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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/4846.txt b/4846.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d4272a --- /dev/null +++ b/4846.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1823 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook History of the United Netherlands, 1586 +#46 in our series by John Lothrop Motley + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers***** + + +Title: History of the United Netherlands, 1586 + +Author: John Lothrop Motley + +Release Date: January, 2004 [EBook #4846] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on April 2, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + + + + + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1586 *** + + + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + + +[NOTE: There is a short list of bookmarks, or pointers, at the end of the +file for those who may wish to sample the author's ideas before making an +entire meal of them. D.W.] + + + + + +HISTORY OF THE UNITED NETHERLANDS +From the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Year's Truce--1609 + +By John Lothrop Motley + + + +MOTLEY'S HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS, Project Gutenberg Edition, Volume 46 + +History of the United Netherlands, Volume 46, 1586 + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Forlorn Condition of Flanders--Parma's secret Negotiations with the + Queen--Grafigni and Bodman--Their Dealings with English Counsellors + --Duplicity of Farnese--Secret Offers of the English Peace-Party-- + Letters and Intrigues of De Loo--Drake's Victories and their Effect + --Parma's Perplexity and Anxiety--He is relieved by the News from + England--Queen's secret Letters to Parma--His Letters and + Instructions to Bodman--Bodman's secret Transactions at Greenwich-- + Walsingham detects and exposes the Plot--The Intriguers baffled-- + Queen's Letter to Parma and his to the King--Unlucky Results of the + Peace--Intrigues--Unhandsome Treatment of Leicester--Indignation of + the Earl and Walsingham--Secret Letter of Parma to Philip--Invasion + of England recommended--Details of the Project. + +Alexander Farnese and his heroic little army had been left by their +sovereign in as destitute a condition as that in which Lord Leicester and +his unfortunate "paddy persons" had found themselves since their arrival +in the Netherlands. These mortal men were but the weapons to be used and +broken in the hands of the two great sovereigns, already pitted against +each other in mortal combat. That the distant invisible potentate, +the work of whose life was to do his best to destroy all European +nationality, all civil and religious freedom, should be careless of +the instruments by which his purpose was to be effected, was but natural. +It is painful to reflect that the great champion of liberty and of +Protestantism was almost equally indifferent to the welfare of the human +creatures enlisted in her cause. Spaniards and Italians, English and +Irish, went half naked and half starving through the whole inclement +winter, and perished of pestilence in droves, after confronting the +less formidable dangers of battlefield and leaguer. Manfully and +sympathetically did the Earl of Leicester--while whining in absurd +hyperbole over the angry demeanour of his sovereign towards himself- +represent the imperative duty of an English government to succour English +troops. + +Alexander Farnese was equally plain-spoken to a sovereign with whom +plain-speaking was a crime. In bold, almost scornful language, the +Prince represented to Philip the sufferings and destitution of the +little band of heroes, by whom that magnificent military enterprise, +the conquest of Antwerp, had just been effected. "God will be weary of +working miracles for us," he cried, "and nothing but miracles can save +the troops from starving." There was no question of paying them their +wages, there was no pretence at keeping them reasonably provided with +lodging and clothing, but he asserted the undeniable proposition that +they "could not pass their lives without eating," and he implored his +sovereign to send at least money enough to buy the soldiers shoes. +To go foodless and barefoot without complaining, on the frozen swamps of +Flanders, in January, was more than was to be expected from Spaniards and +Italians. The country itself was eaten bare. The obedient Provinces had +reaped absolute ruin as the reward of their obedience. Bruges, Ghent, +and the other cities of Brabant and Flanders, once so opulent and +powerful, had become mere dens of thieves and paupers. Agriculture, +commerce, manufactures--all were dead. The condition of Antwerp was most +tragical. The city, which had been so recently the commercial centre of +the earth, was reduced to absolute beggary. Its world-wide traffic was +abruptly terminated, for the mouth of its great river was controlled by +Flushing, and Flushing was in the firm grasp of Sir Philip Sidney, as +governor for the English Queen. Merchants and bankers, who had lately +been possessed of enormous resources, were stripped of all. Such of the +industrial classes as could leave the place had wandered away to Holland +and England. There was no industry possible, for there was no market for +the products of industry. Antwerp was hemmed in by the enemy on every +side, surrounded by royal troops in a condition of open mutiny, cut off +from the ocean, deprived of daily bread, and yet obliged to contribute +out of its poverty to the maintenance of the Spanish soldiers, who were +there for its destruction. Its burghers, compelled to furnish four +hundred thousand florins, as the price of their capitulation, and at +least six hundred thousand more for the repairs of the dykes, the +destruction of which, too long deferred, had only spread desolation over +the country without saving the city, and over and above all forced to +rebuild, at their own expense, that fatal citadel, by which their liberty +and lives were to be perpetually endangered, might now regret at leisure +that they had not been as stedfast during their siege as had been the +heroic inhabitants of Leyden in their time of trial, twelve years before. +Obedient Antwerp was, in truth, most forlorn. But there was one +consolation for her and for Philip, one bright spot in the else universal +gloom. The ecclesiastics assured Parma, that, notwithstanding the +frightful diminution in the population of the city, they had confessed +and absolved more persons that Easter than they had ever done since the +commencement of the revolt. Great was Philip's joy in consequence. +"You cannot imagine my satisfaction," he wrote, "at the news you give me +concerning last Easter." + +With a ruined country, starving and mutinous troops, a bankrupt +exchequer, and a desperate and pauper population, Alexander Farnese was +not unwilling to gain time by simulated negotiations for peace. It was +strange, however, that so sagacious a monarch as the Queen of England +should suppose it for her interest to grant at that moment the very delay +which was deemed most desirable by her antagonist. + +Yet it was not wounded affection alone, nor insulted pride, nor startled +parsimony, that had carried the fury of the Queen to such a height on the +occasion of Leicester's elevation to absolute government. It was still +more, because the step was thought likely to interfere with the progress +of those negotiations into which the Queen had allowed herself to be +drawn. + +A certain Grafigni--a Genoese merchant residing much in London and in +Antwerp, a meddling, intrusive, and irresponsible kind of individual, +whose occupation was gone with the cessation of Flemish trade--had +recently made his appearance as a volunteer diplomatist. The principal +reason for accepting or rather for winking at his services, seemed to be +the possibility of disavowing him, on both sides, whenever it should be +thought advisable. He had a partner or colleague, too, named Bodman, +who seemed a not much more creditable negotiator than himself. The chief +director of the intrigue was, however, Champagny, brother of Cardinal +Granvelle, restored to the King's favour and disposed to atone by his +exuberant loyalty for his heroic patriotism on a former and most +memorable occasion. Andrea de Loo, another subordinate politician, was +likewise employed at various stages of the negotiation. + +It will soon be perceived that the part enacted by Burghley, Hatton, +Croft, and other counsellors, and even by the Queen herself, was not a +model of ingenuousness towards the absent Leicester and the States- +General. The gentlemen sent at various times to and from the Earl and +her Majesty's government; Davison, Shirley, Vavasor, Heneage, and the +rest--had all expressed themselves in the strongest language concerning +the good faith and the friendliness of the Lord-Treasurer and the Vice- +Chamberlain, but they were not so well informed as they would have been, +had they seen the private letters of Parma to Philip II. + +Walsingham, although kept in the dark as much as it was possible, +discovered from time to time the mysterious practices of his political +antagonists, and warned the Queen of the danger and dishonour she was +bringing upon herself. Elizabeth, when thus boldly charged, equivocated +and stormed alternately. She authorized Walsingham to communicate the +secrets--which he had thus surprised--to the States-General, and then +denied having given any such orders. + +In truth, Walsingham was only entrusted with such portions of the +negotiations as he had been able, by his own astuteness, to divine; and +as he was very much a friend to the Provinces and to Leicester, he never +failed to keep them instructed, to the best of his ability. It must be +confessed, however, that the shuffling and paltering among great men and +little men, at that period, forms a somewhat painful subject of +contemplation at the present day. + +Grafigni having some merchandise to convey from Antwerp to London, went +early in the year to the Prince of Parma, at Brussels, in order to +procure a passport. They entered into some conversation upon the misery +of the country, and particularly concerning the troubles to which the +unfortunate merchants had been exposed. Alexander expressed much +sympathy with the commercial community, and a strong desire that the +ancient friendship between his master and the Queen of England might be +restored. Grafigni assured the Prince--as the result of his own +observation in England--that the Queen participated in those pacific +sentiments: "You are going to England," replied the Prince, "and you may +say to the ministers of her Majesty, that, after my allegiance to my +King, I am most favourably and affectionately inclined towards her. If +it pleases them that I, as Alexander Farnese, should attempt to bring +about an accord, and if our commissioners could be assured of a hearing +in England, I would take care that everything should be conducted with +due regard to the honour and reputation of her Majesty." + +Grafigni then asked for a written letter of credence. "That cannot be," +replied