great affinity for oxygen, potassium -must be kept in some fluid destitute of it, such as naphtha<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -acid, which has been displaced by the great affinity or -liking of the oxygen and acid for the copper.</p> - -<p>2. When the copper is no longer coated, but remains -clean and bright when immersed in the fluid, all the silver -has been deposited, and the glass now contains a solution -of copper.</p> - -<p>Nearly all the colors used in the arts are produced by -metals and their combinations; indeed, one is named -chromium, from a Greek word signifying color, on account -of the beautiful tints obtained from its various combinations -with oxygen and the other metals. All the various -tints, of green, orange, yellow and red are obtained from -this metal.</p> - -<p>Solutions of most of the metallic salts give precipitates -with solutions of alkalies and their salts, as well as with -many other substances, such as what are usually called -prussiate of potash, hydrosulphret of ammonia, etc. The -colors differ according to the metal employed; and so small -a quantity is required to produce the color, that the solutions -before mixing may be nearly colorless.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Metallic Colors.</h2> - - -<p>To a solution of sulphate of iron add a drop or two of a -solution of prussiate of potash, and a blue color will be produced.</p> - -<p>2. Substitute sulphate of copper for iron, and the color -will be a rich brown.</p> - -<p>3. Another blue, of quite a different tint, may be produced -by letting a few drops of a solution of ammonia fall into -one of sulphate of copper, when a precipitate of a light -blue falls down, which is dissolved by an additional quantity -of the ammonia, and forms a transparent solution of -the most splendid rich blue color.</p> - -<p>4. Into a solution of sulphate of iron, drop a few drops of -strong infusion of galls, and the color will become a bluish -black—in fact ink. A little tea will answer as well as the -infusion of galls. This is the reason why certain stuffs -formerly in general use for dressing-gowns for gentlemen -were so objectionable; for as they were indebted to a salt -of iron for their color, buff as it was called, a drop of tea -accidentally spilled produced all the effect of a drop of ink.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p> - -<p>5. Put into a largish test tube two or three small pieces -of granulated zinc, fill it about one-third full of water, put -in a few grains of iodine, and boil the water, which will at -first acquire a dark purple color, gradually fading as the -iodine combines with the zinc. Add a little more iodine -from time to time, until the zinc is nearly all dissolved. -If a few drops of this solution be added to an equally colorless -solution of corrosive sublimate (a salt of mercury), a -precipitate will take place of a splendid scarlet color, -brighter, if possible, than vermilion, which is also a preparation -of mercury.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Crystallization of Metals.</h2> - - -<p>Some of the metals assume certain definite forms in return -from the fluid to the solid state. Bismuth shows this -property more readily than most others.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Experiment.</span></h3> - -<p>Melt a pound or two of bismuth in an iron ladle over the -fire; remove it as soon as the whole is fluid; and when the -surface has become solid break a hole in it and pour out -the still fluid metal from the interior; what remains will -exhibit beautifully formed crystals of a cubic shape.</p> - -<p>Sulphur may be crystallized in the same manner, but its -fumes, when heated, are so very unpleasant that few would -wish to encounter them.</p> - -<p>One of the most remarkable facts in chemistry—a science -abounding in wonders—is the circumstance that the mere -contact of hydrogen, the lightest body known, with the -metal platinum, the heaviest when in a state of minute division -called spongy platinum, produces an intense heat -sufficient to inflame the hydrogen; of course this experiment -must be made in the presence of atmospheric air or -oxygen. If a small piece of the metal in the state above -named be introduced into a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, -it will cause them to explode. A very small quantity -of gas should be employed and placed in a jar lightly covered -with a card, or the explosion would be dangerous.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Crystallization.</h2> - - -<p>Nearly all the metals are characterized by the crystals, -which are formed as they pass from a state of intense heat<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -to that of comparative coldness. It is by this process they -have been formed when in the mine or vein in the rocks. -The earth was once a fiery mass of molten matter, as seen -even now when a volcano is in a state of eruption. And it -was only by the cooling of the outside shell of the earth, or -crust, as it is called, that it became habitable.</p> - -<p>When the crust was cooling down the metals crystallized -among the cooling rocks and gradually formed the crude -arts. You may represent by a very pretty experiment the -manner in which this cooling off of the earth took place. -Obtain a little flour of sulphur and put it in a red earthenware -unglazed jar. Thrust it well into the fire and watch -the rust. As soon as the heat has penetrated the vessel -the yellow powdery sulphur becomes first of all brown, -and then assumes the consistency of thick birdlime. Take -out a little of this on the end of a stick and plunge it into -cold water. It can then be pulled backwards and forwards -like cobblers’ wax. This well represents the state of the -half-cooled crust of the earth.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the sulphur on the fire begins to boil, and -looks very much like bubbling treacle. Remove it from -the fire and allow it to cool. When quite cool the surface -will be a flat, yellow mass, like ordinary roll sulphur, -which, when ground, give the ordinary flour of sulphur.</p> - -<p>With a sharp knife separate the mass from the vessel -and look at the under-surface. There it will be found to -have assumed a very different form, owing to the exclusion -of the air, and consequent slower cooling. Large six-sided -crystals, transparent, and of a most exquisitely delicate -yellow, will be seen, piled on one another as appear -the masses of ore in rocks.</p> - -<p>Nature always works in such cases on such a gigantic -scale that it seems at first difficult to believe that such huge -piles as the Giant’s Causeway in Ireland, or Fingals in -Scotland, or the lodes of tin ore in Cornwall, worked by -the Phœnicians three thousand years ago, and still being -worked, were all formed by the same process.</p> - -<p>The time that the earth must have taken to cool fairly -staggers the imagination, yet it is only from guessing, by -means of such a study as this, that geologists are able to -form any idea of how long ago it was that the earth’s crust<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -became cool enough to allow animal and plant life to exist -upon it.</p> - -<p>The most beautiful crystalline form is perhaps the diamond, -and yet this precious gem is but the same thing, -chemically, as charcoal. Charcoal is pure carbon in the -uncrystallized state, which the magic of crystallization -has transformed into the symbol of all that is brilliant and -beautiful.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Beauties of Crystallization.</h2> - - -<p>Dissolve alum in hot water until no more can be dissolved -in it; place in it a smooth glass rod and a stick of -the same size. Next day the stick will be found covered -with crystals, but the glass rod will be free from them. -In this case the crystals cling to the rough surface of the -stick, but have no hold upon the smooth surface of the glass -rod.</p> - -<p>But if the rod be roughened with a file at certain intervals, -and then placed in the alum and water, the crystals -will adhere to the rough surfaces, and leave the smooth -bright and clear.</p> - -<p>Tie some threads of lamp-cotton irregularly around a -copper wire or glass rod. Place it in a hot solution of blue -vitriol, strong as above, and the threads will be covered -with beautiful blue crystals, while the glass rod will be -bare.</p> - -<p>Bore a hole through a piece of coke, and suspend it by a -string from a stick placed across a hot solution of alum. -It will float. But as it becomes loaded with crystals it will -sink in the solution according to the length of the string. -Gas-coke has mostly a smooth, shining, and almost metallic -surface, which the crystals will avoid, while they will -cling only to the most irregular and porous parts.