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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44393 ***
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44393-h.htm or 44393-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
+      Volume I: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44391
+      Volume II: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44392
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The dagger sign has been marked as [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (XIV^e).
+
+      [=a] represents a letter (in this instance a lower case
+      "a") with a macron above it.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: "THE GRAPE-GATHERERS"
+(_Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya. El Escorial_)]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME III
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME THREE
+
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                     1-38
+
+  SPANISH SILK                                                   38-105
+
+  CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS                                           105-125
+
+  EMBROIDERY                                                    125-137
+
+  TAPESTRY                                                      137-159
+
+  LACE                                                          159-175
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+  APPENDICES                                                    177-258
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                  259-268
+
+  INDEX                                                         271-282
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                             _VOLUME THREE_
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+
+    PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+          "The Grape-Gatherers"; Tapestry from Cartoon
+          by Goya; El Escorial                          _Frontispiece_
+
+       I. The "Banner of Las Navas"; Monastery of Las Huelgas,
+          Burgos                                                    22
+
+      II. Fragment of the Burial Mantle of Ferdinand the Third;
+          Royal Armoury, Madrid                                     26
+
+     III. King Alfonso the Learned; from "The Book of Chess," MS.
+          in the Escorial Library                                   28
+
+      IV. Spanish Velvet; about A.D. 1500                           30
+
+       V. The Tunic of Boabdil el Chico; National Museum of
+          Artillery, Madrid                                         36
+
+      VI. The "Banner of Saint Ferdinand"; Seville Cathedral        40
+
+     VII. Velvet made at Granada                                    56
+
+    VIII. The Daughters of Philip the Second; Prado Gallery,
+          Madrid                                                    98
+
+      IX. A _Charra_ or Peasant Woman of Salamanca, in the
+          year 1777                                                102
+
+       X. Embroidered Priest's Robe; about A.D. 1500               118
+
+      XI. Embroidered Priest's Robe; about A.D. 1500               120
+
+     XII. Embroidered Chasuble; Palencia Cathedral                 122
+
+    XIII. Embroidered Case of Processional Cross; Toledo Cathedral 124
+
+     XIV. Embroidered Altar-Front                                  126
+
+      XV. Embroidered Altar-Front; Toledo Cathedral                128
+
+     XVI. Embroidered Altar-Front; Palencia Cathedral              130
+
+    XVII. Embroidered Altar-Fronts; Palencia Cathedral             132
+
+   XVIII. Costume of Woman of the Balearic Islands; about
+          A.D. 1810                                                134
+
+     XIX. The "Genesis Tapestry"; Gerona Cathedral                 138
+
+      XX. _Tapiz_ of Crimson Velvet worked in gold tissue;
+          Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos                         144
+
+     XXI. "The Spinners," by Velazquez; Prado Gallery, Madrid      148
+
+    XXII. Tapestry made at Brussels from Granada Silk              150
+
+   XXIII. "A Promenade in Andalusia"; Cartoon for Tapestry,
+          by Goya                                                  152
+
+    XXIV. Tapestry; Arras-Work, from Italian Cartoons; Zamora
+          Cathedral                                                156
+
+     XXV. Flemish Tapestry; Collection of the late Count of
+          Valencia de Don Juan                                     158
+
+    XXVI. The Marchioness of La Solana, by Goya                    160
+
+   XXVII. A Spanish _Maja_; A.D. 1777                              162
+
+  XXVIII. A _Maja_, by Goya                                        164
+
+    XXIX. A Lady of Soria; about A.D. 1810                         166
+
+     XXX. Handkerchief of Catalan Lace, presented to Queen
+          Victoria of Spain on her marriage                        168
+
+    XXXI. Curtain of Spanish Lace; Point and Pillow Work, modern   170
+
+   XXXII. Point Lace Fan, of Mudejar Design, modern                172
+
+
+
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+                              INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Our earliest intelligence respecting textile fabrics of old Spain
+derives almost exclusively from Moorish sources, and shows, together
+with the silence of Saint Isidore, that until the subjugation of the
+Visigoths, the occupants of the Peninsula attached no great importance
+to this industry. Under the Moors, the south and east of Spain grew
+rapidly famous for the manufacture of all kinds of textile stuffs, and
+in particular those of silk. The origin of these silks, or of the most
+luxurious and artistic of them, may be traced to Almería. According to
+Al-Makkari, what made this Andalusian capital superior to all other
+cities of the world was her "various manufactures of silks and other
+dress materials, such as the _dibaj_, a silken fabric of many colours,
+surpassing, both in quality and durability, all other products made
+elsewhere, and also the _tiraz_, a costly stuff whereon are inscribed
+the names of sultans, princes, and other personages, and for making
+which there used to be no fewer than eight hundred looms. Inferior
+fabrics were the _holol_ (a kind of striped silk), and brocades woven
+upon a thousand looms, while as many more were employed continually in
+making the scarlet stuffs called _iskalaton_. Another thousand produced
+the robes called _al jorjani_ (or 'the Georgian'), and yet another
+thousand the Isbahani robes, from Isfahan, and yet another thousand the
+robes of Atabi. The making of damask for gay-coloured curtains and
+turbans for the women kept busy as many persons as the articles
+above-mentioned."
+
+Edrisi, a chronicler of the twelfth century, says of the same capital
+that she was the principal city belonging to the Moors in the time of
+the Moravides. In fact, she was then a great and prosperous industrial
+centre, possessing, together with other kinds of looms, eight hundred
+which produced the fabrics known as _holla_, _debady_, _siglaton_,
+_espahani_, and _djordjani_, curtains with a flowered decoration, cloths
+of a smaller size, and the stuffs which were denominated _attabi_ and
+_mi djar_.
+
+A similar notice is contained in the _Chronicle of Rassis the Moor_.
+Referring to the end of the tenth century, this author wrote that
+"Almería is the key of profit and of all prosperity. Within her walls
+dwell cunning weavers who produce in quantities magnificent silken
+cloths inwoven with gold thread." Other important centres of this trade
+and craft were Málaga, Baeza, Alicante, Seville, and Granada. Rassis
+wrote of Málaga: "She has a fertile territory, wherein is made the
+finest _sirgo_ in the world. From here they trade in it with every part
+of Spain. Here too is made the finest of all linens, and that which the
+women best esteem." Of Baeza he wrote: "She manufactures excellent and
+famous silken cloths of the kind which are called _tapetes_"; and of
+Alicante, "This city lies in the Sierra de Benalcatil, which in its turn
+is situated in the midst of other ranges containing prosperous towns
+where silken cloths of finest quality were made in other days; and the
+weavers of these cloths were skilled exceedingly."
+
+Málaga is described by the Cordovese historian Ash Shakandi (thirteenth
+century) as "famous for its manufactures of silks of every colour and
+design, some of them so costly that a suit is sold for thousands; such
+are the brocades of beautiful pattern, inwoven with the names of
+caliphs, emirs and other wealthy personages.... As at Málaga and
+Almería, there are at Murcia several manufactories of silken cloth
+called _al washiu thalathat_, or 'the variegated.' This town is also
+celebrated for the carpets called _tantili_, which are exported to all
+countries of the east and west, as well as for a sort of bright-coloured
+mat with which the Murcians cover the walls of their houses."
+
+The ancient Illiberia or Illiberis, believed to have been situated not
+far from where is nowadays Granada, is described in Rassis' chronicle as
+"a city great and flourishing by reason of the quantity of silk that she
+exports to every part of Spain. She lies at sixty thousand paces
+distance from, and on the southward side of Cordova, and six thousand
+paces from, and to the north of the Frozen Sierra" (_i.e._ the Sierra
+Nevada).
+
+Another chronicle--that of El Nubiense, who visited Spain towards the
+twelfth century--states that in the kingdom of Jaen alone were six
+hundred towns which produced and carried on a trade in silk.
+
+The foregoing extracts show that under the Spanish Moors the manufacture
+of textile fabrics attained in mediæval times a very great importance.
+It is also certain that during the same period the textile fabrics in
+use among the Christian Spaniards were strongly and continually
+influenced, and even to a large extent produced, by Spanish Moors,
+while, as the Moorish cities fell into the power of the enemy, the
+Christian rulers encouraged their newly-sworn Mohammedan lieges to
+prosecute this industry with unabated zeal. A privilege is extant which
+was granted by Jayme the Conqueror in the year 1273, to a Moor named Ali
+and his sons Mohammed and Bocaron, empowering these artificers to
+manufacture silk and cloth of gold at Jativa, in the kingdom of
+Valencia. The fabrics produced by Mussulman weavers such as these, found
+ready purchase with the wealthier classes of the Christian Spaniards.
+The dress and other materials thus elaborated possessed a great variety
+of names, whose meaning cannot always be determined at the present day.
+Among the fabrics most in vogue were those denominated _samit_ (also
+_xamed_ or _examitum_), _ciclaton_, _tabis_ or _atabi_, _zarzahan_,
+_fustian_ or _fustan_, _cendal_ or _sendat_, _camelote_ (also
+_chamelote_ or _xamellot_), _drap imperial_, and _bougran_ (also
+_bouckram_, _buckram_), stated by Dr Bock to be derived from Bokhara,
+and which was of a quality far superior to the buckram of more modern
+times. These Saracenic or semi-Saracenic stuffs were manufactured from
+an early period, but modern experts are not agreed as to their
+character. Miquel y Badía and some other authorities believe that
+_samit_ was a costly material which was sometimes coloured green, and
+shot with gold or silver thread. Others believe it to have been a kind
+of velvet. In either case it is known to have been used for shrouding
+the bodies of the wealthy. _Ciclaton_ was a strong though flexible
+material used for robes and also for wall-hangings. _Tabis_ or _atabi_
+was a kind of taffeta, and probably consisted, as a general rule, of
+silk, though sometimes it was mixed with cotton. _Chamelot_ was an
+oriental fabric of rich silk, coloured white, black, or grey. It is
+mentioned, together with velvets, taffetas, and _cendal_ or _sendat_
+(another silken stuff) in a law passed by the Cortes of Monzón in 1375,
+and which is quoted in Capmany's _Memorias_.[1] Fustian is thought to
+have been first produced in Egypt. It was woven of thread or cotton, and
+was largely used in England from at least as early as the twelfth
+century. From about the same time buckram was also popular in northern
+countries.
+
+  [1] "Perco con los draps d'or é d'argent, é de seda axi brocats d'or é
+      d'argent con altres é velluts, xamelots, tafetanes, é sendats se
+      usen molt de vestir en lo dit Principat d'alguna generalitat ne
+      dret no y sia posat, mes solament vi liners per liura per la
+      entrada."
+
+Early in the fourteenth century a number of other costly stuffs began to
+be made in various quarters of the civilized world, including Spain.
+Among these fabrics were _zatonin_ or _zatony_ (perhaps the same as
+_zetani_, _aceituni_, or _aceytoni_--that is, satin), several kinds of
+_drap d'aur_ or cloth of gold, several kinds of velvet, _sarga_ or
+serge, and _camocas_, which is stated by Miquel y Badía to have been a
+strong material used for lining curtains, coats of mail, etc. The same
+writer observes that the stuff called by the name _zatonin_ and its
+variations is the same as the Castilian raso and the Catalan _setí_ or
+_satí_, a favourite though expensive and luxurious fabric in the
+fourteenth and succeeding centuries. Under the name _aceytoni_ it is
+mentioned in a work in the Catalan language titled _Croniques
+d'Espanya_, by Pedro Miguel Carbonell, in which we read that at the
+coronation of Don Martin of Aragon this monarch's consort, Doña María,
+was "dressed in white cloth of gold and a long mantle ... and rode upon
+a white horse covered with trappings of white _aceytoni_."
+
+Miquel y Badía has discovered the names of other fabrics which are known
+from documentary evidence to have been used in older Spain, and which
+were called _aducar_, _alama_, _tela de nacar_, _primavera_ or
+_primavert_, _almexia_, _picote_, and _velillo_. It is probable that
+_alama_ and _tela de nacar_ had silver interwoven with their texture.
+The _primavera_ or "spring fabric" was so named from the flowers which
+adorned it. _Almexía_ is mentioned in the _Chronicle of the Cid_. It was
+a costly and elaborate stuff, and is believed by Miquel to have taken
+its title from the city of Almería. _Picote_ was a kind of satin
+manufactured in the island of Majorca, and _velillo_ a thin, delicate
+fabric decorated with flowers and with silver thread.
+
+The devices on all these stuffs were very varied. Prominent types among
+them were the _pallia rotata_, containing circles which are commonly
+combined with other ornament, the _pallia aquilinata_, in which the
+dominant motive was the eagle, and the _pallia leonata_, in which it was
+the lion. Other beasts, birds, and monsters were also figured with great
+frequency, such as griffins, peacocks, swans, crows, bulls, tigers, or
+dogs; but the emblem most in favour, especially throughout the tenth,
+eleventh, and twelfth centuries, was the eagle, owing to the numerous
+and illustrious qualities attributed to it, such as majesty, victory,
+valour, and good omen. These creatures, too, were frequently represented
+face to face or back to back, in pairs; nor were they so disposed in
+textile fabrics only, but on ivory, wood, or silver caskets, and on
+numerous other objects, as well as on the painted friezes of a place of
+worship.[2]
+
+  [2] "We have seen many instances of such opposed animals and birds on
+      the metal-work and carving of the thirteenth century, and there is
+      no doubt that the design is much older than Mohammedan times, and
+      goes back to the productions of the old artists of Mesopotamia and
+      Persia. We read in Quintus Curtius of robes worn by Persian satraps,
+      adorned with birds beak to beak--_aurei accipitres veluti rostri in
+      se irruerunt pallam adornabant_. Plautus mentions Alexandrian
+      carpets ornamented with beasts: _Alexandrina belluata conchyliata
+      tapetia_. There is indeed reason to believe that the notion of such
+      pairs of birds or beasts may have originated with the weavers of
+      ancient Persia, and have been borrowed from them by the engravers of
+      metal-work; for the advantage of such double figures would be
+      specially obvious to a weaver. The symmetrical repetition of the
+      figure of the bird or animal, reversed, saved both labour and
+      elaboration of the loom. The old weavers, not yet masters of
+      mechanical improvements, were obliged to work their warp up and down
+      by means of strings, and the larger the design the more numerous
+      became these strings and the more complicated the loom. Hence, to be
+      able to repeat the pattern in reverse was a considerable economy of
+      labour, and could be effected very simply on a loom constructed to
+      work _à pointe et à reverse_. Examples of such repetitions of
+      patterns, especially of symmetrical pairs of animals within circles,
+      are common in Byzantine and Sassanian woven work, and the Saracens
+      followed these models."--Stanley Lane-Poole, _The Art of the
+      Saracens in Egypt_, p. 288.
+
+The colours of these fabrics also varied very greatly. That which was
+most admired was probably red, crimson, or carmine, used by preference
+as a ground, with the pattern inwoven or super-woven in gold, silver, or
+otherwise. Velvets, too, were not invariably in monochrome, but would
+contain two or three colours such as purple, crimson, blue, or yellow,
+besides gold and silver. Miquel y Badía mentions a magnificent velvet
+pluvial in gold and three colours, belonging to a church in Cataluña.
+The following observations are by the same authority, who himself
+possesses a valuable collection of early textile fabrics, many of which
+are Spanish. "The same prevailing colours are found in the Mudejar
+textile fabrics as in those of the Spanish Moors--the same ground of red
+inclining to carmine, of dark blue, or of bluish green, with a pattern
+in yellow, green, blue, or red, according to the colour which combines
+with it. I have seen copies of Mudejar stuffs in which there is no
+white, because this was wanting in the fragments which the copying
+artist had before him. And it is a fact that from some cause, which we
+cannot now determine, white silk is that which disappears soonest from
+among the textile fabrics of the Spanish Moors and Mudejares, so that by
+far the greater part of them contain no white at all, or only traces of
+it."
+
+In Spain these handsome stuffs were used by all the wealthier classes,
+and some idea of their prevalence and popularity may be formed from the
+voluminous mass of sumptuary laws which deal with them at almost every
+stage of Spanish history. Thus, an edict of Jayme the First of Aragon
+established, in the year 1234, that neither the monarch nor any of his
+subjects were to decorate their clothes with gold and silver, or fasten
+their cloaks with gold or silver clasps. The _Ordenamiento_ of Alfonso
+the Tenth, subscribed at Seville, February 27th, 1256, provides that no
+woman is to carry _aljofar_-work, trim her dress with gold or silver, or
+wear a _toca_ decorated with those metals, but only a plain white one,
+the price of which is not to exceed three _maravedis_. It is also
+provided by this edict that on the celebration of a wedding, the cost of
+the bridal clothes must not exceed sixty _maravedis_, nor may the number
+of guests who sit down to the marriage banquet exceed five women and
+five men, besides the witnesses of the ceremony and relatives of the
+bride and bridegroom. This absurd law was so extensively neglected that
+two years later the Cortes of Valladolid took up the matter afresh, and
+even resolved that the expenses of the king's table, without the cost of
+his invited guests, were not to exceed a daily total of a hundred and
+fifty _maravedis_.
+
+In A.D. 1286 the Council of Cordova decreed that knights and squires,
+upon the celebration of their marriage, were not to present their brides
+with more than two dresses, one of these to be of scarlet, without
+trimming of ermine or grey fur, or decoration of gold, silver, or
+_aljofar_. A law of Alfonso the Eleventh, dated May 6th, 1338,
+proclaimed that the women of the upper classes were not to clothe
+themselves in any silken fabric decorated with gold thread. Similar
+restrictions were laid upon the other sex. "No man, whatever be his
+condition (excepting only Us, the King), shall wear cloth of gold, or
+silk, or any stuff adorned with gold lace, _aljofar_, or any other
+trimming, or with enamel: only his cloak may bear _aljofar_ pearl-work,
+or fillets without pearls." Other dispositions signed by the same
+monarch show that the Spaniards of his time were in the habit of wearing
+costly cloth adorned with gold and silver, pearls, gold buttons, enamel,
+and other ornament, while even the squires wore furs and gilded shoes.
+The _ricos-hombres_ loaded their saddles with gold and with
+_aljofar_-work, and their wives were licensed to bear on each of their
+dresses the same _aljofar_-work or strings of tiny pearls, to the value
+of four thousand _maravedis_.
+
+Provisions of the same tenor are contained in the prolix sumptuary
+pragmatic of Pedro the Cruel, signed in the year 1351 at Valladolid, as
+well as in that of Juan the First, A.D. 1385, which ordained, together
+with other vexatious prohibitions, that "neither man nor woman, whatever
+be their condition or estate, shall wear cloth of gold or any
+silk-stuff, gold or silver _aljofar_, or other precious stones,
+excepting the Infante and Infantas, who may wear whatever pleases them."
+
+The extravagance of Isabella the Catholic in dress and personal
+adornment generally, was illustrated in an earlier chapter of this work.
+A further instance is recorded by Clemencin. According to this
+chronicler, in 1476 and 1477, upon her reception at Alcalá of two
+embassies from France, the queen was dressed in a magnificent robe,
+which drew upon her a sharp rebuke from her confessor, the virtuous and
+austere Hernando de Talavera. From this charge Isabella defended herself
+with more spirit than truthfulness. "Neither myself nor my ladies," she
+wrote in her letter of reply, "were dressed in new apparel. All that I
+wore on this occasion I had already worn in Aragon, and the French
+themselves had seen me wearing it. I only used one robe at all, and that
+of silk with three marks of gold, the plainest I could find: in this was
+all my festival. I say this much in that my clothing was not new; nor
+did we deem that error could dwell therein."[3]
+
+  [3] _Elogio de la Reina Católica_, p. 374.
+
+Although their own extravagance is past all question, on September 30th,
+1499, Ferdinand and his consort issued a proclamation at Granada, in
+which it was commanded that "no persons shall wear clothing of brocade,
+or silk, or silk _chamelote_, or _zarzahan_, or taffeta, or carry
+linings of the same upon the trappings of their horses, or upon hoods,
+or the straps and scabbards of their swords, or bits, or saddles, or
+_alcorques_[4] ... nor shall they wear embroidered silk-stuffs
+decorated with gold plates, whether such gold be drawn or hammered, spun
+to a thread, or interwoven with the fabric."
+
+  [4] These are defined by the Count of Clonard as "a kind of clog
+      (_chapín_) with a cork sole, and which was introduced by the Moors
+      under the name _al-kork_."
+
+These prohibitions, or others of their import, were ratified by Doña
+Juana at the Cortes of Burgos, and, in 1533, by Charles the Fifth at
+Valladolid. In 1551 the Emperor again prohibited "all brocaded stuffs,
+or gold or silver cloth, whether embroidered or enriched with gold or
+silver thread, or bound with cord or edging of the same;" and a royal
+edict of January 12th, 1611, forbade the wearing of brocade and every
+other costly stuff to all except the clergy and the military.
+
+The clergy, indeed, had always been notorious for extravagance, and not
+a few of all these sumptuary laws are aimed specifically at them. In
+A.D. 1228 the Council of Valladolid prohibited the use by priests of
+sleeved robes, or gilded saddles, bits, spurs, or poitrels. In 1267 the
+Synod of León repeated these prohibitions, further insisting that the
+garments of the clergy, besides being sleeveless, were not to be red or
+green, and were to have a moderate length ("_non muy largas, non muy
+cortas_"), and that their cloaks were not to fasten with a clasp or
+cord; these regulations to be rigidly adhered to _en sennal de
+honestidat_--"as a sign of honesty."
+
+We also know that at this time (thirteenth century) the shirts of many
+of the wealthier Spaniards were woven of finest linen imported from the
+East, embroidered and picked out with gold and silver thread, and that
+the clergy were at least the equals of the laity in their craze for
+costly clothing. In A.D. 1273, an inventory was made of the effects
+belonging to Don Gonzalo Palomeque, on his election to the bishopric of
+Cuenca. It mentions _almadraques_ and Murcian _tapetes_, _carpitas
+viadas_ from Tlemcen, fine Murcian blankets (_alhamares_), silk
+_xamedes_, Murcian matting for covering walls and daïses ("_para paret
+et para estrado_"), and stuffs from Syria. Another inventory, that of
+Don Gonzalo Gudiel, archbishop of Toledo, is dated A.D. 1280, and
+mentions, as included with his property, quantities of oriental fabrics
+which are designated by the general name _tartaricas_.[5] Among them
+were "unus pannus operatus ad aves de auro et campus de serica viridi,
+item unus alius pannus tartaricus cum campo de seta alba et vite aurea,
+item unus pannus tartaricus de seta rubea cum pinis aureis, item unus
+pannus tartaricus de seta viridi."[6]
+
+  [5] Specifically, _tartari_ was a costly fabric, heavily embroidered.
+      Ducange considers that it came, or came originally, from Tartary.
+      We read of it twice in the _Chronicle of the Cid_, and again, in
+      the _Chronicle of Ferdinand the Fourth_:--"tiraron los paños de
+      marhega que tenia vestidos por su padre é vistiéronle unos paños
+      nobles de tartari."
+
+  [6] Quoted by Fernandez y Gonzalez, _Mudejares de Castilla_, p. 231,
+      from the originals in the Archiepiscopal Library of Toledo.
+
+A number of mediæval textile fabrics, some in fragments, some intact,
+have been preserved in Spanish private collections or museums. It is,
+however, seldom easy to determine whether they were made in this
+Peninsula, or whether in Sicily, Byzantium, Venice, or the East. Among
+the most remarkable of all these interesting specimens are, a strip
+which was extracted from the mausoleum of a Spanish bishop, Don Bernardo
+Calbó, a native of Vich in Cataluña, and which is now in the museum of
+that town; other fragments in the same collection, including one of
+_holosericum_ or pure silk, which was formerly in the neighbouring
+church of San Juan de las Abadesas, and is commonly known as the
+_pallium_ or altar front "of the witches" (owing to certain beasts or
+monsters figuring in the design), a Moorish _tiraz_, now in the Academy
+of History at Madrid, the celebrated Moorish "banner of the battle of
+Las Navas," now in the Monastery of Santa María la Real de las Huelgas
+at Burgos, the banner (also Moorish) of the battle of the River Salado,
+the chasubles "of the Constable" and of Chiriana, preserved respectively
+at Burgos and at Caravaca, a fragment, preserved in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid, of the shroud of Ferdinand the Third, and the Moorish clothing
+of the son of the same King Ferdinand, the Infante Don Felipe, and of
+Felipe's second wife, Doña Leonor Ruiz de Castro.
+
+The strip of woven material found in the sepulchre of Bishop Calbó, who
+is said to have accompanied Don Jayme the Conqueror in the conquest of
+Valencia (A.D. 1238), is described by Miquel y Badía as belonging to the
+class denominated _pallia rotata_--that is, with circles forming part of
+their design,--and dates most probably from the twelfth century; but it
+is impossible to say whether it was manufactured in the East, or whether
+at Valencia or some other Spanish town. The same remark applies to other
+fragments which are also, as I stated, in the Vich Museum. The one
+discovered in the tomb of Bishop Calbó contains, coloured in green,
+grey, and black upon a carmine ground, a decorative scheme of circles,
+flowers, and gryphons or other monsters in pairs, _affrontés_, and also,
+within the circles, the figure of a man grappling with two lions,
+tigers, dogs, or other beasts, and who is believed to represent Samson
+or Daniel--more probably the latter. Miquel y Badía points out that in
+this fragment the figure of the man recalls Egyptian art, suggested by
+his curious head-dress, and by the crossing of his clothes upon his
+breast.
+
+Another textile fragment in the same collection is coloured black, red,
+and grey upon a yellowish ground. It is decorated with long-tailed birds
+resembling peacocks, and with sphinxes which fill the circles or
+medallions. A third fragment, also in the Vich Museum, belongs to the
+type of _pallia cum aquilis et bestiolis_. The design consists of a
+double-headed eagle with half-extended wings, holding in the claws of
+either foot some kind of quadruped--perhaps a bull. The colour of the
+ground resembles carmine, and on it the design is wrought in greenish
+black--that may have been originally green--relieved at intervals with
+yellow.
+
+The "witches'" _pallium_ in the same collection is decorated with the
+series of extraordinary beasts or monsters that have won for it this
+title with the vulgar, depicted in yellow, white, black, and dark green
+upon a red ground. Miquel believes this fabric to proceed from
+Byzantium, and to date from not much earlier than the eleventh century.
+The devices are disposed in two rows, the lower containing peacocks
+_affrontés_, and the upper a series of fantastic monsters, each of which
+possesses a head, two bodies, and four feet--the head being semi-human,
+semi-bestial, the double body that of a bird, and the claws those of a
+lion or some other formidable quadruped.
+
+The Royal Academy of History at Madrid possesses a fragment of the
+costly fabric known as _tiraz_, an eastern word (corrupted by the
+Spaniards into _taracea_, _i.e._ embroidery on clothing), which means
+the bordering for a royal robe. Such bordering, which contained
+inscriptions, or the sultan's name, or both together, is said to have
+been first used in Spain by Abderrahman the Second, who ruled from A.D.
+825 to 852. "The caliphs of Cordova," says Riaño, "had a place set apart
+in their palaces where this stuff was kept: this custom lasted until the
+eleventh century, when it disappeared, and was re-established in the
+thirteenth century with the kings of Granada." _Tiraz_, in fact, was
+both produced and stored in special departments of the Sultan's
+palaces[7]; or so we must infer from the following passage by
+Ibn-Khaldun. "The places (_almedinas_) where these stuffs were woven
+were situated within the palaces of the caliphs, and were known as the
+'pavilions of the _tiraz_.' The person at the head of these workshops
+was called the superintendent of the _tiraz_: he had charge of both the
+weavers and the looms, administered the salaries, and looked to the
+quality of the work. This post was entrusted by the princes to one of
+the foremost officers of their kingdom, or else to some freedman who
+thoroughly deserved their confidence." The same historian adds that the
+manufacture of _tiraz_ was conducted in Spain in the same manner as in
+the East under the dynasty of the Ommeyades. It is, however, certain
+that among the Spanish Moors _tiraz_ was not produced exclusively in
+royal factories. Al-Makkari states that in the time of the Somadies and
+the Almoravides there were looms at Nerja (and possibly at Almería) for
+weaving this luxurious fabric, as well as _holas_, a fine brocade,
+heavily embroidered, and adorned with figures representing the caliphs
+and other personages. In the time of the Almoravides there were at
+Almería as many as a thousand factories for making _holas_.
+
+  [7] "An interesting parallel to the royal silk factory, or
+      D[=a]r-et-tir[=a]z of Kay-Kub[=a]d, and to that of the F[=a]timy
+      Khalif at Tinn[=i]s, is found in the similar institution at Palermo,
+      which owed its foundation to the Kelby Am[=i]rs who ruled Sicily as
+      vassals of the F[=a]timis in the ninth and tenth centuries, though
+      it maintained its special character and excellence of work under
+      the Norman kings. The factory was in the palace, and the weavers
+      were Mohammedans, as indeed is obvious from a glance at the famous
+      silk cloth preserved at Vienna, and called the "Mantle of Nürnberg,"
+      where a long Arabic inscription testifies to the hands that made it,
+      by order of King Roger, in the year of the Hijra 528, or
+      A.D. 1133."--Stanley Lane-Poole, _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt_,
+      p. 289.
+
+The piece of _tiraz_ which belongs to the Spanish Academy of History
+measures about a yard and a half in length by eighteen inches wide.
+Riaño describes it as of wool, embroidered in silks with "seated figures
+which appear to be a king, a lady, lions, birds, and quadrupeds"; but
+after carefully examining it I cannot but agree with Miquel y Badía that
+this fabric is woven throughout of pure silk, without the slightest
+trace of hand-embroidery. It has two borders containing these
+inscriptions in Cufic letters: "In the name of God, the clement, the
+merciful. (May) the blessing of God and happiness (be) for the Caliph
+Iman Abdallah Hixem, the favoured of God and prince of believers." This
+monarch, second of the name, reigned at the end of the tenth century and
+early in the eleventh, and the _tiraz_ we are noticing was found in a
+casket on the altar of a church at San Esteban de Gormaz, in the
+province of Soria. As Riaño suggests, it was very probably a war trophy.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                       THE "BANNER OF LAS NAVAS"
+      (_Monastery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas, Burgos_)]
+
+Another most interesting example of Saracenic textile work is the
+so-called "banner of Las Navas" (Plate i.), which popular tradition
+affirms to have been captured (A.D. 1212) in the memorable battle of Las
+Navas de Tolosa, between the Almohades and the Spanish Christians. Most
+experts now consider that this object is not a military ensign, but a
+curtain or some other hanging for a tent or doorway. The material is
+_sirgo_ or silken serge, and both the decoration and the workmanship are
+purely Moorish. The design is rich and intricate throughout, consisting
+of scrolls, leaves, stems, and inscriptions from the Koran, disposed
+with exquisite effect about the principal and central motive, formed by
+a large eight-pointed star within a circle, and which contains, so as to
+form the angles of the star, eight repetitions of the words in Arabic,
+"_The Empire_." The dominant colour is carmine, and the fabric
+terminates in eight _farpas_ or scallops with red and yellow edges, and
+bearing a series of inscriptions in the African character.
+
+The "_pendon_ of the Rio Salado," a trophy which seems to have really
+been a war-flag, belongs to the cathedral of Toledo. It measures at this
+day about nine feet two inches by seven feet four inches, but is
+believed to have been originally of a square form, with scalloped edges.
+The dominant colours are red, green, and gold. The decorative scheme
+consists of tastefully combined circles and inscriptions in the Cufic
+character, and the lower end concludes in the following sentences, now
+rendered incomplete through the loss of nearly two feet of the
+material:--"... the wise, the victorious, the assiduous, the generous,
+the sultan, the caliph, the famous emir of the Muslims and
+representative of the Lord of the Universe, Abu-Said Otsmin, son of our
+lord and master ... the worshipper of (Allah), the modest, the warlike,
+the emir of the Mussulmans Nassir-li-Din (_defender of the law_), Abu
+Yusuf Yacub, son of Abd-il-Hac. In the Alcázar of Fez (God bless it.
+Praised be God), in the Moon of Moharran of the year twelve and seven
+hundred" (712 of the Hegira, or May 9th-June 7th, A.D. 1312).
+
+Tastefully disposed in white Cufic characters, within four rows of
+circles woven in gold, are the words which sum the Mussulman
+religion,--"There is no God but God: Mahoma is His Messenger"; and on
+other parts of the flag are inscribed these sentences:--
+
+"The prophet believes in the purpose for which he was sent by his Lord,
+and all the faithful believe in God, in His angels, in His writings, and
+in His messengers. We make no distinction between any of His messengers.
+And these declare: 'We hear and do obey. Pardon us, O Lord.'
+
+".... And unto Thee we shall return. God will not lay on any soul but
+such a weight as it can bear; for it or against it shall be the deeds it
+may have done. O Lord, chastise not our forgetfulness or errors. O Lord,
+lay not upon us the burden Thou hadst laid on those that were before us.
+
+".... O Lord, burden us not too heavily. Blot out our faults, and pardon
+them to us, and have mercy on us. Thou art our Lord. Grant us victory
+over the infidel. There came to us a glorious prophet that was born
+among us.
+
+"On him rests the weight of your faults, and full of goodness and of
+clemency he longs ardently for you to believe. If you should be
+forsaken, exclaim, 'God is sufficient for me. There is no God but He. I
+trust in Him, because He is Lord of the throne that is on high.'"
+
+Miquel y Badía considers that when it was intact this object must have
+measured eleven feet square. Attention was first drawn to its merit and
+antiquity when it was shown at the Exposición Histórico Europea of 1892.
+
+The chasubles of Chirinos (Caravaca) and of the Chapel of the Constable
+in Burgos cathedral are both considered to be of Spanish-Moorish
+workmanship. The former is woven of silk of various colours, but without
+admixture of gold thread, and bears an inscription in Arabic which
+Amador de los Ríos has interpreted as, "Glory to our Sultan
+Abul-Hachach." The same authority deduces that the fabric dates from the
+fourteenth or the fifteenth century--that is, from the time of the
+Sultan Abul-Hachach (Yusuf the First) or of his immediate successors.
+
+The chasuble preserved at Burgos is also woven of variegated silk
+without gold thread, and may originally have been a _tiraz_, since it
+bears, in African letters, the inscription, "Glory to our lord the
+Sultan." The date is probably the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
+Fragments of similar material are in the collections of Señores Osma and
+Miquel y Badía.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+          FRAGMENT OF THE BURIAL MANTLE OF FERDINAND THE THIRD
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The object represented in Plate ii. is described in the Catalogue of the
+Royal Armoury at Madrid as _A fragment of the royal mantle in which was
+buried the king and saint, Ferdinand the Third of Castile_ (A.D.
+1217-1252). Gestoso, in the course of his researches into the history of
+old Seville, has found that in the year 1579 Philip the Second caused an
+examination to be made at that city of the remains, enshrined in her
+cathedral, of Saint Ferdinand. The body was found "with a ring with a
+blue stone on a finger of the right hand, and wearing sword and spurs."
+In 1677 Charles the Second sent for the ring in question, and eleven
+years later a fresh examination was made, when the mummy of the saint
+was stated to be wrapped in "clothing of a stuff the nature of which
+cannot now be recognised, but which is chequered all over with the royal
+arms of Castile, and with lions." A third examination was made in 1729,
+when the "holy body of Señor San Fernando" was reported to be "covered,
+the greater part, with a royal mantle, of a stuff which could not be
+recognised for its decay: only it was seen to be embroidered with
+castles and lions."
+
+Probably, therefore, this fragment was taken to Madrid at the same time
+as the ring--that is, in the year 1677. It has an irregular shape, and
+measures eighteen inches long by thirteen and a half in breadth. The
+material is a woven mixture of silk and gold thread, and the decoration
+consists of castles and lions in gold and red respectively, upon a
+ground of carmine and dirty white. Count Valencia de Don Juan points out
+that this strip belonged to the lower end of the mantle, since it
+includes a portion of the border, formed by a series of horizontal
+stripes, blue, yellow, red, and gold. The character of the whole
+fragment is decidedly Mohammedan, and indicates a Mudejar fabric, made
+at Seville in the thirteenth century.
+
+I find that in the _Book of Chess_ of Alfonso the Learned (an
+illuminated Spanish manuscript executed in the thirteenth century, and
+now preserved at the Escorial), Alfonso himself is represented (Plate
+iii.) as wearing a mantle with this very pattern of lions and castles
+contained in squares. Therefore it seems extremely probable, either that
+this device was not uncommon on the robes of Spanish kings, or else that
+at some time the body of San Fernando was enveloped in a mantle
+belonging to, and which perhaps had been inherited by, his son.
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                        KING ALFONSO THE LEARNED
+       (_From "The Book of Chess"; MS. in the Escorial Library_)]
+
+The clothing of the Infante Don Felipe and of Doña Leonor, his wife,
+consists of the prince's cloak, which is nearly intact, a piece of his
+_aljuba_, his cap, and a strip of silken cloth inwoven with gold. The
+latter fragment is thought to have belonged to the robe of the Infanta.
+
+These objects, discovered in 1848, in the tomb of Don Felipe and Doña
+Leonor, at Villalcazar de Sirga, near Palencia, are now in the National
+Museum. The cloak or mantle is richly wrought in silk and gold, and
+bears the word _Blessing_, woven in Cufic characters upon the ground.
+The _aljuba_ is also of silk and gold, showing a delicate combination of
+blue and yellow, and the style and workmanship of all these fragments
+are unmistakably Mohammedan.
+
+Therefore, in textile crafts, the Spanish Moors supplied the wants and
+the caprices both of themselves and of their enemies the Christians.
+
+The relationship between certain under-garments of the two peoples is
+evident from the very titles of those garments. Thus, the Spanish
+_joquejo_ or _soquejo_, a scarf for winding round a woman's body, is
+obviously derived, or merely corrupted, from the Arabic _jocob_; the
+Spanish _arrede_ or _arrelde_, a kind of cloak, from the Arabic
+_arrida_, and the Spanish shirt or tunic for ordinary wear, called the
+_casot_, _quesote_, or _quizote_ (which was sometimes white and
+sometimes coloured) from the Arabic _al-kuesnat_. The _Chronicle of Juan
+the Second_ (A.D. 1410) tells of a mountain covered with Moorish troops,
+"and all of them had red _quesotes_."
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                             SPANISH VELVET
+               (_Red upon Gold Ground. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+Among the cities of Moorish Spain, Almería and Granada were undoubtedly
+those which produced the handsomest stuffs--Almería from comparatively
+early in the days of Muslim domination, Granada from a somewhat later
+time.[8] Notices are extant of Christian princes who directly ordered
+these materials from Granada; _e.g._ in 1392 Don Juan the First caused
+to be purchased there, as a present to his daughter on her marriage,
+"una cambra de saya orlada ab son dozer e cobertor de color vermella,
+blaua, ó vert, ù otro que fuera de buena vista" (_Archives of the Crown
+of Aragon_). The manufacture of velvet was probably introduced into
+Aragon in the reign of Pedro the Fourth. Excellent silks and cloth of
+gold were also made at Málaga, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. Indeed, no
+better source exists for studying the character of this important
+industry in older Spain than the Ordinances of the cities I have just
+enumerated.[9] We learn from these municipal provisions, most of which
+were framed or ratified in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, that the
+mingling of fine with base material was forbidden in the strictest
+terms, and that the styles and classes of even the luxurious and
+elaborate stuffs, which bore an infinite variety of devices, were very
+numerous. Thus, there were satins, taffetas, _azeytunis_, double and
+single velvets (Plates iv. and vii.), brocades, and silken serges; as
+well as fabrics interwoven with gold and silver thread, including the
+_gorgoranes_, _restaños_, _sargas_, and _jergas de filigrana de plata_.
+The Ordinances of Toledo mention the following fabrics as manufactured
+in that city in the reigns of Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Charles the
+Fifth:--
+
+  "Stuffs of gold and silver made in the same manner as satin.
+
+  "Satins woven with gold.
+
+  "Satins brocaded with silk and gold, or silver flowers.
+
+  "Silver serges with double filigree.
+
+  "Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge.
+
+  "Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, or in silver
+   with silk flowers.
+
+  "Embroidered stuffs.
+
+  "Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_.
+
+  "_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with watering in silver.
+
+  "Plain silk-stuffs woven with silver or gold, and called _restaño_.
+
+  "Silk-stuffs woven with gold or silver, and called _relampagos_.
+
+  "Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments.
+
+  "Plain filigree serges.
+
+  "_Velillo_ of silver.
+
+  "Satin woven with gold and silver.
+
+  "Brocades of different kinds.
+
+  "Church vestments.
+
+  "Silver _primaveras_.
+
+  "Serges for church vestments."
+
+  [8] The Alburquerque inventory mentions, in 1560, "two Almería sheets,
+      one with green and purple edging, and the other with white and red";
+      also "two _short_ holland shirts for sleeping in at night."
+      Commenting on the word _short_, Señor de la Torre de Trassierra
+      aptly recalls the thrifty proverb of the Spaniards,--"A shirt which
+      reaches below the navel is so much linen wasted."
+
+  [9] See particularly _Las Ordenanzas de los tejedores de seda de
+      Sevilla_ (officially proclaimed on March 2nd, 1502), and also _Las
+      Ordenanzas para el buen régimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy
+      leal, é imperial cuidad de Toledo_. (_Tit._ cxxxv: "silk-weavers.")
+
+It was usual for ladies of the Christian-Spanish aristocracy to trim
+their clothes, in Moorish fashion, with strings of larger pearls or of
+_aljofar_-work--a custom which continued until the extinction of the
+House of Austria. The Alburquerque inventory includes "a _marlota_ of
+crimson satin, trimmed with pearls and with _aljofar_, as to the hem,
+the sleeves, and the hood; with twelve buttons of _aljofar_-pearls in
+the front thereof, that on a time were thirteen; but one is missing
+_which was ground up for the said Duchess when she was sick_, and six
+buttons on each sleeve, and the same where each sleeve meets the
+shoulder."
+
+Early in the seventeenth century, Pinheiro da Veiga mentions the same
+fashion at Valladolid:--"At the sale of the Marchioness of Mondejar, I
+saw twelve of her _sayas_ with long trains to them, and satin bodices,
+all of embroidered silk, and some with _aljofar_-work, besides a number
+of all kinds of _diabluras_."
+
+It is stated by Ibn-Said, Al-Makkari, Al-Khattib, and Ibn-Khaldun, that
+the Moors of Granada occasionally adopted Christian clothing, and we
+know that the Sultan Mohammed, a contemporary of Alfonso the Learned of
+Castile, was assassinated by Abrahim and Abomet, the sons of Osmin,
+because he was so clothed, and because he had further violated the
+precepts of the Koran by eating at Alfonso's table.[10] But as a rule
+the costume of the Spanish Moors was almost wholly that of orientals.
+Where they were tolerated in a city under Christian rule, a certain
+dress was sometimes forced upon them by their subjugators, as by the
+_Ordenamiento_ (A.D. 1408) of Doña Catalina, issued on behalf of her
+son, Juan the Second, and which prescribed for the Moorish men a _capuz_
+of yellow cloth with a mark upon it in the form of a blue half-moon
+measuring an inch from point to point, and which was to be worn on the
+right shoulder. The garments of the women were to be similarly marked,
+on pain of fifty lashes administered publicly, together with the
+forfeiture of all such clothes as lacked this necessary and humiliating
+token.
+
+  [10] On the other hand, Rosmithal recorded in his narrative of a tour of
+       Spain that Henry the Second of Castile affected the costume of the
+       Mohammedans.
+
+But where the Spanish Moors were in possession of the soil, their
+clothes were similar in most respects to those of eastern peoples.
+Detailed notices of these costumes are furnished us by Ibn-Said and
+other writers. Fray Pedro de Alcalá explains in his _Vocabulary_ that,
+among the Granadinos, the use of one garment in particular was limited
+to royalty, or nobles of high rank. This was the _libas_ (or, in the
+Granadino dialect, _libis_), shaped like roomy breeches, and greatly
+resembling the _zaragüelles_ worn until this hour by the peasants of the
+Huerta of Valencia. Ibn-Said, quoted by Al-Makkari (see Gayangos,
+_History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain_, Vol. I., p. 116) says
+that the dress of the Moors of Andalusia was not identical with that of
+the Asiatic Mussulman. The former, he declares, would often discard the
+turban; especially those who lived towards the eastern frontier. In the
+western region the turban continued to be generally worn by the upper
+classes and by the leading State officials. Thus, at Cordova and Seville
+every _cadi_ and _alfaqui_ would wear a turban, while at Valencia and
+Murcia even the nobles went without it, and among the lower classes it
+had fallen into absolute disuse. Neither officers nor soldiers of the
+army wore the turban.
+
+We learn from Casiri (_Bibl. Arabico-Hispana_, II., p. 258) that the
+_imama_[11] was the only form of head-dress used by the _cheiks_,
+_cadis_, and _ulemas_ of Granada. At this capital red was the
+distinctive colour of the sovereigns of the Alahmar dynasty, who took
+their very title from this circumstance, the Arabic word _alahmar_
+meaning "red." The distinctive colour of the Nasrite sultans was purple,
+which was replaced by black in time of mourning. In this last fashion
+the sultans were probably influenced by the Christian usage, for
+Ibn-Khaldun remarks that black was not a colour approved of by the
+orientals, who considered it to be related with the spirits of evil.
+However this may be, the manuscript _History of the House of Cordova_
+quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas, says that when Boabdil el Chico entered that
+city as a prisoner, "the captive monarch was dressed in black velvet, in
+token of his adverse fortune and defeat. He rode a richly caparisoned
+charger, whose coat was black and glossy."
+
+  [11] This was a large form of turban. In the well-known painting in the
+       Hall of Justice of the Alhambra, the head-dress is the _aharim_ or
+       _almaizar_.
+
+The Moors regarded green or white as pleasant and well-omened colours,
+symbolic of the angels and of all good fortune. Perhaps this preference
+was suggested to them by the cool oasis in the desert. Nevertheless,
+when Ibn-Hud became ruler of Andalusia, his shields and banners were
+black, as well as his costume. Black, too, was the colour adopted by the
+Abbaside Sultans, to whom Ibn-Hud was subject. Under the Beni-Nasr and
+Beni-Alahmar, this gloomy hue was changed, as we have seen, to purple or
+to scarlet, though black continued to be used in sign of mourning.
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                     THE TUNIC OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+               (_National Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+The chronicle says that Abu-Said, "the Red," who was assassinated at
+Tablada, under the walls of Seville, by Pedro the Cruel, was clothed in
+scarlet at the time of that atrocious deed. Boabdil was also clothed in
+red at the battle of Lucena. The _History of the House of Cordova_, from
+which I have already quoted, says: "Il était armé d'une forte cuirasse à
+clous dorés, doublée de velours _cramoisi_, d'un morion teint de
+_grenat_ et doré.... Sur sa cuirasse était passé un caban de brocart et
+de velours cramoisi" (Plate v.). Eguilaz quotes a further passage from
+Hurtado de Mendoza, to prove that red continued to be the official
+colour of the Moorish rulers of Granada; for when the Moriscos had risen
+in the Alpujarra, and met together to invest their leaders, Aben-Abu and
+Aben-Humeya, with the insignia of royalty, they clothed the former in a
+red costume and the latter in purple, "passing about his neck and
+shoulders a red token in the form of a scarf."[12]
+
+  [12] Eguilaz Yanguas, _Les Peintures de l'Alhambra_.
+
+As I remarked in speaking of the _tiraz_, the clothing of the Moorish
+kings of Spain was of the richest quality obtainable, massively wrought,
+embroidered in colours and in gold, and bearing "sometimes a prince's
+name, sometimes his device or motto, or even a portrait of himself
+embroidered on the right breast of his _caban_ or robe, thus following
+the fashion of the monarchs of Assyria and Persia."
+
+
+                              SPANISH SILK
+
+A very fair idea of the magnitude of the craft and trade of Spanish silk
+in bygone epochs may be formed by tracing chronologically the production
+and treatment of the raw material in various parts of the Peninsula.
+During the centuries of Moorish rule, Spain's principal silk-producing
+centre was the kingdom of Granada, which then embraced a large extent of
+coast, together with Málaga and other thriving ports. In proof of this,
+and in his interesting memorial on the silk factories of Seville,[13]
+Ulloa quotes old Spanish ordinances of the weavers, stating that
+quantities of this substance were exported from "tierra de Moros" for
+use by Christian craftsmen, and also the _Chronology of the Kings of
+Granada_, concluded by Al-Khattib in the year 1364. A fragment of this
+chronicle is preserved at the Escorial, and states, in the well-known
+version of Casiri, that the silk produced at Granada was both abundant
+and of excellent quality, surpassing even the Assyrian.
+
+  [13] Don Martin de Ulloa, _Discurso sobre las fábricas de seda de
+       Sevilla_.
+
+The growing of mulberry trees and rearing of silkworms was also busily
+pursued in the kingdom of Aragon, which formerly included Cataluña,
+Valencia, and the Balearic Islands. Hence, though somewhat gradually, it
+seems to have spread to Seville. In the ordinances of this town relating
+to her weavers of silks and velvets, and which are dated 1492, it is
+stated that her _oficiales de texer sedas_ were so few that, as a
+stimulus to augment their number, all who wished might join them in the
+practice of this craft without examination. Between that year and 1502
+they evidently multiplied, since subjects of examination of no easy
+character are formulated in the ordinances of this later date, examined
+and confirmed by Ferdinand and Isabella. Nevertheless, it is impossible
+to credit the assertion of some authors that by the year 1519 Seville
+possessed no less than sixteen thousand looms, affording occupation to
+one hundred and fifty thousand persons. As Ulloa suggests, it is far
+more reasonable to suppose that her silk trade grew in proportion as the
+Spaniards continued to discover, and to open up to commerce, new regions
+of America; and that it reached the maximum of its development in the
+reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second. The same writer
+attributes its decline and downfall to the "piracies and insults" of
+Spain's foreign enemies and rivals.
+
+The price of Seville silks was also raised and the trade injuriously
+affected, by the imposition, at the close of the reign of Philip the
+Second, of the onerous _millones_ tax, as well as of the minor dues
+denominated _alcavalas_ and _cientos_; while finally, when Philip the
+Third was on the throne, the expulsion of the Moriscos precipitated the
+utter ruin of this industry.
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                    THE "BANNER OF SAINT FERDINAND"
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+The Spanish government proved quite incapable of grappling with these
+wrongs and difficulties. There were, however, numerous attempts to
+legislate in the direction of reform. Measures forbidding the
+introduction of silk proceeding from abroad received the royal signature
+in 1500, 1514, 1525, 1532, and 1552. A petition to the same effect,
+framed by the procurators of the Cortes, was presented to the king in
+1618, urging that no skein or twisted silk proceeding from the
+Portuguese Indies, China, or Persia should be imported into Spain in
+view of the damage thus inflicted on the silk-producing regions of
+Granada, Murcia, and Valencia. At the same time the petitioners
+suggested that if it should be found impracticable to suppress such
+importation altogether, the foreign silk should be required to be in the
+form of stuffs already woven.
+
+Matters grew steadily worse all through the reign of Philip the Fourth.
+The principal cause of this additional decline lay in the constant
+depreciation of the national currency, which kept at an intolerable
+pitch of dearness the price of home-grown silk, and enabled foreign
+traders to undersell the Spaniard. This will be better understood if we
+consider that the composition of the copper and silver coinage was often
+tampered with by Crown and Parliament in such a way as to allow the
+foreigner to rid the country of nearly all her gold and silver, leaving
+in exchange only the baser metal. At intervals of a few years,
+proclamations were issued altering the values of the coinage in the most
+capricious and disastrous terms, and Ulloa mentions as still in
+circulation in the eighteenth century, _ochavos_ of Philip the Third
+which bore inscribed the value of twelve _maravedis_ in Roman numerals,
+and also (owing to the restamping of the coins by order of the Crown),
+the second and successive value of eight _maravedis_, marked in ordinary
+numerals. In fact, so grave were these abuses, that the arbitrary value
+imposed upon the coins in question grew to be six times that of the
+actual value of the metal.
+
+At the close of the seventeenth century, when Charles the Second was on
+the throne, a couple of well-meant and not completely ineffectual
+attempts were made to bring about a fresh revival in the growth of
+Spanish silk. On November 18th, 1683, the silk-makers of Toledo,
+Seville, Granada, and Valencia were summoned to a council at Madrid, and
+the dispositions they then agreed upon received the royal signature and
+became law on January 30th of the following year, the pragmatic which
+embodied them being issued to the public ten days later. It was
+commanded by this document that all the silk produced at the above-named
+towns should be examined and approved by the _veedores_ or _mayorales_,
+and bear the official stamp which guaranteed their quality. The effect
+of these ordinances was further strengthened by a Crown _cedula_ of July
+15th, 1692, confirming other dispositions dated 1635; and later still,
+in June of 1699, a law was passed prohibiting the exportation of all
+home-made silks to other countries.
+
+The accession of the Bourbon kings heralded a further slight
+improvement. Philip the Fifth had barely mounted the throne when the
+Junta de Comercio was revived by his command, and drafted various laws
+for bettering this and other industries. Royal decrees of June 20th and
+September 17th, 1718, renewed in June of 1728 and in April and August of
+1734, forbade the introduction of silk and certain other stuffs from
+China and the rest of Asia--a measure which was made more strict as time
+went on, the prohibition being extended to linens and cottons produced
+and printed in Africa or Asia or imitated in Europe. In the meantime
+another _cedula_, signed at the Escorial on November 10th, 1726, had
+ordered that every Spanish citizen of either sex should dress
+exclusively in silks or cloths of Spanish manufacture.
+
+These laws, though founded on mistaken principles, undoubtedly restored
+the national silk trade for a while. In 1713 the silk looms of Seville
+had increased to four hundred and five, and by 1732--in which year the
+Court resided at that capital--to a thousand; but on the return of the
+royal family to Madrid, and the declaration of war against England in
+1739, the number dropped to a hundred and forty. In 1743 an effort was
+made to remedy this by exempting Seville silks from payment of the
+_alcabalas_ and _cientos_, and further support was rendered in 1749 by
+Ferdinand the Sixth, who lowered to eighty _maravedis_ per pound weight
+the tax on Spanish silks exported from the kingdom, and issued, in 1752,
+1753, and 1756, additional decrees intended to encourage and protect
+this industry. In 1748 the same ruler established the celebrated silk
+factories of Talavera de la Reina, sparing no pains to bring their
+products to a level with the best in Europe, and choosing as director of
+the works a thoroughly proficient Frenchman named Jean Roulière, a
+native of Nîmes, who was assisted by a carefully selected staff of
+experts, also principally foreigners.
+
+About the end of the century Laborde described this enterprise as
+follows:--"The manufactures of silks, gildings, and galloons are highly
+useful and important.... There has also been raised at Cervera, a
+village two leagues from Talavera, another large edifice, in which are
+twelve mills for twisting the silk, four large windles for winding it,
+and six machines for doubling it. This complicated machinery is put in
+motion by four oxen, and the various processes of twisting, winding, and
+doubling seven thousand and seventy-two threads of silk are thus
+performed at once.
+
+"This establishment was rapidly augmented under the direction of
+Roulière and the other French mechanics who succeeded him in its
+superintendence. So successful were their labours that, in a short time,
+stuffs were fabricated in Spain not unworthy of competition with those
+of France, the demand for which was found to diminish. In 1762, Roulière
+being obliged to withdraw from this manufactory, the care of it was
+committed to a company to the exclusion of almost all the French who had
+previously assisted in its establishment. The consequences of this
+change were soon discovered; the manufacture declined, the stuffs
+deteriorated, and the consumption diminished; the artisans were
+discharged from the loom, and everything threatened the total subversion
+of the establishment, when the king interposed, and again extended to it
+his care and protection, It has since been yielded to the incorporated
+society of the Gremios at Madrid, but has never recovered its former
+splendour and prosperity.
+
+"Taffetas, satins, silk cloths, and serges are fabricated here, as are
+silk ribbons, plain and figured velvets, stuffs of silk and silver,
+stuffs of silk and gold, galloons, gold and silver fringes, and silk
+stockings. The factory employs three hundred and sixty-six looms, and
+affords occupation to two thousand persons. There are annually consumed
+in it about a hundred thousand pounds of silk, four thousand marks of
+silver, and seventy marks of gold.
+
+"Some of the stuffs issuing from the manufactory are beautiful and good,
+but they want the gloss and lustre of the French stuffs; and as they are
+dearer than those, with all the contingent expense of commission and
+transportation, they are far from being able to maintain a competition
+with them. The stockings are of the vilest quality, being thin, shaggy,
+and ill-dressed. The greater part of these articles are exported to the
+Spanish colonies."
+
+Further efforts to improve the quality of Spanish silk were made by
+Charles the Third, in whose reign the silk looms of Seville increased to
+four hundred and sixty-two for weaving larger pieces, sixty-two for
+silver and gold galloons, three hundred and fifty-four for finely-worked
+ribbons, twenty-three for small pieces of gold and silver stuffs, eight
+for fringes and _cintas de rizo_, sixty-three for stockings, sixty-five
+for _redecillas_, three for caps, and one thousand three hundred and
+ninety-one for ordinary ribbon. At the same time, according to Ulloa,
+one hundred thousand pounds of silk required to be annually brought to
+Seville to supply these factories.
+
+"In its fortunate days," wrote Alexander de Laborde, "Seville had many
+splendid manufactures; it wove silks of every kind, gold and silver
+tissues, linens, and cottons.[14] A memoir presented in 1601 by the
+seventeen companies of arts and trades of this city gives us an idea of
+the brilliant state of those manufactures: the amount of the silk looms
+is there stated to be 16,000, and the persons of both sexes employed at
+them, 130,000. These manufactures had greatly declined even in the last
+century. We learn from Francisco Martínez de la Mata, in his
+_Discursos_, published in 1659, according to a memoir presented to the
+king by an _alcalde_ of the silk manufactures of Seville, that there
+were no more, at that time, than sixty-five looms, that a great number
+of persons having no work had quitted the town, that the population had
+decreased a third, and that many houses were shut up, uninhabited, and
+going to ruin. The silk manufactures began to look up again in the
+eighteenth century, but they are very far below the brilliant state they
+formerly displayed: in 1779 there were 2318 silk looms in Seville,
+including those for stockings, slight stuffs, and ribbons."[15]
+
+  [14] In former times, linens and cottons painted, stencilled, or stamped
+       with decorative patterns from an iron or boxwood matrix, were
+       considered to be luxurious fabrics, and are denounced as such in
+       the sumptuary pragmatic (quoted by Miquel y Badía) issued by Jayme
+       the Conqueror in A.D. 1234: "Item statuimos quod nos nec aliquis
+       subditus noster non portet vestes _incisas_, _listatas_, vel
+       trepatas."
+
+       Latterly, these kind of stuffs were made in great quantities at
+       Barcelona, and exported to other Spanish provinces, as well as to
+       America. "Several manufactures of printed linens are established
+       here," wrote Swinburne, in 1775, "but have not yet arrived at any
+       great elegance of design or liveliness of colour." The manuscript
+       (dated about A.D. 1810) attached to my copy of Pigal's plates of
+       Spanish costume, says that the _pañoleta_ or _fichu_ (neckerchief)
+       of the women of Cartagena in their gala-dress was at that time of
+       "mousseline blanche, quelquefois brodé, et três souvent n'est
+       qu'un mouchoir d'indienne des fabriques de Barcelonne, avec une
+       brodure en fleurs rouges, le fond blanc et parsemé de petits
+       bouquets." The same manuscript describes the dress of a cook at
+       Granada:--"Le jupon (_refajo_), qui est toujours três court, est
+       en hiver de laine avec une garniture au bas: en été il est en
+       indienne. Cette _indienne_ est une sorte de percale ou toile de
+       coton peinte, dont il y a plusieurs fabriques en Catalogne. On en
+       exportait autrefois une quantité, immense que l'on portait dans
+       les Amériques Espagnoles; c'est ce qui lui a fait donner le nom
+       d'indienne."
+
+       From the same source we learn respecting another cotton fabric,
+       which might easily be thought by the unwary reader of to-day to
+       have been of Spanish manufacture, that "l'habitant de Mahon fait
+       en été un grand usage de l'étoffe des Indes appelée _nankin_.
+       Cette étoffe n'est connue dans plusieurs parties de l'Espagne que
+       sous le nom de _Mahon_."
+
+  [15] In 1799 the Marquis of Monte-Fuerte declared the silk of Seville
+       to be of as fine a quality as that of Valencia and Carmona.
+       (_Discurso sobre el plantío de moreras en Sevilla y sus
+       inmediaciones._)
+
+Turning our attention from Seville to Granada, we find that the fame of
+the silks produced in this latter city, or rather kingdom (for silk was
+raised in great quantities throughout the entire region) extended as far
+abroad as Constantinople, and that they were used in Greece in the reign
+of Comnenus. The Muzarabs, who petitioned Alfonso el Batallador to bring
+an expedition to their rescue and wrest Granada from her Mussulman
+lords, reported to him in enthusiastic terms the quality and abundance
+of the silk of that locality, and many a document and chronicle record
+its vogue among the Spanish Christians of the Middle Ages.
+
+The Alcaicería or silk-market of Granada is referred to by various of
+the older writers, including Marineus Siculus, Navagiero, Lalaing,
+Bertaut de Rouen, and Alvarez de Colmenar. The name itself is stated in
+Fray Pedro de Alcalá's _Vocabulario_ to be derived from the Arabic
+_al-aqqisariya_, meaning "an exchange for merchants." Buildings, or
+groups of buildings, of this kind existed both in Spain and in Morocco.
+Early in the eighteenth century a Spanish friar wrote of Fez; "The
+Moorish portion of this city is the Alcaicería. It stands nearly in the
+centre of the level part of the town, and near the principal mosque,
+resembling a town in itself, with solid walls and doors, and chains
+across it to keep out the horses. It consists of fifteen streets of
+wealthy shops, stretching without a break, and what is sold in
+them--whether of linen, silk, or cloth--is of the richest and the
+noblest quality."
+
+Very similar are the descriptions relative to the Alcaicería of Granada
+in the olden time. Bertaut de Rouen wrote of it, and of the adjoining
+Zacatin; "En retournant devers la porte d'Elvire est le _Zacatin_, qui
+est une rue paralelle au Canal du Darro, longue et assez estroite, qui
+vient de la place de la Chancellerie à la place de _Vivarambla_. Dans
+cette rue sont tous les orfévres, les marchands de soie, de rubans, de
+vermillon, qui croist assez près de Grenade, dont on fait là grand
+trafic. C'est une plante semblable à celle du Safran, dont il y a
+beaucoup dans ces quartiers-là.
+
+"Dans cette mesme rue du _Zacatin_ donne d'un costé l'_Alcayzerie_, qui
+est une espèce de Halle couverte à la manière de la Foire Saint Germain,
+où sont plusieurs boutiques remplies des Marchandises les plus
+curieuses. Ils disent que cette place, aussi bien que beaucoup d'autres
+des autres Villes d'Andalousie, se nomme ainsi à cause d'un privilege
+que donnerent les Cesars aux Arabes de travailler en Soye."
+
+Alvarez de Colmenar wrote of the same edifice, a few years later than
+Bertaut; "Vis-à-vis de la Chancellerie on voit une maison fort longue,
+nommée Alcacéria (_sic_), partagée en près de deux cent boutiques, où
+les Marchands ètalent tout sorte de marchandises, particulièrement des
+étoffes en soie." On the authority of the same writer, the makers and
+the dyers of silk-stuffs inhabited another quarter of the town. "Le
+dernier quartier de la Ville, nommé Antiqueruela, est dans une plaine,
+peuplé de gens venus d'Antechera, d'où lui vient le nom qu'il porte. Ses
+habitants sont pour la plupart ouvriers en soie, tisseurs de satin, de
+tafetas, de damas; teinturiers qui teignent en pourpre, en écarlate, et
+autres ouvriers semblables." He adds; "Il s'y fait grand commerce
+d'étoffe de soie; et la Ville et les environs sont pour cet effet
+plantés d'un si grand nombre de meuriers, que le seul impôt sur les
+feuilles de ces arbres vaut annuellement trente mille écus au Roi."
+
+About the beginning of the nineteenth century Laborde wrote: "The
+Alcaicería is in the Bivarambla: it is merely an immense edifice,
+without ornament, covering a considerable extent of ground. The Moors
+used it as a bazaar, and a good many tradesmen still carry on their
+business there. It contains about two hundred shops." It remained, in
+fact, in much the same condition as when the Moors possessed it, until
+the year 1843, when a fire, which broke out on the night of July 20th of
+that year, reduced it almost totally to ashes. To-day the historic silk
+trade is no more; but the Alcaicería, consisting of a chapel and a
+street which call to mind the graceful and effective decoration of its
+predecessor, has been rebuilt with taste and accuracy from the model of
+the old.