Alexander; "but if you return to me I shall believe your report, +and then a proper person can be sent, with authority from the King to +treat with her Majesty." + +Grafigni proceeded to England, and had an interview with Lord Cobham. +A few days later that nobleman gave the merchant a general assurance +that the Queen had always felt a strong inclination to maintain firm +friendship with the House of Burgundy. Nevertheless, as he proceeded +to state, the bad policy of the King's ministers, and the enterprises +against her Majesty, had compelled her to provide for her own security +and that of her realm by remedies differing in spirit from that good +inclination. Being however a Christian princess, willing to leave +vengeance to the Lord and disposed to avoid bloodshed, she was ready +to lend her ear to a negotiation for peace, if it were likely to be a +sincere and secure one. Especially she was pleased that his Highness +of Parma should act as mediator of such a treaty, as she considered him +a most just and honourable prince in all his promises and actions. Her +Majesty would accordingly hold herself in readiness to receive the +honourable commissioners alluded to, feeling sure that every step taken +by his Highness would comport with her honour and safety. + +At about the same time the other partner in this diplomatic enterprise, +William Bodman, communicated to Alexander, the result of his observations +in England. He stated that Lords Burghley, Buckhurst, and Cobham, Sir +Christopher Hatton, and Comptroller Croft, were secretly desirous of +peace with Spain and that they had seized the recent opportunity of her +pique against the Earl of Leicester to urge forward these underhand +negotiations. Some progress had been made; but as no accredited +commissioner arrived from the Prince of Parma, and as Leicester was +continually writing earnest letters against peace, the efforts of these +counsellors had slackened. Bodman found them all, on his arrival, +anxious as he said, "to get their necks out of the matter;" declaring +everything which had been done to be pure matter of accident, entirely +without the concurrence of the Queen, and each seeking to outrival the +other in the good graces of her Majesty. Grafigni informed Bodman, +however, that Lord Cobham was quite to be depended upon in the affair, +and would deal with him privately, while Lord Burghley would correspond +with Andrea de Loo at Antwerp. Moreover, the servant of Comptroller +Croft would direct Bodman as to his course, and would give him daily +instructions. + +Now it so happened that this servant of Croft, Norris by name, was a +Papist, a man of bad character, and formerly a spy of the Duke of Anjou. +"If your Lordship or myself should use such instruments as this," wrote +Walsingham to Leicester, "I know we should bear no small reproach; but +it is the good hap of hollow and doubtful men to be best thought of." +Bodman thought the lords of the peace-faction and their adherents not +sufficiently strong to oppose the other party with success. He assured +Farnese that almost all the gentlemen and the common people of England +stood ready to risk their fortunes and to go in person to the field to +maintain the cause of the Queen and religious liberty; and that the +chance of peace was desperate unless something should turn the tide, such +as, for example, the defeat of Drake, or an invasion by Philip of Ireland +or Scotland. + +As it so happened that Drake was just then engaged in a magnificent +career of victory, sweeping the Spanish Main and startling the nearest +and the most remote possessions of the King with English prowess, his +defeat was not one of the cards to be relied on by the peace-party in the +somewhat deceptive game which they had commenced. Yet, strange to say, +they used, or attempted to use, those splendid triumphs as if they had +been disasters. + +Meantime there was an active but very secret correspondence between Lord +Cobham, Lord Burghley, Sir James Croft, and various subordinate +personages in England, on the one side, and Champagny, President +Richardot, La Motte, governor of Gravelines, Andrea de Loo, Grafigni, and +other men in the obedient Provinces, more or less in Alexander's +confidence, on the other side. Each party was desirous of forcing or +wheedling the antagonist to show his hand. "You were employed to take +soundings off the English coast in the Duke of Norfolk's time," said +Cobham to La Motte: "you remember the Duke's fate. Nevertheless, her +Majesty hates war, and it only depends on the King to have a firm and +lasting peace." + +"You must tell Lord Cobham," said Richardot to La Motte, "that you +are not at liberty to go into a correspondence, until assured of the +intentions of Queen Elizabeth. Her Majesty ought to speak first, +in order to make her good-will manifest," and so on. + +"The 'friend' can confer with you," said Richardot to Champagny; "but his +Highness is not to appear to know anything at all about it. The Queen +must signify her intentions." + +"You answered Champagny correctly," said Burghley to De Loo, "as to what +I said last winter concerning her Majesty's wishes in regard to a +pacification. The Netherlands must be compelled to return to obedience +to the King; but their ancient privileges are to be maintained. You +omitted, however, to say a word about toleration, in the Provinces, of +the reformed religion. But I said then, as I say now, that this is a +condition indispensable to peace." + +This was a somewhat important omission on the part of De Loo, and gives +the measure of his conscientiousness or his capacity as a negotiator. +Certainly for the Lord-Treasurer of England to offer, on the part of her +Majesty, to bring about the reduction of her allies under the yoke which +they had thrown off without her assistance, and this without leave asked +of them, and with no provision for the great principle of religious +liberty, which was the cause of the revolt, was a most flagitious +trifling with the honour of Elizabeth and of England. Certainly the more +this mysterious correspondence is examined, the more conclusive is the +justification of the vague and instinctive jealousy felt by Leicester and +the States-General as to English diplomacy during the winter and spring +of 1586. + +Burghley summoned De Loo, accordingly, to recall to his memory all that +had been privately said to him on the necessity of protecting the +reformed religion in the Provinces. If a peace were to be perpetual, +toleration was indispensable, he observed, and her Majesty was said to +desire this condition most earnestly. + +The Lord-Treasurer also made the not unreasonable suggestion, that, in +case of a pacification, it would be necessary to provide that English +subjects--peaceful traders, mariners, and the like--should no longer be +shut up in the Inquisition prisons of Spain and Portugal, and there +starved to death, as, with great multitudes, had already been the case. + +Meantime Alexander, while encouraging and directing all these underhand +measures, was carefully impressing upon his master that he was not, in +the least degree; bound by any such negotiations. "Queen Elizabeth," he +correctly observed to Philip, "is a woman: she is also by no means fond +of expense. The kingdom, accustomed to repose, is already weary of war +therefore, they are all pacifically inclined." "It has been intimated to +me," he said, "that if I would send a properly qualified person, who +should declare that your Majesty had not absolutely forbidden the coming +of Lord Leicester, such an agent would be well received, and perhaps the +Earl would be recalled." Alexander then proceeded, with the coolness +befitting a trusted governor of Philip II., to comment upon the course +which he was pursuing. He could at any time denounce the negotiations +which he was secretly prompting. Meantime immense advantages could be +obtained by the deception practised upon an enemy whose own object was +to deceive. + +The deliberate treachery of the scheme was cynically enlarged upon, and +its possible results mathematically calculated: + +Philip was to proceed with the invasion while Alexander was going on with +the negotiation. If, meanwhile, they could receive back Holland and +Zeeland from the hands of England, that would be an immense success. The +Prince intimated a doubt, however, as to so fortunate a result, because, +in dealing with heretics and persons of similar quality, nothing but +trickery was to be expected. The chief good to be hoped for was to +"chill the Queen in her plots, leagues, and alliances," and during the +chill, to carry forward their own great design. To slacken not a whit +in their preparations, to "put the Queen to sleep," and, above all, not +to leave the French for a moment unoccupied with internal dissensions and +civil war; such was the game of the King and the governor, as expounded +between themselves. + +President Richardot, at the same time, stated to Cardinal Granvelle that +the English desire for peace was considered certain at Brussels. +Grafigni had informed the Prince of Parma and his counsellors that the +Queen was most amicably disposed, and that there would be no trouble on +the point of religion, her Majesty not wishing to obtain more than she +would herself be willing to grant. "In this," said Richardot, "there is +both hard and soft;" for knowing that the Spanish game was deception, +pure and simple, the excellent President could not bring himself to +suspect a possible grain of good faith in the English intentions. Much +anxiety was perpetually felt in the French quarter, her Majesty's +government being supposed to be secretly preparing an invasion of the +obedient Netherlands across the French frontier, in combination, not with +the Bearnese, but with Henry III. So much in the dark were even the most +astute politicians. "I can't feel satisfied in this French matter," said +the President: "we mustn't tickle ourselves to make ourselves laugh." +Moreover, there was no self-deception nor self-tickling possible as to +the unmitigated misery of the obedient Netherlands. Famine was a more +formidable foe than Frenchmen, Hollanders, and Englishmen combined; so +that Richardot avowed that the "negotiation would be indeed holy," if it +would restore Holland and Zeeland to the King without fighting. The +prospect seemed on the whole rather dismal to loyal Netherlanders like +the old leaguing, intriguing, Hispamolized president of the privy +council. "I confess," said he plaintively, "that England needs +chastisement; but I don't see how we are to give it to her. Only let us +secure Holland and Zeeland, and then we shall always find a stick +whenever we like to beat the dog." + +Meantime Andrea de Loo had been bustling and buzzing about the ears of +the chief counsellors at the English court during all the early spring. +Most busily he had been endeavouring to efface the prevalent suspicion +that Philip and Alexander were only trifling by these informal +negotiations. We have just seen whether or not there was ground for that +suspicion. De Loo, being importunate, however--"as he usually was," +according to his own statement--obtained in