</p> - -<p>If powdered turmeric be added to the hot solution of alum -the crystals will be of a bright yellow. Litmus will cause -them to be of a bright red. Logwood will yield purple; -and common writing ink, black. And the more muddy -the solution the finer will be the crystals.</p> - -<p>To keep colored alum crystals from breaking or losing -their color, place them under a glass shade with a saucer -of water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p> - -<p>This will preserve the atmosphere moist, and prevent the -crystals getting too dry.</p> - -<p>If crystals be formed on wire they will be liable to break -off, from the expansion and contraction of the wire by -changes of temperature.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>To Crystallize Camphor.</h2> - - -<p>Dissolve camphor in spirit of wine, moderately heated, -until the spirit will not dissolve any more; pour some of -the solution into a cold glass, and the camphor will instantly -crystallize in beautiful tree-like forms, such as we -see in the show-glasses of camphor in druggists’ windows.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Another Experiment.</span></h3> - -<p>Heat some blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) in an iron -ladle till all the water contained in the crystals is driven -off, and the color changes to a gray. Take the lumps out -without breaking them, and lay the dried blue vitriol on a -plate. If this be moistened with water steam is produced; -and if a slice of phosphorus is then laid on the sulphate of -copper it ignites, demonstrating again that the condensation -of a liquid produces heat. The addition of the water -restores the blue color, thus proving that water was necessary -to the composition of blue vitriol.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>A Solid Changed to a Liquid.</h2> - - -<p>Mix five parts by weight of powdered sal ammoniac, five -parts of nitre in powder, and sixteen parts of water. A -temperature of twenty-two degrees below the freezing -point of water is produced; and if a phial of water, or any -convenient metallic cylinder containing water, be surrounded -with a sufficient quantity of the freezing mixture, -ice is formed. The ice clings to the interior of the tube, -but may easily be removed by dipping it in tepid water.</p> - -<p>This experiment is the reverse of the last and proves that -the sudden reduction of a solid to the liquid condition always -affords cold.</p> - -<p>An amusing combination of two experiments may be -made by putting some fresh-burned lime into one tea pot -and this freezing mixture into another. When water is -poured on the one containing lime, it gives out steam<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -from the spout, while the addition of water to the other -produces so much cold that it can hardly be kept in the -hand. Thus heat and cold are afforded through the same -medium, water.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Magic of Heat.</h2> - - -<p>Melt a small quantity of the sulphate of potash and copper -in a spoon over a spirit lamp. It will be fused at a heat -just below redness, and produce a liquid of a dark-green -color. Remove the spoon from the flame, when the liquid -will become a solid of a brilliant emerald green color, and -so remain until its heat sinks nearly to that of boiling -water, when suddenly a commotion will take place -throughout the mass, beginning from the surface, and each -atom, as if animated, will start up and separate itself from -the rest, till in a few moments the whole will become a -heap of powder.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Sublimation by Heat.</h2> - - -<p>Provide two small pieces of glass; sprinkle a minute -portion of sulphur upon one piece, lay thin slips of wood -around it, and place upon it the other piece of glass. -Move them slowly over the flame of a lamp or candle, and -the sulphur will become sublimed, and form gray, nebulous -patches, which are very curious microscopic objects. -Each cluster consists of thousands of transparent globules, -imitating in miniature the nebulæ which we see figured in -treatises on astronomy. By observing the largest particles -we shall find them to be flattened on one side. Being very -transparent, each of them acts the part of a little lens, and -forms in its focus the image of a distant light, which can -be perceived even in the smaller globules, until it vanishes -from minuteness. If they are examined again after a certain -number of hours, the smaller globules will generally -be found to have retained their transparency, while the -larger ones will have become opaque, in consequence of the -sulphur having undergone some internal spontaneous -change. But the most remarkable circumstance attending -this experiment is that the globules are found adhering to -the upper glass only; the reason of which is that the upper -glass is somewhat cooler than the lower one, by which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -means we see that the vapor of sulphur is very powerfully -repelled by heated glass. The flattened form of the particles -is owing to the force with which they endeavor to recede -from the lower glass, and their consequent pressure -against the surface of the upper one. This experiment is -considered by its originator, Mr. H. F. Talbot, to be a satisfactory -argument in favor of the repulsive power of heat.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Heat Passing Through Glass.</h2> - - -<p>Although glass is a bad conductor it yet allows heat to -pass through it, and the purer the glass the more easy is -this done. Heat a poker red hot, and having opened a -window, apply the poker very near to the outside of the -pane, and the hand to the inside. A strong heat will be -felt at the instant, which will cease as soon as the poker is -withdrawn, and may be again renewed and made to cease -as quickly as before. It is well known that if a piece of -glass be so much warmed as to convey the impression of -heat to the hand, it will retain some part of that heat for -a minute or more; but in this experiment the heat will -vanish in a moment. It will not, therefore, be the heated -pane of glass that we shall feel, but heat which has come -through the glass in a free or radiant state.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Metals Unequally Influenced by Heat.</h2> - - -<p>All metals do not conduct heat at the same rate as may -be proved by holding in the flame of a candle at the same -time a piece of silver wire and a piece of platina wire, -when the silver wire will become too hot to hold, much -sooner than the platina. Or cut a cone of each wire, tip it -with wax, and place it upon a heated plate (as a fire-shovel), -when the wax will melt at different periods.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Spontaneous Combustion.</h2> - - -<p>Mix a small quantity of chlorate of potash with spirit of -wine in a strong saucer; add a little sulphuric acid, and an -orange vapor will arise and burst into flame with a loud -crackling sound.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Inequality of Heat in Fire-Irons.</h2> - - -<p>Place before a fire a set of polished fire-irons, and beside -them a rough, unpolished poker, such as is used in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> -kitchen, instead of a bright poker. The polished irons -will remain for a long time without becoming warmer than -the temperature of the room, because the heat radiated -from the fire is all reflected, or thrown off, by the polished -surface of the irons, and none of it is absorbed. The rough -poker will, however, become speedily hot, so as not to be -used without inconvenience. Hence, the polish of fire-irons -is not merely ornamental, but useful.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Expansion of Metal by Heat.</h2> - - -<p>Provide an iron rod, and fit it exactly into a metal ring; -heat the rod red hot, and it will no longer enter the ring.</p> - -<p>Observe an iron gate on a warm day, when it will shut -with difficulty; whereas it will shut loosely and easily on -a cold day.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>The Alchemist’s Ink.</h2> - - -<p>Dissolve in water a small quantity, about as much as -will lay on a ten-cent piece, of chloride of cobalt, which is -of a bluish-green color, and the solution will be pink; write -with it and the characters will scarcely be visible; but if -gently heated they will appear in brilliant green, which -will disappear as the paper cools.</p> - -<p>Dissolve in water a few grains of prussiate of potash; -write with this liquid, which is invisible when dry; wash -over with a dilute solution of iron, made by dissolving a -nail in a little aqua fortis; a blue and legible writing is -immediately apparent.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Chameleon Liquids.