+
+The _Ordenanzas_ of Granada city, the first edition of which was
+published in 1552, and the second in 1678, inform us very closely of the
+silk trade of that region in the times immediately succeeding the
+reconquest. Having regard to the fact that the silk was now spun in
+skeins in an imperfect manner, "with much deceit and trickery," and that
+its quality was of the worst (Ordinance of A.D. 1535), nobody was
+allowed henceforth to spin silk in or about Granada without being
+qualified through examination by the _veedores_ or inspectors appointed
+for this purpose by the corporation. The inspector might charge for this
+examination a fee of twenty-five _maravedis_, and if the candidate were
+successful he was permitted to set up his loom forthwith, and engage two
+lads or girls, not less than twelve years old, to fetch and carry at his
+wheel, "so that the work may be continued all day long."
+
+Minute instructions follow as to the method of spinning the silk, wages,
+the treatment of apprentices, and other detail. Many of these narrow
+points of city law were troublesome and senseless, and must have tended
+to destroy the trade. For instance, the earnings of a master-spinner,
+after paying the lads or girls who worked for him, were limited to a
+maximum of two _reales_ and a half per day. Women were allowed to spin
+upon the following conditions: "Also, seeing that there be some honest
+women here who have no access to a public wheel, but work within their
+dwellings only, we (_i.e._ the city councillors) command that these may
+spin per thousand of cocoons, or at a daily wage, not to exceed two
+_reales_ and a half." The silk was not to be spun with an _escobilla_ or
+brush, but with the hand, obedient to the rhyming Spanish proverb which
+says, or used to say, _con escobilla el paño, y la seda con la mano_
+("brush cloth with a brush, and silk with the hand").
+
+The laws affecting the dyers of silk contain the following provisions.
+They were not to dye with pomegranate or sumach, and if the rind of the
+former fruit were found in their houses, they were liable to a fine of
+six thousand _maravedis_ and thirty days' imprisonment. Dyeing with
+Brazil-wood was also prohibited in the case of silks of finer quality
+exposed for sale in the Alcaicería. Elaborate directions follow as to
+the manner of applying the dye. In the case of silks dyed blue or
+purple, the dyer, before he drew the fabric from the vat, was required
+to show it to the _alamin_ or inspector of the silk, or else to one of
+the _veedores_ nominated by the city councillors. The fines imposed upon
+the dyers who were found to contravene these regulations were
+distributed in the following proportion: one-third towards repairing the
+ramparts or _adarves_ of Granada; another third between the _alamin_,
+the _veedores_, and the other officials who discovered and denounced the
+culprit; and the remaining third between the magistrates and other
+authorities who tried and sentenced him.
+
+Further, each silk-dyer was to have six _tinajas_, or large jars (see
+Vol. II., pp. 120 _et seq._), kept continually full of dye, well
+settled, and liable at any hour to be analyzed by the _veedores_. In
+dyeing fabrics black, each pound of silk was to be treated with ten
+ounces of foreign galls of fine quality, two ounces of copperas, and two
+ounces of gum-arabic.
+
+It is evident that nearly all this legislation was of a mischievous
+character, nor can it cause surprise that certain of the silk-makers of
+this locality should have been in the habit of committing many kinds of
+fraud, such as mixing salt or oil with the raw material, in order to
+increase its weight. Thus, at the same time that the laws themselves
+were made more numerous and stringent, the more elaborate and various
+were the shifts invented by the citizens as a means to violate those
+laws. The inspectors were empowered to enter a shop and examine its
+contents at any hour. Sometimes, we read, such ingress was denied them,
+and the door was kept closed, or slammed in their faces. The penalty for
+this resistance was a fine of two thousand _maravedis_ and twenty days
+imprisonment. No silk-spinner was allowed to possess more than two
+spinning-wheels (Ordinance of November 18th, 1501), or to keep these
+working after midnight, for we are told that in this way the _veedores_
+were impeded from paying their official visit in the small hours of the
+morning, and much "deceit and insult" was the consequence. This
+Ordinance was confirmed by a royal rescript of 1542.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                         VELVET MADE AT GRANADA
+                         (_Late 15th Century_)]
+
+Another group of _Ordenanzas_ concerns the weavers and the
+silk-merchants of the Alcaicería, determining that no silk was to be
+imported from the kingdoms of Valencia or Murcia, and that no merchant
+was to buy the raw material in order to resell it at a profit, but might
+only trade in the productions of his own factory. Minute instructions
+are appended for weaving the various stuffs which had a silk foundation,
+such as several kinds of damask, scarlet velvet[16] many kinds of satin,
+velvet dyed with Brazil-wood, taffeta of four leishes, taffeta of two
+leishes, and _sargas_, or silken serge. Other fabrics mentioned in the
+Ordinances are _tocas_ called "San Juanes," _campuses moriscos_
+(elsewhere "las tocas moriscas que se llaman _campuzas_"), "las tocas
+moriscas labradas que se dizen _coninos_," _quinales_ and _alfardillas_,
+_alcaydias_, _tocas de Reyna_, and _espumillas_. Most of these names are
+of obscure meaning at the present day; but I find that _espumillas_ were
+silken crape, while _alfardillas_ are defined in the old dictionary of
+Fathers Connelly and Higgins as "an ancient kind of silken ribbon, or
+tape."
+
+  [16] Granada was especially renowned for her velvets (Plate vii.),
+       grounded or relieved, in the oriental manner, with gold or silver.
+
+No weaver was allowed to be the owner of more than four looms for making
+velvet, satin, damask, taffeta, or silken serges. The apprentice to a
+satin-maker required to be bound for a minimum term of three years, the
+apprentice to a damask-maker for five years, the apprentice to a
+taffeta-maker for three years. No weaver was to have more than three
+apprentices at one time, except in the case of the damask-makers, who
+might have four. No weaver might dismiss his apprentice without deponing
+to the cause before the city officers, nor might he accept money, or
+anything in lieu of money, from an apprentice. Master-weavers were
+required to pass their examinations in Granada; no other city would
+suffice.
+
+We further learn that many of the apprentices were "of evil character,"
+and damaged velvet stuffs "maliciously, though knowing perfectly how to
+weave the same." If any worker at this craft fell sick, the guild or
+_oficio_ was to defray the expenses of his cure, including physic "until
+he be recovered, provided his be not a venereal ailment, or a wound
+inflicted with a knife." If he succumbed, the guild was to bury him; and
+when a master-weaver died, his apprentices were compelled to serve out
+the rest of their indentures with his widow, or his sons. No slave might
+learn to weave, even though he should be made a _horro_ or freedman.
+
+Other ordinances refer to the officers known as Xelizes and Almotalefes
+of the silk, the privilege of appointing whom had been conferred upon
+the town-council by Ferdinand and Isabella. It was the business of the
+_almotalefe_ or _motalefe_ to collect silk throughout the _alcarias_ or
+villages of the surrounding districts, and convey it, on behalf of the
+owner, to a _xeliz_ or "superintendent of the market," attached to one
+or other of the three Alcaicerías of the kingdom of Granada. The
+_xeliz_, in his turn, was required to see that the parcel was put up for
+sale by public auction and disposed of to the highest bidder, after
+which he handed to the _motalefe_ a certificate of the price obtained,
+together with the corresponding cash, less certain fees deducted for
+himself and calculated on a reasonable scale. The number of _motalefes_
+throughout this region was evidently large, because in the year 1520 the
+town-council resolved to appoint as many as "one or two in every town
+and district."
+
+Ordinances to the above effect were notified to the city of Almuñecar,
+and the towns of Motril, Salobreña, and the Alpujarras; from which we
+must infer that, though subordinated to the capital herself, these
+places also were silk-producing centres of no slight importance.
+
+Further laws relating to the Xelizes were passed in 1535. On August
+13th, the mayor of Granada (described as the "very magnificent" Señor
+Hernan Darias de Saavedra) summoned before him these officials in order
+to admonish them respecting certain fresh decisions that had been
+adopted by the councillors. The said Xelizes were six in all, known
+severally as Juan Ximenez, Hernando el Comarxi, Juan Infante Zaybona,
+Juan de Granada, Lorenzo el Mombatan, and Francisco Hernandez
+Almorox--names which are of interest, as showing that the Morisco
+element was still of weight among the manufacturers and merchants of
+Granada. From this time forth, and by the resolution of the town
+authorities, the Xelizes in question were called upon to lodge a deposit
+of one thousand ducats as security for the value of the silk entrusted
+them for sale. Besides this, the silk was to be sold in the
+Zaguaque--that is, by public auction "as in the time of the Moors," from
+two in the afternoon onward. The buyer was required to settle his
+account before ten in the morning of the day next following his
+purchase. Failing this, the silk was to be again put up for sale, and
+the costs of this new operation were charged to the defaulting first
+purchaser, who was further obliged to pay a daily compensation of two
+_reales_ to the _motalefe_ who had brought the silk to market. Xelizes
+were strictly forbidden to traffic on their own account, and the fines
+for infringing any of these laws were heavy. If the infraction were
+repeated once, the fine was doubled; if twice, in addition to the same
+amount in money, the transgressor was banished for all his lifetime from
+Granada.
+
+All pieces of stuff which measured ten yards long and upwards, and which
+it was desired to sell within the capital or district of Granada,
+required to be marked with the weaver's stamp. If three pieces were sold
+together, or sent abroad to other places to be sold, they required to be
+stamped with the city seal at a fee for stamping of two _maravedis_ the
+piece. This was to be performed by the _veedores_, who were also to keep
+a register of all the city looms, and pay them a visit of inspection
+once at least in every month.
+
+Finally, one of the most ridiculous and noxious of these ordinances
+forbade the planting of more mulberry-trees in or about Granada;
+notwithstanding that it was also forbidden to deal in silk imported from
+Valencia or Murcia, as the merchants were said to mingle these foreign
+silks with that of Granada herself, to the detriment of the latter.
+
+Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the silk-trade of
+this capital remained in much the same condition. In 1747 a company was
+formed at Granada titled the "Compañía Real de Comercio y Fábricas de
+Granada," and the formal prospectus of this society, of which document a
+printed copy is in my possession, was embodied in a royal _cedula_ dated
+in the same year. The preliminary remarks attached to this certificate
+explain that the people of Granada were now reduced to "the most unhappy
+state of poverty, insomuch that nowhere is there memory of a greater
+horde of mendicants." The principal cause of this distress is stated to
+be the ruin of the silk-trade, in which disaster may be recognised the
+consequences of the senseless legislation I have instanced in the
+foregoing paragraphs. The fifteen thousand looms which once upon a time
+existed there had dwindled to six hundred, and the production of raw
+silk, from one million pounds a year to one hundred thousand. The new
+Company was floated with the professed ambition of restoring Granada to
+a measure of her old prosperity. The capital was half a million _pesos_,
+divided into shares of two hundred _pesos_ each; but silk and woven
+fabrics generally, whose value had been suitably appraised by the
+authorities, were admissible in payment of a share. The holder of each
+five shares enjoyed one vote, except in the case of founders, who were
+privileged, as "instruments of this important establishment," to vote
+upon possession of a single share. If a shareholder wished to sell his
+interest, the Company was to have the first refusal. It further
+possessed initially in cash a sum exceeding one hundred and twenty
+thousand _pesos_--sufficient to construct and work three thousand looms
+in all; and it engaged, in return for certain favours and exemptions
+under royal warrant, to set up twenty looms for making serges of fine
+quality, and eight more in each year, for the space of ten years, for
+making _carros de oro_, _medios carros_, _anascotes finos_,
+_christales_, "and every other kind of stuff that is not manufactured in
+this kingdom."
+
+The favours and exemptions thus solicited were of a very mischievous
+character; for the political mind of Spain was not yet shrewd enough to
+grasp the fact that where all competition is removed, quality cannot but
+decline. The products of the Company were freed from paying taxes for
+ten, or in the case of stuffs whose price amounted to six _reales_ per
+yard, for twenty years. Similarly, all of its merchandise exported to
+America "in _flotas_, _galeones_, _registros_, or other craft of those
+that are permitted," was freed from all except the royal dues on
+loading, although if shipped to other parts it was to pay a tax of fifty
+_maravedis_ for each Castilian pound of sixteen ounces. All the
+materials and ingredients required by the Company in the preparation of
+its fabrics were exempted from customs and other dues. The Company
+enjoyed a preferential right to purchase silk throughout the kingdom of
+Granada, and such as it abstained from purchasing was to be sold by
+public auction in the Alcaicerías of Granada and Málaga, that of Almería
+being henceforth suppressed. The Company was also empowered to introduce
+silk from Murcia and Valencia, and the determination to crush all
+private enterprise is clearly expressed by the twenty-second heading of
+this document, which says; "All manufacturers and traders who do not
+associate themselves with this body shall pay the full tariff of dues at
+present established." The Company was further empowered to compel the
+inhabitants of this locality to plant new lots of mulberry-trees, "in
+view of the notorious fact that not the one-hundredth part remains of
+all that were delivered by the Royal Census to the occupants of the
+kingdom of Granada at the time of the reconquest." The Company might
+further open shops and erect warehouses wherever it chose. Its assets
+were to enjoy perpetual immunity from seizure by the city council,
+whether as a loan or otherwise, and none of its servants might be called
+upon to serve the Crown in the event of war.
+
+Very shortly after its foundation, this Company united (each bringing
+half the capital) with another powerful association titled the
+Commercial Company of Estremadura, with a view to securing a conjoint
+Crown monopoly or "exclusive privilege" for Portugal, "to the effect
+that only these two companies may traffic there in silk, and none other
+of my vassals or the inhabitants of my dominions may do business,
+whether in pure silk, or silk mixed with silver or with gold, in the
+kingdom of Portugal aforesaid."
+
+The privilege was granted in these terms, and bears the royal signature,
+attached at Aranjuez, June 17th, 1747. Its provisions were to last for
+ten years, and, in return for their concession, the two Companies
+engaged for a like term of ten years to set up fifty silk-looms annually
+at Toledo, "over and above the looms at present working in that city."
+
+I have not been able to trace, in writing or in print, the subsequent
+records of the Royal Commercial and Manufacturing Company of Granada,
+although I have been told that it existed for some time, and that on one
+occasion there was a riot among the townsfolk in opposition to its
+tyranny.[17] In 1776 Swinburne wrote of the same region: "The annual
+produce of silk in this province, before the year 1726, seldom fell
+short of two millions six hundred thousand pounds weight, whereas now it
+does not exceed one hundred thousand." Judging from this, the Company
+does not appear to have prospered. In 1775 the same author wrote of
+other and more fertile silk-producing districts: "The manufacturers of
+silk are the cause of a population (_i.e._ in Valencia) that may be
+reckoned considerable, if compared to that of other provinces of Spain.
+The produce of this article came this year to one million pounds, but
+one year with another the average quantity is about nine hundred
+thousand pounds, worth a doubloon a pound in the country. The crop of
+silk this last season was very abundant. Government has prohibited the
+exportation of Valencian raw silk, in order to lay in a stock to keep
+the artificers constantly employed in bad years; for it has happened in
+some, that half the workmen have been laid idle for want of materials.
+As they are not so strict about Murcian silk, which is of an inferior
+quality, I am told that some from Valencia is sent out of Spain under
+that denomination. The great nurseries of mulberry-plants in this plain
+(the Huerta of Valencia) are produced from seed obtained by rubbing a
+rope of _esparto_ over heaps of ripe mulberries, and then burying the
+rope two inches under ground. As the young plants come up, they are
+drawn and transplanted. The trees, which are all of the white kind, are
+afterwards set out in rows in the fields, and pruned every second year;
+in Murcia, only every third year, and in Granada never. The Granadine
+silk is esteemed the best of all; and the trees are all of the black
+sort of mulberry."
+
+  [17] Similar companies were formed at Toledo, Zaragoza, Burgos, Seville,
+       and Zarza. For the Crown _cedula_, dated February 10th, 1748,
+       authorizing the Real Compañía de Comercio y Fábricas of Toledo,
+       see Larruga's _Memorias_, Vol. VII., p. 63.
+
+According to Laborde, who wrote some twenty-five years later; "The
+cultivation of silk was formerly very flourishing in Andalusia; the
+kingdoms of Granada, Seville, and Jaen produced immense quantities of
+it, but after the conquest of those countries it was burdened with heavy
+taxes: silk was made subject to ecclesiastical tithes payable in kind;
+the royal tenth it paid under the Moors was retained, estimated at three
+_reales vellon_ each pound of silk. To these were added a duty of
+_tartil_ of seventeen _maravedis_ per pound and duties of _alcabalas_
+and _cientos_, fixed at eleven _reales_ thirty-two _maravedís_. There
+accrued from it a tax of fifteen _reales_ fifteen _maravedís_ for the
+king, and six _reales_, or thereabouts, for the ecclesiastical tithe,
+making together twenty-one _reales_ fifteen _maravedís_, or about four
+shillings and sixpence the pound, which at that time sold only for
+thirty _reales_, or six shillings and three pence English. The
+speculators were consequently discouraged, most of them relinquished a
+labour from which they derived so little profit, and this branch of
+industry entirely failed in the kingdoms of Cordova and Seville, and
+afterwards in those of Granada and Jaen. For some time it has been
+looking up in the two latter kingdoms, but it is very far from what it
+was under the Moors. The mulberries of Granada and Jaen are black; they
+are suffered to grow without any care or management, are never lopped or
+dressed, and look as if they were planted by chance."
+
+Of Murcia he wrote; "This province has the raw materials of other
+manufactures no less important. In the first place, it has a prodigious
+quantity of silkworms, which are not turned to advantage; most of the
+raw silks are sold to the neighbouring provinces, and manufactured silk
+is imported from foreign looms, though the inhabitants might manufacture
+their own materials, and make it an article of considerable exportation.
+The town of Murcia is the only place where they work some small
+quantity; there they manufacture a few slight silks, chiefly taffetas
+and velvets, but of an inferior quality; and the whole is confined to a
+small number of looms. They make a much greater quantity of ribbons, in
+which twelve hundred looms are employed; but they are badly dyed, and
+have not a good gloss. The Murcians likewise prepare the raw silk, spin,
+and twist it; they have even a warden, and a great number of masters in
+this business, and, in spite of its importance, they carry it on without
+being subject to any superintendence, everyone doing as he pleases. The
+consequence is that the silk is badly prepared and spun unequally. The
+threads are collected without any method, sometimes more, sometimes
+less, and then twisted unequally. They are of course unfit to make fine
+stuffs, and the trade of Murcia is therefore declining.... Silk stuffs,
+satins, velvets, and taffetas are made here, but there is no great
+manufactory of them. They are wrought at private houses, and are but of
+a middling quality."
+
+Toledo silk, including the delicate and costly _cendal_ (see pp. 5, 6)
+which is mentioned in the sumptuary law, dated 1348, of Alfonso the
+Eleventh, was largely in demand from early in the Middle Ages till about
+the sixteenth century. The statements of the older writers as to this
+neighbourhood are contradictory. According to Damián de Olivares,
+himself a native of Toledo, this city in the sixteenth century possessed
+between five thousand five hundred and six thousand looms, consuming
+annually more than six hundred thousand pounds of raw silk. Other
+authors estimate the number of her looms at twenty, thirty, or even
+forty thousand. Writing in our own time, Count Cedillo is responsible
+for declaring that after the revolt of the Communities, the persons
+occupied in weaving silk amounted to fifty thousand, all of whom were
+natives of Toledo and the neighbouring villages; and he adds, perhaps a
+little rashly, that the velvets, damasks, satins, and taffetas of this
+locality were "unrivalled, even in comparison with the admirable
+products of Seville, Cordova, and Granada."[18] Certainly, the silk
+stockings of Toledo enjoyed a wide-spread fame, and were used, among
+other distinguished patrons, by the Duke of Guise and by Philip the
+Second. They were also exported in quantities to America. Banners,
+altar-fronts, and vestments for religious worship were also made here in
+large numbers, and of excellent quality, both in silk alone, and in this
+substance mixed with gold and silver.
+
+  [18] _Toledo en el Siglo XVI._ Miquel y Badía says that in the fifteenth
+       century Toledo, together with Genoa and Venice, manufactured superb
+       velvets, coloured crimson, blue, purple, or yellow, and figured
+       with pineapples or pomegranates (Plate iv.). The latter tree and
+       fruit are commonly related, in Spain, with the city of _Granada_;
+       but quite apart from this, the pomegranate was formerly regarded as
+       a symbol of fecundity and life. (See Goblet d'Alviella, _La
+       Migration des Symboles_, p. 184, and also Madame Errera's
+       Catalogue, No. 50.) In these velvets the gold thread is woven with
+       consummate skill, and forms, in the costliest and most elaborate
+       specimens, a groundwork of exceedingly small rings. These fabrics
+       were used as hangings for beds and walls, as well as for the
+       clothing of great lords and ladies. Touching the use of silk for
+       certain articles of dress, an amusing story is told in the MS.
+       account of Valladolid, published by Gayangos in the _Revista de
+       España_. "One day, Don Pedro de Medicis is reported to have paid
+       a visit to a married lady, to whom he had presented some damask
+       curtains, and he was wearing at the time some taffeta hose which
+       made a creaking as he walked. The lady came out of her room, and,
+       finding him in one of the lower apartments, exclaimed, 'Why do you
+       come here at such an hour, and with that silk on you which creaks
+       so loudly? Take care my husband does not hear it.' Whereto the
+       gentleman replied; 'Good God, madam, is it possible that the two
+       hundred yards of damask which I gave you for that curtain have
+       made no noise at all, but that a mere four yards of simple taffeta
+       about my breeches should put you in such consternation?'"
+
+Laborde wrote of all these manufactures at the time of their decline;
+"It is easy to estimate their former importance from the loss they
+sustained by the introduction of foreign merchandise. The memorial
+states that the consumption of silk was materially diminished, and
+computes the loss sustained by thirty-eight thousand artisans, from the
+interruption of their occupation, at 1,937,727 ducats. Symptoms of decay
+continued to increase till the middle of the sixteenth century, when
+every vestige of commerce was effaced.
+
+"Toledo remained in this state of listless despondence till the present
+archbishop made a noble effort to revive the love of industry, and to
+open an asylum for the tribes of mendicants, accustomed from infancy to
+subsist on precarious bounty. The measure adopted by this prelate was to
+establish in the Alcazar various branches of manufacture, such as linen,
+ribbons, cloths, serges, woollen stuffs, and silk stuffs of every
+description. He introduced also another branch of occupation,
+appropriated solely to the production of sacerdotal ornaments. In 1791
+there were a hundred and twelve manufactories in Toledo, ten for lawns
+and canvas, twelve for ribbons, fifty-five for silk, and seven for
+sacerdotal ornaments. At this period the indigent class employed in them
+amounted to six hundred people, who were instructed in various
+processes, and were led insensibly to acquire the useful habits of
+industry. They were taught to draw, to prepare the materials, and to
+perform the manufacture; and each was destined to pursue some occupation
+suitable to his age, his inclination, and his abilities."
+
+In 1786 Townsend, himself a clergyman, had written of Toledo in far less
+hopeful terms. "This city, which contained two hundred thousand souls,
+is now reduced to less than twenty-five thousand. The citizens are fled;
+the monks remain. Here we find twenty-six parish churches, thirty-eight
+convents, seventeen hospitals, four colleges, twelve chapels, and
+nineteen hermitages, the monuments of its former opulence." Townsend's
+good taste, unusual for a traveller of that time, was horrified at the
+profanation of the Alcazar, whose "magnificent apartments are now
+occupied with spinning-wheels and looms, and instead of princes they are
+filled with beggars. The good archbishop here feeds seven hundred
+persons, who are employed in the silk manufactory; but unfortunately,
+with the best intentions, he has completed the ruin of the city; for by
+his weight of capital, he has raised the price both of labour and of the
+raw material, whilst, by carrying a greater quantity of goods to the
+common market, he has sunk the price of the commodity so much, that the
+manufacturers, who employed from forty to sixty workmen, now employ only
+two or three, and many who were in affluence are now reduced to penury.
+
+"These people are so far from earning their own maintenance, that over
+and above the produce of their labour they require forty thousand ducats
+a year for their support."
+
+Alvarez de Colmenar, Ricord, Bourgoing, Laborde, and other writers,
+Spanish and non-Spanish, of the eighteenth century, inserted full
+descriptions of the silk trade of Valencia and Barcelona. "On y fait,"
+wrote Alvarez de Colmenar of the former of these towns, "de très bonnes
+draperies, fortes, d'un bon et long usage, et propres à résister à la
+pluie, et grande quantité d'étoffes de soie; delà vient que les
+meuriers, dont les feuilles servent à nourrir les vers à soie, y font
+d'un fort gros revenu pour les habitans." Ricord, in his scarce
+pamphlet, printed at Valencia in 1793, gives valuable statistics
+relating to this industry and locality, prefacing his figures arranged
+in tabular form by the following remarks: "The silk factories of this
+province form the principal basis of her commerce. They not only consume
+all the silk which is raised in the kingdom (of Valencia), and which, in
+1791, amounted to 581,688 pounds of fine silk, 93,800 of that of
+Alducar, and 26,115 of _hiladillo_, but they also require to provide
+themselves from Aragon and other parts of Spain, or even from abroad,
+seeing that in the year aforesaid more than 37,000 pounds were imported
+from foreign countries." The tabular statement appended to these
+observations tells us that in the region of Valencia the looms for
+making fine and silken fabrics such as velvets, _anascotes_, stockings,
+handkerchiefs, scarves, garters, and ribbons, gave employment to a total
+of 9,668 workmen, and were distributed among the towns or villages of
+Valencia, Alcira, San Felipe, Alcoy, Vilanesa, Denia, Ruzafa, Alicante,
+Peniscola, Beniganim, Pego, Olivo, Liria, Asuevar, Orihuela, Gandia,
+Elche, Castellon, and Vall de Almonacid. Riaño admits, however, that
+this manufacture might have prospered even more, if means had been
+adopted to suppress certain acts committed by the weavers, spinners, and
+twisters of the silk.
+
+More curious and instructive is the description of the same industry by
+Jean-François Bourgoing, whose observations, evidently secured at
+first-hand, are worth translating _in extenso_:--
+
+"What attracted us still more than the fine-art works were the stuffs
+produced at the silk-factories, which constitute the principal glory of
+Valencia and contribute to her prosperous condition. We followed all the
+process of this manufacture, from the cultivation of the mulberry-tree
+to the weaving of the richest fabrics. I will try, therefore, to give a
+comprehensive account of them.
+
+"Spain, and particularly the kingdom of Valencia, could well export her
+silk to foreign parts, even after setting apart a quantity sufficient
+for her factories. Government, however, does not appear to be convinced
+of this, because it offers constant hindrance to such exportation, or
+else, when it consents to it, imposes heavy dues. These dues consist of
+nine _reales_ and a _quartillo_, or nearly two _livres_ seven _francs_
+per each Valencian pound of silk, which only weighs twelve ounces, and
+is worth at least fifteen _livres_ when it is in the raw state. When the
+silk harvest has been scanty, as in the year 1784, it has been known to
+fetch eighty _reales_ or twenty _livres_. This year, too, the yield of
+silk has been so small that the manufacturers of Valencia petitioned
+Government to allow the introduction, duty-free, of two hundred thousand
+pounds of it from Italy and France.
+
+"In ordinary years, the pound of (raw) silk costs eight _reales_ for
+twisting and three _reales_ for dyeing in green, blue or other common
+colours; so that this material, ready to use, costs altogether about
+seventy-one _reales_ the pound, or seventeen to eighteen francs of our
+money.
+
+"Of course this price varies according to circumstances. One of the
+causes which exercise the greatest influence on this fluctuation is the
+harvest of the mulberry. These valuable trees are thickly planted over
+the champaign of Valencia, and all of them are of the white-leaved kind.
+This distinction, which would be superfluous in France, is by no means
+so in Spain, where, in several provinces, as, for instance, the kingdom
+of Granada, the leaves of the black mulberry are used to nourish the
+silkworms, and yield almost as handsome a silk as those of the
+white.[19]
+
+  [19] "The mulberry of Valencia is the _white_, as being most suitable to
+       a well-watered plain. In Granada they give the preference to the
+       _black_, as thriving well in elevated stations, as more durable,
+       more abundant in leaves, and yielding a much finer and more
+       valuable silk. But then it does not begin bearing till it is about
+       twenty years of age. In this province they reckon that five trees
+       should produce two pounds of silk.
+
+       "I had the curiosity to examine their method of feeding the
+       silkworms. These industrious spinners are spread upon wicker
+       shelves, which are placed one above the other, all round, and
+       likewise in the middle of each apartment, so as to leave room only
+       for the good woman to pass with their provisions. In one house I
+       saw the produce of six ounces of seed, and was informed that to
+       every ounce, during their feeding season, they allow sixty
+       _arrobas_ of leaves, valued at two pounds five. Each ounce of seed
+       is supposed to yield ten pounds of silk, at twelve ounces to the
+       pound. March 28th, the worms began to hatch, and May 22nd they went
+       up to spin. On the eleventh day, from the time that they were
+       hatched, they slept; and on the fourteenth, they awoke to eat
+       again, receiving food twice a day till the twenty-second day.
+       Having then slept a second time, without interruption, for three
+       days, they were fed thrice a day; and thus alternately they
+       continued eating eight days and sleeping three, till the
+       forty-seventh day; after which they ate voraciously for ten
+       days, and not being stinted, consumed sometimes from thirty to
+       fifty _arrobas_ in four and twenty hours. They then climbed up
+       into rosemary bushes, fixed for that purpose between the shelves,
+       and began to spin.
+
+       "Upon examination, they appear evidently to draw out two threads
+       by the same operation, and to glue these together, covering them
+       with wax. Thismay be proved by spirit of wine, which will dissolve
+       the wax, and leave the thread. Having exhausted her magazine, the
+       worm changes her form and becomes a nymph, until the seventy-first
+       day from the time that the little animal was hatched, when she
+       comes forth with plumage, and having found her mate, begins to
+       lay her eggs. At the end of six days from this period of existence,
+       having answered the end of their creation, they both lie down and
+       die. This would be the natural progress; but, to preserve the silk,
+       the animal is killed by heat, and the cones being thrown into
+       boiling water, the women and children wind off the
+       silk."--Townsend; _Journey through Spain in the years 1786 and
+       1787_; Vol. III., pp. 264-266.
+
+"The leaves to these mulberry-trees are sold by the load of ten
+_arrobas_; and the Valencian _arroba_, which is about equal to
+twenty-seven French pounds, cost, in 1783, about thirty _sols tournois_.
+
+"The mulberry leaves are gathered once, twice, or, at most, three times
+in each year; but it is not often that the two last crops are of as fine
+a quality or as abundant as the first. The greater part of the year is
+suited for harvesting the leaves, and this harvesting is carried out
+progressively as the silkworms copulate, steadily increasing in quantity
+up to the moment when they build their cocoons. As a rule only the
+leaves are plucked, the branches being spared as far as possible. Thus
+despoiled of its verdure in the middle of the finest times of year,
+although surrounded by a dazzling vegetation, the tree looks like a dry
+log floating on a green expanse of waters, while the mass of naked
+trunks which seem to be completely sterile, and which grow more numerous
+as the season advances, combine to render cheerless a prospect otherwise
+so fertile and so smiling. Still worse becomes their state when the
+trees are pruned entirely of their branches--an operation which is
+performed upon them at least once in every three years.
+
+"In the space of ten years the kingdom of Valencia has yielded six
+million pounds of silk, which makes a yearly average of six hundred
+thousand pounds; and as the whole of Spain produces a million pounds per
+annum, we see from this that Valencia alone supplies more than half of
+the entire quantity. The silks of Valencia are the finest of the whole
+Peninsula, and fit to be compared with the best of Europe generally, but
+the spinning is still imperfect, because in Spain there are not, as in
+France and elsewhere, houses where the women who spin are gathered
+together under the eye of an inspector to see that all the silk is spun
+evenly. In the kingdom of Valencia the spinning is distributed among
+several thousand hands, who introduce six, seven, eight, or even more
+ends in a thread of silk which should always have the same number; hence
+the unevennesses in the fabrics which are woven from them, while for the
+same reason we do not utilize for any delicate work the raw material
+which we import from Spain. The silk we employ for our costlier fabrics
+is of the kind which we import from Piedmont and the southern provinces
+of France. Also, for the last few years we have felt less need of the
+Valencian silk. The laws prohibiting the exportation of this Spanish
+silk have stimulated the cultivation of mulberry-trees in Languedoc,
+where the peasantry, alive to the profit which these trees could render
+them, have preferred them to other kinds for planting round their
+property. This is why, in the year 1783, French silk could be bought for
+a lower price than the Valencian silk purchased in that region, plus the
+dues levied upon its exportation. I know of a merchant who at this time
+enjoyed the privilege of exporting for six years a hundred thousand
+pounds free of all dues, but who throughout the year 1783 was unable to
+find a purchaser in France. Spain could perhaps remedy the egress of her
+raw material by further increasing (as, indeed, she daily does) the
+number of her looms, and by exporting a greater number of her products
+to her American possessions; but her silk-stuffs will never be perfected
+until she markets them in foreign countries, where the taste of her
+customers may tend to better that of her manufacturers.
+
+"The silk raised in the kingdom of Valencia is estimated, during an
+average year, to be worth six or seven millions of _piastres_ (nineteen
+to twenty-two millions of _livres_.) At the time of my visit to this
+city, she only employed one half this quantity, although her looms of
+every size amounted to four thousand. The rest, in spite of the
+prohibitions laid upon its extraction, is smuggled off to foreign
+countries, escaping, sometimes to France by way of Barcelona, and
+sometimes to Portugal by way of Seville and Extremadura. Nevertheless,
+there is probably more silk in Spain to-day than formerly, and measures
+have been earnestly adopted to encourage the industries which make use
+of it. For some time past, silk-looms have been scattered over the whole
+of Cataluña, and in the kingdoms of Granada, Cordova, Seville, etc.,
+producing handkerchiefs, ribbons, and other stuffs in sufficient
+quantity to supply, or nearly so, the national market: nevertheless this
+still left a large market for our stocking-factories of Languedoc. The
+Spanish Government, by the law of 1778, limited itself to excluding
+these stockings from forming part of the foreign cargoes to the
+Colonies, but as they continued to be imported into Spain, this law was
+readily evaded, since it sufficed to stamp the French article with the
+mark of a Spanish factory. It would have required an excessive
+vigilance, almost a positive inquisition, to guard against a fraud of
+this kind, prompted by the avarice of traders. The Spanish Government
+next sought, by the law of 1785, to put a stop to it by totally
+excluding our silk stockings, and this measure, together with the
+establishment of a number of new looms in Spain, has produced an almost
+absolute stagnation in the market which our factories of Languedoc had
+formerly enjoyed in the Peninsula. But let me return now to the
+Valencian factories.
+
+"This city has no one building in which might be performed the whole of
+the processes through which the silk must pass. Any person who wishes to
+examine them, must visit several workshops; and this was the course
+which we adopted, under the guidance of a manufacturer as intelligent as
+he is amiable, named Don Manuel Foz, a gentleman who has travelled
+extensively in order to perfect his knowledge of handling silk, and who,
+among other secrets, has brought from Constantinople the art of watering
+silken stuffs. As a reward for his activity, he has been appointed
+_Intendente_ of all the factories of Valencia.
+
+"There are hardly any merchants at Valencia who are not more or less
+concerned in silk-making: indeed, they look upon this industry as quite
+a _point d'honneur_. Some of them supply with silk no more than four or
+five looms, which work at their expense, while others have under their
+control as many as several hundred.
+
+"After the silkworm has cleverly built its cell, the first thing to be
+done is to stifle it before it can pierce the cocoon in search of a new
+existence. For this purpose the cocoons are thrown into a moderately
+heated oven; and then, when once the worm is killed, they can be kept
+without being spun for as long as may be needed.
+
+"In order to strip them of their covering of silk, they are thrown into
+hot water, after which the women workers pick up, and with surprising
+quickness, the threads of several of them, join them, and deal them out,
+thus joined, on wheels constructed for this object. On the design of the
+wheels depends the degree of thoroughness with which the silk is spun;
+but those which are employed in Spain are generally the most imperfect,
+as I shall presently explain.
+
+"I have already said that the slip of silk should be drawn from at least
+four cocoons, and even then it only serves for making slender fabrics,
+such as taffeta or ribbon. We were shown, indeed, a skein which was
+assured to contain no more than two cocoons; but so slight a slip is of
+no use at all. Most of them are made from seven or eight cocoons, and
+two of the former are joined in order to form a thread sufficient to be
+placed upon the loom.
+
+"My readers are sure to know that all woven fabrics consist of two
+distinct parts, the woof and the warp. The woof is that which is passed
+by the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other, and which is
+enchased between the two surfaces formed by the warp. As the woof is
+subjected to more wear and tear than the warp, it should be stouter. For
+this reason each of the two ends of which it is composed is twisted
+separately before the two are twisted together, while for the warp the
+latter of these processes is sufficient. The result of this difference
+is that, when looked at beneath the microscope, the thread of the woof
+has an uneven look, as though it were a small cable, while that of the
+warp looks flat and smooth, and is therefore adapted to reflect the
+light, receiving the shiny look which makes a silk-stuff so attractive.
+
+"But the beauty of these fabrics depends, above all else, upon the way
+in which the silk is divided as it is drawn from the cocoon. This first
+stage of the spinning is performed in one or other of three ways,
+according to the kind of wheel which is employed for it. The method
+which the Spaniards have adopted from an early period has the following
+drawback; that the small threads of six, seven, and eight cocoons which
+are stripped at the same time, go to form a single thread, and are
+deposited upon a small spindle without the thread rubbing against
+another one, which friction serves to lay the little hairs which bristle
+up, so that the slip of silk thus formed retains a hairy nap and is
+easily frayed. In the Piedmontese method, on the other hand, each slip
+is joined to another, and is not drawn apart until it has been twisted
+round it four or five times.
+
+"The third method, known as that of Vaucanson, is more expensive than
+the one last mentioned. In the wheel invented by Vaucanson, the two
+silk-slips are reunited after the first twisting, in order to be twisted
+once again. This operation is called the 'double _croissade_.'
+
+"If these threads, thus placed on bobbins, are intended for the woof,
+they are enchased perpendicularly in a machine consisting of several
+compartments, in which they are twisted separately. Thence they are
+transferred to another machine, in which they are twisted all together;
+after which they are ready for the loom. Those which are destined for
+the web are not twisted (as I have explained above) until the moment
+when they are united. Both at Valencia and at Talavera de la Reina these
+machines, so precious to the weaver's craft, and which economise manual
+toil, are not unknown.[20]
+
+  [20] They certainly were not unknown at Valencia. I have before me a
+       copy of the work, _Disertacion descriptiva de la Hilaza de la Seda,
+       segun el antiguo modo de hilar y el nuevo llamado de Vaucanson_,
+       written by the priest Francisco Ortells y Gombau, and published at
+       Valencia in 1783, by order of the Royal Council of Commerce and
+       Agriculture. This book, which clearly sets forth the superiority
+       of Vaucanson's method over those which had preceded it, states
+       that at first the Valencians were strongly opposed to the
+       Vaucanson wheel, believing that it caused a loss and waste of
+       silk. Probably the real reason was that it prevented the
+       manufacturers from adding spurious weight to the silk by mixing it
+       with oil. This practice, says Ortells, was then "so widespread an
+       evil in the kingdom of Valencia, that there is hardly anybody who
+       does not resort to it: notwithstanding it has been so often
+       prohibited by His Majesty, yet openly, where all the world may
+       witness, do the workers spin with much oil added to the silk."
+
+       The Vaucanson form of wheel was also more expensive. In the region
+       of Valencia its cost was about thirty _pesos_, that of the older
+       wheels being only fifteen or sixteen _pesos_. However, this
+       difficulty was not insuperable, for in the year 1779 the Royal
+       Council of Commerce presented a hundred and twenty Vaucanson
+       wheels to the peasants who had raised a minimum crop of a hundred
+       pounds of silk, requiring, in return, that the recipients of the
+       gift should spin not less than fifty pounds of silk per annum.
+
+"At the latter of these towns I had already seen a single toothed-wheel,
+which set in motion up to a thousand of these tiny bobbins on which are
+wound the twisted slips of silk. The wheels I saw at Valencia were
+smaller, because in this city there is not, as there is at Talavera, a
+royal factory self-contained within a single building. At Valencia each
+manufacturer, in order to carry out these various processes, requires to
+deal with workmen and machines distributed through several quarters of
+the town, and chooses from among them such as he best prefers.
+
+"Nothing can be simpler than the working of these silk-twisting
+machines, when once the toothed-wheel has set them going. The
+perpendicular movement of all these little bobbins is looked after by
+women, and even children.[21]
+
+  [21] At the time when Vaucanson's wheels began to be used in Spain, silk
+       was spun by men all over the Peninsula, except in the immediate
+       neighbourhood of Valencia (Orteils; _Hilaza de la Seda_, pp. 134
+       _et seq._) In every other region devoted to this industry such as
+       the valley of the Jucar and the Huertas of Orihuela and Murviedro,
+       as well as in the factories of Toledo, Seville, Granada, Cordova,
+       Jaén, Baeza, Talavera, and Priego, the spinning was performed by
+       men exclusively. Women, however, were often engaged in harvesting
+       the cocoons.
+
+"If they should happen to clog, a touch of the finger disengages them.
+If one of the slips should break, the harm is mended in a trice: the
+practised fingers of the machinist pick up the broken ends with
+marvellous despatch, tie them together by an imperceptible knot, and the
+bobbin which was thus delayed loses no time in overtaking its
+neighbours.
+
+"The slips of silk, before being twisted two by two, are put through
+another process which I ought to mention. When they are still in skeins
+they are spread upon a large tub in which is a quantity of viscous
+substances heated to boiling point, the gases from which tend to make
+them adhere to one another. This is termed _passer à la brève_.
+
+"Thence they are removed to the machine for twisting them. The silk, on
+issuing from this machine, is called organzine; and it is only when it
+is in this state that it can be exported from Piedmont, where the
+twisting process was better executed than elsewhere, until the time when
+it was rendered yet more perfect by Vaucanson.[22] This clever mechanic
+has combined all possible advantages relating to the business of the
+silk-weaver. His system, and no other, is practised in the Lyons
+factories; but these wheels _à double croissade_ are only available for
+silk produced in France; since that which is exported from abroad and
+which is principally used in these factories, requires to be reduced to
+organzine before it can again be taken out of the country.
+
+  [22] "I should here remark that the silk which is spun and twisted
+       according to the method of Vaucanson, forms a fabric a third part
+       closer and stronger than ordinary silk-stuffs."
+
+"In this respect Spain possesses a sensible advantage over other
+manufacturing nations; since she raises a greater quantity of silk than
+she is able to consume, and could easily put it through the most
+advanced and perfect processes; in spite of which she has clung for ages
+to her faulty method. The present government has attacked this method by
+the only means efficient to bring about a change; that is, the slow but
+certain influence of persuasion. In 1781 the Count of Floridablanca
+contracted with a French merchant settled in Madrid, that he should
+supply a hundred _tours_ of the Vaucanson pattern for spinning silk,
+first to the Murcian factories (of which province the Count was a
+native), next to the Valencian, and subsequently to any others that
+might wish for them; and with this object he granted to the merchant in
+question the privilege of exporting, free of duty, six hundred thousand
+pounds of silk in six years. Nevertheless, it is possible that this
+measure may yet remain fruitless for many years owing to the apathy of
+the Spanish manufacturers, who were loth to use a finer, closer quality
+of silk, because it must be woven with greater care owing to its
+containing three ends instead of two, the work being greater on this
+account without a corresponding increase in the gain. It has also been
+found necessary to employ Frenchmen in the earliest trials made in Spain
+of this new method.
+
+"The success of the Spaniards should not be counted on, if we are to
+judge of it by a factory, which was founded some years since at _La
+Milanesa_, a league's distance from Valencia, by an intelligent man
+named La Payessa.[23]
+
+  [23] This man, Joseph Lapayese or La Payessa, did not initiate
+       Vaucanson's method in this region. He succeeded a Frenchman named
+       Reboul, who, in 1769, and holding privileges from the Crown, began
+       to work with Vaucanson wheels at Vilanesa, near Valencia--the same
+       place which Bourgoing calls _La Milanesa_. Both the king and his
+       minister of finance, Don Miguel de Muzquiz, were keenly interested
+       in these experiments, and Muzquiz, who owned an estate near the
+       town of Sueca, in the same neighbourhood, imported four more of
+       the new wheels there, under Reboul's direction. This craftsman,
+       however, was not successful. Lapayese, who came after him and
+       enjoyed the same Crown privileges, made considerably better
+       progress, his efforts being seconded by the Royal Junta, the
+       archbishop, and other bodies or individuals of Valencia, who
+       awarded prizes of wheels and money to the best workers in the new
+       style.
+
+"He introduced the method of Vaucanson, but when I went to see his
+factory he had not seen his way to recover the money which this
+improvement had cost him. He employed barely two hundred persons for the
+most important work; nothing more was done than to spin the silk, divide
+it, and convert it into organzine. Thus treated, it cost from fifty to
+sixty _reales_ more per pound than that which is prepared according to
+the Spanish method, so that its success was but small.
+
+"I shall not describe in detail either the method of dyeing the silk, or
+that of weaving it. The first of these operations is readily imagined;
+the second is hard to understand, and still more so to explain, unless
+one is assisted by engravings. I will merely observe that all silk is
+dyed in skeins, just before it enters the loom. If it be required
+occasionally to dye it after it is woven, this is only when the silk is
+spotted, or when the dyeing of the skeins has proved a failure. At the
+time of my visit to Valencia, there were a hundred and seventeen
+master-dyers in that city, but not all of them were working.
+
+"The stuffs in which the factories of Valencia are most successful are
+principally of the smooth sort; they also make there handsome damask
+_brochés_ with large flowers for wall-hangings; but generally all that
+is undertaken is by order of the Court, Madrid, and the provinces. The
+Valencians follow as closely as possible the rapidity with which the
+French designs are changed, and those who profess to invent new ones are
+but copying the French ones in a greater or less degree.
+Notwithstanding, the Valencian Fine-Arts Academy is taking serious steps
+to form designers, and a school has been founded which has already
+developed able pupils--amongst others, a young man called Ferrers, who
+had died a short while before our arrival at the city, and some of whose
+designs of flowers we had occasion to admire.
+
+"But the process in which the Valencians particularly excel is that of
+watering stuffs, which M. Foz has rendered absolutely perfect. He gave
+us a clear account of this process, which consists in passing a cylinder
+over the stuff to be watered, this cylinder being pressed upon by a
+heavy mass moved to and fro by a mule which draws a lever round and
+round. The stuff is folded in the manner of a closed jalousie, and these
+folds require to be often varied so as to distribute the undulations
+evenly. M. Foz admitted that the shape and the arrangement of these
+undulations are more or less a matter of chance, but he proved to us
+that it is possible to influence them to some extent by moistening the
+stuff in a certain manner and direction, and this is the particular
+secret which he alone possesses in the whole of Spain. The excellence of
+this method is demonstrated by the beauty of the watered silk which
+issues from these presses. M. Foz himself set us to judge of this by
+asking us to compare the blue ribbon of the Order of Charles the Third,
+watered by himself, with those of the Order of the Holy Spirit. The
+comparison, I must admit, was far from advantageous to these last."
+
+The subsequent vicissitudes of the Valencian silk trade are indicated by
+Laborde, who wrote, some few years later than the conscientious and
+observant author of the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_:--
+
+"The mulberry-trees are of great importance; the fields of Valencia are
+covered with them, particularly in the environs of that town, in the
+dale of Elda, in the county of Carlet, in almost all the places situated
+on the sea coast, etc. There are white mulberry-trees, which are lopped
+every two years.
+
+"The leaves of these trees serve as nourishment to silkworms, which are
+raised almost everywhere in the kingdom of Valencia. Algemesi, Alcira,
+Carcagente, Castillo of San Felipe, the county of Carlet, Undasuar,
+Gandia, Denia, Orihuela, and all the villages near the sea are places
+which produce the greatest quantity.
+
+"The silk made from them is the finest in Spain. It would be equal to
+the best and finest silks of Europe, if the Valencians, in spite of the
+vivacity of their imagination, did not obstinately persist in their old
+routine in the skeining; for in the skein they put an undetermined
+number of threads. The government has hired a man who has the most
+experience in this kind of work; but in vain does he endeavour to
+instruct them, since the manufacturers continue their bad custom just
+the same. The quantity of silk wound annually is, on an average, about
+1,500,000 pounds of twelve Valencian ounces (1,312,500 pounds of sixteen
+ounces avoirdupois). It is commonly sold raw for fifty reals of vellon a
+Valencian pound, which gives a total of 75,000,000 reals of vellon
+(£731,250)....
+
+"Silk is twisted in different places in the kingdom of Valencia, for
+which purpose machines and mills are established at Gandia, San Felipe,
+Carcagente, Orihuela, and Valencia. The most important establishment of
+this kind is at La Milanesa, near the last mentioned town. Nevertheless,
+these machines are not able to furnish as much as the manufactures of
+the country require. Part of the silk is sent to Priego and Toledo in
+Andalusia, whence it is returned into the kingdom of Valencia to be
+worked....
+
+"A great many impediments are thrown in the way of the exportation of
+silk, which is only allowed for six months after the harvest. If in that
+period the national manufacturers want it, they are at liberty to take
+it from the merchants who have bought it, on reimbursing them the
+purchase-money together with six per cent. interest. The consequence is
+that the merchants, uncertain whether they will be allowed to export the
+silk which they have purchased, no longer take any foreign commissions
+for it, and so this branch of exportation has fallen. Besides this, a
+duty has been laid upon the silk sent out of the kingdom, of nine reals
+of vellon and one quartillo (1s. 11-1/4d. sterling) on every pound of
+twelve Valencian ounces, which is almost a fifth of its value. This is
+another obstacle to the exportation of it. A very small quantity,
+twisted and dyed, is sent into Portugal.
+
+"Generally 1,500,000 pounds of silk are made annually, of which
+1,100,000 are consumed in the province, and 400,000 pounds are exported
+to Talavera de la Reina, Requeña, Toledo, Granada, Seville, Priego, and
+Cataluña. From this results a product of 20,000,000 reals (£208,333,
+6s.)."
+
+Of the city of Valencia, Laborde wrote:--
+
+"The manufactories of silk are the most considerable. They employ nearly
+25,000 persons, and make taffetas, serges, silks, satins, plain damasks,
+striped, printed, of one colour and of mixed colours, full velvets,
+flowered velvets, plain and of various colours. The plain stuffs are
+those in which they succeed best. There are also fine damasks made and
+worked with large flowers."
+
+According to the same writer, the manufacture at Valencia of silk
+stockings, galloons, silk ribbon, handkerchiefs, and sashes revived to
+such an extent, that in the year 1799 the looms for producing these
+articles were 423 more than they had been in 1769. "There are 3618 silk
+looms, which work about 800,000 pounds of silk annually; the
+handkerchiefs, sashes, and other little articles of lace consume 100,000
+pounds."
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                   THE DAUGHTERS OF PHILIP THE SECOND
+                 (_By Sanchez Coello. Prado Gallery_)]
+
+Equally as instructive is Laborde's account of Barcelona.[24] After
+remarking that the decay in her manufactures lasted from the end
+of the sixteenth century till the middle of the eighteenth, he
+continues:--"They are at present in a very flourishing state, and are
+more numerous and varied than ever.... There are 524 looms of silk
+stuffs, and 2700 of ribbons and silk galloon. The silk works consist of
+taffetas, twilled and common silks, satins, and velvets of every kind
+and colour. These are mixed with gold and silver. Gold cloths and
+brocades are also made there.[25] The manufactures are not carried on by
+companies, but dispersed among the workmen themselves, by which perhaps
+the qualities may in some degree be injured. It is remarked that the
+stuffs would be better if they were closer, for their texture is
+commonly loose; they are also different in the gloss, which is seldom
+fine, and is never equal to that in the manufactures of France. Another
+fault in all these stuffs is the imperfect preparation of the silk,
+which leaves it nearly always shaggy: the cause of this is the silk
+being spun or twisted in an uneven manner. The same unpleasant effect is
+observed in the silk stockings. They cannot be fine, their stitches
+being uneven, and often large and shaggy. They do not last long, and are
+as dear as the French stockings after the duty on their entrance into
+Spain has been paid.
+
+  [24] The art of weaving silk appears to have found its way into
+       Barcelona comparatively late, for the veil-makers did not form a
+       guild of their own till A.D. 1553, the velvet-makers till 1548,
+       the silk-twisters till 1619, and the dyers of silk till 1624.
+
+  [25] Brocade (Spanish _brocado_ or _brocato_) may be generally described
+       as a silk-stuff woven with devices or raised figures in gold and
+       silver thread, or either of these metals separately (Plate viii.).
+       This costly fabric, which may be said to have superseded the
+       earlier kinds of cloth of gold, was greatly in vogue in older
+       Spain, especially throughout the fifteenth, sixteenth, and
+       seventeenth centuries. It is constantly referred to by her writers
+       ("No siendo nueva la que prohibe las telas de oro, los _brocados_,
+       y tabies."--Fernandez Navarrete; _Conservacion de Monarquías_,
+       p. 231), and denounced by her priests (Fray Luis de León, "Y ha de
+       venir la tela de no sé donde, y _el brocado de mas altos_, y el
+       ambar que bañe el guante"), or in the pragmatics of her kings
+       (_e.g._ that of September 2nd, 1494, and of 1611: "Está prohibido
+       todo género de colgaduras, tapicerias sillas, coches, y literas de
+       _brocados_, telas de oro ó plata.... Asi mismo se prohiben
+       bordaduras en el campo de los doseles y camas; pero no en las
+       cenefas, que podrán llevar alamares, y fluecos de oro, ó plata,
+       ó _brocado_").
+
+       Brocade was made in Spain at Toledo, Barcelona, Seville, Valencia
+       and elsewhere, but as a rule it could not be compared in quality
+       with that of Genoa or Venice. A cheaper, though showy and
+       attractive modification of brocade was brocatel, in which the silk
+       was mixed with common thread or flax. According to the Dictionary
+       of the Spanish Academy, this commoner fabric was used for hangings
+       for churches, halls, beds, etc., and a document of 1680 tells us
+       that the price of brocatel made at Granada, and containing two
+       colours, was twenty-two _reales_ the yard.
+
+"At Barcelona, laces, blonds, net-work, and tapes employ about twelve
+thousand persons. Galloons, laces, and gold and silver fringes, are
+likewise made here; but these are of no great importance. Silk, gold,
+and silver embroideries are very common, and the embroiderers are so
+numerous that they are to be found in every street.
+
+"_Silk Stuffs._--These are manufactured at Manresa, Cardona, and Mataró,
+which has forty-eight looms; but principally at Barcelona, where there
+are five hundred and twenty-four. There they make velvets, satins,
+damasks, silks, taffetas, and gold and silver stuffs. The town of
+Barcelona alone uses annually 300,000 pounds of raw silk.
+
+"_Taffetas, Handkerchiefs, and silk sashes._--They make a great quantity
+of these at Barcelona, where there are a good many little manufactories
+of this kind. There are a hundred and fifty looms at Reus, and six
+hundred at Manresa. At the last place sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs
+are made, which take about seventy thousand pounds of raw silk.
+
+"_Silk twisters._--There are some of these in several towns, and a great
+many in Barcelona. There are eighteen frames at Mataró, which twist, one
+year with another, one hundred and twenty-four quintals of silk; and
+thirty-seven at Tarragona, which twist eleven thousand quintals."
+
+Elsewhere in the course of his exhaustive tomes, Laborde sums up the
+general revival of the Spanish silk-trade in the following terms:--
+
+"Silk stockings are woven at Málaga, Zaragoza, Valencia, and at various
+other places in the kingdom of Valencia; at Valdemoro, and at Talavera
+de la Reina in New Castile; also in different parts of Cataluña, more
+especially at Mataró, Arenys del Mar, and Barcelona. The most extensive
+manufacture is carried on at the latter city, where the number of frames
+amounts to nine hundred. In the city of Mataró are fifty-two, in
+Valencia one hundred and fifty, and nearly as many in Talavera. The
+stockings made in Spain are of a loose texture; owing to the improper
+method in which silk-throwsting is conducted, they are badly dressed and
+worse glossed. The Spanish people themselves prefer French stockings,
+and most of those manufactured in the country are exported to America.
+
+"Ribbons hold a distinguished place among the manufactured articles of
+Spain. Some few are woven at Jaen, Granada, and Cordova; but more at
+Talavera. Cadiz has but twenty ribbon-looms, Manresa five hundred,
+Mataró eighty, Vich twenty-two, Requeña two hundred, Valencia four
+hundred, Murcia twelve hundred, and Barcelona nearly three thousand.
+These looms are not in factories, but individually dispersed. The
+Spanish ribbons are in general thin and flimsy, have little lustre, and
+their colours are neither brilliant nor permanent. Ribbons are made of
+floss-silk at Toledo, where there are about twelve looms, and at
+Manresa, where there is a greater number.[26]
+
+  [26] Towards the nineteenth century, ribbon was a great deal worn upon,
+       or together with, the regional costumes of the Spanish women; for
+       instance, on the gala bodice or _cotilla_ of the _hortelana_ of
+       Valencia, who further used it to make fast her _alpargatas_ or
+       sandals, described in the manuscript account attached to Pigal's
+       plates as "espèce de cothurnes, attachés avec des rubans en soie
+       ou fil bleu ou rouge." The same fabric served the peasant woman
+       of Carthagena for securing the sleeves of her gala camisole, for
+       lacing the bodice of the woman of Iviza, and in the other Balearic
+       Islands, for tying the _rebocillo_ or _rebociño_ beneath the chin.
+       Also it was with ribbon that the servant-girls of Granada suspended
+       a cross round their necks, that the _charra_ of Salamanca
+       (Plate ix.) trimmed her hat, that the women of Madrid, La Mancha,
+       and Andalusia bound up their knots of hair (_moños
+       con cinta_), and that, in some localities, even ladies of the
+       highest class secured their shoes about the lower leg and ankle.
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                      A _CHARRA_ OR PEASANT WOMAN
+                       (_Salamanca, A.D. 1777_)]
+
+"Silk taffetas, serges, and other articles, such as common and figured
+satins, damasks, and plain and flowered velvets, are made at Jaen,
+Granada, Murcia, Valencia, and the adjacent villages; at Málaga,
+Zaragoza, Toledo, Requeña, Talavera de la Reina, Mataró, Manresa,
+Cardona, and Barcelona. The silk-trade of Jaen and Granada is at present
+in a very languishing state; the manufacture of Murcia is dwindled to a
+few individual looms. At Toledo are fifty looms, fifty at Mataró, forty
+at Málaga, six hundred at Requeña, four hundred at Talavera, which
+consume annually two hundred thousand pounds of silk; five hundred at
+Barcelona, which annually manufacture, in conjunction with those of
+Cardona and Manresa, about three thousand pounds weight of silk; and in
+the city of Valencia are three thousand, whose annual demand of silk is
+eight hundred thousand pounds, while twenty-two thousand persons are
+employed in the trade. In Zaragoza are sixty looms, which consume fifty
+thousand pounds of silk; but taffetas only are manufactured there. The
+cities of Toledo and Talavera de la Reina are the only places where the
+looms are collected together in factories: in all other places they are
+separated, and are found individually at the houses of the respective
+weavers.
+
+"A great portion of the silks manufactured in Spain are stout and
+excellent, but they are destitute of the brilliancy observable in French
+silks. The damasks made at Valencia are extremely beautiful, and in that
+city they excel in the art of mixing silk and mohair, and produce mohair
+stuffs which appear to be superior to those of France and England.
+
+"Quantities of silk handkerchiefs and bands are manufactured at Reus,
+Manresa, and Barcelona. Reus had five hundred looms, Manresa six
+hundred, and annually made sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs;
+Barcelona, a much larger quantity.
+
+"At Barcelona is a very considerable manufacture of white, coloured,
+plain, and figured gauzes.
+
+"The art of silk-throwsting tends greatly to improve the silk
+manufactures in Spain. Machines invented in other countries have been
+adopted here, and in many places profitable changes and corrections have
+taken place in the trade. Silk is principally thrown at Priego, Toledo
+in Andalusia, at Murcia in the kingdom of the same name, at Cervera near
+Talavera de la Reina in New Castile, at Valencia, at Milanesa near that
+city, at Gandia, San Felipe, and Carcagente in the kingdom of Valencia.
+The silk-throwsters, who work at their own houses, and are paid in the
+great, that is, according to the quantity of work they perform, are very
+numerous in Murcia; but they perform the business there in a very
+slovenly way. In the city of Murcia a factory is established, where silk
+is thrown in an excellent manner by means of an ingenious machine, which
+has been already described. The establishment at La Milanesa is a very
+important one, and well administered. At Cervera are a dozen silk-mills,
+each having four large dividers, and six machines for doubling and
+twisting, by which seven thousand and seventy-two threads are divided,
+doubled, and twisted at the same time."
+
+
+                          CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS
+
+Although the history of Spanish cloths and woollens is not of great
+importance, I think it well to briefly sketch their history. Sails and
+other fabrics of the coarsest kind are said to have been made, almost in
+prehistoric times, at Sætabi (the modern Játiva) and at Saguntum
+(Murviedro). From the thirteenth century cloths of good quality were
+made at Barcelona, Lerida, San Daniel, Bañolas, Valls, and other towns
+of Cataluña. A privilege of Alfonso the Learned, dated May 18th, 1283,
+contains the following technical disposition relative to the cloth-looms
+of the city of Soria: "Que la trenza cuando sea ordida que haya 88
+varas, que pese una aranzada é 5 libras de estambre; é cualquier que la
+fallare menor, que peche 5 sueldos. Que todos los tejedores é tejedoras
+de la dicha cibdad é de su tierra, que pongan en las telas de lino 42
+linnuelos é en las de estopazo 32 linnuelos; é en las de marga é de
+sayal 32 linnuelos."
+
+Segovia was another ancient centre of this manufacture, which Larruga
+considers to have been transferred hither upon the extinction of the
+factories of Cameros, Burgos, and Palencia. However this may be, the
+_fuero_ of Sepúlveda, signed by Alfonso the Sixth, tells us that
+clothworks existed here as early as the eleventh century. Towards the
+end of the fourteenth, when Catherine of Lancaster was married to the
+Infante Don Enrique, the English princess brought over, as part of her
+dowry, a flock of merino sheep. These are believed to have pastured near
+Segovia--a city where Catherine made her home for many years. In any
+case, Segovian cloths improved considerably from about this time, and by
+the reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second, when thirty-four
+thousand persons were employed in the manufacture and twenty-five
+thousand pieces of cloth were produced annually, were thought
+(especially the baizes and the serges) to be unsurpassed in Europe.[27]
+Sovereigns, including Charles the Second and Charles the Fifth of Spain,
+and Henry the Eighth of England, were among the patrons of these
+fabrics, while as late as the year 1700 the Franciscan friars engaged in
+redeeming captives from the Turks, reported that "at Constantinople,
+whither they had carried Segovian cloths as presents to the principal
+rulers of that country, those cloths were spoken of in terms of high
+approval."
+
+  [27] Colmenares, who wrote a history of Segovia down to the reign of
+       Philip the Second, says that in his time the clothmakers of this
+       town were "true fathers of families, who within and without their
+       houses sustain a multitude of persons (in many cases two and three
+       hundred), producing, with the aid of other people's hands, a great
+       variety of finest cloth: an employment worthy to be ranked with
+       agriculture, and that is of the utmost profit to any city, or to
+       any kingdom."
+
+Early in the seventeenth century, and owing to a series of causes such
+as impertinent or improvident legislation, heavy taxes, and the
+importation of foreign cloths, the trade showed symptoms of decay.[28]
+Bertaut de Rouen wrote in 1659, referring to the Spanish character at
+this time: "Bien souvent le pain leur manque, comme j'ay veu dans
+_Almagro_, petite ville située dans le meilleur pays d'Andalousie, et
+dans _Segovie_, qui est une des grandes villes d'Espagne, et où il y
+avoit autrefois des plus riches marchands à cause des draps et des
+chapeaux que l'on y faisoit, qui a esté longtemps le sejour des Roys de
+Castille, et qui n'est qu'environ à douze ou quatorze lieuës de Madrid,
+où il n'y avoit point de pain dans toute la ville le jour que j'y
+arrivay, et il n'y en eut qu'à quatre heures après midy, que l'on le
+distribua par ordre du _Corregidor_, aussi bien qu'à Almagro."