Burghley's hand a +confirmation, by order of the Queen, of De Loo's--letter of the 26th +December. The matter of religion gave the worthy merchant much +difficulty, and he begged Lord Buckhurst, the Lord Treasurer, and many +other counsellors, not to allow this point of toleration to ruin the +whole affair; "for," said he, "his Majesty will never permit any exercise +of the reformed religion." + +At last Buckhurst sent for him, and in presence of Comptroller Croft, +gave him information that he had brought the Queen to this conclusion: +firstly, that she would be satisfied with as great a proportion of +religious toleration for Holland, Zeeland, and the other United +Provinces, as his Majesty could concede with safety to his conscience and +his honour; secondly, that she required an act of amnesty; thirdly, that +she claimed reimbursement by Philip for the money advanced by her to the +States. + +Certainly a more wonderful claim was never made than this--a demand upon +an absolute monarch for indemnity for expenses incurred in fomenting a +rebellion of his own subjects. The measure of toleration proposed for +the Provinces--the conscience, namely, of the greatest bigot ever born +into the world--was likely to prove as satisfactory as the claim for +damages propounded by the most parsimonious sovereign in Christendom. It +was, however, stipulated that the nonconformists of Holland and Zeeland, +who should be forced into exile, were to have their property administered +by papist trustees; and further, that the Spanish inquisition was not to +be established in the Netherlands. Philip could hardly demand better +terms than these last, after a career of victory. That they should be +offered now by Elizabeth was hardly compatible with good faith to the +States. + +On account of Lord Burghley's gout, it was suggested that the negotiators +had better meet in England, as it would be necessary for him to take the +lead in the matters and as he was but an indifferent traveller. Thus, +according to De Loo, the Queen was willing to hand over the United +Provinces to Philip, and to toss religious toleration to the winds, if +she could only get back the seventy thousand pounds--more or less--which +she had invested in an unpromising speculation. A few weeks later, and +at almost the very moment when Elizabeth had so suddenly overturned her +last vial of wrath upon the discomfited Heneage for having communicated +--according to her express command--the fact of the pending negotiations +to the Netherland States; at that very instant Parma was writing +secretly, and in cipher, to Philip. His communication--could Sir Thomas +have read it--might have partly explained her Majesty's rage. + +Parma had heard, he said, through Bodman, from Comptroller Croft, that +the Queen would willingly receive a proper envoy. It was very easy to +see, he observed, that the English counsellors were seeking every means +of entering into communication with Spain, and that they were doing so +with the participation of the Queen! Lord-Treasurer Burghley and +Comptroller Croft had expressed surprise that the Prince had not yet sent +a secret agent to her Majesty, under pretext of demanding explanations +concerning Lord Leicester's presence in the Provinces, but in reality to +treat for peace. Such an agent, it had been intimated, would be well +received. The Lord-Treasurer and the Comptroller would do all in their +power to advance the negotiation, so that, with their aid and with the +pacific inclination of the Queen, the measures proposed in favour of +Leicester would be suspended, and perhaps the Earl himself and all the +English would be recalled. + +The Queen was further represented as taking great pains to excuse both +the expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the Indies, and the mission of +Leicester to the Provinces. She was said to throw the whole blame of +these enterprises upon Walsingham and other ill-intentioned personages, +and to avow that she now understood matters better; so that, if Parma +would at once send an envoy, peace would, without question, soon be made. + +Parma had expressed his gratification at these hopeful dispositions on +the part of Burghley and Croft, and held out hopes of sending an agent to +treat with them, if not directly with her Majesty. For some time past-- +according to the Prince--the English government had not seemed to be +honestly seconding the Earl of Leicester, nor to correspond with his +desires. "This makes me think," he said, "that the counsellors before- +mentioned, being his rivals, are trying to trip him up." + +In such a caballing, prevaricating age, it is difficult to know which of +all the plotters and counterplotters engaged in these intrigues could +accomplish the greatest amount of what--for the sake of diluting in nine +syllables that which could be more forcibly expressed in one--was then +called diplomatic dissimulation. It is to be feared, notwithstanding her +frequent and vociferous denials, that the robes of the "imperial +votaress" were not so unsullied as could be wished. We know how loudly +Leicester had complained--we have seen how clearly Walsingham could +convict; but Elizabeth, though convicted, could always confute: for an +absolute sovereign, even without resorting to Philip's syllogisms of axe +and faggot, was apt in the sixteenth century to have the best of an +argument with private individuals. + +The secret statements of Parma-made, not for public effect, but for +the purpose of furnishing his master with the most accurate information +he could gather as to English policy--are certainly entitled to +consideration. They were doubtless founded upon the statements +of individuals rejoicing in no very elevated character; but those +individuals had no motive to deceive their patron. If they clashed +with the vehement declarations of very eminent personages, it must be +admitted, on the other hand, that they were singularly in accordance with +the silent eloquence of important and mysterious events. + +As to Alexander Farnese--without deciding the question whether Elizabeth +and Burghley were deceiving Walsingham and Leicester, or only trying to +delude Philip and himself--he had no hesitation, of course, on his part, +in recommending to Philip the employment of unlimited dissimulation. +Nothing could be more ingenuous than the intercourse between the King and +his confidential advisers. It was perfectly understood among them that +they were always to deceive every one, upon every occasion. Only let +them be false, and it was impossible to be wholly wrong; but grave +mistakes might occur from occasional deviations into sincerity. It was +no question at all, therefore, that it was Parma's duty to delude +Elizabeth and Burghley. Alexander's course was plain. He informed his +master that he would keep these difficulties alive as much as it was +possible. In order to "put them all to sleep with regard to the great +enterprise of the invasion," he would send back Bodman to Burghley and +Croft, and thus keep this unofficial negotiation upon its legs. The King +was quite uncommitted, and could always disavow what had been done. +Meanwhile he was gaining, and his adversaries losing, much precious time. +"If by this course," said Parma, "we can induce the English to hand over +to us the places which they hold in Holland and Zeeland, that will be a +great triumph." Accordingly he urged the King not to slacken, in the +least, his preparations for invasion, and, above all, to have a care that +the French were kept entangled and embarrassed among themselves, which +was a most substantial point. + +Meantime Europe was ringing with the American successes of the bold +corsair Drake. San Domingo, Porto Rico, Santiago, Cartliagena, Florida, +were sacked and destroyed, and the supplies drawn so steadily from the +oppression of the Western World to maintain Spanish tyranny in Europe, +were for a time extinguished. Parma was appalled at these triumphs of +the Sea-King--"a fearful man to the King of Spain"--as Lord Burghley well +observed. The Spanish troops were starving in Flanders, all Flanders +itself was starving, and Philip, as usual, had sent but insignificant +remittances to save his perishing soldiers. Parma had already exhausted +his credit. Money was most difficult to obtain in such a forlorn +country; and now the few rich merchants and bankers of Antwerp that were +left looked very black at these crushing news from America. "They are +drawing their purse-strings very tight," said Alexander, "and will make +no accommodation. The most contemplative of them ponder much over this +success of Drake, and think that your Majesty will forget our matters +here altogether." For this reason he informed the King that it would be +advisable to drop all further negotiation with England for the time, as +it was hardly probable that, with such advantages gained by the Queen, +she would be inclined to proceed in the path which had been just secretly +opened. Moreover, the Prince was in a state of alarm as to the +intentions of France. Mendoza and Tassis had given him to understand +that a very good feeling prevailed between the court of Henry and of +Elizabeth, and that the French were likely to come to a pacification +among themselves. In this the Spanish envoys were hardly anticipating so +great an effect as we have seen that they had the right to do from their +own indefatigable exertions; for, thanks to their zeal, backed by the +moderate subsidies furnished by their master, the civil war in France +already seemed likely to be as enduring as that of the Netherlands. But +Parma--still quite in the dark as to French politics--was haunted by the +vision of seventy thousand foot and six thousand horses ready to be let +slip upon him at any, moment, out of a pacified and harmonious France; +while he had nothing but a few starving and crippled regiments to +withstand such an invasion. When all these events should have taken +place, and France, in alliance with England, should have formally +declared war against Spain, Alexander protested that he should have +learned nothing new. + +The Prince was somewhat mistaken as to political affairs; but his doubts +concerning his neighbours, blended with the forlorn condition of himself +and army, about which there was no doubt at all, showed the exigencies of +his situation. In the midst of such embarrassments it is impossible not +to admire his heroism as a military chieftain, and his singular +adroitness as a diplomatist. He had painted for his sovereign a most +faithful and horrible portrait of the obedient Provinces. The soil was +untilled; the manufactories had all stopped; trade had ceased to exist. +It was a pity only to look upon the raggedness of his soldiers. No +language could describe the misery of the reconciled Provinces--Artois, +Hainault, Flanders. The condition of Bruges would melt the hardest +heart; other cities were no better; Antwerp was utterly ruined; its +inhabitants were all starving. The famine throughout the obedient +Netherlands was such as had not been known for a century. The whole +country had been picked bare by the troops, and the plough was not put +into the ground. Deputations were constantly with him from Bruges, +Dendermonde, Bois-le-Duc, Brussels, Antwerp, Nymegen, proving to him +by the most palpable evidence that the whole population of those cities +had almost literally nothing to eat. He had nothing, however, but +exhortations to patience to feed them withal. He was left without a +groat even to save his soldiers from starving, and he wildly and +bitterly, day after day, implored his sovereign for aid. These pictures +are not the sketches of a historian striving for effect, but literal +transcripts from the most secret revelations of the Prince himself to his +sovereign. On the other hand, although Leicester's complaints of the +destitution of the English troops in the republic were almost as bitter, +yet the condition of the United Provinces was comparatively healthy. +Trade, external and internal, was increasing daily. Distant commercial +and military expeditions were fitted out, manufactures were prosperous, +and the war of independence was gradually becoming--strange to say--a +source of prosperity to the new commonwealth. + +Philip--being now less alarmed than his nephew concerning French affairs, +and not feeling so keenly the misery of the obedient Provinces, or the +wants of the Spanish army--sent to Alexander six hundred thousand ducats, +by way of Genoa. In the letter submitted by his secretary recording this +remittance, the King made, however, a characteristic marginal note:-- +"See if it will not be as well to tell him something concerning the two +hundred thousand ducats to be deducted for Mucio, for fear of more +mischief, if the Prince should expect the whole six hundred thousand." + +Accordingly Mucio got the two hundred thousand. One-third of the meagre +supply destined for the relief of the King's starving and valiant little +army in the Netherlands was cut off to go into the pockets of the +intriguing Duke of Guise. "We must keep the French," said Philip, "in a +state of confusion at home, and feed their civil war. We must not allow +them to come to a general peace, which would be destruction for the +Catholics. I know you will put a good face on the matter; and, after +all, 'tis in the interest of the Netherlands. Moreover, the money shall +be immediately refunded." + +Alexander was more likely to make a wry face, notwithstanding his views +of the necessity of fomenting the rebellion against the House of Valois. +Certainly if a monarch intended to conquer such countries as France, +England, and Holland, without stirring from his easy chair in the +Escorial, it would have been at least as well--so Alexander thought--to +invest a little more capital in the speculation. No monarch ever dreamed +of arriving at universal empire with less personal fatigue or exposure, +or at a cheaper rate, than did Philip II. His only fatigue was at his +writing-table. But even here his merit was of a subordinate description. +He sat a great while at a time. He had a genius for sitting; but he now +wrote few letters himself. A dozen words or so, scrawled in +hieroglyphics at the top, bottom, or along the margin of the interminable +despatches of his secretaries, contained the suggestions, more or less +luminous, which arose in his mind concerning public affairs. But he held +firmly to his purpose: He had devoted his life to the extermination of +Protestantism, to the conquest of France and England, to the subjugation +of Holland. These were vast schemes. A King who should succeed in such +enterprises, by his personal courage and genius, at the head of his +armies, or by consummate diplomacy, or by a masterly system of finance- +husbanding and concentrating the resources of his almost boundless +realms--might be in truth commended for capacity. Hitherto however +Philip's triumph had seemed problematical; and perhaps something more +would be necessary than letters to Parma, and paltry remittances to +Mucio, notwithstanding Alexander's splendid but local victories in +Flanders. + +Parma, although in reality almost at bay, concealed his despair, and +accomplished wonders in the field. The military events during the spring +and summer of 1586 will be sketched in a subsequent chapter. For the +present it is necessary to combine into a complete whole the subterranean +negotiations between Brussels and England. + +Much to his surprise and gratification, Parma found that the peace-party +were not inclined to change their views in consequence of the triumphs of +Drake. He soon informed the King that--according to Champagny and +Bodman--the Lord Treasurer, the Comptroller, Lord Cobham, and Sir +Christopher Hatton, were more pacific than they had ever been. These +four were represented by Grafigni as secretly in league against Leicester +and Walsingham, and very anxious to bring about a reconciliation between +the crowns of England and Spain. The merchant-diplomatist, according to +his own statement, was expressly sent by Queen Elizabeth to the prince of +Parma, although without letter of credence or signed instructions, but +with the full knowledge and approbation of the four counsellors just +mentioned. He assured Alexander that the Queen and the majority of her +council felt a strong desire for peace, and had manifested much +repentance for what had been done. They had explained their proceedings +by the necessity of self-defence. They had avowed--in case they should +be made sure of peace--that they should, not with reluctance and against +their will, but, on the contrary, with the utmost alacrity and at once, +surrender to the King of Spain the territory which they possessed in the +Netherlands, and especially the fortified towns in Holland and Zeeland; +for the English object had never been conquest. Parma had also been +informed of the Queen's strong desire that he should be employed as +negotiator, on account of her great confidence in his sincerity. They +had expressed much satisfaction on hearing that he was about to send an +agent to England, and had protested themselves rejoiced at Drake's +triumphs, only because of their hope that a peace with Spain would thus +be rendered the easier of accomplishment. They were much afraid, +according to Grafigni, of Philip's power, and dreaded a Spanish invasion +of their country, in conjunction with the Pope. They were now extremely +anxious that Parma--as he himself informed the King--should send an agent +of good capacity, in great secrecy, to England. + +The Comptroller had said that he had pledged himself to such a result, +and if it failed, that they would probably cut off his head. The four +counsellors were excessively solicitous for the negotiation, and each of +them was expecting to gain favour by advancing it to the best of his +ability. + +Parma hinted at the possibility that all these professions were false, +and that the English were only intending to keep the King from the +contemplated invasion. At the same time he drew Philip's attention to +the fact that Burghley and his party had most evidently been doing +everything in their power to obstruct Leicester's progress in the +Netherlands and to keep back the reinforcements of troops and money which +he so much required. + +No doubt these communications of Parma to the King were made upon the +faith of an agent not over-scrupulous, and of no elevated or recognised +rank in diplomacy. It must be borne in mind, however, that he had been +made use of by both parties; perhaps because it would be easy to throw +off, and discredit, him whenever such a step should be convenient; and +that, on the other hand, coming fresh from Burghley and the rest into the +presence of the keen-eyed Farnese, he would hardly invent for his +employer a budget of falsehoods. That man must have been a subtle +negotiator who could outwit such a statesman as Burghley--and the other +counsellors of Elizabeth, and a bold one who could dare to trifle on a +momentous occasion with Alexander of Parma. + +Leicester thought Burghley very much his friend, and so thought Davison +and Heneage; and the Lord-Treasurer had, in truth, stood stoutly by the +Earl in the affair of the absolute governorship;--"a matter more severe +and cumbersome to him and others," said Burghley, "than any whatsoever +since he was a counsellor." But there is no doubt that these +negotiations were going forward all the spring and summer, that they were +most detrimental to Leicester's success, and that they were kept--so far +as it was possible--a profound secret from him, from Walsingham, and from +the States-General. Nothing was told them except what their own +astuteness had discovered beforehand; and the game of the counsellors--so +far as their attitude towards Leicester and Walsingham was concerned-- +seems both disingenuous and impolitic. + +Parma, it was to be feared, was more than a match for the English +governor-general in the field; and it was certainly hopeless for poor +old Comptroller Croft, even though backed by the sagacious Burghley, to +accomplish so great an amount of dissimulation in a year as the Spanish +cabinet, without effort, could compass in a week. Nor were they +attempting to do so. It is probable that England was acting towards +Philip in much better faith than he deserved, or than Parma believed; +but it is hardly to be wondered at that Leicester should think himself +injured by being kept perpetually in the dark. + +Elizabeth was very impatient at not receiving direct letters from Parma, +and her anxiety on the subject explains much of her caprice during the +quarrel about the governor-generalahip. Many persons in the Netherlands +thought those violent scenes a farce, and a farce that had been arranged +with Leicester beforehand. In this they were mistaken; for an +examination of the secret correspondence of the period reveals the +motives--which to contemporaries were hidden--of many strange +transactions. The Queen was, no doubt, extremely anxious, and with +cause, at the tempest slowly gathering over her head; but the more the +dangers thickened, the more was her own official language to those in +high places befitting the sovereign of England. + +She expressed her surprise to Farnese that he had not written to her on +the subject of the Grafigni and Bodman affair. The first, she said, was +justified in all which he had narrated, save in his assertion that she +had sent him. The other had not obtained audience, because he had not +come provided with any credentials, direct or indirect. Having now +understood from Andrea de Loo and the Seigneur de Champagny that Parma +had the power to conclude a peace, which he seemed very much to desire, +she observed that it was not necessary for him to be so chary in +explaining the basis of the proposed negotiations. It was better to +enter into a straightforward path, than by ambiguous words to spin out +to great length matters which princes should at once conclude. + +"Do not suppose," said the Queen, "that I am seeking what belongs to +others. God forbid. I seek only that which is mine own. But be +sure that I will take good heed of the sword which threatens me with +destruction, nor think that I am so craven-spirited as to endure a +wrong, or to place myself at the