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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/4879.txt b/4879.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1788e27 --- /dev/null +++ b/4879.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1656 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook History of The United Netherlands, 1607(a) +#79 in our series by John Lothrop Motley + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**EBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These EBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers***** + + +Title: History of the United Netherlands, 1607(a) + +Author: John Lothrop Motley + +Release Date: January, 2004 [EBook #4879] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on April 15, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + + + + + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1607(a) *** + + + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + + + +[NOTE: There is a short list of bookmarks, or pointers, at the end of the +file for those who may wish to sample the author's ideas before making an +entire meal of them. D.W.] + + + + + +HISTORY OF THE UNITED NETHERLANDS +From the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Year's Truce--1609 + +By John Lothrop Motley + + + +MOTLEY'S HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS, Project Gutenberg Edition, Vol. 79 + +History of the United Netherlands, 1607 + + + +CHAPTER XLVII. + + A Dutch fleet under Heemskerk sent to the coast of Spain and + Portugal--Encounter with the Spanish war fleet under D'Avila--Death + of both commanders-in-chief--Victory of the Netherlanders--Massacre + of the Spaniards. + +The States-General had not been inclined to be tranquil under the check +which Admiral Haultain had received upon the coast of Spain in the autumn +of 1606. The deed of terrible self-devotion by which Klaaszoon and his +comrades had in that crisis saved the reputation of the republic, had +proved that her fleets needed only skilful handling and determined +leaders to conquer their enemy in the Western seas as certainly as they +had done in the archipelagos of the East. And there was one pre-eminent +naval commander, still in the very prime of life, but seasoned by an +experience at the poles and in the tropics such as few mariners in that +early but expanding maritime epoch could boast. Jacob van Heemskerk, +unlike many of the navigators and ocean warriors who had made and were +destined to make the Orange flag of the United Provinces illustrious over +the world, was not of humble parentage. Sprung of an ancient, knightly +race, which had frequently distinguished itself in his native province of +Holland, he had followed the seas almost from his cradle. By turns a +commercial voyager, an explorer, a privateer's-man, or an admiral of war- +fleets, in days when sharp distinctions between the merchant service and +the public service, corsairs' work and cruisers' work, did not exist, he +had ever proved himself equal to any emergency--a man incapable of +fatigue, of perplexity, or of fear. We have followed his career during +that awful winter in Nova Zembla, where, with such unflinching cheerful +heroism, he sustained the courage of his comrades--the first band of +scientific martyrs that had ever braved the dangers and demanded the +secrets of those arctic regions. His glorious name--as those of so many +of his comrades and countrymen--has been rudely torn from cape, +promontory, island, and continent, once illustrated by courage and +suffering, but the noble record will ever remain. + +Subsequently he had much navigated the Indian ocean; his latest +achievement having been, with two hundred men, in a couple of yachts, +to capture an immense Portuguese carrack, mounting thirty guns, and +manned with eight hundred sailors, and to bring back a prodigious booty +for the exchequer of the republic. A man with delicate features, large +brown eyes, a thin high nose, fair hair and beard, and a soft, gentle +expression, he concealed, under a quiet exterior, and on ordinary +occasions a very plain and pacific costume, a most daring nature, +and an indomitable ambition for military and naval distinction. + +He was the man of all others in the commonwealth to lead any new +enterprise that audacity could conceive against the hereditary enemy. + +The public and the States-General were anxious to retrace the track of +Haultain, and to efface the memory of his inglorious return from the +Spanish coast. The sailors of Holland and Zeeland were indignant that +the richly freighted fleets of the two Indies had been allowed to slip so +easily through their fingers. The great East India Corporation was +importunate with Government that such blunders should not be repeated, +and that the armaments known to be preparing in the Portuguese ports, +the homeward-bound fleets that might be looked for at any moment off the +peninsular coast, and the Spanish cruisers which were again preparing to +molest the merchant fleets of the Company, should be dealt with +effectively and in season. + +Twenty-six vessels of small size but of good sailing qualities, according +to the idea of the epoch, were provided, together with four tenders. Of +this fleet the command was offered to Jacob van Heemskerk. He accepted +with alacrity, expressing with his usual quiet self-confidence the hope +that, living or dead, his fatherland would have cause to thank him. +Inspired only by the love of glory, he asked for no remuneration for his +services save thirteen per cent. of the booty, after half a million +florins should have been paid into the public treasury. It was hardly +probable that this would prove a large share of prize money, while +considerable victories alone could entitle him to receive a stiver. + +The expedition sailed in the early days of April for the coast of Spain +and Portugal, the admiral having full discretion to do anything that +might in his judgment redound to the advantage of the republic. Next in +command was the vice-admiral of Zeeland, Laurenz Alteras. Another famous +seaman in the fleet was Captain Henry Janszoon of Amsterdam, commonly +called Long Harry, while the weather-beaten and well-beloved Admiral +Lambert, familiarly styled by his countrymen "Pretty Lambert," some of +whose achievements have already been recorded in these pages, was the +comrade of all others upon whom Heemskerk most depended. After the 10th +April the admiral, lying off and on near the mouth of the Tagus, sent a +lugger in trading disguise to reconnoitre that river. He ascertained by +his spies, sent in this and subsequently in other directions, as well as +by occasional merchantmen spoken with at sea, that the Portuguese fleet +for India would not be ready to sail for many weeks; that no valuable +argosies were yet to be looked for from America, but that a great war- +fleet, comprising many galleons of the largest size, was at that very +moment cruising in the Straits of Gibraltar. Such of the Netherland +traders as were returning from the Levant, as well as those designing to +enter the Mediterranean, were likely to fall prizes to this formidable +enemy. The heart of Jacob Heemskerk danced for joy. He had come forth +for glory, not for booty, and here was what he had scarcely dared to hope +for--a powerful antagonist instead of peaceful, scarcely resisting, but +richly-laden merchantmen. The accounts received were so accurate as to +assure him that the Gibraltar fleet was far superior to his own in size +of vessels, weight of metal, and number of combatants. The circumstances +only increased his eagerness. The more he was over-matched, the greater +would be the honour of victory, and he steered for the straits, tacking +to and fro in the teeth of a strong head-wind. + +On the morning of the 25th April he was in the narrowest part of the +mountain-channel, and learned that the whole Spanish fleet was in the Bay +of Gibraltar. + +The marble pillar of Hercules rose before him. Heemskerk was of a poetic +temperament, and his imagination was inflamed by the spectacle which met +his eyes. Geographical position, splendour of natural scenery, immortal +fable, and romantic history, had combined to throw a spell over that +region. It seemed marked out for perpetual illustration by human valour. +The deeds by which, many generations later, those localities were to +become identified with the fame of a splendid empire--then only the most +energetic rival of the young republic, but destined under infinitely +better geographical conditions to follow on her track of empire, and with +far more prodigious results--were still in the womb of futurity. But St. +Vincent, Trafalgar, Gibraltar--words which were one day to stir the +English heart, and to conjure heroic English shapes from the depths so +long as history endures--were capes and promontories already familiar to +legend and romance. + +Those Netherlanders had come forth from their slender little fatherland +to offer battle at last within his own harbours and under his own +fortresses to the despot who aspired to universal monarchy, and who +claimed the lordship of the seas. The Hollanders and Zeelanders had +gained victories on the German Ocean, in the Channel, throughout the +Indies, but now they were to measure strength with the ancient enemy in +this most conspicuous theatre, and before the eyes of Christendom. It +was on this famous spot that the ancient demigod had torn asunder by main +strength the continents of Europe and Africa. There stood the opposite +fragments of the riven mountain-chain, Calpe and Abyla, gazing at each +other, in eternal separation, across the gulf, emblems of those two +antagonistic races which the terrible hand of Destiny has so ominously +disjoined. Nine centuries before, the