</h2> - - -<p>Put a small portion of the compound called mineral chameleon -into several glasses. Pour upon each water at different -temperatures and the contents of each glass will exhibit -a different shade of color. A very hot solution will -be of a beautiful green color; a cold one a deep purple.</p> - -<p>Make a colorless solution of sulphate of copper; add to -it a little ammonia equally colorless, and the mixture will -be of an intense blue color; add to it a little sulphuric -acid, and the blue color will disappear; pour in a little solution -of caustic ammonia, and the blue color will be restored. -Thus may the liquor be changed at pleasure.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>Magic Dyes.</h2> - - -<p>Dissolve indigo in diluted sulphuric acid, and add to it -an equal quantity of solution of carbonate of potash. If a -piece of white cloth be dipped in the mixture it will be -changed to blue; yellow cloth, in the same mixture, may -be changed to green; red to purple; and blue litmus paper -to red.</p> - -<p>Nearly fill a wine glass with the juice of beet-root, which -is of a deep red color; add a little lime water and the mixture -will be colorless; dip into it a piece of white cloth, -dry it rapidly, and in a few hours the cloth will become -red.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Wine Changed into Water.</h2> - - -<p>Mix a little solution of subacetate of lead with port wine; -filter the mixture through blotting-paper, and a colorless -liquid will pass through; to this add a small quantity of -dry salt of tartar; distill in a retort, when a spirit will -arise, which may be inflamed.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>The Chemistry of Water.</h2> - - -<p>More than two-thirds of the earth’s surface is water, so -that in mere quantity alone it is the most important substance -with which we are acquainted. Without it life -would be impossible, for, owing to its quality of dissolving -other bodies, it may be regarded as the great purifier, as -well as the vehicle which brings nourishment to plants and -animals alike.</p> - -<p>Not only is water useful, but is among the most beautiful -of Nature’s products. It has carved the valleys between -mountain ranges by its slow dropping for ages, and -has made the fairy glens by rushing down their sides in -torrents. The stately rivers and the roaring oceans are -but forms of its might.</p> - -<p>In another state it works out those fantastic grottoes, -mountains and fields of glittering white, that make the -Polar seas the very head center of dreamland.</p> - -<p>In still another form it paints the rainbow in the sky, -and hangs like a veil over the landscape, passing from the -most delicate blue over the plain to the deep purple clinging -to distant hills.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> - -<p>To it the golden and red hues of sunrise and sunset are -due. The light fleecy clouds that speak the beauty of -spring, and the great thunder stocks that gleam, with -lightning flashes are all composed of water, and water -alone.</p> - -<p>It drives our engines and machinery, and speeds our -ships across the sea. Neither is it confined to this earth -alone, for astronomers tell us that vast seas and even -clouds can be seen on the next great planet to the earth, -Mars.</p> - -<p>Surely, then, as this wondrous substance is examined, -the ancients can be excused for worshiping the ocean as a -god, and the old alchemists for believing it to be an element.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, water is not a simple substance. It is -composed of two gases, which must be combined before -water is produced. These gases are oxygen and hydrogen. -Every atom of water consists of one part of the former gas -and two parts by volume of the latter. This you may -prove in the following way:</p> - -<p>Buy a piece of sodium, a metal that must not be touched -with the fingers, and thrust it into a small one-ounce jar -half full of water; cork the jar tightly.</p> - -<p>Through a hole in the cork pass a glass tube, the outer -end being drawn in a flame to a fine point. Apply a light -at the end of the tube. The escaping gas will catch fire -and burn with a light blue flame. This gas is hydrogen.</p> - -<p>Next empty the jar and fill with warm water, and place -by means of another cork a small glass jar on to the tube. -Into the lower jar drop a piece of blazing hot platinum. -Repeat this again and again with the same piece of platinum, -being careful not to uncork the upper jar, so that every -time the metal is dropped into the lower jar, you remove -the upper jar with the tube and two corks. After -doing this a dozen times or more take a match that is still -glowing after having been extinguished, and plunge it into -the upper jar. It will burst into flame immediately, and -the gas in the upper jar is oxygen.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Two Bitters Make a Sweet.</h2> - - -<p>It has been discovered that a mixture of nitrate of silver<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> -with hyposulphite of soda, both of which are remarkably -bitter, will produce the sweetest known substance.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Visible and Invisible.</h2> - - -<p>Write with French chalk on a looking-glass; wipe it -with a handkerchief and the lines will disappear; breathe -on it and they will reappear. This alteration will take -place for a great number of times, and after the lapse of a -considerable period.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>To Form a Liquid from Two Solids.</h2> - - -<p>Rub together in a mortar a small quantity of sulphate of -soda and acetate of lead, and as they mix they will become -liquid.</p> - -<p>Carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of copper, previously -reduced to powder separately, will also, when mixed, -become liquid, and acquire a most splendid blue color.</p> - -<p>The greater number of salts have a tendency to assume -regular forms, or become <em>crystallized</em>, when passing from -the fluid to the solid state; and the size and regularity of -the crystals depends in a great measure on the slow or -rapid escape of the fluid in which they were dissolved.</p> - -<p>Sugar is a capital example of this property; the ordinary -loaf-sugar being rapidly boiled down, as it is called; -while to make rock-candy, which is nothing but sugar in a -crystallized form, the solution is allowed to evaporate -slowly, and as it cools it forms into those beautiful crystals -termed rock-candy. The threads found in the center of -some of the crystals are merely placed for the purpose of -hastening the formation of the crystals.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Restoration of Color by Water.</h2> - - -<p>Water being a colorous fluid ought, one would imagine -when mixed with other substances of no decided color, to -produce a colorless compound. Nevertheless, it is to water -only that blue vitriol or sulphate of copper owes its vivid -blueness, as will be plainly evinced by the following simple -experiment. Heat a few crystals of the vitriol in a fire-shovel, -pulverize them, and the powder will be of a dull -and dirty white appearance. Pour a little water upon this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -when a slight hissing noise will be heard, and at the same -moment the blue color will instantly reappear.</p> - -<p>Under the microscope the beauty of this experiment will -be increased, for the instant that a drop of water is placed -in contact with the vitriol, the powder may be seen to -shoot into blue prisms. If a crystal of prussiate of potash -be similarly heated its yellow color will vanish, but reappear -on being dropped into water.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Two Liquids Make a Solid.</h2> - - -<p>Dissolve chloride of lime in water until it will dissolve -no more; measure out an equal quantity of oil of vitriol; -both will be transparent fluids; but if equal quantities of -each be slowly mixed and stirred together, they will become -a solid mass, with the evolution of smoke or fumes.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Two Solids Make a Liquid.</h2> - - -<p>Rub together in a mortar equal quantities of the crystals -of Glauber salts and nitrate of ammonia, and the two -salts will slowly become a liquid.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>A Solid Opaque Mass Makes a Transparent Liquid.</h2> - - -<p>Take the solid mixture of the solutions of muriate of -lime and carbonate of potash, pour upon it a very little -nitric acid, and the solid opaque mass will be changed to a -transparent liquid.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Two Cold Liquids Make a Hot One.</h2> - - -<p>Mix four drams of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) with one -dram of cold water, suddenly, in a cup, and the mixture -will be nearly half as hot again as boiling water.