mercy of my enemy. Every week I see +advertisements and letters from Spain that this year shall witness the +downfall of England; for the Spaniards--like the hunter who divided, with +great liberality, among his friends the body and limbs of the wolf, +before it had been killed--have partitioned this kingdom and that of +Ireland before the conquest has been effected. But my royal heart is no +whit appalled by such threats. I trust, with the help of the Divine +hand--which has thus far miraculously preserved me--to smite all these +braggart powers into the dust, and to preserve my honour, and the +kingdoms which He has given me for my heritage. + +"Nevertheless, if you have authority to enter upon and to conclude this +negotiation, you will find my ears open to hear your propositions; and I +tell you further, if a peace is to be made, that I wish you to be the +mediator thereof. Such is the affection I bear you, notwithstanding that +some letters, written by your own hand, might easily have effaced such +sentiments from my mind." + +Soon afterwards, Bodman was again despatched to England, Grafigni being +already there. He was provided with unsigned instructions, according to +which he was to say that the Prince, having heard of the Queen's good +intentions, had despatched him and Grafigni to her court. They were to +listen to any suggestions made by the Queen to her ministers; but they +were to do nothing but listen. If the counsellors should enter into +their grievances against his Majesty, and ask for explanations, the +agents were to say that they had no authority or instructions to speak +for so great and Christian a monarch. Thus they were to cut the thread +of any such discourse, or any other observations not to the purpose. + +Silence, in short, was recommended, first and last, as the one great +business of their mission; and it was unlucky that men whose talent for +taciturnity was thus signally relied upon should be somewhat remarkable +for loquacity. Grafigni was also the bearer of a letter from Alexander +to the Queen--of which Bodman received a copy--but it was strictly +enjoined upon them to keep the letter, their instructions, and the +objects of their journey, a secret from all the world. + +The letter of the Prince consisted mainly of complimentary flourishes. +He had heard, he said, all that Agostino Grafigni had communicated, and +he now begged her Majesty to let him understand the course which it was +proper to take; assuring her of his gratitude for her good opinion +touching his sincerity, and his desire to save the effusion of blood, +and so on; concluding of course with expressions of most profound +consideration and devotion. + +Early in July Bodman arrived in London. He found Grafigni in very low +spirits. He had been with Lord Cobham, and was much disappointed with +his reception, for Cobham--angry that Grafigni had brought no commission +from the King--had refused to receive Parma's letter to the Queen, and +had expressed annoyance that Bodman should be employed on this mission, +having heard that lie was very ill-tempered and passionate. The same +evening, he had been sent for by Lord Burghley--who had accepted the +letter for her Majesty without saying a word--and on the following +morning, he had been taken to task, by several counsellors, on the ground +that the Prince, in that communication, had stated that the Queen had +expressed a desire for peace. + +It has just been shown that there was no such intimation at all in the +letter; but as neither Grafigni nor Bodman had read the epistle itself, +but only the copy furnished them, they could merely say that such an +assertion; if made by the Prince, had been founded on no statement of +theirs. Bodman consoled his colleague, as well as he could, by +assurances that when the letter was fairly produced, their vindication +would be complete, and Grafigni, upon that point, was comforted. He was, +however, very doleful in general, and complained bitterly of Burghley and +the other English counsellors. He said that they had forced him, against +his will, to make this journey to Brussels, that they had offered him +presents, that they would leave him no rest in his own house, but had +made him neglect all his private business, and caused him a great loss of +time and money, in order that he might serve them. They had manifested +the strongest desire that Parma should open this communication, and had +led him to expect a very large recompense for his share in the +transaction. "And now," said Grafigni to his colleague, with great +bitterness, "I find no faith nor honour in them at all. They don't keep +their word, and every one of them is trying to slide out of the very +business, in which each was, but the other day, striving to outrival the +other, in order that it might be brought to a satisfactory conclusion." + +After exploding in this way to Bodman, he went back to Cobham, and +protested, with angry vehemence, that Parma had never written such a word +to the Queen, and that so it would prove, if the letter were produced. + +Next day, Bodman was sent for to Greenwich, where her Majesty was, as +usual, residing. A secret pavilion was indicated to him, where he was to +stay until sunset. When that time arrived, Lord Cobham's secretary came +with great mystery, and begged the emissary to follow him, but at a +considerable distance, towards the apartments of Lord Burghley in the +palace. Arriving there, they found the Lord Treasurer accompanied by +Cobham and Croft. Burghley instantly opened the interview by a defence +of the Queen's policy in sending troops to the Netherlands, and in +espousing their cause, and then the conversation proceeded to the +immediate matter in hand. + +Bodman (after listening respectfully to the Lord-Treasurer's +observations).--"His Highness has, however, been extremely surprised that +my Lord Leicester should take an oath, as governor-general of the King's +Provinces. He is shocked likewise by the great demonstrations of +hostility on the part of her Majesty." + +Burghley.--"The oath was indispensable. The Queen was obliged to +tolerate the step on account of the great urgency of the States to have a +head. But her Majesty has commanded us to meet you on this occasion, in +order to hear what you have to communicate on the part of the Prince of +Parma." + +Bodman (after a profusion of complimentary phrases).--"I have no +commission to say anything. I am only instructed to listen to anything +that may be said to me, and that her Majesty may be pleased to command." + +Burghley.--"'Tis very discreet to begin thus. But time is pressing, and +it is necessary to be brief. We beg you therefore to communicate, +without further preface, that which you have been charged to say." + +Bodman.--"I can only repeat to your Lordship, that I have been charged to +say nothing." + +After this Barmecide feast of diplomacy, to partake of which it seemed +hardly necessary that the guests should have previously attired +themselves in such garments of mystery, the parties separated for the +night. + +In spite of their care, it would seem that the Argus-eyed Walsingham had +been able to see after sunset; for, the next evening--after Bodman had +been introduced with the same precautions to the same company, in the +same place--Burghley, before a word had been spoken, sent for Sir +Francis. + +Bodman was profoundly astonished, for he had been expressly informed that +Walsingham was to know nothing of the transaction. The Secretary of +State could not so easily be outwitted, however, and he was soon seated +at the table, surveying the scene, with his grave melancholy eyes, which +had looked quite through the whole paltry intrigue. + +Burghley.--"Her Majesty has commanded us to assemble together, in order +that, in my presence, it may be made clear that she did not commence this +negotiation. Let Grafigni be summoned." + +Grafigni immediately made his appearance. + +Burghley.--"You will please to explain how you came to enter into this +business." + +Grafigni.--"The first time I went to the States, it was on my private +affairs; I had no order from any one to treat with the Prince of Parma. +His Highness, having accidentally heard, however, that I resided in +England, expressed a wish to see me. I had an interview with the Prince. +I told him, out of my own head, that the Queen had a strong inclination +to hear propositions of peace, and that--as some of her counsellors were +of the same opinion--I believed that if his Highness should send a +negotiator, some good would be effected. The Prince replied that he felt +by no means sure of such a result; but that, if I should come back from +England, sent by the Queen or her council, he would then despatch a +person with a commission to treat of peace. This statement, together +with other matters that had passed between us, was afterwards drawn up in +writing by command of his Highness." + +Burghley.--"Who bade you say, after your second return to Brussels, that +you came on the part of the Queen? For you well know that her Majesty +did not send you." + +Grafigni.--"I never said so. I stated that my Lord Cobham had set down +in writing what I was to say to the Prince of Parma. It will never +appear that I represented the Queen as desiring peace. I said that her +Majesty would lend her ears to peace. Bodman knows this too; and he has +a copy of the letter of his Highness." + +Walsingham to Bodman.--"Have you the copy still?" + +Bodman.--"Yes, Mr. Secretary." + +Walsingham.--"Please to produce it, in order that this matter may be +sifted to the bottom." + +Bodman.--"I supplicate your Lorships to pardon me, but indeed that cannot +be. My instructions forbid my showing the letter." + +Walsingham (rising).--"I will forthwith go to her Majesty, and fetch the +original." A pause. Mr. Secretary returns in a few minutes, having +obtained the document, which the Queen, up to that time, had kept by her, +without showing it to any one. + +Walsingham (after reading the letter attentively, and aloud).--"There is +not such a word, as that her Majesty is desirous of peace, in the whole +paper." + +Burghley (taking the letter, and slowly construing it out of Italian into +English).--"It would seem that his Highness hath written this, assuming +that the Signor Grafigni came from the Queen, although he had received +his instructions from my Lord Cobham. It is plain, however, that the +negotiation was commenced accidentally." + +Comptroller Croft (nervously, and with the air of a man fearful of +getting into trouble).--"You know very well, Mr. Bodman, that my servant +came to Dunkirk only to buy and truck away horses; and that you then, by +chance, entered into talk with him, about the best means of procuring a +peace between the two kingdoms. My servant told you of the good feeling +that prevailed in England. You promised to write on the subject to the +Prince, and I immediately informed the Lord-Treasurer of the whole +transaction." + +Burghley.--"That is quite true." + +Croft.--"My servant subsequently returned to the Provinces in order to +learn what the Prince might have said on the subject." + +Bodman (with immense politeness, but very decidedly).