+
+  [28] An amusing passage in Fernandez Navarrete's _Conservación de
+       Monarquías_ (A.D. 1626) tells us that most of the costlier
+       dress-materials used in Spain about this time proceeded from
+       abroad, and that they were "of so fine a texture that the heat of
+       an iron scorches them and wears them out in a couple of days;
+       while a great number of men employ themselves in the effeminate
+       office of dressing collars, who, ceasing also to be men, forsake
+       the plough or warlike exercises; for it is certain that when the
+       Spaniards kept the world in awe, this land produced a greater
+       number of armourers, and less persons who busied themselves with
+       looking after womanish apparel" (p. 232).
+
+The rise, decay, and subsequent revival of the Spanish cloth industries,
+and particularly the Segovian, are well described by Laborde, Bourgoing,
+and Townsend. According to the first of these authorities, "at so early
+a period as 1629 the merchants (of Segovia) complained that there was
+every year a reduction in the fabrication of cloth, to the amount of
+five thousand five hundred pieces; and that there resulted from this
+deficiency an annual loss of 2,424,818 ducats and 2 reals, or about
+£274,000 sterling. In the eighteenth century it appeared, from the
+observations of the Economical Society, that the fabrication of stuffs
+and cloths employed but one hundred and twenty looms, in which only four
+thousand three hundred and eighteen quintals of washed wool were
+consumed.
+
+"About forty years ago these manufactures began to revive, the looms
+were multiplied, and the consumption of wool considerably augmented. A
+single individual, Don Lorenzo Ortiz, has for some years accelerated
+their progress. In 1790 there was an addition of sixty-three looms,
+which employed eight or nine hundred quintals of wool, and afforded
+occupation to two thousand four hundred manufacturers."
+
+The same author wrote that early in the nineteenth century, "the woollen
+manufactures of New Castile are the most numerous and important. Cloths
+are made at Toledo, Chinchon, Brihuega, Guadalajara; serges, stuffs, and
+flannels at Toledo and Cuenca. The cloths of Brihuega are of an
+excellent quality, but those of Guadalajara are still superior to them;
+in particular, the cloth of Vigonia. There are twenty-eight looms at
+Toledo, forty at Guasmenia, a hundred at Brihuega, and six hundred and
+fifty-six at Guadalajara."
+
+Bourgoing wrote, a dozen years or so before the close of the eighteenth
+century: "Spanish wool is eagerly demanded by manufacturing peoples of
+the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, it is not turned to so much advantage
+as it might be. French, Dutch, and English come to Spain to purchase the
+wools of Segovia and León at the ports of Bilbao and Santander.[29] Not
+even so much as the commission on their sale is left in power of the
+Spaniards, for the foreigners buy up the wool straight from the
+shepherd, and wash it on their own account. Out of one million of
+_arrobas_[30] of fine wool which Spain produces annually, she exports
+more than half in washed wool, and a lesser quantity, by far, of
+unwashed. It has been estimated that the export duties on this wool and
+which it has not been hitherto thought prudent to curtail, produce a sum
+of close upon five millions for the King of Spain. Here, therefore, is
+another reason for not suppressing the 'abusive measure' of which the
+patriotic Spaniards complain so loudly; since it is far from easy to do
+away with so appreciable a source of revenue unless one has at hand a
+swift and sure alternative measure by which it may be substituted. All
+the same, government is endeavouring to derive a greater fiscal profit
+from the exportation of these wools, and at the same time to bring about
+a greater use of them in the Peninsula. For a long time past, all kinds
+of common woollen fabrics, such as clothing for the soldiery and lower
+classes, have been made in Spain. The exportation of these fabrics is
+prohibited. As for the finer wools, these also are employed in several
+places, but more than anywhere else at Guadalajara, where I visited the
+factories towards the end of the year 1783. I was surprised to remark
+that in several respects the manufacture had reached a great pitch of
+perfection. I say _I was surprised_, because I had heard, times without
+number, that the Spaniards were completely ignorant of these processes,
+and did not know how to card, or spin, or weave, or dye, or full, or
+calender; that their stuffs grew loose and wore badly; that the price
+was exorbitant, etc. How many prejudices of this nature was I able to
+throw aside after fair and deliberate examination of the stuffs in
+question! I will only quote a single point to prove that the censures
+which are aimed at the Spaniards respecting the quality of their cloths
+are not applicable to them all, and that they are well upon the road to
+being entirely undeserving of them. I was shown at Guadalajara a piece
+of scarlet cloth, which, both for its excellent quality and for its
+skilful dyeing, seemed to me to be quite comparable with the best cloths
+of Julienne. These latter cost at their place of manufacture as much as
+thirty-nine _livres_ the ell. At Guadalajara, I noted from the tariff
+established in the factory, that the price of the finest scarlet cloth
+was only from thirty-one to thirty-two _livres_ the ell. Comparing these
+and other figures on the tariff, I came to the conclusion that there was
+about the same difference in price between Spanish cloths and French
+cloths, in favour of the former. What seems more singular still is that
+the factories which work at the King's expense are generally
+administered in a thriftless fashion, and that the factory of
+Guadalajara was being greatly mismanaged at the time in question.
+However, subsequently to my visit, changes for the better have been
+introduced, which will improve the quality of, as well as cheapen, its
+products, though, even when I saw it, this factory was one of the most
+perfect to be seen anywhere. Within a space by no means large, it
+contained all the machines and apparatus required for clothmaking,
+except the thin, polished pasteboards which are placed between the
+folds of a piece of cloth as it is passed through the press. These were
+still brought from England; but everything else was prepared upon the
+spot, even to the large scissors used in the shearing. There were eighty
+looms for the finest cloths, whose proper name is _cloths of San
+Fernando_, from the town where they were first produced; a hundred for
+cloths of the second quality; and five hundred and six for making
+serges, in which, in course of time, hopes are entertained of excelling
+those of England.[31] All these looms were contained in two buildings,
+and kept employed three thousand eight hundred and twenty-five persons,
+all of them paid by the King,[32] without counting some forty thousand
+more dispersed all over the Castilian and Manchegan tableland, engaged
+in spinning the wool which is made up into stuffs at Guadalajara. It
+would be difficult, I am sure, to find a factory better organized. Even
+the town in which it is, presents a striking contrast with others of
+that neighbourhood. I did not see one single mendicant or idler among
+all its fifteen or sixteen thousand inhabitants. Such are the good
+results of its manufactures, and, above all, those of cloth, including
+many small and detailed processes which women, children, aged people, or
+even the sick are able to perform. Here, where Nature seemed to have
+condemned these ailing folk to a tedious and useless existence, art, as
+it were, steps in and finds employment and relief for them.
+Nevertheless, it must be owned that the Spaniards (as they themselves
+admit) are still a little behindhand in the method of dyeing and
+fulling their cloths, though when a people possess (as they) the raw
+materials needed, both for making and for dyeing, a few men skilled in
+these processes are all that is wanted to perfect several branches of
+this industry; especially when, as is the case in Spain, government
+spares no effort to achieve this end. Guadalajara is further the only
+place in Spain which produces the celebrated Vicuña cloth; an admirable
+fabric for which the rest of the world has cause to envy Spanish
+America.[33] As the use of this cloth has not as yet become general, it
+is not continually manufactured, nor is it easy to obtain a few ells of
+it without ordering them several months in advance. This stuff is also
+manufactured for the King of Spain, who makes presents of it to various
+other monarchs. In the year 1782, after concluding a treaty with the
+Porte, he sent twenty pieces of it to the Sultan of Turkey. They gave
+great satisfaction. It has been imagined from this circumstance that
+Spain would not be loth to supply the Turkish market with her cloths;
+and other of the manufacturing nations have felt some measure of alarm,
+perhaps unnecessarily. The Spanish government has too much sense to
+enter upon such a competition with other peoples as long as Spain does
+not supply the whole of the two and twenty million citizens who live
+beneath her rule. The same government, too, is well aware how remote is
+this degree of prosperity. The clothworks of Guadalajara have a kind of
+branch factory at Brihuega, four leagues distant. At Brihuega there are
+a hundred looms, all used for making fabrics of the finest quality.
+
+  [29] This recalls the statement made, centuries before, by Alonso de
+       Cartagena at the Council of Bâle: "And if the English should vaunt
+       the cunning of their cloth-makers, then would I tell them somewhat;
+       for if our country lack the weavers to make a cloth so delicate as
+       the scarlet cloths of London, yet is that substance titled _grana_
+       (the kermes, or scarlet grain), from which the scarlet cloth
+       receives its pleasantness of smell and brilliancy of hue, raised
+       in the kingdom of Castile, and thence conveyed to England, and
+       even to Italy."--Larruga, _Memorias_, Vol. XIV., p. 167.
+
+  [30] "The weight of an _arroba_ is twenty-seven pounds. The average
+       price is from twenty-three to twenty-seven _livres_ the _arroba_
+       of unwashed wool of the best quality, which pays five _livres_ ten
+       _sols_ of export duty. The _arroba_ of washed wool pays double."
+
+  [31] "It has been calculated that Spain, about this time, paid annually
+       to England two million pounds sterling per annum, solely on account
+       of her woollens."
+
+  [32] "His Majesty maintained this factory by a monthly payment from his
+       treasury of one hundred and fifty thousand _livres_; an exorbitant
+       amount, which very possibly would not be covered by the sales of
+       cloth."
+
+       Townsend wrote in 1787 "Royal manufactures and monopolies have a
+       baneful influence on population: for, as no private adventurers
+       can stand the competition with their sovereign, where he is the
+       great monopolist, trade will never prosper. The Spanish monarch is
+       a manufacturer of
+
+            Broad cloth, at Guadalajara and Brihuega;
+            China, at the palace of the Buen Retiro;
+            Cards, at Madrid and Málaga;
+            Glass, at San Ildefonso;
+            Paper, in Segovia;
+            Pottery, at Talavera;
+            Saltpetre, at Madrid and various other places;
+            Stockings, at Valdemoro;
+            Swords, at Toledo;
+            Tapestry, at Madrid;
+            Tissue, at Talavera.
+
+       He has the monopoly of brandy, cards, gunpowder, lead, quicksilver,
+       sealing-wax, salts, sulphur, and tobacco."--(_Journey through
+       Spain_, Vol. II., p. 240.)
+
+  [33] "It is made from wools of Buenos Aires and Peru. The wool of the
+       former of these regions is the longer, but the Peruvian is the more
+       silky."
+
+"Segovia, famous at all periods for the excellence of her wool, was
+formerly not less so for the number and perfection of her clothworks.
+Now, every patriotic Spaniard must lament to see how she has fallen. In
+the year 1785 the number of her looms did not exceed two hundred and
+fifty. The most important factory was that of Ortiz, founded in 1779
+under the title of _Real Fábrica_: the King possessed an interest in it.
+In 1785 Ortiz was still employing three thousand workers in and about
+Segovia, and manufactured every quality of cloth in sixty-three looms,
+from the pieces which contained the two thousand threads prescribed by
+the _Ordenanzas_, to those which should contain four thousand. His
+energy was only hampered by the indolent character of the Segovians. The
+privileges wherewith the government has sought to stimulate his first
+experiments in this craft are not at all injurious to the other
+manufacturers. They all concur to sell their goods, and at a reasonable
+price. In September of 1785, the most expensive cloths cost only ninety
+reals the _vara_; that is to say, about thirty-one _livres_ and ten
+_sols_ the ell."
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                         PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH
+       (_Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+Townsend wrote, precisely at the same time as Bourgoing: "Segovia was
+once famous for its cloth, made on the King's account; but other nations
+have since become rivals in this branch, and the manufacture in this
+city has been gradually declining. When the King gave it up to a private
+company, he left about three thousand pounds in trade; but now he is no
+longer a partner in the business.[34] In the year 1612 were made here
+twenty-five thousand five hundred pieces of cloth, which consumed
+forty-four thousand six hundred and twenty-five quintals of wool, and
+employed thirty-four thousand one hundred and eighty-nine persons; but
+at present they make only about four thousand pieces. The principal
+imperfections of this cloth are, that the thread is not even, and that
+much grease remains in it when it is delivered to the dyer; in
+consequence of which the colour is apt to fail. Yet, independently of
+imperfections, so many are the disadvantages under which the manufacture
+labours, that foreigners can afford to pay three pounds for the _arroba_
+of fine wool, for which the Spaniard gives no more than twenty
+shillings, and after all his charges can command the market even in the
+ports of Spain.
+
+"In the year 1525, the city contained five thousand families, but now
+they do not surpass two thousand--a scanty population this for
+twenty-five parishes; yet, besides the twenty-five churches, together
+with the cathedral, they have one and twenty convents. When the canal is
+finished, and the communication opened to the Bay of Biscay at
+Santander, the trade and manufactures of Segovia may revive; but,
+previous to that event, there can be nothing to inspire them with hope."
+
+  [34] A report presented by the Council of Commerce to the Marquis of la
+       Ensenada, put forward, in 1744, the absurd pretence that the king
+       of Spain maintained his factories "not for any State convenience
+       or _ad lucrum captandum_, but in order to augment our own products,
+       and diminish those which are imported from abroad."--Larruga's
+       _Memorias_, Vol. XV., pp. 70 and 247. Also see the conference
+       delivered by the Count of Torreánaz in 1886, in the Royal Spanish
+       Academy of Moral and Political Science; p. 27, note.
+
+       Several of the Spanish Crown factories were finally taken over by
+       the association--immensely wealthy at one period--known as the Five
+       Chief Gremios of Madrid (_Los Cinco Gremios Mayores de la Villa de
+       Madrid_), and it is clear that the investment of a large amount of
+       capital, subscribed by many shareholders, would of itself be
+       calculated to destroy the narrow ideals and what I may term the
+       individually greedy spirit which hitherto had ruled within the
+       craftsman's private family. Private interests, in short, were
+       superseded by the larger interests of a powerful company. That
+       which I have mentioned was composed of the five _gremios_ of the
+       capital of Spain which subscribed the largest sums in taxes to the
+       national exchequer; namely, the drapers, haberdashers, spicers and
+       druggists, jewellers, cloth-merchants, and linen-drapers. For many
+       years this association administered, on government's behalf, the
+       _alcabalas_, _tercias_, and _cientos_ of the town and district of
+       Madrid, and subsequently (A.D. 1745) the _millones_ tax, together
+       with other important dues, and ultimately, as I have stated, took
+       over, on a liberal scale of purchase, the royal cloth and silk
+       factories of Talavera de la Reina (A.D. 1785), San Fernando,
+       Guadalajara, Brihuega, Ezcaray, and Cuenca. The decay and downfall
+       of the company was due to gross mismanagement, and indeed, the
+       idiosyncrasies of the Spanish character render this people, even
+       at the present day, but little fitted to embark upon commercial
+       schemes requiring competent directors, heavy capital, and confident
+       assistance, moral and material, from a large body of investors.
+       Spaniards, as I have insisted elsewhere, do not pull well together;
+       and so, early in the nineteenth century, the association of the
+       five great _gremios_, which had possessed at one time many millions
+       of _pesetas_, suspended payment of all dividends. It is fair to
+       add, however, that this collapse was partly owing to the wars
+       between France and Spain.
+
+Swinburne had written of the same city ten years earlier (1776): "The
+inhabitants do not appear much the richer for their cloth manufactory.
+Indeed, it is not in a very flourishing condition; but what cloth they
+make is very fine."
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                         PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH
+       (_Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+The Ordinances of Granada (A.D. 1532), from which we learn that cloth
+was also manufactured at that capital, contain the usual dispositions
+relative to the stamping of this product by the city officers. The
+stamps were in a box which was kept in a corner of the cathedral and
+closed by two keys, guarded severally by a councillor and an inspector
+of the trade, or _veedor_. On every day except a public festival,
+between the hours of ten and eleven of the morning, and three and four
+of the afternoon, it was the duty of these two authorities to proceed to
+the Alcaicería, and ascertain if any cloth required stamping. If so, the
+stamps were fetched forthwith from the cathedral, the cloth was marked,
+and the stamps were solemnly restored to their chest beneath the double
+key.
+
+Among the woven fabrics other than those of silk, and which are
+specified in the Ordinances of Granada relative to the _tundidores_ or
+shearers, are cloths of Florence, Flanders, London, Valencia, Zaragoza,
+Onteniente, Segovia, and Perpignan; _velarte_ (a fine cloth manufactured
+at Granada), red _burel_ (kersey) of Baeza, black kersey of Villanueva
+and La Mancha, _ruan_ (Roan linen), fustians, friezes, and _cordellate_
+(grogram) of Granada, Valencia, Toledo, Segovia, and Cuenca. According
+to Capmany, cloths of the commoner kind, and which were popular about
+this time, were the _granas treintenas_ and black cloths of Valencia,
+the white or yellow _veintiseiseno_ cloths of Toledo, the white cloths
+of Ciudad Real, the green _palmillas_ of Cuenca, and green
+_dieciochenos_ of Segovia, the _contrayes_ of Cazalla, and the
+_pardillos_ of Aragon. Spanish cloth was also manufactured at Vergara,
+Cordova, Jaen, Murcia, Palencia, Tavira de Durango, and Medina del
+Campo.
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                          EMBROIDERED CHASUBLE
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Laborde says: "In the archives of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile there
+is a notice of the duties paid from the thirteenth to the end of the
+seventeenth century for foreign cloths sold in Spain, and for other
+articles of consumption coming from abroad. The principal cloths came
+from Bruges, Montpellier, and London; the velvets from Malines,
+Courtrai, Ypres, and Florence. This trade became so injurious to Spain,
+that Ferdinand and Isabella thought themselves bound to limit it
+entirely to the stuffs required for ornaments of the church, which of
+itself was a considerable quantity. Their prohibition is the subject of
+the rescript of September 2nd, 1494, for the provinces of the Crown of
+Castile. Even so far back as the Ordinances of Barcelona in 1271,
+mention is made of the taxes levied on the cloths of Flanders, Arras,
+Lannoy, Paris, Saint Denis, Chalons, Beziers, and Reims."[35]
+
+  [35] In the reign of Francis the First, the importation of Catalan cloth
+       into France was prohibited altogether.--Levasseur, _Histoire des
+       classes ouvrières en France_, Vol. II., p. 73.
+
+       Among the various cloths (exclusively or chiefly of the less
+       expensive kinds) which were manufactured in the capital and country
+       of Cataluña, we read of those of pure scarlet, scarlet tinted with
+       light or dark purple, ash-coloured, carmine, and rose; of cloth of
+       combed wool, _medias lanas_ (half-woollens), serges, and _cadinas_
+       or _banyolenchs_. But before the close of the fifteenth century
+       the production of these fabrics had suffered a serious decline
+       caused by the tactless government of Ferdinand the Catholic, and
+       above all, by the introduction of the Inquisition into Barcelona.
+       A privilege of Ferdinand, granted on November 4th, 1493, to the
+       Barcelonese clothmakers, admits that this was the foremost and
+       most useful local manufacture ("no y ha altre art ni offici que mes
+       util done"), adding, however, that it had fallen into a state of
+       sad prostration "owing to the indisposition of these times."
+       (Capmany, _Memorias_, Vol. II., _Doc._ ccxliv).
+
+       This was undoubtedly the case; for in a report of the city council
+       drawn up in 1491, it is stated that good cloth can only be
+       manufactured from good wool, but that this had now become a
+       difficult matter at Barcelona, because the clothmakers were without
+       the money to purchase such wool. In consequence, they appealed to
+       the city (then even more resourceless than themselves) to help
+       them.
+
+       Although it has become fashionable in some quarters to deny that
+       the Inquisition contributed in a sensible degree to the decline of
+       Spanish arts and industries, the following passage, quoted from the
+       municipal archives of Barcelona, places the fact beyond all
+       argument as far as this locality is concerned. The city councillors
+       declared in 1492 that "by reason of the Inquisition established in
+       this city, many evils have befallen our commerce, together with the
+       depopulation of the said city, and much other and irreparable
+       damage to her welfare; and as much more harm will occur in the
+       future, unless a remedy be applied, wherefore the said councillors
+       entreat of the king's majesty that of his wonted clemency he order
+       the said Inquisition to cease; or else that he repair the matter in
+       such wise that _the merchants who departed because of the
+       Inquisition_ may return, and continue in the service of their God,
+       their king, and of the general welfare of the city aforesaid."
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+           EMBROIDERED _MANGA_ OR CASE OF PROCESSIONAL CROSS
+               (_Early 16th Century; Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+In 1809 the same author remarked: "The kingdom of Valencia produces
+little wool, yet there are five manufactories of woollens and coarse and
+fine cloths: they are at Morella, Enguera, Bocairente, Onteniente, and
+Alcoy. The small woollen stuffs are principally made at Enguera; nothing
+but the coarsest cloths are made at Morella, Bocairente, and Onteniente.
+The manufactory at Alcoy is the most considerable: the cloths, though
+finer, are generally of an inferior quality. The woof of them is thick,
+with little nap upon it. The finest are scarcely superior to the
+beautiful cloths of Carcassonne."
+
+
+                               EMBROIDERY
+
+The art of embroidering, and especially of embroidering with the aid of
+gold and silver thread, was communicated to the Spaniards by the Spanish
+Moors, who doubtless had derived it from the East. By about the
+thirteenth century, the needle of the Spanish embroiderer had become, in
+the picturesque phrase of one of his compatriots, "a veritable painter's
+brush, describing facile outlines on luxurious fabrics, and filling in
+the spaces, sometimes with brilliant hues, or sometimes with harmonious,
+softly-graduated tones which imitate the entire colour-scheme of
+Nature." Nevertheless, it was not until the fifteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries that this art attained, in the Peninsula, its topmost summit
+of perfection.
+
+It is not at all surprising that embroidery should have made great
+progress among a people so devoted to the outward and spectacular forms
+of worship as the Spaniards; nor have the chasubles, copes, and other
+vestments of the Spanish prelacy and priesthood ever been surpassed for
+costly splendour[36] (Plates x., xi., xii.). But generally where the
+Spanish embroiderer excelled was in the mere manipulation of the needle.
+In fertility of design he was far outdistanced by the Germans and
+Italians, and was even to a large extent their imitator; for Spanish
+embroidery, as occurred with Spanish painting, was influenced, almost to
+an overwhelming degree, firstly by northern art, and subsequently by the
+art of the Renaissance.
+
+  [36] The cathedrals of Toledo and Palencia are particularly rich in
+       sets of magnificently embroidered vestments. "Each set," says
+       Riaño, "generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, altar
+       frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces.
+       The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of
+       saints, are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MSS."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT]
+
+These tendencies or characteristics will be found in nearly all the
+masterpieces of Spanish embroidery that have been preserved until
+to-day, of which perhaps the most remarkable specimens are the _manga_
+or case of the great processional cross presented by Cardinal Cisneros
+to Toledo cathedral, and the "_Tanto Monta_" embroidered tapestry
+belonging to the same temple. The _manga grande_, known as that of the
+Corpus (Plate xiii.), is in the Gothic style, with reminiscences of
+German art, and consists of the following four scenes arranged in panels
+thirty-seven inches high, and hung successively about the handle of the
+cross:--
+
+  (1) The Ascension of the Virgin Mary, who is supported by six angels.
+
+  (2) The Adoration of the Magi.
+
+  (3) San Ildefonso in the act of cutting off a piece of the veil of
+      Santa Leocadia, patron of Toledo.
+
+  (4) The Martyrdom of San Eugenio, another patron of the city of Toledo.
+
+The ground of this elaborate "sleeve" is a fabric of rich silk, on which
+the embroidery is worked in gold and silver thread and coloured silks,
+principally blue and red, combined in delicate, harmonious tones. The
+figures are outlined with fine gold cord, which forms a kind of frame or
+fencing to confine the stretches of smooth silk. The careful copying of
+architectural detail is stated by Serrano Fatigati to be strongly
+characteristic of Spanish industrial art in the fourteenth, fifteenth,
+and even sixteenth centuries. The same writer considers that this
+"sleeve" was executed towards the year 1514, when embroiderers of great
+renown, such as Alonso Hernández, Juan de Talavera, Martin Ruiz,
+Hernando de la Rica, Pedro de Burgos, and Marcos de Covarrubias were
+engaged on similar work in the venerable city of the Tagus. Two out of
+the four panels, says Serrano Fatigati, may possibly be from the hand of
+Covarrubias, who was a famous craftsman of his time, and held the post
+of master-embroiderer in Toledo cathedral. In any case, the four panels
+are evidently not all by the same artist, nor do they appear to have
+been executed at precisely the same period.
+
+                           [Illustration: XV
+       EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT, WITH THE ARMS OF CARDINAL MENDOZA
+                  (_15th Century. Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+The gorgeous embroidered tapestry which also belongs to this cathedral
+(where it serves as a hanging or _colgadura_ for the altar on the day of
+Corpus Christi), and which is known as the "Tanto Monta" _tapiz_, is
+stated by some authorities to have been the _dosel_ or bed canopy of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, and to have been purchased, in the year 1517,
+for 900,000 _maravedis_ by Alonso Fernández de Tendilla, steward of
+those sovereigns. Riaño gives the following account of the same
+object:--
+
+"As a fine specimen of embroidery on a large scale, must be mentioned
+the _dosel_ or canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabella, which
+was used in the reception of the English envoys, Thomas Salvaige and
+Richard Nanfan, who were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage
+of Prince Henry with the Infanta Doña Catalina." The ambassadors
+describe it in the following manner: "After the tilting was over, the
+kings returned to the palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and
+entered a large room; and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of
+rich crimson velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and
+Aragon, and covered with the device of the King which is a ... (blank
+in original),[37] and his motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto
+Monta.'" ("Memorials of King Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, London, 1858,
+p. 348).
+
+  [37] The device of Ferdinand the Catholic was a yoke; the sheaf of
+       arrows, that of Isabella. (See Vol. II., p. 147, etc.).
+
+Riaño also describes the mantle of the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo.
+"It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most
+effective ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of
+the seventeenth century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who
+presented it to the church." Señor Parro, in his exhaustive work _Toledo
+en la Mano_ (Vol. I., p. 574), gives the following account of it: "It is
+made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is
+entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a
+jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side,
+of enamelled gold, emeralds, and large rubies. A variety of other jewels
+are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the
+arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires
+and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and
+pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the
+borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which are employed in
+this superb work of art, no less than two hundred and fifty-seven ounces
+of pearls of different sizes were used, three hundred ounces of gold
+thread, a hundred and sixty ounces of small pieces of enamelled gold,
+and eight ounces of emeralds."
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+As in other countries, embroidery in Spain was executed in the bygone
+time, both by paid embroiderers, and as a domestic occupation by the
+ladies of the aristocracy. The work of the professional embroiderer
+consisted principally of paraments or altar-fronts (Plates xiv., xv.,
+xvi., xvii.), and ecclesiastical vestments. Among the former of this
+class of objects, nothing is finer than the _frontal_ of the Chapel of
+Saint George in the Audiencia of Barcelona. It is believed to have been
+wrought by Antonio Sadurni, a Catalan embroiderer who flourished in the
+middle of the fifteenth century. The scene represented is the combat
+between Saint George (patron of Cataluña) and the dragon. The saint has
+rescued a damsel from the monster's claws, and her parents are looking
+on from a _mirador_ of their palace. This central episode is surrounded
+with borders and arabesques of extraordinary richness.
+
+Riaño gives a list, compiled from Cean, Martinez, Suarez de Figueroa,
+and other authors, of forty-seven Spanish embroiderers of the fifteenth,
+sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. More recently, Ramírez
+de Arellano has discovered, among the municipal archives of Cordova, the
+names of sixteen others, who resided at that city towards, or early in,
+the seventeenth century. The craftsmen in question were Diego de
+Aguilar, Juan Bautista, Bernardo Carrillo, Luis Carrillo de Quijana,
+Andrés Fernández de Montemayor, Hernán Gómez del Río, Diego Fabián de
+Herrera, Diego del Hierro, Diego López de Herrera, Diego López de
+Valenzuela, Antonio de Morales, Gonzalo de Ocaña, Mateo Sanguino, Manuel
+Torralbo, Cristóbal de Valenzuela, and Martin de la Vega.
+
+Documents in the same archive contain additional particulars respecting
+two or three of these artificers. Thus, on February 10th, 1607, Hernán
+Gómez del Río engaged himself to embroider for the convent of the
+Trinity at Cordova, "a bordering for a chasuble and four _faldones_ for
+dalmatics, with their collars and _sabastros_ and _bocas mangas_. The
+said _bocas mangas_ to be four in number, and the collars two; also the
+_collaretes_ which may be necessary for the two dalmatics, and which I
+am to embroider in silk and gold upon white satin. The _collaretes_ also
+to be embroidered by me in silk and gold to match a bordering of white
+satin for a cloak in possession of the said convent." Further, the
+convent was to supply the artist with the quantity of white satin
+required, and pay him two hundred and ten ducats, secured by certain of
+the convent's revenues, for the gold, the silk, and the workmanship.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVII
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONTS
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Manuel Torralbo contracted to embroider a velvet altar-front and its
+corresponding _fronteleras_ for the parish church of Luque, at a price
+of three hundred _reales_; and Cristóbal de Valenzuela (on September
+25th, 1604) to embroider two frontals for the altar of the church of
+Obejo. One of them was to be of purple velvet worked in gold, and the
+other of "black velvet, with borders and _caidas_ embroidered in yellow
+satin and white satin, with skulls and bones embroidered in gold."[38]
+
+  [38] The skull and crossbones were a favourite design upon these
+       objects. The Church of the Escorial possesses four paraments so
+       decorated, which were shown, in 1878, at the Parisian Exhibition
+       of Retrospective Art.
+
+Turning our attention to the embroidery which was executed, principally
+as a recreation, by highborn Spanish ladies of some centuries ago, the
+romance of _El Compte Arnau_, quoted by Miquel y Badía and written in
+Catalan and Provençal, contains the following lines:--
+
+             "¿ Ahout teniu las vostras fillas--muller leal?
+              ¿ Ahout teniu las vostras fillas--viudeta igual?
+                A la cambra son que _brodan_--Compte l'Arnau
+                A la cambra son que _brodan_--seda y estam."
+
+Isabella the Catholic presented to the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of
+Granada an ecclesiastical robe embroidered by her own hands for the
+festival of Corpus Christi. The material was black satin brocade, with a
+fringe of white silk, and the letters IHS in white damask.[39]
+
+  [39] Gómez Moreno; _Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del bordado
+       de imagineria en Granada_ (_El Liceo de Granada_; 6th year,
+       No. 18).
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+                      WIFE OF WELL-TO-DO MERCHANT
+             (_Palma, Balearic Islands. About A.D. 1810_)]
+
+The same usage continued in the seventeenth century. Countess d'Aulnoy
+says: "Young ladies of great beauty and of noble blood engage themselves
+to wait on ladies of the aristocracy, and spend most of their time
+embroidering the collars and sleeves of shirts in gold, silver, and
+coloured silk, although, if they be suffered to follow their liking,
+they work but little, and gossip a great deal." The same writer refers
+repeatedly to the sumptuous embroideries in use among the upper classes
+of the Spaniards of that time. Thus, the bed-pillows of the Princess of
+Monteleón were embroidered with gold. The sleeves of the coat of Charles
+the Second were of white silk, very large, opening towards the wrist,
+and embroidered with blue silk and jet, the rest of his costume being
+embroidered in white and blue silk. In the palace of the same monarch,
+the daïs of the throne-room was covered with "a wondrous carpet, and the
+throne and its canopy were embroidered with pearls, diamonds, rubies,
+emeralds, and other precious stones." The cloaks of the chevaliers who
+belonged to the Military Orders of Santiago, Calatrava, and Alcántara
+were embroidered with gold. The gentlemen of Madrid covered their horses
+with silver gauze, and trappings embroidered with gold and pearls.[40]
+The same gentlemen wore coats whose sleeves were of coloured satin,
+embroidered with silk and jet, and even their lackeys, when they
+attended their masters in a procession, wore uniforms of cloth
+embroidered with gold and silver. Unmarried girls and brides wore
+gold-embroidered bodices. The chairs in which the ladies of Madrid paid
+visits were made of cloth embroidered in gold and silver, stretched upon
+the wooden frame. In the train of the Duchess of Terranova went six
+litters covered with embroidered velvet. "In the parish church of San
+Sebastián," wrote Countess d'Aulnoy, "I have seen a hand-chair made by
+order of the queen-mother, for carrying the Sacrament to sick persons in
+bad weather. It is lined with crimson velvet embroidered in gold and
+covered with hide studded with gilt nails: it has large window-glasses,
+and a kind of small belfry full of golden bells."
+
+  [40] A similar usage prevailed at Valladolid. The account of this city
+       as it existed in 1605, published by Gayangos in the _Revista de
+       España_, describes Don Juan de Tassis, Count of Villamediana, as
+       "riding in the finest clothes imaginable; his cloak, jacket,
+       breeches, shoes, and the trappings, harness, reins, etc., of his
+       horse, being all embroidered with the finest twisted silver thread.
+       Even his horse's blinkers were of the same material."
+
+With the succession of a French line of sovereigns to the throne of
+Spain, a taste for French embroideries passed into the Peninsula, and
+these, in course of time, were imitated by the Spanish craftsmen.[41]
+"We find," says Riaño, "that Madrid was the principal centre of this
+industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was the
+case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered
+hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the
+Escorial, and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens."
+
+  [41] The use of embroidery was, however, greatly curbed by sumptuary
+       pragmatics, issued early in this century (see Vol. I., pp. 287,
+       289). A similar pragmatic had appeared in 1622; but it is clear
+       from the passages I have quoted, that little or no attention was
+       paid to it.
+
+I may mention here the embroidery, often of a rich and highly ornate
+character, which is, or used to be, applied to the regional costumes of
+Spain. Plate ix. is reproduced from a rare print in my possession,
+showing the gala dress, as it existed in the year 1777, of the _charra_
+of Salamanca, with full, white sleeves ornamented in black embroidery
+with animals and other devices. A similar costume is still worn in that
+neighbourhood. Plate xviii., also copied from a print in my collection,
+dating from about the year 1810, shows the costume worn by the women of
+the well-to-do middle class of the island of Majorca. "Le jupon ou
+_guardapies_," says the manuscript description prefixed to this series
+of plates, "en mousseline, complete le costume de cette insulaire: il
+est orné au bas de riches broderies, mais assez court pour laisser voir
+un joli petit pied chaussé d'un bas de coton ou de soie et d'un élégant
+soulier de satin."
+
+
+                                TAPESTRY
+
+There is a dim tradition, derived from or supported by a Latin poet
+("Tunc operosa suis _Hispana tapetia_ villis") that carpets or
+tapestries of some kind were made in the Spanish Peninsula in the time
+of the Romans. Undoubtedly this craft was practised by the
+Spanish-Moors, particularly in the regions of Valencia, Alicante,
+Cuenca, and Granada. This statement is confirmed by two laconic notices
+which occur in the _Description of Africa and Spain_ of Edrisi, a
+Mohammedan geographer of the twelfth century. Of the town of Chinchilla,
+in Alicante province, he wrote,--"woollen carpets are made here, such as
+could not be manufactured anywhere else, owing to the qualities of the
+air and water"; and of Cuenca, "excellent woollen carpets are
+manufactured at this town."
+
+"En Espagne," says Müntz, "l'industrie textile ne tarda pas à prendre
+également le plus brilliant essor, grâce à la conquête maure. Les
+étoffes d'Almeria acquirent rapidement une réputation européenne; il est
+vrai que c'étaient des brocarts, des damas, et autres tissus analogues,
+non des tapisseries: l'influence qu'elles furent appelées à exercer au
+dehors se borna donc au domaine de l'ornementation."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIX
+                         THE "GENESIS TAPESTRY"
+                  (_12th Century; Gerona Cathedral_)]
+
+Of a similar composition to the foregoing fabrics specified by
+Müntz--that is to say, not genuine tapestries, although requiring for
+several reasons to be classed with these--is the celebrated "Genesis"
+(Plate xix.) of the cathedral of Gerona. This primitive yet complicated
+work of art, dating from the twelfth century, is embroidered in crewels
+upon linen, and represents the creation of the world. Its dimensions are
+about four yards high by four and a half yards wide; but the bordering
+has been torn away in places. The design is thus described by
+Riaño:--"In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by two concentric
+circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ holding an open
+book, on which appear the words _Sanctus Deus_, and on each side _Rex
+fortis_, surrounded by the inscription, _Dixit quoque Deus, Fiat lux, Et
+facta est lux_. In the larger circle are the words, _In principio
+creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia quæ in eis sunt, et vidit
+Deus cuncta quæ egerat et erant valde bona_.
+
+"The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into
+eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of
+light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of
+sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve.
+In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the
+whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing
+representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural
+incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out."
+
+The royal palaces of Spain and many of her noble houses have possessed,
+from about the fifteenth century, splendid collections of the costliest
+tapestries, consisting principally of _paños de Ras_, or "Arras cloths"
+(as they were called among the Spaniards, and especially in Aragon).
+Until a later period all, or very nearly all, these objects were
+imported from the Flemish workshops.[42] At the palace of a nobleman in
+Madrid, Bertaut de Rouen observed "les plus belles tapisseries du
+monde." The same author tells us that in the seventeenth century, when
+he visited Spain and wrote his entertaining _Journal_, it was customary
+for the walls of the royal palace to be hung with tapestry in winter,
+these hangings being removed for greater coolness in the summer months.
+In reading descriptions of Spanish life referring to the same period,
+one is struck by the craze which prevailed among the Spaniards for
+displaying tapestries and other gay-coloured fabrics in all kinds of
+places and on every possible occasion. Thus, Bertaut de Rouen relates
+that when he saw a play performed in the Alcázar, "le long de ces deux
+costez de la salle estoient seulement deux grands bancs couverts de
+tapis de Perse"; that the boxes at the bull-fights, both at Madrid and
+in the country, were "tapissées de brocatelle de soye"; and that the
+lower part of the dome in one of the chapels of Seville cathedral was
+decorated with the same material. At the haunted castle of Quebaro, on
+the road from Galareta to Vitoria, Countess d'Aulnoy saw upon the walls
+of a large chamber, some tapestries representing the amours of Don Pedro
+the Cruel and of Doña María de Padilla. "This lady was depicted seated,
+like a queen, among various other ladies, while the king crowned her
+with a chaplet of flowers. Elsewhere Doña María was reposing in a
+forest, as the king offered her a falcon. I also saw her dressed as a
+warrior while the king, in armour, offered her a sword. This set me
+thinking whether she had ever accompanied Don Pedro in one of his
+campaigns. All the figures in these tapestries were badly drawn, but Don
+Fernando assured me that all well-executed likenesses of Doña María de
+Padilla represented her to be a woman of rare charm, the loveliest of
+her century."
+
+  [42] "A côté de l'Italie, il faut citer l'Espagne, tributaire comme
+       elle des ateliers flamands. Les résidences royales regorgeaient
+       de ces précieux tissus, qui aujourd'hui encore, à Madrid ou à
+       l'Escurial, se chiffrent par centaines. Parmi les présents que le
+       roi de Castille envoya à Tamerlan ([dagger] 1405), on remarquait
+       des tapisseries dont les portraits étaient faits avec tant de
+       délicatesse, dit un chroniqueur persan, que si on voulait leur
+       comparer les ouvrages merveilleux autrefois exécutés par le
+       peintre Mani sur la toile d'Artène, Mani serait couvert de honte
+       et ses ouvrages paraîtraient difformes."--Müntz, _La Tapisserie_,
+       p. 172.
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga says that at Valladolid in 1605, a banquet was
+celebrated in "a large gallery, completely covered with the richest silk
+brocade, as were most of the other apartments." He also says that cloths
+of similar richness were employed as street-awnings. "Upon the ninth was
+the Corpus procession, at which the king was to assist; and a
+proclamation was issued that none should promenade on horseback or in
+coaches. I found nothing remarkable in this procession, unless it were
+the hangings and the awnings to keep off the sun, which were of the
+richest damask and brocade." Of the same _fiesta_ Countess d'Aulnoy
+wrote in 1679: "The streets through which the procession has to pass are
+adorned with the finest tapestries in all the world, since in addition
+to those belonging to the Crown, many of the greatest beauty are
+displayed by private persons. The _celosías_ of all the balconies are
+replaced by elaborate canopies and hangings, and the whole roadway is
+covered with an awning to ward off the sun, and which, for the sake of
+greater freshness, is moistened with a little water." Nearly identical
+with this account is that of Alexander de Laborde, who wrote, a century
+and a quarter later than the Countess; "On Corpus Christi day there is a
+grand procession composed of the regular and secular clergy of Madrid,
+followed by the king, his ministers, and court, each bearing in his hand
+a wax taper. Magnificent awnings of tapestry are raised in the streets
+through which the procession is to pass; the balconies are decorated
+with splendid hangings; the seats are covered with cushions, and
+occasionally surmounted with a daïs; in some of the streets the face of
+day is darkened by canopies which stretch from one side to the other.
+Altars are placed at regular intervals; the balconies are thronged with
+ladies superbly dressed, who sprinkle scented water, or scatter fragrant
+flowers on the passing multitudes."
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga also describes a set of remarkable tapestries,
+evidently Flemish, which he saw in the Chapter-room of the Convent of
+Cármen Calzado at Valladolid. "It was hung with the richest tapestry,
+silk, and paintings that had belonged to the Duke of Lerma. I greatly
+admired some cloths of green velvet, worked all over with the _Bucolics_
+of Virgil, in _tarjas_ embroidered in silk and gold, as though they were
+_sebastos_[43] of ecclesiastical vestments, but these were old, of great
+value, and extraordinary merit. Finer still were certain cloths of
+recent workmanship, such as I had never seen equalled, of a white
+material painted in tempera, with the borders, dresses, and faces of the
+personages on them wrought in twisted gold. I never saw anything so
+brilliant or so novel. The cloths were eight in number, with four
+embroidered _guardapuertas_. The persons figured upon them wore belts of
+real pearls, rings set with diamonds and rubies on their fingers, and
+gold chains and medals studded with precious stones, just as living
+people wear them."
+
+  [43] A Portuguese word meaning a strip of silk upon the back of a
+       chasuble.
+
+The fashion of collecting foreign tapestries seems to have reached its
+height at the Spanish capital in the first half of the seventeenth
+century. "Nowadays," wrote Fernandez de Navarrete, in his _Conservacion
+de Monarquías_, published in 1626, "gentlemen are not contented with
+hangings which a few years ago were considered good enough to adorn a
+prince's palace. The Spanish taffetas and guadamecíes, so highly
+esteemed in other provinces, are held of no account in this one
+(Madrid). The _sargas_ and _arãbeles_ wherewith the moderation of the
+Spanish people was satisfied in former days, must now be turned into
+injurious _telas rizas_ of Florence and Milan, and into costliest
+Brussels tapestry."
+
+                           [Illustration: XX
+            _TAPIZ_ OF CRIMSON VELVET WORKED IN GOLD TISSUE
+          (_16th Century. Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos_)]
+
+It is perhaps allowable to include among the oldest makers of Spanish
+tapestry the names of Gonzalo de Mesa and Diego Roman, who, in the year
+1331, were paid respectively one thousand _maravedis_ and eighteen
+hundred _maravedis_, for decorating the tents of King Sancho the Fourth.
+There also exists the following entry, dating from the same period; "To
+Boançibre, master of the tents; XXX _maravedis_ for his food, for
+fifteen days."[44]
+
+  [44] Manuel G. Simancas, _Artistas Castellanos del Siglo XIII_ (_Boletín
+       de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_ for January, 1905.)
+
+Far clearer than these laconic excerpts is a document preserved in the
+library of the Academy of History at Madrid, in the form of a memorial
+presented to Philip the Second by a Spanish tapestry-maker of Salamanca,
+named Pedro Gutierrez,[45] and setting forth, in pessimistic language,
+the unhappy condition of this craft in the Peninsula. Pedro relates of
+himself that in twenty-four days he made for the Cardinal-archduke no
+less than a hundred and twenty _reposteros_; and that in order to
+exhibit his cleverness as a tapestry-weaver, he set up a loom in the
+royal palace (being officially the _tapicero_ to the Crown), and worked
+for forty days where all might criticise the product of his toil.
+Gutierrez also states that the township of Madrid had provided him with
+six hundred ducats to enable him to establish there a tapestry-factory
+for the space of ten years, together with six hundred and fifty ducats
+from the Cortes for supporting his apprentices, and a thousand ducats
+from the king to defray the cost of certain voyages he had made to
+Lisbon, Monzón, and Barcelona, and of removing his residence from
+Salamanca to the capital of Spain. He complains, however, that the house
+he dwells in at Madrid is not large enough to contain his loom, and
+replies to the objections of such persons as opposed his opening the
+tapestry-works at all (on the ground that this craft was practised
+better and more cheaply in Flanders), by asserting that Spanish makers
+of _reposteros_ were now accustomed to receive a daily wage of no more
+than three _reales_ and "a miserable meal." This, he urges, should
+render Spanish tapestries at least as inexpensive to produce as those of
+Flanders; although, upon the other hand, he admits that the colouring of
+the former is likely to prove inferior to the Flemish cloths in purity
+and durability. "Common tapestry," he says, "seldom keeps its colour
+upward of a couple of years, so that, if such were used in open sunlight
+on the backs of beasts of burden, or to cover carts, exposed to sun,
+wind, dust, and mire, or else for cleaning shoes upon, as now is
+practised with the _reposteros_, their imperfections would become
+apparent all the sooner."
+
+  [45] At about the same time that this petition was presented by
+       Gutierrez, another tapestry-maker named Pedro de Espinosa, a native
+       of Iniesta, was living at Cordova. On February 2nd, 1560, he
+       married Leonor de Burgos, and received as dowry from his bride the
+       sum of thirty-five thousand _maravedis_. (Ramírez de Arellano,
+       _Artistas Exhumados_, published in the _Boletín de la Sociedad
+       Española de Excursiones_.)
+
+Mention of these typically Spanish objects known as _reposteros_,[46]
+induces me to quote an interesting notice relating to the visit of
+Philip the Second to Cordova, in the year 1570. The train of the Duke of
+Medina Sidonia, who journeyed to this city in order to receive his
+sovereign, consisted of a hundred and three mules covered with "new
+_reposteros_ of wool, and of six mules covered with _reposteros_ of
+purple velvet, embroidered with silver and gold, and bearing the duke's
+arms."
+
+  [46] "_Reposteros_," says Riaño, "is the ancient name given to the
+       hangings which are placed outside the balconies on state occasions
+       in Spain. Several splendid examples of the sixteenth and
+       seventeenth centuries may still be seen at the houses of Spanish
+       grandees, of which those belonging to the Conde de Oñate and
+       Marques de Alcañices at Madrid are the most remarkable for their
+       artistic design."
+
+       It is surprising that Riaño should insert so incomplete a
+       definition of this word, whose primitive and proper meaning,
+       according to the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, is "a square
+       piece of cloth with the arms of a prince or Señor, which serves for
+       covering baggage carried by beasts of burden, and also for hanging
+       in antechambers." See also Vol. II., p. 16 (note) of the present
+       work.
+
+If, as seems most likely, the woollen _reposteros_ above referred to
+were of woven work containing a device, this passage would demonstrate
+that the manufacture of the cloths in question was sometimes the
+province of the tapestry-maker and sometimes that of the embroiderer.
+Ramírez de Arellano, from whose instructive studies on the craftsmen of
+older Spain I quote the foregoing extract, says that the making of
+_reposteros_ constitutes a branch of craftsmanship distinct from
+embroidery of the common class, and that the men who produced them
+deserve to be included among artists of real merit. He gives the names
+of two, Hernán Gonzalez and Juan Ramos, who worked at Cordova in the
+middle of the sixteenth century. A document relating to the former of
+these men tells us that in those days the price of a _repostero de
+estambre_ measuring sixteen palms square, with a coat-of-arms worked in
+the centre, and a decorative border, was ninety _reales_.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                              THE SPINNERS
+                    (_By Velazquez. Prado Gallery_)]
+
+Riaño says: "I do not find any information of a later date which
+suggests the existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during
+the Middle Ages." Davillier, however, affirms that in the year 1411 two
+master-makers of tapestry were living at the court of the King of
+Navarre, and that other craftsmen, holding the same title, were
+established at Barcelona in 1391 and 1433. This notice is accepted by
+Müntz: "A la fin du XIV^e et au commencement du XV^e siècle, les
+Espagnols tentèrent de fonder dans leur patrie quelques ateliers de
+haute lisse. A Barcelone, en 1391 et en 1433, plusieurs tapissiers
+(_maestros de tapices_) firent partie du grand Conseil. Mais ces
+tentaves ne semblent pas avoir eu de résultats durables. Il était plus
+commode de recourir aux manufactures flamandes, si merveilleusement
+organisées. Peut-être même ce système était-il plus économique. Ne
+voyons-nous pas aujourd'hui jusqu'à l'extrême Orient tirer, pour raison
+d'économie, des fabriques de Manchester et de Birmingham les tissus
+courants dont il a besoin?"
+
+The history of tapestry-making at Madrid may be said to date from the
+establishment in this town of a small factory by Pedro Gutierrez, whose
+petition to Philip the Second I have already quoted, and who received
+protection both from that monarch and from the queen, Doña Ana. In 1625
+Gutierrez was succeeded by Antonio Ceron, who formally styled himself
+"tapicero de nuevo, sucesor de Pedro Gutierrez" ("maker of new
+tapestries, successor to Pedro Gutierrez"), and petitioned the king for
+the grant of a meal a day, "in recompense of having taught his trade to
+eight lads, and of having mounted eight looms in (the factory of) Santa
+Isabel." This factory of Santa Isabel was so called from the street in
+which it lay, and part of it is represented in the celebrated painting
+by Velazquez called _Las Hilanderas_ ("The Spinners," not, as it is
+translated in Riaño's handbook, "The Weavers." Plate xxi.).
+
+This factory was unsuccessful, and declined by degrees until it ceased
+completely, in spite of the efforts made to revive it in 1694 by a
+Belgian named Metler, and in 1707 by a Salamanquino, Nicholas Hernández.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXII
+              TAPESTRY MADE AT BRUSSELS FROM GRANADA SILK
+              (_16th Century. Spanish Crown Collection_)]
+
+A new tapestry-factory--that of Santa Barbara--was founded shortly
+afterwards in a building known as the Casa del Abreviador. The first
+director, engaged in 1720 by order of Philip the Fifth, was Jacob Van
+der Goten, a native of Antwerp,[47] who died in 1724, and was succeeded
+at the factory by his sons, Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian.
+These craftsmen worked with _basse lisse_ looms till 1729, in which year
+a _haute lisse_ loom was mounted by a Frenchman, Antoine Lenger.
+
+  [47] The royal contract with the elder Van der Goten, dated July 30th,
+       1720, was the result of secret negotiations, and largely brought
+       about by the influence of Philip's minister, Cardinal Alberoni.
+
+In 1730, when the court removed to Seville, a tapestry-factory was
+established at this city also. The director was Jacob Van der Goten the
+younger, assisted by the painter Procaccini. At the end of three years
+this factory closed its doors, and Van der Goten and Procaccini,
+returning to Madrid, established themselves at the old factory of Santa
+Isabel, from which, in 1744, they again removed to the factory of Santa
+Barbara.[48]
+
+  [48] "On Saturday, May 27th, passing through the gate of Saint Barbara,
+       I visited the tapestry manufactory, which resembles, and equals
+       in beauty, the Gobelins, whence it originally came. I found a
+       Frenchman at the head of it, who was civil and communicative.
+       This fabric was brought into Spain, and established here under
+       the direction of John de Van Dergoten, from Antwerp, in the year
+       1720. They now employ fourscore hands, and work only on the king's
+       account, and for his palaces, making and repairing all the tapestry
+       and carpets which are wanted at any of the _Sitios_, or royal
+       residences."--Townsend, in 1786.
+
+       "The elegant manufacture of tapestry is carried on without Saint
+       Barbe's gate, at the entrance of the promenade of Los Altos, or
+       Chamberi; it was established in 1720 by Philip the Fifth, at whose
+       invitation John Dergoten, of Antwerp, was induced to undertake its
+       superintendence, an office at present filled by his descendants.
+       The productions of this manufactory are carpets and tapestry, the
+       subjects of which are often drawn from fable or history; it
+       sometimes copies pictures executed by superior artists, and affords
+       daily employment to eighty persons, including dyers, drawers,
+       designers, and all its various branches."--Laborde (about 1800).
+
+In 1774, when, with the exception of Cornelius, who was considered the
+most skilful of them all, the family of the Van der Gotens had died out,
+the direction of the Santa Barbara factory was entrusted to several
+Spanish artists, named Manuel Sanchez, Antonio Moreno, Tomás del
+Castillo, and Domingo Galan. Sanchez, who acted as general
+superintendent of the works, died in 1786, and was succeeded in this
+office by his nephew, Livinio Stuck, whose son resumed the directorship
+in 1815, after the factory had been paralysed by the invasion of the
+Peninsula, and destroyed by the French in 1808. Since then it has never
+ceased working, and descendants of the Stucks continue to superintend it
+at the present day.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                        A PROMENADE IN ANDALUSIA
+                   (_Cartoon for Tapestry. By Goya_)]
+
+The collection of tapestry belonging to the Crown of Spain is probably
+the finest in the world. As far back as the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabella the walls of the royal palace were hung with decorative textile
+cloths or _paños de Ras_, and among the officers in the household of
+their son, the youthful Prince Don Juan, we find included a keeper of
+the tapestry and _reposteros_. But it was not until the reigns of
+Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second that the royal collection was
+enriched with numerous sets of celebrated tapestries produced in Italy
+and Flanders--countries which were then subjected to the yoke of Spain.
+Frequent additions were also made throughout the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, both from abroad and subsequently (when the
+Brussels industry declined) from the Spanish factories of Santa Isabel
+and Santa Barbara.
+
+As early as the year 1600 a Spaniard wrote enthusiastically of "the rich
+and cunning tapestries belonging to His Majesty, to whom it would be
+easier to win a kingdom than to get them made anew."[49] At the present
+day it is impossible to estimate with any certainty the number of these
+tapestries, the greater part of which are locked away. Only on certain
+festivals, such as the days of Corpus Christi and the Candelaria
+(Purification), a few are unfolded and displayed in the upper galleries
+of the palace at Madrid. Their total number is believed to be not far
+short of one thousand pieces;[50] but Señor Tormo calculates that were
+they no more than five hundred, they would, if placed end to end, cover
+more than two miles of ground.
+
+  [49] Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Ríos, _Noticia general para la
+       estimación de las Artes y de la manera en que se conocen las
+       liberales de las que son mecánicas y serviles_.
+
+  [50] Riaño estimates them at this number. See his _Report on a
+       collection of photographs from tapestries of the Royal Palace of
+       Madrid_; London, 1875; and also _Tapices de la Corona de España_,
+       with 135 plates in phototype, and text by Count Valencia de Don
+       Juan; Madrid, Hauser and Menet, 1903.
+
+Among the sets which form this wonderful collection, distributed between
+the palaces of Madrid, the Prado, and the Escorial, none is of greater
+merit or magnificence than the series of twelve cloths depicting the
+_Conquest of Tunis_ (Plate xxii.), designed for Charles the Fifth by his
+Court painter, Jan Vermay or Vermeyen, of Beverwyck, near Haarlem, and
+executed by William Pannemaker, of Brussels. It was agreed by Pannemaker
+in 1549 that the materials employed upon this tapestry should consist of
+the finest wool, Granada silk, and, for the woof, the choicest Lyons
+_fillet_--the very best that money could procure. The Emperor himself
+was to provide the gold and silver thread. Accordingly, Pannemaker was
+supplied with five hundred and fifty-nine pounds and one ounce of silk,
+dyed and spun in the city of Granada, where one of Charles' agents
+resided for two years seven months and twenty-five days, for the purpose
+of superintending its preparation. The cost of this silk, exclusive of
+the agent's expenses, amounted to 6,637 florins. Nineteen colours were
+employed in the dyeing, each colour consisting of from three to seven
+shades, and a hundred and sixty pounds of the finest silk were consumed
+in trying to obtain a special shade of blue.
+
+After receiving these materials, Pannemaker kept seven workmen
+constantly engaged upon each _paño_ of this tapestry, or eighty-four
+workmen in all. As soon as any one of the pieces was concluded, he
+submitted it to experts who pointed out such details as they recommended
+for correction. The entire work required a little more than five years,
+and was therefore terminated in 1554. The price paid for it was twelve
+florins per ell, and the number of these was 1246, representing a total
+cost of 14,952 florins, while Pannemaker, subject to the Emperor's being
+satisfied with the work, was further promised a yearly pension of a
+hundred florins.[51]
+
+  [51] Müntz, _La Tapisserie_, pp. 217, 218. Wauters, _Les Tapisseries
+       Bruxelloises_, pp. 76, 77. Houdoy, _Tapisseries représentant la
+       Conqueste du Royaulme de Thunes par l'empereur Charles-Quint_.
+
+Equally remarkable are the spirited design and the flawless execution of
+this series of elaborate cloths, recalling, in their swarms of armed
+figures and the lofty point of view, which reduces the sky to a mere
+strip, the vivacious war and camp pictures of Snyders. The titles of the
+subjects, forming, as it were, a pictured epitome of the expedition led
+by Charles in person against the Barbary pirates, are as follows: (1) A
+map of the Spanish coast; (2) The review of the troops at Barcelona; (3)
+The landing of the forces; (4) A skirmish; (5) The camp; (6) Foraging;
+(7) The capture of La Goleta; (8) The battle of Los Pozos, Tunis; (9) A
+sortie of the besieged; (10) The sack of Tunis; (11) The victors
+returning to the harbour; (12) The forces embarking.
+
+According to Müntz, this tapestry has been copied at least on two
+occasions; once in the eighteenth century by Josse de Vos, of Brussels,
+and also, in the same century, in Spain, partly at Seville, and partly
+at the factories of Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIV
+              TAPESTRY. ARRAS WORK, FROM ITALIAN CARTOONS
+           (_First half of 15th Century. Zamora Cathedral_)]
+
+Other most valuable and beautiful tapestries belonging to the Spanish
+Crown are the series titled _The History of the Virgin_, believed to be
+from cartoons by Van Eyk, _The Passion_, from cartoons attributed to Van
+der Weyden, the _History of David_ and _History of Saint John the
+Baptist_, the _Mass of Saint Gregory_, and the _Founding of Rome_. All
+of these series date from the fifteenth century and early in the
+sixteenth. Belonging to a later period are the reproductions of rustic
+scenes and hunting subjects by Teniers and others, executed in Spain
+between 1721 and 1724, the _Scenes from Don Quixote_, made at Santa
+Barbara from Procaccini's cartoons, and the eminently national series
+produced at the same factory from designs by Francisco Goya y Lucientes.
+This latter group amounts to several dozen pieces, including the
+well-known _Blind Man's Buff_, _A Promenade in Andalusia_ (Plate
+xxiii.), _The Crockery-seller_, _The Grape-Gatherers_ (_Frontispiece_),
+and other spirited and charming scenes of popular Spanish life--"tout
+cela," as Lefort describes it, "spirituel, vif, pittoresque, très
+mouvementé, bien groupé, s'élevant sur des fonds champêtres ou baignant
+gaiement en pleine lumière."
+
+Other tapestry collections of great merit belong to the cathedrals of
+Burgos, Zamora (where they line the walls of the Sacristy; Plate xxiv.),
+Zaragoza, Toledo, Tarragona, and Santiago. The first of these temples
+possesses the following sets, which are displayed to decorate the
+cloisters on the feast of Corpus Christi:--
+
+
+             (1) The History of Cleopatra and Mark Antony.
+             (2) The History of David.
+             (3) The Creation.
+             (4) An Historical Subject.
+             (5) The Theological and Cardinal Virtues.
+             (6) A series of five Gothic tapestries, which represent some
+                 mystery or allegory, and seem to be of Flemish
+                 manufacture. One other _paño_, of a similar character,
+                 accompanies them.
+
+All but the last of the above sets are marked with two B's separated by
+a shield, denoting Brussels workmanship. The _Theological and Cardinal
+Virtues_ were presented to the cathedral about the end of the sixteenth
+century. They are evidently executed from Italian cartoons, and the
+_haute-lisse_ craftsman who made them, in or towards the year 1571, was
+named Francis Greubels.[52]
+
+  [52] See an article on these tapestries by Señor Lamperez y Romea,
+       published in No. 55 of the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+       Excursiones_; and also Nos. 156 and 157 of the same publication,
+       for an article on the Crown and other Spanish collections, by
+       Elías Tormo y Monzó.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                            FLEMISH TAPESTRY
+  (_Late 15th Century. Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don
+                                Juan_)]
+
+The tapestries which belong to the cathedral of Zaragoza number some
+sixty or seventy pieces, including a series (fifteenth century)
+representing _The Life of Saint John the Baptist_, from designs by Lucas
+of Holland. Good tapestries were also the property of Valencia
+cathedral, but have been dispersed and sold in recent years. The convent
+of the Descalzas Reales at Madrid possesses a set from designs by
+Rubens. Ten pieces of this series formerly belonged to the Count-Duke of
+Olivares, who sent them to his town of Loeches; four passing
+subsequently to the Duke of Westminster's collection. The small though
+valuable collection formed by the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+(Plate xxv.), passed at this nobleman's death to his daughter, Señora de
+Osma, who has presented part of it to the Archæological Museum at
+Madrid. Another collector resident in Spain, Mons. Mersmann, of Granada,
+possesses a series of fine Brussels cloths representing scenes from _Don
+Quixote_, by Van den Hecke.
+
+
+                                  LACE
+
+Although the Spaniards have enjoyed, and still enjoy, a widespread fame
+for lace-making, their written records of this craft are unsubstantial.
+Originally, perhaps, they borrowed it from the Arabs or Venetians.
+Certainly, the earliest Spanish lace was such as is made with a needle,
+that is, point, not pillow lace. In this form, _à la aguja_, and in the
+sixteenth century, the Spaniards possibly conveyed the secrets of its
+manufacture to the Netherlands, receiving from the natives of this
+country, in exchange, the art of making lace by means of bobbins,
+including the characteristic "Flemish net," or _red flandés_.
+
+Towards the sixteenth century the parts of Spain where lace was
+manufactured in the largest quantity were some of the Manchegan towns
+and villages, the coast of Finisterre, and nearly the whole of Cataluña.
+In La Mancha lace was made, and still is so, at Manzanares, Granatula,
+Almagro, and other places. That of Almagro (the celebrated _punto de
+Almagro_, resembling the lace of Cataluña), is mentioned by nearly all
+the older travellers. In _Don Quixote_, Teresa writes to Sancho Panza
+that their daughter Sanchita was engaged in making bobbin-lace at a
+daily wage of eight _sueldos_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVI
+                      THE MARCHIONESS OF LA SOLANA
+                              (_By Goya_)]
+
+In 1877, at the Exhibition of Sumptuary Arts which was held in
+Barcelona, a magnificent lace _toca_ was shown, which was affirmed by
+its possessor, Señor Parcerisa, to be the work of a Spaniard of the
+later part of the fifteenth century, and to have belonged to Isabella
+the Catholic. The cathedral of the same city owns three thread-lace albs
+of sixteenth century workmanship, and the South Kensington Museum other
+pieces of Spanish lace of a comparatively early date, probably made by
+nuns and subtracted from the convents during the stormy scenes of 1835.
+
+Dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we have a number of
+notices, though scrappy and inexplicit as a rule, relating to Spanish
+lace. One of the more complete and interesting is quoted by Riaño from
+the _Microcosmia y Gobierno Universal del Hombre Cristiano_ (Barcelona,
+1592) of Father Marcos Antonio de Campos. "I will not be silent," wrote
+this austere _padre_, "and fail to mention the time lost these last
+years in the manufacture of _cadenetas_, a work of thread combined with
+gold and silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that
+100 and 1000 ducats were spent in this work, in which, besides
+destroying the eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering
+consumptive the women who worked it, and preventing them from spending
+their time with more advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread
+and years of time were wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask
+myself, after this fancy shall have passed away, will the lady or
+gentleman find that the chemises that cost them 50 ducats, or the
+_basquiña_ (petticoat) that cost them 300, are worth half their price,
+which certainly is the case with other objects in which the material
+itself is worth more?"
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                            A SPANISH _MAJA_
+                             (_A.D. 1777_)]
+
+Several of the other notices relating to the lace-makers' craft are from
+the pen of Countess d'Aulnoy. Of the Countess of Lemos this writer says:
+"Her hair was white, but she carefully concealed it beneath a black
+blonde"; and of another Spanish lady, Doña Leonor de Toledo, that she
+wore "a green velvet skirt trimmed with Spanish blonde." In the
+apartments of the young Princess of Monteleón the countess saw "a bed of
+green and gold damask, decorated with silver brocade and Spanish blonde.
+The sheets were fringed with English point-lace, extremely broad and
+handsome." The countess also says that the petticoats of the Spanish
+ladies were of English point-lace,[53] and that these ladies, when they
+visited each other, wore on their heads "a _toca_ of the richest English
+black point-lace, half a yard broad, forming points like the antique
+laces, beautiful to look at, and very dear. This head-dress suits them
+rarely."