African king, Moses son of Nuzir, +and his lieutenant, Tarik son of Abdallah, had crossed that strait and +burned the ships which brought them. Black Africa had conquered a +portion of whiter Europe, and laid the foundation of the deadly mutual +repugnance which nine hundred years of bloodshed had heightened into +insanity of hatred. Tarik had taken the town and mountain, Carteia and +Calpe, and given to both his own name. Gib-al-Tarik, the cliff of Tarik, +they are called to this day. + +Within the two horns of that beautiful bay, and protected by the fortress +on the precipitous rock, lay the Spanish fleet at anchor. There were ten +galleons of the largest size, besides lesser war-vessels and carracks, +in all twenty-one sail. The admiral commanding was Don Juan Alvarez +d'Avila, a veteran who had fought at Lepanto under Don John of Austria. +His son was captain of his flag-ship, the St. Augustine. The vice- +admiral's galleon was called 'Our Lady of La Vega,' the rear-admiral's +was the 'Mother of God,' and all the other ships were baptized by the +holy names deemed most appropriate, in the Spanish service, to deeds of +carnage. + +On the other hand, the nomenclature of the Dutch ships suggested a +menagerie. There was the Tiger, the Sea Dog, the Griffin, the Red Lion, +the Golden Lion, the Black Bear, the White Bear; these, with the AEolus +and the Morning Star, were the leading vessels of the little fleet. + +On first attaining a distant view of the enemy, Heemskerk summoned all +the captains on board his flag-ship, the AEolus, and addressed them in a +few stirring words. + +"It is difficult," he said, "for Netherlanders not to conquer on salt +water. Our fathers have gained many a victory in distant seas, but it is +for us to tear from the enemy's list of titles his arrogant appellation +of Monarch of the Ocean. Here, on the verge of two continents, Europe is +watching our deeds, while the Moors of Africa are to learn for the first +time in what estimation they are to hold the Batavian republic. Remember +that you have no choice between triumph and destruction. I have led you +into a position whence escape is impossible--and I ask of none of you +more than I am prepared to do myself--whither I am sure that you will +follow. The enemy's ships are far superior to ours in bulk; but remember +that their excessive size makes them difficult to handle and easier to +hit, while our own vessels are entirely within control. Their decks are +swarming with men, and thus there will be more certainty that our shot +will take effect. Remember, too, that we are all sailors, accustomed +from our cradles to the ocean; while yonder Spaniards are mainly soldiers +and landsmen, qualmish at the smell of bilgewater, and sickening at the +roll of the waves. This day begins a long list of naval victories, which +will make our fatherland for ever illustrious, or lay the foundation of +an honourable peace, by placing, through our triumph, in the hands of the +States-General, the power of dictating its terms." + +His comrades long remembered the enthusiasm which flashed from the man, +usually so gentle and composed in demeanour, so simple in attire. Clad +in complete armour, with the orange-plumes waving from his casque and +the orange-scarf across his breast, he stood there in front of the +mainmast of the AEolus, the very embodiment of an ancient Viking. + +He then briefly announced his plan of attack. It was of antique +simplicity. He would lay his own ship alongside that of the Spanish +admiral. Pretty Lambert in the Tiger was to grapple with her on the +other side. Vice-admiral Alteras and Captain Bras were to attack the +enemy's vice-admiral in the same way. Thus, two by two, the little +Netherland ships were to come into closest quarters with each one of the +great galleons. Heemskerk would himself lead the way, and all were to +follow, as closely as possible, in his wake. The oath to stand by each +other was then solemnly renewed, and a parting health was drunk. The +captains then returned to their ships. + +As the Lepanto warrior, Don Juan d'Avila, saw the little vessels slowly +moving towards him, he summoned a Hollander whom he had on board, one +Skipper Gevaerts of a captured Dutch trading bark, and asked him whether +those ships in the distance were Netherlanders. + +"Not a doubt of it," replied the skipper. + +The admiral then asked him what their purpose could possibly be, in +venturing so near Gibraltar. + +"Either I am entirely mistaken in my countrymen," answered Gevaerta, "or +they are coming for the express purpose of offering you battle." + +The Spaniard laughed loud and long. The idea that those puny vessels +could be bent on such a purpose seemed to him irresistibly comic, and he +promised his prisoner, with much condescension, that the St. Augustine +alone should sink the whole fleet. + +Gevaerts, having his own ideas on the subject, but not being called upon +to express them, thanked the admiral for his urbanity, and respectfully +withdrew. + +At least four thousand soldiers were in D'Avila's ships, besides seamen. +there were seven hundred in the St. Augustine, four hundred and fifty in +Our Lady of Vega, and so on in proportion. There were also one or two +hundred noble volunteers who came thronging on board, scenting the battle +from afar, and desirous of having a hand in the destruction of the +insolent Dutchmen. + +It was about one in the afternoon. There was not much wind, but the +Hollanders, slowly drifting on the eternal river that pours from the +Atlantic into the Mediterranean, were now very near. All hands had been +piped on board every one of the ships, all had gone down on their knees +in humble prayer, and the loving cup had then been passed around. + +Heemskerk, leading the way towards the Spanish admiral, ordered the +gunners of the bolus not to fire until the vessels struck each other. +"Wait till you hear it crack," he said, adding a promise of a hundred +florins to the man who should pull down the admiral's flag. Avila, +notwithstanding his previous merriment, thought it best, for the moment, +to avoid the coming collision. Leaving to other galleons, which he +interposed between himself and the enemy, the task of summarily sinking +the Dutch fleet, he cut the cable of the St. Augustine and drifted +farther into the bay. Heemskerk, not allowing himself to be foiled in +his purpose, steered past two or three galleons, and came crashing +against the admiral. Almost simultaneously, Pretty Lambert laid himself +along her quarter on the other side. The St. Augustine fired into the +AEolus as she approached, but without doing much damage. The Dutch +admiral, as he was coming in contact, discharged his forward guns, and +poured an effective volley of musketry into his antagonist. + +The St. Augustine fired again, straight across the centre of the bolus, +at a few yards' distance. A cannon-ball took off the head of a sailor, +standing near Heemskerk, and carried away the admiral's leg, close to the +body. He fell on deck, and, knowing himself to be mortally wounded, +implored the next in command on board, Captain Verhoef, to fight his ship +to the last, and to conceal his death from the rest of the fleet. Then +prophesying a glorious victory for republic, and piously commending his +soul to his Maker, he soon breathed his last. A cloak was thrown over +him, and the battle raged. The few who were aware that the noble +Heemskerk was gone, burned to avenge his death, and to obey the dying +commands of their beloved chief. The rest of the Hollanders believed +themselves under his directing influence, and fought as if his eyes were +upon them. Thus the spirit of the departed hero still watched over and +guided the battle. + +The AEolus now fired a broadside into her antagonist, making fearful +havoc, and killing Admiral D'Avila. The commanders-in-chief of both +contending fleets had thus fallen at the very beginning of the battle. +While the St. Augustine was engaged in deadly encounter, yardarm and +yardarm, with the AEolus and the Tiger, Vice-admiral Alteras had, +however, not carried out his part of the plan. Before he could succeed +in laying himself alongside of the Spanish vice-admiral, he had been +attacked by two galleons. Three other Dutch ships, however, attacked the +vice-admiral, and, after an obstinate combat, silenced all her batteries +and set her on fire. Her conquerors were then obliged to draw off rather +hastily, and to occupy themselves for a time in extinguishing their own +burning sails, which had taken fire from the close contact with their +enemy. Our Lady of Vega, all ablaze from top-gallant-mast to +quarterdeck, floated helplessly about, a spectre of flame, her guns going +off wildly, and her crew dashing themselves into the sea, in order to +escape by drowning from a fiery death. She was consumed to the water's +edge. + +Meantime, Vice-admiral Alteras had successively defeated both his +antagonists; drifting in with them until almost under the guns of the +fortress, but never leaving them until, by his superior gunnery and +seamanship, he had sunk one of them, and driven the other a helpless +wreck on shore. + +Long Harry, while Alteras had been thus employed, had engaged another +great galleon, and set her on fire. She, too, was thoroughly burned to +her hulk; but Admiral Harry was killed. + +By this time, although it was early of an April afternoon, and heavy +clouds of smoke, enveloping the combatants pent together in so small a +space, seemed to make an atmosphere of midnight, as the flames of the +burning galleons died away. There was a difficulty, too, in bringing all +the Netherland ships into action--several of the smaller ones having been +purposely stationed by Heemskerk on the edge of the bay to prevent the +possible escape