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>To Make Ice.</h2> - - -<p>Although this trick is performed by means of chemicals, -yet its product is obtained really by the use of mechanical -laws. We must remember that ice is exactly the same -thing as water so far as its composition is concerned, differing -only in its state of density.</p> - -<p>Ice, water, and steam differ in density through the -possession of a greater or less quantity of heat. Hence, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -turning of water into ice really is a case of the operation of -mechanical laws.</p> - -<p>Now for the experiment. Put into a wide-mouthed jam-jar -a smaller glass vessel containing the water to be frozen. -Around the latter put a mixture of sulphate of soda -(Glauber’s salt) and hydrochloric acid (spirits of salts). The -proportions must be eight parts of the former to five of the -latter.</p> - -<p>The action of these two chemicals on one another is to -cause a cold of fifteen to seventeen degrees below zero, or -forty-seven degrees below freezing point.</p> - -<p>The same result may be obtained by mixing equal parts -of nitrate of ammonia and water. In winter-time when -the snow is on the ground, <span id="TN_45">with</span> a mixture of one part snow and -one part common table salt an intense cold of twenty degrees -below zero is obtained.</p> - -<p>From this last fact we see how stupid are those people -who sprinkle the salt on the pavements to get rid of the -snow. True, the latter melts, but only after the production -of intense cold, which is the cause of many diseases, -not only slight ones like colds and chilblains, but too often -the forerunners of consumption and other lung troubles.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Curious Change of Colors.</h2> - - -<p>Let there be no other light than a taper in the room; -then put on a pair of dark-green spectacles, and having -closed one eye view the taper with the other. Suddenly remove -the spectacles and the taper will assume a bright red -appearance; but if the spectacles be instantly replaced, the -eye will be unable to distinguish anything for a second or -two. The order of colors will therefore be as follows: green, -red, green, black.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>The Protean Light.</h2> - - -<p>Soak a cotton wick in a strong solution of salt and -water, dry it, place it in a spirit lamp, and when lit it will -give a bright yellow light for a long time. If you look -through a piece of blue glass at the flame, it will lose all its -yellow light and you will only perceive feeble violet rays. -If before the blue glass you place a pale yellow glass, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -lamp will be absolutely invisible, though a candle may be -distinctly seen through the same glasses.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>To Change the Colors of Flowers.</h2> - - -<p>Hold over a lighted match a purple columbine or a blue -larkspur, and it will change first to pink and then to -black. The yellow of other flowers held as above will continue -unchanged.</p> - -<p>Thus, the purple tint will instantly disappear from a -heart’s-ease, but the yellow will remain; and the yellow of -a wall-flower will continue the same, though the brown -streak will be discharged. If a scarlet, crimson, or maroon -dahlia be tried, the color will change to yellow, a fact -known to gardeners, who by this mode variegate their -growing dahlias.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Changes of the Poppy.</h2> - - -<p>Some flowers which are red, become blue by merely -bruising them. Thus, if the petals of the common corn-poppy -be rubbed upon white paper, they will stain it purple, -which may be made green by washing it over with a -strong solution of potash in water. Put poppy petals into -very dilute muriatic acid, and the infusion will be of a -florid red color; by adding a little chalk, it will become -the color of port wine; and this tint, by the addition of -potash may be changed to green or yellow.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Changes of the Rose.</h2> - - -<p>Hold a red rose over the blue flame of a common match -and the color will be discharged wherever the fume -touches the leaves of the flower, so as to render it beautifully -variegated, or entirely white. If it be then dipped -into water, the redness, after a time, will be restored.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Marking Indelibly.</h2> - - -<p>Write upon linen with permanent ink (which is a -strong solution of nitrate of silver), and the characters -will be scarcely visible; remove the linen to a dark room, -and they will not change; but expose them to a strong -light, and they will be of an indelible black.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>Visible Growth.</h2> - - -<p>Cut a circular piece of card to fit the top of a hyacinth -glass, so as to rest upon the ledge, and exclude the air. -Pierce a hole through the center of the card, and pass -through it a strong thread, having a small piece of wood -tied to one end, which, resting transversely on the card, -prevents it being drawn through. To the other end of the -thread attach an acorn; and having half filled the glass -with water, suspend the acorn at a short distance from -the surface.</p> - -<p>The glass must be kept in a warm room, and in a few -days the steam will hang from the acorn in a drop, the -skin will burst, and the root will protrude and thrust itself -in the water, and in a few days more a stem will shoot out -at the other end, and rising upwards, will press against -the card, in which an orifice must be made to allow it to -pass through. From this stem small leaves will soon be -observed to sprout; and in the course of a few weeks you -will have a handsome oak plant, several inches in height.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Colored Flames.</h2> - - -<p>A variety of rays of light are exhibited by colored -flames, which are not to be seen in white light. Thus pure -hydrogen gas will burn with a blue flame, in which many -of the rays of light are wanting.</p> - -<p>The flame of an oil lamp contains most of the rays which -are wanting in the sunlight. Alcohol mixed with water, -when heated or burned, affords a flame with no other rays -but yellow. The following salts, if finely powdered, and -introduced into the exterior flame of a candle, or into the -wick of a spirit lamp, will communicate to the flame their -peculiar colors:</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Colored flames"> -<tr><td align="left">Chloride of Soda (common salt)</td><td align="left">Yellow.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="spacequote">“</span> of Potash</td><td align="left">Pale violet.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="spacequote">“</span> of Lime</td><td align="left">Brick red.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="spacequote">“</span> of Strontia</td><td align="left">Bright crimson.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="spacequote">“</span> of Lithia</td><td align="left">Red.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="spacequote">“</span> of Baryta</td><td align="left">Apple green.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left"><span class="spacequote">“</span> of Copper</td><td align="left">Bluish green.</td></tr> -<tr><td align="left">Borax</td><td align="left">Yellow.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Or either of the above salts may be mixed with spirit of -wine, as directed, for Red Fire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Orange Colored Flame.</span></h3> - -<p>Burn spirit of wine on chloride of calcium, a substance -obtained by evaporating muriate of lime to dryness.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Emerald Green Flame.</span></h3> - -<p>Burn spirit of wine on a little powdered nitrate of silver.</p> - - -<h3><span class="smcap">Instantaneous Flame.</span></h3> - -<p>Heat together potassium and sulphur, and they will instantly -burn very vividly.</p> - -<p>Heat a little nitre on a fire-shovel, sprinkle on it flour of -sulphur, and it will instantly burn. If iron filings be -thrown upon red hot nitre, they will detonate and burn.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Water of Different Temperatures in the Same Vessel.</h2> - - -<p>Of heat and cold, as of wit and madness, it may be said -that “thin partitions do their bounds divide.” Thus, -paint one half of the surface of a tin pot with a mixture of -lamp black and size, and leave the other half or side bright; -fill the vessel with boiling water, and by dipping a thermometer, -or even the finger, into it shortly after, it will be -found to cool much more rapidly upon the blackened than -the bright side of the pot.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Warmth of Different Colors.