+
+  [53] Upon the other hand, a notice dated 1562 says that at that time
+       Spanish-made black lace was largely used at the Court of England.
+
+According to Balsa de la Vega, whose interesting articles on Spanish
+lace (published in the newspaper _El Liberal_) are worth perusal by all
+who are interested in this craft, about the middle of the seventeenth
+century the custom originated in Spain of making lace in broader pieces,
+dividing the pattern into a number of strips or _fajas_ which were
+subsequently sewn together. In Belgium, on the contrary, the design was
+cut out, following the contour of the floral or other decoration.
+
+In former ages gold and silver lace was made in France, and also at
+Genoa. I think it possible that Genoese merchants, many of whom are
+known to have settled in Granada and other Spanish cities, may first
+have introduced this branch of lace-making among the Spaniards. The
+sumptuary laws of Aragon, Castile, León, and Navarre would seem to show
+that lace of these materials, known as _punto_ or _redecilla de oro_ (or
+_plata_) was manufactured by the Spanish Jews between the twelfth and
+fifteenth centuries. During the seventeenth century and part of the
+eighteenth, the quantity produced in the Peninsula was very large. In
+his _Fenix de Cataluña_, a work which was published at Barcelona in
+1683, Feliu de la Peña says that Spanish _randa_ or _réseuil_, of gold
+and silver, silk, thread, and aloe fibre, was better made in Spain than
+in the Netherlands. The journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the
+following notice of this silver lace: "Le Roy y envoya le Lieutenant du
+Maistre des Postes, avec huit postillons, couverts de clinquant, et
+quarante chevaux de poste, dont il y en avoit huit avec des selles et
+des brides du Roy où il y avoit de la dentelle d'argent, que Monsieur le
+Mareschal fit distribuer à environ autant de gens que nous estions, sur
+une liste qu'il avoit envoyée quelques jours auparavant."
+
+                         [Illustration: XXVIII
+                                A _MAJA_
+                              (_By Goya_)]
+
+It is impossible to mention Spanish lace without recalling that most
+graceful article of headwear, the _mantilla_, the use of which is
+gradually dying out. At present we understand by this word a black or
+white head-covering of lace alone (the white being more conspicuous and
+dressy), but about a hundred years ago the _mantilla_ was made of a
+variety of fabrics. Also, it was worn in an easier and more _negligé_
+manner than nowadays, retaining a closer likeness to the _velo_ or
+_manto_ with which the Spanish women of the seventeenth century were
+able, at their pleasure, to completely mask their faces (Plates xxvi.
+and xxvii.). Indeed, as late as the early part of the nineteenth century
+the _mantilla_ was sometimes thrown over the face (Plates xxviii. and
+xxix.). The same usage is referred to by Townsend, who describes the
+_mantilla_ as "serving the double purpose of a cloak and veil."[54]
+To-day it is worn, not hanging loose and open, but a good deal bunched
+up at the bosom. The hair, too, is dressed to an unusual height, with a
+tall comb, and over this the delicate lace covering should droop a
+little to one side. A flower or two (roses or carnations by preference)
+may be worn at one side of the head, and where the _mantilla_ is caught
+up at the breast.
+
+  [54] "Pour les femmes, elles ne sortent point qu'emmantelées d'une mante
+       noire comme le deüil des dames de France, et elles ne se montrent
+       qu'un [oe]uil, et vont cherchant et agaçant les hommes avec tant
+       d'effronterie, qu'elles tiennent à affront quand on ne veut pas
+       aller plus loin que la conversation."--Bertaut de Rouen; _Journal
+       du Voyage d'Espagne_, p. 294.
+
+The manuscript account of Spanish costumes early in the nineteenth
+century, and which is prefixed to my copy of Pigal's coloured
+lithographs, contains some excellent descriptions of the older Spanish
+_mantilla_. We learn, for instance, that at Palma the women of the
+well-to-do middle class wore a _mantilla_ of black taffeta, trimmed with
+blonde (Plate xviii.).[55] In La Mancha, and among the peasants, it was
+of white muslin; at Cordova, in cold weather, "en flanelle ou en bayette
+fine: elle est garnie de rubans à l'extrémité desquels il y a deux gros
+noeuds: en été elle est en mousseline." The small _mantilla_ or
+"mantellina" of the wife of the smuggler of Tarifa was "en flanelle
+blanche, ou noire, ou rose, brodée d'un ruban: elle en fait três souvent
+un usage différent des autres femmes espagnoles, car au lieu de la
+mettre sur la tête attachés avec des épingles, elle s'en sert de schal:
+quelque fois elle la met en baudrier laissant flotter derrière elle les
+deux extrémités qui sont ornées d'un noeud en ruban." The servant-girl
+of Madrid wore a white _mantilla_ in summer, and a black one in winter.
+The same author describes in greater detail the _mantillas_ of the fine
+ladies. "La mantille et la basquigne," he says, "voila de quoi se
+compose principalement le costume du beau sexe en Espagne. Ce costume,
+quoique national, est susceptible de recevoir aussi bien que tout autre
+les divers degrés de luxe que les femmes d'une riche classe et celles du
+plus haut rang peuvent apporter dans leur parure: la classe la moins
+aisée porte la mantille en laine noire ou blanche et la basquigne en
+serge ou autre étoffe de laine noire. Pendant le jour, lorsque les dames
+espagnoles se présentent en public, c'est toujours avec la mantille et
+la basquigne, mais le soir si elles vont au spectacle ou ailleurs, elles
+sortent três souvent habillées à la française."
+
+  [55] Blonde, I need hardly state, is silk-lace. It can always be
+       distinguished by the glossy surface.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIX
+                            A LADY OF SORIA
+                          (_About A.D. 1810_)]
+
+Elsewhere he says: "Nous avons déjà dit qu'un simple ruban, un peigne,
+ou une fleur, est la coiffure adoptée par les dames espagnoles, pour
+faire usage de la mantille: celle-ci est dans l'hiver quelquefois en
+serge de soie, taffetas, etc., noir, garnie en outre de blondes, ou d'un
+large ruban de velours noir en échiquier (_cinta de terciopelo à
+tablero_), mais ce ruban est toujours noir. Il y eut un temps où la
+mode, qui ne fut pas de longue durée, prescrivait que les bouts de la
+mantille se terminassent en trois pointes ornées chacune d'une houppe
+(_borla_) noire, ou d'un lacet de ruban noir. Jamais les mantilles ne
+sont doublées."
+
+The same author remarks of the lady of Madrid; "La mantille de tulle
+brodé ne se porte que dans la belle saison ... elle ne dépasse jamais
+la ceinture"[56]; and of the lady of Granada: "si la mantille est
+blanche, elle est en tulle parsemé de petits bouquets et garnie de
+larges et riches dentelles. Si elle est noire, comme cela arrive plus
+ordinairement, elle est alors en blonde: il y a de ces mantilles qui
+coutent cinq cent, mille, et jusqu'à deux mille francs."
+
+  [56] This is incorrect. It was sometimes worn longer.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                      HANDKERCHIEF OF CATALAN LACE
+       (_Presented to Queen Victoria of Spain, on her marriage_)]
+
+A good deal of lace, principally of the less elaborate and cheaper
+kinds, was formerly manufactured in the kingdom of Valencia. Cabanillas
+wrote in 1797 that at Novelda, a small town of this region, more than
+two thousand women and children worked at making laces, which were
+hawked about the country by others of the townspeople. Swinburne remarks
+upon the same industry, and Ricord tells us in his pamphlet (1791) that
+cotton lace was made in six factories at Torrente, Alicante, and
+Orihuela.[57] The total product of these factories for the said year was
+1,636,100 yards, which sold at from nine to twelve _reales_ the yard.
+Laborde wrote some years later, in the first volume of his book, that
+lace, and gold and silver fringes were then made at Valencia, and in the
+fourth volume; "Gold and silver laced stuffs, and velvets of all colours
+brocaded and flowered with the same metals, are made at Toledo,
+Barcelona, Valencia, and Talavera de la Reina; and the manufacture at
+the last-named city annually consumes four thousand marks of silver, and
+seventy marks of gold.
+
+  [57] A letter from Vargas y Ponce to Cean Bermudez, dated 1797, says
+       that in this year there existed at Murcia a school for making
+       blondes, owned by one Castilla. "He does good work, teaches well,
+       and has executed blondes for the Queen, which are well spoken of."
+
+"At Barcelona, Talavera de la Reina, and Valencia are also manufactured
+gold and silver edgings, lace, and fringes, though not in a sufficient
+quantity to answer the demands of Spain; and the gold is very badly
+prepared, having too red a cast."
+
+Lace-making was an ancient and important industry of every part of
+Cataluña. Lace articles for ladies' headwear are known to have been made
+throughout this region at least as far back as the fifteenth century,
+and Capmany reminds us that by a _cedula_ dated from the Cortes of
+Monzón, December 16th, 1538, the Emperor Charles the Fifth confirmed the
+Ordinances of the guild, established long before, of the _tejedores de
+velos_ of Barcelona. Technical provisions are embodied in this code,
+concerning various articles of lace employed as headwear, such as
+_alfardillas_, _quiñales_, and _espumilla_, all of which were largely
+exported to America.
+
+The attention of foreigners who travelled in Cataluña towards the
+eighteenth century was constantly attracted by the lace-makers.
+Swinburne mentions "Martorell, a large town, where much black lace is
+manufactured," and "Espalungera (Esparraguera?), a long village, full of
+cloth and lace manufacturers," and wrote of Sarriá and its surroundings,
+close to Barcelona: "The women in the little hamlets were busy with
+their bobbins making black lace, some of which, of the coarser kind, is
+spun out of the leaf of the aloe. It is curious, but of little use, for
+it grows mucilaginous with washing."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXI
+                        CURTAIN OF SPANISH LACE
+                   (_Point and Pillow Work. Modern_)]
+
+"Martorell," wrote Townsend in 1786, "is one long, narrow street, in
+which poverty, industry, and filth, although seldom seen together, have
+agreed to take up their abode. The inhabitants make lace, and even the
+little children of three and four years old are engaged in this
+employment." Laborde wrote that at the beginning of the eighteenth
+century seventeen manufactories of blondes were established at Mataró,
+and adds of Barcelona province generally at that time: "Laces and
+blondes constitute the employment of women and children. The work is
+principally done at Pineda, Malgrat, San Celoni, Tosa, Canet, Arenys,
+Callela, San-Pol, Mataró, Esparraguera, Martorell, and Barcelona.... The
+laces are almost all shipped for the New World."
+
+The most observant and most entertaining of all these tourists was
+Arthur Young, who wrote, in 1787, of the towns upon the coast of
+Cataluña: "The appearance of industry is as great as it can be: great
+numbers of fishing-boats and nets, with rows of good white houses on the
+sea-side; and while the men are active in their fisheries, the women are
+equally busy making lace." Of Mataró he says: "It appears exceedingly
+industrious; some stocking-frames; lace-makers at every door.... I am
+sorry to add that here also the industry of catching lice in each
+other's heads is well understood.
+
+"Pass Arrengs (Arenys), a large town ... making thread lace universal
+here. They have thread from France; women earn ten to sixteen _sous_ at
+it. Great industry, and in consequence a flourishing appearance. Canet,
+another large town, employed also in ship-building, fishing, and making
+lace.... Pass Malgrat, which is not so well built as the other towns,
+but much lace made in it.... Reach Figueras, whose inhabitants seem
+industrious and active. They make lace, cordage, and mats, and have many
+potteries of a common sort."[58]
+
+  [58] Tour in Catalonia in 1787; Vol. I., p. 644, etc.
+
+Lace-making prevails to-day all through this region of north-eastern
+Spain, particularly in the strip or zone of it including the valley of
+the Llobregat as far as Martorell, and which extends from Palamós to
+Barcelona. The towns which produce the greatest quantities of lace are
+Arenys de Mar, Malgrat, San Pol, Canet, and Arenys de Munt. In the last
+of these places an important Regional Exhibition of Lace was held in
+July of last year, the number of exhibitors amounting to one hundred and
+twenty-five. Due to the increasing production of underlinen and woven
+fabrics generally, or to other causes, lace-making has declined at
+Blanes, Pineda, Calella, and one or two other places. At San Celoni,
+Vallgorguina, San Vicente, San Andrés de Llevaneras, Argentona, Caldeta,
+and San Acisclo de Vilalta, lace is made by women who combine this work
+with dirtier and rougher labour in the field. Most of the lace made in
+these towns is therefore black.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                   POINT LACE FAN, OF MUDEJAR DESIGN
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+In the spring of last year, an elaborate lace pocket-handkerchief (Plate
+xxx.), designed by Señor Riquer, and executed in a traditional style of
+Cataluña, denominated locally the _ret Catalá_, was made in the
+old-established lace-factory of the widow of Mariano Castells in the
+town of Arenys de Mar, and offered by the Agricultural Institute of San
+Isidro as a wedding-present to Princess Ena of Battenberg. Two
+_encajeras_ worked at this handkerchief under the personal direction of
+the widow Castells, and the time employed by them in making it was two
+months.
+
+Plate xxxi. represents a small portion of a very original and beautiful
+lace curtain, ten feet high, designed by Señor Aguado, and executed,
+partly by Señorita Pilar Huguet (who superintended the work throughout),
+and partly by seventeen of this lady's pupils, at the School of Arts and
+Industries, Toledo. Although it is a hackneyed trope to declare that the
+ornamentation of the Spanish-Moors, whether in ivory, wood or metal,
+stone or plaster, was "delicate enough to seem of lacework," I believe
+this to be the first occasion when such intricate and graceful motives
+have been actually reproduced in lace. The result of the experiment has
+proved surprisingly effective. The design is Spanish-Arabic in its
+purest form, recalling various arabesques upon the walls of the
+Alhambra, and includes thirty-three medallions which constitute the
+principal decorative scheme, a hundred and forty-eight palms or
+_alharacas_, and the Arabic expression "God is all-powerful," repeated
+sixty-six times. The centre of the curtain consists in all of four
+hundred and forty-eight pieces. The broad cenefa or bordering, which
+runs right round the whole, contains, in Arabic, the following
+inscription: "This curtain was begun in the _curso_ (course or series of
+classes) of the year 1903-1904, and terminated in the _curso_ following,
+(Art) School of Toledo." The style adopted throughout is that of
+Brussels, known erroneously as English point, although upon a coarser
+scale than is considered to be proper to this lace, the ground being
+executed by the needle, or in point-work, and the rest by bobbins.
+
+Plate xxxii. represents a covering for a fan, also executed by Señorita
+Huguet, and also in the Brussels style. The design is a combination of
+Mudejar motives, such as conventional foliage and geometrical bordering,
+with a Spanish scutcheon and the double-headed eagle of the Emperor
+Charles the Fifth.
+
+At the present day, and largely owing to the initiative and the skilled
+tuition of Señor Salvi, excellent lace is manufactured at Madrid,
+including reproductions--which have been generally admired in Great
+Britain and elsewhere--of the finest point or bobbin work of Malines,
+Manchester, and Venice.
+
+
+
+
+                               Appendices
+
+                               APPENDIX A
+
+                  THE LEGEND OF SAN MIGUEL IN EXCELSIS
+
+
+Towards the year A.D. 707, when Witiza was king of Spain, there dwelt at
+the castle of Goñi, not far from the city of Pamplona in Navarre, a
+cavalier named Don Theodosio, whose wife, Doña Constanza de Viandra, was
+a lady of remarkable beauty. On one occasion Don Theodosio found himself
+obliged to quit his native country for a time, in order to command a
+military expedition against the Berbers, and before his departure he
+begged his father and mother to cheer his wife's loneliness while he
+should be away, by taking up their residence at his castle. They came
+accordingly, and as a special mark of honour to the parents of her lord,
+Doña Constanza gave up to them her own chamber, together with the
+nuptial couch. After a time, when Theodosio's enterprise was concluded,
+and the warrior, safe and sound, was returning to Navarre, the Devil,
+disguised as a hermit, one evening lay in wait for him at a spot called
+Errotavidea, situated at a few miles' distance from Goñi castle, in the
+wooded and romantic valley of the Ollo. Stepping up to the cavalier's
+side, Satan assured him, in a tone of smooth hypocrisy, that during his
+absence the lady Constanza had been seduced by one of Theodosio's own
+servants. Upon the knight's demanding proof, "proceed," replied the
+Devil, "to your castle, enter your nuptial chamber, and there you will
+find your consort in the very arms of her paramour." Frantic with
+apprehension, the warrior spurred home, broke into his chamber at the
+dead of night, and, passing his hand over the bed, encountered, as Satan
+had malignantly foretold, two bodies; whereupon he drew his sword and,
+in this moment of fatal and irreflective haste, murdered his own father
+and mother. Then, just as he was rushing from the room, he met, carrying
+a lighted lamp, the lady Constanza herself, returning from the chapel in
+which, as was her custom every night, she had been praying for his safe
+return.
+
+Smitten with deep repentance for the crime, whose enormity had been
+discovered by the impetuous lord in so dramatic and dreadful a fashion,
+Theodosio journeyed to Rome, and related what had happened to the Pope,
+who sentenced him to wear a heavy iron collar round his neck, and chains
+about his body, and to wander, in a state of rigorous penance, through
+the loneliest regions of Navarre, without setting foot in any town,
+until, as a sign that divine justice was satisfied, the chains should
+fall from off him. Wherever this should come to pass, he was instructed
+to build a temple in honour of the archangel Michael.
+
+The sentence was patiently performed, and Theodosio had spent some years
+in solitary wandering, when on a day a single link dropped from his
+ponderous chains. This happened on the top of a high mountain called
+Ayedo, in the Sierra de Andía, and accordingly the penitent erected on
+the spot a simple fane in the archangel's honour, known by the name of
+San Miguel de Ayedo, and which, in the form of a little hermitage, still
+exists.
+
+This proof of heavenly grace presaged a further and a more complete
+deliverance. When Theodosio's wandering had lasted seven years, he
+reached one day the summit of Mount Aralar, at two leagues' distance
+from his own castle, and was there met by a ferocious dragon of
+appalling size. Being, as a penitent, unarmed, as well as encumbered by
+his massive chains, the miserable man fell helpless to his knees, and
+called to God to succour him. The prayer was heard. Suddenly the form of
+his patron the archangel flashed out against the sky, the dragon fell
+dead, and all of Theodosio's chains were shattered, and dropped from
+him. Here, therefore, he built another and a larger temple in honour of
+his guardian, and, accompanied by Doña Constanza, passed the remainder
+of his life in peaceful and secluded piety.
+
+The castle of Goñi, which was also called "Saint Michael's palace," and
+"the palace of the cavalier to whom Saint Michael revealed himself," was
+standing as late as the year 1685, but, according to Padre Burgui, by
+the close of another century the walls were crumbling fast. Until about
+the year 1715 there also stood an ancient wooden cross to mark the spot
+where Satan, in a hermit's garb, had appeared to Don Theodosio.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX B
+
+                          JET-WORK OF SANTIAGO
+
+In former times the art of carving jet was largely practised at this
+town. The characteristic form was the _signaculum_ or image of Saint
+James; that is, a more or less uncouth representation of the apostle in
+full pilgrim's dress. The height of these images, which are now
+dispersed all over Europe, varies between four and seven inches. They
+are fully described in Drury Fortnum's monographs, _On a signaculum of
+Saint James of Compostela_, and _Notes on other signacula of Saint James
+of Compostela_, as well as in Villa-amil y Castro's _La azabachería
+compostelana_. These objects were sold in quantities to the pilgrims
+visiting Santiago, who nevertheless were often cheated by the
+substitution of black glass for jet.[59]
+
+  [59] The following passage from Townsend's Journey through Spain (Vol.
+       II., p. 56), is curious as showing where jet was formerly found in
+       this Peninsula. "When I returned to Oviedo, a gentleman gave me a
+       collection of amber and of jet, of which there is great abundance
+       in this province: but the two most considerable mines of it are in
+       the territory of Beloncia, one in a valley called Las Guerrias, the
+       other on the side of a high mountain in the village of Arenas, in
+       the parish of Val de Soto. The former is found in slate, and looks
+       like wood: but when broke, the nodules discover a white crust,
+       inclosing yellow amber, bright and transparent. Jet and a species
+       of kennel coal, abounding with marcasites, universally accompany
+       the amber."
+
+Specimens of this work are in the British and Cluny Museums, and in the
+Archæological Museum at Madrid. An interesting jet figure of the apostle
+on horseback belonged to the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan. Jet
+processional crosses (twelfth and thirteenth century), studded with
+enamel, and which were used at funerals, are preserved in the cathedrals
+of Oviedo and Orense. Rings, rosaries, and amulets were also carved from
+this material.
+
+As to Spanish processional crosses generally (the use of which was
+undoubtedly borrowed from the standard borne at the head of pagan
+armies), I may say that they are commonly fitted with a handle, called
+the _cruz baja_ or "lower cross," though sometimes this handle is
+dispensed with, as, for instance, at the funerals of infants. According
+to Villa-amil y Castro, the typical shape of the Spanish processional
+cross has always been that denominated the _immissa_, consisting of four
+arms terminating in straight edges. The same authority says that within
+this broader definition the primitive form was the Greek cross, that is,
+having four arms of equal length. Another early form was the "Oviedo"
+cross (see Vol. I., Plate II.), with the four arms in the shape of
+trapezia, united at the centre by a disc. Of this latter shape are, or
+were, the crosses of Guarrazar and those which were presented by Alfonso
+the Second and Alfonso the Third to the cathedrals of Oviedo and
+Santiago.
+
+A later form was the _potenzada_ cross, which had a cross-piece fixed at
+the extremity of each arm. As time advanced, this T-shaped termination
+to the arms assumed such decorative and capricious forms as the trefoil
+and the fleur-de-lis. Early in the history of the Spanish church the
+processional cross consisted often of a wooden core, covered with more
+or less profusely ornamented silver plates, and having, between the
+handle and the upper part, an enamelled bulb or _n[oe]ud_. The image of
+Christ, converting the cross into the crucifix, was not attached until a
+later period, because, as Villa-amil y Castro has remarked, the
+primitive Christians considered the essential glory of their faith,
+rather than, as yet, the perils and the pains to which they were exposed
+by clinging to that faith. The cross was thus the symbol of the
+Christian's glory; the crucifix, of his suffering.[60]
+
+  [60] As for the clothing of sacred images in Spain, even these are
+       subject to changes in the fashion of costume. Ford makes merry over
+       "the Saviour in a court-dress, with wig and breeches." Swinburne
+       wrote in 1775, from Alicante: "We have been all the morning in
+       great uneasiness about Sir T. G.'s valet de chambre, who, till
+       within this hour, was not to be found in any of the places he
+       usually frequents. His appearance has quieted our apprehensions;
+       and it seems he has been from sunrise till dinner-time locked up
+       in the sacristy of the great church, curling and frizzling the
+       flaxen periwig of the statue of the Virgin, who is to-morrow to be
+       carried in solemn procession through the city."
+
+       A similar passage occurs in one of the letters of Lady Mary Wortley
+       Montagu. "I was particularly diverted," she wrote from Nuremberg in
+       1716, "in a little Roman Catholic church which is permitted here,
+       where the professors of that religion are not very rich, and
+       consequently cannot adorn their images in so rich a manner as their
+       neighbours. For, not to be quite destitute of all finery, they have
+       dressed up an image of our Saviour over the altar in a fair,
+       full-bottomed wig, very well powdered."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX C
+
+         DESCRIPTION OF THE _CUSTODIAS_ OF SEVILLE AND CORDOVA
+
+The _custodia_ of Seville cathedral is described by its author, Juan de
+Arfe, in the following terms:--
+
+The shape is circular, with projecting friezes and bases. The _custodia_
+is four yards high, and is divided into four orders of symmetrical
+proportions, the second order being smaller by two-fifths than the
+first, the third smaller by the same fraction than the second, and the
+fourth than the third. Each order rests upon four-and-twenty columns,
+twelve of which are of a larger size, and wrought in relief. The other
+and the smaller twelve are striated, and serve as imposts to the arches.
+All these orders are of open work, containing twelve _vistas_
+(prospects) apiece. Six are of full dimensions, and the other six spring
+from half-way up the larger ones, as is shown in the appended design,
+which I will not explain further, as the proportion and harmony can be
+judged of from the plan (see Vol. I., Plate xvii.).
+
+
+                              FIRST ORDER
+
+The first order is in the Ionic style. The columns and frieze are
+adorned with vines containing fruits and foliage, and some figures of
+children holding spikes of wheat, to signify bread and wine. In the
+centre of this, the largest order, is Faith, represented by the figure
+of a queen, seated on a throne, holding in her right hand a chalice with
+the host, and in the other a standard such as is seen in certain ancient
+medals of the emperors Constantine and Theodosius. Beneath her feet is a
+world, and behind her, overthrown and bound with chains, a monster with
+the face of a beautiful woman and the trunk or body of a dragon, to
+represent Heresy, which seems to attract by pleasantness of shape, being
+at bottom poison and deceit.
+
+At one side is the figure of a youth with wings, and a bandage over his
+eyes, representing Intelligence. His hands are shackled, and he is
+kneeling, as one that surrenders himself captive to Faith in all her
+mysteries, and particularly in this one.
+
+Corresponding to this figure, on the opposite side, is that of a
+beautiful woman, likewise kneeling, crossing her hands before her
+breast, and holding a book, to represent Human Wisdom, which
+acknowledges the majesty of the Catholic Faith, and is subservient
+thereto.
+
+On the right hand of Faith is Saint Peter, seated, holding his keys on
+high, and on her left Saint Paul, with naked sword, that is, the
+preaching of the word of God. High up, about the spring of the vault, is
+the figure of the Holy Spirit, assistant in the church.
+
+Between the six _asientos_ of the base are the four doctors of the
+Church, together with Saint Thomas and Pope Urban the Fourth, who
+instituted the festival of the Holy Sacrament.
+
+All these figures are half a yard in height; that is, one half the
+height of the larger columns belonging to this order.
+
+In the six niches that are between the arches, are the figures of six
+Sacraments, in this wise:--
+
+(1) _Baptism_, represented by the figure of a youth holding in one hand
+a bunch of lilies, signifying purity and innocence, and in the other a
+beautiful vessel, showing the act of washing the soul, that is the
+particular virtue of this Sacrament. Over the arch is a scroll
+containing the word BAPTISMUS.
+
+(2) _Confirmation_ is a damsel of spirited mien, armed with a helmet. In
+one hand she has some vessels of holy oil. Her other hand is raised,
+while with the index finger she expresses firm determination to confess
+the name of Christ. Inscribed upon her is the word CONFIRMATIO.
+
+(3) _Penitence_ holds in her right hand a wand, denoting spiritual
+jurisdiction, like the wand wherewith they smite the excommunicated at
+his absolution. In her left hand is a Roman javelin, that was the symbol
+of liberty, to signify the free estate of the captive's soul, and how,
+through absolution, sin is made a slave; together with the word
+P[OE]NITENTIA.
+
+(4) _Extreme Unction_ is represented by an aged woman, holding a vase
+whence issueth an olive bough, and in her other hand a candle, as token
+that this Sacrament is a succour to those that be in the last agony. The
+word inscribed is UNCTIO.
+
+(5) _Order_ is a priest with his vestments, holding an incensory,
+together with a chalice and the host, signifying Oration and Sacrifice.
+The word inscribed is ORDO.
+
+(6) _Matrimony_ is the figure of a youth, holding in one hand a cross
+with two serpents twined about it, in imitation of Mercury's wand. In
+his other hand he bears a yoke, and the inscription MATRIMONIUM.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, as being most excellent of all,
+occupies a loftier place than all these other Sacraments.
+
+The basement of this order, forming, as it were, a boundary and
+bordering to this holy edifice of the Church, has twelve pedestals
+beneath the columns, making six and thirty sides, which are adorned with
+six and thirty scenes, eighteen whereof are taken from the Old
+Testament, and the other eighteen from the New Testament, or relating to
+the present state of the Church.
+
+(1) The first scene represents how God formed Eve from one of Adam's
+ribs. An inscription at the foot of the pedestal says, _Humani generis
+auspicia_.
+
+(2) Next to the preceding is an image of our Saviour with two angels
+supporting him by the arms, while from his wounded side issue seven rays
+of blood, signifying the Church and Sacraments. The inscription says,
+_Felicior propagatio_.
+
+(3) The tree of Life, with Adam and Eve partaking of its fruit, and the
+inscription, _Perituræ gaudia vitæ_.
+
+(4) A cross adorned with branches and with blades of wheat, surmounted
+by a chalice and the host, and round about it a few prostrate figures,
+eating this holy fruit, and the inscription, _Vitæ melioris origo_.
+
+(5) The angel with the flaming sword, driving our fathers from Paradise,
+without suffering them to reach the tree of Life. The inscription says,
+_Procul, procul esse prophani_.
+
+(6) The parable of the banquet, from which was driven out the man that
+had no wedding garment. The inscription says, _Non licet sanctum dare
+canibus_.
+
+(7) The stream of water that issued from the rock smitten by the rod of
+Moses, and the thirsty people, drinking. The inscription says, _Bibebant
+de spirituali petra_.
+
+(8) Beside the preceding, the figure of Christ, from whose side issues a
+stream of blood, of which some sheep are drinking. The inscription says,
+_Petra autem erat Christus_.
+
+(9) The manna which fell from Heaven. The inscription says,
+_Manducaverunt et mortui sunt_.
+
+(10) The miracle of the five loaves, with the inscription, _Qui manducat
+vivit in æternum_.
+
+(11) The raven bringing bread and meat to Elijah. The inscription says,
+_Non turpat dona minister_.
+
+(12) Next to this, an angel conveying a chalice and the host to the
+saints in the desert, with the inscription, _Sacerdos Angelus Domini
+est_.
+
+(13) Elisha throwing flour in the pot to sweeten the bitterness of the
+colocynth. The inscription says, _Vitæ solamen acerbæ_.
+
+(14) Christ turning the water into wine, with the inscription, _Vertit
+tristes in gaudia curas_.
+
+(15) Tobias frightening away the Devil with the smoke from the liver of
+a fish. The inscription says, _Fumum fugit atra caterva_.
+
+(16) Devils flying from an altar containing a chalice and the host, with
+the inscription, _Fugiunt phantasmata lucem_.
+
+(17) Lot inebriated, sleeping with his daughters. The inscription says,
+_De vinea sodomorum vinum eorum_.
+
+(18) A group of virgins prostrating themselves before the Sacrament upon
+the altar, with the inscription, _Hoc vinum virgines germinat_.
+
+(19) Abraham harbouring the angels and washing their feet. The
+inscription says, _Non licet illotos accedere_.
+
+(20) Christ washing the feet of his disciples before a table. The
+inscription says, _Auferte malum cogitationum vestrarum_.
+
+(21) The supper of the paschal lamb, with the inscription, _Antiqua
+novis misteria cedunt_.
+
+(22) The supper of Christ, with the inscription, _Melioris fercula
+mensæ_.
+
+(23) The throne of God, before which stands the prophet Isaiah, and an
+angel whose mouth is smitten by a lighted brand. The inscription says,
+_Purgavit filios Levi_.
+
+(24) A priest before an altar, in his robes, administering the communion
+to the Christian people. The inscription says, _Probet se ipsum homo_.
+
+(25) Elijah reclining in the shade of the tree, with an angel bringing
+him bread and a vessel. The inscription says, _In pace in idipsum_.
+
+(26) A sick man in his bed, with a priest administering the Sacrament to
+him. The inscription says, _Dormiam et requiescam_.
+
+(27) Habbakuk borne by the angels to the den of lions, to carry food to
+Daniel. The inscription says, _Adjutor in opportunitatibus_.
+
+(28) An angel with a chalice and the host, which he administers to the
+souls in Purgatory. The inscription says, _Emissit vinctos de lacu_.
+
+(29) Noah sleeping beneath the vine, holding a vessel, with his sons
+gathered about him. The inscription says, _Humanæ ebrietatis ludibria_.
+
+(30) Christ with a chalice in his hand, and angels round him, holding
+clusters of grapes, and a cross surrounded with a vine. The inscription
+says, _Calix ejus inebrians quant præclarus est_.
+
+(31) A queen adorned profanely, crowned with a snake. She holds a vessel
+in her hand, and rides upon a dragon with seven heads, some of which are
+drooping, as though they were inebriated. The inscription says,
+_Hæreticæ impietatis ebrietas_.
+
+(32) The figure of a virtuous lady wearing a royal crown. She holds a
+chalice in her hand, and rides in a car borne by the figures of the four
+evangelists. The inscription says, _Ecclesiæ Catholicæ veritas_.
+
+(33) The table with the loaves of propitiation, before the tabernacle,
+with Moses and Aaron standing beside it, and the inscription, _Umbram
+fugit veritas_.
+
+(34) A custodia, with a chalice and the host, borne by angels. The
+inscription says, _Ecce panis angelorum_.
+
+(35) David and his soldiers, who receive bread from the priest's hand.
+The inscription says, _Absit mens conscia culpæ_.
+
+(36) A priest, administering the Sacrament to two persons, each of whom
+has an angel beside him. The inscription says, _Sancta sanctis_.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+And since all Sacraments have virtue and efficacy from the passion of
+Christ our Saviour, which passion is perpetually commemorated by this
+holiest of Sacraments, I placed upon the summit of the twelve columns
+belonging to this order twelve child-angels, naked, bearing the signs
+and instruments of the Passion, as voices to announce this sacred
+mystery.
+
+On the tympanums of the arches are angels bearing grapes and ears of
+wheat, and in the middle of the six sides of the frieze are graven, upon
+some ovals, the following images and devices, the inscription
+corresponding to them being on the largest scroll of the architrave.
+
+(1) A garland of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, and in the midst
+thereof an open pomegranate, signifying, by the number and cohesion of
+its grains, the Church, guarded within the fortress of this holiest of
+Sacraments. The inscription says, _Posuit fines tuos pacem_.
+
+(2) A hand among clouds, extended over a nest of young ravens that have
+their beaks open and raised, with the inscription _Quanto magis vos_.
+This signifies, that the Lord who taketh care to sustain the infidels
+and pagans, taketh also especial care to sustain His Church with
+abundance of this celestial food.
+
+(3) A fair stalk of wheat, whence issue seven ears of great fatness,
+with the inscription, _Sempiterna satietas_; showing that, not as in the
+seven years in Egypt, but for ever, shall spiritual abundance abide in
+the Church of Christ, owing to this holy table of His body and His
+blood.
+
+(4) A stork upon a nest woven of wheat-ears and vine-tendrils, with the
+inscription, _Pietas incomparabilis_. Showing the piety and fatherly
+love that God affordeth to us in this Sacrament.
+
+(5) A hare smelling at a bough and some ears of wheat, with the
+inscription, _Vani sunt sensus hominis_. The hare signifies the senses,
+which are deceived by the appearance of the bread and wine, unless they
+be fortified by faith.
+
+(6) A hand bearing a wand, the end whereof is turning to a serpent, with
+this inscription, _Hic vita, hic mors_; because this Sacrament is the
+judgment and condemnation of all that receive it unworthily, but life
+for such as receive it with a clean spirit. The device has reference to
+the rod of Moses, that gave health to the people of Israel, affording
+them a passage through the midst of the sea, and making streams of sweet
+water to gush from the rock, but that was ruinous to the Egyptians,
+causing among them terrible sickness and destruction.
+
+
+                              SECOND ORDER
+
+The second order is in the Corinthian style, the columns and frieze
+adorned with foliage in the upper and lower thirds, and the other one
+with fluted columns. This order contains the Holy Sacrament in a
+circular _viril_ ornamented at its ends. Round it are the four
+evangelists with the figures of the lion, bull, eagle, and angel,
+adorning the majesty of the Lord that is within the Sacrament, whereof
+they gave true testimony, according to these words upon a tablet which
+each one holdeth in his hand:--
+
+              Saint Matthew, _Hoc est corpus meum_.
+              Saint Mark, _Hic est sanguis meus_.
+              Saint John, _Caro mea vere est cibus_.
+              Saint Luke, _Hic est calix novi testamenti_.
+
+On the outside are placed these figures, in pairs:--Saint Justa and
+Saint Rufina, patron saints of Seville; San Isidro and San Leandro,
+archbishops of the same city; San Hermenegildo and San Sebastian; San
+Servando and San Germano, martyrs; San Laureano, archbishop of Seville,
+and San Carpóforo, priest; Saint Clement, pope, and Saint Florence,
+martyr.
+
+On the six running pedestals of the columns of this order are six scenes
+or figures of ancient sacrifices, symbolic of this holiest sacrifice of
+the Eucharist, as showing how this one is the consummation and
+perfection of all sacrifices, and that the light thereof dispersed the
+shadows of the others. And these be in the following wise:--
+
+(1) The sacrifice of Abel.
+
+(2) That of Noah, on his leaving the ark.
+
+(3) That of Melchisidech.
+
+(4) That of Abraham, when he sought to sacrifice Isaac.
+
+(5) That of the lamb which was found in the thornbush and placed upon
+the altar.
+
+(6) Solomon's sacrifice at his dedication of the temple.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+On the tops of these columns are twelve figures representing the twelve
+gifts and fruits of this most holy Sacrament, as they are told of by
+Saint Thomas in his treatise on this mystery:--
+
+(1) _The conquest of the Devil_, represented by a maiden beautified and
+adorned with a palm and a cross. The inscription on the pedestal says,
+_Fuga dæmonis_.
+
+(2) _Spiritual cheerfulness and delight_, in the form of another maiden,
+holding a wand wreathed with boughs and tendrils of the vine, and in her
+other hand some ears of wheat. The inscription says, _Hilaritas_.
+
+(3) _Purity of soul_, represented by a heart among flames, suspended
+over a crucible. The inscription, _Puritas_.
+
+(4) _Self-knowledge_, represented by a figure of Reason, holding in one
+hand a mirror, in which she regards herself, and in the other hand a
+leafy bough. The inscription says, _Cognitio sui_.
+
+(5) _Peace, and the appeasing of the wrath of God_, represented by a
+figure holding in one hand an olive bough, and in the other a cornucopia
+filled with grapes and wheat. The inscription, _Reconciliatio_.
+
+(6) _Inward quiet and control of the affections_, represented by a
+figure holding some poppies in one hand, and in the other a lamp, the
+lower wick of which is being extinguished. The inscription says, _Animi
+qui est_.
+
+(7) _Charity, and profound love for God and for our neighbours_,
+represented by a figure holding in one hand a lighted heart that has two
+wings, and with the other pouring from a cornucopia. The inscription
+says, _Charitas_.
+
+(8) _Increase of true worth_, represented by a figure holding in one
+hand a bough of mustard, that is wont to grow and multiply exceedingly
+from a tiny grain, and in the other hand a half-moon, receiving greater
+brightness as it waxes. The inscription says, _Meritorum multiplicatio_.
+
+(9) _Firmness and constancy in well-doing_, represented by the figure of
+a woman holding an anchor in one hand, and in the other a palm. The
+inscription says, _Constantia_.
+
+(10) _The hope that guides us to our celestial home_, represented by a
+figure holding in one hand a bunch of flowers (denoting the hope of the
+fruit that is to come), and in the other hand a star, as one that
+guideth to a haven. The inscription, _Deductio in patriam_.
+
+(11) _Resurrection_, represented by the figure of a beautiful woman,
+holding in one hand a snake, and in the other an eagle; creatures that
+renew themselves by casting off the slough of their old age. The
+inscription says, _Resurrectio_.
+
+(12) _Life Eternal_, represented by a figure holding a palm in one hand,
+and a crown in the other. The inscription says, _Vita æterna_.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+The devices contained in this order, and in the middle of the frieze,
+are as follows:--
+
+(1) A bunch of grapes upon a wand, surrounded with ears of wheat. The
+inscription says, _C[oe]lestis patriæ specimen_. This signifies that, as
+the great bunch of grapes that was borne by Joshua and Caleb on their
+shoulders was a token of the fertile land of promise, so the greatness
+and the sweetness of this admirable Sacrament, which is afforded to us
+in the guise of bread and wine, is the living sign and earnest of the
+abundance reigning in the kingdom of the blessed.
+
+(2) A hand extending the index-finger, pointing to a chalice and the
+host, with the inscription, _Digitus Dei hic est_. This means that the
+miracle of this holiest of Sacraments is the work of the eternal wisdom,
+that cannot be attained by any wisdom of us humans.
+
+(3) A rainbow, and above it a chalice with the host, and the
+inscription, _Signum f[oe]deris sempiterni_. Signifying, that as in the
+olden time God vouchsafed the rainbow to Noah in sign of friendship and
+alliance, so does He now vouchsafe His own flesh and blood as a true and
+effective token of His lasting association with mankind.
+
+(4) Two rays, crossed, and in their midst an olive bough, with the
+inscription, _Recordabor f[oe]deris mei vobiscum_. These are the words
+that were spoken by God to Noah, when He made the said alliance with
+him, giving to understand the clemency wherewith God treateth mankind in
+the lesson of this divinest Sacrament, forgetting their errors, and
+establishing perpetual peace and amity with them.
+
+(5) The pelican feeding her young with the life-blood issuing from her
+breast. The inscription says, _Majorem charitatem nemo habet_.
+
+(6) A dead lion, from whose mouth issueth a swarm of bees, with the
+inscription, _De forti dulcedo_. Giving to understand, that as from the
+mouth of so brave a creature there issued a substance so sweet as honey,
+so did the God of vengeance, the brave Lion of the tribe of Judah,
+concert such love and peace with man, that He offered His very body for
+man's food.
+
+
+                              THIRD ORDER
+
+The rest of the third order, as far as the summit of the _custodia_,
+represents the Church triumphant: wherefore was placed in the midst of
+this order (which is in the composite style) the history of the Lamb
+that is upon the throne, and round about it the four beasts that are
+full of eyes, as the Apocalypse relateth.
+
+Upon the six continuous pedestals of the columns of this order are
+graved the following six scenes:--
+
+(1) The saints who wash their stoles in the blood that issues from the
+Lamb, as is told in the Apocalypse.
+
+(2) God the Father, with a sickle in His hand, and angels gathering
+grapes in the vat, and corn in the granary, after winnowing out the
+chaff; signifying the reward accorded unto men in sowing, and in the
+harvest of the vine.
+
+(3) The saints in joyful procession, each with his sheaf of wheat.
+
+(4) The virgins, crowned with vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, that
+follow the Lamb.
+
+(5) The five prudent virgins, that with their lighted lamps go in to the
+feast of the Bridegroom.
+
+(6) The banquet of the blessed.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Between the arches of this order are the six hieroglyphs following, with
+their inscriptions above, upon tablets.
+
+(1) A burning ph[oe]nix, with the inscription, _Instauratio generis
+humani_.
+
+(2) Two cornucopias crossed, with a cross in their midst. The
+cornucopias are full of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat. The inscription
+says, _Felicitas humani generis_.
+
+(3) A kingfisher brooding over her young in a nest of vine-tendrils and
+blades of wheat, with the inscription, _Tranquillitas immutabilis_. This
+signifies the calm state of the blessed, whereof a token is the nest of
+the kingfisher, which bird, when it crosses the water, causes all storms
+to cease.
+
+(4) A car with flames, rising to heaven, with the inscription, _Sic itur
+ad astra_. Signifying that this divinest Sacrament is the harbinger of
+those that travel heavenward, in that Elijah was so swept away, after
+God had sent him bread by the angel and the raven.
+
+(5) Two dolphins, whose tails are crossed, and in the middle a chalice
+and the host, with the inscription, _Delitiæ generis humani_. By this
+device is signified the love and the delight bestowed by God on men by
+means of this Sacrament.
+
+(6) An altar adorned with festoons of vine-tendrils and blades of wheat,
+with flames upon it, and bearing the inscription, _Æternum sacrificium_.
+
+
+                              FOURTH ORDER
+
+In this order is represented the Holy Trinity upon a rainbow, surrounded
+by many rays of splendour, and in the fifth order is a bell, surmounted
+by a simple cross.
+
+Thus are all the parts of the _custodia_ adorned with the foregoing
+beautiful decoration, having regard to their proportions and their
+symmetry, according to the rules of good architecture, and to the
+movements and position of the statuary, designed after nature, as was
+prescribed by the inventor of histories. "_Et in his omnibus sensum
+matris Ecclesiæ sequimur, cujus etiam juditium reveremur._"
+
+Such is the description, written by Arfe himself, of this wonderful
+masterpiece of silver-work. Unfortunately, since his time the _custodia_
+has been much meddled with by profane hands, and has been subjected to
+various impertinent "restorations" and "improvements." Thus, the
+original statuette of Faith, seated on her throne, has been replaced by
+another of the Virgin, and the twelve child-angels, holding the
+instruments of the passion, by the same number of figures of a larger
+size and far inferior workmanship. Further, some simple pyramids which
+crowned the fourth order were foolishly replaced by badly executed
+statuettes of children, and the Egyptian obelisk, resting on four small
+spheres, which surmounted the whole _custodia_, by an unwieldy statue
+representing the Catholic Faith.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+           DESCRIPTION OF THE _CUSTODIA_ OF CORDOVA CATHEDRAL
+
+                 (From _Córdoba_, by PEDRO DE MADRAZO)
+
+As I have stated in Vol. I., p. 98, the author of this _custodia_ was
+Enrique de Arfe, Juan de Arfe's grandfather. "The base, supported on
+small wheels placed in the interior, is in the form of a regular
+dodecagon, each side of which measures a foot. On the twelve-sided plate
+which forms the base and which has well executed heads of seraphs at
+each corner, is an order consisting of three tiers. The first, which has
+projecting and receding angles, leaves, about six sides of the
+dodecagon, a free space for the handles by which the _custodia_ is
+raised. The first tier forms a kind of socle with six buttresses, on the
+surface of which are represented allegorical scenes, alternated in rows
+with graceful designs in relief, grotesque and pastoral dances, and
+scenes from Bible history relative to the carriage of the Tabernacle.
+This tier is surmounted by a gilded balustrade of elegant design. The
+bas-reliefs are wrought alternately in gold and silver.
+
+"The second tier is formed by a small socle, crowned by a band of leaves
+and diminutive figures. Over this is a gilded balustrade, and finally
+another and a broader frieze containing gilded figures, together with
+delicate foliage wrought in dull silver. This second tier grows
+gradually narrower, and sustains the third, whose base projects, serving
+as cornice to the frieze of the tier below, and decorated with a gilded
+balustrade. Upon it rises a mass or body with twelve sides, following
+the same arrangement of projecting and receding angles as the lower
+tiers. In each of its receding spaces this order contains three
+compartments, and in each of its salient faces it has a small tower or
+buttress, which springs from the base and rests upon a delicate plinth
+carved with a gilded ornamental band. Thus, the order we are describing
+has six salient faces behind the six towers or buttresses, and six
+spaces containing three open compartments. In these compartments,
+separated one from another by diminutive buttresses with delicate
+pinnacles, there is the same number of sunken spaces, one inch deep, on
+which are represented, in high relief, scenes of the life and passion of
+our Lord. The figures, admirably executed, are two inches high. Above
+this order is a projecting cornice, decorated along its lower part with
+a band of dull silver. It should be noted, that as the _custodia_
+narrows gradually as it rises, the receding spaces grow proportionally
+larger, thus affording room for the spacious inner order on which is
+raised the _viril_. This order is formed by a crystal cylinder
+(containing the host) resting on a base which is also cylindrical, the
+lower part of which is decorated with a broad hexagonal band, narrower
+at the top than at the bottom, and wrought with delicate foliage and
+figures, as are the bands which lie beneath it. Above the transparent
+cylinder enclosing the _viril_ rises a Gothic vault, drooping over in
+the manner of a plume, and resting on the buttresses which fill the
+projecting spaces on the base of the principal order. These buttresses
+have a similar arrangement to, and coincide with, the other ones which
+spring from the base of the third tier of the first order, and are
+joined one to another by means of fine cross-buttresses surmounted by
+statuettes. The circular vault which holds the crystal cylinder
+containing the _viril_, and which resembles that of the rotunda
+dedicated as a sepulchral chapel by the emperor Constantine to the
+memory of his daughter, saint Constance, supports other and finer
+buttresses, alternated with those beneath; but instead of rising from
+the salient spaces of the base, these rise from the receding spaces and
+support another vault, of smooth open-work, beneath which is a graceful
+statuette of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción. Over this vault is a kind of
+open-work dome, consisting of an effective series of pinnacles and
+buttresses in the shape of segments of a circle, which bridge over the
+summits of the pinnacles. Upon the dome is a crown surmounted by a
+statuette of Christ triumphant, with the cross. The two vaults--that
+which encloses the _viril_, and the other one above it, enclosing the
+image of the Virgin--are masked on the outside by arches of elegant
+design, crowned by an elaborate balustrade. The turrets or buttresses
+which rise upon the lowest and the principal orders are decorated with
+numerous statuettes, resting on plinths of exquisite design, covered by
+open-work canopies.
+
+"This masterpiece of art is made of gold, and polished and unpolished
+silver. The weight is 532 marks.... Unfortunately, it lacks its original
+purity of style, having been restored in the year 1735, when it is
+probable that certain details were added which now disfigure it."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX D
+
+         THE IMPERIAL CROWN OF THE VIRGEN DEL SAGRARIO, TOLEDO
+
+This was the most elaborate and costly crown that had ever been produced
+in Spain for decorating an image of the Virgin. The following is a
+sketch of it:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Before it was enlarged to the imperial shape, this crown was executed by
+a silversmith named Fernando de Carrión, who finished it in the year
+1556, and was paid for his labour 760,000 _maravedis_. It then consisted
+of a gold diadem adorned with rows of pearls, emeralds, rubies, and
+enamelled devices of various colours, in the style of the Renaissance.
+
+The superstructure, which converts it into what is known as an imperial
+crown, was added by Alejo de Montoya, another silversmith of Toledo, who
+began it in 1574, and completed it twelve years later. The addition
+consisted of a number of gold statuettes of angels, covered with enamel,
+measuring in height from two inches to two and a half, distributed in
+pairs, and supporting decorative devices attached to the body of the
+crown. From behind these angels sprang gold bands thickly studded with
+precious stones, and terminating towards their union at the apex of the
+crown in seated allegorical figures grouped about a globe surmounted by
+a cross. This globe consisted of a single emerald, clear, perfect both
+in colour and in shape, and measuring an inch and a half in diameter.
+The inside of the hoop was covered with enamels representing emblems of
+the Virgin, disposed in a series of medallions, and the dimensions of
+the entire crown were eleven inches high by nine across the widest part.
+
+The crown was examined and reported upon by two goldsmiths of Madrid,
+who declared it to contain the following precious stones:--
+
+    Two balas rubies,                valued at 150,000 _maravedis_
+    Twelve rubies,                       "     403,528      "
+    Twelve emeralds,                     "     237,500      "
+    Fifty-seven diamonds,                "     555,396      "
+    One hundred and eighty-two pearls,   "     397,838      "
+
+The precious stones were thus valued at a total of 1,744,262
+_maravedis_. Besides this, the value of the gold and silver contained in
+the crown was estimated to amount to 405,227 _maravedis_, while
+3,097,750 _maravedis_ were allowed for the workmanship. These figures
+relate to the part which was made by Alejo de Montoya only. That which
+had previously been executed by Fernando de Carrión was valued at
+1,954,156 _maravedis_, making a grand total, for the whole jewel, of
+7,201,395 _maravedis_. At the present day the intrinsic value of the
+crown would be from nine to ten thousand pounds sterling.
+
+In 1869 this splendid specimen of Renaissance jewellery was stolen from
+a cupboard in the cathedral of Toledo, sharing thus the fate of many
+other precious objects which have been entrusted to the slender
+vigilance or slender probity of Spanish church authorities.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX E
+
+                      GOLD INLAY ON STEEL AND IRON
+
+The inlaying of iron or steel with gold is often thought to be a craft
+particularly Spanish, and to have been inherited directly by the Spanish
+Christians from the Spanish Moors. This work, however, although we may
+assume it to have been of Eastern origin in a period of remote
+antiquity, was quite familiar to the ancient Romans, including,
+probably, such as made their home in Spain. The Memoirs of Benvenuto
+Cellini contain the following notice of the work in question:--
+
+"I met with some little Turkish daggers, the handles of which were of
+iron as well as the blade, and even the scabbard was of that metal. On
+these were engraved several fine foliages in the Turkish taste, most
+beautifully filled up with gold. I found I had a strong inclination to
+cultivate this branch likewise, which was so different from the rest;
+and finding that I had great success in it, I produced several pieces in
+this way. My performances, indeed, were much finer and more durable than
+the Turkish, for several reasons: one was, that I made a much deeper
+incision in the steel than is generally practised in Turkish works; the
+other, that their foliages are nothing else but chicory leaves, with
+some few flowers of echites: these have, perhaps, some grace, but they
+do not continue to please like our foliages. In Italy there is a variety
+of tastes, and we cut foliages in many different forms. The Lombards
+make the most beautiful wreaths, representing ivy and vine-leaves, and
+others of the same sort, with agreeable twinings highly pleasing to the
+eye. The Romans and the Tuscans have a much better notion in this
+respect, for they represent acanthus leaves, with all their festoons and
+flowers, winding in a variety of forms; and amongst these leaves they
+insert birds and animals of several sorts with great ingenuity and
+elegance in the arrangement. They likewise have recourse occasionally to
+wild flowers, such as those called Lions' Mouths, from their peculiar
+shape, accompanied by other fine inventions of the imagination, which
+are termed grotesques by the ignorant. These foliages have received that
+name from the moderns, because they are found in certain caverns in
+Rome, which in ancient days were chambers, baths, studies, halls, and
+other places of a like nature. The curious happened to discover them in
+these subterranean caverns, whose low situation is owing to the raising
+of the surface of the ground in a series of ages; and as these caverns
+in Rome are commonly called grottos, they from thence acquired the name
+of grotesque. But this is not their proper name; for, as the ancients
+delighted in the composition of chimerical creatures, and gave to the
+supposed promiscuous breed of animals the appellation of monsters, in
+like manner artists produced by their foliages monsters of this sort;
+and that is the proper name for them--not grotesques. In such a taste I
+made foliages filled up in the manner above mentioned, which were far
+more elegant and pleasing to the eye than the Turkish works.
+
+"It happened about this time that certain vases were discovered, which
+appeared to be antique urns filled with ashes. Amongst these were iron
+rings inlaid with gold, in each of which was set a diminutive shell.
+Learned antiquarians, upon investigating the nature of these rings,
+declared their opinion that they were worn as charms by those who
+desired to behave with steadiness and resolution either in prosperous or
+adverse fortune.
+
+"I likewise took things of this nature in hand at the request of some
+gentlemen who were my particular friends, and wrought some of these
+little rings; but I made them of steel well tempered, and then cut and
+inlaid with gold, so that they were very beautiful to behold: sometimes
+for a single ring of this sort I was paid above forty crowns."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX F
+
+                          OLD SPANISH PULPITS
+
+The earliest pulpits of the Spaniards were similar to those of other
+Christian nations. One of them was the _tribuna_ or _tribunal_, so
+called, according to Saint Isidore, "because the minister delivers from
+it the precepts for a righteous life, wherefore it is a seat or place
+constructed upon high, in order that all he utters may be heard." The
+ambo, too, although it is not mentioned by Saint Isidore, was probably
+not unknown among the Spaniards.[61] Then there were various desks, such
+as the _analogia_, _legitoria_, or _lectra_, on which the scriptures
+were deposited in church, or carried in procession, and from which the
+latter were read aloud by the priest. Saint Isidore remarks of the
+_analogium_; "It is so called because the word is preached therefrom,
+and because it occupies the highest place."[62] Ducange, quoting from
+old authors, remarks in his Glossary that these desks were often adorned
+with gold and silver plates or precious stones. Thus it is extremely
+probable that Tarik's celebrated "table" (see Vol. I., pp. 31 _et seq._)
+was merely some elaborate and bejewelled _analogium_ of the Christians;
+such as was, in fact, the predecessor of the modern lectern or
+"hand-pulpit."
+
+  [61] "Ambo, pulpitum ubi ex duabus partibus sunt gradus." Ugutio,
+       quoted by Ducange.
+
+  [62] _Originum_, Book XV., Chap. iv.
+
+According to Amador de los Ríos, sermons in those early times were
+delivered from the _analogium_ only. Towards the twelfth century, the
+Isidorian liturgy was abolished in Spain, and the furniture of Spanish
+temples underwent some change. In the same century and throughout the
+century following, the Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Order of
+Preachers, while, coinciding with, or closely consequent upon, this
+movement, the primitive ambo was succeeded by the _jubé_, and wood, as
+the material of which the pulpit was constructed, by marble, iron,
+stone, or plaster.
+
+Two Mudejar pulpits of great interest are preserved at Toledo, in the
+church of Santiago del Arabal (thirteenth century), and in the convent,
+erected in the reign of Pedro the Cruel, of Santo Domingo el Real. The
+substance of these ancient objects is a brick and plaster foundation,
+with panels of the stucco known as _obra de yesería_, produced from
+wooden moulds. The pulpit of the church of Santiago is traditionally
+affirmed to be the one from which, in 1411, Saint Vincent Ferrer
+delivered a sermon to the Toledan Jews. Whether this be so or not, the
+date of its construction is undoubtedly the second half of the
+fourteenth century, or early in the fifteenth. The shape is octagonal--a
+very common form with Gothic pulpits. It is divided into four _cuerpos_
+or orders, including the sounding-board. The decoration, which is
+chiefly floral, is a combination of the Gothic and the Moorish styles.
+
+The pulpit of Santo Domingo el Real stands in the refectory of that
+convent. It dates from the same period as the one belonging to the
+church of Santiago, but unlike this latter, bears no trace of former
+gilding, painting, or enamelling upon the surface of the stone or
+plaster. It has three tiers or compartments, and, as in the other
+pulpit, the decoration consists of leaves and flowers, blended with
+geometrical patterns and Moorish _lacería_.
+
+The Moorish _mimbar_ or pulpit of the mosque of Cordova was very
+wonderful. According to Sentenach, its situation was near the archway
+leading to the _mihrab_, and on its desk rested the sacred copy of the
+Koran which had belonged to the Caliph Othman, and which was stated to
+be stained with his blood.
+
+This _mimbar_, sacrificed long years ago to Christian barbarism and
+neglect, was the richest piece of furniture in all that mighty building,
+seven years of unremitting labour being exhausted by Al-Hakem's
+craftsmen in constructing it of the richest and most aromatic woods,
+inlaid with silver, ivory, gold, and precious stones. Ambrosio de
+Morales called it "King Almanzor's chair," describing it quaintly as a
+four-wheeled car of richly-wrought wood, mounted by means of seven
+steps. "A few years since," he adds, "they broke it up, I know not
+wherefore. So disappeared this relic of an olden time."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX G
+
+                            SPANISH CUTLERS
+
+In former times excellent cutlery, such as knives, scissors, daggers,
+spearheads, and surgical instruments, was made in Spain, at Seville,
+Albacete, Toledo, Valencia, Pamplona, Ronda, Peñíscola, Guadix, Ripoll,
+Mora, Olot, and Tolosa. Rico y Sinobas has given an interesting
+description of the workshop and apparatus of one of these old Spanish
+cutlers--his graduated set of hammers, weighing from a few ounces to
+five pounds, his hand-saws, bench-saw, chisels, pincers, files, and
+drills, his forge, measuring from a yard square to a yard and a half,
+his two anvils of the toughest iron, the larger with a flat surface of
+three inches by ten inches, for ordinary work, the smaller terminated by
+conical points for making the thumb and finger holes of scissors.[63]
+The method of tempering and forging practised by these cutlers was much
+the same as that of the Toledo swordsmiths.
+
+  [63] _Noticia Histórica de la Cuchillería y de los Cuchilleros Antiguos
+       en España_ (_Almanaque de El Museo de la Industria_, Madrid, 1870).
+
+Rico y Sinobas also embodied in his essay the following list of cutlers
+and cutler-armourers, who manufactured knives, penknives, scissors,
+parts of firearms, or heads and blades for lances, halberds, and the
+like. The following is a summary of the list in question:--
+
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+        NAME.         |    DATE.            |         WORKED AT
+  --------------------+---------------------+----------------------------
+  Acacio              |17th century         |? He made spearheads and
+                      |                     |  fittings for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Aguas, Juan de      |Early in 18th century|Guadix.
+                      |                     |
+  Alanis              |Late 16th century    |? Maker of fittings for
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Albacete            |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Ambrosio            |Late 18th century    |Mora. Maker of large
+                      |                     |scissors for
+                      |                     |sheep-shearing.
+                      |                     |
+  Arbell, Ramón       |17th century (?)     |Olot. Knife-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (the elder)|Late 15th century    |Guipúzcoa (?). A celebrated
+                      |and early 16th       |maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (Cristóbal)|16th century         |? Also a maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |  crossbows. He was the
+                      |                     |  fourth descendant of the
+                      |                     |  family who worked at this
+                      |                     |  branch of the cutler's
+                      |                     |  craft.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (Juan)     |16th century         |? Perhaps a member of the
+                      |                     |  same family. He also made
+                      |                     |  pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Beson, Manuel       |18th century         |Madrid. Knife-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Bis, Francisco      |18th century         |Madrid (see Vol. I.,
+                      |                     |p. 273). Maker of knives and
+                      |                     |arquebuses.
+                      |                     |
+  Blanco, Juan        |16th century         |Maker of crossbows, and of
+                      |                     |pieces for the same.
+                      |                     |
+  Castellanos (the    |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+  elder)              |                     |
+                      |                     |
+  Castellanos (the    |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+  younger)            |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Castillo, Gregorio  |Late 16th century    |Cataluña (?).
+                      |                     |Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Cerda, Miguel de la |Late 16th century    |Madrid and Segovia. He made
+                      |                     |scissors and other
+                      |                     |cutlery.
+                      |                     |
+  Criado, Juan        |Early 17th century   |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Diaz, Pedro         |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Escobar, Cristóbal  |Late 16th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |and early 17th       |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Escobar, Juan       |17th century         |Madrid (?). Son of the
+                      |                     |preceding, and also a maker
+                      |                     |of pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Fernandez Manso     |Late 18th century    |Guadalajara.  A Portuguese,
+  de Payba, José      |                     |naturalized in Spain.  He
+                      |                     |was a scissors-maker of
+                      |                     |considerable fame.
+                      |                     |
+  Fuente, Pedro de la |Late 15th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of
+                      |or early 16th        |crossbows and their pieces.
+                      |                     |
+  García, Domingo     |Late 17th century    |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |                     |cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  García de la Torre, |Early 18th century   |Guadalix and Alcorcón.
+  Teodoro             |                     |Cutler. In company with
+                      |                     |Manuel Beson, he invented a
+                      |                     |method of converting iron
+                      |                     |into steel.
+                      |                     |
+  Garijo              |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Garro, Martín       |Early 15th century   |Pamplona. Cutler and
+                      |                     |swordsmith. A letter dated
+                      |                     |October 31st, 1406, records
+                      |                     |that he was paid five
+                      |                     |_escudos_ for making a
+                      |                     |sword, and one _escudo_ for
+                      |                     |a dagger.
+                      |                     |
+  Gomez, Mateo        |Late 17th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Grajeras            |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Grande, Juan        |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of
+                      |                     |lanceheads.
+                      |                     |
+  Gutierrez           |Late 17th century    |Chinchilla. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Hernandez, Juan     |16th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Herraez, Andres     |Late 16th century    |Cuenca. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |                     |cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Herrezuelo (the     |Late 16th century    |Baeza. Cutler.
+  elder)              |and early 17th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Herrezuelo (the     |Early 17th century   |Baeza.
+  younger)            |                     |Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Horbeira, Angel     |Late 17th century    |Madrid. Cutler; a native of
+                      |                     |Galicia, and reputed to be
+                      |                     |one of the best craftsmen of
+                      |                     |his time. He was known as
+                      |                     |_El Borgoñon_, and passed
+                      |                     |his early life in Flanders.
+                      |                     |
+  Hortega             |Early 16th century   |? Maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Lallabe, Juan de    |Early 19th century   |? Cutler, locksmith, and
+                      |                     |  maker of surgical
+                      |                     |  instruments.
+                      |                     |
+  Lastra, Juan        |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows. He was one
+                      |                     |of the latest and most
+                      |                     |celebrated of these
+                      |                     |craftsmen.
+                      |                     |
+  Leon                |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Llorens, Pablo      |Late 17th century    |Olot. Cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Marcoarte, Simon    |Late 16th century    |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |and early 17th       |cutler. He was the son of
+                      |                     |another craftsman of the
+                      |                     |same name, who settled in
+                      |                     |Spain in the reign of
+                      |                     |Charles the Fifth
+                      |                     |(see Vol. I., p. 273).