--"Pardon me, Mr. +Comptroller; but, in this matter, I must speak the truth, even if the +honour and life of my father were on the issue. I declare that your +servant Norris came to me, directly commissioned for that purpose by +yourself, and informed me from you, and upon your authority, that if I +would solicit the Prince of Parma to send a secret agent to England, a +peace would be at once negotiated. Your servant entreated me to go to +his Highness at Brussels. I refused, but agreed to consider the +proposition. After the lapse of several days, the servant returned to +make further enquiries. I told him that the Prince had come to no +decision. Norris continued to press the matter. I excused myself. He +then solicited and obtained from me a letter of introduction to De Loo, +the secretary of his Highness. Armed with this, he went to Brussels and +had an interview--as I found, four days later--with the Prince. In +consequence of the representations of Norris, those of Signor Grafigni, +and those by way of Antwerp, his Highness determined to send me to +England." + +Burghley to Croft.--"Did you order your servant to speak with Andrea de +Loo?" + +Croft.--"I cannot deny it." + +Burghley.--"The fellow seems to have travelled a good way out of his +commission. His master sends him to buy horses, and he commences a +peace-negotiation between two kingdoms. It would be well he were +chastised. As regards the Antwerp matter, too, we have had many letters, +and I have, seen one from the Seigneur de Champagny, the same effect as +that of all the rest." + +Walsingham.--"I see not to what end his Highness of Parma has sent Mr. +Bodman hither. The Prince avows that he hath no commission from Spain." + +Bodman.--"His Highness was anxious to know what was her Majesty's +pleasure. So soon as that should be known, the Prince could obtain ample +authority. He would never have proceeded so far without meaning a good +end." + +Walsingham.--"Very like. I dare say that his Highness will obtain the +commission. Meantime, as Prince of Parma, he writes these letters, and +assists his sovereign perhaps more than he doth ourselves." + +Here the interview terminated. A few days later, Bodman had another +conversation with Burghley and Cobham. Reluctantly, at their urgent +request, he set down in writing all that he had said concerning his +mission. + +The Lord Treasurer said that the Queen and her counsellors were "ready to +embrace peace when it was treated of sincerely." Meantime the Queen had +learned that the Prince had been sending letters to the cautionary towns +in Holland and Zeeland, stating that her Majesty was about to surrender +them to the King of Spain. These were tricks to make mischief, and were +very detrimental to the Queen. + +Bodman replied that these were merely the idle stories of quidnuncs; and +that the Prince and all his counsellors were dealing with the utmost +sincerity. + +Burghley answered that he had intercepted the very letters, and had them +in his possession. + +A week afterwards, Bodman saw Walsingham alone, and was informed by +him that the Queen had written an answer to Parma's letter, and that +negotiations for the future were to be carried on in the usual form, +or not at all. Walsingham, having thus got the better of his rivals, +and delved below their mines, dismissed the agent with brief courtesy. +Afterwards the discomfited Mr. Comptroller wished a private interview +with Bodman. Bodman refused to speak with him except in presence of Lord +Cobham. This Croft refused. In the same way Bodman contrived to get +rid, as he said, of Lord Burghley and Lord Cobham, declining to speak +with either of them alone. Soon afterwards he returned to the Provinces! + +The Queen's letter to Parma was somewhat caustic. It was obviously +composed through the inspiration of Walsingham rather than that of +Burghley. The letter, brought by a certain Grafigni and a certain +Bodman, she said, was a very strange one, and written under a delusion. +It was a very grave error, that, in her name, without her knowledge, +contrary to her disposition, and to the prejudice of her honour, such a +person as this Grafigni, or any one like him, should have the audacity to +commence such a business, as if she had, by messages to the Prince, +sought a treaty with his King, who had so often returned evil for her +good. Grafigni, after representing the contrary to his Highness, had now +denied in presence of her counsellors having received any commission from +the Queen. She also briefly gave the result of Bodman's interviews with +Burghley and the others, just narrated. That agent had intimated that +Parma would procure authority to treat for peace, if assured that the +Queen would lend her ear to any propositions. + +She replied by referring to her published declarations, as showing her +powerful motives for interfering in these affairs. It was her purpose to +save her own realm and to rescue her ancient neighbours from misery and +from slavery. To this end she should still direct her actions, +notwithstanding the sinister rumours which had been spread that she was +inclined to peace before providing for the security and liberty of her +allies. She was determined never to separate their cause from her own. +Propositions tending to the security of herself and of her neighbours +would always be favourably received. + +Parma, on his part, informed his master that there could be no doubt that +the Queen and the majority of her council abhorred the war, and that +already much had been gained by the fictitious negotiation. Lord- +Treasurer Burghley had been interposing endless delays and difficulties +in the way of every measure proposed for the relief of Lord Leicester, +and the assistance rendered him had been most lukewarm. Meantime the +Prince had been able, he said, to achieve much success in the field, and +the English had done nothing to prevent it. Since the return of Grafigni +and Bodman, however, it was obvious that the English government had +disowned these non-commissioned diplomatists. The whole negotiation and +all the negotiators were now discredited, but there was no doubt that +there had been a strong desire to treat, and great disappointment at the +result. Grafigni and Andrea de Loo had been publishing everywhere in +Antwerp that England would consider the peace as made, so soon as his +Majesty should be willing to accept any propositions. + +His Majesty, meanwhile, sat in his cabinet, without the slightest +intention of making or accepting any propositions save those that were +impossible. He smiled benignantly at his nephew's dissimulation and at +the good results which it had already produced. He approved of gaining +time, he said, by fictitious negotiations and by the use of a mercantile +agent; for, no doubt, such a course would prevent the proper succours +from being sent to the Earl of Leicester. If the English would hand over +to him the cautionary towns held by them in Holland and Zeeland, promise +no longer to infest the seas, the Indies, and the Isles, with their +corsairs, and guarantee the complete obedience to their King and +submission to the holy Catholic Church of the rebellious Provinces, +perhaps something might be done with them; but, on the whole, he was +inclined to think that they had been influenced by knavish and deceitful +motives from the beginning. He enjoined it upon Parma, therefore, to +proceed with equal knavery--taking care, however, not to injure his +reputation--and to enter into negotiations wherever occasion might serve, +in order to put the English off their guard and to keep back the +reinforcements so imperatively required by Leicester. + +And the reinforcements were indeed kept back. Had Burghley and Croft +been in the pay of Philip II. they could hardly have served him better +than they had been doing by the course pursued. Here then is the +explanation of the shortcomings of the English government towards +Leicester and the States during the memorable spring and summer of 1586. +No money, no soldiers, when most important operations in the field were +required. The first general of the age was to be opposed by a man who +had certainly never gained many laurels as a military chieftain, but who +was brave and confident, and who, had he been faithfully supported by the +government which sent him to the Netherlands, would have had his +antagonist at a great disadvantage. Alexander had scarcely eight +thousand effective men. Famine, pestilence, poverty, mutiny, beset +and almost paralyzed him. Language could not exaggerate the absolute +destitution of the country. Only miracles could save the King's cause, +as Farnese repeatedly observed. A sharp vigorous campaign, heartily +carried on against him by Leicester and Hohenlo, with plenty of troops +and money at command, would have brought the heroic champion of +Catholicism to the ground. He was hemmed in upon all sides; he was cut +off from the sea; he stood as it were in a narrowing circle, surrounded +by increasing dangers. His own veterans, maddened by misery, stung by +their King's ingratitude, naked, starving, ferocious, were turning +against him. Mucio, like his evil genius, was spiriting away his +supplies just as they were reaching his hands; a threatening tempest +seemed rolling up from France; the whole population of the Provinces +which he had "reconciled"--a million of paupers--were crying to him for +bread; great commercial cities, suddenly blasted and converted into dens +of thieves and beggars, were cursing the royal author of their ruin, and +uttering wild threats against his vicegerent; there seemed, in truth, +nothing left for Alexander but to plunge headlong into destruction, when, +lo! Mr. Comptroller Croft, advancing out of the clouds, like a propitious +divinity, disguised in the garb of a foe--and the scene was changed. + +The feeble old man, with his shufing, horse-trucking servant, ex-spy of +Monsieur, had accomplished more work for Philip and Alexander than many +regiments of Spaniards and Walloons could have done. The arm of +Leicester was paralyzed upon the very threshold of success. The picture +of these palace-intrigues has been presented with minute elaboration, +because, however petty and barren in appearance, they were in reality +prolific of grave results. A series of victories by Parma was +substituted for the possible triumphs of Elizabeth and the States. + +The dissimulation of the Spanish court was fathomless. The secret +correspondence of the times reveals to us that its only purpose was to +deceive the Queen and her counsellors, and to gain time to prepare the +grand invasion of England and subjugation of Holland--that double purpose +which Philip could only abandon with life. There was never a thought, +on his part, of honest negotiation. On the other hand, the Queen was +sincere; Burghley and Hatton and Cobham were sincere; Croft was sincere, +so far as Spain was concerned. At least they had been sincere. In the +private and doleful dialogues between Bodman and Grafigni which we have +just been overhearing, these intriguers spoke the truth, for they could +have no wish to deceive each other, and no fear of eaves-droppers