</h2> - - -<p>Place upon the surface of snow, as upon the window-sill, -in bright daylight or sunshine, pieces of cloth of the -same size and quality, but of different colors, black, blue, -green, yellow and white; the black cloth will soon melt -the snow beneath it, and sink downwards; next the blue, -and then the green; the yellow but slightly; but the snow -beneath the white cloth will be as firm as at first.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Laughing Gas.</h2> - - -<p>The above fanciful appellation has been given to nitrous -oxide, from the very agreeable sensations excited by inhaling -it. In its pure state it destroys animal life, but loses -this noxious quality when inhaled, because it becomes -blended with the atmospheric air which it meets in the -lungs. This gas is made by putting three or four drams -of nitrate of ammonia in crystals into a small glass retort,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -which being held over a spirit lamp, the crystals will -melt, and the gas be evolved.</p> - -<p>Having thus produced the gas, it is to be passed into a -large bladder having a stop-cock; and when you are desirous -of exhibiting its effects you cause the person who -wishes to experience them to first exhale the atmospheric -air from the lungs, and then quickly placing the cock in -his mouth you turn it, and bid him inhale the gas. Immediately -a sense of extraordinary cheerfulness, fanciful -flights of imagination, an uncontrollable propensity to -laughter, and a consciousness of being capable of great -muscular exertion, supervene. It does not operate in -exactly the same manner on all persons; but in most -cases the sensations are agreeable, and have this important -difference from those produced by wine or spirituous -liquors, that they are not succeeded by any depression of -mind.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Magic Vapor.</h2> - - -<p>Provide a glass tube about three feet long and half an -inch in diameter; nearly fill it with water, upon the surface -of which pour a little colored ether; then close the -open end of the tube carefully with the palm of the hand, -invert it in a basin of water, and rest the tube against the -wall. The ether will rise through the water to the upper -end of the tube; pour a little hot water over the tube, -and it will soon cause the ether to boil within, and its vapor -may thus be made to drive nearly all of the water out -of the tube into the basin. If, however, you then cool the -tube by pouring cold water over it, the vaporized ether will -again become a liquid, and float upon the water as before.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Gas from the Union of Metals.</h2> - - -<p>Nearly fill a wine glass with diluted sulphuric acid, -and place in it a wire of silver and another of zinc, taking -care that they do not touch each other, when the zinc will -be changed by the acid, but the silver will remain inert. -But cause the upper ends of the wires to touch each other, -and a stream of gas will issue from them.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>Green Fire.</h2> - - -<p>A beautiful green fire may be thus made: Take of -flour of sulphur thirteen parts, nitrate of baryta seventy-seven, -chlorate of potash five, metallic arsenic two, and -charcoal three. Let the nitrate of baryta be well dried and -powdered; then add to it the other ingredients, all finely -pulverized, and exceedingly well mixed and rubbed together. -Place a portion of the composition in a small tin pan, -having a polished reflector fitted to one side, and set light -to it, when a splendid green illumination will be the result. -By adding a little calamine it will burn more slowly.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Combustion of Three Metals.</h2> - - -<p>Mix a grain or two of potassium with an equal quantity -of sodium; add a globule of quicksilver, and the three -metals, when shaken, will take fire and burn vividly.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>To Make Paper Apparently Incombustible.</h2> - - -<p>Take a smooth cylindrical piece of metal, about one -inch and a half in diameter, and eight inches long. Wrap -very closely round it a piece of clean writing paper, then -hold the paper in the flame of a spirit lamp, and it will -not take fire. But it may be held there for a considerable -time without being in the least affected by the flame. If -the paper be strained over a cylinder of wood it is quickly -scorched.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Heat Not to be Estimated by Touch.</h2> - - -<p>Hold both hands in water which causes the thermometer -to rise to ninety degrees, and when the liquid has become -still, you will be insensible to the heat, and that the -hand is touching anybody. Then remove one hand to water -that causes the thermometer to rise to two hundred -degrees, and the other in water at thirty-two degrees.</p> - -<p>After holding the hands thus for some time remove -them, and again immerse them in the water at ninety degrees. -Then you will find warmth in one hand and cold in -the other. To the hand which had been immersed in the -water at thirty-two degrees, the water at ninety degrees -will feel hot; and to the hand which had been immersed -in the water at two hundred degrees, the water at ninety<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -degrees will feel cool. If, therefore, the touch in this case -be trusted, the same water will be judged to be hot and -cold at the same time.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Flame Upon Water.</h2> - - -<p>Fill a wine glass with cold water, pour lightly upon its -surface a little ether; light it by a slip of paper, and it will -burn for some time.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Rose-colored Flame Upon Water.</h2> - - -<p>Drop a globule of potassium, about the size of a large -pea, into a small cup nearly full of water containing a drop -or two of strong nitric acid; the moment that the metal -touches the liquid it will float upon its surface, enveloped -with a beautiful rose-colored flame, and entirely dissolve.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Currents in Boiling Water.</h2> - - -<p>Fill a large glass tube with water, and throw into it a -few particles of bruised amber or shreds of litmus; then -hold the tube by a handle for the purpose, upright in the -flame of a lamp, and as the water becomes warm it will be -seen that currents, carrying with them the pieces of amber -will begin to ascend in the center, and to descend towards -the circumference of the tube. These currents will -soon become rapid in their motions, and continue till the -water boils.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Hot Water Lighter than Cold.</h2> - - -<p>Pour into a glass tube, about ten inches long and one -inch in diameter, a little water colored with pink or other -dye; then fill it up gradually and carefully with colorless -water, so as not to mix them; apply heat at the bottom of -the tube, and the colored water will ascend and be diffused -throughout the whole.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Expansion of Water by Cold.</h2> - - -<p>All fluids except water diminish in bulk till they freeze. -Thus, fill a large thermometer tube with water, say of the -temperature of eighty degrees, and then plunge the bulb -into pounded ice and salt, or any other freezing mixture; -the water will go on shrinking in the tube till it has attained<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -the temperature of about forty degrees, and then, -instead of continuing to contract till it freezes, it will be -seen slowly to expand, and consequently to rise in the tube -until it congeals.</p> - -<p>In this case the expansion below forty degrees and above -forty degrees seem to be equal, so that the water will be -of the same bulk at thirty-two degrees as at forty-eight -degrees, that is, at eight degrees above or below forty degrees.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>The Cup of Tantalus.</h2> - - -<p>This pretty toy may be purchased at any optician’s for -seventy-five cents. It consists of a cup in which is placed -a human standing figure concealing a syphon or bent tube, -with one end longer than the other. This rises in one leg -of the figure to reach the chin, and descends through the -other leg, through the bottom of the cup to a reservoir beneath. -If you pour water in the cup it will rise in the -shorter leg by its upward pressure, driving out the air before -it through the longer leg; and when the cup is filled -above the bend of the syphon, that is, level with the chin -of the figure, the pressure of the water will force it over -into the longer leg of the syphon, and the cup will be emptied, -the toy thus imitating Tantalus, of mythology, who -is represented by the poets as punished in Erebus with an -insatiable thirst, and placed up to the chin in a pool of -water, which, however, flowed away as soon as he attempted -to taste it.