+                      |                     |
+  Martinez, Juan      |Early 16th century   |? Maker of darts and lances
+                      |                     |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Mendoza, Francisco  |Early 18th century   |Trigueros (Old Castile).
+  and Manuel          |                     |Cutlers.
+                      |                     |
+  Moreno, Luis        |Late 15th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |or early 16th        |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Moro, El            |Late 18th century    |Madrid. Cutler.
+                      |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Muñoz of Getafe     |16th century and     |? Maker of pieces for
+                      |early 17th           |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Óipa, Juan          |       ?             |Madrid. Maker of crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Perez de Villadiego,|16th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+  Juan                |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Perez, Julian       |Early 17th century   |Madrid (?). Maker of darts
+                      |                     |  and lances for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Puebla (the elder)  |Early 16th century   |Madrid. Maker of parts of
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Ramirez, Juan       |Late 16th century    |? Cutler. He emigrated to
+                      |                     |  the city of Puebla de los
+                      |                     |  Angeles, in Mexico, where
+                      |                     |  he continued to make
+                      |                     |  knives, scissors, and
+                      |                     |  weapons of good quality.
+                      |                     |
+  Renedo (the elder)  |Early 16th century(?)|? Maker of darts and lances
+                      |                     |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Renedo (the younger)| Late 16th century   |? Son of the preceding. He
+                      |                     |  and early 17th  made the
+                      |                     |  same objects as his
+                      |                     |  father.
+                      |                     |
+  Romero              |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Rosel               |         ?           |Mora. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  San José, Brother   |Late 17th century    |Jaen. Scissors-maker.
+  Antonio             |                     |
+                      |                     |
+  Santamaría          |Late 16th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |and early 17th       |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Selva, Juan         |Late 18th century    |Cartagena and Madrid. Cutler
+                      |                     |and iron-founder.
+                      |                     |
+  Segura              |Late 18th century    |Mora. Scissors-maker.
+                      |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Sierra, Juan        |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Soler, Isidro       |Late 18th century    |Madrid.  Arquebus-maker,
+                      |                     |and early 19th  cutler, and
+                      |                     |author of _An Historical
+                      |                     |Essay on making Arquebuses_.
+                      |                     |
+  Sosa                |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of weapons,
+                      |                     |especially the heads of
+                      |                     |lances.
+                      |                     |
+  Targarona,          |Late 18th century    |Madrid.  Arquebus-maker to
+  Francisco           |                     |Charles the Third and
+                      |                     |Charles the Fourth, and one
+                      |                     |of the most skilful
+                      |                     |craftsmen of his day.
+                      |                     |
+  Tijerero, El        |         ?           |Toledo. Maker of swords and
+  (Domingo Sanchez)   |                     |scissors.
+                      |                     |
+  Torres              |Early 17th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Ucedo               |Late 16th century and|? Maker of pieces for
+                      |perhaps early 17th   |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  V....               |16th century (?)     |Toledo (?).  Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |The rest of this craftsman's
+                      |                     |name is not known.
+                      |                     |
+  Valderas, Pedro de  |16th century         |Madrid and Valladolid. Maker
+                      |                     |of pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Vicen-Perez, Pedro  |Late 17th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Vilarasa, Antonio   |Late 17th century    |? Cutler and razor-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  ... Emt.., Julian   |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |Only a fragment of his name
+                      |                     |has been preserved upon a
+                      |                     |blade. Rico y Sinobas
+                      |                     |suggests thatthe entire
+                      |                     |surname may have been
+                      |                     |_Vicen-Perez_.
+                      |                     |
+  Zeruantes,          |Late 17th century    |Toledo. Maker of blades for
+  Francisco           |                     |halberds.
+                      |                     |
+  Zamora ("the deaf") |Late 16th century    |Castile. Cutler,
+                      |and early 17th       |
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+                               APPENDIX H
+
+                          SPANISH TRADE-GUILDS
+
+The _gremios_ of Spain were copied from the guilds of France and other
+countries, and may be traced originally to the _corpora_ and _collegia_
+of the Romans and Byzantines. The earliest which were formed in the
+Peninsula were those of Barcelona[64] and Soria, succeeded, not long
+after, by Valencia, Seville,[65] and Toledo. Prior, however, to the
+institution of these trade-guilds proper, whose purpose was
+pre-eminently mercenary,[66] there existed, in the case of several
+cities, _cofradías_ or religious brotherhoods, that is, associations of
+a philanthropic character, composed of tradesmen or artificers who
+pledged themselves to assist each other in poverty or sickness, or to
+defray the burial expenses of such members as should die without
+resources.
+
+  [64] See Pérez Pujol, _Condición social de las personas á principios del
+       siglo V_. "The ironsmiths of Barcelona," says Riaño, "formed an
+       extensive guild in the thirteenth century; in 1257, four of its
+       members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild
+       increased in importance in the following centuries."
+
+  [65] The history of the Sevillian trade-guilds begins properly with the
+       fifteenth century, although Gestoso states in his _Diccionario de
+       Artífices Sevillanos_ that he has found a few documents which seem
+       to point to their existence in the century preceding.
+
+       When the Spanish Christians pitched their camp before this city,
+       prior to their victorious assault upon its walls, the besieging
+       army was divided according to the various trades of its component
+       soldiery: the spicers in one part of the camp, the apothecaries in
+       another, and so forth. It is therefore probable that the Sevillian
+       trade-guilds were instituted shortly after the re-conquest. The
+       wages of smiths, shoemakers, silversmiths, armourers, and other
+       craftsmen were decreed by Pedro the First in his _Ordenamiento de
+       Menestrales_. The ordinances of the silversmiths, in particular,
+       are so old that Gestoso believes them to have been renewed and
+       confirmed by Juan the Second, in the year 1416. However this may
+       be, it is certain that the Seville guilds were regularly
+       constituted in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+  [66] Barzanallana defines the word _gremio_ "as it came to be understood
+       in Spain," as "any gathering of merchants, artisans, labourers, or
+       other persons who practised the same profession, art, or office;
+       and who were bound to comply with certain ordinances, applicable to
+       each individual of their number."
+
+       It is well, however, to distinguish broadly between actual
+       manufacturers or producers (_menestrales de manos_) and merchants
+       or shopkeepers (_mercaderes de tienda y de escriptorio_), who
+       merely trafficked in what was executed by another.
+
+The formula of admission to a Spanish brotherhood was very quaint in its
+punctilious and precise severity. A notice of this ceremony, relating to
+the Cofradía of Saint Eligius, or Silversmiths' Brotherhood of
+Seville,[67] is quoted by Gestoso from the venerable _Regla de
+Hermandad_ or statutes of the members, preserved in a codex dating from
+the first half of the sixteenth century. It was required that the
+candidate for admission should be a silversmith, married in conformity
+with the canons of the church, a man well spoken of among his
+neighbours, and not a recent convert to the Christian faith. The day
+prescribed for choosing or rejecting him was that which was consecrated
+to Saint John the Baptist, coinciding with the festival of Saint Eligius
+or San Loy, "patron and representative" of silversmiths, and who in life
+had been a silversmith himself. The regulations of the Cofradía decreed
+the following method of election. "In the chest belonging to the
+Brotherhood shall be kept a wood or metal vessel with space sufficient
+to contain some fifty beans or almonds; and the said vessel shall be set
+in our chapter-room, in a spot where no man is. Each of the brothers
+that are present shall next be given one of the beans or almonds, and,
+rising from his seat, arrange his cloak about him so as to conceal his
+hands, in order that none may witness whether he drops, or does not
+drop, the almond or the bean into the vessel. Then, with due
+dissimulation, he shall proceed to where the vessel lies, and if he deem
+that he who seeks to be admitted as our brother be an honourable man,
+and such as shall contribute to the lustre of our Brotherhood, then
+shall he drop in a bean or almond, and return to his seat, still
+covering his hands with his cloak. But if, upon the contrary, he deem
+that the said candidate be a sinner, and a riotous fellow and bad
+Christian, that should prove a source of evil and vexation to our
+chapter, or that hath wronged another of our brethren, then shall he not
+cast in the bean or almond, but secretly reserve the same, and once more
+seat himself. Lastly, when all shall have crossed over to and from the
+vessel, they shall bear it to the table where the officers sit, and void
+it in the sight of all the company, and count the beans or almonds; and
+if the number of these be full, then is it clear that we do receive the
+other for our _Hermano_. But if there be a bean or almond wanting, in
+that a brother hath retained it in his fingers, then shall our
+_Alcaldes_ speak to this effect. 'Señores: here wants a bean or almond'
+(or two, or any number, as may be). 'Within eight days from now let him
+that kept it back present himself to us, or to any one of us, and give
+account why he that sought admission to our Brotherhood deserves to be
+rejected.' And if the brother that kept back the bean or almond should
+not present himself within the appointed time, then shall the
+Brotherhood admit the other: but if he appear, and state a lawful cause
+against the other's entry, then our _Alcaldes_, when this last presents
+himself to learn their resolution, shall urge him to have patience, in
+that not all the brothers are content with him, albeit, if such cause
+consisteth in a quarrel between a brother and the candidate for entry,
+peace may be brought about between the two, and afterward the _Cofradía_
+may admit him of their number."
+
+  [67] This guild, as all the others, held an annual convocation of its
+       members, and possessed a chapel of its own in the convent of San
+       Francisco. It exercised a strict and constant supervision upon the
+       gold and silver work produced throughout the city. On April 15th,
+       1567, the inspectors appointed and salaried by the guild visited
+       the shop of Antonio de Cuevas, and seized an _Agnus Dei_ and a
+       faultily executed cross, both of which objects were destroyed
+       forthwith. On February 8th, 1569, they repeated their visit to the
+       same silversmith, and seized an _apretador_, which was likewise
+       broken up. On February 9th, 1602, they entered the shop of Antonio
+       de Ahumada, and took away "two rings, a gold _encomienda_, a cross
+       of Saint John, some small cocks, a toothpick, and a San Diego of
+       silver." Similar notices of fines, confiscations, and other
+       punishments exist in great abundance, and may be studied in
+       Gestoso's dictionary. See also Vol. I., p. 114, of the present
+       work.
+
+Similar ceremonies and customs were observed in old Toledo (see the
+Ordinances of this city, dated June 24th, 1423, renewed and amplified in
+1524).[68] Here also the silversmiths agreed to meet and celebrate the
+festival of their patron saint upon one day in every year, "for ever and
+for ever" (_para siempre jamás_). On these occasions the image of the
+saint was carried in procession, and a repast was given to the brothers
+themselves, as well as to all persons who were "willing to receive it
+for the love of God." Every brother who failed to present himself at
+this solemnity was fined one pound of candle-wax; but if he were merely
+unpunctual, and arrived "after the singing of the first three psalms,"
+the fine was only half a pound. A pound of candle-wax was also the
+statutory tribute for admission to the Brotherhood, together with a
+hundred _maravedis_ and other unimportant sums in cash.
+
+The history of the _gremios_ of Valencia has been traced in an
+instructive essay by Luis Tramoyeres Blasco. Early in the fifteenth
+century guilds were established here of nearly thirty trades, including
+tailors, millers, carpenters, shoemakers, silversmiths, weavers,
+tanners, dyers, swordsmiths, and bonnet-makers. These guilds developed
+greatly in the sixteenth century, expanding into powerful and wealthy
+bodies, who practically controlled the entire commerce and commercial
+products of their native town. Among the _gremios_ instituted at a later
+date were those of the firework-makers, basket-makers, twisters of
+silk, stiffeners of dress fabrics, bell-founders, and painters of
+chests and boxes, each of these corporations being enrolled by law, and
+possessing a code of regulations for the government and guidance of its
+members. Sometimes, however, owing to diminution in its trade, a guild
+became extinct, as happened with the _guadamacileros_ (see Vol. II., pp.
+38 _et seq._), and with the clothmakers, of whom, in 1595, but three
+remained in all Valencia. Or else a _gremio_ would purposely amalgamate
+with, or merge insensibly into, another. Thus in 1668 the tailors and
+the makers of trunk-hose united in a single corporation, just as, at
+other times, the glovers and the parchment-dressers, the clog-makers and
+the shoemakers.
+
+  [68] The foremost in importance of the _gremios_ of Toledo was that of
+       the silk-weavers (_arte mayor de la seda_), whose earliest
+       ordinances date from A.D. 1533.
+
+       Interesting particulars of the old Toledan _gremios_ generally will
+       be found in the municipal archives of this city, in the _Ordenanzas
+       para el buen régimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal é
+       imperial ciudad de Toledo_ (reprinted in 1858); in Martín Gamero's
+       _History of Toledo_; and in the Count of Cedillo's scholarly
+       monograph, _Toledo in the Sixteenth Century_.
+
+Those of the Valencian guilds which possessed the greatest influence and
+resources, and enjoyed the highest privileges from the city or the
+crown, were called _colegiados_. Among them were the velvet-makers,
+hatters, bronze-founders, wax-makers, confectioners, dyers, and makers
+of silk hose. The earliest to obtain this coveted and honourable title
+were the booksellers, in 1539, followed by the wax-makers in 1634, the
+confectioners in 1644, the velvet-makers also in this year, and others
+in succession, terminating with the dyers in 1763, the hatters in 1770,
+the bell-founders in 1772, and the makers of silk stockings in 1774.
+
+According to Tramoyeres, most of the Valencian trade-guilds owned a
+building in fee-simple, and often gave the title of their craft to the
+entire street in which that edifice was situated. Nor did the _gremios_,
+in their evolution from the simpler and less mercenary form of
+brotherhood or _cofradía_, wholly abandon the religious ceremonies of
+their prototype. In almost every instance the guild erected and
+maintained a chapel within its private _domicilio_, chose a particular
+saint to be its patron, and held, with fitting pomp and liberality, a
+yearly celebration of that patron's holy-day.
+
+On these occasions masses and other services were said or sung, and the
+embroidered banner of the guild, together with the image (which was
+often of silver) of its tutelar saint, was carried in procession through
+the streets of this bright city of the south, abounding at all seasons
+in flowers and sunshine, and famed, from the remotest days of Spanish
+history, for the splendour and munificence of her public festivals.
+
+Our earliest record of the formal attendance of the _gremios_ of
+Valencia at one of her _fiestas_, goes back to the visit to this capital
+of King Pedro the Second, in 1336, when the guilds were marshalled in
+military fashion, company by company, each headed by its pennon "_á la
+saga dels primers_," that is, next to the group or company immediately
+in front of it. In 1392, upon the visit of another monarch, Juan the
+First, who was accompanied by his queen, Violante, a more elaborate
+character was given to the welcome. Jongleurs and dancers were hired to
+perform, while several of the _gremios_ constructed decorative scenes or
+allegorical tableaux on a platform or a waggon, which was wheeled along
+the street in slow procession, surrounded by the marching members of the
+guild. One of these structures represented the winged dragon or
+_drach-alat_ which figures so conspicuously in the records of Valencia
+(see Vol. I., p. 210), and was attacked and overcome in mimic combat by
+a body of knights armed cap-à-pie. The mariners of the port built two
+large galleys, also moved on wheels and simulating an attack, and the
+_freneros_ or bit-makers presented a gathering of folk disguised as
+savages. Nor was the bullfight--that most characteristic of Spanish
+sports--omitted from the entertainment, judging from the following entry
+in the city archives: "Item. Sien aemprats los prohomens carnicers a
+procurar e haver toros e fer per sos dies feta la dita entrada joch ab
+aquells specialment en lo mercat com sia cert quel Senyor Rey se agrada
+e pren plaer de tal joch."
+
+A typical _fiesta_ and procession of these trade-guilds is described by
+Tramoyeres. "Formed in two long lines, the members of the guild advanced
+along the tortuous and narrow highways of the town, adorned with
+tapestries and altars. Each _gremio_ was preceded by a band of
+cymbal-beaters, pipers, and jongleurs, sometimes accompanied by a
+_comparsa_ allusive to the ceremony now being celebrated. Next came the
+standard of the master-craftsmen and apprentices, each group of whom
+attended its _divisa_ or distinguishing emblem. Close after followed the
+banner of the craft in general, carried by one or two of the
+_oficiales_, who made display of their dexterity and strength by
+supporting the staff of the banner upon their shoulder, the palm of the
+hand, or the under-lip. The cords of the banner were held by the
+officers of the guild, denominated _mayorales_, _clavarios_ and
+_prohombres_; behind these came the masters, and last of all, a
+triumphal car on which were represented scenes relating to the craft.
+Thus, in the year 1655, at the commemoration of the second centenary of
+the canonization of Saint Vincent Ferrer, the _gremios_ showed
+particular ingenuity and novelty in these devices." Don Marco Antonio
+Ortí, who wrote an account of the festival in question, thus describes a
+few of them. "The millers were preceded by a waggon drawn by four mules
+and covered with boughs and flowers. On it was the imitation of a
+windmill, wheel and every other part, contrived so cunningly that
+although the wheel went round at a great speed, the artifice which
+caused it to revolve was kept from view, and in the time that the
+procession lasted, it ground to flour a whole _caliz_ of wheat." Another
+invention, says the same chronicler, was that of the masons. "The scene
+devised by these was a triumphal car, handsomely adorned, on which was
+borne the great tower (of the cathedral),[69] imitated so skilfully that
+it seemed to have been rooted from its foundation, and replanted in the
+car aforesaid; and so enormous was its size that a special spot required
+to be chosen in which to set it up. This was in the garden of La Punta;
+and when the tower was finished and ready to be taken forth, a breach
+for its passage had to be opened in the garden wall. It even contained a
+peal of bells, which rang by turning round and round, and this invention
+of the bells, besides its ingenuity, was rarely fitted to this festival,
+seeing that the clock-bell of the cathedral (that is the greatest of
+them all) was given, when it was baptized, the name of San Vicente's
+bell, as well as of Saint Michael the Archangel; whence the tower itself
+is called the Micalet, this, in the language of Valencia, being the
+diminutive for Michael. It were impossible to imagine the stir and the
+applause excited in all quarters of the city by the passage of this
+tower."
+
+  [69] That is, the ponderous structure known as the Miguelete, which
+       stands unfinished to this day.
+
+The same writer describes the decorative car or waggon of the
+flax-weavers. "Upon it were a woman seated beneath a canopy, weaving at
+a frame, and representing Santa Ana, the child Jesus making _cañillas_,
+and an aged man, for San Antonio, dressed as a hermit, with a live
+sucking-pig at his side. Before these went Our Lady riding on a jennet,
+with a child in her arms, her right hand held by a man of venerable age
+representing Saint Joseph. This artifice was symbolic of the weavers'
+trade, receiving for this reason great applause, as well as for the
+lavish decoration of, and curious details that were in, the car."
+
+Tramoyeres further explains that the guild which took first place in the
+procession was that which had been most recently created, the oldest and
+most honoured coming last. At Valencia this proud position was held from
+the remotest period by the clothmakers; but from time to time, when
+these for any cause were absent from the festival, their place was taken
+by one or other of two companies almost as ancient and as
+honourable--the tanners or the tailors.
+
+Each guild selected an official dress or livery, distinguished from the
+others by its colour or design:--the tailors, purple and white; the
+weavers, rose with black sleeves; the cutlers, crimson with green
+sleeves and sprinkled with golden roses; the millers, white with
+crimson-striped sleeves; the silversmiths, crimson with silver trimming;
+and so forth. Their banners, too, were quite in harmony with the rich
+apparel of the vain _agremiados_. According to an author of the
+seventeenth century, these flags were "not of war, but of a different
+workmanship, and greatly larger. All are of damask, most being coloured
+crimson, and the poles sustaining them, and terminated by an image of
+the sainted patron of the guild, are longer than the longest pike of
+war. Truly, a splendid show these banners make, displayed with fringes
+of drawn gold, and shields embroidered with the same material."
+
+The image in which the pole of the banner concluded was not, however,
+invariably that of a saint, or of a saint alone. In the case of the
+cask-makers it was a golden tun surmounted by a cross, with figures of
+Saint Helen and the Emperor Constantine standing on either side of it.
+That of the armourers was a bat (the _rat-penat_ or "winged rat"
+contained in the _escudo_ of Valencia); that of the cloth-shearers, a
+pair of scissors with a golden crown and the image of Saint Christopher;
+of the fishermen, a boat containing Saint Peter and Saint Andrew; of the
+clothmakers, a sphere inscribed with the name of Jesus; of the
+stonemasons, a silver millwheel and a silver image of the Virgin.
+Similarly, each _gremio_ displayed upon its coat-of-arms some kind of
+emblem such as the implement, or implements, associated with its
+trade:--the silversmiths, a square and compass; the carpenters, a
+hatchet and a saw; the lock-smiths, a pair of hammers and an anvil.
+
+Quaintly instructive are the dispositions of the guilds relating to
+apprenticeship. The _maestro_ of a trade, described by the Count of
+Torreánaz as "the principal worker in the workshop," agreed to feed,
+clothe, and instruct his apprentice or _discípulo_, and treat him
+generally as a member of his own family. He was permitted to punish his
+apprentice for misconduct, but not to employ excessive physical
+violence; and a law of Jayme the First decreed that if the apprentice
+lost one or both of his eyes from a blow inflicted by his master, the
+latter was to "make good the injury" (_sia tengut del mal que li haura
+feyt_).
+
+The number of apprentices allowed in any one workshop was often (and
+subsequently to the fifteenth century, nearly always) regulated by the
+law. The first disposition of this kind discovered by Tramoyeres dates
+from the year 1451, and refers to the shoemakers, whose apprentices
+might not outnumber three to each _maestro_.[70] Similarly, by
+provisions issued at a later date, the mattress-makers and the builders
+were allowed no more than two apprentices, and the silk-weavers three,
+although sometimes the master might admit an extra _aprenent_ or so, on
+payment of a certain sum per head.[71] The term of the apprenticeship
+was also often fixed by law. In most of the trades it was four years;
+but in the case of the makers of ribbons and of boxes it was five years;
+while stocking-makers were apprenticed for six, and wax-makers and
+confectioners for eight years.
+
+  [70] The Count of Torreánaz quotes an earlier instance, relative to
+       another city, from the shoemakers' ordinances of Burgos, confirmed
+       by the emperor Alfonso in A.D. 1270. These laws decreed, obviously
+       with the purpose of limiting the number of apprentices, that every
+       master-craftsman who engaged an apprentice was to pay two thousand
+       _maravedis_ "for the service of God and of the hospital." Similar
+       legislation, lasting many centuries, was in force elsewhere, for
+       Larruga says that at Valladolid, although the city produced
+       fourteen thousand hats yearly, most of the master-hatters had no
+       apprentices in their workshops, and only one _oficial_.
+
+  [71] _E.g._, the silk-weavers (Statute of 1701). "Que ningun collegial
+       de dit collegi puixa matricular francament mes de tres aprenents y
+       si volgués tenirne mes, hatja de pagar á dit collegi deu lliures,
+       moneda real de Valencia per cascú dels que excedirá de dit numero."
+
+Before the father or the guardian of a lad could sign his papers of
+apprenticeship, it was required (during and after the sixteenth century)
+to prove before the guild, by means of his certificate of baptism, or on
+the declaration of witnesses, that he was the child of parents who were
+"old Christians," and not the offspring of Moor, Jew, slave, convert, or
+(in the fierce expression of the stocking-makers) "any other infected
+race." Still more absurd and savage was an ordinance, dated 1597, of the
+shoemakers, prohibiting any master of this trade from admitting to
+apprenticeship in any form, "a black boy, or one of the colour of cooked
+quince, slave or Moor ... so as to avoid the harm which might befall
+our brother shoemakers from the ridicule that would be stirred among the
+populace, if they should see in our processions and other public acts, a
+slave, or the son of a black slave, or a lad of the colour of cooked
+quince, or a Moor; as well as the rioting and scandals that would be
+caused by the spectacle of creatures of this nature mixing with decent,
+well-dressed people."
+
+These statutes are selected from the mass of local legislation which
+concerned Valencia only. Turning to Spanish guilds at large, the study
+of these institutions throws considerable light upon the customs of the
+Spanish nation in the past, and more especially upon the social and
+financial standing of the older Spanish craftsman. As in other
+countries, the principal and primal object of the _gremio_ was to
+organize a system of defence against the military and nobility, or even
+against the crown. Presently, however, and long before their evolution
+is completed, errors become apparent in the statutes or proceedings of
+these bodies which denote, very instructively and very plainly, the
+typical defects or weaknesses of the Spanish character. Foremost of all
+was thriftlessness. Although it is a fact that several of the Spanish
+guilds owned houses or even land, none of them (except the silversmiths
+of two or three large towns) were really affluent;[72] and indeed, in a
+country racked by incessant foreign wars or civil strife, there was
+every reason why they should not be affluent. Yet, notwithstanding this,
+in celebrating any kind of public festival, the poor _agremiado_ made no
+scruple to vie in prodigal disbursements with the moneyed aristocracy,
+clothing himself in fanciful and costly stuffs,[73] constructing shows
+and spectacles on wheels, raising elaborate altars in the streets,
+contracting for expensive services, performances, and tableaux. More
+than once, the _gremios_ were obliged to borrow funds to celebrate the
+festival of their patron saint.[74] So also with regard to dress. The
+costumes of the guildsmen of Valencia have been already noticed. An
+equal recklessness and foppery prevailed in other Spanish towns; for
+instance, at Barcelona, where, on a visit of Ferdinand and Isabella in
+1481, the silversmiths formed part of the procession "dressed in the
+richest manner, with robes and mantles all covered with silver, and some
+of them with bonnets that were all of silver plate with jewels and
+silver foliage, while others wore silver chains about their necks."
+
+  [72] It is not often, for instance, that we meet with notices of Spanish
+       craftsmen such as Miguel Jerónimo Monegro, a silversmith of
+       Seville, who at his death, towards the middle of the sixteenth
+       century, was in a position to bequeath the following money and
+       effects: 15,000 _maravedis_ to his servant, Catalina Mexia, 6000
+       _maravedis_ to Juan Ortiz, "a boy that was in my house, that he may
+       learn a trade," 6000 _maravedis_ yearly to his slavewomen, Juana
+       and Luisa, and a black mule to his executor, Hernando de
+       Morales.--Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanas_,
+       Vol. II., p. 256.
+
+  [73] This did not happen only at Valencia. The Cortes assembled at
+       Valladolid in 1537 complained that it was "tolerable that costly
+       stuffs should be worn by lords, gentlemen, and wealthy persons; but
+       such is become our nation, that there is not an hidalgo, squire,
+       merchant, or _oficial_ of any trade, but wears rich clothing;
+       wherefore many grow impoverished and lack the money to pay the
+       _alcabalas_ and the other taxes owing to His Majesty."
+
+       Fernandez de Navarrete stated, in 1626, that "the wives of common
+       _mecánicos_ (_i.e._ craftsmen) furnish their dwellings more
+       luxuriously than titled personages of the realm were wont to
+       furnish theirs some few years ago," and that hangings of taffeta
+       or Spanish _guadamecíes_ were now regarded with contempt, being
+       replaced, even in the homes of the moderately well-to-do, by
+       sumptuous fabrics of Florence and Milan, and by the costliest
+       Brussels tapestry.--(_Conservación de Monarquías_, p. 246).
+
+  [74] Larruga, in Vol. XVIII. of his _Memorias_, inserts an account of
+       the heavy debts incurred by the _gremios_ of Valladolid, upon the
+       celebration of various of their festivals.
+
+Two of the most conspicuous faults among the Spanish race are pride and
+envy. Yet these defects may be explained without much puzzling, and, in
+a measure, pardoned. Spaniards, through all the process of their
+national development, have clung by preference to the calling of the
+soldier or the priest; that is, the only occupations which directly
+dissipate the revenue of the commonwealth. Since, therefore, they were
+thus inclined from earliest antiquity, as well as tutored by a crafty
+priesthood to believe that might or violence alone is right, the
+haughtiness of the Spanish people is a logical, and indeed inevitable,
+outcome of their history. Moreover, side by side with this erroneous
+theory that the only prowess and decorum of a people must consist in
+armed aggressiveness, as well as in a truculent and militant intolerance
+in matters of religion (or rather, of superstition), there arose the
+equally as mischievous and erroneous theory that the arts of peace were
+venal, despicable, and effeminate, or, in the current phrase of our
+contemporaries, "unworthy of a gentleman." "The Spaniards," wrote
+Fernández de Navarrete, "are so proud-hearted that they do not
+accommodate themselves to servile labour." Therefore this people chose
+their favourites and heroes in a semi-savage freebooter; never in a
+craftsman of gigantic merit, like the elder Berruguete, or Juan de Arfe,
+or Alonso Cano. Sometimes, as happened with the _reja_ of the Chapel
+Royal of Granada, they did not even trouble to record the surname of her
+best artificers. These men, in fact, exceptions to her universal rule,
+were coldly looked upon, or even persecuted.[75] Abundant proof is yet
+extant of this humiliation of her merchants, craftsmen, shopkeepers, as
+distinguished from her soldiery and clergy, gentry and nobility.
+Undoubtedly, beneath such scorn the former of these groups were
+sensitive to their position, and all the more acutely sensitive because
+of their inherent Spanish pride. In fact, so sensitive were they, that
+now and then the crown esteemed it prudent to appease their wounded
+vanity by certain declarations or emoluments. Thus, the _Repartimiento
+de Sevilla_ tells us that in the year 1255 Alfonso the Tenth rewarded
+several craftsmen of his capital of Seville with the title of _Don_, "a
+dignity," says Amador, "rarely bestowed at that time."[76] In 1556
+Charles the Fifth resolved, in favour of the corporation of
+_artistas-plateros_ or "artist-silversmiths," that the masters of this
+craft, together with their wives, might dress in silk, "in that it was
+an art they exercised, and not an office" (Gestoso, _Diccionario de
+Artífices Sevillanos_, Vol. I., p. lx.), while Philip the Fourth decreed
+that they should not be forced to contribute to the equipment of his
+troops, but should only be invited to contribute, _just as with the
+nobles_. Nevertheless, Rico y Sinobas points out (_Del vidrio y de sus
+artífices en España_) that Philip the Fifth and Ferdinand the Sixth, on
+founding the royal glass factory of San Ildefonso, did not dare to
+ennoble the Castilian workmen.
+
+  [75] The treatment of distinguished craftsmen by the Spanish church was
+       often sheerly villainous. A document, inserted by Zarco del Valle
+       among his collection of _Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de
+       las Bellas Artes en España_, p. 362, and in the handwriting of
+       "Maestre" Domingo (see Vol. I., pp. 148, 149), states that after
+       making the choir-_reja_ for Toledo cathedral, "so richly wrought,
+       that in the elegance and rarity thereof it far surpasseth all that
+       has been witnessed in our time, whether in his majesty's dominions
+       or abroad," and expending on it "all the money I had earned in my
+       youth," this eminent _rejero_ found himself by now "owing a great
+       quantity of _maravedis_, seeing that I am utterly without
+       resources," concluding by an appeal to the archbishop to "take heed
+       how that I shall not perish through such poverty, and my wife and
+       children in the hospital."
+
+       In another document the same artificer complains that in producing
+       the aforesaid _reja_, he had sacrificed "not only my labour, but my
+       property to boot, having been compelled to sell my house and my
+       inheritance to compensate me for my losses," adding that the
+       cathedral authorities had violated their engagement with him.
+
+       In answer to a series of petitions such as this, the archbishop
+       tardily gave orders for the payment to Domingo of a lump sum of
+       fifteen thousand _maravedis_ and a pension for the rest of his life
+       of two silver _reales_ of Castilian money, "to aid him to support
+       himself." This was in A.D. 1563. By 1565 death had ended the
+       miseries of the master-craftsman, and again we find his widow and
+       children knocking at the archbishop's door, pleading that "extreme
+       is our necessity," and declaring that Domingo had succumbed
+       overburdened with debt, _affirming on his deathbed that the
+       cathedral owed him three thousand ducats, being half the value of
+       a reja he had made_.
+
+       In answer to this terrible appeal, the thrifty prelate ordered that
+       _since it was found to be true that Master Domingo had lost his
+       maravedis in making the rejas of the choir_, his widow and children
+       should receive a daily pension of one _real_, and that a suit of
+       clothes should be given to each of his sons and his two daughters.
+
+  [76] So rarely, that Salazar de Mendoza affirms in his book upon
+       _Castilian Dignities_ that this "high prenomen" (_alto prenombre
+       Don_) might properly be used by none but kings, _infantes_,
+       prelates, and the _ricos-homes_ of the realm.
+
+       In A.D. 1626, Fernández de Navarrete complained of the tendency
+       prevailing among the Spaniards generally to usurp the title _Don_.
+       "Nowadays in Castile," he wrote (_Conservación de Monarquías_,
+       p. 71, etc.), "exists a horde of turbulent and idle fellows that so
+       style themselves, since you will hardly find the son of a craftsman
+       (_oficial mecánico_) that does not endeavour by this trick to filch
+       the honour that is owed to true nobility alone; and so, impeded and
+       weighed down by the false appearance of _caballeros_, they are
+       unsuited to follow any occupation that is incompatible with the
+       empty authority of a _Don_."
+
+       Some of the reasons why these rogues or _pseudonobles_ (as
+       Fernández de Navarrete called them), attempted to pass for
+       _hidalgos_ or "sons of somebody," are disclosed by Townsend,
+       writing a century and a half later. "Numerous privileges and
+       immunities enjoyed by the _hidalgos_ or knights, sometimes called
+       _hijos dalgo_, have contributed very much to confirm hereditary
+       prejudices to the detriment of trade. Their depositions are taken
+       in their own houses. They are seated in the courts of justice, and
+       are placed near the judge. Till the year 1784, their persons, arms,
+       and horses were free from arrest. They are not sent to the common
+       jails, but are either confined in castles or in their own houses on
+       their parole of honour. They are not hanged, but strangled, and
+       this operation is called _garrotar_, from _garrote_, the little
+       stick used by carriers to twist the cord and bind hard their
+       loading. They cannot be examined on the rack. They are, moreover,
+       exempted from the various taxes called _fechos_, _pedidos_,
+       _monedas_, _martiniegas_, and _contribuciones reales_ and
+       _civiles_: that is, from subsidies, benevolence, and poll tax, or
+       taille paid by the common people, at the rate of two per cent., in
+       this province, but in others at the rate of four. They are free
+       from personal service, except where the sovereign is, and even then
+       they cannot be compelled to follow him. None but the royal family
+       can be quartered on them. To conclude, the noble female conveys all
+       these privileges to her husband and her children, just in the same
+       manner as the eldest daughter of the titular nobility transmits the
+       titles of her progenitors.
+
+       "The proportion of _hidalgos_ in the kingdom of Granada is not
+       considerable; for out of six hundred and fifty-two thousand nine
+       hundred and ninety inhabitants, only one thousand nine hundred and
+       seventy-nine are noble; whereas, in the province of León, upon
+       little more than one-third that population, the knights are
+       twenty-two thousand. In the province of Burgos, on four hundred and
+       sixty thousand three hundred and ninety-five inhabitants, one
+       hundred and thirty-four thousand and fifty-six are entitled to all
+       the privileges of nobility; and in Asturias, of three hundred and
+       forty-five thousand eight hundred and thirty-three, nearly
+       one-third enjoy the same distinction."--(_Journey through Spain in
+       the years 1786 and 1787_: Vol. III., pp. 79, 80.)
+
+"I bestow the name of craftsmen in silver (_artífices plateros_), not
+upon all who handle silver or gold, but only upon such as draw, and
+grave, and execute in relief, whether on a large or small scale, figures
+and histories from life, just as do the sculptors." These words are
+quoted from a book, the whole of which was written with the aim of
+proving that certain classes of Spain's older craftsmen were less abject
+than the rest.[77] It is not so long ago that the expression _viles
+artesanos_ ("vile artisans") was banished from the legal phraseology of
+Spain. "That prejudice," wrote Laborde, "which regards the mechanic arts
+as base, is not extinguished in Spain, but only abated: hence it happens
+that they are neglected or abandoned to such unskilful hands that they
+are wonderfully backward in these matters. The influence of this cause
+is striking: in Catalonia, laws, customs, and opinions are favourable to
+artisans, and it is in this province that these arts have made the
+greatest progress."
+
+  [77] Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Ríos, _Noticia general para la
+       estimación de las Artes y la manera en que se conocen las liberales
+       de las que son mecánicas y serviles_. Madrid, 1600. I again have
+       occasion to mention this curious work in my chapter on Spanish
+       tapestries.
+
+Townsend commented as follows on what he called the _national prejudice_
+against trade. "Whilst the Jews were merchants, and the mechanic arts
+were left either to the Moors or to the vilest of the people, the
+grandees or knights were ambitious only of military fame. After the
+conquest of Granada, the Moors continued to be the principal
+manufacturers, and excelled in the cultivation of their lands. When
+these, with the Jews, were banished, a void was left which the
+high-spirited Spaniard was not inclined to fill. Trained for many
+centuries to the exercise of arms, and regarding such mean occupations
+with disdain, his aversion was increased by his hatred and contempt for
+those whom he had been accustomed to see engaged in these employments.
+He had been early taught to consider trade as dishonourable; and whether
+he frequented the theatre, or listened to the discourses of the pulpit
+orators, he could not fail to be confirmed in his ideas. Even in the
+present day, many, who boast their descent from noble ancestors, had
+rather starve than work, more especially at those trades by which,
+according to the laws, they would be degraded, and forfeit their
+nobility."--(_Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787_, pp. 240, 241.)
+
+Laborde endorsed these assertions by uncharitably remarking that "the
+Spaniard had always fortitude enough to endure privations, but never
+courage enough to encounter work." In our time judgments of a still
+severer kind have been passed upon the Spaniards by various of their own
+countrymen--among others, Unamuno, Ganivet, and Pompeyo Gener.
+
+It is evident, too, that the cause of the relentless exclusion, by the
+Spanish guilds, of Moors, Moriscos, Jews, or converts--men who, owing to
+the unsubstantial taint of heresy, were hated and derided by the Spanish
+nation almost to a man--resided also in this morbid sensitiveness. Had
+not the Moorish prisoner been formerly considered as the merest chattel,
+legally equivalent to a beast of burden?[78] How, then, should he be
+ever equalled with the Christian Spaniard? These haughty and extravagant
+notions operated, in the seventeenth century, to bring about the general
+ruin of Spanish trades and manufactures. Bertaut de Rouen wrote at this
+time:--"L'acoûtumance qu'avoient les Espagnols de faire travailler les
+Morisques, qui estoient libres parmi eux, et les Mores esclaves, dont il
+y a encor quelques-uns qu'ils prennent sur leurs costes et sur celles
+d'Afrique, les a entretenus dans la faineantise et dans l'orgueil, qui
+fait qu'ils dédaignent tous de travailler. Ce qui achève de les y
+plonger, c'est le peu de soucy qu'ils prennent de l'avenir, et l'égalité
+du menu peuple et de tous les moindres marchands et artisans qu'ils
+nomment _officiales_, avec les gentilshommes, qui demeurent tous dans
+les petites villes."
+
+  [78] It is stated in the Fuero of Nájera (A.D. 1076) that the price of
+       the blood of a Moorish slave was twelve _sueldos_ and a half, while
+       the Fuero Viejo of Castile (Book II., Tit. III., Ley IV.) contains
+       the significantly contemptuous phrase, "If a man demand of another
+       a beast or a Moor" (_si algún ome demanda á otro bestia ó moro_).
+       The Countess d'Aulnoy wrote in 1679;--"There are here (at Madrid) a
+       large number of Turkish and Moorish slaves, who are bought and sold
+       at heavy prices, some of them costing four hundred and five hundred
+       _escudos_. Until some time ago the owners of these slaves possessed
+       the right to kill them at their pleasure, as though they had been
+       so many dogs; but since it was remarked that this usage tallied but
+       poorly with the maxims of our Christian faith, so scandalous a
+       license was prohibited. Nowadays the owner of a slave may often
+       break his bones without incurring censure. Not many, however,
+       resort to so extreme a chastisement."
+
+In the same century the Countess d'Aulnoy recorded comical instances of
+the pride of the tradesmen of Madrid. "One morning," she says, "we
+stopped awhile in the Plaza Mayor to await the return of a servant whom
+my aunt had sent with a message to some place not far away. Just then I
+saw a woman selling some slices of salmon, crying them aloud and
+proclaiming their freshness in tones which positively molested the
+passers-by. Presently a shoemaker came up (I knew him to be such,
+because they called him the _señor zapatero_), and asked for a pound of
+salmon; since here they sell everything by the pound, even to coal and
+firewood. 'You have not been through the market,' cried the woman who
+sold the fish, 'because you fancy that my salmon is cheap to-day; but
+let me tell you that it costs an _escudo_ the pound.' Furious that his
+poverty should thus be hinted at in public, the shoemaker exclaimed in
+angry tones: 'It is true that I was not aware of the price of fish
+to-day. Had it been cheap, I would have bought a pound of it; but since
+you say it is dear, give me three pounds.' With these words, he held out
+his hand with the three _escudos_, jammed his hat upon his eyebrows
+(tradesmen in this town wear small hats, and persons of quality hats of
+great size), and then, twisting the ends of his mustachios, and clapping
+his hand to his rapier, the point of which bobbed upward, carrying with
+it a fold of his ragged cloak, caught up his purchase and strode home,
+looking at us with an arrogant air, as though he had performed some
+heroic deed and we had witnessed it. Yet the drollest part of it all was
+that beyond doubt the fellow had no money left at home, but had spent
+his week's wages upon the salmon, so that his choleric and haughty act
+would keep his wife and children famishing for all those days, after
+supping once upon abundant fish. Such is the character of this people;
+and there are gentlemen here who take the feet of a fowl and hang them
+so as to show beneath the hem of their cloak, to make it appear as
+though they really bore a fowl. But hunger, in truth, is all they carry
+with them.
+
+"You never see a shopman here who does not clothe himself in velvet,
+silk, and satin, like the king; or who is not the owner of a mighty
+rapier, which dangles from the wall, together with his dagger and
+guitar. These fellows work as little as they may, for, as I said, they
+are by nature indolent. Only in case of extreme necessity do they work
+at all, and then they never rest, but labour even throughout a
+feast-day; though when they have finished what was needed to procure
+them money, they deliver the product of their toil, and with its value
+relapse into fresh idleness. The shoemaker who has two apprentices, and
+who has only made one pair of shoes, hands to his lads a shoe apiece and
+makes them walk before him as though they were his pages; he that has
+three apprentices is preceded by all three; and when occasion rises, the
+master-_zapatero_ will hardly condescend to fit upon your feet the shoes
+which his own hands had put together."
+
+It seems that the shoemakers of Madrid were distinguished for their
+insolence and vanity above the rest of her tradespeople. In 1659 Bertaut
+de Rouen wrote of the two _corrales_ or theatres of this town, that they
+were "toujours pleines de tous les marchands, et de tous les artisans,
+qui quittant leur boutique s'en vont là avec la cappe, l'épée, et le
+poignard, qui s'appellent tous _cavalleros_ jusques au _çapateros_; et
+ce sont ceux qui décident si la comedie est bonne ou non, et à cause
+qu'ils la sifflent ou qu'ils l'applaudissent, et qu'ils sont d'un costé
+et d'autre en rang, outre que c'est comme une espèce de salve, on les
+appelle _Mosqueteros_, en sorte que la bonne fortune des autheurs dépend
+d'eux."
+
+The foregoing narratives sound absurd, and are particularly prone to be
+considered so from being of foreign authorship. Their tenor,
+notwithstanding, is supported by the following declarations, gravely set
+down in writing by a Spaniard, within some half a dozen years of the
+visit to Madrid of the Countess d'Aulnoy. The name of this author is
+Alonso Nuñez de Castro, and the title of his work (published towards the
+close of the reign of Philip the Fourth), _El Cortesano en Madrid_.
+"What man," demands this _madrileño_ of a bygone century, "eminent in
+any of the arts, has belonged to other nations, but has sought in Madrid
+the applause and gain which his native country would not, or could not,
+bestow upon him? Thus, either he in person, or else his master-works,
+visit with frequency this court of ours, wherein they meet a better fate
+than in their birthplace, since only at Madrid is properly esteemed the
+value of illustrious effort. Let London manufacture as she may her
+famous cloths, Holland her cambrics, Florence her satins, India her
+castors and vicunas, Milan her brocades, Italy and the Netherlands the
+statues and oil-paintings which seem to breathe the very life of the
+original: our Court enjoys these products one and all, proving hereby
+that other nations generate artists for Madrid, who is, in sooth, the
+supreme Court of Courts, seeing that she is served by all, yet in her
+turn serves none.
+
+"Yet not at slight expense does she enjoy this sovereignty, showering
+upon other hands her gold and silver, that they may recreate her mouth
+with choicest drinks and viands, her nostrils with delicious essences,
+her eyes with wondrous works of painting and of statuary, her hearing
+with the skill of world-renowned musicians, her luxury with expensive
+fabrics and with precious stones; albeit these disbursements mark her,
+not as prodigal, but as prudent in discovering the proper use of gold,
+together with the fitting aim and purpose of all riches. Who was
+possessor of more gold than Midas?--seeing that not he alone, but all he
+laid his hand upon, was gold; or who so wretched?--seeing that he was
+powerless to keep himself alive on gold, though all he touched was
+golden. Truly that man is rich that maketh gold to minister to his
+wants, and he a miserable pauper that to gold himself is slave, not
+knowing how to turn its uses to his good. Therefore let other peoples
+accumulate wealth at ease, heaping up the gold wherewith Madrid repays
+their ministration to her needs. Whereas her courtiers prove possession
+of their gold, in that they amassed it formerly, those foreigners show
+the evil and the mischief of their own by jealously confining it with
+lock and key: nay, who shall even tell if it be theirs, seeing that they
+enjoy it not, although they seem to be the lords thereof?
+
+"You will declare that other courts enjoy the same conveniences with
+less expense, because their magistrates are stricter to restrain the
+tradesman from establishing his prices at caprice. Truly, it may happen
+that elsewhere the price of foods and luxuries be less than in Madrid;
+yet it is certain that Madrid makes fair comparison in cheapness with
+the other cities of Castile. Nay, more, without there seeming to be
+cause, her courtiers daily find that by a marvel articles are cheaper
+here than in the soil which generated them, or in the town where they
+were wrought. The fact that in comparison with other kingdoms Madrid is
+in some ways the dearer, proves that she hath the money for rewarding
+labour; and that in other capitals the sweat of the artificer is
+worthless, because money is worth more. Always have I remarked that the
+province or the realm that is awarded the name of _happy_, because all
+things are purchasable there at next to no expense, is wrongly titled
+so, since here is evidence, either that money lacks, or that there is no
+purchaser."[79]
+
+  [79] To further show the extravagant way of thinking and behaving of the
+       Spaniard of the seventeenth century, the same author sets aside the
+       sneering objection justly made by foreign writers to the river
+       Manzanares at Madrid--namely, that it has no water--by remarking
+       with exquisite complacency, that here precisely lies the crowning
+       merit and advantage of the Manzanares over rival streams; in that
+       it amuses people without endangering their lives. In the reigns of
+       Philip the Fourth and Charles the Second, a favourite promenade of
+       the Madrid aristocracy was the waterless channel of this river, in
+       which, according to this work, "coaches and carriages do duty for
+       a gondola, and form a pleasant imitation of the boats and palaces
+       of Venice."
+
+In the eighteenth century, when better sense prevailed among the
+statesmen and economists of Spain, the greedy and corrupt administration
+of her guilds began to be awarded greater notice. Among the enlightened
+and progressive Spaniards who outspoke their minds upon this theme, were
+Florez Estrada and the Count of Campomanes. These, among others of less
+mark, saw and proclaimed that the harm inflicted by the _gremios_ in
+some directions was incalculable, while the good they were supposed to
+bring about in others was rather nominal than real.[80] Apart, however,
+from the judgment uttered by these two authorities, men of acknowledged
+probity and consequence who held the public ear, as well as by the
+patriotic Jovellanos in his spirited appeal in favour of the _libre
+ejercicio de las artes_, a number of causes, such as the propagation of
+the principles of individual liberty by the French Revolution,
+contributed to give the _gremios_ an archaic air, and finally to bring
+about their downfall. The views concerning them which gradually filled
+the popular mind, prior to their extinction as an act of government in
+the year 1834,[81] are well expressed by Townsend. "In all the trading
+companies or _gremios_," wrote this traveller, "religious fraternities
+are formed, some incorporated by royal authority and letters patent,
+others by connivance of the crown, but both in violation of the laws.
+
+  [80] The object avowedly pursued by Campomanes was not, however, the
+       absolute suppression of the Spanish trade-guilds, but merely their
+       reconstruction upon a sounder basis. He still believed that
+       admission to a guild should be preceded by a formal period of
+       apprenticeship, as well as that the title and the privileges of the
+       master of a trade should be hereditary. An instance of the grossly
+       fraudulent methods employed by the _gremios_ in order to retain the
+       privilege of manufacture in a certain family, is quoted by Larruga
+       (_Memorias_, Vol. II., p. 201), who states that the silk-cord
+       makers of Madrid conferred the title of _master-craftsman_ on a
+       babe only twenty-two months old.
+
+  [81] Barzanallana says that the earliest sign of a movement in the
+       direction of emancipating the Spanish people from the thraldom of
+       the _gremios_ is contained in the royal _cedula_ of May 17th, 1790,
+       abolishing several of the noxious prerogatives which had hitherto
+       been enjoyed by the families of master-craftsmen. A further crown
+       decree, dated the same month and year, empowered the Audiencias and
+       Chancillerías to authorize persons to pursue a craft (provided they
+       were reasonably competent) without the necessity of approval from
+       the _gremios_ and their _veedores_. Three years later, the same
+       monarch (Charles the Fourth) suppressed the _gremios_ and
+       _colegios_ of the silk-twisters, and declared this craft to be open
+       to all such persons, of either sex, as wished to practise it. In
+       1797 it was permitted to all foreigners who should be competent in
+       any art or industry (except Jews) to establish themselves in Spain
+       or her dominions, nor were they to be molested in their religious
+       theories if they should happen not to be Roman Catholics.
+
+       At a later time the Cortes annulled, or very nearly so, the
+       _ordenanzas_ of the _gremios_, and allowed the exercise of any
+       lawful trade or craft to everybody, Spaniards and foreigners alike,
+       without the requisite of special license or examination, or
+       approval by the officers of the guilds (decree of June 8th, 1813).
+       This measure was revoked in 1815, but again became law in 1836, and
+       two years before this latter date was issued the decree of Queen
+       María Cristina prohibiting associations which, under the semblance
+       of a _gremio_, should aim at converting any craft or office into a
+       monopoly.
+
+       The Spanish _gremios_ still exist, but all their sting has
+       departed. To-day they may be said to spring from the natural and
+       beneficial interdependence of persons working together in the same
+       groove, and seeking mutual support by means of peaceable
+       association. Thus the abuses which rendered them so terrible and
+       evil in the olden time are fortunately now no more.
+
+"Every fraternity is governed by a mayor and court of aldermen, who make
+laws, sit in judgment on offenders, and claim in many cases exemption
+from the common tribunals of the country. None but the members of these
+communities may exercise mechanic arts, or be concerned in trade; and to
+be admitted as a member is both attended with a heavy fine, and entails
+upon each individual a constant annual expense.
+
+"This, however, is not the greatest evil, for the mayor and officers,
+during their year of service, not only neglect their own affairs, but
+from vanity and ostentation run into expenses, such as either ruin their
+families, or at least straiten them exceedingly in trade.
+
+"These corporations, being established in the cities, banish, by their
+oppressive laws, all the mechanic arts from towns and villages. In the
+cities likewise they tend only to monopoly, by limiting the numbers in
+every branch of business, and fixing within unreasonable bounds the
+residence of those who are concerned in trade. This they do either by
+assigning the distance between shop and shop, under pretence that two
+shops vending the same commodities must not be so near together as to
+interfere, or by assembling all the mechanics of the same profession,
+such as silversmiths, and confining them to one street or quarter of the
+city, under the plausible pretext that thus the proper magistrate may
+with ease pay attention to their work, and see that the due standard be
+observed.[82]
+
+  [82] This custom was borrowed from the East, and explains why, in many
+       of the older Spanish cities, a number of their streets have taken
+       their title from the trades that formerly were plied in them, or
+       (in some instances) that still are so. Especially was this the case
+       at Valencia and Toledo. In the latter capital there are, or used to
+       be, the streets, _plazas_, or _barrios_, of the silversmiths,
+       armourers, bakers, old-clothes vendors, potters, esparto-weavers,
+       dyers, chairmakers, and many more. Martín Gamero, in his excellent
+       _History of Toledo_ (Introduction, p. 60), says that in the centre
+       of the city were located the quiet crafts, such as those of the
+       jewellers, silversmiths, chandlers, and clog-makers, as well as
+       the shops of the silk, brocade, and tissue-vendors. Noisy trades,
+       such as the swordsmiths', tinsmiths', boiler-makers', chairmakers',
+       and turners', were practised on the outskirts of the town.
+
+"In many cases the various _gremios_ bear hard upon each other. Thus,
+for instance, the carpenter must not employ his industry on mahogany, or
+any other wood but deal, nor must he invade the province of the turner.
+The turner must confine his ingenuity and labour to soft wood, and must
+not presume to touch either ivory or metals, even though he should be
+reduced to poverty for want of work. The wheeler, in similar distress,
+must not, however qualified, extend his operations beyond the appointed
+bounds, so as to encroach on the business of the coach-maker, who is
+equally restrained from either making or mending either cart or waggon
+wheels. The barber may shave, draw teeth, and bleed, but he must not
+fill up his leisure time with making wigs.[83] As mechanics are obliged
+to keep exactly each to his several line, so must shopkeepers confine
+themselves to their proper articles in trade, and under no pretence must
+the manufacturer presume to open magazines, that he may sell by retail.
+
+  [83] Colmeiro has published _memoriales_ presented by the hatters of
+       Zaragoza, in which they pray to be allowed to line, by their own
+       hands, or by those of their wives, the hats which they had
+       manufactured, instead of being required to give up this finishing
+       and accessorial process to the makers of silk cord.--_Historia de
+       la Economía Política en España_, and _Biblioteca de los economistas
+       españoles de los siglos XVI., XVII., y XVIII_.
+
+"But neither are these abuses the only evils which call for reformation.
+Many corporations have been impertinently meddling, and have absurdly
+bound the hands of the manufacturer by regulations with respect to the
+conduct of his business and the productions of his art, such as, being
+too rigidly observed, would preclude all improvements, and would be
+destructive to his trade, by giving to foreigners a manifest advantage
+in favour of their merchandise.[84]
+
+  [84] This meddlesomeness almost exceeds belief. It was at its worst,
+       perhaps, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who decreed that
+       the wicks of candles were to be made of the same kind of tow, and
+       horse-shoes and nails to be of the same weight in every part of
+       their dominions. It was required that machines, which might have
+       been to great advantage moved by mules or horses, should only be
+       worked by the hand of man, however lengthy and exhausting this
+       might prove. The Count of Torreánaz, who quotes these ridiculous
+       dispositions from the _Libro de bulas y pragmáticas_ of Juan
+       Ramírez, further recalls that, as late as the middle of the
+       eighteenth century, costly woven stuffs of Seville and Valencia
+       used to be confiscated because, although the ground of the fabric
+       was of a colour which the law allowed, the flowers or other devices
+       which formed the decoration were of a forbidden shade. On one
+       occasion the chief lady-in-waiting of the queen was prohibited from
+       wearing a dress which she had ordered from a weaver of Valencia,
+       because the flowered pattern was contrary to the _ordenanzas_.
+
+"The incorporated fraternities in the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon are
+25,581, and their corporate expenses amount to 11,687,861 reals. Their
+revenue is not altogether consumed in feasting, nor in salaries to
+officers, nor in pensions to their widows, nor yet in lawsuits, which
+are said to be both numerous and expensive; but considerable sums are
+expended for religious purposes, in procuring masses to be said, either
+for departed spirits and the souls in Purgatory, or for the benefit of
+the fraternity in which each individual has a proportionable interest.
+For this reason, these communities enjoy the protection of the
+ecclesiastical courts, to which, in cases of necessity, they frequently
+appeal.
+
+"The chartered corporations claim their exclusive privileges by royal
+grant, and on this plea they resist a formation, not considering, as
+Count Campomanes with propriety remarks, the essential condition of
+these grants, _Sin perjuicio de tercero_, or that nothing therein
+contained shall be to the _prejudice of others_, or injurious to the
+citizens at large."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX I
+
+                   CLASSES OF POTTERY MADE AT ALCORA
+
+               (From RIAÑO's _Industrial Arts in Spain_)
+
+Towards the middle of the eighteenth century:--
+
+  Vases of different shapes.
+
+  Small pots (Chinese fashion).
+
+  Teapots and covers (Chinese fashion).
+
+  Cruets, complete sets (Chinese style).
+
+  Entrée dishes.
+
+  Salt-cellars (Chinese style).
+
+  _Escudillas_ (bowls), of Constantinople.
+
+  _Barquillos_ (sauce bowls), Chinese style.
+
+  Bottles (in the Chinese manner).
+
+  Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds, with good painted borders
+  in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_). Some were designed in the
+  Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with fruit-stands,
+  salad-bowls, and dishes.
+
+  Trays and refrigerators.
+
+A document, discovered by Riaño, and dated 1777, says that in that year
+the following kinds of pottery were manufactured at Alcora:--
+
+                      _Figures of Demi-Porcelain._
+
+  Figures of tritons.
+     "    of soldiers (two sizes).
+     "    of soldiers, one-third of a _palmo_ high.
+     "    of the four seasons (two sizes).
+     "    of dancers.
+     "    of tritons in the form of children.
+     "    with brackets.
+     "    of different animals.
+     "    of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.
+  Dancing figures in the German style.
+  Figures of Neptune.
+     "    of shepherd and shepherdess.
+     "    of the Moorish king, Armenius.
+     "    of the four parts of the world (two sizes).
+     "    of peasant and his wife.
+  Small figures holding musical instruments.
+  Figures representing different monarchies.
+     "    representing historical personages.
+     "    representing the history of Alexander the Great (two sizes).
+     "    representing Martius Curtius (two sizes).
+     "    of elephants.
+     "    of a man mounted on an elephant.
+     "    representing Chinese figures.
+     "    of Heliogabalus.
+     "    of a general on horseback.
+     "    of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.
+  Large figures representing Julius Cæsar.
+  Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets.
+  Groups of Chinese figures.
+  Snuff-boxes, sugar-basins, inkstands.
+  Rabbits, horns, and pug-dogs for holding scent.
+  Small scent-bottles.
+  Needle-cases.
+  Large vases with foot and cover.
+  Brackets.
+  Walking-stick handles.
+  Knife handles.
+
+                   _Figures of white Biscuit China._
+
+  Figures representing Spanish costumes (two sizes).
+  Groups of two figures.
+  Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.
+  Figures of the four seasons (two sizes).
+
+We find also, says Riaño, the following figures of painted and glazed
+porcelain:--
+
+  Four seasons (two sizes).
+  Groups of two figures.
+  Figure of a Moorish king.
+     "   of musicians and huntsmen.
+     "   of peasants.
+     "   of Chinese.
+  Small figures of a gardener and female companion.
+  Figures of soldiers in the German style.
+
+From 1789 to 1797, continues Riaño, the following kinds of pottery were
+made at Alcora:--
+
+  Hard paste porcelain (French).
+  Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.
+  Porcelain of pipeclay (English).
+  Blue pipeclay porcelain.
+  Marbled pipeclay porcelain.
+  _Bucaros_, painted and gilt.
+  Strasburg ware.
+  Porcelain painted _en froid_.
+  Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.
+
+                          _Porcelain (Frita)._
+
+  Porcelain painted with gilt lines.
+      "     painted without gold.
+      "     (_frita_), canary colour.
+  Boxes in relief.
+    "      plain.
+  Porcelain (_frita_), painted with marble wares.
+  Plain boxes of the same kind.
+  Porcelain (_frita_), of blue and brown ground.
+  Cups and saucers of a similar kind.
+
+                          _Biscuit Porcelain._
+
+  Figures.
+  Vases.
+  Pedestals.
+  White porcelain (_frita_) cups of different kinds.
+    "   porcelain, ornamented and plain.
+  Boxes with busts.
+  Boxes with ornamentations in relief.
+  Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.
+  Large figures of the four seasons.
+  Flower vases with rams' heads.
+  Plain boxes.
+  Boxes with ornaments in relief.
+
+                           _White Porcelain._
+
+  Plates, cups, etc.
+  Figures of different kinds.
+
+                          _Painted Porcelain._
+
+  Cups, saucers, plates, etc.
+  Cream-pots.
+  Plain snuff-boxes, or in the shape of a dog.
+  Fruit-stands in relief.
+
+
+                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+The following is a fairly complete list of the works I have
+consulted for the preparation of these volumes.
+
+ABDÓN DE PAZ. _La España de la Edad Media._
+
+ACADEMIA DE SAN FERNANDO, REAL. _Colección de Antigüedades Arabes de
+Granada y Córdoba_; 2 vols.
+
+ALBA, DUCHESS OF BERWICK AND. _Catálogo de las colecciones expuestas en
+las vitrinas del Palacio de Liria._
+
+ALDERETE. _Antigüedades de España._
+
+ALZOLA Y MINONDO, PABLO. _El Arte Industrial en España._ Bilbao, 1892.
+
+AMADOR DE LOS RÍOS. _El Arte Latino-Bizantino en España y las Coronas
+Visigodas de Guarrazar._ Madrid, 1861.
+
+ANTÓN, FRANCISCO. _Estudio sobre el Coro de la Catedral de Zamora_; 1904.
+
+ARGOTE DE MOLINA. _Nuevos Paseos Históricos, Artísticos,
+Económico-Políticos por Granada y sus Contornos._
+
+ARPHE Y VILLAFAÑE. _Varia Conmensuración para la Escultura y
+Arquitectura._ Seventh edition; Madrid, 1795.
+
+_Arte en España, El_; 8 vols.
+
+_Arts italiens en Espagne, Les, ou histoire des artistes italiens qui
+contribuerent à embellir les Castilles._ Rome, 1825.
+
+BALSA DE LA VEGA. _Las Industrias Artísticas en Madrid_ (Lace, etc.).
+Articles published in _El Liberal_, 1907.
+
+BARRANTES. _Barros emeritenses._ Madrid, 1877.
+
+BERTAUT DE ROUEN. _Journal du Voyage d'Espagne._ Paris, 1669.
+
+BIRCH, SAMUEL. _History of Ancient Pottery._ London, 1873.
+
+BOCK. _Die Kleinodien des heil. römischen Reichs deutscher Nation, nebst
+den Kroninsignien Böhmens, Ungarns, und der Lombardei._ Vienna, 1864.
+
+  _Geschichte der liturgischen Gewänder des Mittelalters._ Bonn, 1871.
+
+BONSOR, GEORGES. _Les Colonies pre-Romaines de la Vallée du Bétis._
+Paris, 1899.
+
+BOURGOING, JEAN-FRANÇOIS DE. _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne._ 3 vols.;
+Paris, 1789.
+
+BREÑOSA Y CASTELLARNAU. _Guía y Descripción del Real Sitio de San
+Ildefonso._ Madrid, 1884.
+
+CABALLERO INFANTE, FRANCISCO. _Aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados
+en el pueblo de Santiponce._ Seville, 1898.
+
+CAMPOS MUNILLA, MANUEL. _Mosaicos del Museo Arqueológico Provincial de
+Sevilla._ 1897.
+
+CAPMANY Y MONTPALAU, ANTONIO. _Memorias históricas sobre la marina,
+comercio, y artes de la ciudad de Barcelona._ Madrid, 1779.
+
+CARRASCO Y SÁINZ, ADOLFO. _Catálogo de los recuerdos históricos
+existentes en el Museo de Artillería._ Part I.; Madrid, 1893.
+
+CASCALES, FRANCISCO. _Discursos históricos sobre Murcia._ Murcia, 1624.
+
+CEAN BERMUDEZ, JUAN AGUSTIN. _Descripción Artística de la Catedral de
+Sevilla._ Seville, 1863.
+
+  _Diccionario de las Bellas Artes en España._
+
+CEDILLO, COUNT OF. _Toledo en el siglo XVI._ Madrid, 1901.
+
+CLONARD, COUNT OF. _Memorias para la historia del traje español_;
+published in the _Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia_,
+Vol. IX. Madrid, 1879.
+
+  _Conferencias leidas en el Ateneo Barcelonés sobre el estado de la
+  cultura española y particularmente catalana, en el siglo XV._
+  Barcelona, 1893.
+
+COLE, ALAN S. _Ornament in European Silks._ London, 1899.
+
+CONTRERAS, RAFAEL. _Recuerdos de la Dominación de los Arabes en España._
+Granada, 1882.
+
+COX. _L'Art de décorer les Tissus._
+
+CRUZADA VILLAAMIL. _Los tapices de Goya._ Madrid, 1870.