not to +be born till centuries afterwards. These conversations have revealed to +us that the Lord Treasurer and three of his colleagues had been secretly +doing their best to cripple Leicester, to stop the supplies for the +Netherlands, and to patch up a hurried and unsatisfactory, if not a +disgraceful peace; and this, with the concurrence of her Majesty. After +their plots had been discovered by the vigilant Secretary of State, there +was a disposition to discredit the humbler instruments in the cabal. +Elizabeth was not desirous of peace. Far from it. She was qualmish at +the very suggestion. Dire was her wrath against Bodman, De Loo, +Graafigni, and the rest, at their misrepresentations on the subject. But +she would "lend her ear." And that royal ear was lent, and almost fatal +was the distilment poured into its porches. The pith and marrow of the +great Netherland enterprise was sapped by the slow poison of the ill- +timed negotiation. The fruit of Drake's splendid triumphs in America +was blighted by it. The stout heart of the vainglorious but courageous +Leicester was sickened by it, while, meantime, the maturing of the +great armada-scheme, by which the destruction of England was to be +accomplished, was furthered, through the unlimited procrastination +so precious to the heart of Philip. + +Fortunately the subtle Walsingham was there upon the watch to administer +the remedy before it was quite too late; and to him England and the +Netherlands were under lasting obligations. While Alexander and Philip +suspected a purpose on the part of the English government to deceive +them, they could not help observing that the Earl of Leicester was both +deserted and deceived. Yet it had been impossible for the peace-party in +the government wholly to conceal their designs, when such prating fellows +as Grafigni and De Loo were employed in what was intended to be a secret +negotiation. In vain did the friends of Leicester in the Netherlands +endeavour to account for the neglect with which he was treated, and for +the destitution of his army. Hopelessly did they attempt to counteract +those "advertisements of most fearful instance," as Richard Cavendish +expressed himself, which were circulating everywhere. + +Thanks to the babbling of the very men, whose chief instructions had been +to hold their tongues, and to listen with all their ears, the secret +negotiations between Parma and the English counsellors became the town- +talk at Antwerp, the Hague, Amsterdam, Brussels, London. It is true that +it was impossible to know what was actually said and done; but that there +was something doing concerning which Leicester was not to be informed was +certain. Grafigni, during one of his visits to the obedient provinces, +brought a brace of greyhounds and a couple of horses from England, as a +present to Alexander, and he perpetually went about, bragging to every +one of important negotiations which he was conducting, and of his +intimacy with great personages in both countries. Leicester, +on the other hand, was kept in the dark. To him Grafigni made no +communications, but he once sent him a dish of plums, "which," said the +Earl, with superfluous energy, "I will boldly say to you, by the living +God, is all that I have ever had since I came into these countries." +When it is remembered that Leicester had spent many thousand pounds in +the Netherland cause, that he had deeply mortgaged his property in order +to provide more funds, that he had never received a penny of salary from +the Queen, that his soldiers were "ragged and torn like rogues-pity to +see them," and were left without the means of supporting life; that he +had been neglected, deceived, humiliated, until he was forced to describe +himself as a "forlorn man set upon a forlorn hope," it must be conceded +that Grafigni's present of a dish of plums could hardly be sufficient to +make him very happy. + +From time to time he was enlightened by Sir Francis, who occasionally +forced his adversaries' hands, and who always faithfully informed the +Earl of everything he could discover. "We are so greedy of a peace, in +respect of the charges of the wars," he wrote in April, "as in the +procuring thereof we weigh neither honour nor safety. Somewhat here is +adealing underhand, wherein there is great care taken that I should not +be made acquainted withal." But with all their great care, the +conspirators, as it has been seen, were sometimes outwitted by the +Secretary, and, when put to the blush, were forced to take him into half- +confidence. "Your Lordship may see," he wrote, after getting possession +of Parma's letter to the Queen, and unravelling Croft's intrigues, "what +effects are wrought by such weak ministers. They that have been the +employers of them are ashamed of the matter." + +Unutterable was the amazement, as we have seen, of Bodman and Grafigni +when they had suddenly found themselves confronted in Burghley's private +apartments in Greenwich Palace, whither they had been conducted so +mysteriously after dark from the secret pavilion--by the grave Secretary +of State, whom they had been so anxious to deceive; and great was the +embarrassment of Croft and Cobham, and even of the imperturbable +Burghley. + +And thus patiently did Walsingham pick his course, plummet in hand, +through the mists and along the quicksands, and faithfully did he hold +out signals to his comrade embarked on the same dangerous voyage. As for +the Earl himself, he was shocked at the short-sighted policy of his +mistress, mortified by the neglect to which he was exposed, disappointed +in his ambitious schemes. Vehemently and judiciously he insisted upon +the necessity of vigorous field operations throughout the spring and +summer thus frittered away in frivolous negotiations. He was for peace, +if a lasting and honourable peace could be procured; but he insisted that +the only road tosuch a result was through a "good sharp war." His troops +were mutinous for want of pay, so that he had been obligedto have a few +of them executed, although he protested that he would rather have "gone a +thousand miles a-foot" than have done so; and he was crippled by his +government at exactly the time when his great adversary's condition was +most forlorn. Was it strange that the proud Earl should be fretting his +heart away when such golden chances were eluding his grasp? He would +"creep upon the ground," he said, as far as his hands and knees would +carry him, to have a good peace for her Majesty, but his care was to have +a peace indeed, and not a show of it. It was the cue of Holland and +England to fight before they could expect to deal upon favourable terms +with their enemy. He was quick enough to see that his false colleagues +at home were playing into the enemy's hands. Victory was what was +wanted; victory the Earl pledged himself, if properly seconded, to +obtain; and, braggart though he was, it is by no means impossible that +he might have redeemed his pledge. "If her Majesty will use her +advantage," he said, "she shall bring the King, and especially this +Prince of Parma, to seek peace in other sort than by way of merchants." +Of courage and confidence the governor had no lack. Whether he was +capable of outgeneralling Alexander Farnese or no, will be better seen, +perhaps, in subsequent chapters; but there is no doubt that he was +reasonable enough in thinking, at that juncture, that a hard campaign +rather than a "merchant's brokerage" was required to obtain an honourable +peace. Lofty, indeed, was the scorn of the aristocratic Leicester that +"merchants and pedlars should be paltering in so weighty a cause," and +daring to send him a dish of plums when he was hoping half a dozen +regiments from the Queen; and a sorry business, in truth, the pedlars +had made of it. + +Never had there been a more delusive diplomacy, and it was natural that +the lieutenant-general abroad and the statesman at home should be sad and +indignant, seeing England drifting to utter shipwreck while pursuing that +phantom of a pacific haven. Had Walsingham and himself tampered with the +enemy, as some counsellors he could name had done, Leicester asserted +that the gallows would be thought too good for them; and yet he hoped he +might be hanged if the whole Spanish faction in England could procure for +the Queen a peace fit for her to accept. + +Certainly it was quite impossible for the Spanish-faction to bring about +a peace. No human power could bring it about. Even if England had been +willing and able to surrender Holland, bound hand and foot, to Philip, +even then she could only have obtained a hollow armistice. Philip had +sworn in his inmost soul the conquest of England and the dethronement of +Elizabeth. His heart was fixed. It was only by the subjugation of +England that he hoped to recover the Netherlands. England was to be +his stepping-stone to Holland. The invasion was slowly but steadily +maturing, and nothing could have diverted the King from his great +purpose. In the very midst of all these plots and counterplots, Bodmans +and Grafignis, English geldings and Irish greyhounds, dishes of plums and +autograph letters of her Majesty and his Highness, the Prince was +deliberately discussing all the details of the invasion, which, as it was +then hoped, would be ready by the autumn of the year 1586. Although he +had sent a special agent to Philip, who was to state by word of mouth +that which it was deemed unsafe to write, yet Alexander, perpetually +urged by his master, went at last more fully into particulars than he +had ever ventured to do before; and this too at the very moment when +Elizabeth was most seriously "lending her ear" to negotiation, and most +vehemently expressing her wrath at Sir Thomas Heneage for dealing +candidly with the States-General. + +The Prince observed that when, two or three years before, he had sent his +master an account of the coasts, anchoring-places, and harbours of +England, he had then expressed the opinion that the conquest of England +was an enterprise worthy of the grandeur and Christianity of his Majesty, +and not so difficult as to be considered altogether impossible. To make +himself absolutely master of the business, however, he had then thought +that the King should have no associates in the scheme, and should make no +account of the inhabitants of England. Since that time the project had +become more difficult of accomplishment, because it was now a stale and +common topic of conversation everywhere--in Italy, Germany, and France-- +so that there could be little doubt that rumours on the subject were +daily reaching the ears of Queen Elizabeth and of every one in her +kingdom. Hence she had made a strict alliance with Sweden, Denmark, the +Protestant princes of Germany, and even with the Turks and the French. +Nevertheless, in spite of these obstacles, the King, placing his royal +hand to the work, might well accomplish the task; for the favour of the +Lord, whose cause it was, would be sure to give him success. + +Being so Christian and Catholic a king, Philip naturally desired to +extend the area of the holy church, and to come to the relief of so many +poor innocent martyrs