of any of the Spaniards. While some of these distant +ships were crowding sail, in order to come to closer quarters, now that +the day seemed going against the Spaniards, a tremendous explosion +suddenly shook the air. One of the largest galleons, engaged in combat +with a couple of Dutch vessels, had received a hot shot full in her +powder magazine, and blew up with all on board. The blazing fragments +drifted about among the other ships, and two more were soon on fire, +their guns going off and their magazines exploding. The rock of +Gibraltar seemed to reel. To the murky darkness succeeded the +intolerable glare of a new and vast conflagration. The scene in that +narrow roadstead was now almost infernal. It seemed, said an eye- +witness, as if heaven and earth were passing away. A hopeless panic +seized the Spaniards. The battle was over. The St. Augustine still lay +in the deadly embrace of her antagonists, but all the other galleons were +sunk or burned. Several of the lesser war-ships had also been destroyed. +It was nearly sunset. The St. Augustine at last ran up a white flag, but +it was not observed in the fierceness of the last moments of combat; the +men from the bolus and the Tiger making a simultaneous rush on board the +vanquished foe. + +The fight was done, but the massacre was at its beginning. The +trumpeter, of Captain Kleinsorg clambered like a monkey up the mast of +the St. Augustine, hauled down the admiral's flag, the last which was +still waving, and gained the hundred florins. The ship was full of dead +and dying; but a brutal, infamous butchery now took place. Some +Netherland prisoners were found in the hold, who related that two +messengers had been successively despatched to take their lives, as they +lay there in chains, and that each had been shot, as he made his way +towards the execution of the orders. + +This information did not chill the ardour of their victorious countrymen. +No quarter was given. Such of the victims as succeeded in throwing +themselves overboard, out of the St. Augustine, or any of the burning or +sinking ships, were pursued by the Netherlanders, who rowed about among +them in boats, shooting, stabbing, and drowning their victims by +hundreds. It was a sickening spectacle. The bay, said those who were +there, seemed sown with corpses. Probably two or three thousand were +thus put to death, or had met their fate before. Had the chivalrous +Heemskerk lived, it is possible that he might have stopped the massacre. +But the thought of the grief which would fill the commonwealth when the +news should arrive of his death--thus turning the joy of the great +triumph into lamentations--increased the animosity of his comrades. +Moreover, in ransacking the Spanish admiral's ship, all his papers had +been found, among them many secret instructions from Government signed +"the King;" ordering most inhuman persecutions, not only of the +Netherlanders, but of all who should in any way assist them, at sea or +ashore. Recent examples of the thorough manner in which the royal +admirals could carry out these bloody instructions had been furnished by +the hangings, burnings, and drownings of Fazardo. But the barbarous +ferocity of the Dutch on this occasion might have taught a lesson even to +the comrades of Alva. + +The fleet of Avila was entirely destroyed. The hulk of the St. +Augustine drifted ashore, having been abandoned by the victors, and was +set on fire by a few Spaniards who had concealed themselves on board, +lest she might fall again into the enemy's hands. + +The battle had lasted from half-past three until sunset. The Dutch +vessels remained all the next day on the scene of their triumph. The +townspeople were discerned, packing up their goods, and speeding panic- +struck into the interior. Had Heemskerk survived he would doubtless have +taken Gibraltar--fortress and town--and perhaps Cadiz, such was the +consternation along the whole coast. + +But his gallant spirit no longer directed the fleet. Bent rather upon +plunder than glory, the ships now dispersed in search of prizes towards +the Azores, the Canaries, or along the Portuguese coast; having first +made a brief visit to Tetuan, where they were rapturously received by the +Bey. + +The Hollanders lost no ships, and but one hundred seamen were killed. +Two vessels were despatched homeward directly, one with sixty wounded +sailors, the other with the embalmed body of the fallen Heemskerk. The +hero was honoured with a magnificent funeral in Amsterdam at the public +expense--the first instance in the history of the republic--and his name +was enrolled on the most precious page of her records. + + [The chief authorities for this remarkable battle are Meteren, 547, + 548. Grotius, xvi. 731-738. Wagenaar, ix. 251-258.] + + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII. + + Internal condition of Spain--Character of the people--Influence of + the Inquisition--Population and Revenue--Incomes of Church and + Government--Degradation of Labour--Expulsion of the Moors and its + consequences--Venality the special characteristic of Spanish polity + --Maxims of the foreign polity of Spain--The Spanish army and navy-- + Insolvent state of the Government--The Duke of Lerma--His position + in the State--Origin of his power--System of bribery and + trafficking--Philip III. His character--Domestic life of the king + and queen. + + +A glance at the interior condition of Spain, now that there had been more +than nine years of a new reign, should no longer be deferred. +Spain was still superstitiously regarded as the leading power of the +world, although foiled in all its fantastic and gigantic schemes. It was +still supposed, according to current dogma, to share with the Ottoman +empire the dominion of the earth. A series of fortunate marriages having +united many of the richest and fairest portions of Europe under a single +sceptre, it was popularly believed in a period when men were not much +given as yet to examine very deeply the principles of human governments +or the causes of national greatness, that an aggregation of powers which +had resulted from preposterous laws of succession really constituted a +mighty empire, founded by genius and valour. + +The Spanish people, endowed with an acute and exuberant genius, which had +exhibited itself in many paths of literature, science, and art; with a +singular aptitude for military adventure, organization, and achievement; +with a great variety, in short, of splendid and ennobling qualities; had +been, for a long succession of years, accursed with almost the very worst +political institutions known to history. The depth of their misery and +of their degradation was hardly yet known to themselves, and this was +perhaps the most hideous proof of the tyranny of which they had been the +victims. To the outward world, the hollow fabric, out of which the whole +pith and strength had been slowly gnawed away, was imposing and +majestic still. But the priest, the soldier, and the courtier had been +busy too long, and had done their work too thoroughly, to leave much hope +of arresting the universal decay. + +Nor did there seem any probability that the attempt would be made. + +It is always difficult to reform wide-spread abuses, even when they are +acknowledged to exist, but when gigantic vices are proudly pointed to as +the noblest of institutions and as the very foundations of the state, +there seems nothing for the patriot to long for but the deluge. + +It was acknowledged that the Spanish population--having a very large +admixture of those races which, because not Catholic at heart, were +stigmatized as miscreants, heretics, pagans, and, generally, as accursed- +-was by nature singularly prone to religious innovation. +Had it not been for the Holy Inquisition, it was the opinion of acute +and thoughtful observers in the beginning of the seventeenth century, +that the infamous heresies of Luther, Calvin, and the rest, would have +long before taken possession of the land. To that most blessed +establishment it was owing that Spain had not polluted itself in the +filth and ordure of the Reformation, and had been spared the horrible +fate which had befallen large portions of Germany, France, Britain, and +other barbarous northern nations. It was conscientiously and thankfully +believed in Spain, two centuries ago, that the state had been saved from +political and moral ruin by that admirable machine which detected +heretics with unerring accuracy, burned them when detected, and consigned +their descendants to political incapacity and social infamy to the +remotest generation. + +As the awful consequences of religious freedom, men pointed with a +shudder to the condition of nations already speeding on the road to ruin, +from which the two peninsulas at least had been saved. Yet the British +empire, with the American republic still an embryo in its bosom, France, +North Germany, and other great powers, had hardly then begun their +headlong career. Whether the road of religious liberty was leading +exactly to political ruin, the coming centuries were to judge. + +Enough has been said in former chapters for the characterization of +Philip II. and his polity. But there had now been nearly ten years of +another reign. The system, inaugurated by Charles and perfected by his +son, had reached its last expression under Philip III. + +The evil done by father and son lived and bore plentiful fruit in the +epoch of the grandson. And this is inevitable in history. No generation +is long-lived enough to reap the harvest, whether of good or evil, which +it sows. + +Philip II. had been indefatigable in evil, a thorough believer in his +supernatural mission as despot, not entirely without capacity for +affairs, personally absorbed by the routine of his