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>The Magic Whirlpool.</h2> - - -<p>Fill a glass tumbler with water, throw upon its surface -a few fragments or thin shavings of camphor, and they -will instantly begin to move, and acquire a motion both -progressive and rotary, which will continue for a considerable -time. During these rotations if the water be touched -by any substance which is at all greasy, the floating particles -will quickly dart back, and, as if by a stroke of magic, -be instantly deprived of their motion and vivacity.</p> - -<p>In like manner, if thin slices of cork be steeped in sulphuric -ether in a closed bottle for two or three days, and -then placed upon the water, they will rotate for several<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -minutes, like the camphor, until the slices of cork, having -discharged all their ether, and become soaked with water, -they will keep at rest.</p> - -<p>If the water be made hot the motion of the camphor will -be more rapid than in cold water, but it will cease in proportionately -less time. Thus, provide two glasses, one -containing water at fifty-eight degrees, and the other at -two hundred and ten degrees; place raspings of camphor -upon each at the same time; the camphor in the first glass -will rotate for about five hours, until all but a very minute -portion has evaporated, while the rotation of the camphor -in the hot water will last only nineteen minutes. -About half the camphor will pass off and the remaining -pieces, instead of being dull, white and opaque, will be vitreous -and transparent, and evidently soaked with water. -The gyrations, too, which at first will be very rapid, will -gradually decline in velocity until they become quite sluggish.</p> - -<p>The stilling influence of oil upon waves has become proverbial. -The extraordinary manner in which a small quantity -of oil instantly spreads over a very large surface of -troubled water, and the stealthy manner in which even a -rough wind glides over it must have excited the admiration -of all who have witnessed it.</p> - -<p>By the same principle a drop of oil may be made to stop -the motion of the camphor, as follows: Throw some camphor, -both in slices and in small particles, upon the surface -of water, and while they are rotating dip a glass rod -into oil of turpentine. Then allow a single drop thereof to -trickle down the inner side of the glass to the surface of -the water. The camphor will instantly dart to the opposite -point of the liquid surface, and cease to rotate.</p> - -<p>If a few drops of sulphuric or muriatic acid be let fall -into the water, they will gradually stop the motion of the -camphor, but if camphor be dropped into nitric acid, diluted -with its own bulk of water, it will rotate rapidly for a -few seconds and then stop.</p> - -<p>If a piece of the rotating camphor be attentively examined -with a lens, the currents of the water can be well distinguished, -jetting out, chiefly from the corners of the -camphor, and bearing it round with irregular force.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> - -<p>The currents, as given out by the camphor, may also be -seen by means of the microscope; a drop or two of pure -water being placed upon a slip of glass, with a particle of -camphor floating upon it. By this means the current may -be detected, and it will be seen that they cause the rotations.</p> - -<p>A flat watch-glass may be employed, raised a few inches -and supported on a wire ring, kept steady by thrusting one -end into an upright piece of wood like a retort stand. Then -put the camphor and water in the watch-glass, and place -under the frame a sheet of white paper, so that it may receive -the shadow of the glass, camphor, etc., to be cast by -a steady light, placed above, and somewhat on one side of -the watch-glass.</p> - -<p>On observing the shadow, which may be considered a -magnified representation of the object itself, the rotations -and currents can be distinguished.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Fire Under Water.</h2> - - -<p>Put thirty grains of phosphorus into a bottle which contains -three or four ounces of water. Place the vessel over -a lamp and give it a boiling heat. Balls of fire will soon be -seen to issue from the water after the manner of an artificial -firework, attended with the most beautiful coruscations.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>To Light Steel.</h2> - - -<p>Make a piece of steel red in the fire, then hold it with a -pair of pincers or tongs; take in the other hand a stick of -brimstone and touch the piece of steel with it. Immediately -after their contact you will see the steel melt and drop -like a liquid.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>A Test of Love.</h2> - - -<p>Put into a phial some sulphuric ether, color it red with -alkanet, then saturate the tincture with spermaceti. This -preparation is solid ten degrees above freezing point, and -melts and boils at twenty degrees. Place the phial which -contains it in a lady’s hand and tell her that if in love, the -solid mass will dissolve. In a few minutes the substance -will become fluid.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>An Egg Pushed Into a Wine Bottle.</h2> - - -<p>To accomplish this seemingly incredible act requires the -following preparation: You must take an egg and soak it -in strong vinegar, and in process of time its shell will become -quite soft so that it may be extended lengthways -without breaking; then insert it into the neck of a small -bottle, and by pouring cold water upon it, it will reassume -its former figure and hardness. This is really a complete -curiosity, and baffles those who are not in the secret to find -out how it is accomplished. If the vinegar used to saturate -the egg is not sufficiently strong to produce the required -softness of shell, add one teaspoonful of strong acetic acid -to every two tablespoonfuls of vinegar. This will render -the egg perfectly flexible, and of easy insertion into the -bottle, which must then be filled with cold water.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>A Chemical Fountain.</h2> - - -<p>Take two small glass jars and close them with corks. In -each of these pierce two holes and introduce a glass tube -curved in the form of a lengthened V. The two extremities -of this tube must not reach further than just a little -below the inner surface of the corks. In one jar pour water -until it is three-quarters full, and pass through the -second hole of the cork a straight glass tube, open at both -ends and reaching nearly the bottom. This jar must be -hermetically corked. (If necessary, seal the top.) In the -other jar put some chalk, and in the second hole of the -cork, left free, pass the extremity of a paper funnel in which -you place a pellet of wax or putty.</p> - -<p>Your apparatus thus being ready, through the funnel -pour some vinegar, or better still, some sulphuric acid. -The latter ingredient coming in contact with the chalk, -forms carbonic acid, which, not being able to escape -through the funnel closed by the pellet, passes through the -curved tube into the other jar and is dissolved in the water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 515px;"> -<img src="images/i_057.jpg" width="515" height="650" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>After some time a strong pressure will be exercised on -the liquid, and the water rising rapidly up through the vertical -tube, will spout out as from a fountain.</p> - -<p>This experiment may be varied and reduced to a simpler -one. Take one jar, fill it up two-thirds with water, and fit -it with a cork with two holes, through which pass two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> -tubes; the one going to the bottom, the other resting just -over the surface of the liquid. The latter should be fitted -with a receiver.</p> - -<p>Seal the cork so as to render it air-tight. In the top receiver -pour water, which will go down into the jar and -raise the level of the water already contained in it.</p> - -<p>The air, being compressed, will act upon the liquid mass -in the lower jar, and the water will escape through the -free tube in a jet with more or less force according to the -pressure exercised.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Weighing Gases.</h2> - - -<p>Do not be cast down because you see another term to be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -explained. A gas is, you may have already guessed, simply -a fluid. Matter exists in three states, solid, liquid and -gaseous. Everything can exist in these three states under -different conditions of heat and pressure.