+
+DANVILA Y COLLADO. _Trajes y Armas de los Españoles._ Madrid, 1877.
+
+DAVILLIER, BARON. _Recherches sur l'orfévrerie en Espagne._ Paris, 1879.
+
+  _Les arts decoratifs en Espagne au moyen âge et à la Renaissance._
+  Paris, 1879.
+
+  _Nota sobre los cueros de Cordoba, Guadameciles de España_, etc.
+  (Spanish edition.) Gerona, 1879.
+
+DIAZ Y PEREZ, NICOLÁS. _Historia de Talavera la Real._ Madrid, 1879.
+
+DOZY. _Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne._ Leyden, 1881.
+
+DUPONT-AUBERVILLE. _L'Ornement des Tissus._ Paris, 1877.
+
+ECHEVERRÍA. _Paseos por Granada y sus Contornos_. 2 vols.; Granada,
+1814.
+
+EGUILAZ YANGUAS, LEOPOLDO. _Reseña Histórica de la Conquista del Reino
+de Granada por los Reyes Católicos._ Granada, 1894.
+
+ERRERA, MADAME ISABELLE. _Collection d'Anciennes Étoffes_ (Catalogue).
+Brussels, 1901.
+
+FERNANDEZ Y GONZALEZ, FRANCISCO. _Estado social y político de los
+mudéjares de Castilla._ Madrid, 1866.
+
+FLOREZ. _España Sagrada._ (2nd edition). Madrid, 1824.
+
+FORD, RICHARD. _Handbook for Travellers in Spain._ 2 vols. London, 1845.
+
+GAYANGOS, PASCUAL DE (edited by). _History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
+Spain._ London, 1843.
+
+  (annotated by). _Chronicle of Rassis the Moor._ Madrid, 1850.
+
+GAYET. _L'Art Persan._
+
+GESTOSO Y PEREZ, JOSÉ. _Documentos relativos á la historia de la Armería
+de Sevilla._ Seville, 1887.
+
+  _Ensayo de un Diccionario de los artífices que florecieron en Sevilla
+  desde el siglo XIII al XVIII inclusive._ 2 vols.; Seville, 1899.
+
+  _Historia de los barros vidriados sevillanos desde sus orígenes hasta
+  nuestros días._ Seville, 1903.
+
+  _Curiosidades antiguas sevillanas._ Seville, 1885.
+
+GOBLET D'ALVIELLA, COMTE. _La Migration des Symboles._ Paris, 1891.
+
+GÓMEZ MORENO, MANUEL. _Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del bordado
+de imaginería en Granada_ (published in the magazine _El Liceo de
+Granada_; 6th year, No. 18).
+
+  _Guía de Granada._ Granada, 1892.
+
+GÓNGORA. _Antigüedades Prehistóricas de Andalucía._ Madrid, 1868.
+
+GRANADA, ORDINANCES OF. _Titulo de las Ordenanças que los muy Ilustres y
+muy magníficos Señores Granada mandaron que se guarden para la buena
+governacion de su República. Las quales mandaron imprimir para que todos
+las sepan y las guarden._ 1552.
+
+  _Ordenanzas que los Muy Ilustres y Muy Magnificos Señores Granada
+  mandaron guardar, para la buena governacion de su Republica, impressas
+  año de 1552. Que se han buelto a imprimir mandado de los Señores
+  Presidente, y Oydores de la Real Chancilleria de esta ciudad de Granada,
+  año de 1670. Añadiendo otras que no estauan impressas. Impressas en
+  Granada. En la Imprenta Real de Francisco de Ochoa, en la Calle de
+  Abenamar. Año de_ 1678.
+
+GUILLEN ROBLES, FRANCISCO. _Málaga musulmana._ Málaga, 1880.
+
+GUTIERREZ DE LA HACERA, PASCUAL RAMON. _Descripción General y Cronológica
+de España._ 2 vols.; Madrid, 1771.
+
+HÜBNER. _Inscriptiones Hispaniæ latinæ._ Berlin, 1892.
+
+  _Inscriptionum Hispaniæ latinarum supplementum._ Berlin, 1892.
+
+JONES, OWEN. _The Alhambra._ London, 1842.
+
+LANE-POOLE, STANLEY. _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt._ London, 1888.
+
+  _The Moors in Spain._ London, 1897.
+
+LARRUGA. _Memorias políticas y económicas sobre los frutos, comercio, y
+minas de España._ Madrid, 1788.
+
+LE BRETON, GASTON. _Céramique espagnole. Le salon en porcelaine du
+Palais Royal de Madrid et les porcelaines de Buen Retiro._ Paris, 1879.
+
+LECEA Y GARCIA. _Recuerdos de la antigua industria Segoviana._ Segovia,
+1897.
+
+LOPEZ DE ARENAS, DIEGO. _Carpintería de lo Blanco y Tratado de
+Alarifes._ (3rd edition.) Madrid, 1867.
+
+MADRAZO, PEDRO DE. _Córdoba._ Barcelona, 1884.
+
+MARTORELL Y PEÑA, JUAN. _Apuntes arqueológicos de, ordenados por
+Salvador Samper y Miquel._ Barcelona, 1879.
+
+MEDINA, PEDRO DE. _Primera y Segunda parte de las grandezas y cosas
+notables de España._ Alcalá de Henares, 1595.
+
+MENENDEZ Y PELAYO, MARCELINO. _Historia de las Ideas Estéticas en
+España._ Madrid, 1886 and following years.
+
+MORALES, AMBROSIO DE. _La crónica general de España del Maestro Florián de
+Ocampo, continuada con el libro de las antigüedades de España._
+
+MORENO DE VARGAS, BERNABÉ. _Historia de la Ciudad de Mérida._ Merida,
+1633; reprinted at Merida, 1892.
+
+MURGUÍA, MANUEL. _El Arte en Santiago durante el siglo XVIII., y noticia
+de los artistas que florecieron en dicho ciudad y centuria._ Madrid, 1884.
+
+_Museo Español de Antigüedades_ (many articles in the). Madrid, 1872 and
+following years.
+
+_Noticia de la Fábrica de Espadas de Toledo que por tantos siglos
+existió hasta fines del XVII en que acabó, y del método que tenían
+aquellos artífices Armeros para forjarlas y templarlas, aceros de que
+usaban, y otras particularidades que las hicieron tan famosas en todo el
+Mundo como apetecidas al presente, y de la que por el Rey N.S. que Dios
+gue. se estableció en esta Ciudad año de 1760; por Francisco de Santiago
+Palomares Escriuano mayor de primeros remates de Rentas decimales de
+Toledo y su Arzobispado._ MS. in the Library of the Royal Academy of
+History, Madrid; in the volume inscribed _Varios de Historia_, 8, E,
+141.
+
+_Ordenanzas de la muy noble é muy leal Cibdad de Sevilla é su tierra,
+assi de las tocantes al Cabildo y regimiento della, que se contienen en
+la primera parte, como de todos los oficios mecánicos, de que es la
+segunda parte. Impressas con mucha diligencia en la dicha Cibdad de
+Sevilla por Juan Varela de Salamanca, vezino della. Acabáronse de
+imprimir á catorze dias del mes de Febrero, año de Nuestro Redemptor
+Iesu Christo de mil quinientos é veynte y siete años (1527)._ The second
+edition was published, also at Seville, in 1632.
+
+_Ordenanzas para el buen regimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal é
+imperial ciudad de Toledo._ Reprinted by the Town Council. Toledo, 1858.
+
+ORTEGA RUBIO. _Los Visigodos en España._ Madrid, 1903.
+
+OSMA, GUILLERMO J. DE. _Azulejos sevillanos del siglo XIII._ Madrid,
+1902.
+
+  _Los letreros ornamentales en la cerámica morisca del siglo XV._
+
+PÉREZ DE VILLA-AMIL. _España Artistica y Monumental._ Paris, 1842-1850.
+
+PÉREZ VILLAAMIL, MANUEL. _Artes é Industrias del Buen Retiro._ Madrid,
+1904.
+
+PICATOSTE, FELIPE. _Ultimos escritos._
+
+  _Estudios sobre la grandeza y decadencia de España._
+
+PIGAL. _Collection de Costumes des diverses Provinces de l'Espagne._
+Paris, about 1810.
+
+PONZ, ANTONIO. _Viaje de España._ 18 vols.; Madrid, 1787.
+
+RAMÍREZ DE ARELLANO, RAFAEL. _Ciudad Real Artística._ Ciudad Real, 1894.
+
+RIAÑO, JUAN FACUNDO. _The Industrial Arts in Spain_ (South Kensington
+Museum Art Handbooks). London, 1879.
+
+RICORD, TOMÁS. _Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones del
+Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que tenían en el año 1791._
+Valencia, 1793.
+
+RODRÍGUEZ VILLA, ANTONIO (edited by). _La Corte y Monarquía de España en
+los años de 1636 y 1637._ Madrid, 1886.
+
+SANPERE Y MIQUEL. _La Plateria catalana en los siglos XVI y XV_ (article
+published in the _Revista de Ciencias Históricas_; Vol. I.).
+
+  _Las Costumbres Catalanas en tiempo de Juan I._ Gerona, 1878.
+
+SEMPERE. _Historia del lujo en España._ Madrid, 1788.
+
+SIMONET, FRANCISCO JAVIER. _Descripción del Reino de Granada, sacada de
+los autores arábigos._ Granada, 1872.
+
+STIRLING, WILLIAM. _Annals of the Artists of Spain._ London, 1848.
+
+STRABO. _Geography._
+
+STREET. _Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain._ London, 1865.
+
+SWINBURNE, HENRY. _Travels through Spain._ London, 1779.
+
+TOWNSEND, JOSEPH. _Journey through Spain._ 3 vols.; London, 1792.
+
+VALLADAR, F. DE PAULA. _Guía de Granada._ Granada, 1890 and 1906.
+
+VAN DE PUT. _Hispano-Moresque Ware of the Fifteenth Century._ London,
+1904.
+
+VARGAS Y PONCE. _Correspondencia epistolar en materias de Arte._
+Collected by Cesáreo Fernández Duro. Madrid, 1900.
+
+VILLA-AMIL Y CASTRO. _Antigüedades prehistóricas y célticas de Galicia._
+Lugo, 1873.
+
+ _Arqueología Sagrada._ Lugo, 1867.
+
+VIÑAZA, COUNT OF LA. _Adiciones al Diccionario de Cean Bermudez._
+
+  _Goya._
+
+VIOLLET-LE-DUC. _Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français de l'époque
+Carlovingienne à la Renaissance._
+
+WALLIS, HENRY. _The Oriental Influence on the Ceramic Art of the Italian
+Renaissance._ London, 1900.
+
+YOUNG, ARTHUR. _Tour in Catalonia._ Dublin, 1793.
+
+ZARCO DEL VALLE. _Documentos inéditos para la Historia de las Bellas
+Artes en España._ Madrid, 1870.
+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX
+
+  Abd-al-Azis, I. 31.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the First, II. 57.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, II. 57; III. 20.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the Third, II. 98.
+  Aben-Said, I. 225; II. 135, 136.
+  Abolais, II. 226 _et seq._, 237.
+  Abreviador, the Casa del, III. 150.
+  Abu-Said, III. 37.
+  _Adargas_, I. 241, 242.
+  Addison, Lancelot, II. 18 _et seq._, 32, 45 (note).
+  Alberoni, Cardinal, III. 150 (note).
+  Albuquerque, the inventory of the Dukes of, I. 272, 273, 279, 283, 284;
+    II. 9, 10.
+  Alcaicería of Granada, the, I. 78; II. 194 _et seq._
+  _Alcarrazas_, II. 194 _et seq._
+  Alcázar of Seville, the, II. 60 _et seq._, 138, 141, 143, 148, 150, 152.
+  Alcora, pottery of, II. 203 _et seq._
+  Alcoy, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Aleman, Cristóbal, II. 245.
+  _Aleros_, II. 65, 66.
+  _Alfarge_ ceilings, II. 52 _et seq._
+  Alfonso the Second, III. 183.
+  Alfonso the Third ("the Great"), I. 44, 57 (note); II. 106; III. 183.
+  Alfonso the Sixth, I. 45 (note), 276; II. 15, 106; III. 106.
+  Alfonso the Ninth, II. 39.
+  Alfonso the Tenth ("the Learned"), I. 61, 62, 129, 205; II. 226, 239;
+  III. 11, 28, 33, 34, 106, 238.
+  Alfonso the Eleventh, I. 68; III. 12, 70.
+  Alfonso the Eleventh, the Chronicle of, I. 207, 209, 268, 269,
+    280 (note).
+  Alfonso the Thirteenth, I. 42 (note).
+  Alfonso the First of Aragon, II. 14.
+  Algeciras, the siege of, I. 269.
+  Al-Hakem the First, II. 135; III. 213.
+  Al-Hakem the Second, II. 57.
+  Alhambra, the, II. 54, 56, 59, 64 _et seq._, 86, 121, 154 _et seq._, 168
+    _et seq._, 183, 232, 233.
+  _Aliceres_, II. 136.
+  Al-Jattib, I. 77 (note), 226, 268.
+  _Aljofar_, I. 67; III. 11 _et seq._, 33.
+  Al-Khattib, III. 33, 39.
+  Almagro Cardenas, II. 65 (note).
+  Almagro, lace of, III. 160.
+  Al-Makkari, I. 32, 76; II. 137, 163, 231; III. 1, 2, 21, 33, 35.
+  Al-Manzor, I. 227; II. 57.
+  _Almexía_, III. 8.
+  Almohades, the, II. 136; III. 23.
+  Almoravides, the, III. 22.
+  Almotalefes, III. 58 _et seq._
+  Altar-screens (see _Retablos_).
+  Alvarez de Colmenar, I. 110 (note), 267; II. 23, 24, 31, 199 (note),
+    260; III. 50 _et seq._, 74.
+  Amador de los Ríos, José, I. 17, 23, 28; II. 59 (note).
+  Amador de los Ríos, Rodrigo, I. 36, 48, 49, 61, 62, 128, 129, 176, 179,
+    183, 185; II. 58, 101, 103, 135, 136; III. 212, 238.
+  Amphoræ, II. 116, 117.
+  _Analogia_, III. 211, 212.
+  Ancheta, II. 80.
+  Andino, Cristóbal de, I. 151 _et seq._
+  Angels, the Cross of, I. 41 _et seq._, 58.
+  Apocalypse, the Codex of the, I. 223.
+  _Arabian Nights, The_, II. 62, 63 (note).
+  Aranda, the Count of, II. 182, 204 _et seq._
+  _Arca Santa_ of Oviedo, the, I. 44.
+  Arenys de Mar, lace of, III. 172.
+  Arenys de Munt, lace of, III. 172.
+  Arfe, Antonio de, I. 98.
+  Arfe, Enrique de, I. 97, 101; III. 201.
+  Arfe, Juan de, I. 85, 96 _et seq._; III. 185, 201.
+  Argote de Molina, II. 23.
+  Armouries of Spain, private, I. 243, 244.
+  Armoury, Madrid, the Royal, I. 17, 210, 214 (note), 217 _et seq._,
+    229 (note), 231 (note), 235 _et seq._, 248 _et seq._, 273, 274, 276,
+    278, 282.
+  Arnao de Flandes, II. 243.
+  _Arquetas_, I. 48 _et seq._
+  "Arras cloths" (see _Paños de Ras_).
+  _Artesonados_, II. 47, 55 _et seq._
+  Ash Shakandi, III. 3, 4.
+  Augusta, Cristóbal de, II. 152.
+  _Axorcas_, I. 77, 79.
+  _Azulejos_ (see Tiles).
+
+  _Baculi_, ivory, II. 105, 106.
+  Balconies, Spanish, I. 154 _et seq._
+  Balearics, slingers of the, I. 200, 201.
+  Bâle, the Council of, III. 110, 111 (note).
+  Balsa de la Vega, III. 163.
+  _Banyolenchs_, III. 123 (note).
+  Barcelona, silk of, III. 98 _et seq._
+  _Barros Saguntinos_ (see "Saguntine ware").
+  _Barros tarraconenses_ (see "Saguntine ware").
+  Bartholomew, Master, I. 149 _et seq._
+  Barzanallana, III. 222 (note), 249 (note).
+  Bayan Almoghreb, I. 32.
+  Becerra, II. 68.
+  Becerriles, the, I. 94, 95.
+  Bedclothes, Spanish mediæval, II. 4 (note).
+  Benvenuto Cellini, III. 208 _et seq._
+  Berruguete, I. 189; II. 68, 71, 79, 80.
+  Bertaut de Rouen, I. 3, 38, 82, 97, 101, 102, 109, 154, 155, 203;
+    II. 39, 59, 60, 63, 67 (note), 169, 262; III. 50, 51, 108, 109, 140,
+    141, 164, 165 (note), 242, 243, 245.
+  Boabdil el Chico, I. 75, 227 _et seq._; III. 36, 37.
+  Bocairente, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Bonsor, II. 113, 114.
+  Bourgoing, II. 159, 181, 216, 217; III. 74, 76 _et seq._
+  Bowles, William, I. 4 _et seq._, 23 (note), 56 (note), 263 _et seq._;
+    II. 58 (note), 196 _et seq._, 254, 255.
+  Brihuega, cloths of, III. 110, 115 (note).
+  Brims of Wells (see _Brocales_).
+  _Brinquiños_, II. 191, 192.
+  British Museum, The, II. 177; III. 183.
+  Brocade, III. 98, 99 (note).
+  _Brocales_, II. 123, 124.
+  Bronzes, Moorish, I. 169 _et seq._
+  Brun, Sigismund, II. 259.
+  _Búcaros_, II. 191, 193.
+  Buckram, III. 5, 7.
+  Buen Retiro, pottery of the, II. 203, 212 _et seq._
+  Buonaparte, Joseph, II. 218.
+  _Burel_, III. 122.
+
+  Cadalso, glass of, II. 232.
+  _Cadinas_, III. 123 (note).
+  Campomanes, Count, III. 248, 253.
+  _Candil_, the, I. 167, 168.
+  Cannon, early Spanish, I. 268 _et seq._
+  Cano, Alonso, II. 69, 81.
+  _Cántigas de Santa María_, the, I. 282.
+  Capmany, III. 6, 123 (note), 169.
+  Carpentry, artistic, II. 46 _et seq._
+  _Carpintería de lo blanco_, II. 52, 53.
+  _Carpinteros de lo blanco_, II. 50.
+  Carrión, Fernando de, III. 206, 207.
+  Casa de los Tíros, Granada, the, II. 65, 156.
+  Casiri, III. 35, 39.
+  Cataluña, cloths of, III. 123 (note).
+  Cataluña, lace of, III. 169 _et seq._
+  Catherine of Lancaster, III. 107, 129.
+  Cato, I. 5.
+  Cean Bermudez, I. 88, 148 (note), 185; II. 62, 80, 83 _et seq._, 149,
+    246 (note); III. 131, 168 (note).
+  Cedillo, Count of, III. 70 (note), 225 (note).
+  Celosías, II. 47, 62 _et seq._
+  Celtiberians, the, I. 195, 196.
+  _Cendal_, III. 5, 6.
+  Chair-makers of Granada, the, II. 28 _et seq._
+  _Chamelot_, III. 5, 6, 14.
+  Charles the Second, I. 107, 273, 274; II. 46; III. 27, 107, 134,
+    248 (note).
+  Charles the Third, I. 115, 235 (note); II. 212, 218, 258; III. 46.
+  Charles the Fourth, II. 215; III. 249 (note).
+  Charles the Fifth, I. 129, 222, 223, 235 _et seq._, 253, 273, 283;
+    II. 40, 56, 77; III. 15, 31, 40, 107, 153, 169, 174, 238, 239.
+  Chests, makers of, II. 30.
+  _Ciclaton_, III. 5, 6.
+  Cid, the, II. 12.
+  Cid, the Chronicle of the, I. 207.
+  Cid, the Poem of the, I. 203, 207 (note); II. 45 (note).
+  Cisneros, Cardinal, III. 126.
+  Ciudad Real, II. 39.
+  Clemencin, III. 13, 14.
+  Clonard, Count of, I. 204, 206, 208, 213, 215 (note), 268; II. 2 (note),
+    5 (note), 39 (note); III. 14 (note).
+  Cloostermans, II. 209 _et seq._
+  Cloth of Gold, III. 7.
+  Cloths, Spanish, III. 105 _et seq._
+  Cluny, the Museum of, II. 40; III. 183.
+  Coaches, Spanish, I. 283.
+  _Cofradías_, III. 222 _et seq._
+  Commercial Company of Extremadura, the, III. 65.
+  Compañia Real de Comercio y Fábricas de Granada, the, III. 61 _et seq._
+  _Contrayes_, III. 122.
+  Contreras, II. 173.
+  _Cordellate_, III. 122.
+  Cordova, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Cordova, embroiderers of, III. 131 _et seq._
+  "Cordova leathers," II. 38, 39.
+  Cordova, _rejeros_ of, I. 145, 146.
+  Cordova, the Council of, III. 12.
+  Cordova, the mosque of, II. 57, 58, 135.
+  Cordova, the Ordinances of, II. 43, 44.
+  Covarrubias, II. 38, 137; III. 128.
+  Crossbows, Spanish, I. 220 _et seq._
+  Crosses, iron, I. 138.
+  Crown of Spain, tapestries of the, III. 152 _et seq._
+  _Cueros de Córdoba_, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Cunninghame Graham, I. 131, 132, 235 (note), 277 (note); II. 20 (note),
+    126 (note).
+  _Cursi_, the, II. 22.
+  _Custodia_ of Cordova, the, III. 201 _et seq._
+  _Custodia_ of Seville, the, III. 185 _et seq._
+  _Custodias_, I. 95 _et seq._
+  Cutlers, Spanish, III. 214 _et seq._
+
+  Dagobert, I. 29, 30.
+  Dancart, II. 77, 83.
+  Danis, Juan, II. 247, 248.
+  D'Aulnoy, Countess, I. 107 _et seq._; II. 25 (note), 224; III. 134, 135,
+    141, 142, 162, 242 _et seq._
+  Davillier, Baron, I. 72, 87, 280 (note); II. 78, 144, 249, 162, 165,
+    166, 186 _et seq._; III. 149.
+  Diago, II. 163, 180.
+  Diodorus Siculus, I. 199.
+  Diptyches, ivory, II. 89 _et seq._
+  Dolfin, II. 240, 241.
+  Domingo, "Maestre," I. 148, 149; III. 237, 238 (note).
+  Doncel, Guillermo, II. 79, 80.
+  _Don Quixote_, I. 286 (note); III. 160.
+  Dozy, II. 135 (note), 136.
+  _Drach-alat_, the, III. 228.
+  Drury Fortnum, III. 182.
+  Ducange, III. 211.
+  Duque y Cornejo, II. 81.
+
+  Echeverría, Father, I. 82.
+  Eder, II. 259.
+  Edrisi, I. 224; II. 162; III. 137, 138.
+  Egilona, I. 30, 31.
+  Eguilaz Yanguas, II. 22; III. 36, 37 (note).
+  El Nubiense, III. 4.
+  Embroidery, Spanish, III. 125 _et seq._
+  Ena of Battenberg, Princess, III. 173.
+  Enguera, cloths of, III. 124.
+  _Entalladores_, II. 50, 76, 78.
+  Escolano, II. 163, 164.
+  Escorial, the, I. 98.
+  Eximenes, II. 163, 164, 180.
+
+  Ferdinand and Isabella, I. 65, 69 _et seq._, 252, 253; II. 74, 125, 143,
+    184 (note), 190, 234; III. 14, 31, 39, 123, 128, 129 (note), 152, 236,
+    252.
+  Ferdinand the Catholic, I. 229, 253 _et seq._; II. 236; III. 123 (note).
+  Ferdinand the First, I. 45 (note); II. 13, 39, 99, 104.
+  Ferdinand the Second, II. 107.
+  Ferdinand the Third (San Fernando), I. 128, 129, 250, 252, 276; II. 85;
+    III. 18.
+  Ferdinand the Sixth, III. 44, 240.
+  Ferdinand the Second of Aragon, I. 210.
+  Fernandez de Navarrete, III. 109 (note), 144, 199 (note), 235 (note),
+    237 _et seq._
+  Fernandez y Gonzalez, III. 17 (note).
+  Fez, III. 50.
+  Florez Estrada, III. 248.
+  Floridablanca, Count of, II. 177; III. 90, 91.
+  Fonseca, I. 80, 81.
+  Fonts, baptismal, II. 124, 125.
+  Ford, I. 40, 53, 56 (note), 59, 83 (note); II. 63 (note), 184 (note),
+    195, 196, 218, 219.
+  Fortuny, I. 171; II. 168, 174, 183.
+  Fouquet, II. 162.
+  Foz, Manuel, III. 83, 84, 93, 94.
+  Francés, Juan, I. 140 _et seq._
+  Francis the First, III. 123 (note).
+  Frisleva, Cristóbal, I. 273.
+  Fuero Viejo of Castile, the, III. 242 (note).
+
+  Gamero, Martin, III. 225, 251 (note).
+  Ganivet, III. 242.
+  García Llansó, II. 156 (note), 180, 198, 202 (note), 233.
+  Gates, bronze, I. 181.
+
+  Gayangos, Pascual de, I. 102, 104, 127, 155, 232; II. 24; III. 35,
+    71 (note), 135 (note).
+  Gelmirez, Bishop, I. 53, 54.
+  Gener, Pompeyo, III. 242.
+  George, Master, I. 61.
+  Gestoso, I. 72, 73 (note), 84 (note), 114 (note), 150 (note),
+    187 (note), 247 (note); II. 45 (note), 51 (note), 121 _et seq._,
+    136 _et seq._, 142 (note) _et seq._, 149 _et seq._, 152 (note)
+    _et seq._, 155, 187, 189, 198; III. 27, 221 _et seq._, 235 (note),
+    239, 240.
+  Giralda, the, I. 177 (note), 183, 186, 187; II. 77, 151.
+  Goblet d'Alviella, III. 71 (note).
+  Gomez Moreno, II. 56, 57, 65 (note), 155, 172 (note); III. 133.
+  Gonzalo de Cordova, I. 257, 258.
+  Goya, I. 113; III. 157.
+  Goyeneche, Juan, II. 250.
+  Granada, cloths of, III. 121 _et seq._
+  Granada, silk of, III. 149 _et seq._
+  Granada, the Alcaicería of, III. 49 _et seq._
+  Granada, the Ordinances of, I. 3, 4 (note), 135, 157, 158, 247 (note),
+    248; II. 27 _et seq._, 52.
+  _Granas treintenas_, III. 122.
+  Gricci, II. 213, 214.
+  Guadalajara, cloths of, III. 110, 112 _et seq._
+  Guadalete, the battle of, I. 30.
+  _Guadamacileros_, III. 226.
+  _Guadamacileros_ of Cordova, the, II. 42, 43.
+  _Guadameciles_, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Guarrazar, the treasure of, I. 16 _et seq._
+  Guise, Duke of, III. 71.
+  Gutierrez, Pedro, III. 145 _et seq._, 149, 150.
+
+  Hannibal, I. 7.
+  Harness for horses, war, I. 219, 220.
+  Henry, Master, II. 241, 242.
+  Henry the First, I. 68.
+  Henry the Second, III. 34 (note).
+  Henry the Eighth of England, III. 107.
+  Hernández, Gregorio, II. 68, 69.
+  Herranz, Francisco, II. 247.
+  Hita, Archpriest of, I. 67.
+  Hixem, II. 57.
+  Hübner, II. 115.
+  Hurtado de Mendoza, II. 23, 37.
+
+  Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, I. 35.
+  Ibn Alwardi, I. 31, 32.
+  Ibn Batutah, II. 162, 163.
+  Ibn Hayyan, I. 33, 34.
+  Ibn Hud, III. 36, 37.
+  Ibn Khaldoun, II. 22; III. 21, 33, 36.
+  Ibn Said, II. 163, 180; III. 33 _et seq._
+  Illiberis, I. 173, 174.
+  Inlay on steel and iron, gold, III. 208 _et seq._
+  Inns, furniture of Spanish, II. 30 _et seq._
+  Irving, Washington, I. 82; II. 170, 171.
+  Isabel Farnese, I. 274; II. 252.
+  Isabella the Catholic, I. 254; II. 16, 244 (note); III. 13, 14, 133,
+    161.
+  Isabella the Second, I. 25.
+  Isidore, Saint, I. 12 (note), 15, 27, 166 (note), 198, 201; II. 2, 7.
+
+  Jacquemart, II. 186.
+  _Jaeces colgantes_, I. 281, 282.
+  Jaen, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Jayme the First of Aragon ("the Conqueror"), I. 210 _et seq._; II. 101,
+    108; III. 5, 11, 18, 47 (note), 232.
+  Jewellery in Spain, Roman, I. 11, 12.
+  Jewellery, Moorish, I. 73 _et seq._
+  Jewellery, Morisco, I. 77 _et seq._
+  Jones, Owen, II. 171, 172 (note).
+  Jovellanos, III. 249.
+  Juana, Doña, III. 15.
+  Juan of Aragon, I. 212; II. 5.
+  Juan the First, I. 215; III. 13, 30, 227, 228.
+  Juan the Second, I. 130, 280 (note); III. 34.
+  Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.
+
+  Kersey, III. 122.
+  Keys of Seville, the, I. 126 _et seq._
+  Keys, Spanish, I. 124 _et seq._
+
+  Laborde, I. 7 _et seq._, 116 _et seq._, 133, 134, 266, 267; II. 34
+    _et seq._, 38 (note), 131 _et seq._, 182, 183, 194, 195, 200, 201,
+    203, 216, 254, 260; III. 44 _et seq._, 55, 67 _et seq._, 94 _et seq._,
+    108, 109, 122 _et seq._, 142, 143, 151, 152 (note), 168 _et seq._,
+    240 _et seq._
+  Lace, Spanish, III. 159 _et seq._
+  La Granja (or San Ildefonso), the glass factory of, II. 252 _et seq._;
+    III. 240.
+  La Higueruela, the battle of, I. 218.
+  Lalaing, III. 50.
+  Lambot, Diodonet, II. 249.
+  La Milanesa, III. 91, 105.
+  La Moncloa, the porcelain factory of, II. 219, 220.
+  Lampérez, Vicente, II. 62; III. 158 (note).
+  Lamps, Roman, I. 165 _et seq._
+  Lamps, ware, II. 116.
+  Lane-Poole, Stanley, II. 47, 48; III. 9 (note), 21 (note).
+  La Payessa, Joseph, III. 91, 92.
+  Larruga, II. 200, 213, 235, 251, 252; III. 66 (note), 111 (note), 118,
+    119 (note), 233 (note), 235 (note), 248, 249 (note).
+  Lasteyrie, I. 21.
+  _Latticinio_, II. 225, 261.
+  _Lazo_-work doors, II. 47, 58 _et seq._
+  Leather, Spanish decorative, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Lefort, III. 157.
+  Lenger, Antoine, III. 151.
+  León, the Synod of, III. 15.
+  Lerma, Duke of, I. 102, 103, 219, 220.
+  _Libros de Pasantía_, I. 72, 73.
+  Locks and keys, I. 135.
+  Lope de Vega, I. 86; II. 23 (note).
+  Lopez de Arenas, Diego, II. 51 _et seq._, 56.
+  Lugo, exhibition of, I. 41.
+  Luis de León, Fray, III. 99 (note).
+  Luna, Alvaro de, I. 189, 216.
+  Lustred pottery, Hispano-Moresque, II. 161 _et seq._
+
+  Machuca, Pedro, II. 57.
+  Madrid, the Gremios of, III. 45, 119, 120 (note).
+  Madrid, the National Museum, II. 58, 60, 79, 91, 94 _et seq._, 108;
+    III. 29.
+  Majolica ware, II. 165, 166.
+  _Manillas_, I. 78.
+  _Mantilla_, the, III. 164 _et seq._
+  Marckwart, the brothers, I. 273.
+  María Cristina, Queen, III. 249 (note).
+  María de Padilla, III. 141.
+  Marineus Siculus, I. 254; II. 180, 233, 234; III. 50.
+  Marmol, II. 169.
+  Martial, I. 199.
+  Martinez de la Mata, III. 48.
+  Martinez Guijarro, Fernan, II. 151, 152.
+  Martinez Montañes, II. 68.
+  Martin Hume, II. 113 (note).
+  Martin of Aragon, I. 212; III. 7.
+  Mary of England, II. 237.
+  Maskell, II. 97 _et seq._
+  _Medias lanas_, III. 123 (note).
+  Medina del Campo, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Medina, Pedro de, I. 55; II. 185.
+  Mélida, II. 167, 175 (note).
+  Mena, Alonso de, II. 69.
+  Menandro, Vicente, II. 246.
+  Mena, Pedro de, II. 69, 81.
+  Mendez Silva, I. 147, 284; II. 234, 255.
+  Mendoza, the _guión_ of Cardinal, I. 65.
+  Micerguillo, I. 273.
+  _Mimbar_ of the Mosque of Cordova, the, III. 213.
+  _Mimbar_, the, II. 22.
+  Mines, gold and silver, in Spain, I. 1 _et seq._
+  Mines of Spain, the iron, I. 123.
+  Miquel y Badía, II. 2 (note), 7 (note); III. 7, 8, 10, 18, 19, 22, 26,
+    47 (note), 70 (note), 133.
+  Moawia, II. 22.
+  Mocarabes, II. 54.
+  Mohammed the Third of Granada, I. 74.
+  Mondejar, the Marquis of, I. 286.
+  Monistrol, the Marquis of, II. 27.
+  Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, III. 184 (note).
+  Monte-Fuerte, the Marquis of, III. 149 (note).
+  Montoya, Alejo de, III. 206, 207.
+  Montserrat, II. 156.
+  Monzón, the Cortes of, III. 169.
+  Morales, Ambrosio de, I. 54, 55, 58 (note); II. 7 (note), 14, 41, 57,
+    58 (note), 100, 107, 108; III. 213.
+  Morel, Bartolomé, I. 183 _et seq._
+  Morella, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Moriscos, the, II. 29 (note); III. 40.
+  Moriscos, the expulsion of the, I. 80 _et seq._
+  Mosaic-work, Spanish, II. 128 _et seq._
+  Müntz, III. 138, 140 (note), 149, 155 (note), 156.
+  Murcia, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Murcia, silk of, III. 67 _et seq._, 103 _et seq._
+  Muza, I. 31, 34, 35.
+  Muzquiz, Miguel de, III. 92 (note).
+
+  Nails, decorative, I. 134, 135.
+  Napoleon, I. 141 (note).
+  Navagiero, III. 50.
+  Nebrija, II. 137.
+  Ney, Marshal, I. 56.
+  Nuevo Baztán, the glass-factory of, II. 250 _et seq._
+
+  Olivares, Damian de, III. 70.
+  Olivares, the Count-Duke of, III. 159.
+  Ollery, II. 205.
+  Onteniente, cloths of, III. 122, 124.
+  "Opening images," II. 107, 108.
+  Order of Preachers, the, III. 212.
+  Ordinances of Barcelona, the, III. 123.
+  Ordinances of Burgos, the, III. 233 (note).
+  Ordinances of Cordova, the, II. 43, 44.
+  Ordinances of Granada, the, I. 78, 79, 132, 133; II. 27 _et seq._, 52,
+    119 _et seq._, 125, 126; III. 39, 52 _et seq._, 121, 122.
+  Ordinances of Seville, the, II. 50 _et seq._; III. 31 (note).
+  Ordinances of Toledo, the, II. 52; III. 31, 225.
+  Ortiz de Zúñiga, I. 127, 128.
+  Ortiz, Lorenzo, III. 109, 117, 118.
+  Osma, II. 140 _et seq._, 160, 161 (note), 168, 183 _et seq._,
+    188 (note), 189.
+  Othman, the Caliph, III. 213.
+
+  Pacheco, II. 68.
+  Palencia, cloths of, III. 122.
+  _Pallia aquilinata_, III. 8.
+  _Pallia leonata_, III. 8.
+  _Pallia rotata_, III. 8, 18.
+  _Palmillas_, III. 122.
+  Pannemaker, William, III. 155, 156.
+  _Paños de Ras_, III. 139, 140, 152.
+  _Pardillos_, III. 122.
+  _Passo Honroso_, the, I. 218.
+  Pedro the Cruel, I. 270; II. 60, 61; III. 13, 37, 141, 221.
+  Pedro the Second, III. 227.
+  Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, I. 210 _et seq._; III. 30.
+  Pelayo, I. 43.
+  Petronius, I. 165.
+  Philip the First, I. 237, 238.
+  Philip the Second, I. 86, 129, 265, 280 (note); II. 69, 175, 236, 237;
+    III. 27, 40, 71, 107, 145, 149, 153.
+  Philip the Third, I. 241; III. 40.
+  Philip the Fourth, I. 102, 243; III. 41, 240, 245, 248.
+  Philip the Fifth, I. 274; II. 252; III. 43, 240.
+  Pinheiro da Veiga, II. 250; III. 33, 141 _et seq._
+  Pisano, Francesco Niculoso, II. 139, 140, 143 _et seq._
+  Pizarro, I. 257 _et seq._
+  Plato, I. 165.
+  Pliny, I. 166, 195, 201; II. 223 (note), 225 (note).
+  Poblet, the monastery of, II. 156.
+  _Poem of the Cid_, the, II. 45 (note).
+  Polybius, I. 201.
+  Ponz, II. 13, 62.
+  Porous pottery, II. 190 _et seq._
+  _Porrón_, the, II. 261.
+  Potosi, the silver mines of, I. 88.
+  Pottery, prehistoric Spanish, II. 111 _et seq._
+  _Primavera_, III. 8.
+  Procaccini, III. 151, 157.
+  Processional crosses, Spanish, I. 181, 182; III. 183, 184.
+  Procopius, I. 201.
+  _Psephosis fsefysa_, II. 135.
+  Ptolemy, I. 195.
+  Puente del Arzobispo ware, II. 186 _et seq._
+  Pulgar, Hernando del, II. 13, 23.
+  Pulpits, iron, I. 139 _et seq._
+  Pulpits, old Spanish, III. 211 _et seq._
+  _Punto de oro_, III. 163.
+
+  _Rácimos_, II. 54.
+  Ramírez de Arellano, I. 52, 84, 91 _et seq._, 145; II. 40, 42,
+    46 (note), 55 (note), 56 (note), 154; III. 131, 145 (note), 147.
+  Ramírez, Sancho, II. 160.
+  Rapiers, I. 259 _et seq._
+  Rassis, III. 2 _et seq._
+  Reboul, III. 91, 92 (note).
+  Recared, I. 20.
+  Recceswinth, I. 17.
+  _Red flandés_, III. 160.
+  _Rejas_, I. 141 _et seq._
+  _Relicarios_, I. 45 _et seq._
+  Renaissance, the, I. 95 _et seq._
+  _Reposteros_, II. 16 (note); III. 146 _et seq._, 153.
+  _Retablo_ of Gerona Cathedral, the, I. 63, 64.
+  _Retablos_, II. 82 _et seq._
+  _Ret Catalá_, III. 173.
+  Riaño, I. 9, 12, 13, 17, 40, 44, 47, 61 (note) _et seq._, 72, 88, 95,
+    107, 115, 123, 126 (note), 129, 139, 174, 179, 181, 185 (note);
+    II. 93 _et seq._, 118, 121, 123, 136, 153, 173, 177, 184, 186, 190,
+    191, 198, 199, 204 _et seq._, 213, 217, 225, 231, 232; III. 20, 23,
+    75, 126 (note), 128 _et seq._, 138, 139, 147 (note), 148, 154 (note),
+    161, 221, 254 _et seq._
+  Ricord, II. 203, 260 (note); III. 74, 75, 203.
+  Rico y Sinobas, II. 225, 228 _et seq._, 238, 259 (note); III. 240.
+  Riotinto, the mines of, I. 6.
+  Roderick, I. 30, II. 89.
+  Rodrigo, Maese, I. 217; II. 76.
+  Roldan, Pedro, II. 68, 69, 81.
+  Rosmithal, I. 37; III. 34 (note).
+  Roulière, Jean, III. 44, 45.
+  Rubens, III. 159.
+
+  Sagrado, Diego de, II. 70.
+  Saguntine ware, II. 114 _et seq._
+  Saint Ferdinand (_see_ Ferdinand the Third).
+  Saint Isidore, II. 117, 129, 134, 223 _et seq._; III. 1, 211.
+  Saint Isidro, diamonds of, II. 224, 225.
+  Saint Vincent Ferrer, III. 212, 229, 230.
+  _Samit_, III. 5, 6.
+  Sanchez, Martin, II. 73, 74, 77, 78.
+  Sancho the Fourth, III. 145.
+  Sancho the Great, I. 51.
+  Sandoval, Cardinal, III. 129, 130.
+  San Fernando, cloths of, III. 114.
+  San Isidro, the burial chest of, II. 13.
+  San Miguel in Excelsis, the legend of, III. 179 _et seq._
+  Santa Barbara, the tapestry factory of, III. 150 _et seq._, 156.
+  Santa Isabel, the tapestry factory of, III. 150 _et seq._, 156.
+  Santiago Cathedral, the treasure of, I. 53 _et seq._
+  Santiago, jet-work of, III. 182 _et seq._
+  Santas Creus, the monastery of, II. 156.
+  Sculpture in wood, Spanish, II. 68 _et seq._
+  Segovia, cloths of, III. 106 _et seq._, 122.
+  Segovia, woollens of, III. 117 _et seq._
+  Sentenach, III. 213.
+  Sepúlveda, the Fuero of, III. 106.
+  Serrano Fatigati, III. 127, 128.
+  Seville, the Ordinances of, I. 247; II. 50 _et seq._
+  Shields, Spanish, I. 207, 208, 239 _et seq._
+  Ships, silver, I. 65, 66.
+  Silk, Spanish, III. 38 _et seq._
+  _Sillerías_, II. 69 _et seq._
+  Silos, the Chronicle of the Monk of, II. 13 (note).
+  Sisenand, I. 29.
+  Sit, Ventura, II. 252.
+  Soria, cloths of, III. 106.
+  South Kensington Museum, the, II. 40, 53 (note), 97, 98, 121, 123, 184;
+    III. 161.
+  Stalactite decoration, II. 54.
+  Stirling, I. 138.
+  Strabo, I. 195, 196, 198, 200.
+  Street, I. 64 (note), 139.
+  Stuck family, the, III. 152.
+  Superstitions, Andalusian, I. 168, 169.
+  Susillo, II. 69.
+  Swinburne, I. 82, 104, 105, 168 (note), 172 (note), 235 (note),
+    240 (note), 274, 285 (note); II. 2 (note), 61 (note), 77 (note), 133,
+    155, 170, 193, 194, 224, 253, 257, 258, 261 (note); III. 47 (note),
+    66, 121, 168, 170, 184 (note).
+  Swinthila, I. 22, 29.
+  Swords, Spanish, I. 203 _et seq._, 239, 244 _et seq._
+  Swords, spurious Spanish, I. 265, 266.
+  Symonds, John Addington, I. 2; II. 67.
+
+  _Tabis_, III. 5, 6.
+  _Takcht_, the, II. 22.
+  Talavera de la Reina, pottery of, II. 186, 190 _et seq._, 198 _et seq._
+  Talavera de la Reina, silk of, III. 87.
+  Talavera de la Reina, the silk-factories of, III. 44 _et seq._
+  Tapestry, Spanish, III. 137 _et seq._
+  _Tardwahsh_, II. 18 (note).
+  Tarik, I. 31, 32, 34, 35.
+  Tarik's "table," I. 31 _et seq._; III. 212.
+  _Tartaricas_, III. 16, 17.
+  Tavira de Durango, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Teniers, III. 157.
+  Testaments, the Codex of the, II. 3 (note).
+  Thimbles, Moorish, I. 178, 179.
+  Throne of Don Martin, the silver, I. 60, 64, 65.
+  Tiles, Spanish, II. 136 _et seq._
+  _Tinajas_, II. 120 _et seq._, 195, 199; III. 55.
+  _Tiraz_, III. 1, 17, 20 _et seq._, 38.
+  Tirso de Molina, I. 282.
+  Toledo, silk of, III. 70 _et seq._
+  Toledo, the Ordinances of, II. 52.
+  Toledo, the trade-guilds of, III. 225.
+  Torreánaz, the Count of, III. 119 (note), 232, 233 (note), 252,
+    253 (note).
+  Torre del Oro, the, II. 140, 141.
+  Townsend, I. 95, 235 (note), 266, 275, 276 (note); II. 17, 25 (note),
+    33, 34, 176 (note), 215, 253, 254; III. 73, 74, 79 (note), 115 (note),
+    118 _et seq._, 151 (note), 165, 170, 182, 183 (note), 239, 240 (note),
+    250 _et seq._
+  Trade-guilds, Spanish, III. 221 _et seq._
+  Tramoyeres Blasco, Luis, III. 225 _et seq._
+  Triptych reliquaries, I. 60 _et seq._
+  Turismund, I. 29.
+
+  Ulloa, Martin de, III. 38 _et seq._, 47
+  Unamuno, III. 242.
+
+  Valencia, cloths of, III. 121.
+  Valencia, lace of, III. 169 _et seq._
+  Valencia, silk of, III. 66, 74 _et seq._
+  Valencia, the trade-guilds of, III. 225 _et seq._
+  Valencia, woollens of, III. 124, 125.
+  Valencia de Don Juan, the Count of, III. 27, 154 (note), 159, 183.
+  Valladar, II. 65 (note).
+  Valladolid, the Council of, III. 15.
+  Van der Goten, Adrian, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Cornelius, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Francisco, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Jacob, III. 150, 151.
+  Van der Goten, Jacob (the younger), III. 151.
+  Van Eyk, III. 156.
+  Vargas y Ponce, III. 168 (note).
+  Vargüeños, II. 27.
+  Vaucanson, III. 86 _et seq._
+  _Veintiseiseno_, cloths, III. 122.
+  _Velarte_, III. 122.
+  Velazquez, I. 102, 113; III. 150.
+  _Velón_, the, I. 167, 168.
+  Vergara, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Vermay, Jan, III. 154.
+  Victory, the Cross of, I. 41, 43.
+  Vigarny, Philip, II. 78 _et seq._
+  Villa-amil y Castro, I. 140 (note), 143 (note), 167; II. 111;
+    III. 182 _et seq._
+  Villalpando, Francisco de, I. 147, 148, 189.
+  Villamediana, the Count of, III. 135 (note).
+  Viollet-le-Duc, I. 211; II. 3 (note).
+  Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the, crown of the, III. 205 _et seq._
+  Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the mantle of the, III. 129, 130.
+  "Virgin of Battles," the, II. 104.
+  Visigothic jewellery, I. 15 _et seq._
+
+  Wallis, II. 164, 167, 168, 173, 174.
+  Washington Irving, I. 82; II. 170, 171.
+  Weathercocks, Moorish, I. 188.
+  Witiza, I. 276.
+  Woollens, Spanish, III. 105 _et seq._
+
+  Xelizes, III. 58 _et seq._
+
+  Young, Arthur, II. 262, 263; III. 171, 172.
+  Yusuf of Granada, I. 280 (note).
+
+  Zafra, Hernando de, II. 234.
+  Zaragoza, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Zaragoza, silk of, III. 103, 104.
+  Zarco del Valle, I. 87 (note), 141 (note), 148 (note); II. 71 (note),
+     245 (note), 247 (note); III. 7, 237.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+               PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as a misprint.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. 6: Cortes of Monzon -> Monzón
+  p. 8: _Almexia_ -> _Almexía_
+  p. 15: edging of the same; -> edging of the same;"
+  p. 33: Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib -> Al-Khattib
+  p. 37: in the form of a scarf. -> in the form of a scarf."
+  p. 48: il est en indiennne. -> indienne.
+  p. 51: qui croist assez prés -> près
+  p. 51: près de deux cens -> cent
+  p. 51: qui est une espece -> espèce
+  p. 51: Ses habitans -> habitants
+  p. 108: il y avoit autresfois -> autrefois
+  p. 109: quatre heures aprés -> après
+  p. 123: Chalons, Beziers, and Rheims -> Reims
+  p. 129: it to the church. -> it to the church."
+  p. 151: invitation John Vergoten -> Dergoten
+  p. 154: Madrid, the Pardo -> Prado
+  p. 165: Journal du Voyage d Espagne -> d'Espagne
+  p. 166: de rubans à l'extremité -> l'extrémité
+  p. 166: sur la tête attachée -> attachés
+  p. 167: autre les divers dégrés -> degrés
+  p. 167: elle ne depasse -> dépasse
+  p. 200: inscription, _Aeternum_ -> Æternum
+  p. 217: Sebastian. Early -> Early.
+  p. 217: Madrid. Cutler; a native -> native of
+  p. 217: early life in Flanders -> Flanders.
+  p. 220: Sosa, -> Sosa
+  p. 242: maxims of our Christain -> Christian
+  p. 243: through the market, -> through the market,'
+  p. 245: that they were "toûjours -> "toujours
+  p. 249: in the royal _cédula_ -> _cedula_
+  p. 262: Die Kleinodien des heil -> heil.
+  p. 262: Nation, nebst den Kroninsignen -> Kroninsignien
+  p. 264: la buena gouernacion -> governacion
+  p. 264: que los Mvy Ilvstres -> Muy Ilustres
+  p. 264: mandaron gvardar -> guardar
+  p. 264: gouernacion -> governacion
+  p. 264: se han bvelto -> buelto
+  p. 273: III. 131, 16 -> 168
+  p. 276: Granada, cloths of, -> Granada, cloths of, III.
+  p. 276: Juni, Juan de, 68, 69. -> Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.
+  p. 280: Sepulveda -> Sepúlveda
+  p. 281: 20 _et seq._; III. -> 20 _et seq._,
+  p. 281: 276 (note), -> 276 (note); II.
+  p. 282: Veintiseseno -> Vientiseiseno
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44393 ***
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44393 ***</div>
+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume
+III (of 3), by Leonard Williams</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm">Volume I</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm">Volume II</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm
+      <a href="">
+      </a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="345" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a>
+        <p class="caption">"THE GRAPE-GATHERERS"<br />
+        (<i>Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya. El Escorial</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;"><br /><br />The World of Art Series</span></p>
+
+<h1>The Arts and Crafts<br />
+of Older Spain</h1>
+
+<p class="title">BY<br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 150%;">LEONARD WILLIAMS</span><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy, of<br />
+the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the<br />
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts; Author<br />
+Of &ldquo;The Land of the Dons&rdquo;; &ldquo;Toledo and<br />
+Madrid&rdquo;; &ldquo;Granada,&rdquo; etc.</span><br /><br />
+
+<i>IN THREE VOLUMES, ILLUSTRATED</i><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">VOLUME III</span><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_03.jpg" width="100" height="99"
+        alt="title-symbol"
+        title="title-symbol" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">CHICAGO<br />
+A. C. McCLURG &amp; CO.</span><br />
+EDINBURGH: T. N. FOULIS<br />
+1908<br /><br /><br />
+AMERICAN EDITION<br />
+Published October 10, 1908</p>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME THREE</h2>
+
+<h3>TEXTILE FABRICS</h3>
+
+<table summary="TOC" cellpadding="4">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGES</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#INTRODUCTION"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">1&ndash;38</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#SPANISH_SILK"><span class="smcap">Spanish Silk</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">38&ndash;105</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#CLOTHS_AND_WOOLLENS"><span class="smcap">Cloths and Woollens</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">105&ndash;125</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#EMBROIDERY"><span class="smcap">Embroidery</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">125&ndash;137</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#TAPESTRY"><span class="smcap">Tapestry</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">137&ndash;159</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#LACE"><span class="smcap">Lace</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">159&ndash;175</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><hr class="hr65" /></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><a href="#APPENDICES"><span class="smcap">Appendices</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">177&ndash;258</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">259&ndash;268</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">271&ndash;282</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><i>VOLUME THREE</i></p>
+
+<table summary="LOI" cellpadding="2">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">TEXTILE FABRICS</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">PLATE</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Grape-Gatherers&rdquo;; Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya; El Escorial</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">I.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Banner of Las Navas&rdquo;; Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_22.jpg">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">II.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Fragment of the Burial Mantle of Ferdinand the Third; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_26.jpg">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">III.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">King Alfonso the Learned; from &ldquo;The Book of Chess,&rdquo; MS. in the Escorial Library</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_28.jpg">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Velvet; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1500</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_30.jpg">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">V.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Tunic of Boabdil el Chico; National Museum of Artillery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_36.jpg">36</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Banner of Saint Ferdinand&rdquo;; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_40.jpg">40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Velvet made at Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_56.jpg">56</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VIII.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Daughters of Philip the Second; Prado Gallery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_98.jpg">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Charra</i> or Peasant Woman of Salamanca, in the year 1777</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_102.jpg">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">X.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Priest's Robe; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1500</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_118.jpg">118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Priest's Robe; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1500</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_120.jpg">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Chasuble; Palencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_122.jpg">122</a></td>
+  </tr>  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Case of Processional Cross; Toledo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_124.jpg">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Front</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_126.jpg">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Front; Toledo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_128.jpg">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Front; Palencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_130.jpg">130</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Fronts; Palencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_132.jpg">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Costume of Woman of the Balearic Islands; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1810</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_134.jpg">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Genesis Tapestry&rdquo;; Gerona Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_138.jpg">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Tapiz</i> of Crimson Velvet worked in gold tissue; Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_144.jpg">144</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Spinners,&rdquo; by Velazquez; Prado Gallery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_148.jpg">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Tapestry made at Brussels from Granada Silk</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_150.jpg">150</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;A Promenade in Andalusia&rdquo;; Cartoon for Tapestry, by Goya</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_152.jpg">152</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Tapestry; Arras-Work, from Italian Cartoons; Zamora Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_156.jpg">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXV.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Flemish Tapestry; Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_158.jpg">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Marchioness of La Solana, by Goya</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_160.jpg">160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A Spanish <i>Maja</i>; <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1777</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_162.jpg">162</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Maja</i>, by Goya</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_164.jpg">164</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A Lady of Soria; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1810</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_166.jpg">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Handkerchief of Catalan Lace, presented to Queen Victoria of Spain on her marriage</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_168.jpg">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Curtain of Spanish Lace; Point and Pillow Work, modern</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_170.jpg">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Point Lace Fan, of Mudejar Design, modern</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_172.jpg">172</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>TEXTILE FABRICS</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></h3>
+
+<p>Our earliest intelligence respecting textile fabrics
+of old Spain derives almost exclusively from
+Moorish sources, and shows, together with the
+silence of Saint Isidore, that until the subjugation
+of the Visigoths, the occupants of the Peninsula
+attached no great importance to this industry.
+Under the Moors, the south and east of Spain
+grew rapidly famous for the manufacture of all
+kinds of textile stuffs, and in particular those of
+silk. The origin of these silks, or of the most
+luxurious and artistic of them, may be traced to
+Almería. According to Al-Makkari, what made
+this Andalusian capital superior to all other cities
+of the world was her &ldquo;various manufactures of
+silks and other dress materials, such as the <i>dibaj</i>,
+a silken fabric of many colours, surpassing, both
+in quality and durability, all other products made
+elsewhere, and also the <i>tiraz</i>, a costly stuff whereon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+are inscribed the names of sultans, princes, and
+other personages, and for making which there used
+to be no fewer than eight hundred looms. Inferior
+fabrics were the <i>holol</i> (a kind of striped silk), and
+brocades woven upon a thousand looms, while as
+many more were employed continually in making
+the scarlet stuffs called <i>iskalaton</i>. Another
+thousand produced the robes called <i>al jorjani</i> (or
+&lsquo;the Georgian&rsquo;), and yet another thousand the
+Isbahani robes, from Isfahan, and yet another
+thousand the robes of Atabi. The making of
+damask for gay-coloured curtains and turbans for
+the women kept busy as many persons as the
+articles above-mentioned.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Edrisi, a chronicler of the twelfth century, says
+of the same capital that she was the principal city
+belonging to the Moors in the time of the Moravides.
+In fact, she was then a great and prosperous
+industrial centre, possessing, together with other
+kinds of looms, eight hundred which produced the
+fabrics known as <i>holla</i>, <i>debady</i>, <i>siglaton</i>, <i>espahani</i>,
+and <i>djordjani</i>, curtains with a flowered decoration,
+cloths of a smaller size, and the stuffs which were
+denominated <i>attabi</i> and <i>mi djar</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A similar notice is contained in the <i>Chronicle
+of Rassis the Moor</i>. Referring to the end of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+tenth century, this author wrote that &ldquo;Almería is
+the key of profit and of all prosperity. Within
+her walls dwell cunning weavers who produce
+in quantities magnificent silken cloths inwoven
+with gold thread.&rdquo; Other important centres of
+this trade and craft were Málaga, Baeza, Alicante,
+Seville, and Granada. Rassis wrote of Málaga:
+&ldquo;She has a fertile territory, wherein is made
+the finest <i>sirgo</i> in the world. From here they
+trade in it with every part of Spain. Here too
+is made the finest of all linens, and that which the
+women best esteem.&rdquo; Of Baeza he wrote: &ldquo;She
+manufactures excellent and famous silken cloths
+of the kind which are called <i>tapetes</i>&rdquo;; and of
+Alicante, &ldquo;This city lies in the Sierra de Benalcatil,
+which in its turn is situated in the midst of
+other ranges containing prosperous towns where
+silken cloths of finest quality were made in other
+days; and the weavers of these cloths were skilled
+exceedingly.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Málaga is described by the Cordovese historian
+Ash Shakandi (thirteenth century) as &ldquo;famous for
+its manufactures of silks of every colour and design,
+some of them so costly that a suit is sold for
+thousands; such are the brocades of beautiful
+pattern, inwoven with the names of caliphs, emirs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+and other wealthy personages&hellip;. As at Málaga
+and Almería, there are at Murcia several manufactories
+of silken cloth called <i>al washiu thalathat</i>,
+or &lsquo;the variegated.&rsquo; This town is also celebrated
+for the carpets called <i>tantili</i>, which are exported
+to all countries of the east and west, as well as for
+a sort of bright-coloured mat with which the
+Murcians cover the walls of their houses.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Illiberia or Illiberis, believed to
+have been situated not far from where is nowadays
+Granada, is described in Rassis' chronicle as &ldquo;a
+city great and flourishing by reason of the quantity
+of silk that she exports to every part of Spain.
+She lies at sixty thousand paces distance from,
+and on the southward side of Cordova, and six
+thousand paces from, and to the north of the
+Frozen Sierra&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> the Sierra Nevada).</p>
+
+<p>Another chronicle&mdash;that of El Nubiense, who
+visited Spain towards the twelfth century&mdash;states
+that in the kingdom of Jaen alone were six
+hundred towns which produced and carried on a
+trade in silk.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing extracts show that under the
+Spanish Moors the manufacture of textile fabrics
+attained in mediæval times a very great importance.
+It is also certain that during the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+period the textile fabrics in use among the Christian
+Spaniards were strongly and continually influenced,
+and even to a large extent produced, by Spanish
+Moors, while, as the Moorish cities fell into the
+power of the enemy, the Christian rulers encouraged
+their newly-sworn Mohammedan lieges
+to prosecute this industry with unabated zeal. A
+privilege is extant which was granted by Jayme
+the Conqueror in the year 1273, to a Moor named
+Ali and his sons Mohammed and Bocaron, empowering
+these artificers to manufacture silk and
+cloth of gold at Jativa, in the kingdom of
+Valencia. The fabrics produced by Mussulman
+weavers such as these, found ready purchase with
+the wealthier classes of the Christian Spaniards.
+The dress and other materials thus elaborated
+possessed a great variety of names, whose meaning
+cannot always be determined at the present
+day. Among the fabrics most in vogue were
+those denominated <i>samit</i> (also <i>xamed</i> or <i>examitum</i>),
+<i>ciclaton</i>, <i>tabis</i> or <i>atabi</i>, <i>zarzahan</i>, <i>fustian</i> or
+<i>fustan</i>, <i>cendal</i> or <i>sendat</i>, <i>camelote</i> (also <i>chamelote</i>
+or <i>xamellot</i>), <i>drap imperial</i>, and <i>bougran</i> (also
+<i>bouckram</i>, <i>buckram</i>), stated by Dr Bock to be
+derived from Bokhara, and which was of a quality
+far superior to the buckram of more modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+times. These Saracenic or semi-Saracenic stuffs
+were manufactured from an early period, but
+modern experts are not agreed as to their character.
+Miquel y Badía and some other authorities
+believe that <i>samit</i> was a costly material which was
+sometimes coloured green, and shot with gold or
+silver thread. Others believe it to have been a
+kind of velvet. In either case it is known to have
+been used for shrouding the bodies of the wealthy.
+<i>Ciclaton</i> was a strong though flexible material used
+for robes and also for wall-hangings. <i>Tabis</i> or
+<i>atabi</i> was a kind of taffeta, and probably consisted,
+as a general rule, of silk, though sometimes it
+was mixed with cotton. <i>Chamelot</i> was an oriental
+fabric of rich silk, coloured white, black, or grey.
+It is mentioned, together with velvets, taffetas,
+and <i>cendal</i> or <i>sendat</i> (another silken stuff) in a law
+passed by the Cortes of Monzón in 1375, and
+which is quoted in Capmany's <i>Memorias</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Fustian
+is thought to have been first produced in Egypt.
+It was woven of thread or cotton, and was
+largely used in England from at least as early as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+the twelfth century. From about the same time
+buckram was also popular in northern countries.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the fourteenth century a number of
+other costly stuffs began to be made in various
+quarters of the civilized world, including Spain.
+Among these fabrics were <i>zatonin</i> or <i>zatony</i>
+(perhaps the same as <i>zetani</i>, <i>aceituni</i>, or <i>aceytoni</i>&mdash;that
+is, satin), several kinds of <i>drap d'aur</i> or cloth
+of gold, several kinds of velvet, <i>sarga</i> or serge,
+and <i>camocas</i>, which is stated by Miquel y Badía
+to have been a strong material used for lining
+curtains, coats of mail, etc.  The same writer
+observes that the stuff called by the name <i>zatonin</i>
+and its variations is the same as the Castilian raso
+and the Catalan <i>setí</i> or <i>satí</i>, a favourite though
+expensive and luxurious fabric in the fourteenth
+and succeeding centuries.  Under the name
+<i>aceytoni</i> it is mentioned in a work in the Catalan
+language titled <i>Croniques d'Espanya</i>, by Pedro
+Miguel Carbonell, in which we read that at
+the coronation of Don Martin of Aragon this
+monarch's consort, Doña María, was &ldquo;dressed in
+white cloth of gold and a long mantle &hellip; and
+rode upon a white horse covered with trappings
+of white <i>aceytoni</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Miquel y Badía has discovered the names of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+other fabrics which are known from documentary
+evidence to have been used in older Spain, and
+which were called <i>aducar</i>, <i>alama</i>, <i>tela de nacar</i>,
+<i>primavera</i> or <i>primavert</i>, <i>almexia</i>, <i>picote</i>, and
+<i>velillo</i>. It is probable that <i>alama</i> and <i>tela de
+nacar</i> had silver interwoven with their texture.
+The <i>primavera</i> or &ldquo;spring fabric&rdquo; was so named
+from the flowers which adorned it. <i>Almexía</i> is
+mentioned in the <i>Chronicle of the Cid</i>. It was a
+costly and elaborate stuff, and is believed by
+Miquel to have taken its title from the city of
+Almería. <i>Picote</i> was a kind of satin manufactured
+in the island of Majorca, and <i>velillo</i> a thin, delicate
+fabric decorated with flowers and with silver thread.</p>
+
+<p>The devices on all these stuffs were very varied.
+Prominent types among them were the <i>pallia
+rotata</i>, containing circles which are commonly combined
+with other ornament, the <i>pallia aquilinata</i>,
+in which the dominant motive was the eagle, and
+the <i>pallia leonata</i>, in which it was the lion. Other
+beasts, birds, and monsters were also figured with
+great frequency, such as griffins, peacocks, swans,
+crows, bulls, tigers, or dogs; but the emblem
+most in favour, especially throughout the tenth,
+eleventh, and twelfth centuries, was the eagle,
+owing to the numerous and illustrious qualities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+attributed to it, such as majesty, victory, valour,
+and good omen. These creatures, too, were
+frequently represented face to face or back to
+back, in pairs; nor were they so disposed in textile
+fabrics only, but on ivory, wood, or silver caskets,
+and on numerous other objects, as well as on the
+painted friezes of a place of worship.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>The colours of these fabrics also varied very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+greatly. That which was most admired was probably
+red, crimson, or carmine, used by preference
+as a ground, with the pattern inwoven or super-woven
+in gold, silver, or otherwise. Velvets, too,
+were not invariably in monochrome, but would contain
+two or three colours such as purple, crimson,
+blue, or yellow, besides gold and silver. Miquel
+y Badía mentions a magnificent velvet pluvial in
+gold and three colours, belonging to a church in
+Cataluña. The following observations are by the
+same authority, who himself possesses a valuable
+collection of early textile fabrics, many of which
+are Spanish. &ldquo;The same prevailing colours are
+found in the Mudejar textile fabrics as in those
+of the Spanish Moors&mdash;the same ground of red
+inclining to carmine, of dark blue, or of bluish
+green, with a pattern in yellow, green, blue, or
+red, according to the colour which combines with
+it. I have seen copies of Mudejar stuffs in which
+there is no white, because this was wanting in the
+fragments which the copying artist had before
+him. And it is a fact that from some cause,
+which we cannot now determine, white silk is that
+which disappears soonest from among the textile
+fabrics of the Spanish Moors and Mudejares, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+that by far the greater part of them contain no
+white at all, or only traces of it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In Spain these handsome stuffs were used by all
+the wealthier classes, and some idea of their prevalence
+and popularity may be formed from the
+voluminous mass of sumptuary laws which deal
+with them at almost every stage of Spanish history.