bureau. + +He was a king, as he understood the meaning of the kingly office. His +policy was continued after his death; but there was no longer a king. +That important regulator to the governmental machinery was wanting. How +its place was supplied will soon appear. + +Meantime the organic functions were performed very much in the old way. +There was, at least, no lack of priests or courtiers. + +Spain at this epoch had probably less than twelve millions of +inhabitants, although the statistics of those days cannot be relied upon +with accuracy. The whole revenue of the state was nominally sixteen or +seventeen millions of dollars, but the greater portion of that income was +pledged for many coming years to the merchants of Genoa. All the little +royal devices for increasing the budget by debasing the coin of the +realm, by issuing millions of copper tokens, by lowering the promised +rate of interest on Government loans, by formally repudiating both +interest and principal, had been tried, both in this and the preceding +reign, with the usual success. An inconvertible paper currency, +stimulating industry and improving morals by converting beneficent +commerce into baleful gambling--that fatal invention did not then exist. +Meantime, the legitimate trader and innocent citizen were harassed, and +the general public endangered, as much as the limited machinery of the +epoch permitted. + +The available, unpledged revenue of the kingdom hardly amounted to five +millions of dollars a-year. The regular annual income of the church was +at least six millions. The whole personal property of the nation was +estimated in a very clumsy and unsatisfactory way, no doubt--at sixty +millions of dollars. Thus the income of the priesthood was ten per cent. +of the whole funded estate of the country, and at least a million a year +more than the income of the Government. Could a more biting epigram be +made upon the condition to which the nation had been reduced? + +Labour was more degraded than ever. The industrious classes, if such +could be said to exist, were esteemed every day more and more infamous. +Merchants, shopkeepers, mechanics, were reptiles, as vilely, esteemed as +Jews, Moors, Protestants, or Pagans. Acquiring wealth by any kind of +production was dishonourable. A grandee who should permit himself to +sell the wool from his boundless sheep-walks disgraced his caste, and was +accounted as low as a merchant. To create was the business of slaves and +miscreants: to destroy was the distinguishing attribute of Christians and +nobles. To cheat, to pick, and to steal, on the most minute and the most +gigantic scale--these were also among the dearest privileges of the +exalted classes. No merchandize was polluting save the produce of honest +industry. To sell places in church and state, the army, the navy, and +the sacred tribunals of law, to take bribes from rich and poor, high and +low; in sums infinitesimal or enormous, to pillage the exchequer in, +every imaginable form, to dispose of titles of honour, orders of +chivalry, posts in municipal council, at auction; to barter influence, +audiences, official interviews against money cynically paid down in +rascal counters--all this was esteemed consistent with patrician dignity. + +The ministers, ecclesiastics, and those about court, obtaining a monopoly +of such trade, left the business of production and circulation to their +inferiors, while, as has already been sufficiently indicated, religious +fanaticism and a pride of race, which nearly amounted to idiocy, had +generated a scorn for labour even among the lowest orders. As a natural +consequence, commerce and the mechanical arts fell almost exclusively +into the hands of foreigners--Italians, English, and French--who resorted +in yearly increasing numbers to Spain for the purpose of enriching. +themselves by the industry which the natives despised. + +The capital thus acquired was at regular intervals removed from the +country to other lands, where wealth resulting from traffic or +manufactures was not accounted infamous. + +Moreover, as the soil of the country was held by a few great proprietors +--an immense portion in the dead-hand of an insatiate and ever-grasping +church, and much of the remainder in vast entailed estates--it was nearly +impossible for the masses of the people to become owners of any portion +of the land. To be an agricultural day-labourer at less than a beggar's +wage could hardly be a tempting pursuit for a proud and indolent race. +It was no wonder therefore that the business of the brigand, the +smuggler, the professional mendicant became from year to year more +attractive and more overdone; while an ever-thickening swarm of priests, +friars, and nuns of every order, engendered out of a corrupt and decaying +society, increasing the general indolence, immorality, and unproductive +consumption, and frightfully diminishing the productive force of the +country, fed like locusts upon what was left in the unhappy land. +"To shirk labour, infinite numbers become priests and friars," +said, a good Catholic, in the year 1608--[Gir. Soranzo]. + +Before the end of the reign of Philip III. the peninsula, which might +have been the granary of the world, did not produce food enough for its +own population. Corn became a regular article of import into Spain, and +would have come in larger quantities than it did had the industry of the +country furnished sufficient material to exchange for necessary food. + +And as if it had been an object of ambition with the priests and +courtiers who then ruled a noble country, to make at exactly this epoch +the most startling manifestation of human fatuity that the world had ever +seen, it was now resolved by government to expel by armed force nearly +the whole stock of intelligent and experienced labour, agricultural and +mechanical, from the country. It is unnecessary to dwell long upon an +event which, if it were not so familiarly known to mankind, would seem +almost incredible. But the expulsion of the Moors is, alas! no +exaggerated and imaginary satire, but a monument of wickedness and +insanity such as is not often seen in human history. + +Already, in the very first years of the century, John Ribera, archbishop +of Valencia, had recommended and urged the scheme. + +It was too gigantic a project to be carried into execution at once, but +it was slowly matured by the aid of other ecclesiastics. At last there +were indications, both human and divine, that the expulsion of these +miscreants could no longer be deferred. It was rumoured and believed +that a general conspiracy existed among the Moors to rise upon the +Government, to institute a general massacre, and, with the assistance of +their allies and relatives on the Barbary coast, to re-establish the +empire of the infidels. + +A convoy of eighty ass-loads of oil on the way to Madrid had halted at a +wayside inn. A few flasks were stolen, and those who consumed it were +made sick. Some of the thieves even died, or were said to have died, in +consequence. Instantly the rumour flew from mouth to mouth, from town +to town, that the royal family, the court, the whole capital, all Spain, +were to be poisoned with that oil. If such were the scheme it was +certainly a less ingenious one than the famous plot by which the Spanish +Government was suspected but a few years before to have so nearly +succeeded in blowing the king, peers, and commons of England into the +air. + +The proof of Moorish guilt was deemed all-sufficient, especially as it +was supported by supernatural evidence of the most portentous and +convincing kind. For several days together a dark cloud, tinged with +blood-red, had been seen to hang over Valencia. + +In the neighbourhood of Daroca, a din of, drums and trumpets and the +clang of arms had been heard in the sky, just as a procession went out +of a monastery. + +At Valencia the image of the Virgin had shed tears. In another place her +statue had been discovered in a state of profuse perspiration. + +What more conclusive indications could be required as to the guilt of the +Moors? What other means devised for saving crown, church, and kingdom +from destruction but to expel the whole mass of unbelievers from the soil +which they had too long profaned? + +Archbishop Ribera was fully sustained by the Archbishop of Toledo, and +the whole ecclesiastical body received energetic support from Government. + +Ribera had solemnly announced that the Moors were so greedy of money, +so determined to keep it, and so occupied with pursuits most apt for +acquiring it, that they had come to be the sponge of Spanish wealth. The +best proof of this, continued the reverend sage, was that, inhabiting in +general poor little villages and sterile tracts of country, paying to the +lords of the manor one third of the crops, and being overladen with +special taxes imposed only upon them, they nevertheless became rich, +while the Christians, cultivating the most fertile land, were in abject +poverty. + +It seems almost incredible that this should not be satire. Certainly +the most delicate irony could not portray the vicious institutions under +which the magnificent territory and noble people of Spain were thus +doomed to ruin more subtly end forcibly than was done by the honest +brutality of this churchman. The careful tillage, the beautiful system +of irrigation by aqueduct and canal, the scientific processes by which +these "accursed" had caused the wilderness to bloom with cotton, sugar, +and every kind of fruit and grain; the untiring industry, exquisite +ingenuity, and cultivated taste by which the merchants, manufacturers, +and mechanics, guilty of a darker complexion than that of the peninsular +Goths, had enriched their native land with splendid fabrics in cloth, +paper, leather, silk, tapestry, and