</p> - -<p>For instance, ice, water, and steam are precisely the -same thing, a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, though in -different states. Hence steam is simply the gaseous form<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -of ice or water. Now some gases are heavier than air, and -among them is carbonic acid, a gas given off from the lungs -in breathing.</p> - -<p>By means of a very simply-constructed balance, you can -prove this gas to be heavier than air. Sounds queer, -doesn’t it? to talk of weighing something that you cannot -handle or see.</p> - -<p>It is not difficult to do. Bend some wire, minding that -the beams of the balance are curved as in the figure.</p> - -<p>For one side of the scales a strong cardboard box will -answer admirably; for the other the lid of a round box will -serve. Hang the whole on a string and adjust it by putting -some grains of sand in the round scale on which the -weights are placed, to make each side balance one another -and the scales are ready for use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 477px;"> -<img src="images/i_058.jpg" width="477" height="650" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The production of carbonic acid is easy. Pour a little -sulphuric acid and water over some chalk. Collect the gas -given off in a bottle or jar. In doing so you need not be -afraid that it will escape, since it is heavier than the air.</p> - -<p>In pouring it in the box of the scale, you will see the box -sink down, which is clearly an indication that the gas, -which has just been poured into the scale is heavier than -the air, whose place it has taken. This experiment may -be tried in other curious ways.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>In Water but not Wet.</h2> - - -<p>With some lycopodium, powder the surface of a large or -small vessel of water; you may then challenge any one to -drop a piece of money into the water, and that you will get -it with the hand without wetting your skin. The lycopodium -adheres to the hand, and prevents its contact with -the water. A little shake of the hand after the feat is over -will dislodge the powder.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Image of a Volcano.</h2> - - -<p>This is another experiment on the density of liquids. In -a small jar put some wine or colored alcohol, and close it -with a cork, through which you have passed a small tube, -a quill or a hollow straw. In lowering this jar gently in a -pail full of water, you will soon see the liquid escape and -rise to the surface of the water, describing spirals which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -resemble smoke, and give a pretty good image, considerably -diminished, of a volcano.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Reciprocal Images.</h2> - - -<p>Make two holes in the wainscot of a room, each a foot -high and ten inches wide, and about a foot distant from -each other. Let these apertures be about the height of a -man’s head, and in each of them place a transparent glass -in a frame like a common mirror.</p> - -<p>Behind the partition, and directly facing each aperture, -place two mirrors inclosed in the wainscot, in an angle of -forty-five degrees. These mirrors are each to be eighteen -inches square, and all the space between must be inclosed -with pasteboard painted black, and well closed that no -light can enter; let there be also two curtains to cover -them, which you may draw aside at pleasure.</p> - -<p>When a person looks into one of these fictitious mirrors, -instead of seeing his own face, he will see the object that -is in front of the other; thus, if two persons stand at the -same time before these mirrors, instead of each seeing -himself, they will reciprocally see each other.</p> - -<p>There should be a sconce with a lighted candle placed on -each side of the two glasses in the wainscot, to enlighten -the faces of the persons who look in them, or the experiment -will not have so remarkable an effect.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Imitation of Animal Tints.</h2> - - -<p>To accomplish this metamorphosis, it is necessary to have -earthen vases which have little edges or rims near their -mouths, and should be of a size sufficiently large to hold -suspended the bird or flower which you intend placing in -them. You should likewise be provided with stoppers of -cork, of a diameter equal to that of their mouths. To make -an experiment upon some bird, it is necessary to commence -by making a hole in the stopper, sufficiently large to contain -the neck of the bird without strangling it. This done, -you divide the diameter of the stopper into two equal parts -so as to facilitate the placing of it around the neck without -doing injury to the bird. The two parts being brought -together, you place at the bottom of the vase an ounce of -quicklime, and beneath that a quarter of an ounce of sal ammoniac.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -When you perceive the effervescence commence -to take place, you promptly insert the stopper, to which -the bird is attached, leaving the neck outside. The plumage -of the body, exposed to this effervescent vapor, will become -impregnated with the various colors produced by this -chemical combination.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Melting a Coin.</h2> - - -<p>Fix three pins in the table and lay the piece of money upon -them; then place a heap of the flour of sulphur below the -piece of money, and another above it, and set fire to them. -When the flame is extinct, you will find on the upper part -of the piece a thin plate of metal, which has been detached -from it.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Explosive Gas.</h2> - - -<p>Mix two drachms of the filings of iron with one ounce of -concentrated spirit of vitriol in a strong bottle that holds -about a quarter of a pint; stop it close, and in a few moments -shake the bottle; then taking out the cork, put a -lighted candle near its mouth which should be a little inclined, -and you will soon observe an inflammation arise -from the bottle, attended with a loud explosion.</p> - -<p>To guard against the danger of the bottle bursting, the -best way would be to bury it in the ground and apply the -light to the mouth by means of a taper fastened to the end -of a long stick.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Cold from Evaporation.</h2> - - -<p>Ether poured upon a glass tube in a thin stream will -evaporate and cool it to such a degree that water contained -in it may be frozen.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Self-Dancing Egg.</h2> - - -<p>Fill a quill with quicksilver; seal it at both ends with -good hard wax; then have an egg boiled; take a small -piece of the shell off the small end and thrust in the quill -with the quicksilver; lay it on the ground and it will not -cease tumbling about as long as any heat remains in it; or -if you put quicksilver into a small bladder and blow it up,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -then warm the bladder, it will skip about as long as heat -remains in it.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Flash of Fire in a Room.</h2> - - -<p>Dissolve camphor in spirits of wine and deposit the vessel -containing the solution in a very close room, where the -spirits of wine must be made to evaporate by strong and -speedy boiling. If any one then enters the room with a -lighted candle the air will inflame, while the combustion -will be so sudden and of so short a duration as to occasion -no danger.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Cast Iron Drops.</h2> - - -<p>Bring a bar of iron to a white heat and then apply to it -a roll of sulphur. The iron will immediately melt and run -into drops.</p> - -<p>The experiment should be performed over a basin of -water, in which the drops that fall down will be quenched. -These drops will be found reduced into a sort of cast iron.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Explosion without Heat.</h2> - - -<p>Take a crystal or two of the nitrate of copper and bruise -them; then moisten them with water and roll them up -quickly in a piece of tinfoil, and in half a minute or little -more, the tinfoil will begin to smoke and soon after take -fire and explode with a slight noise. Unless the crystals -of the nitrate of copper are moistened, no heat will be produced.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Fiery Powder.</h2> - - -<p>Put three ounces of rock alum and one ounce of honey -or sugar into a new earthen dish, glazed, and which is capable -of standing a strong heat; keep the mixture over the -fire, stirring it continually until it becomes very dry and -hard; then remove it from the fire and pound it to a coarse -powder. Put this powder into a long-necked bottle, leaving -a part of the vessel empty; and having placed it in the -crucible, fill up the crucible with fine sand and surround it -with burning coals. When the bottle has been kept at a -red heat for about seven or eight minutes, and no more vapor -issues from it, remove it from the fire, then stop it with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -a piece of cork; and, having suffered it to cool, preserve -the mixture in small bottles, well closed.