+Thus, an edict of Jayme the First of Aragon
+established, in the year 1234, that neither the
+monarch nor any of his subjects were to decorate
+their clothes with gold and silver, or fasten their
+cloaks with gold or silver clasps. The <i>Ordenamiento</i>
+of Alfonso the Tenth, subscribed at Seville,
+February 27th, 1256, provides that no woman is
+to carry <i>aljofar</i>-work, trim her dress with gold or
+silver, or wear a <i>toca</i> decorated with those metals,
+but only a plain white one, the price of which is
+not to exceed three <i>maravedis</i>. It is also provided
+by this edict that on the celebration of a
+wedding, the cost of the bridal clothes must not
+exceed sixty <i>maravedis</i>, nor may the number of
+guests who sit down to the marriage banquet
+exceed five women and five men, besides the
+witnesses of the ceremony and relatives of the
+bride and bridegroom. This absurd law was so
+extensively neglected that two years later the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+Cortes of Valladolid took up the matter afresh,
+and even resolved that the expenses of the king's
+table, without the cost of his invited guests, were
+not to exceed a daily total of a hundred and fifty
+<i>maravedis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1286 the Council of Cordova decreed
+that knights and squires, upon the celebration of
+their marriage, were not to present their brides
+with more than two dresses, one of these to be of
+scarlet, without trimming of ermine or grey fur, or
+decoration of gold, silver, or <i>aljofar</i>. A law of
+Alfonso the Eleventh, dated May 6th, 1338, proclaimed
+that the women of the upper classes were
+not to clothe themselves in any silken fabric decorated
+with gold thread. Similar restrictions
+were laid upon the other sex. &ldquo;No man, whatever
+be his condition (excepting only Us, the
+King), shall wear cloth of gold, or silk, or any
+stuff adorned with gold lace, <i>aljofar</i>, or any other
+trimming, or with enamel: only his cloak may
+bear <i>aljofar</i> pearl-work, or fillets without pearls.&rdquo;
+Other dispositions signed by the same monarch
+show that the Spaniards of his time were in the
+habit of wearing costly cloth adorned with gold
+and silver, pearls, gold buttons, enamel, and other
+ornament, while even the squires wore furs and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+gilded shoes. The <i>ricos-hombres</i> loaded their
+saddles with gold and with <i>aljofar</i>-work, and their
+wives were licensed to bear on each of their
+dresses the same <i>aljofar</i>-work or strings of tiny
+pearls, to the value of four thousand <i>maravedis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Provisions of the same tenor are contained in
+the prolix sumptuary pragmatic of Pedro the
+Cruel, signed in the year 1351 at Valladolid, as
+well as in that of Juan the First, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1385, which
+ordained, together with other vexatious prohibitions,
+that &ldquo;neither man nor woman, whatever be
+their condition or estate, shall wear cloth of gold
+or any silk-stuff, gold or silver <i>aljofar</i>, or other
+precious stones, excepting the Infante and Infantas,
+who may wear whatever pleases them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The extravagance of Isabella the Catholic in
+dress and personal adornment generally, was illustrated
+in an earlier chapter of this work. A
+further instance is recorded by Clemencin. According
+to this chronicler, in 1476 and 1477,
+upon her reception at Alcalá of two embassies
+from France, the queen was dressed in a magnificent
+robe, which drew upon her a sharp rebuke
+from her confessor, the virtuous and austere
+Hernando de Talavera. From this charge Isabella
+defended herself with more spirit than truthfulness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+&ldquo;Neither myself nor my ladies,&rdquo; she
+wrote in her letter of reply, &ldquo;were dressed in new
+apparel. All that I wore on this occasion I had
+already worn in Aragon, and the French themselves
+had seen me wearing it. I only used one
+robe at all, and that of silk with three marks
+of gold, the plainest I could find: in this was all
+my festival. I say this much in that my clothing
+was not new; nor did we deem that error could
+dwell therein.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Although their own extravagance is past all
+question, on September 30th, 1499, Ferdinand
+and his consort issued a proclamation at Granada,
+in which it was commanded that &ldquo;no persons shall
+wear clothing of brocade, or silk, or silk <i>chamelote</i>,
+or <i>zarzahan</i>, or taffeta, or carry linings of the same
+upon the trappings of their horses, or upon hoods,
+or the straps and scabbards of their swords, or
+bits, or saddles, or <i>alcorques</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> &hellip; nor shall they
+wear embroidered silk-stuffs decorated with gold
+plates, whether such gold be drawn or hammered,
+spun to a thread, or interwoven with the fabric.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These prohibitions, or others of their import,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+were ratified by Doña Juana at the Cortes of
+Burgos, and, in 1533, by Charles the Fifth at
+Valladolid. In 1551 the Emperor again prohibited
+&ldquo;all brocaded stuffs, or gold or silver cloth,
+whether embroidered or enriched with gold or
+silver thread, or bound with cord or edging of
+the same;&rdquo; and a royal edict of January 12th,
+1611, forbade the wearing of brocade and every
+other costly stuff to all except the clergy and the
+military.</p>
+
+<p>The clergy, indeed, had always been notorious
+for extravagance, and not a few of all these
+sumptuary laws are aimed specifically at them.
+In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1228 the Council of Valladolid prohibited
+the use by priests of sleeved robes, or gilded
+saddles, bits, spurs, or poitrels. In 1267 the
+Synod of León repeated these prohibitions, further
+insisting that the garments of the clergy, besides
+being sleeveless, were not to be red or green, and
+were to have a moderate length (&ldquo;<i>non muy largas,
+non muy cortas</i>&rdquo;), and that their cloaks were not
+to fasten with a clasp or cord; these regulations
+to be rigidly adhered to <i>en sennal de honestidat</i>&mdash;&ldquo;as
+a sign of honesty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We also know that at this time (thirteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+century) the shirts of many of the wealthier
+Spaniards were woven of finest linen imported from
+the East, embroidered and picked out with gold and
+silver thread, and that the clergy were at least the
+equals of the laity in their craze for costly clothing.
+In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1273, an inventory was made of the effects
+belonging to Don Gonzalo Palomeque, on his
+election to the bishopric of Cuenca. It mentions
+<i>almadraques</i> and Murcian <i>tapetes</i>, <i>carpitas viadas</i>
+from Tlemcen, fine Murcian blankets (<i>alhamares</i>),
+silk <i>xamedes</i>, Murcian matting for covering walls
+and daïses (&ldquo;<i>para paret et para estrado</i>&rdquo;), and
+stuffs from Syria. Another inventory, that of Don
+Gonzalo Gudiel, archbishop of Toledo, is dated
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1280, and mentions, as included with his
+property, quantities of oriental fabrics which are
+designated by the general name <i>tartaricas</i>.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+Among them were &ldquo;unus pannus operatus ad
+aves de auro et campus de serica viridi, item unus
+alius pannus tartaricus cum campo de seta alba et
+vite aurea, item unus pannus tartaricus de seta<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+rubea cum pinis aureis, item unus pannus tartaricus
+de seta viridi.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>A number of mediæval textile fabrics, some in
+fragments, some intact, have been preserved in
+Spanish private collections or museums. It is,
+however, seldom easy to determine whether they
+were made in this Peninsula, or whether in Sicily,
+Byzantium, Venice, or the East. Among the
+most remarkable of all these interesting specimens
+are, a strip which was extracted from the
+mausoleum of a Spanish bishop, Don Bernardo
+Calbó, a native of Vich in Cataluña, and which is
+now in the museum of that town; other fragments
+in the same collection, including one of <i>holosericum</i>
+or pure silk, which was formerly in the neighbouring
+church of San Juan de las Abadesas, and is
+commonly known as the <i>pallium</i> or altar front &ldquo;of
+the witches&rdquo; (owing to certain beasts or monsters
+figuring in the design), a Moorish <i>tiraz</i>, now in
+the Academy of History at Madrid, the celebrated
+Moorish &ldquo;banner of the battle of Las
+Navas,&rdquo; now in the Monastery of Santa María la
+Real de las Huelgas at Burgos, the banner (also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+Moorish) of the battle of the River Salado, the
+chasubles &ldquo;of the Constable&rdquo; and of Chiriana, preserved
+respectively at Burgos and at Caravaca,
+a fragment, preserved in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid, of the shroud of Ferdinand the Third, and
+the Moorish clothing of the son of the same King
+Ferdinand, the Infante Don Felipe, and of Felipe's
+second wife, Doña Leonor Ruiz de Castro.</p>
+
+<p>The strip of woven material found in the
+sepulchre of Bishop Calbó, who is said to have
+accompanied Don Jayme the Conqueror in the
+conquest of Valencia (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1238), is described by
+Miquel y Badía as belonging to the class denominated
+<i>pallia rotata</i>&mdash;that is, with circles forming
+part of their design,&mdash;and dates most probably
+from the twelfth century; but it is impossible to
+say whether it was manufactured in the East, or
+whether at Valencia or some other Spanish town.
+The same remark applies to other fragments which
+are also, as I stated, in the Vich Museum. The
+one discovered in the tomb of Bishop Calbó contains,
+coloured in green, grey, and black upon a
+carmine ground, a decorative scheme of circles,
+flowers, and gryphons or other monsters in pairs,
+<i>affrontés</i>, and also, within the circles, the figure of
+a man grappling with two lions, tigers, dogs, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+other beasts, and who is believed to represent
+Samson or Daniel&mdash;more probably the latter.
+Miquel y Badía points out that in this fragment
+the figure of the man recalls Egyptian art, suggested
+by his curious head-dress, and by the
+crossing of his clothes upon his breast.</p>
+
+<p>Another textile fragment in the same collection
+is coloured black, red, and grey upon a yellowish
+ground. It is decorated with long-tailed birds
+resembling peacocks, and with sphinxes which fill
+the circles or medallions. A third fragment, also
+in the Vich Museum, belongs to the type of <i>pallia
+cum aquilis et bestiolis</i>. The design consists of a
+double-headed eagle with half-extended wings,
+holding in the claws of either foot some kind of
+quadruped&mdash;perhaps a bull. The colour of the
+ground resembles carmine, and on it the design is
+wrought in greenish black&mdash;that may have been
+originally green&mdash;relieved at intervals with yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;witches'&rdquo; <i>pallium</i> in the same collection
+is decorated with the series of extraordinary
+beasts or monsters that have won for it this title
+with the vulgar, depicted in yellow, white, black,
+and dark green upon a red ground. Miquel
+believes this fabric to proceed from Byzantium,
+and to date from not much earlier than the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+eleventh century. The devices are disposed in
+two rows, the lower containing peacocks <i>affrontés</i>,
+and the upper a series of fantastic monsters, each
+of which possesses a head, two bodies, and four
+feet&mdash;the head being semi-human, semi-bestial, the
+double body that of a bird, and the claws those
+of a lion or some other formidable quadruped.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal Academy of History at Madrid
+possesses a fragment of the costly fabric known as
+<i>tiraz</i>, an eastern word (corrupted by the Spaniards
+into <i>taracea</i>, <i>i.e.</i> embroidery on clothing), which
+means the bordering for a royal robe. Such
+bordering, which contained inscriptions, or the
+sultan's name, or both together, is said to have
+been first used in Spain by Abderrahman the
+Second, who ruled from <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 825 to 852. &ldquo;The
+caliphs of Cordova,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;had a place set
+apart in their palaces where this stuff was kept:
+this custom lasted until the eleventh century, when
+it disappeared, and was re-established in the thirteenth
+century with the kings of Granada.&rdquo; <i>Tiraz</i>,
+in fact, was both produced and stored in special
+departments of the Sultan's palaces<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>; or so we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+must infer from the following passage by Ibn-Khaldun.
+&ldquo;The places (<i>almedinas</i>) where these
+stuffs were woven were situated within the palaces
+of the caliphs, and were known as the &lsquo;pavilions
+of the <i>tiraz</i>.&rsquo; The person at the head of these
+workshops was called the superintendent of the
+<i>tiraz</i>: he had charge of both the weavers and the
+looms, administered the salaries, and looked to the
+quality of the work. This post was entrusted by
+the princes to one of the foremost officers of their
+kingdom, or else to some freedman who thoroughly
+deserved their confidence.&rdquo; The same historian
+adds that the manufacture of <i>tiraz</i> was conducted
+in Spain in the same manner as in the East
+under the dynasty of the Ommeyades. It is,
+however, certain that among the Spanish Moors
+<i>tiraz</i> was not produced exclusively in royal
+factories. Al-Makkari states that in the time of
+the Somadies and the Almoravides there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+looms at Nerja (and possibly at Almería) for
+weaving this luxurious fabric, as well as <i>holas</i>, a
+fine brocade, heavily embroidered, and adorned
+with figures representing the caliphs and other
+personages. In the time of the Almoravides
+there were at Almería as many as a thousand
+factories for making <i>holas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The piece of <i>tiraz</i> which belongs to the Spanish
+Academy of History measures about a yard and a
+half in length by eighteen inches wide. Riaño
+describes it as of wool, embroidered in silks with
+&ldquo;seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady,
+lions, birds, and quadrupeds&rdquo;; but after carefully
+examining it I cannot but agree with Miquel y
+Badía that this fabric is woven throughout of pure
+silk, without the slightest trace of hand-embroidery.
+It has two borders containing these inscriptions in
+Cufic letters: &ldquo;In the name of God, the clement,
+the merciful. (May) the blessing of God and
+happiness (be) for the Caliph Iman Abdallah
+Hixem, the favoured of God and prince of believers.&rdquo;
+This monarch, second of the name,
+reigned at the end of the tenth century and early
+in the eleventh, and the <i>tiraz</i> we are noticing was
+found in a casket on the altar of a church at San
+Esteban de Gormaz, in the province of Soria.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+As Riaño suggests, it was very probably a war
+trophy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_22.jpg" width="360" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_22.jpg" id="img_22.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">I<br />THE &ldquo;BANNER OF LAS NAVAS&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Monastery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas, Burgos</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another most interesting example of Saracenic
+textile work is the so-called &ldquo;banner of Las Navas&rdquo;
+(Plate <a href="#img_22.jpg">i</a>.), which popular tradition affirms to
+have been captured (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1212) in the memorable
+battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, between the
+Almohades and the Spanish Christians. Most
+experts now consider that this object is not a
+military ensign, but a curtain or some other
+hanging for a tent or doorway. The material is
+<i>sirgo</i> or silken serge, and both the decoration
+and the workmanship are purely Moorish. The
+design is rich and intricate throughout, consisting
+of scrolls, leaves, stems, and inscriptions from
+the Koran, disposed with exquisite effect about
+the principal and central motive, formed by a
+large eight-pointed star within a circle, and
+which contains, so as to form the angles of the
+star, eight repetitions of the words in Arabic, &ldquo;<i>The
+Empire</i>.&rdquo; The dominant colour is carmine, and
+the fabric terminates in eight <i>farpas</i> or scallops
+with red and yellow edges, and bearing a series
+of inscriptions in the African character.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;<i>pendon</i> of the Rio Salado,&rdquo; a trophy which
+seems to have really been a war-flag, belongs to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+the cathedral of Toledo. It measures at this day
+about nine feet two inches by seven feet four
+inches, but is believed to have been originally of a
+square form, with scalloped edges. The dominant
+colours are red, green, and gold. The decorative
+scheme consists of tastefully combined circles and
+inscriptions in the Cufic character, and the lower
+end concludes in the following sentences, now
+rendered incomplete through the loss of nearly
+two feet of the material:&mdash;&ldquo; &hellip; the wise, the
+victorious, the assiduous, the generous, the sultan,
+the caliph, the famous emir of the Muslims and
+representative of the Lord of the Universe, Abu-Said
+Otsmin, son of our lord and master &hellip;
+the worshipper of (Allah), the modest, the warlike,
+the emir of the Mussulmans Nassir-li-Din
+(<i>defender of the law</i>), Abu Yusuf Yacub, son
+of Abd-il-Hac. In the Alcázar of Fez (God
+bless it. Praised be God), in the Moon of
+Moharran of the year twelve and seven hundred&rdquo;
+(712 of the Hegira, or May 9th&ndash;June 7th, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>
+1312).</p>
+
+<p>Tastefully disposed in white Cufic characters,
+within four rows of circles woven in gold, are the
+words which sum the Mussulman religion,&mdash;&ldquo;There
+is no God but God: Mahoma is His Messenger&rdquo;;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+and on other parts of the flag are inscribed these
+sentences:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The prophet believes in the purpose for which
+he was sent by his Lord, and all the faithful believe
+in God, in His angels, in His writings, and in His
+messengers. We make no distinction between
+any of His messengers. And these declare:
+&lsquo;We hear and do obey. Pardon us, O Lord.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&hellip;. And unto Thee we shall return. God
+will not lay on any soul but such a weight as it
+can bear; for it or against it shall be the deeds
+it may have done. O Lord, chastise not our
+forgetfulness or errors. O Lord, lay not upon us
+the burden Thou hadst laid on those that were
+before us.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&hellip;. O Lord, burden us not too heavily.
+Blot out our faults, and pardon them to us, and
+have mercy on us. Thou art our Lord. Grant
+us victory over the infidel. There came to us a
+glorious prophet that was born among us.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;On him rests the weight of your faults, and
+full of goodness and of clemency he longs ardently
+for you to believe. If you should be forsaken,
+exclaim, &lsquo;God is sufficient for me. There is no
+God but He. I trust in Him, because He is
+Lord of the throne that is on high.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Miquel y Badía considers that when it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+intact this object must have measured eleven feet
+square. Attention was first drawn to its merit
+and antiquity when it was shown at the Exposición
+Histórico Europea of 1892.</p>
+
+<p>The chasubles of Chirinos (Caravaca) and of
+the Chapel of the Constable in Burgos cathedral
+are both considered to be of Spanish-Moorish
+workmanship. The former is woven of silk of
+various colours, but without admixture of gold
+thread, and bears an inscription in Arabic which
+Amador de los Ríos has interpreted as, &ldquo;Glory to
+our Sultan Abul-Hachach.&rdquo; The same authority
+deduces that the fabric dates from the fourteenth
+or the fifteenth century&mdash;that is, from the time of
+the Sultan Abul-Hachach (Yusuf the First) or of
+his immediate successors.</p>
+
+<p>The chasuble preserved at Burgos is also woven
+of variegated silk without gold thread, and may
+originally have been a <i>tiraz</i>, since it bears, in African
+letters, the inscription, &ldquo;Glory to our lord the
+Sultan.&rdquo; The date is probably the fifteenth or
+sixteenth century. Fragments of similar material
+are in the collections of Señores Osma and Miquel
+y Badía.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_26.jpg" width="500" height="403"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_26.jpg" id="img_26.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">II<br />FRAGMENT OF THE BURIAL MANTLE OF FERDINAND THE THIRD<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The object represented in Plate ii. is described<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+in the Catalogue of the Royal Armoury at Madrid
+as <i>A fragment of the royal mantle in which was
+buried the king and saint, Ferdinand the Third
+of Castile</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1217&ndash;1252). Gestoso, in the course
+of his researches into the history of old Seville, has
+found that in the year 1579 Philip the Second
+caused an examination to be made at that city of
+the remains, enshrined in her cathedral, of Saint
+Ferdinand. The body was found &ldquo;with a ring
+with a blue stone on a finger of the right hand,
+and wearing sword and spurs.&rdquo; In 1677 Charles
+the Second sent for the ring in question, and
+eleven years later a fresh examination was made,
+when the mummy of the saint was stated to
+be wrapped in &ldquo;clothing of a stuff the nature of
+which cannot now be recognised, but which is
+chequered all over with the royal arms of Castile,
+and with lions.&rdquo; A third examination was made
+in 1729, when the &ldquo;holy body of Señor San
+Fernando&rdquo; was reported to be &ldquo;covered, the
+greater part, with a royal mantle, of a stuff
+which could not be recognised for its decay: only it
+was seen to be embroidered with castles and lions.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Probably, therefore, this fragment was taken to
+Madrid at the same time as the ring&mdash;that is, in
+the year 1677. It has an irregular shape, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+measures eighteen inches long by thirteen and a
+half in breadth. The material is a woven mixture
+of silk and gold thread, and the decoration consists
+of castles and lions in gold and red respectively,
+upon a ground of carmine and dirty white. Count
+Valencia de Don Juan points out that this strip
+belonged to the lower end of the mantle, since it
+includes a portion of the border, formed by a series
+of horizontal stripes, blue, yellow, red, and gold.
+The character of the whole fragment is decidedly
+Mohammedan, and indicates a Mudejar fabric,
+made at Seville in the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>I find that in the <i>Book of Chess</i> of Alfonso the
+Learned (an illuminated Spanish manuscript executed
+in the thirteenth century, and now preserved
+at the Escorial), Alfonso himself is represented
+(Plate <a href="#img_28.jpg">iii</a>.) as wearing a mantle with this very
+pattern of lions and castles contained in squares.
+Therefore it seems extremely probable, either
+that this device was not uncommon on the robes
+of Spanish kings, or else that at some time the
+body of San Fernando was enveloped in a mantle
+belonging to, and which perhaps had been inherited
+by, his son.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_28.jpg" width="500" height="292"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_28.jpg" id="img_28.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">III<br />KING ALFONSO THE LEARNED<br />
+(<i>From &ldquo;The Book of Chess&rdquo;; MS. in the Escorial Library</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The clothing of the Infante Don Felipe and of
+Doña Leonor, his wife, consists of the prince's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+cloak, which is nearly intact, a piece of his <i>aljuba</i>,
+his cap, and a strip of silken cloth inwoven with
+gold. The latter fragment is thought to have
+belonged to the robe of the Infanta.</p>
+
+<p>These objects, discovered in 1848, in the tomb
+of Don Felipe and Doña Leonor, at Villalcazar
+de Sirga, near Palencia, are now in the National
+Museum. The cloak or mantle is richly wrought
+in silk and gold, and bears the word <i>Blessing</i>,
+woven in Cufic characters upon the ground.
+The <i>aljuba</i> is also of silk and gold, showing a
+delicate combination of blue and yellow, and the
+style and workmanship of all these fragments are
+unmistakably Mohammedan.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, in textile crafts, the Spanish Moors
+supplied the wants and the caprices both of themselves
+and of their enemies the Christians.</p>
+
+<p>The relationship between certain under-garments
+of the two peoples is evident from the very
+titles of those garments. Thus, the Spanish
+<i>joquejo</i> or <i>soquejo</i>, a scarf for winding round a
+woman's body, is obviously derived, or merely
+corrupted, from the Arabic <i>jocob</i>; the Spanish
+<i>arrede</i> or <i>arrelde</i>, a kind of cloak, from the Arabic
+<i>arrida</i>, and the Spanish shirt or tunic for ordinary
+wear, called the <i>casot</i>, <i>quesote</i>, or <i>quizote</i> (which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+was sometimes white and sometimes coloured)
+from the Arabic <i>al-kuesnat</i>. The <i>Chronicle of
+Juan the Second</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1410) tells of a mountain
+covered with Moorish troops, &ldquo;and all of them
+had red <i>quesotes</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_30.jpg" width="445" height="450"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_30.jpg" id="img_30.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IV<br />SPANISH VELVET<br />
+(<i>Red upon Gold Ground. About A.D. 1500</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the cities of Moorish Spain, Almería and
+Granada were undoubtedly those which produced
+the handsomest stuffs&mdash;Almería from comparatively
+early in the days of Muslim domination,
+Granada from a somewhat later time.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Notices
+are extant of Christian princes who directly ordered
+these materials from Granada; <i>e.g.</i> in 1392 Don
+Juan the First caused to be purchased there, as
+a present to his daughter on her marriage, &ldquo;una
+cambra de saya orlada ab son dozer e cobertor de
+color vermella, blaua, ó vert, ù otro que fuera de
+buena vista&rdquo; (<i>Archives of the Crown of Aragon</i>).
+The manufacture of velvet was probably introduced
+into Aragon in the reign of Pedro the Fourth.
+Excellent silks and cloth of gold were also made
+at Málaga, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. Indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+no better source exists for studying the character
+of this important industry in older Spain than the
+Ordinances of the cities I have just enumerated.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+We learn from these municipal provisions, most of
+which were framed or ratified in the reign of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, that the mingling of fine with
+base material was forbidden in the strictest terms,
+and that the styles and classes of even the luxurious
+and elaborate stuffs, which bore an infinite variety
+of devices, were very numerous. Thus, there
+were satins, taffetas, <i>azeytunis</i>, double and single
+velvets (Plates <a href="#img_30.jpg">iv</a>. and <a href="#img_56.jpg">vii</a>.), brocades, and silken
+serges; as well as fabrics interwoven with gold and
+silver thread, including the <i>gorgoranes</i>, <i>restaños</i>,
+<i>sargas</i>, and <i>jergas de filigrana de plata</i>. The
+Ordinances of Toledo mention the following fabrics
+as manufactured in that city in the reigns of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Charles the Fifth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Stuffs of gold and silver made in the same manner as satin.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Satins woven with gold.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Satins brocaded with silk and gold, or silver<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silver serges with double filigree.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silver and gold materials, which are made
+like <i>gorgoran</i> or serge.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silver and gold stuffs which are made like
+taffetas, or in silver with silk flowers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Embroidered stuffs.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or
+<i>berguilla</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Lama</i>, cloth of silver, shaded with watering
+in silver.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Plain silk-stuffs woven with silver or gold,
+and called <i>restaño</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silk-stuffs woven with gold or silver, and
+called <i>relampagos</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Serges woven with gold and silver for church
+vestments.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Plain filigree serges.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Velillo</i> of silver.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Satin woven with gold and silver.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Brocades of different kinds.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Church vestments.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silver <i>primaveras</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Serges for church vestments.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It was usual for ladies of the Christian-Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+aristocracy to trim their clothes, in Moorish fashion,
+with strings of larger pearls or of <i>aljofar</i>-work&mdash;a
+custom which continued until the extinction
+of the House of Austria. The Alburquerque
+inventory includes &ldquo;a <i>marlota</i> of crimson satin,
+trimmed with pearls and with <i>aljofar</i>, as to
+the hem, the sleeves, and the hood; with twelve
+buttons of <i>aljofar</i>-pearls in the front thereof, that
+on a time were thirteen; but one is missing <i>which
+was ground up for the said Duchess when she was
+sick</i>, and six buttons on each sleeve, and the same
+where each sleeve meets the shoulder.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Early in the seventeenth century, Pinheiro da
+Veiga mentions the same fashion at Valladolid:&mdash;&ldquo;At
+the sale of the Marchioness of Mondejar, I
+saw twelve of her <i>sayas</i> with long trains to them,
+and satin bodices, all of embroidered silk, and
+some with <i>aljofar</i>-work, besides a number of all
+kinds of <i>diabluras</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is stated by Ibn-Said, Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib,
+and Ibn-Khaldun, that the Moors of Granada
+occasionally adopted Christian clothing, and we
+know that the Sultan Mohammed, a contemporary
+of Alfonso the Learned of Castile, was assassinated
+by Abrahim and Abomet, the sons of Osmin,
+because he was so clothed, and because he had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+further violated the precepts of the Koran by
+eating at Alfonso's table.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> But as a rule the
+costume of the Spanish Moors was almost wholly
+that of orientals. Where they were tolerated in a
+city under Christian rule, a certain dress was
+sometimes forced upon them by their subjugators,
+as by the <i>Ordenamiento</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1408) of Doña
+Catalina, issued on behalf of her son, Juan the
+Second, and which prescribed for the Moorish men
+a <i>capuz</i> of yellow cloth with a mark upon it in the
+form of a blue half-moon measuring an inch from
+point to point, and which was to be worn on the
+right shoulder. The garments of the women were
+to be similarly marked, on pain of fifty lashes
+administered publicly, together with the forfeiture
+of all such clothes as lacked this necessary and
+humiliating token.</p>
+
+<p>But where the Spanish Moors were in possession
+of the soil, their clothes were similar in most
+respects to those of eastern peoples. Detailed
+notices of these costumes are furnished us by Ibn-Said
+and other writers. Fray Pedro de Alcalá
+explains in his <i>Vocabulary</i> that, among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+Granadinos, the use of one garment in particular
+was limited to royalty, or nobles of high rank.
+This was the <i>libas</i> (or, in the Granadino dialect,
+<i>libis</i>), shaped like roomy breeches, and greatly
+resembling the <i>zaragüelles</i> worn until this hour
+by the peasants of the Huerta of Valencia. Ibn-Said,
+quoted by Al-Makkari (see Gayangos,
+<i>History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain</i>,
+Vol. I., p. 116) says that the dress of the Moors
+of Andalusia was not identical with that of the
+Asiatic Mussulman. The former, he declares,
+would often discard the turban; especially those
+who lived towards the eastern frontier. In the
+western region the turban continued to be generally
+worn by the upper classes and by the leading
+State officials. Thus, at Cordova and Seville
+every <i>cadi</i> and <i>alfaqui</i> would wear a turban, while
+at Valencia and Murcia even the nobles went
+without it, and among the lower classes it had
+fallen into absolute disuse. Neither officers nor
+soldiers of the army wore the turban.</p>
+
+<p>We learn from Casiri (<i>Bibl. Arabico-Hispana</i>,
+II., p. 258) that the <i>imama</i><a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> was the only form of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+head-dress used by the <i>cheiks</i>, <i>cadis</i>, and <i>ulemas</i> of
+Granada. At this capital red was the distinctive
+colour of the sovereigns of the Alahmar dynasty,
+who took their very title from this circumstance,
+the Arabic word <i>alahmar</i> meaning &ldquo;red.&rdquo; The
+distinctive colour of the Nasrite sultans was purple,
+which was replaced by black in time of mourning.
+In this last fashion the sultans were probably
+influenced by the Christian usage, for Ibn-Khaldun
+remarks that black was not a colour approved of
+by the orientals, who considered it to be related
+with the spirits of evil. However this may be,
+the manuscript <i>History of the House of Cordova</i>
+quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas, says that when
+Boabdil el Chico entered that city as a prisoner,
+&ldquo;the captive monarch was dressed in black velvet,
+in token of his adverse fortune and defeat. He
+rode a richly caparisoned charger, whose coat was
+black and glossy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Moors regarded green or white as pleasant
+and well-omened colours, symbolic of the angels
+and of all good fortune. Perhaps this preference
+was suggested to them by the cool oasis in the
+desert. Nevertheless, when Ibn-Hud became ruler
+of Andalusia, his shields and banners were black,
+as well as his costume. Black, too, was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+colour adopted by the Abbaside Sultans, to whom
+Ibn-Hud was subject. Under the Beni-Nasr and
+Beni-Alahmar, this gloomy hue was changed, as
+we have seen, to purple or to scarlet, though black
+continued to be used in sign of mourning.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_36.jpg" width="393" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_36.jpg" id="img_36.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">V<br />THE TUNIC OF BOABDIL EL CHICO<br />
+(<i>National Museum of Artillery, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chronicle says that Abu-Said, &ldquo;the Red,&rdquo;
+who was assassinated at Tablada, under the walls
+of Seville, by Pedro the Cruel, was clothed in
+scarlet at the time of that atrocious deed. Boabdil
+was also clothed in red at the battle of Lucena.
+The <i>History of the House of Cordova</i>, from which
+I have already quoted, says: &ldquo;Il était armé d'une
+forte cuirasse à clous dorés, doublée de velours
+<i>cramoisi</i>, d'un morion teint de <i>grenat</i> et doré&hellip;.
+Sur sa cuirasse était passé un caban de brocart
+et de velours cramoisi&rdquo; (Plate <a href="#img_36.jpg">v</a>.). Eguilaz
+quotes a further passage from Hurtado de Mendoza,
+to prove that red continued to be the official
+colour of the Moorish rulers of Granada; for when
+the Moriscos had risen in the Alpujarra, and met
+together to invest their leaders, Aben-Abu and
+Aben-Humeya, with the insignia of royalty, they
+clothed the former in a red costume and the latter
+in purple, &ldquo;passing about his neck and shoulders
+a red token in the form of a scarf.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>As I remarked in speaking of the <i>tiraz</i>, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+clothing of the Moorish kings of Spain was of
+the richest quality obtainable, massively wrought,
+embroidered in colours and in gold, and bearing
+&ldquo;sometimes a prince's name, sometimes his device
+or motto, or even a portrait of himself embroidered
+on the right breast of his <i>caban</i> or robe, thus
+following the fashion of the monarchs of Assyria
+and Persia.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> &ldquo;Perco con los draps d'or é d'argent, é de seda axi brocats d'or
+é d'argent con altres é velluts, xamelots, tafetanes, é sendats se usen
+molt de vestir en lo dit Principat d'alguna generalitat ne dret no y
+sia posat, mes solament vi liners per liura per la entrada.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> &ldquo;We have seen many instances of such opposed animals and
+birds on the metal-work and carving of the thirteenth century, and
+there is no doubt that the design is much older than Mohammedan
+times, and goes back to the productions of the old artists of
+Mesopotamia and Persia. We read in Quintus Curtius of robes
+worn by Persian satraps, adorned with birds beak to beak&mdash;<i>aurei
+accipitres veluti rostri in se irruerunt pallam adornabant</i>. Plautus
+mentions Alexandrian carpets ornamented with beasts: <i>Alexandrina
+belluata conchyliata tapetia</i>. There is indeed reason to believe that
+the notion of such pairs of birds or beasts may have originated with
+the weavers of ancient Persia, and have been borrowed from them
+by the engravers of metal-work; for the advantage of such double
+figures would be specially obvious to a weaver. The symmetrical
+repetition of the figure of the bird or animal, reversed, saved both
+labour and elaboration of the loom. The old weavers, not yet
+masters of mechanical improvements, were obliged to work their
+warp up and down by means of strings, and the larger the design
+the more numerous became these strings and the more complicated
+the loom. Hence, to be able to repeat the pattern in reverse was a
+considerable economy of labour, and could be effected very simply
+on a loom constructed to work <i>à pointe et à reverse</i>. Examples of
+such repetitions of patterns, especially of symmetrical pairs of animals
+within circles, are common in Byzantine and Sassanian woven work,
+and the Saracens followed these models.&rdquo;&mdash;Stanley Lane-Poole,
+<i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i>, p. 288.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Elogio de la Reina Católica</i>, p. 374.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> These are defined by the Count of Clonard as &ldquo;a kind of clog
+(<i>chapín</i>) with a cork sole, and which was introduced by the Moors
+under the name <i>al-kork</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Specifically, <i>tartari</i> was a costly fabric, heavily embroidered.
+Ducange considers that it came, or came originally, from Tartary.
+We read of it twice in the <i>Chronicle of the Cid</i>, and again, in the
+<i>Chronicle of Ferdinand the Fourth</i>:&mdash;&ldquo;tiraron los paños de
+marhega que tenia vestidos por su padre é vistiéronle unos paños
+nobles de tartari.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Quoted by Fernandez y Gonzalez, <i>Mudejares de Castilla</i>, p. 231,
+from the originals in the Archiepiscopal Library of Toledo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> &ldquo;An interesting parallel to the royal silk factory, or D&#257;r-et-tir&#257;z
+of Kay-Kub&#257;d, and to that of the F&#257;timy Khalif at Tinn&#299;s, is found
+in the similar institution at Palermo, which owed its foundation to
+the Kelby Am&#299;rs who ruled Sicily as vassals of the F&#257;timis in
+the ninth and tenth centuries, though it maintained its special
+character and excellence of work under the Norman kings. The
+factory was in the palace, and the weavers were Mohammedans, as
+indeed is obvious from a glance at the famous silk cloth preserved
+at Vienna, and called the &ldquo;Mantle of Nürnberg,&rdquo; where a long
+Arabic inscription testifies to the hands that made it, by order of
+King Roger, in the year of the Hijra 528, or <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1133.&rdquo;&mdash;Stanley
+Lane-Poole, <i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i>, p. 289.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The Alburquerque inventory mentions, in 1560, &ldquo;two Almería
+sheets, one with green and purple edging, and the other with white
+and red&rdquo;; also &ldquo;two <i>short</i> holland shirts for sleeping in at night.&rdquo;
+Commenting on the word <i>short</i>, Señor de la Torre de Trassierra
+aptly recalls the thrifty proverb of the Spaniards,&mdash;&ldquo;A shirt which
+reaches below the navel is so much linen wasted.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See particularly <i>Las Ordenanzas de los tejedores de seda
+de Sevilla</i> (officially proclaimed on March 2nd, 1502), and also
+<i>Las Ordenanzas para el buen régimen y gobierno de la muy
+noble, muy leal, é imperial cuidad de Toledo</i>. (<i>Tit.</i> cxxxv: &ldquo;silk-weavers.&rdquo;)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> On the other hand, Rosmithal recorded in his narrative of a tour
+of Spain that Henry the Second of Castile affected the costume of
+the Mohammedans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> This was a large form of turban. In the well-known painting
+in the Hall of Justice of the Alhambra, the head-dress is the <i>aharim</i>
+or <i>almaizar</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Eguilaz Yanguas, <i>Les Peintures de l'Alhambra</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="SPANISH_SILK" id="SPANISH_SILK">SPANISH SILK</a></h3>
+
+<p>A very fair idea of the magnitude of the craft
+and trade of Spanish silk in bygone epochs may
+be formed by tracing chronologically the production
+and treatment of the raw material in
+various parts of the Peninsula. During the
+centuries of Moorish rule, Spain's principal silk-producing
+centre was the kingdom of Granada,
+which then embraced a large extent of coast,
+together with Málaga and other thriving ports.
+In proof of this, and in his interesting memorial
+on the silk factories of Seville,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Ulloa quotes
+old Spanish ordinances of the weavers, stating
+that quantities of this substance were exported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+from &ldquo;tierra de Moros&rdquo; for use by Christian
+craftsmen, and also the <i>Chronology of the Kings
+of Granada</i>, concluded by Al-Khattib in the year
+1364. A fragment of this chronicle is preserved
+at the Escorial, and states, in the well-known
+version of Casiri, that the silk produced at
+Granada was both abundant and of excellent
+quality, surpassing even the Assyrian.</p>
+
+<p>The growing of mulberry trees and rearing
+of silkworms was also busily pursued in the
+kingdom of Aragon, which formerly included
+Cataluña, Valencia, and the Balearic Islands.
+Hence, though somewhat gradually, it seems to
+have spread to Seville. In the ordinances of this
+town relating to her weavers of silks and velvets,
+and which are dated 1492, it is stated that her
+<i>oficiales de texer sedas</i> were so few that, as a
+stimulus to augment their number, all who wished
+might join them in the practice of this craft
+without examination. Between that year and
+1502 they evidently multiplied, since subjects of
+examination of no easy character are formulated
+in the ordinances of this later date, examined and
+confirmed by Ferdinand and Isabella. Nevertheless,
+it is impossible to credit the assertion of some
+authors that by the year 1519 Seville possessed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+no less than sixteen thousand looms, affording
+occupation to one hundred and fifty thousand
+persons. As Ulloa suggests, it is far more
+reasonable to suppose that her silk trade grew in
+proportion as the Spaniards continued to discover,
+and to open up to commerce, new regions of
+America; and that it reached the maximum of its
+development in the reigns of Charles the Fifth
+and Philip the Second. The same writer attributes
+its decline and downfall to the &ldquo;piracies
+and insults&rdquo; of Spain's foreign enemies and rivals.</p>
+
+<p>The price of Seville silks was also raised and
+the trade injuriously affected, by the imposition, at
+the close of the reign of Philip the Second, of the
+onerous <i>millones</i> tax, as well as of the minor dues
+denominated <i>alcavalas</i> and <i>cientos</i>; while finally,
+when Philip the Third was on the throne, the expulsion
+of the Moriscos precipitated the utter ruin
+of this industry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_40.jpg" width="500" height="366"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_40.jpg" id="img_40.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VI<br />THE &ldquo;BANNER OF SAINT FERDINAND&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spanish government proved quite incapable
+of grappling with these wrongs and difficulties.
+There were, however, numerous attempts to legislate
+in the direction of reform. Measures forbidding
+the introduction of silk proceeding from abroad
+received the royal signature in 1500, 1514, 1525,
+1532, and 1552. A petition to the same effect,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+framed by the procurators of the Cortes, was presented
+to the king in 1618, urging that no skein or
+twisted silk proceeding from the Portuguese Indies,
+China, or Persia should be imported into Spain in
+view of the damage thus inflicted on the silk-producing
+regions of Granada, Murcia, and Valencia.
+At the same time the petitioners suggested that if
+it should be found impracticable to suppress such
+importation altogether, the foreign silk should be
+required to be in the form of stuffs already woven.</p>
+
+<p>Matters grew steadily worse all through the
+reign of Philip the Fourth. The principal cause
+of this additional decline lay in the constant depreciation
+of the national currency, which kept at
+an intolerable pitch of dearness the price of home-grown
+silk, and enabled foreign traders to undersell
+the Spaniard. This will be better understood
+if we consider that the composition of the copper
+and silver coinage was often tampered with by
+Crown and Parliament in such a way as to allow
+the foreigner to rid the country of nearly all her
+gold and silver, leaving in exchange only the baser
+metal. At intervals of a few years, proclamations
+were issued altering the values of the coinage in the
+most capricious and disastrous terms, and Ulloa
+mentions as still in circulation in the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+century, <i>ochavos</i> of Philip the Third which bore
+inscribed the value of twelve <i>maravedis</i> in Roman
+numerals, and also (owing to the restamping of
+the coins by order of the Crown), the second and
+successive value of eight <i>maravedis</i>, marked in
+ordinary numerals. In fact, so grave were these
+abuses, that the arbitrary value imposed upon the
+coins in question grew to be six times that of the
+actual value of the metal.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the seventeenth century, when
+Charles the Second was on the throne, a couple
+of well-meant and not completely ineffectual
+attempts were made to bring about a fresh revival
+in the growth of Spanish silk. On November
+18th, 1683, the silk-makers of Toledo, Seville,
+Granada, and Valencia were summoned to a
+council at Madrid, and the dispositions they then
+agreed upon received the royal signature and
+became law on January 30th of the following year,
+the pragmatic which embodied them being issued
+to the public ten days later. It was commanded
+by this document that all the silk produced
+at the above-named towns should be examined
+and approved by the <i>veedores</i> or <i>mayorales</i>, and
+bear the official stamp which guaranteed their
+quality. The effect of these ordinances was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+further strengthened by a Crown <i>cedula</i> of July
+15th, 1692, confirming other dispositions dated
+1635; and later still, in June of 1699, a law was
+passed prohibiting the exportation of all home-made
+silks to other countries.</p>
+
+<p>The accession of the Bourbon kings heralded
+a further slight improvement. Philip the Fifth
+had barely mounted the throne when the Junta de
+Comercio was revived by his command, and drafted
+various laws for bettering this and other industries.
+Royal decrees of June 20th and September 17th,
+1718, renewed in June of 1728 and in April and
+August of 1734, forbade the introduction of silk
+and certain other stuffs from China and the rest
+of Asia&mdash;a measure which was made more strict as
+time went on, the prohibition being extended to
+linens and cottons produced and printed in Africa
+or Asia or imitated in Europe. In the meantime
+another <i>cedula</i>, signed at the Escorial on November
+10th, 1726, had ordered that every Spanish
+citizen of either sex should dress exclusively in
+silks or cloths of Spanish manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>These laws, though founded on mistaken principles,
+undoubtedly restored the national silk trade
+for a while. In 1713 the silk looms of Seville had
+increased to four hundred and five, and by 1732&mdash;in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+which year the Court resided at that capital&mdash;to
+a thousand; but on the return of the royal
+family to Madrid, and the declaration of war
+against England in 1739, the number dropped to
+a hundred and forty. In 1743 an effort was made
+to remedy this by exempting Seville silks from
+payment of the <i>alcabalas</i> and <i>cientos</i>, and further
+support was rendered in 1749 by Ferdinand the
+Sixth, who lowered to eighty <i>maravedis</i> per pound
+weight the tax on Spanish silks exported from
+the kingdom, and issued, in 1752, 1753, and 1756,
+additional decrees intended to encourage and
+protect this industry. In 1748 the same ruler
+established the celebrated silk factories of Talavera
+de la Reina, sparing no pains to bring their
+products to a level with the best in Europe, and
+choosing as director of the works a thoroughly
+proficient Frenchman named Jean Roulière, a
+native of Nîmes, who was assisted by a carefully
+selected staff of experts, also principally foreigners.</p>
+
+<p>About the end of the century Laborde described
+this enterprise as follows:&mdash;&ldquo;The manufactures
+of silks, gildings, and galloons are highly useful
+and important&hellip;. There has also been raised
+at Cervera, a village two leagues from Talavera,
+another large edifice, in which are twelve mills<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+for twisting the silk, four large windles for winding
+it, and six machines for doubling it. This
+complicated machinery is put in motion by four
+oxen, and the various processes of twisting, winding,
+and doubling seven thousand and seventy-two
+threads of silk are thus performed at once.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This establishment was rapidly augmented
+under the direction of Roulière and the other
+French mechanics who succeeded him in its superintendence.
+So successful were their labours that,
+in a short time, stuffs were fabricated in Spain not
+unworthy of competition with those of France, the
+demand for which was found to diminish. In
+1762, Roulière being obliged to withdraw from
+this manufactory, the care of it was committed
+to a company to the exclusion of almost all
+the French who had previously assisted in its
+establishment. The consequences of this change
+were soon discovered; the manufacture declined,
+the stuffs deteriorated, and the consumption
+diminished; the artisans were discharged from
+the loom, and everything threatened the total
+subversion of the establishment, when the king
+interposed, and again extended to it his care and
+protection, It has since been yielded to the incorporated
+society of the Gremios at Madrid, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+has never recovered its former splendour and
+prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Taffetas, satins, silk cloths, and serges are
+fabricated here, as are silk ribbons, plain and
+figured velvets, stuffs of silk and silver, stuffs of
+silk and gold, galloons, gold and silver fringes,
+and silk stockings. The factory employs three
+hundred and sixty-six looms, and affords occupation
+to two thousand persons. There are annually
+consumed in it about a hundred thousand pounds
+of silk, four thousand marks of silver, and seventy
+marks of gold.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Some of the stuffs issuing from the manufactory
+are beautiful and good, but they want the
+gloss and lustre of the French stuffs; and as
+they are dearer than those, with all the contingent
+expense of commission and transportation, they
+are far from being able to maintain a competition
+with them. The stockings are of the vilest
+quality, being thin, shaggy, and ill-dressed. The
+greater part of these articles are exported to the
+Spanish colonies.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Further efforts to improve the quality of Spanish
+silk were made by Charles the Third, in whose
+reign the silk looms of Seville increased to four
+hundred and sixty-two for weaving larger pieces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+sixty-two for silver and gold galloons, three
+hundred and fifty-four for finely-worked ribbons,
+twenty-three for small pieces of gold and silver
+stuffs, eight for fringes and <i>cintas de rizo</i>, sixty-three
+for stockings, sixty-five for <i>redecillas</i>, three
+for caps, and one thousand three hundred and
+ninety-one for ordinary ribbon. At the same time,
+according to Ulloa, one hundred thousand pounds
+of silk required to be annually brought to Seville
+to supply these factories.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In its fortunate days,&rdquo; wrote Alexander de
+Laborde, &ldquo;Seville had many splendid manufactures;
+it wove silks of every kind, gold and silver
+tissues, linens, and cottons.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> A memoir presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+in 1601 by the seventeen companies of arts and
+trades of this city gives us an idea of the brilliant
+state of those manufactures: the amount of the
+silk looms is there stated to be 16,000, and the
+persons of both sexes employed at them, 130,000.
+These manufactures had greatly declined even
+in the last century. We learn from Francisco
+Martínez de la Mata, in his <i>Discursos</i>, published
+in 1659, according to a memoir presented to the
+king by an <i>alcalde</i> of the silk manufactures of
+Seville, that there were no more, at that time,
+than sixty-five looms, that a great number of
+persons having no work had quitted the town,
+that the population had decreased a third, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+that many houses were shut up, uninhabited, and
+going to ruin. The silk manufactures began to
+look up again in the eighteenth century, but they
+are very far below the brilliant state they formerly
+displayed: in 1779 there were 2318 silk looms in
+Seville, including those for stockings, slight stuffs,
+and ribbons.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>Turning our attention from Seville to Granada,
+we find that the fame of the silks produced in this
+latter city, or rather kingdom (for silk was raised
+in great quantities throughout the entire region)
+extended as far abroad as Constantinople, and
+that they were used in Greece in the reign of
+Comnenus. The Muzarabs, who petitioned Alfonso
+el Batallador to bring an expedition to their rescue
+and wrest Granada from her Mussulman lords,
+reported to him in enthusiastic terms the quality
+and abundance of the silk of that locality, and
+many a document and chronicle record its vogue
+among the Spanish Christians of the Middle
+Ages.</p>
+
+<p>The Alcaicería or silk-market of Granada is referred
+to by various of the older writers, including<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+Marineus Siculus, Navagiero, Lalaing, Bertaut de
+Rouen, and Alvarez de Colmenar. The name
+itself is stated in Fray Pedro de Alcalá's <i>Vocabulario</i>
+to be derived from the Arabic <i>al-aqqisariya</i>,
+meaning &ldquo;an exchange for merchants.&rdquo; Buildings,
+or groups of buildings, of this kind existed both
+in Spain and in Morocco. Early in the eighteenth
+century a Spanish friar wrote of Fez; &ldquo;The
+Moorish portion of this city is the Alcaicería. It
+stands nearly in the centre of the level part of the
+town, and near the principal mosque, resembling
+a town in itself, with solid walls and doors, and
+chains across it to keep out the horses. It consists
+of fifteen streets of wealthy shops, stretching without
+a break, and what is sold in them&mdash;whether
+of linen, silk, or cloth&mdash;is of the richest and the
+noblest quality.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Very similar are the descriptions relative to the
+Alcaicería of Granada in the olden time. Bertaut
+de Rouen wrote of it, and of the adjoining Zacatin;
+&ldquo;En retournant devers la porte d'Elvire est le
+<i>Zacatin</i>, qui est une rue paralelle au Canal du
+Darro, longue et assez estroite, qui vient de la
+place de la Chancellerie à la place de <i>Vivarambla</i>.
+Dans cette rue sont tous les orfévres, les marchands
+de soie, de rubans, de vermillon, qui croist assez<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+prés de Grenade, dont on fait là grand trafic.
+C'est une plante semblable à celle du Safran, dont
+il y a beaucoup dans ces quartiers-là.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Dans cette mesme rue du <i>Zacatin</i> donne d'un
+costé l'<i>Alcayzerie</i>, qui est une espèce de Halle
+couverte à la manière de la Foire Saint Germain,
+où sont plusieurs boutiques remplies des Marchandises
+les plus curieuses. Ils disent que cette place,
+aussi bien que beaucoup d'autres des autres Villes
+d'Andalousie, se nomme ainsi à cause d'un privilege
+que donnerent les Cesars aux Arabes de travailler
+en Soye.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Alvarez de Colmenar wrote of the same edifice,
+a few years later than Bertaut; &ldquo;Vis-à-vis de la
+Chancellerie on voit une maison fort longue,
+nommée Alcacéria (<i>sic</i>), partagée en près de deux
+cent boutiques, où les Marchands ètalent tout sorte
+de marchandises, particulièrement des étoffes en
+soie.&rdquo; On the authority of the same writer, the
+makers and the dyers of silk-stuffs inhabited
+another quarter of the town. &ldquo;Le dernier quartier
+de la Ville, nommé Antiqueruela, est dans une
+plaine, peuplé de gens venus d'Antechera, d'où lui
+vient le nom qu'il porte. Ses habitants sont pour
+la plupart ouvriers en soie, tisseurs de satin, de
+tafetas, de damas; teinturiers qui teignent en<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+pourpre, en écarlate, et autres ouvriers semblables.&rdquo;
+He adds; &ldquo;Il s'y fait grand commerce d'étoffe de
+soie; et la Ville et les environs sont pour cet effet
+plantés d'un si grand nombre de meuriers, que le
+seul impôt sur les feuilles de ces arbres vaut
+annuellement trente mille écus au Roi.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>About the beginning of the nineteenth century
+Laborde wrote: &ldquo;The Alcaicería is in the Bivarambla:
+it is merely an immense edifice, without
+ornament, covering a considerable extent of
+ground. The Moors used it as a bazaar, and a
+good many tradesmen still carry on their business
+there. It contains about two hundred shops.&rdquo;
+It remained, in fact, in much the same condition
+as when the Moors possessed it, until the year
+1843, when a fire, which broke out on the night of
+July 20th of that year, reduced it almost totally to
+ashes. To-day the historic silk trade is no more;
+but the Alcaicería, consisting of a chapel and a
+street which call to mind the graceful and effective
+decoration of its predecessor, has been rebuilt with
+taste and accuracy from the model of the old.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ordenanzas</i> of Granada city, the first
+edition of which was published in 1552, and the
+second in 1678, inform us very closely of the silk
+trade of that region in the times immediately succeeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+the reconquest. Having regard to the
+fact that the silk was now spun in skeins in an imperfect
+manner, &ldquo;with much deceit and trickery,&rdquo;
+and that its quality was of the worst (Ordinance of
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1535), nobody was allowed henceforth to spin
+silk in or about Granada without being qualified
+through examination by the <i>veedores</i> or inspectors
+appointed for this purpose by the corporation.
+The inspector might charge for this examination a
+fee of twenty-five <i>maravedis</i>, and if the candidate
+were successful he was permitted to set up his
+loom forthwith, and engage two lads or girls, not
+less than twelve years old, to fetch and carry at
+his wheel, &ldquo;so that the work may be continued all
+day long.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Minute instructions follow as to the method of
+spinning the silk, wages, the treatment of apprentices,
+and other detail. Many of these narrow
+points of city law were troublesome and senseless,
+and must have tended to destroy the trade. For
+instance, the earnings of a master-spinner, after
+paying the lads or girls who worked for him, were
+limited to a maximum of two <i>reales</i> and a half
+per day. Women were allowed to spin upon the
+following conditions: &ldquo;Also, seeing that there be
+some honest women here who have no access to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+a public wheel, but work within their dwellings
+only, we (<i>i.e.</i> the city councillors) command that
+these may spin per thousand of cocoons, or at a
+daily wage, not to exceed two <i>reales</i> and a half.&rdquo;
+The silk was not to be spun with an <i>escobilla</i> or
+brush, but with the hand, obedient to the rhyming
+Spanish proverb which says, or used to say, <i>con
+escobilla el paño, y la seda con la mano</i> (&ldquo;brush
+cloth with a brush, and silk with the hand&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>The laws affecting the dyers of silk contain the
+following provisions. They were not to dye with
+pomegranate or sumach, and if the rind of the
+former fruit were found in their houses, they were
+liable to a fine of six thousand <i>maravedis</i> and
+thirty days' imprisonment. Dyeing with Brazil-wood
+was also prohibited in the case of silks of
+finer quality exposed for sale in the Alcaicería.
+Elaborate directions follow as to the manner of
+applying the dye. In the case of silks dyed blue
+or purple, the dyer, before he drew the fabric from
+the vat, was required to show it to the <i>alamin</i> or
+inspector of the silk, or else to one of the <i>veedores</i>
+nominated by the city councillors. The fines
+imposed upon the dyers who were found to contravene
+these regulations were distributed in the
+following proportion: one-third towards repairing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+the ramparts or <i>adarves</i> of Granada; another
+third between the <i>alamin</i>, the <i>veedores</i>, and the
+other officials who discovered and denounced the
+culprit; and the remaining third between the
+magistrates and other authorities who tried and
+sentenced him.</p>
+
+<p>Further, each silk-dyer was to have six <i>tinajas</i>,
+or large jars (see Vol. II., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>), kept continually
+full of dye, well settled, and liable at any
+hour to be analyzed by the <i>veedores</i>. In dyeing
+fabrics black, each pound of silk was to be treated
+with ten ounces of foreign galls of fine quality,
+two ounces of copperas, and two ounces of gum-arabic.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that nearly all this legislation was
+of a mischievous character, nor can it cause
+surprise that certain of the silk-makers of this
+locality should have been in the habit of committing
+many kinds of fraud, such as mixing salt
+or oil with the raw material, in order to increase
+its weight. Thus, at the same time that the laws
+themselves were made more numerous and stringent,
+the more elaborate and various were the
+shifts invented by the citizens as a means to violate
+those laws. The inspectors were empowered to
+enter a shop and examine its contents at any hour.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+Sometimes, we read, such ingress was denied
+them, and the door was kept closed, or slammed in
+their faces. The penalty for this resistance was a
+fine of two thousand <i>maravedis</i> and twenty days
+imprisonment. No silk-spinner was allowed to
+possess more than two spinning-wheels (Ordinance
+of November 18th, 1501), or to keep these
+working after midnight, for we are told that in
+this way the <i>veedores</i> were impeded from paying
+their official visit in the small hours of the morning,
+and much &ldquo;deceit and insult&rdquo; was the consequence.
+This Ordinance was confirmed by a
+royal rescript of 1542.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_56.jpg" width="313" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_56.jpg" id="img_56.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VII<br />VELVET MADE AT GRANADA<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another group of <i>Ordenanzas</i> concerns the
+weavers and the silk-merchants of the Alcaicería,
+determining that no silk was to be imported
+from the kingdoms of Valencia or Murcia, and
+that no merchant was to buy the raw material in
+order to resell it at a profit, but might only trade
+in the productions of his own factory. Minute
+instructions are appended for weaving the various
+stuffs which had a silk foundation, such as several
+kinds of damask, scarlet velvet<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> many kinds of
+satin, velvet dyed with Brazil-wood, taffeta of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+four leishes, taffeta of two leishes, and <i>sargas</i>, or
+silken serge. Other fabrics mentioned in the
+Ordinances are <i>tocas</i> called &ldquo;San Juanes,&rdquo; <i>campuses
+moriscos</i> (elsewhere &ldquo;las tocas moriscas que se
+llaman <i>campuzas</i>&rdquo;), &ldquo;las tocas moriscas labradas
+que se dizen <i>coninos</i>,&rdquo; <i>quinales</i> and <i>alfardillas</i>,
+<i>alcaydias</i>, <i>tocas de Reyna</i>, and <i>espumillas</i>. Most of
+these names are of obscure meaning at the present
+day; but I find that <i>espumillas</i> were silken crape,
+while <i>alfardillas</i> are defined in the old dictionary
+of Fathers Connelly and Higgins as &ldquo;an ancient
+kind of silken ribbon, or tape.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>No weaver was allowed to be the owner of
+more than four looms for making velvet, satin,
+damask, taffeta, or silken serges. The apprentice
+to a satin-maker required to be bound for a
+minimum term of three years, the apprentice to
+a damask-maker for five years, the apprentice to
+a taffeta-maker for three years. No weaver was
+to have more than three apprentices at one time,
+except in the case of the damask-makers, who
+might have four. No weaver might dismiss his
+apprentice without deponing to the cause before
+the city officers, nor might he accept money,
+or anything in lieu of money, from an apprentice.
+Master-weavers were required to pass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+their examinations in Granada; no other city
+would suffice.</p>
+
+<p>We further learn that many of the apprentices
+were &ldquo;of evil character,&rdquo; and damaged velvet
+stuffs &ldquo;maliciously, though knowing perfectly
+how to weave the same.&rdquo; If any worker at this
+craft fell sick, the guild or <i>oficio</i> was to defray the
+expenses of his cure, including physic &ldquo;until he
+be recovered, provided his be not a venereal
+ailment, or a wound inflicted with a knife.&rdquo; If
+he succumbed, the guild was to bury him; and
+when a master-weaver died, his apprentices were
+compelled to serve out the rest of their indentures
+with his widow, or his sons. No slave might
+learn to weave, even though he should be made
+a <i>horro</i> or freedman.</p>
+
+<p>Other ordinances refer to the officers known as
+Xelizes and Almotalefes of the silk, the privilege
+of appointing whom had been conferred upon the
+town-council by Ferdinand and Isabella. It was
+the business of the <i>almotalefe</i> or <i>motalefe</i> to
+collect silk throughout the <i>alcarias</i> or villages of
+the surrounding districts, and convey it, on behalf
+of the owner, to a <i>xeliz</i> or &ldquo;superintendent of the
+market,&rdquo; attached to one or other of the three
+Alcaicerías of the kingdom of Granada. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+<i>xeliz</i>, in his turn, was required to see that the
+parcel was put up for sale by public auction and
+disposed of to the highest bidder, after which he
+handed to the <i>motalefe</i> a certificate of the price
+obtained, together with the corresponding cash,
+less certain fees deducted for himself and calculated
+on a reasonable scale. The number of <i>motalefes</i>
+throughout this region was evidently large, because
+in the year 1520 the town-council resolved to
+appoint as many as &ldquo;one or two in every town
+and district.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ordinances to the above effect were notified to
+the city of Almuñecar, and the towns of Motril,
+Salobreña, and the Alpujarras; from which we
+must infer that, though subordinated to the capital
+herself, these places also were silk-producing
+centres of no slight importance.</p>
+
+<p>Further laws relating to the Xelizes were passed
+in 1535. On August 13th, the mayor of Granada
+(described as the &ldquo;very magnificent&rdquo; Señor Hernan
+Darias de Saavedra) summoned before him these
+officials in order to admonish them respecting certain
+fresh decisions that had been adopted by the councillors.
+The said Xelizes were six in all, known
+severally as Juan Ximenez, Hernando el Comarxi,
+Juan Infante Zaybona, Juan de Granada, Lorenzo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+el Mombatan, and Francisco Hernandez Almorox&mdash;names
+which are of interest, as showing that the
+Morisco element was still of weight among the
+manufacturers and merchants of Granada. From
+this time forth, and by the resolution of the town
+authorities, the Xelizes in question were called
+upon to lodge a deposit of one thousand ducats as
+security for the value of the silk entrusted them
+for sale. Besides this, the silk was to be sold in
+the Zaguaque&mdash;that is, by public auction &ldquo;as in
+the time of the Moors,&rdquo; from two in the afternoon
+onward. The buyer was required to settle his
+account before ten in the morning of the day next
+following his purchase. Failing this, the silk was
+to be again put up for sale, and the costs of this
+new operation were charged to the defaulting first
+purchaser, who was further obliged to pay a daily
+compensation of two <i>reales</i> to the <i>motalefe</i> who
+had brought the silk to market. Xelizes were
+strictly forbidden to traffic on their own account,
+and the fines for infringing any of these laws were
+heavy. If the infraction were repeated once, the
+fine was doubled; if twice, in addition to the
+same amount in money, the transgressor was
+banished for all his lifetime from Granada.</p>
+
+<p>All pieces of stuff which measured ten yards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+long and upwards, and which it was desired to
+sell within the capital or district of Granada,
+required to be marked with the weaver's stamp.
+If three pieces were sold together, or sent abroad
+to other places to be sold, they required to be
+stamped with the city seal at a fee for stamping
+of two <i>maravedis</i> the piece. This was to be
+performed by the <i>veedores</i>, who were also to
+keep a register of all the city looms, and pay
+them a visit of inspection once at least in every
+month.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, one of the most ridiculous and noxious
+of these ordinances forbade the planting of more
+mulberry-trees in or about Granada; notwithstanding
+that it was also forbidden to deal in
+silk imported from Valencia or Murcia, as the
+merchants were said to mingle these foreign silks
+with that of Granada herself, to the detriment of
+the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries the silk-trade of this capital remained
+in much the same condition. In 1747 a company
+was formed at Granada titled the &ldquo;Compañía
+Real de Comercio y Fábricas de Granada,&rdquo; and
+the formal prospectus of this society, of which
+document a printed copy is in my possession,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+was embodied in a royal <i>cedula</i> dated in the same
+year. The preliminary remarks attached to this
+certificate explain that the people of Granada
+were now reduced to &ldquo;the most unhappy state of
+poverty, insomuch that nowhere is there memory
+of a greater horde of mendicants.&rdquo; The principal
+cause of this distress is stated to be the ruin of
+the silk-trade, in which disaster may be recognised
+the consequences of the senseless legislation
+I have instanced in the foregoing paragraphs.