by so doing had acquired fortunes +for themselves, despite iniquitous taxation, religious persecution, and +social contumely--all these were crimes against a race of idlers, steeped +to the lips in sloth which imagined itself to be pride. + +The industrious, the intelligent, the wealthy, were denounced as +criminals, and hunted to death or into exile as vermin, while the Lermas, +the Ucedas, and the rest of the brood of cormorants, settled more thickly +than ever around their prey. + +Meantime, Government declared that the piece of four maravedis should be +worth eight maravedis; the piece of two maravedis being fixed at four. +Thus the specie of the kingdom was to be doubled, and by means of this +enlightened legislation, Spain, after destroying agriculture, commerce, +and manufacture, was to maintain great armies and navies, and establish +universal monarchy. + +This measure, which a wiser churchman than Ribera, Cardinal Richelieu, +afterwards declared the most audacious and barbarous ever recorded by +history, was carried out with great regularity of organization. It was +ordained that the Moors should be collected at three indicated points, +whence they were not to move on pain of death, until duly escorted by +troops to the ports of embarkation. The children under the age of four +years were retained, of course without their parents, from whom they were +forever separated. With admirable forethought, too, the priests took +measures, as they supposed, that the arts of refining sugar, irrigating +the rice-fields, constructing canals and aqueducts, besides many other +useful branches of agricultural and mechanical business, should not die +out with the intellectual, accomplished, and industrious race, alone +competent to practise them, which was now sent forth to die. A very +small number, not more than six in each hundred, were accordingly +reserved to instruct other inhabitants of Spain in those useful arts +which they were now more than ever encouraged to despise. + +Five hundred thousand full-grown human beings, as energetic, ingenious, +accomplished, as any then existing in the world, were thus thrust forth +into the deserts beyond sea, as if Spain had been overstocked with +skilled labour; and as if its native production had already outgrown the +world's power of consumption. + +Had an equal number of mendicant monks, with the two archbishops who had +contrived this deed at their head, been exported instead of the Moors, +the future of Spain might have been a more fortunate one than it was +likely to prove. The event was in itself perhaps of temporary advantage +to the Dutch republic, as the poverty and general misery, aggravated by +this disastrous policy, rendered the acknowledgment of the States' +independence by Spain almost a matter of necessity. + +It is superfluous to enter into any farther disquisiton as to the various +branches of the royal revenue. They remained essentially the same as +during the preceding reign, and have been elaborately set forth in a +previous chapter. The gradual drying up of resources in all the wide- +spread and heterogeneous territories subject to the Spanish sceptre is +the striking phenomenon of the present epoch. The distribution of such +wealth as was still created followed the same laws which had long +prevailed, while the decay and national paralysis, of which the +prognostics could hardly be mistaken, were a natural result of the +system. + +The six archbishops had now grown to eleven, and still received gigantic +revenues; the income of the Archbishop of Toledo, including the fund of +one hundred thousand destined for repairing the cathedral, being +estimated at three hundred thousand dollars a year, that of the +Archbishop of Seville and the others varying from one hundred and fifty +thousand dollars to fifty thousand. The sixty-three bishops perhaps +averaged fifty thousand a year each, and there were eight more in Italy. + +The commanderies of chivalry, two hundred at least in number, were +likewise enormously profitable. Some of them were worth thirty thousand +a year; the aggregate annual value being from one-and-a-half to two +millions, and all in Lerma's gift, upon his own terms. + +Chivalry, that noblest of ideals, without which, in some shape or +another, the world would be a desert and a sty; which included within +itself many of the noblest virtues which can adorn mankind--generosity, +self-denial, chastity, frugality, patience, protection to the feeble, the +downtrodden, and the oppressed; the love of daring adventure, devotion to +a pure religion and a lofty purpose, most admirably pathetic, even when +in the eyes of the vulgar most fantastic--had been the proudest and most +poetical of Spanish characteristics, never to be entirely uprooted from +the national heart. + +Alas! what was there in the commanderies of Calatrava, Alcantara, +Santiago, and all the rest of those knightly orders, as then existing, to +respond to the noble sentiments on which all were supposed to be founded? +Institutions for making money, for pillaging the poor of their hard- +earned pittance, trafficked in by greedy ministers and needy courtiers +with a shamelessness which had long ceased to blush at vices however +gross, at venality however mean. + +Venality was in truth the prominent characteristic of the Spanish polity +at this epoch. Everything political or ecclesiastical, from highest to +lowest, was matter of merchandize. + +It was the autocrat, governing king and kingdom, who disposed of +episcopal mitres, cardinals' hats, commanders' crosses, the offices of +regidores or municipal magistrates in all the cities, farmings of +revenues, collectorships of taxes, at prices fixed by himself. + +It was never known that the pope refused to confirm the ecclesiastical +nominations which were made by the Spanish court. + +The nuncius had the privilege of dispensing the small cures from thirty +dollars a year downwards, of which the number was enormous. Many of +these were capable, in careful hands, of becoming ten times as valuable +as their nominal estimate, and the business in them became in consequence +very extensive and lucrative. They were often disposed of for the +benefit of servants and the hangers-on of noble families, to laymen, to +women, children, to babes unborn. + +When such was the most thriving industry in the land, was it wonderful +that the poor of high and low degree were anxious in ever-increasing +swarms to effect their entrance into convent, monastery, and church, and +that trade, agriculture, and manufactures languished? + +The foreign polity of the court remained as it had been established by +Philip II. + +Its maxims were very simple. To do unto your neighbour all possible +harm, and to foster the greatness of Spain by sowing discord and +maintaining civil war in all other nations, was the fundamental precept. +To bribe and corrupt the servants of other potentates, to maintain a +regular paid bode of adherents in foreign lands, ever ready to engage in +schemes of assassination, conspiracy, sedition, and rebellion against the +legitimate authority, to make mankind miserable, so far as it was in the +power of human force or craft to produce wretchedness, were objects still +faithfully pursued. + +They had not yet led to the entire destruction of other realms and their +submission to the single sceptre of Spain, nor had they developed the +resources, material or moral, of a mighty empire so thoroughly as might +have been done perhaps by a less insidious policy, but they had never +been abandoned. + +It was a steady object of policy to keep such potentates of Italy as +were not already under the dominion of the Spanish crown in a state +of internecine feud with each other and of virtual dependence on the +powerful kingdom. The same policy pursued in France, of fomenting civil +war by subsidy, force, and chicane, during a long succession of years in +order to reduce that magnificent realm under the sceptre of Philip, has +been described in detail. The chronic rebellion of Ireland against the +English crown had been assisted and inflamed in every possible mode, the +system being considered as entirely justified by the aid and comfort +afforded by the queen to the Dutch rebels. + +It was a natural result of the system according to which kingdoms and +provinces with the populations dwelling therein were transferable like +real estate by means of marriage-settlements, entails, and testaments, +that the proprietorship of most of the great realms in Christendom was +matter of fierce legal dispute. Lawsuits, which in chancery could last +for centuries before a settlement of the various claims was made, might +have infinitely enriched the gentlemen of the long robe and reduced all +the parties to beggary, had there been any tribunal but the battle-field +to decide among the august litigants. Thus the King of Great Britain +claimed the legal proprietorship and sovereignty of Brittany, Normandy, +Anjou, Gascony, Calais, and Boulogne in France, besides the whole kingdom +by right of conquest. The French king claimed to be rightful heir of +Castile, Biscay, Guipuscoa, Arragon, Navarre, nearly all the Spanish +peninsula in short, including the whole of Portugal and the Balearic +islands to boot. The King of Spain claimed, as we have seen often +enough, not only Brittany but all France as his lawful inheritance. +Such was the virtue of the prevalent doctrine of proprietorship. Every +potentate was defrauded of his rights, and every potentate was a criminal +usurper. As for the people, it would have excited a smile of superior +wisdom on regal, legal, or sacerdotal lips, had it been suggested that by +any possibility the governed could have a voice or a thought in regard to +the rulers whom God in His grace had