in England, crying aloud before the Lord for help. +Moreover Elizabeth had fomented rebellion in the King's Provinces for a +long time secretly, and now, since the fall of Antwerp, and just as +Holland and Zeeland were falling into his grasp, openly. + +Thus, in secret and in public, she had done the very worst she could do; +and it was very clear that the Lord, for her sins; had deprived her of +understanding, in order that his Majesty might be the instrument of that +chastisement which she so fully deserved. A monarch of such great +prudence, valour, and talent as Philip, could now give all the world to +understand that those who dared to lose a just and decorous respect for +him, as this good lady had done, would receive such chastisement as royal +power guided by prudent counsel could inflict. Parma assured his +sovereign, that, if the conquest of England were effected, that of the +Netherlands would be finished with much facility and brevity; but that +otherwise, on account of the situation, strength and obstinacy of those +people, it would be a very long, perilous, and at best doubtful business. + +"Three points," he said, "were most vital to the invasion of England-- +secrecy, maintenance of the civil war in France, and judicious +arrangement of matters in the Provinces." + +The French, if unoccupied at home, would be sure to make the enterprise +so dangerous as to become almost impossible; for it might be laid down as +a general maxim that that nation, jealous of Philip's power, had always +done and would always do what it could to counteract his purposes. + +With regard to the Netherlands, it would be desirable to leave a good +number of troops in those countries--at least as many as were then +stationed there--besides the garrisons, and also to hold many German and +Swiss mercenaries in "wartgeld." It would be further desirable that +Alexander should take most of the personages of quality and sufficiency +in the Provinces over with him to England, in order that they should not +make mischief in his absence. + +With regard to the point of secrecy, that was, in Parma's opinion, the +most important of all. All leagues must become more or less public, +particularly those contrived at or with Rome. Such being the case, the +Queen of England would be well aware of the Spanish projects, and, +besides her militia at home, would levy German infantry and cavalry, and +provide plenty of vessels, relying therein upon Holland and Zeeland, +where ships and sailors were in such abundance. Moreover, the English +and the Netherlanders knew the coasts, currents, tides, shallows, +quicksands, ports, better than did the pilots of any fleets that the King +could send thither. Thus, having his back assured, the enemy would meet +them in front at a disadvantage. Although, notwithstanding this +inequality, the enemy would be beaten, yet if the engagement should be +warm, the Spaniards would receive an amount of damage which could not +fail to be inconvenient, particularly as they would be obliged to land +their troops, and to give battle to those who would be watching their +landing. Moreover the English would be provided with cavalry, of which +his Majesty's forces would have very little, on account of the difficulty +of its embarkation. + +The obedient Netherlands would be the proper place in which to organize +the whole expedition. There the regiments could be filled up, provisions +collected, the best way of effecting the passage ascertained, and the +force largely increased without exciting suspicion; but with regard to +the fleet, there were no ports there capacious enough for large vessels. +Antwerp had ceased to be a seaport; but a large number of flat-bottomed +barges, hoys, and other barks, more suitable for transporting soldiers, +could be assembled in Dunkirk, Gravelines, and Newport, which, with some +five-and-twenty larger vessels, would be sufficient to accompany the +fleet. + +The Queen, knowing that there were no large ships, nor ports to hold them +in the obedient Provinces, would be unauspicious, if no greater levies +seemed to be making than the exigencies of the Netherlands might +apparently require. + +The flat-bottomed boats, drawing two or three feet of water, would be +more appropriate than ships of war drawing twenty feet. The passage +across, in favourable weather, might occupy from eight to twelve hours. + +The number of troops for the invading force should be thirty thousand +infantry, besides five hundred light troopers, with saddles, bridles, and +lances, but without horses, because, in Alexander's opinion, it would be +easier to mount them in England. Of these thirty thousand there should +be six thousand Spaniards, six thousand Italians, six thousand Walloons, +nine thousand Germans, and three thousand Burgundians. + +Much money would be required; at least three hundred thousand dollars +the month for the new force, besides the regular one hundred and fifty +thousand for the ordinary provision in the Netherlands; and this ordinary +provision would be more necessary than ever, because a mutiny breaking +forth in the time of the invasion would be destruction to the Spaniards +both in England and in the Provinces. + +The most appropriate part of the coast for a landing would, +in Alexander's opinion, be between Dover and Margate, because the +Spaniards, having no footing in Holland and Zeeland, were obliged to make +their starting-point in Flanders. The country about Dover was described +by Parma as populous, well-wooded, and much divided by hedges; +advantageous for infantry, and not requiring a larger amount of cavalry +than the small force at his disposal, while the people there were +domestic in their habits, rich, and therefore less warlike, less trained +to arms, and more engrossed by their occupations and their comfortable +ways of life. Therefore, although some encounters would take place, yet +after the commanders of the invading troops had given distinct and clear +orders, it would be necessary to leave the rest in the, "hands of God who +governs all things, and from whose bounty and mercy it was to be hoped +that He would favour a cause so eminently holy, just, and His own." + +It would be necessary to make immediately for London, which city, not +being fortified, would be very easily taken. This point gained, the +whole framework of the business might be considered as well put together. +If the Queen should fly--as, being a woman, she probably would do-- +everything would be left in such confusion, as, with the blessing of God, +it might soon be considered that the holy and heroic work had been +accomplished: Her Majesty, it was suggested, would probably make her +escape in a boat before she could be captured; but the conquest would be +nevertheless effected. Although, doubtless, some English troops might be +got together to return and try their fortune, yet it would be quite +useless; for the invaders would have already planted themselves upon the +soil, and then, by means of frequent excursions and forays hither and +thither about the island, all other places of importance would be gained, +and the prosperous and fortunate termination of the adventure assured. + +As, however, everything was to be provided for, so, in case the secret +could not be preserved, it would be necessary for Philip, under pretext +of defending himself against the English and French corsairs, to send a +large armada to sea, as doubtless the Queen would take the same measure. +If the King should prefer, however, notwithstanding Alexander's advice to +the contrary, to have confederates in the enterprise,--then, the matter +being public, it would be necessary to prepare a larger and stronger +fleet than any which Elizabeth, with the assistance of her French and +Netherland allies, could oppose to him. That fleet should be well +provided with vast stores of provisions, sufficient to enable the +invading force, independently of forage, to occupy three or four places +in England at once, as the enemy would be able to come from various towns +and strong places to attack them. + +As for the proper season for the expedition, it would be advisable to +select the month of October of the current year, because the English +barns would then be full of wheat and other forage, and the earth would +have been sown for the next year--points of such extreme importance, that +if the plan could not be executed at that time, it would be as well to +defer it until the following October. + +The Prince recommended that the negotiations with the League should be +kept spinning, without allowing them to come to a definite conclusion; +because there would be no lack of difficulties perpetually offering +themselves, and the more intricate and involved the policy of France, the +better it would be for the interests of Spain. Alexander expressed the +utmost confidence that his Majesty, with his powerful arm, would overcome +all obstacles in the path of his great project, and would show the world +that he "could do a little more than what was possible." He also assured +his master, in adding in this most extravagant language, of his personal +devotion, that it was unnecessary for him to offer his services in this +particular enterprise, because, ever since his birth, he had dedicated +and consecrated himself to execute his royal commands. + +He further advised that old Peter Ernest Mansfeld should be left +commander-in-chief of the forces in the Netherlands during his own +absence in England. "Mansfeld was an honourable cavalier," he said, "and +a faithful servant of the King;" and although somewhat ill-conditioned at +times, yet he had essential good qualities, and was the only general fit +to be trusted alone. + +The reader, having thus been permitted to read the inmost thoughts of +Philip and Alexander, and to study their secret plans for conquering +England in October, while their frivolous yet mischievous negotiations +with the Queen had been going on from April to June, will be better able +than before to judge whether Leicester were right or no in doubting if a +good peace could be obtained by a "merchant's brokerage." + +And now, after examining these pictures of inter-aulic politics and back- +stairs diplomacy, which represent so large and characteristic a phasis of +European history during the year 1586, we must throw a glance at the +external, more stirring, but not more significant public events which +were taking place during the same period. + + + +ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + +Could do a little more than what was possible +Elizabeth, though convicted, could always confute +He sat a great while at a time. He had a genius for sitting +Mistakes might occur from occasional deviations into sincerity +Nine syllables that which could be more forcibly expressed in on +They were always to deceive every one, upon every occasion +We mustn't tickle ourselves to make ourselves laugh + + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY UNITED NETHERLANDS, 1586 *** + +********** This file should be named 4846.txt or 4846.zip *********** + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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