</p> - -<p>If you unclose one of these bottles and let fall a few grains -of this powder on a bit of paper, or any other very dry substance -it will first become blue, then brown, and will at -last burn the paper or other substance on which it has -fallen.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Illumination.</h2> - - -<p>A very pleasing exhibition may be made, with very little -trouble or expense, in the following manner: Provide -a box, which you can fit up with architectural designs cut -on pasteboard; prick small holes into those parts of the -building where you wish the illuminations to appear, observing -that, in proportion to the perspective, the holes -are to be made smaller, and on the near objects the holes -are to be made larger. Behind these designs thus perforated -you fix a lamp or candle, but in such a manner that -the reflection of the light shall only shine through the hole: -then placing a light of just sufficient brilliancy to show the -design of the buildings before it, and making a hole for -the sight at the front end of the box, you will have a -tolerable representation of illuminated buildings.</p> - -<p>The best way of throwing the light in front is to place an -oiled paper before it, which will cast a mellow gleam over -the scenery, and not diminish the effect of the illumination. -This can be very easily planned, both not to obstruct the -sight, nor be seen to disadvantage. The lights behind the -picture should be very strong, and if a magnifying glass -were placed in the sight hole it would tend greatly to increase -the effect. The box must be covered in, leaving an -aperture for the smoke of the lights to pass through.</p> - -<p>The above exhibition can only be shown at candle light; -but there is another way, by fixing small pieces of gold on -the building, instead of drilling the holes, which gives -something like the appearance of illumination, but by no -means equal to the foregoing experiment.</p> - -<p>N. B.—It would be an improvement if paper of various -colors, rendered transparent by oil, were placed between -the lights behind the aperture in the buildings, as they -would then resemble lamps of different colors.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2>Sun and Spirit.</h2> - - -<p>Put a small quantity of spirits of wine into a glass, and -put a cent or coin in with it; then direct the rays of the -sun by means of a burning glass upon the coin, and in a -short time it will become so hot as to inflame the spirits.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Stars in Water.</h2> - - -<p>Put half a drachm of solid phosphorus into a large pint -flask—holding it slanting that the phosphorus may not -break the glass. Pour upon it a gill and a half of water -and place the whole over a tea-kettle lamp, or any common -tin lamp filled with spirits of wine. Light the wick which -should be almost half an inch from the flask; and as soon -as the water is heated, streams of fire will issue from the -water by starts, resembling sky-rockets; some particles -will adhere to the sides of the glass, representing stars, -and will frequently display brilliant rays. These appearances -will continue at times till the water begins to simmer, -when immediately a curious aurora borealis begins, -and gradually ascends till it collects to a pointed flame; -when it has continued half a minute, blow out the flame -of the lamp and the point that was formed will rush down, -forming beautiful illuminated clouds of fire, rolling over -each other for some time, which, disappearing, a splendid -hemisphere of stars presents itself; after waiting a minute -or two, light the lamp again, and nearly the same phenomenon -will be displayed as from the beginning. Let the -repetition of lighting and blowing out the lamp be made for -three or four times at least, that the stars may be increased. -After the third or fourth time of blowing out the lamp, in a -few minutes after the internal surface of the flask is dry, -many of the stars will shoot with great splendor from side -to side, and some of them will fire off with brilliant rays; -these appearances will continue several minutes. What -remains in the flask will serve for the same experiment several -times, and without adding any more water. Care -should be taken after the operation is over, to lay the flask -and water in a cool, secure place.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Parlor Ballooning.</h2> - - -<p>It is an interesting and amusing experiment to inflate a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -balloon made of gold-beater’s skin (using a little gum -arabic to close any holes or fissures), filling it from a bladder -or jar, and tying a thread around the mouth of it, to -prevent the escape of the gas. When fully blown, attach -a fanciful car of colored paper, or very thin pasteboard, to -it, and let it float in a large room; it will soon gain the -ceiling, where it will remain for any length of time; if it -be let off in the open air it will soon ascend out of sight. -This experiment may be varied by putting small grains of -shot into the car, in order to ascertain the difference between -the weight of hydrogen gas and atmospheric air.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Marvelous.</h2> - - -<p>Wrap up a very smooth ball of lead in a piece of paper, -taking care that there be no wrinkles in it, and that it be -everywhere in contact with the ball; if it be held in this -state over the flame of a taper, the lead will be melted -without the paper being burnt. The lead, indeed, when -once fused will not fail in a short time to pierce the paper, -and run through.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2>Mutability.</h2> - - -<p>Infuse a few shavings of logwood in common water, -and when the liquid is sufficiently red pour it into a bottle. -Then take three drinking glasses and rinse one of them -with strong vinegar; throw into the second a small quantity -of pounded alum, which will not be observed if the -glass has been washed, and leave the third without any -preparation. If the red liquor in the bottle be poured into -the first glass, it will appear of a straw color; if the second -it will pass gradually from a bluish gray to black, -when stirred with a key or any piece of iron which has -been previously dipped in strong vinegar. In the third -glass the red liquor will assume a violet tint.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 510px;"> -<img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="510" height="146" alt="THE END" /> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="chapter"></div><!--Page break for ePub--> - -<div class="boxcenter"> -<p class="center xxlargefont sansseriffont"><b>OUR TEN CENT HAND BOOKS.</b></p> - -<p class="center largefont"><b>USEFUL, INSTRUCTIVE AND AMUSING.</b></p> - -<p>Containing valuable information on almost every subject, such as -<b>Writing</b>, <b>Speaking</b>, <b>Dancing</b>, <b>Cooking</b>; also <b>Rules of Etiquette</b>, <b>The Art -of Ventriloquism</b>, <b>Gymnastic Exercises</b>, and <b>The Science of Self-Defense</b>, -<b>etc.</b>, <b>etc.</b></p> - -<p class="listhang1">1 Napoleon’s Oraculum and Dream Book.</p> -<p class="listhang1">2 How to Do Tricks.</p> -<p class="listhang1">3 How to Flirt.</p> -<p class="listhang1">4 How to Dance.</p> -<p class="listhang1">5 How to Make Love.</p> -<p class="listhang1">6 How to Become an Athlete.</p> -<p class="listhang1">7 How to Keep Birds.</p> -<p class="listhang1">8 How to Become a Scientist.</p> -<p class="listhang1">9 How to Become a Ventriloquist.</p> -<p class="listhang2">10 How to Box.</p> -<p class="listhang2">11 How to Write Love Letters.</p> -<p class="listhang2">12 How to Write Letters to Ladies.</p> -<p class="listhang2">13 How to Do It; or, Book of Etiquette.</p> -<p class="listhang2">14 How to Make Candy.</p> -<p class="listhang2">15 How to Become Rich.</p> -<p class="listhang2">16 How to Keep a Window Garden.</p> -<p class="listhang2">17 How to Dress.</p> -<p class="listhang2">18 How to Become Beautiful.</p> -<p class="listhang2">19 Frank Tousey’s U. 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Such)</p> - -<p><a href="#TN_22">p. 22</a>: “entirely. As” changed to “entirely, as” (out entirely, as)</p> - -<p><a href="#TN_28">p. 28</a>: “valve shown in fig. 4” should be “valve shown in fig. 6”</p> - -<p><a href="#TN_45">p. 45</a>: “with” inserted (ground, with a)</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's How to Do Chemical Tricks, by A. 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