raised up to be their proprietors +and masters. + +The army of Spain was sunk far below the standard at which it had been +kept when it seemed fit to conquer and govern the world. Neither by +Spain nor Italy could those audacious, disciplined, and obedient legions +be furnished, at which the enemies of the mighty despot trembled from one +extremity of earth to the other. Peculation, bankruptcy, and mutiny had +done their work at last. We have recently had occasion to observe the +conduct of the veterans in Flanders at critical epochs. At this moment, +seventy thousand soldiers were on the muster and pay roll of the army +serving in those provinces, while not thirty thousand men existed in the +flesh. + +The navy was sunk to fifteen or twenty old galleys, battered, dismantled, +unseaworthy, and a few armed ships for convoying the East and West +Indiamen to and from their destinations. + +The general poverty was so great that it was often absolutely impossible +to purchase food for the royal household. "If you ask me," said a cool +observer, "how this great show of empire is maintained, when the funds +are so small, I answer that it is done by not paying at all." The +Government was shamelessly, hopelessly bankrupt. The noble band of +courtiers were growing enormously rich. The state was a carcase which +unclean vultures were picking to the bones. + +The foremost man in the land--the autocrat, the absolute master in State +and Church--was the Duke of Lerma. + +Very rarely in human history has an individual attained to such unlimited +power under a monarchy, without actually placing the crown upon his own +head. Mayors of the palace, in the days of the do-nothing kings, wielded +nothing like the imperial control which was firmly held by this great +favourite. Yet he was a man of very moderate capacity and limited +acquirements, neither soldier, lawyer, nor priest. + +The duke was past sixty years of age, a tall, stately, handsome man, +of noble presence and urbane manner. Born of the patrician house of +Sandoval, he possessed, on the accession of Philip, an inherited income +of ten or twelve thousand dollars. He had now, including what he had +bestowed on his son, a funded revenue of seven hundred thousand a year. +He had besides, in cash, jewels, and furniture, an estimated capital of +six millions. All this he had accumulated in ten years of service, as +prime minister, chief equerry, and first valet of the chamber to the +king. + +The tenure of his authority was the ascendancy of a firm character over a +very weak one. At this moment he was doubtless the most absolute ruler +in Christendom, and Philip III. the most submissive and uncomplaining of +his subjects. + +The origin of his power was well known. During the reign of Philip II., +the prince, treated with great severity by his father, was looked upon +with contempt by every one about court. He was allowed to take no part +in affairs, and, having heard of the awful tragedy of his eldest half- +brother, enacted ten years before his own birth, he had no inclination to +confront the wrath of that terrible parent and sovereign before whom all +Spain trembled. Nothing could have been more humble, more effaced, more +obscure, than his existence as prince. The Marquis of Denia, his +chamberlain, alone was kind to him, furnished him with small sums of +money, and accompanied him on the shooting excursions in which his father +occasionally permitted him to indulge. But even these little attentions +were looked upon with jealousy by the king; so that the marquis was sent +into honourable exile from court as governor of Valencia. It was hoped +that absence would wean the prince of his affection for the kind +chamberlain. The calculation was erroneous. No sooner were the eyes of +Philip II. closed in death than the new king made haste to send for +Denia, who was at once created Duke of Lerma, declared of the privy +council, and appointed master of the horse and first gentleman of the +bed-chamber. From that moment the favourite became supreme. He was +entirely without education, possessed little experience in affairs of +state, and had led the life of a commonplace idler and voluptuary until +past the age of fifty. Nevertheless he had a shrewd mother-wit, tact in +dealing with men, aptitude to take advantage of events. He had +directness of purpose, firmness of will, and always knew his own +mind. From the beginning of his political career unto its end, he +conscientiously and without swerving pursued a single aim. This was to +rob the exchequer by every possible mode and at every instant of his +life. Never was a more masterly financier in this respect. With a +single eye to his own interests, he preserved a magnificent unity in all +his actions. The result had been to make him in ten years the richest +subject in the world, as well as the most absolute ruler. + +He enriched his family, as a matter of course. His son was already made +Duke of Uceda, possessed enormous wealth, and was supposed by those who +had vision in the affairs of court to be the only individual ever likely +to endanger the power of the father. Others thought that the young +duke's natural dulness would make it impossible for him to supplant the +omnipotent favourite. The end was not yet, and time was to show which +class of speculators was in the right. Meantime the whole family was +united and happy. The sons and daughters had intermarried with the +Infantados, and other most powerful and wealthy families of grandees. +The uncle, Sandoval, had been created by Lerma a cardinal and archbishop +of Toledo; the king's own schoolmaster being removed from that dignity, +and disgraced and banished from court for having spoken disrespectfully +of the favourite. The duke had reserved for himself twenty thousand a +year from the revenues of the archbishopric, as a moderate price for thus +conducting himself as became a dutiful nephew. He had ejected Rodrigo de +Vasquez from his post as president of the council. As a more conclusive +proof of his unlimited sway than any other of his acts had been, he had +actually unseated and banished the inquisitor-general, Don Pietro Porto +Carrero, and supplanted him in that dread office, before which even +anointed sovereigns trembled, by one of his own creatures. + +In the discharge of his various functions, the duke and all his family +were domesticated in the royal palace, so that he was at no charges for +housekeeping. His apartments there were more sumptuous than those of the +king and queen. He had removed from court the Dutchess of Candia, sister +of the great Constable of Castile, who had been for a time in attendance +on the queen, and whose possible influence he chose to destroy in the +bud. Her place as mistress of the robes was supplied by his sister, the +Countess of Lemos; while his wife, the terrible Duchess of Lerma, was +constantly with the queen, who trembled at her frown. Thus the royal +pair were completely beleaguered, surrounded, and isolated from all +except the Lermas. When the duke conferred with the king, the doors +were always double locked. + +In his capacity as first valet it was the duke's duty to bring the king's +shirt in the morning, to see to his wardrobe and his bed, and to supply +him with ideas for the day. The king depended upon him entirely and +abjectly, was miserable when separated from him four-and-twenty hours, +thought with the duke's thoughts and saw with the duke's eyes. He was +permitted to know nothing of state affairs, save such portions as were +communicated to him by Lerma. The people thought their monarch +bewitched, so much did he tremble before the favourite, and so +unscrupulously did the duke appropriate for his own benefit and that of +his creatures everything that he could lay his hands upon. It would have +needed little to bring about a revolution, such was the universal hatred +felt for the minister, and the contempt openly expressed for the king. + +The duke never went to the council. All papers and documents relating to +business were sent to his apartments. Such matters as he chose to pass +upon, such decrees as he thought proper to issue, were then taken by him +to the king, who signed them with perfect docility. As time went on, +this amount of business grew too onerous for the royal hand, or this +amount of participation by the king in affairs of state came to be +esteemed superfluous and inconvenient by the duke, and his own signature +was accordingly declared to be equivalent to that of the sovereign's +sign-manual. It is doubtful whether such a degradation of the royal +prerogative had ever been heard of before in a Christian monarch. + +It may be imagined that this system of government was not of a nature to +expedite business, however swiftly it might fill the duke's coffers. +High officers of state, foreign ambassadors, all men in short charged +with important affairs, were obliged to dance attendance for weeks and +months on the one man whose hands grasped all the business of the +kingdom, while many departed in despair without being able to secure a +single audience. It was entirely a matter of trade. It was necessary to +bribe in succession all the creatures of the duke before getting near +enough to headquarters to bribe the duke himself. Never were such +itching palms. To do business at court required the purse of Fortunatus. +There was no deception in the matter. Everything was frank and above +board in that age of chivalry. Ambassadors wrote to their sovereigns +that there was no hope of making treaties or of accomplishing any +negotiation except by purchasing the favour of the autocrat; and Lerma's +price was always high. At one period the republic of Venice wished to +put a stop to the depredations by Spanish pirates upon Venetian commerce, +but the subject could not even be approached by the envoy until he had +expended far more than could be afforded out of his meagre salary in +buying an interview. + +When it is remembered that with this foremost power in the world affairs +of greater or less importance were perpetually to be transacted by the +representatives of other nations as well as by native subjects of every +degree; that all these affairs were to pass through the hands of Lerma, +and that those hands had ever to be filled with coin, the stupendous +opulence of the one man can be easily understood. Whether the foremost +power of the world, thus governed, were likely to continue the foremost +power, could hardly seem doubtful to those accustomed to use their reason +in judging of the things of this world. + +Meantime the duke continued to transact business; to sell his interviews +and his interest; to traffic in cardinals' hats, bishops' mitres, judges' +ermine, civic and magisterial votes in all offices, high or humble, of +church, army, or state. + +He possessed the art of remembering, or appearing to remember, the +matters of business which had been communicated to him. When a +negotiator, of whatever degree, had the good fortune to reach the +presence, he found the duke to all appearance mindful of the particular +affair which led to the interview, and fully absorbed by its importance. +There were men who, trusting to the affability shown by the great +favourite, and to the handsome price paid down in cash for that urbanity, +had been known to go away from their interview believing that their +business was likely to be accomplished, until the lapse of time revealed +to them the wildness of their dream. + +The duke perhaps never manifested his omnipotence on a more striking +scale than when by his own fiat he removed the court and the seat of +government to Valladolid, and kept it there six years long. This was +declared by disinterested observers to be not only contrary to common +sense, but even beyond the bounds of possibility. At Madrid the king had +splendid palaces, and in its neighbourhood beautiful country residences, +a pure atmosphere, and the facility of changing the air at will. At +Valladolid there were no conveniences of any kind, no sufficient palace, +no summer villa, no park, nothing but an unwholesome climate. But most +of the duke's estates were in that vicinity, and it was desirable for him +to overlook them in person. Moreover, he wished to get rid of the +possible influence over the king of the Empress Dowager Maria, widow of +Maximilian II. and aunt and grandmother of Philip III. The minister +could hardly drive this exalted personage from court, so easily as he had +banished the ex-Archbishop of Toledo, the Inquisitor General, the Duchess +of Candia, besides a multitude of lesser note. So he did the next best +thing, and banished the court from the empress, who was not likely to put +up with the inconveniences of Valladolid for the sake of outrivalling the +duke. This Babylonian captivity lasted until Madrid was nearly ruined, +until the desolation of the capital, the moans of the trades-people, the +curses of the poor, and the grumblings of the courtiers, finally produced +an effect even upon the arbitrary Lerma. He then accordingly re- +emigrated, with king and Government, to Madrid, and caused it to be +published that he had at last overcome the sovereign's repugnance to the +old capital, and had persuaded him to abandon Valladolid. + +There was but one man who might perhaps from his position have competed +with the influence of Lerma. This was the king's father-confessor, whom +Philip wished--although of course his wish was not gratified--to make a +member of the council of state. The monarch, while submitting in +everything secular to the duke's decrees, had a feeble determination to +consult and to be guided by his confessor in all matters of conscience. +As it was easy to suggest that high affairs of state, the duties of +government, the interests of a great people, were matters not entirely +foreign to the conscience of anointed kings, an opening to power might +have seemed easy to an astute and ambitious churchman. But the Dominican +who kept Philip's conscience, Gasparo de Cordova by name, was, +fortunately for the favourite, of a very tender paste, easily moulded to +the duke's purpose. Dull and ignorant enough, he was not so stupid as to +doubt that, should he whisper any suggestions or criticisms in regard to +the minister's proceedings, the king would betray him and he would lose +his office. The cautious friar accordingly held his peace and his place, +and there was none to dispute the sway of the autocrat. + +What need to dilate further upon such a minister and upon such a system +of government? To bribe and to be bribed, to maintain stipendiaries in +every foreign Government, to place the greatness of the empire upon the +weakness, distraction, and misery of other nations, to stimulate civil +war, revolts of nobles and citizens against authority; separation of +provinces, religious discontents in every land of Christendom--such were +the simple rules ever faithfully enforced. + +The other members of what was called the council were insignificant. + +Philip III., on arriving at the throne, had been heard to observe that +the day of simple esquires and persons of low condition was past, and +that the turn of great nobles had come. It had been his father's policy +to hold the grandees in subjection, and to govern by means of ministers +who were little more than clerks, generally of humble origin; keeping the +reins in his own hands. Such great personages as he did employ, like +Alva, Don John of Austria, and Farnese, were sure at last to excite his +jealousy and to incur his hatred. Forty-three years of this kind of work +had brought Spain to the condition in which the third Philip found it. +The new king thought to have found a remedy in discarding the clerks, and +calling in the aid of dukes. Philip II. was at least a king. The very +first act of Philip III. at his father's death was to abdicate. + +It was, however, found necessary to retain some members of the former +Government. Fuentes, the best soldier and accounted the most dangerous +man in the empire, was indeed kept in retirement as governor of Milan, +while Cristoval di Mora, who had enjoyed much of the late king's +confidence, was removed to Portugal as viceroy. But Don John of +Idiaquez, who had really been the most efficient of the old +administration, still remained in the council. Without the subordinate +aid of his experience in the routine of business, it would have been +difficult for the favourite to manage the great machine with his single +hand. But there was no disposition on the part of the ancient minister +to oppose the new order of things. A cautious, caustic, dry old +functionary, talking more with his shoulders than with his tongue, +determined never to commit himself, or to risk shipwreck by venturing +again into deeper waters than those of the harbour in which he now hoped +for repose, Idiaquez knew that his day of action was past. Content to be +confidential clerk to the despot duke, as he had been faithful secretary +to the despot king, he was the despair of courtiers and envoys who came +to pump, after having endeavoured to fill an inexhaustible cistern. Thus +he proved, on the whole, a useful and comfortable man, not to the +country, but to its autocrat. + +Of the Count of Chinchon, who at one time was supposed to have court +influence because a dabbler in architecture, much consulted during the +building of the Escorial by Philip II. until the auditing of his accounts +brought him into temporary disgrace, and the Marquises of Velada, +Villalonga, and other ministers, it is not necessary to speak. There was +one man in the council, however, who was of great importance, wielding a +mighty authority in subordination to the duke. This was Don Pietro de +Franqueza. An emancipated slave, as his name indicated, and subsequently +the body-servant of Lerma, he had been created by that minister secretary +of the privy council. He possessed some of the virtues of the slave, +such as docility and attachment to the hand that had fed and scourged +him, and many vices of both slave and freedman. He did much of the work +which it would have been difficult for the duke to accomplish in person, +received his fees, sold and dispensed his interviews, distributed his +bribes. In so doing, as might be supposed, he did not neglect his own +interest. It was a matter of notoriety, no man knowing it better than +the king, that no business, foreign or domestic, could be conducted or +even begun at court without large preliminary fees to the secretary of +the council, his wife, and his children. He had, in consequence, already +accumulated an enormous fortune. His annual income, when it was stated, +excited amazement. He was insolent and overbearing to all comers until +his dues had been paid, when he became at once obliging, supple, and +comparatively efficient. Through him alone lay the path to the duke's +sanctuary. + +The nominal sovereign, Philip III., was thirty years of age. A very +little man, with pink cheeks, flaxen hair, and yellow beard, with a +melancholy expression of eye, and protruding under lip and jaw, he was +now comparatively alert and vigorous in constitution, although for the +first seven years of his life it had been doubtful whether he would live +from week to week. He had been afflicted during that period with a +chronic itch or leprosy, which had undermined his strength, but which +had almost entirely disappeared as he advanced in life. + +He was below mediocrity in mind, and had received scarcely any education. +He had been taught to utter a few phrases, more or less intelligible, in +French, Italian, and Flemish, but was quite incapable of sustaining a +conversation in either of those languages. When a child, he had learned +and subsequently forgotten the rudiments of the Latin grammar. + +These acquirements, together with the catechism and the offices of the +Church, made up his whole stock of erudition. That he was devout as a +monk of the middle ages, conforming daily and hourly to religious +ceremonies, need scarcely be stated. It was not probable that the son of +Philip II. would be a delinquent to church observances. He was not +deficient in courage, rode well, was fond of hunting, kept close to the +staghounds, and confronted, spear in hand, the wild-boar with coolness +and success. He was fond of tennis, but his especial passion and chief +accomplishment was dancing. He liked to be praised for his proficiency +in this art, and was never happier than when gravely leading out the +queen or his daughter, then four or five years of age--for he never +danced with any one else--to perform a stately bolero. + +He never drank wine, but, on the other hand, was an enormous eater; so +that, like his father in youth, he was perpetually suffering from +stomach-ache as the effect of his gluttony. He was devotedly attached to +his queen, and had never known, nor hardly looked at, any other woman. +He had no vice but gambling, in which he indulged to a great extent, very +often sitting up all night at cards. This passion of the king's was much +encouraged by Lerma, for obvious reasons. Philip had been known to lose +thirty thousand dollars at a sitting, and always to some one of the +family or dependents of the duke, who of course divided with them the +spoils. At one time the Count of Pelbes, nephew of Lerma, had won two +hundred thousand dollars in a very few nights from his sovereign. + +For the rest, Philip had few peculiarities or foibles. He was not +revengeful, nor arrogant, nor malignant. He was kind and affectionate to +his wife and children, and did his best to be obedient to the Duke of +Lerma. Occasionally he liked to grant audiences, but there were few to +request them. It was ridiculous and pathetic at the same time to see the +poor king, as was very frequently the case, standing at a solemn green +table till his little legs were tired, waiting to transact business with +applicants who never came; while ushers, chamberlains, and valets were +rushing up and down the corridors, bawling for all persons so disposed to +come and have an audience of their monarch. Meantime, the doors of the +great duke's apartments in the same palace would be beleaguered by an +army of courtiers, envoys, and contractors, who had paid solid gold for +admission, and who were often sent away grumbling and despairing without +entering the sacred precincts. + +As time wore on, the king, too much rebuked for attempting to meddle in +state affairs, became solitary and almost morose, moping about in the +woods by himself, losing satisfaction in his little dancing and ball- +playing diversions, but never forgetting his affection for the queen +nor the hours for his four daily substantial repasts of meats and pastry. +It would be unnecessary and almost cruel to dwell so long upon a picture +of what was after all not much better than human imbecility, were it not +that humanity is, a more sacred thing than royalty. A satire upon such +an embodiment of kingship is impossible, the simple and truthful +characteristics being more effective than fiction or exaggeration. It +would be unjust to exhume a private character after the lapse of two +centuries merely to excite derision, but if history be not powerless to +instruct, it certainly cannot be unprofitable to ponder the merits of a +system which, after bestowing upon the world forty-three years of Philip +the tyrant, had now followed them up with a decade of Philip the +simpleton. + +In one respect the reigning sovereign was in advance of his age. In his +devotion to the Madonna he claimed the same miraculous origin for her +mother as for herself. When the prayer "O Sancta Maria sine labe +originali concepta" was chanted, he would exclaim with emotion that the +words embodied his devoutest aspirations. He had frequent interviews +with doctors of divinity on the subject, and instructed many bishops to +urge upon the pope the necessity of proclaiming the virginity of the +Virgin's mother. Could he secure this darling object of his ambition, +he professed himself ready to make a pilgrimage on foot to Rome. The +pilgrimage was never made, for it may well be imagined that Lerma would +forbid any such adventurous scheme. Meantime, the duke continued to +govern the empire and to fill his coffers, and the king to shoot rabbits. + +The queen was a few years younger than her husband, and far from +beautiful. Indeed, the lower portion of her face was almost deformed. +She was graceful, however, in her movements, and pleasing and gentle in +manner. She adored the king, looking up to him with reverence as the +greatest and wisest of beings. To please him she had upon her marriage +given up drinking wine, which, for a German, was considered a great +sacrifice. She recompensed herself, as the king did, by eating to an +extent which, according to contemporary accounts, excited amazement. +Thus there was perfect sympathy between the two in the important article +of diet. She had also learned to play at cards, in order to take a hand +with him at any moment, feebly hoping that an occasional game for love +might rescue the king from that frantic passion by which his health was +shattered and so many courtiers were enriched. + +Not being deficient in perception, the queen was quite aware of the +greediness of all who surrounded the palace. She had spirit enough +too to feel the galling tyranny to which the king was subjected. That +the people hated the omnipotent favourite, and believed the king to be +under the influence of sorcery, she was well aware. She had even a dim +notion that the administration of the empire was not the wisest nor the +noblest that could be devised for the first power in Christendom. But +considerations of high politics scarcely troubled her mind. Of a People +she had perhaps never heard, but she felt that the king was oppressed. +She knew that he was helpless, and that she was herself his only friend. +But of what avail were her timid little flutterings of indignation and +resistance? So pure and fragile a creature could accomplish little good +for king or people. Perpetually guarded and surrounded by the Countess +of Lemos and the Duchess of Lerma, she lived in mortal awe of both. As +to the duke himself, she trembled at his very name. On her first +attempts to speak with Philip on political matters--to hint at the +unscrupulous character of his government, to arouse him to the necessity +of striking for a little more liberty and for at least a trifling +influence in the state--the poor little king instantly betrayed her to +the favourite and she was severely punished. The duke took the monarch +off at once on a long journey, leaving her alone for weeks long with the +terrible duchess and countess. Never before had she been separated for +a day from her husband, it having been the king's uniform custom to take +her with him in all his expeditions. Her ambition to interfere was thus +effectually cured. The duke forbade her thenceforth ever to speak of +politics to her husband in public or in private--not even in bed--and the +king was closely questioned whether these orders had been obeyed. She +submitted without a struggle. She saw how completely her happiness was +at Lerma's mercy. She had no one to consult with, having none but +Spanish people about her, except her German father-confessor, whom, +as a great favour, and after a severe struggle, she had beep allowed to +retain, as otherwise her ignorance of the national language would have +made it impossible for her to confess her little sins. Moreover her +brothers, the archdukes at Gratz, were in receipt of considerable annual +stipends from the Spanish exchequer, and the duke threatened to stop +those pensions at once should the queen prove refractory. It is painful +to dwell any longer on the abject servitude in which the king and queen +were kept. The two were at least happy in each other's society, and were +blessed with mutual affection, with pretty and engaging children, and +with a similarity of tastes. It is impossible to imagine anything more +stately, more devout, more regular, more innocent, more utterly dismal +and insipid, than the lives of this wedded pair. + +This interior view of the court and council of Spain will suffice to +explain why, despite the languor and hesitations with which the +transactions were managed, the inevitable tendency was towards a peace. +The inevitable slowness, secrecy, and tergiversations were due to the +dignity of the Spanish court, and in harmony with its most sacred +traditions. + +But what profit could the Duke of Lerma expect by the continuance of the +Dutch war, and who in Spain was to be consulted except the Duke of Lerma? + + + + + +ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + +A man incapable of fatigue, of perplexity, or of fear +Converting beneficent commerce into baleful gambling +Gigantic vices are proudly pointed to as the noblest +No generation is long-lived enough to reap the harvest +Proclaiming the virginity of the Virgin's mother +Steeped to the lips in sloth which imagined itself to be pride +To shirk labour, infinite numbers become priests and friars + + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1607(a) *** + +************ This file should be named 4879.txt or 4879.zip ************ + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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