+The fifteen thousand looms which once upon a
+time existed there had dwindled to six hundred,
+and the production of raw silk, from one million
+pounds a year to one hundred thousand. The
+new Company was floated with the professed
+ambition of restoring Granada to a measure of
+her old prosperity. The capital was half a
+million <i>pesos</i>, divided into shares of two hundred
+<i>pesos</i> each; but silk and woven fabrics generally,
+whose value had been suitably appraised by the
+authorities, were admissible in payment of a
+share. The holder of each five shares enjoyed
+one vote, except in the case of founders, who
+were privileged, as &ldquo;instruments of this important
+establishment,&rdquo; to vote upon possession of a
+single share. If a shareholder wished to sell his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+interest, the Company was to have the first
+refusal. It further possessed initially in cash a
+sum exceeding one hundred and twenty thousand
+<i>pesos</i>&mdash;sufficient to construct and work three
+thousand looms in all; and it engaged, in return
+for certain favours and exemptions under royal
+warrant, to set up twenty looms for making
+serges of fine quality, and eight more in each
+year, for the space of ten years, for making
+<i>carros de oro</i>, <i>medios carros</i>, <i>anascotes finos</i>,
+<i>christales</i>, &ldquo;and every other kind of stuff that is
+not manufactured in this kingdom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The favours and exemptions thus solicited
+were of a very mischievous character; for the
+political mind of Spain was not yet shrewd
+enough to grasp the fact that where all competition
+is removed, quality cannot but decline.
+The products of the Company were freed from
+paying taxes for ten, or in the case of stuffs whose
+price amounted to six <i>reales</i> per yard, for twenty
+years. Similarly, all of its merchandise exported
+to America &ldquo;in <i>flotas</i>, <i>galeones</i>, <i>registros</i>, or other
+craft of those that are permitted,&rdquo; was freed
+from all except the royal dues on loading, although
+if shipped to other parts it was to pay a tax
+of fifty <i>maravedis</i> for each Castilian pound of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+sixteen ounces. All the materials and ingredients
+required by the Company in the preparation of
+its fabrics were exempted from customs and other
+dues. The Company enjoyed a preferential right
+to purchase silk throughout the kingdom of
+Granada, and such as it abstained from purchasing
+was to be sold by public auction in the Alcaicerías
+of Granada and Málaga, that of Almería being
+henceforth suppressed. The Company was also
+empowered to introduce silk from Murcia and
+Valencia, and the determination to crush all
+private enterprise is clearly expressed by the
+twenty-second heading of this document, which
+says; &ldquo;All manufacturers and traders who do not
+associate themselves with this body shall pay the
+full tariff of dues at present established.&rdquo; The
+Company was further empowered to compel the
+inhabitants of this locality to plant new lots of
+mulberry-trees, &ldquo;in view of the notorious fact
+that not the one-hundredth part remains of all
+that were delivered by the Royal Census to the
+occupants of the kingdom of Granada at the time
+of the reconquest.&rdquo; The Company might further
+open shops and erect warehouses wherever it
+chose. Its assets were to enjoy perpetual immunity
+from seizure by the city council, whether<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+as a loan or otherwise, and none of its servants
+might be called upon to serve the Crown in the
+event of war.</p>
+
+<p>Very shortly after its foundation, this Company
+united (each bringing half the capital) with another
+powerful association titled the Commercial Company
+of Estremadura, with a view to securing a
+conjoint Crown monopoly or &ldquo;exclusive privilege&rdquo;
+for Portugal, &ldquo;to the effect that only these two
+companies may traffic there in silk, and none other
+of my vassals or the inhabitants of my dominions
+may do business, whether in pure silk, or silk
+mixed with silver or with gold, in the kingdom of
+Portugal aforesaid.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The privilege was granted in these terms, and
+bears the royal signature, attached at Aranjuez, June
+17th, 1747. Its provisions were to last for ten
+years, and, in return for their concession, the two
+Companies engaged for a like term of ten years to
+set up fifty silk-looms annually at Toledo, &ldquo;over and
+above the looms at present working in that city.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I have not been able to trace, in writing or in
+print, the subsequent records of the Royal Commercial
+and Manufacturing Company of Granada,
+although I have been told that it existed for some
+time, and that on one occasion there was a riot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+among the townsfolk in opposition to its tyranny.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+In 1776 Swinburne wrote of the same region:
+&ldquo;The annual produce of silk in this province,
+before the year 1726, seldom fell short of two
+millions six hundred thousand pounds weight,
+whereas now it does not exceed one hundred
+thousand.&rdquo; Judging from this, the Company does
+not appear to have prospered. In 1775 the same
+author wrote of other and more fertile silk-producing
+districts: &ldquo;The manufacturers of silk are the
+cause of a population (<i>i.e.</i> in Valencia) that may be
+reckoned considerable, if compared to that of other
+provinces of Spain. The produce of this article
+came this year to one million pounds, but one year
+with another the average quantity is about nine
+hundred thousand pounds, worth a doubloon a
+pound in the country. The crop of silk this last
+season was very abundant. Government has prohibited
+the exportation of Valencian raw silk, in
+order to lay in a stock to keep the artificers constantly
+employed in bad years; for it has happened
+in some, that half the workmen have been laid
+idle for want of materials. As they are not so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+strict about Murcian silk, which is of an inferior
+quality, I am told that some from Valencia is sent
+out of Spain under that denomination. The great
+nurseries of mulberry-plants in this plain (the
+Huerta of Valencia) are produced from seed obtained
+by rubbing a rope of <i>esparto</i> over heaps of
+ripe mulberries, and then burying the rope two
+inches under ground. As the young plants come
+up, they are drawn and transplanted. The trees,
+which are all of the white kind, are afterwards set
+out in rows in the fields, and pruned every second
+year; in Murcia, only every third year, and in
+Granada never. The Granadine silk is esteemed
+the best of all; and the trees are all of the black
+sort of mulberry.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Laborde, who wrote some twenty-five
+years later; &ldquo;The cultivation of silk was
+formerly very flourishing in Andalusia; the kingdoms
+of Granada, Seville, and Jaen produced
+immense quantities of it, but after the conquest of
+those countries it was burdened with heavy taxes:
+silk was made subject to ecclesiastical tithes payable
+in kind; the royal tenth it paid under the
+Moors was retained, estimated at three <i>reales
+vellon</i> each pound of silk. To these were added
+a duty of <i>tartil</i> of seventeen <i>maravedis</i> per pound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+and duties of <i>alcabalas</i> and <i>cientos</i>, fixed at eleven
+<i>reales</i> thirty-two <i>maravedís</i>. There accrued from
+it a tax of fifteen <i>reales</i> fifteen <i>maravedís</i> for the
+king, and six <i>reales</i>, or thereabouts, for the
+ecclesiastical tithe, making together twenty-one
+<i>reales</i> fifteen <i>maravedís</i>, or about four shillings
+and sixpence the pound, which at that time sold
+only for thirty <i>reales</i>, or six shillings and three
+pence English. The speculators were consequently
+discouraged, most of them relinquished
+a labour from which they derived so little profit,
+and this branch of industry entirely failed in the
+kingdoms of Cordova and Seville, and afterwards
+in those of Granada and Jaen. For some time
+it has been looking up in the two latter kingdoms,
+but it is very far from what it was under the
+Moors. The mulberries of Granada and Jaen are
+black; they are suffered to grow without any care
+or management, are never lopped or dressed, and
+look as if they were planted by chance.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Of Murcia he wrote; &ldquo;This province has the
+raw materials of other manufactures no less
+important. In the first place, it has a prodigious
+quantity of silkworms, which are not turned to
+advantage; most of the raw silks are sold to the
+neighbouring provinces, and manufactured silk is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+imported from foreign looms, though the inhabitants
+might manufacture their own materials, and
+make it an article of considerable exportation.
+The town of Murcia is the only place where they
+work some small quantity; there they manufacture
+a few slight silks, chiefly taffetas and velvets, but of
+an inferior quality; and the whole is confined to a
+small number of looms. They make a much
+greater quantity of ribbons, in which twelve
+hundred looms are employed; but they are badly
+dyed, and have not a good gloss. The Murcians
+likewise prepare the raw silk, spin, and twist it;
+they have even a warden, and a great number of
+masters in this business, and, in spite of its
+importance, they carry it on without being subject
+to any superintendence, everyone doing as he
+pleases. The consequence is that the silk is badly
+prepared and spun unequally. The threads are
+collected without any method, sometimes more,
+sometimes less, and then twisted unequally.
+They are of course unfit to make fine stuffs, and
+the trade of Murcia is therefore declining&hellip;.
+Silk stuffs, satins, velvets, and taffetas are made
+here, but there is no great manufactory of them.
+They are wrought at private houses, and are but
+of a middling quality.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Toledo silk, including the delicate and costly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+<i>cendal</i> (see pp. 5, 6) which is mentioned in the
+sumptuary law, dated 1348, of Alfonso the
+Eleventh, was largely in demand from early in
+the Middle Ages till about the sixteenth century.
+The statements of the older writers as to this
+neighbourhood are contradictory. According
+to Damián de Olivares, himself a native of
+Toledo, this city in the sixteenth century possessed
+between five thousand five hundred and
+six thousand looms, consuming annually more
+than six hundred thousand pounds of raw silk.
+Other authors estimate the number of her looms
+at twenty, thirty, or even forty thousand. Writing
+in our own time, Count Cedillo is responsible
+for declaring that after the revolt of the Communities,
+the persons occupied in weaving silk
+amounted to fifty thousand, all of whom were
+natives of Toledo and the neighbouring villages;
+and he adds, perhaps a little rashly, that the velvets,
+damasks, satins, and taffetas of this locality were
+&ldquo;unrivalled, even in comparison with the admirable
+products of Seville, Cordova, and Granada.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+Certainly, the silk stockings of Toledo enjoyed
+a wide-spread fame, and were used, among other
+distinguished patrons, by the Duke of Guise and
+by Philip the Second. They were also exported in
+quantities to America. Banners, altar-fronts, and
+vestments for religious worship were also made
+here in large numbers, and of excellent quality,
+both in silk alone, and in this substance mixed
+with gold and silver.</p>
+
+<p>Laborde wrote of all these manufactures at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+the time of their decline; &ldquo;It is easy to estimate
+their former importance from the loss they sustained
+by the introduction of foreign merchandise.
+The memorial states that the consumption of silk
+was materially diminished, and computes the loss
+sustained by thirty-eight thousand artisans, from
+the interruption of their occupation, at 1,937,727
+ducats. Symptoms of decay continued to increase
+till the middle of the sixteenth century, when
+every vestige of commerce was effaced.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Toledo remained in this state of listless
+despondence till the present archbishop made a
+noble effort to revive the love of industry, and to
+open an asylum for the tribes of mendicants,
+accustomed from infancy to subsist on precarious
+bounty. The measure adopted by this prelate
+was to establish in the Alcazar various branches
+of manufacture, such as linen, ribbons, cloths,
+serges, woollen stuffs, and silk stuffs of every
+description. He introduced also another branch
+of occupation, appropriated solely to the production
+of sacerdotal ornaments. In 1791 there were a
+hundred and twelve manufactories in Toledo, ten
+for lawns and canvas, twelve for ribbons, fifty-five
+for silk, and seven for sacerdotal ornaments. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+this period the indigent class employed in them
+amounted to six hundred people, who were instructed
+in various processes, and were led insensibly
+to acquire the useful habits of industry.
+They were taught to draw, to prepare the
+materials, and to perform the manufacture; and
+each was destined to pursue some occupation suitable
+to his age, his inclination, and his abilities.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1786 Townsend, himself a clergyman, had
+written of Toledo in far less hopeful terms.
+&ldquo;This city, which contained two hundred thousand
+souls, is now reduced to less than twenty-five
+thousand. The citizens are fled; the monks
+remain. Here we find twenty-six parish churches,
+thirty-eight convents, seventeen hospitals, four
+colleges, twelve chapels, and nineteen hermitages,
+the monuments of its former opulence.&rdquo; Townsend's
+good taste, unusual for a traveller of that
+time, was horrified at the profanation of the
+Alcazar, whose &ldquo;magnificent apartments are now
+occupied with spinning-wheels and looms, and
+instead of princes they are filled with beggars.
+The good archbishop here feeds seven hundred
+persons, who are employed in the silk manufactory;
+but unfortunately, with the best intentions, he has
+completed the ruin of the city; for by his weight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+of capital, he has raised the price both of labour
+and of the raw material, whilst, by carrying a
+greater quantity of goods to the common market,
+he has sunk the price of the commodity so much,
+that the manufacturers, who employed from forty
+to sixty workmen, now employ only two or three,
+and many who were in affluence are now reduced
+to penury.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;These people are so far from earning their
+own maintenance, that over and above the produce
+of their labour they require forty thousand ducats
+a year for their support.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Alvarez de Colmenar, Ricord, Bourgoing,
+Laborde, and other writers, Spanish and non-Spanish,
+of the eighteenth century, inserted full
+descriptions of the silk trade of Valencia and
+Barcelona. &ldquo;On y fait,&rdquo; wrote Alvarez de
+Colmenar of the former of these towns, &ldquo;de très
+bonnes draperies, fortes, d'un bon et long usage,
+et propres à résister à la pluie, et grande quantité
+d'étoffes de soie; delà vient que les meuriers,
+dont les feuilles servent à nourrir les vers à soie,
+y font d'un fort gros revenu pour les habitans.&rdquo;
+Ricord, in his scarce pamphlet, printed at Valencia
+in 1793, gives valuable statistics relating to this
+industry and locality, prefacing his figures arranged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+in tabular form by the following remarks:
+&ldquo;The silk factories of this province form the
+principal basis of her commerce. They not only
+consume all the silk which is raised in the kingdom
+(of Valencia), and which, in 1791, amounted to
+581,688 pounds of fine silk, 93,800 of that of
+Alducar, and 26,115 of <i>hiladillo</i>, but they also
+require to provide themselves from Aragon and
+other parts of Spain, or even from abroad, seeing
+that in the year aforesaid more than 37,000 pounds
+were imported from foreign countries.&rdquo; The
+tabular statement appended to these observations
+tells us that in the region of Valencia the looms
+for making fine and silken fabrics such as velvets,
+<i>anascotes</i>, stockings, handkerchiefs, scarves, garters,
+and ribbons, gave employment to a total of 9,668
+workmen, and were distributed among the towns
+or villages of Valencia, Alcira, San Felipe, Alcoy,
+Vilanesa, Denia, Ruzafa, Alicante, Peniscola,
+Beniganim, Pego, Olivo, Liria, Asuevar, Orihuela,
+Gandia, Elche, Castellon, and Vall de Almonacid.
+Riaño admits, however, that this manufacture
+might have prospered even more, if means had
+been adopted to suppress certain acts committed
+by the weavers, spinners, and twisters of the silk.</p>
+
+<p>More curious and instructive is the description<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+of the same industry by Jean-François Bourgoing,
+whose observations, evidently secured at first-hand,
+are worth translating <i>in extenso</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;What attracted us still more than the fine-art
+works were the stuffs produced at the silk-factories,
+which constitute the principal glory of Valencia
+and contribute to her prosperous condition. We
+followed all the process of this manufacture, from
+the cultivation of the mulberry-tree to the weaving
+of the richest fabrics. I will try, therefore, to
+give a comprehensive account of them.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Spain, and particularly the kingdom of
+Valencia, could well export her silk to foreign
+parts, even after setting apart a quantity sufficient
+for her factories. Government, however, does not
+appear to be convinced of this, because it offers
+constant hindrance to such exportation, or else,
+when it consents to it, imposes heavy dues.
+These dues consist of nine <i>reales</i> and a <i>quartillo</i>,
+or nearly two <i>livres</i> seven <i>francs</i> per each
+Valencian pound of silk, which only weighs twelve
+ounces, and is worth at least fifteen <i>livres</i> when it
+is in the raw state. When the silk harvest has
+been scanty, as in the year 1784, it has been
+known to fetch eighty <i>reales</i> or twenty <i>livres</i>.
+This year, too, the yield of silk has been so small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+that the manufacturers of Valencia petitioned
+Government to allow the introduction, duty-free,
+of two hundred thousand pounds of it from Italy
+and France.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In ordinary years, the pound of (raw) silk
+costs eight <i>reales</i> for twisting and three <i>reales</i> for
+dyeing in green, blue or other common colours;
+so that this material, ready to use, costs altogether
+about seventy-one <i>reales</i> the pound, or seventeen
+to eighteen francs of our money.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Of course this price varies according to circumstances.
+One of the causes which exercise
+the greatest influence on this fluctuation is the
+harvest of the mulberry. These valuable trees
+are thickly planted over the champaign of
+Valencia, and all of them are of the white-leaved
+kind. This distinction, which would be superfluous
+in France, is by no means so in Spain,
+where, in several provinces, as, for instance, the
+kingdom of Granada, the leaves of the black
+mulberry are used to nourish the silkworms, and
+yield almost as handsome a silk as those of the
+white.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The leaves to these mulberry-trees are sold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+by the load of ten <i>arrobas</i>; and the Valencian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+<i>arroba</i>, which is about equal to twenty-seven
+French pounds, cost, in 1783, about thirty <i>sols
+tournois</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The mulberry leaves are gathered once, twice,
+or, at most, three times in each year; but it is not
+often that the two last crops are of as fine a quality
+or as abundant as the first. The greater part of
+the year is suited for harvesting the leaves, and this
+harvesting is carried out progressively as the silkworms
+copulate, steadily increasing in quantity up
+to the moment when they build their cocoons.
+As a rule only the leaves are plucked, the
+branches being spared as far as possible. Thus
+despoiled of its verdure in the middle of the finest
+times of year, although surrounded by a dazzling
+vegetation, the tree looks like a dry log floating
+on a green expanse of waters, while the mass of
+naked trunks which seem to be completely sterile,
+and which grow more numerous as the season
+advances, combine to render cheerless a prospect
+otherwise so fertile and so smiling. Still worse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+becomes their state when the trees are pruned
+entirely of their branches&mdash;an operation which is
+performed upon them at least once in every three
+years.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the space of ten years the kingdom of
+Valencia has yielded six million pounds of silk,
+which makes a yearly average of six hundred
+thousand pounds; and as the whole of Spain produces
+a million pounds per annum, we see from
+this that Valencia alone supplies more than half
+of the entire quantity. The silks of Valencia are
+the finest of the whole Peninsula, and fit to be
+compared with the best of Europe generally, but
+the spinning is still imperfect, because in Spain
+there are not, as in France and elsewhere, houses
+where the women who spin are gathered together
+under the eye of an inspector to see that all the
+silk is spun evenly. In the kingdom of Valencia
+the spinning is distributed among several thousand
+hands, who introduce six, seven, eight, or even
+more ends in a thread of silk which should always
+have the same number; hence the unevennesses in
+the fabrics which are woven from them, while for
+the same reason we do not utilize for any delicate
+work the raw material which we import from
+Spain.  The silk we employ for our costlier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+fabrics is of the kind which we import from
+Piedmont and the southern provinces of France.
+Also, for the last few years we have felt less need
+of the Valencian silk. The laws prohibiting the
+exportation of this Spanish silk have stimulated
+the cultivation of mulberry-trees in Languedoc,
+where the peasantry, alive to the profit which
+these trees could render them, have preferred
+them to other kinds for planting round their
+property. This is why, in the year 1783, French
+silk could be bought for a lower price than the
+Valencian silk purchased in that region, plus the
+dues levied upon its exportation. I know of a
+merchant who at this time enjoyed the privilege
+of exporting for six years a hundred thousand
+pounds free of all dues, but who throughout the
+year 1783 was unable to find a purchaser in
+France. Spain could perhaps remedy the egress
+of her raw material by further increasing (as,
+indeed, she daily does) the number of her looms,
+and by exporting a greater number of her products
+to her American possessions; but her silk-stuffs
+will never be perfected until she markets
+them in foreign countries, where the taste of her
+customers may tend to better that of her
+manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The silk raised in the kingdom of Valencia is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+estimated, during an average year, to be worth
+six or seven millions of <i>piastres</i> (nineteen to
+twenty-two millions of <i>livres</i>.) At the time of
+my visit to this city, she only employed one half
+this quantity, although her looms of every size
+amounted to four thousand. The rest, in spite
+of the prohibitions laid upon its extraction, is
+smuggled off to foreign countries, escaping,
+sometimes to France by way of Barcelona, and
+sometimes to Portugal by way of Seville and
+Extremadura. Nevertheless, there is probably
+more silk in Spain to-day than formerly, and
+measures have been earnestly adopted to encourage
+the industries which make use of it. For
+some time past, silk-looms have been scattered
+over the whole of Cataluña, and in the kingdoms
+of Granada, Cordova, Seville, etc., producing
+handkerchiefs, ribbons, and other stuffs in
+sufficient quantity to supply, or nearly so, the
+national market: nevertheless this still left
+a large market for our stocking-factories of
+Languedoc. The Spanish Government, by the
+law of 1778, limited itself to excluding these
+stockings from forming part of the foreign cargoes
+to the Colonies, but as they continued to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+imported into Spain, this law was readily evaded,
+since it sufficed to stamp the French article with
+the mark of a Spanish factory. It would have
+required an excessive vigilance, almost a positive
+inquisition, to guard against a fraud of this kind,
+prompted by the avarice of traders. The Spanish
+Government next sought, by the law of 1785, to
+put a stop to it by totally excluding our silk
+stockings, and this measure, together with the
+establishment of a number of new looms in Spain,
+has produced an almost absolute stagnation in the
+market which our factories of Languedoc had
+formerly enjoyed in the Peninsula. But let me
+return now to the Valencian factories.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This city has no one building in which might
+be performed the whole of the processes through
+which the silk must pass. Any person who
+wishes to examine them, must visit several
+workshops; and this was the course which we
+adopted, under the guidance of a manufacturer
+as intelligent as he is amiable, named Don Manuel
+Foz, a gentleman who has travelled extensively
+in order to perfect his knowledge of handling
+silk, and who, among other secrets, has brought
+from Constantinople the art of watering silken
+stuffs. As a reward for his activity, he has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+appointed <i>Intendente</i> of all the factories of
+Valencia.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;There are hardly any merchants at Valencia
+who are not more or less concerned in silk-making:
+indeed, they look upon this industry as quite a
+<i>point d'honneur</i>. Some of them supply with silk
+no more than four or five looms, which work at
+their expense, while others have under their control
+as many as several hundred.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;After the silkworm has cleverly built its cell,
+the first thing to be done is to stifle it before it
+can pierce the cocoon in search of a new existence.
+For this purpose the cocoons are thrown into a
+moderately heated oven; and then, when once
+the worm is killed, they can be kept without being
+spun for as long as may be needed.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In order to strip them of their covering of
+silk, they are thrown into hot water, after which
+the women workers pick up, and with surprising
+quickness, the threads of several of them, join
+them, and deal them out, thus joined, on wheels
+constructed for this object. On the design of
+the wheels depends the degree of thoroughness
+with which the silk is spun; but those which
+are employed in Spain are generally the most
+imperfect, as I shall presently explain.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I have already said that the slip of silk should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+be drawn from at least four cocoons, and even then
+it only serves for making slender fabrics, such as
+taffeta or ribbon. We were shown, indeed, a
+skein which was assured to contain no more than
+two cocoons; but so slight a slip is of no use at
+all. Most of them are made from seven or eight
+cocoons, and two of the former are joined in order
+to form a thread sufficient to be placed upon the
+loom.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;My readers are sure to know that all woven
+fabrics consist of two distinct parts, the woof and
+the warp. The woof is that which is passed by
+the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other,
+and which is enchased between the two surfaces
+formed by the warp. As the woof is subjected to
+more wear and tear than the warp, it should be
+stouter. For this reason each of the two ends
+of which it is composed is twisted separately
+before the two are twisted together, while for the
+warp the latter of these processes is sufficient.
+The result of this difference is that, when looked
+at beneath the microscope, the thread of the
+woof has an uneven look, as though it were a
+small cable, while that of the warp looks flat and
+smooth, and is therefore adapted to reflect the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+light, receiving the shiny look which makes a
+silk-stuff so attractive.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;But the beauty of these fabrics depends, above
+all else, upon the way in which the silk is divided
+as it is drawn from the cocoon. This first stage
+of the spinning is performed in one or other of
+three ways, according to the kind of wheel which is
+employed for it. The method which the Spaniards
+have adopted from an early period has the following
+drawback; that the small threads of six, seven,
+and eight cocoons which are stripped at the same
+time, go to form a single thread, and are deposited
+upon a small spindle without the thread rubbing
+against another one, which friction serves to
+lay the little hairs which bristle up, so that
+the slip of silk thus formed retains a hairy
+nap and is easily frayed. In the Piedmontese
+method, on the other hand, each slip is joined to
+another, and is not drawn apart until it has been
+twisted round it four or five times.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The third method, known as that of Vaucanson,
+is more expensive than the one last mentioned.
+In the wheel invented by Vaucanson, the two silk-slips
+are reunited after the first twisting, in order
+to be twisted once again. This operation is called
+the &lsquo;double <i>croissade</i>.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;If these threads, thus placed on bobbins, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+intended for the woof, they are enchased perpendicularly
+in a machine consisting of several compartments,
+in which they are twisted separately.
+Thence they are transferred to another machine,
+in which they are twisted all together; after which
+they are ready for the loom. Those which are
+destined for the web are not twisted (as I have
+explained above) until the moment when they are
+united. Both at Valencia and at Talavera de la
+Reina these machines, so precious to the weaver's
+craft, and which economise manual toil, are not
+unknown.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At the latter of these towns I had already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+seen a single toothed-wheel, which set in motion
+up to a thousand of these tiny bobbins on
+which are wound the twisted slips of silk. The
+wheels I saw at Valencia were smaller, because in
+this city there is not, as there is at Talavera, a
+royal factory self-contained within a single building.
+At Valencia each manufacturer, in order to
+carry out these various processes, requires to deal
+with workmen and machines distributed through
+several quarters of the town, and chooses from
+among them such as he best prefers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Nothing can be simpler than the working
+of these silk-twisting machines, when once the
+toothed-wheel has set them going. The perpendicular
+movement of all these little bobbins
+is looked after by women, and even children.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;If they should happen to clog, a touch of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+finger disengages them. If one of the slips should
+break, the harm is mended in a trice: the practised
+fingers of the machinist pick up the broken ends
+with marvellous despatch, tie them together by
+an imperceptible knot, and the bobbin which was
+thus delayed loses no time in overtaking its
+neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The slips of silk, before being twisted two by
+two, are put through another process which I
+ought to mention. When they are still in skeins
+they are spread upon a large tub in which is a
+quantity of viscous substances heated to boiling
+point, the gases from which tend to make them
+adhere to one another. This is termed <i>passer à
+la brève</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Thence they are removed to the machine for
+twisting them. The silk, on issuing from this
+machine, is called organzine; and it is only when
+it is in this state that it can be exported from
+Piedmont, where the twisting process was better
+executed than elsewhere, until the time when it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+was rendered yet more perfect by Vaucanson.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+This clever mechanic has combined all possible
+advantages relating to the business of the silk-weaver.
+His system, and no other, is practised in
+the Lyons factories; but these wheels <i>à double
+croissade</i> are only available for silk produced in
+France; since that which is exported from abroad
+and which is principally used in these factories,
+requires to be reduced to organzine before it can
+again be taken out of the country.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In this respect Spain possesses a sensible
+advantage over other manufacturing nations;
+since she raises a greater quantity of silk than
+she is able to consume, and could easily put it
+through the most advanced and perfect processes;
+in spite of which she has clung for ages to her
+faulty method. The present government has
+attacked this method by the only means efficient
+to bring about a change; that is, the slow but certain
+influence of persuasion. In 1781 the Count of
+Floridablanca contracted with a French merchant
+settled in Madrid, that he should supply a hundred
+<i>tours</i> of the Vaucanson pattern for spinning silk,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+first to the Murcian factories (of which province
+the Count was a native), next to the Valencian,
+and subsequently to any others that might wish
+for them; and with this object he granted to the
+merchant in question the privilege of exporting,
+free of duty, six hundred thousand pounds of silk
+in six years. Nevertheless, it is possible that this
+measure may yet remain fruitless for many years
+owing to the apathy of the Spanish manufacturers,
+who were loth to use a finer, closer quality of silk,
+because it must be woven with greater care owing
+to its containing three ends instead of two, the
+work being greater on this account without a
+corresponding increase in the gain. It has also
+been found necessary to employ Frenchmen in
+the earliest trials made in Spain of this new
+method.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The success of the Spaniards should not be
+counted on, if we are to judge of it by a factory,
+which was founded some years since at <i>La
+Milanesa</i>, a league's distance from Valencia, by an
+intelligent man named La Payessa.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;He introduced the method of Vaucanson, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+when I went to see his factory he had not seen his
+way to recover the money which this improvement
+had cost him. He employed barely two hundred
+persons for the most important work; nothing
+more was done than to spin the silk, divide it,
+and convert it into organzine. Thus treated, it
+cost from fifty to sixty <i>reales</i> more per pound than
+that which is prepared according to the Spanish
+method, so that its success was but small.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I shall not describe in detail either the method
+of dyeing the silk, or that of weaving it. The first
+of these operations is readily imagined; the second
+is hard to understand, and still more so to explain,
+unless one is assisted by engravings. I will
+merely observe that all silk is dyed in skeins, just
+before it enters the loom. If it be required
+occasionally to dye it after it is woven, this is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+only when the silk is spotted, or when the dyeing
+of the skeins has proved a failure. At the time
+of my visit to Valencia, there were a hundred and
+seventeen master-dyers in that city, but not all of
+them were working.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The stuffs in which the factories of Valencia
+are most successful are principally of the smooth
+sort; they also make there handsome damask
+<i>brochés</i> with large flowers for wall-hangings; but
+generally all that is undertaken is by order of the
+Court, Madrid, and the provinces. The Valencians
+follow as closely as possible the rapidity
+with which the French designs are changed, and
+those who profess to invent new ones are but
+copying the French ones in a greater or less
+degree. Notwithstanding, the Valencian Fine-Arts
+Academy is taking serious steps to form
+designers, and a school has been founded which
+has already developed able pupils&mdash;amongst
+others, a young man called Ferrers, who had died
+a short while before our arrival at the city, and
+some of whose designs of flowers we had occasion
+to admire.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;But the process in which the Valencians
+particularly excel is that of watering stuffs, which
+M. Foz has rendered absolutely perfect. He gave<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+us a clear account of this process, which consists
+in passing a cylinder over the stuff to be watered,
+this cylinder being pressed upon by a heavy mass
+moved to and fro by a mule which draws a lever
+round and round. The stuff is folded in the
+manner of a closed jalousie, and these folds require
+to be often varied so as to distribute the undulations
+evenly. M. Foz admitted that the shape
+and the arrangement of these undulations are
+more or less a matter of chance, but he proved to
+us that it is possible to influence them to some
+extent by moistening the stuff in a certain manner
+and direction, and this is the particular secret
+which he alone possesses in the whole of Spain.
+The excellence of this method is demonstrated by
+the beauty of the watered silk which issues from
+these presses. M. Foz himself set us to judge of
+this by asking us to compare the blue ribbon of
+the Order of Charles the Third, watered by himself,
+with those of the Order of the Holy Spirit.
+The comparison, I must admit, was far from
+advantageous to these last.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The subsequent vicissitudes of the Valencian silk
+trade are indicated by Laborde, who wrote, some
+few years later than the conscientious and observant
+author of the <i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The mulberry-trees are of great importance;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+the fields of Valencia are covered with them,
+particularly in the environs of that town, in the
+dale of Elda, in the county of Carlet, in almost
+all the places situated on the sea coast, etc.
+There are white mulberry-trees, which are lopped
+every two years.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The leaves of these trees serve as nourishment
+to silkworms, which are raised almost everywhere
+in the kingdom of Valencia. Algemesi,
+Alcira, Carcagente, Castillo of San Felipe, the
+county of Carlet, Undasuar, Gandia, Denia,
+Orihuela, and all the villages near the sea are
+places which produce the greatest quantity.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The silk made from them is the finest in
+Spain. It would be equal to the best and finest
+silks of Europe, if the Valencians, in spite of the
+vivacity of their imagination, did not obstinately
+persist in their old routine in the skeining; for in
+the skein they put an undetermined number of
+threads. The government has hired a man who
+has the most experience in this kind of work;
+but in vain does he endeavour to instruct them,
+since the manufacturers continue their bad custom
+just the same. The quantity of silk wound
+annually is, on an average, about 1,500,000 pounds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+of twelve Valencian ounces (1,312,500 pounds
+of sixteen ounces avoirdupois). It is commonly
+sold raw for fifty reals of vellon a Valencian pound,
+which gives a total of 75,000,000 reals of vellon
+(£731,250)&hellip;.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silk is twisted in different places in the kingdom
+of Valencia, for which purpose machines and
+mills are established at Gandia, San Felipe,
+Carcagente, Orihuela, and Valencia. The most
+important establishment of this kind is at La
+Milanesa, near the last mentioned town. Nevertheless,
+these machines are not able to furnish as
+much as the manufactures of the country require.
+Part of the silk is sent to Priego and Toledo in
+Andalusia, whence it is returned into the kingdom
+of Valencia to be worked&hellip;.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A great many impediments are thrown in the
+way of the exportation of silk, which is only
+allowed for six months after the harvest. If in
+that period the national manufacturers want it,
+they are at liberty to take it from the merchants
+who have bought it, on reimbursing them the
+purchase-money together with six per cent. interest.
+The consequence is that the merchants,
+uncertain whether they will be allowed to export
+the silk which they have purchased, no longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+take any foreign commissions for it, and so this
+branch of exportation has fallen. Besides this, a
+duty has been laid upon the silk sent out of the
+kingdom, of nine reals of vellon and one quartillo
+(1s. 11¼d. sterling) on every pound of twelve
+Valencian ounces, which is almost a fifth of its
+value. This is another obstacle to the exportation
+of it. A very small quantity, twisted and dyed,
+is sent into Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Generally 1,500,000 pounds of silk are made
+annually, of which 1,100,000 are consumed in the
+province, and 400,000 pounds are exported to
+Talavera de la Reina, Requeña, Toledo, Granada,
+Seville, Priego, and Cataluña. From this results
+a product of 20,000,000 reals (£208,333, 6s.).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Of the city of Valencia, Laborde wrote:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The manufactories of silk are the most considerable.
+They employ nearly 25,000 persons,
+and make taffetas, serges, silks, satins, plain
+damasks, striped, printed, of one colour and of
+mixed colours, full velvets, flowered velvets, plain
+and of various colours. The plain stuffs are those
+in which they succeed best. There are also fine
+damasks made and worked with large flowers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to the same writer, the manufacture
+at Valencia of silk stockings, galloons, silk ribbon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+handkerchiefs, and sashes revived to such an
+extent, that in the year 1799 the looms for producing
+these articles were 423 more than they had
+been in 1769. &ldquo;There are 3618 silk looms, which
+work about 800,000 pounds of silk annually; the
+handkerchiefs, sashes, and other little articles of
+lace consume 100,000 pounds.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_98.jpg" width="500" height="462"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_98.jpg" id="img_98.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VIII<br />THE DAUGHTERS OF PHILIP THE SECOND<br />
+(<i>By Sanchez Coello. Prado Gallery</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Equally as instructive is Laborde's account of
+Barcelona.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> After remarking that the decay in
+her manufactures lasted from the end of the
+sixteenth century till the middle of the eighteenth,
+he continues:&mdash;&ldquo;They are at present in a very
+flourishing state, and are more numerous and
+varied than ever&hellip;. There are 524 looms of
+silk stuffs, and 2700 of ribbons and silk galloon.
+The silk works consist of taffetas, twilled and
+common silks, satins, and velvets of every kind
+and colour. These are mixed with gold and silver.
+Gold cloths and brocades are also made there.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+The manufactures are not carried on by companies,
+but dispersed among the workmen themselves, by
+which perhaps the qualities may in some degree
+be injured. It is remarked that the stuffs would
+be better if they were closer, for their texture is
+commonly loose; they are also different in the
+gloss, which is seldom fine, and is never equal to
+that in the manufactures of France. Another
+fault in all these stuffs is the imperfect preparation
+of the silk, which leaves it nearly always shaggy:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+the cause of this is the silk being spun or twisted
+in an uneven manner. The same unpleasant
+effect is observed in the silk stockings. They
+cannot be fine, their stitches being uneven, and
+often large and shaggy. They do not last long,
+and are as dear as the French stockings after the
+duty on their entrance into Spain has been paid.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At Barcelona, laces, blonds, net-work, and
+tapes employ about twelve thousand persons.
+Galloons, laces, and gold and silver fringes, are
+likewise made here; but these are of no great
+importance. Silk, gold, and silver embroideries
+are very common, and the embroiderers are so
+numerous that they are to be found in every street.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Silk Stuffs.</i>&mdash;These are manufactured at
+Manresa, Cardona, and Mataró, which has forty-eight
+looms; but principally at Barcelona, where
+there are five hundred and twenty-four. There
+they make velvets, satins, damasks, silks, taffetas,
+and gold and silver stuffs. The town of Barcelona
+alone uses annually 300,000 pounds of raw silk.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Taffetas, Handkerchiefs, and silk sashes.</i>&mdash;They
+make a great quantity of these at Barcelona,
+where there are a good many little manufactories
+of this kind. There are a hundred and
+fifty looms at Reus, and six hundred at Manresa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+At the last place sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs
+are made, which take about seventy
+thousand pounds of raw silk.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Silk twisters.</i>&mdash;There are some of these in
+several towns, and a great many in Barcelona.
+There are eighteen frames at Mataró, which
+twist, one year with another, one hundred and
+twenty-four quintals of silk; and thirty-seven at
+Tarragona, which twist eleven thousand quintals.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere in the course of his exhaustive
+tomes, Laborde sums up the general revival of
+the Spanish silk-trade in the following terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silk stockings are woven at Málaga, Zaragoza,
+Valencia, and at various other places in the
+kingdom of Valencia; at Valdemoro, and at
+Talavera de la Reina in New Castile; also in
+different parts of Cataluña, more especially at
+Mataró, Arenys del Mar, and Barcelona. The
+most extensive manufacture is carried on at the
+latter city, where the number of frames amounts
+to nine hundred. In the city of Mataró are fifty-two,
+in Valencia one hundred and fifty, and nearly
+as many in Talavera. The stockings made in
+Spain are of a loose texture; owing to the improper
+method in which silk-throwsting is conducted,
+they are badly dressed and worse glossed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+The Spanish people themselves prefer French
+stockings, and most of those manufactured in the
+country are exported to America.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Ribbons hold a distinguished place among
+the manufactured articles of Spain. Some few
+are woven at Jaen, Granada, and Cordova; but
+more at Talavera. Cadiz has but twenty ribbon-looms,
+Manresa five hundred, Mataró eighty, Vich
+twenty-two, Requeña two hundred, Valencia four
+hundred, Murcia twelve hundred, and Barcelona
+nearly three thousand. These looms are not in
+factories, but individually dispersed. The Spanish
+ribbons are in general thin and flimsy, have little
+lustre, and their colours are neither brilliant nor
+permanent. Ribbons are made of floss-silk at
+Toledo, where there are about twelve looms, and
+at Manresa, where there is a greater number.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_102.jpg" width="364" height="501"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_102.jpg" id="img_102.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IX<br />A <i>CHARRA</i> OR PEASANT WOMAN<br />
+(<i>Salamanca, A.D. 1777</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silk taffetas, serges, and other articles, such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+as common and figured satins, damasks, and plain
+and flowered velvets, are made at Jaen, Granada,
+Murcia, Valencia, and the adjacent villages; at
+Málaga, Zaragoza, Toledo, Requeña, Talavera
+de la Reina, Mataró, Manresa, Cardona, and
+Barcelona. The silk-trade of Jaen and Granada
+is at present in a very languishing state; the
+manufacture of Murcia is dwindled to a few
+individual looms. At Toledo are fifty looms,
+fifty at Mataró, forty at Málaga, six hundred at
+Requeña, four hundred at Talavera, which
+consume annually two hundred thousand pounds
+of silk; five hundred at Barcelona, which annually
+manufacture, in conjunction with those of Cardona
+and Manresa, about three thousand pounds
+weight of silk; and in the city of Valencia are
+three thousand, whose annual demand of silk is
+eight hundred thousand pounds, while twenty-two
+thousand persons are employed in the trade. In
+Zaragoza are sixty looms, which consume fifty
+thousand pounds of silk; but taffetas only are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+manufactured there. The cities of Toledo and
+Talavera de la Reina are the only places where
+the looms are collected together in factories:
+in all other places they are separated, and are
+found individually at the houses of the respective
+weavers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A great portion of the silks manufactured
+in Spain are stout and excellent, but they are
+destitute of the brilliancy observable in French
+silks. The damasks made at Valencia are
+extremely beautiful, and in that city they excel
+in the art of mixing silk and mohair, and produce
+mohair stuffs which appear to be superior to those
+of France and England.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Quantities of silk handkerchiefs and bands
+are manufactured at Reus, Manresa, and Barcelona.
+Reus had five hundred looms, Manresa
+six hundred, and annually made sixty thousand
+dozen handkerchiefs; Barcelona, a much larger
+quantity.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At Barcelona is a very considerable manufacture
+of white, coloured, plain, and figured gauzes.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The art of silk-throwsting tends greatly to
+improve the silk manufactures in Spain. Machines
+invented in other countries have been adopted
+here, and in many places profitable changes and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+corrections have taken place in the trade. Silk
+is principally thrown at Priego, Toledo in Andalusia,
+at Murcia in the kingdom of the same name,
+at Cervera near Talavera de la Reina in New
+Castile, at Valencia, at Milanesa near that city,
+at Gandia, San Felipe, and Carcagente in the
+kingdom of Valencia. The silk-throwsters, who
+work at their own houses, and are paid in the
+great, that is, according to the quantity of work
+they perform, are very numerous in Murcia; but
+they perform the business there in a very slovenly
+way. In the city of Murcia a factory is established,
+where silk is thrown in an excellent manner
+by means of an ingenious machine, which has
+been already described. The establishment at
+La Milanesa is a very important one, and well
+administered. At Cervera are a dozen silk-mills,
+each having four large dividers, and six machines
+for doubling and twisting, by which seven thousand
+and seventy-two threads are divided, doubled,
+and twisted at the same time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Don Martin de Ulloa, <i>Discurso sobre las fábricas de seda
+de Sevilla</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> In former times, linens and cottons painted, stencilled, or
+stamped with decorative patterns from an iron or boxwood matrix,
+were considered to be luxurious fabrics, and are denounced as such
+in the sumptuary pragmatic (quoted by Miquel y Badía) issued by
+Jayme the Conqueror in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1234: &ldquo;Item statuimos quod nos nec
+aliquis subditus noster non portet vestes <i>incisas</i>, <i>listatas</i>, vel
+trepatas.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Latterly, these kind of stuffs were made in great quantities at
+Barcelona, and exported to other Spanish provinces, as well as to
+America. &ldquo;Several manufactures of printed linens are established
+here,&rdquo; wrote Swinburne, in 1775, &ldquo;but have not yet arrived at any
+great elegance of design or liveliness of colour.&rdquo; The manuscript
+(dated about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1810) attached to my copy of Pigal's plates of
+Spanish costume, says that the <i>pañoleta</i> or <i>fichu</i> (neckerchief) of
+the women of Cartagena in their gala-dress was at that time of
+&ldquo;mousseline blanche, quelquefois brodé, et três souvent n'est qu'un
+mouchoir d'indienne des fabriques de Barcelonne, avec une brodure
+en fleurs rouges, le fond blanc et parsemé de petits bouquets.&rdquo; The
+same manuscript describes the dress of a cook at Granada:&mdash;&ldquo;Le
+jupon (<i>refajo</i>), qui est toujours três court, est en hiver de laine avec
+une garniture au bas: en été il est en indienne. Cette <i>indienne</i>
+est une sorte de percale ou toile de coton peinte, dont il y a plusieurs
+fabriques en Catalogne. On en exportait autrefois une quantité,
+immense que l'on portait dans les Amériques Espagnoles; c'est ce
+qui lui a fait donner le nom d'indienne.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From the same source we learn respecting another cotton fabric,
+which might easily be thought by the unwary reader of to-day to
+have been of Spanish manufacture, that &ldquo;l'habitant de Mahon fait
+en été un grand usage de l'étoffe des Indes appelée <i>nankin</i>. Cette
+étoffe n'est connue dans plusieurs parties de l'Espagne que sous
+le nom de <i>Mahon</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In 1799 the Marquis of Monte-Fuerte declared the silk of
+Seville to be of as fine a quality as that of Valencia and Carmona.
+(<i>Discurso sobre el plantío de moreras en Sevilla y sus inmediaciones.</i>)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Granada was especially renowned for her velvets (Plate <a href="#img_40.jpg">vi</a>.),
+grounded or relieved, in the oriental manner, with gold or silver.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Similar companies were formed at Toledo, Zaragoza, Burgos,
+Seville, and Zarza. For the Crown <i>cedula</i>, dated February 10th,
+1748, authorizing the Real Compañía de Comercio y Fábricas of
+Toledo, see Larruga's <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. VII., p. 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Toledo en el Siglo XVI.</i> Miquel y Badía says that in the
+fifteenth century Toledo, together with Genoa and Venice, manufactured
+superb velvets, coloured crimson, blue, purple, or yellow,
+and figured with pineapples or pomegranates (Plate <a href="#img_30.jpg">iv</a>.). The latter
+tree and fruit are commonly related, in Spain, with the city of
+<i>Granada</i>; but quite apart from this, the pomegranate was formerly
+regarded as a symbol of fecundity and life. (See Goblet d'Alviella,
+<i>La Migration des Symboles</i>, p. 184, and also Madame Errera's
+Catalogue, No. 50.) In these velvets the gold thread is woven with
+consummate skill, and forms, in the costliest and most elaborate
+specimens, a groundwork of exceedingly small rings. These
+fabrics were used as hangings for beds and walls, as well as for the
+clothing of great lords and ladies. Touching the use of silk for
+certain articles of dress, an amusing story is told in the MS. account
+of Valladolid, published by Gayangos in the <i>Revista de España</i>.
+&ldquo;One day, Don Pedro de Medicis is reported to have paid a visit
+to a married lady, to whom he had presented some damask curtains,
+and he was wearing at the time some taffeta hose which made a
+creaking as he walked. The lady came out of her room, and, finding
+him in one of the lower apartments, exclaimed, &lsquo;Why do you come
+here at such an hour, and with that silk on you which creaks so
+loudly? Take care my husband does not hear it.&rsquo; Whereto the
+gentleman replied; &lsquo;Good God, madam, is it possible that the two
+hundred yards of damask which I gave you for that curtain have
+made no noise at all, but that a mere four yards of simple taffeta
+about my breeches should put you in such consternation?&rsquo;&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> &ldquo;The mulberry of Valencia is the <i>white</i>, as being most suitable
+to a well-watered plain. In Granada they give the preference to
+the <i>black</i>, as thriving well in elevated stations, as more durable,
+more abundant in leaves, and yielding a much finer and more valuable
+silk. But then it does not begin bearing till it is about twenty
+years of age. In this province they reckon that five trees should
+produce two pounds of silk.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I had the curiosity to examine their method of feeding the silkworms.
+These industrious spinners are spread upon wicker shelves,
+which are placed one above the other, all round, and likewise in the
+middle of each apartment, so as to leave room only for the good
+woman to pass with their provisions. In one house I saw the produce
+of six ounces of seed, and was informed that to every ounce,
+during their feeding season, they allow sixty <i>arrobas</i> of leaves,
+valued at two pounds five. Each ounce of seed is supposed to yield
+ten pounds of silk, at twelve ounces to the pound. March 28th,
+the worms began to hatch, and May 22nd they went up to spin.
+On the eleventh day, from the time that they were hatched, they
+slept; and on the fourteenth, they awoke to eat again, receiving
+food twice a day till the twenty-second day. Having then slept a
+second time, without interruption, for three days, they were fed
+thrice a day; and thus alternately they continued eating eight days
+and sleeping three, till the forty-seventh day; after which they ate
+voraciously for ten days, and not being stinted, consumed sometimes
+from thirty to fifty <i>arrobas</i> in four and twenty hours. They then
+climbed up into rosemary bushes, fixed for that purpose between
+the shelves, and began to spin.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Upon examination, they appear evidently to draw out two
+threads by the same operation, and to glue these together, covering
+them with wax. This may be proved by spirit of wine, which will dissolve
+the wax, and leave the thread. Having exhausted her magazine,
+the worm changes her form and becomes a nymph, until the
+seventy-first day from the time that the little animal was hatched,
+when she comes forth with plumage, and having found her mate,
+begins to lay her eggs. At the end of six days from this period of
+existence, having answered the end of their creation, they both lie
+down and die. This would be the natural progress; but, to preserve
+the silk, the animal is killed by heat, and the cones being
+thrown into boiling water, the women and children wind off the
+silk.&rdquo;&mdash;Townsend; <i>Journey through Spain in the years 1786 and
+1787</i>; Vol. III., pp. 264&ndash;266.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> They certainly were not unknown at Valencia. I have before
+me a copy of the work, <i>Disertacion descriptiva de la Hilaza de la
+Seda, segun el antiguo modo de hilar y el nuevo llamado de
+Vaucanson</i>, written by the priest Francisco Ortells y Gombau, and
+published at Valencia in 1783, by order of the Royal Council of
+Commerce and Agriculture. This book, which clearly sets forth the
+superiority of Vaucanson's method over those which had preceded it,
+states that at first the Valencians were strongly opposed to the
+Vaucanson wheel, believing that it caused a loss and waste of silk.
+Probably the real reason was that it prevented the manufacturers
+from adding spurious weight to the silk by mixing it with oil. This
+practice, says Ortells, was then &ldquo;so widespread an evil in the kingdom
+of Valencia, that there is hardly anybody who does not resort to it:
+notwithstanding it has been so often prohibited by His Majesty, yet
+openly, where all the world may witness, do the workers spin with
+much oil added to the silk.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Vaucanson form of wheel was also more expensive. In the
+region of Valencia its cost was about thirty <i>pesos</i>, that of the older
+wheels being only fifteen or sixteen <i>pesos</i>. However, this difficulty
+was not insuperable, for in the year 1779 the Royal Council of
+Commerce presented a hundred and twenty Vaucanson wheels to
+the peasants who had raised a minimum crop of a hundred pounds
+of silk, requiring, in return, that the recipients of the gift should spin
+not less than fifty pounds of silk per annum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> At the time when Vaucanson's wheels began to be used in
+Spain, silk was spun by men all over the Peninsula, except in the
+immediate neighbourhood of Valencia (Orteils; <i>Hilaza de la Seda</i>,
+pp. 134 <i>et seq.</i>) In every other region devoted to this industry
+such as the valley of the Jucar and the Huertas of Orihuela and
+Murviedro, as well as in the factories of Toledo, Seville, Granada,
+Cordova, Jaén, Baeza, Talavera, and Priego, the spinning was performed
+by men exclusively. Women, however, were often engaged
+in harvesting the cocoons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> &ldquo;I should here remark that the silk which is spun and twisted
+according to the method of Vaucanson, forms a fabric a third part
+closer and stronger than ordinary silk-stuffs.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> This man, Joseph Lapayese or La Payessa, did not initiate
+Vaucanson's method in this region. He succeeded a Frenchman
+named Reboul, who, in 1769, and holding privileges from the Crown,
+began to work with Vaucanson wheels at Vilanesa, near Valencia&mdash;the
+same place which Bourgoing calls <i>La Milanesa</i>. Both the king
+and his minister of finance, Don Miguel de Muzquiz, were keenly
+interested in these experiments, and Muzquiz, who owned an estate
+near the town of Sueca, in the same neighbourhood, imported four
+more of the new wheels there, under Reboul's direction. This
+craftsman, however, was not successful. Lapayese, who came after
+him and enjoyed the same Crown privileges, made considerably
+better progress, his efforts being seconded by the Royal Junta, the
+archbishop, and other bodies or individuals of Valencia, who
+awarded prizes of wheels and money to the best workers in the new
+style.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The art of weaving silk appears to have found its way into
+Barcelona comparatively late, for the veil-makers did not form a
+guild of their own till <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1553, the velvet-makers till 1548, the
+silk-twisters till 1619, and the dyers of silk till 1624.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Brocade (Spanish <i>brocado</i> or <i>brocato</i>) may be generally described
+as a silk-stuff woven with devices or raised figures in gold and
+silver thread, or either of these metals separately (Plate <a href="#img_98.jpg">viii</a>.).
+This costly fabric, which may be said to have superseded the earlier
+kinds of cloth of gold, was greatly in vogue in older Spain, especially
+throughout the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. It
+is constantly referred to by her writers (&ldquo;No siendo nueva la que
+prohibe las telas de oro, los <i>brocados</i>, y tabies.&rdquo;&mdash;Fernandez
+Navarrete; <i>Conservacion de Monarquías</i>, p. 231), and denounced
+by her priests (Fray Luis de León, &ldquo;Y ha de venir la tela de no sé
+donde, y <i>el brocado de mas altos</i>, y el ambar que bañe el guante&rdquo;),
+or in the pragmatics of her kings (<i>e.g.</i> that of September 2nd, 1494,
+and of 1611: &ldquo;Está prohibido todo género de colgaduras, tapicerias
+sillas, coches, y literas de <i>brocados</i>, telas de oro ó plata&hellip;. Asi
+mismo se prohiben bordaduras en el campo de los doseles y camas;
+pero no en las cenefas, que podrán llevar alamares, y fluecos de
+oro, ó plata, ó <i>brocado</i>&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>Brocade was made in Spain at Toledo, Barcelona, Seville, Valencia
+and elsewhere, but as a rule it could not be compared in quality
+with that of Genoa or Venice. A cheaper, though showy and
+attractive modification of brocade was brocatel, in which the silk
+was mixed with common thread or flax. According to the
+Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, this commoner fabric was used
+for hangings for churches, halls, beds, etc., and a document of 1680
+tells us that the price of brocatel made at Granada, and containing
+two colours, was twenty-two <i>reales</i> the yard.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Towards the nineteenth century, ribbon was a great deal worn
+upon, or together with, the regional costumes of the Spanish women;
+for instance, on the gala bodice or <i>cotilla</i> of the <i>hortelana</i> of Valencia,
+who further used it to make fast her <i>alpargatas</i> or sandals, described
+in the manuscript account attached to Pigal's plates as &ldquo;espèce de
+cothurnes, attachés avec des rubans en soie ou fil bleu ou rouge.&rdquo;
+The same fabric served the peasant woman of Carthagena for
+securing the sleeves of her gala camisole, for lacing the bodice of
+the woman of Iviza, and in the other Balearic Islands, for tying the
+<i>rebocillo</i> or <i>rebociño</i> beneath the chin. Also it was with ribbon that
+the servant-girls of Granada suspended a cross round their necks,
+that the <i>charra</i> of Salamanca (Plate <a href="#img_102.jpg">ix</a>.) trimmed her hat, that the
+women of Madrid, La Mancha, and Andalusia bound up their knots
+of hair (<i>moños con cinta</i>), and that, in some localities, even ladies
+of the highest class secured their shoes about the lower leg and
+ankle.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="CLOTHS_AND_WOOLLENS" id="CLOTHS_AND_WOOLLENS">CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS</a></h3>
+
+<p>Although the history of Spanish cloths and
+woollens is not of great importance, I think it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+well to briefly sketch their history. Sails and
+other fabrics of the coarsest kind are said to have
+been made, almost in prehistoric times, at Sætabi
+(the modern Játiva) and at Saguntum (Murviedro).
+From the thirteenth century cloths of good
+quality were made at Barcelona, Lerida, San
+Daniel, Bañolas, Valls, and other towns of
+Cataluña. A privilege of Alfonso the Learned,
+dated May 18th, 1283, contains the following
+technical disposition relative to the cloth-looms of
+the city of Soria: &ldquo;Que la trenza cuando sea
+ordida que haya 88 varas, que pese una aranzada
+é 5 libras de estambre; é cualquier que la fallare
+menor, que peche 5 sueldos. Que todos los
+tejedores é tejedoras de la dicha cibdad é de su
+tierra, que pongan en las telas de lino 42 linnuelos
+é en las de estopazo 32 linnuelos; é en las de
+marga é de sayal 32 linnuelos.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Segovia was another ancient centre of this
+manufacture, which Larruga considers to have
+been transferred hither upon the extinction of the
+factories of Cameros, Burgos, and Palencia.
+However this may be, the <i>fuero</i> of Sepúlveda,
+signed by Alfonso the Sixth, tells us that clothworks
+existed here as early as the eleventh
+century.  Towards the end of the fourteenth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+when Catherine of Lancaster was married to the
+Infante Don Enrique, the English princess
+brought over, as part of her dowry, a flock of
+merino sheep. These are believed to have pastured
+near Segovia&mdash;a city where Catherine made
+her home for many years. In any case, Segovian
+cloths improved considerably from about this time,
+and by the reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip
+the Second, when thirty-four thousand persons
+were employed in the manufacture and twenty-five
+thousand pieces of cloth were produced
+annually, were thought (especially the baizes and
+the serges) to be unsurpassed in Europe.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Sovereigns,
+including Charles the Second and Charles
+the Fifth of Spain, and Henry the Eighth of
+England, were among the patrons of these fabrics,
+while as late as the year 1700 the Franciscan
+friars engaged in redeeming captives from the
+Turks, reported that &ldquo;at Constantinople, whither<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+they had carried Segovian cloths as presents to
+the principal rulers of that country, those cloths
+were spoken of in terms of high approval.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Early in the seventeenth century, and owing to
+a series of causes such as impertinent or improvident
+legislation, heavy taxes, and the importation
+of foreign cloths, the trade showed
+symptoms of decay.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Bertaut de Rouen wrote in
+1659, referring to the Spanish character at this
+time: &ldquo;Bien souvent le pain leur manque, comme
+j'ay veu dans <i>Almagro</i>, petite ville située dans le
+meilleur pays d'Andalousie, et dans <i>Segovie</i>, qui
+est une des grandes villes d'Espagne, et où il y
+avoit autrefois des plus riches marchands à cause
+des draps et des chapeaux que l'on y faisoit, qui a
+esté longtemps le sejour des Roys de Castille, et
+qui n'est qu'environ à douze ou quatorze lieuës de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+Madrid, où il n'y avoit point de pain dans toute la
+ville le jour que j'y arrivay, et il n'y en eut qu'à
+quatre heures après midy, que l'on le distribua par
+ordre du <i>Corregidor</i>, aussi bien qu'à Almagro.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The rise, decay, and subsequent revival of the
+Spanish cloth industries, and particularly the
+Segovian, are well described by Laborde, Bourgoing,
+and Townsend. According to the first of
+these authorities, &ldquo;at so early a period as 1629
+the merchants (of Segovia) complained that there
+was every year a reduction in the fabrication of
+cloth, to the amount of five thousand five hundred
+pieces; and that there resulted from this deficiency
+an annual loss of 2,424,818 ducats and 2 reals,
+or about £274,000 sterling. In the eighteenth
+century it appeared, from the observations of the
+Economical Society, that the fabrication of stuffs
+and cloths employed but one hundred and twenty
+looms, in which only four thousand three hundred
+and eighteen quintals of washed wool were consumed.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;About forty years ago these manufactures
+began to revive, the looms were multiplied, and
+the consumption of wool considerably augmented.
+A single individual, Don Lorenzo Ortiz, has
+for some years accelerated their progress. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+1790 there was an addition of sixty-three looms,
+which employed eight or nine hundred quintals
+of wool, and afforded occupation to two thousand
+four hundred manufacturers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author wrote that early in the
+nineteenth century, &ldquo;the woollen manufactures of
+New Castile are the most numerous and important.
+Cloths are made at Toledo, Chinchon,
+Brihuega, Guadalajara; serges, stuffs, and flannels
+at Toledo and Cuenca. The cloths of Brihuega
+are of an excellent quality, but those of Guadalajara
+are still superior to them; in particular, the
+cloth of Vigonia. There are twenty-eight looms
+at Toledo, forty at Guasmenia, a hundred at
+Brihuega, and six hundred and fifty-six at Guadalajara.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Bourgoing wrote, a dozen years or so before
+the close of the eighteenth century: &ldquo;Spanish
+wool is eagerly demanded by manufacturing
+peoples of the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, it
+is not turned to so much advantage as it might be.
+French, Dutch, and English come to Spain to
+purchase the wools of Segovia and León at the
+ports of Bilbao and Santander.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Not even so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+much as the commission on their sale is left in
+power of the Spaniards, for the foreigners buy
+up the wool straight from the shepherd, and wash
+it on their own account. Out of one million of
+<i>arrobas</i><a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> of fine wool which Spain produces
+annually, she exports more than half in washed
+wool, and a lesser quantity, by far, of unwashed.
+It has been estimated that the export duties on this
+wool and which it has not been hitherto thought
+prudent to curtail, produce a sum of close upon five
+millions for the King of Spain. Here, therefore,
+is another reason for not suppressing the &lsquo;abusive
+measure&rsquo; of which the patriotic Spaniards complain
+so loudly; since it is far from easy to do
+away with so appreciable a source of revenue
+unless one has at hand a swift and sure alternative
+measure by which it may be substituted. All the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+same, government is endeavouring to derive a
+greater fiscal profit from the exportation of these
+wools, and at the same time to bring about a
+greater use of them in the Peninsula. For a long
+time past, all kinds of common woollen fabrics,
+such as clothing for the soldiery and lower classes,
+have been made in Spain. The exportation of
+these fabrics is prohibited. As for the finer
+wools, these also are employed in several places,
+but more than anywhere else at Guadalajara,
+where I visited the factories towards the end of
+the year 1783. I was surprised to remark that
+in several respects the manufacture had reached
+a great pitch of perfection. I say <i>I was surprised</i>,
+because I had heard, times without number,
+that the Spaniards were completely ignorant of
+these processes, and did not know how to card,
+or spin, or weave, or dye, or full, or calender;
+that their stuffs grew loose and wore badly; that
+the price was exorbitant, etc. How many prejudices
+of this nature was I able to throw aside
+after fair and deliberate examination of the stuffs
+in question! I will only quote a single point to
+prove that the censures which are aimed at the
+Spaniards respecting the quality of their cloths
+are not applicable to them all, and that they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+well upon the road to being entirely undeserving
+of them. I was shown at Guadalajara a piece of
+scarlet cloth, which, both for its excellent quality
+and for its skilful dyeing, seemed to me to be quite
+comparable with the best cloths of Julienne.
+These latter cost at their place of manufacture as
+much as thirty-nine <i>livres</i> the ell. At Guadalajara,
+I noted from the tariff established in the
+factory, that the price of the finest scarlet cloth
+was only from thirty-one to thirty-two <i>livres</i> the
+ell. Comparing these and other figures on the
+tariff, I came to the conclusion that there was
+about the same difference in price between
+Spanish cloths and French cloths, in favour of
+the former. What seems more singular still is
+that the factories which work at the King's
+expense are generally administered in a thriftless
+fashion, and that the factory of Guadalajara was
+being greatly mismanaged at the time in question.
+However, subsequently to my visit, changes for
+the better have been introduced, which will
+improve the quality of, as well as cheapen, its
+products, though, even when I saw it, this
+factory was one of the most perfect to be seen
+anywhere. Within a space by no means large, it
+contained all the machines and apparatus required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+for clothmaking, except the thin, polished pasteboards
+which are placed between the folds of a
+piece of cloth as it is passed through the press.
+These were still brought from England; but
+everything else was prepared upon the spot, even
+to the large scissors used in the shearing. There
+were eighty looms for the finest cloths, whose
+proper name is <i>cloths of San Fernando</i>, from
+the town where they were first produced; a
+hundred for cloths of the second quality; and five
+hundred and six for making serges, in which, in
+course of time, hopes are entertained of excelling
+those of England.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> All these looms were contained
+in two buildings, and kept employed three thousand
+eight hundred and twenty-five persons, all of them
+paid by the King,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> without counting some forty
+thousand more dispersed all over the Castilian and
+Manchegan tableland, engaged in spinning the
+wool which is made up into stuffs at Guadalajara.
+It would be difficult, I am sure, to find a factory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+better organized. Even the town in which it is,
+presents a striking contrast with others of that
+neighbourhood. I did not see one single mendicant
+or idler among all its fifteen or sixteen
+thousand inhabitants. Such are the good results
+of its manufactures, and, above all, those of cloth,
+including many small and detailed processes which
+women, children, aged people, or even the sick
+are able to perform. Here, where Nature
+seemed to have condemned these ailing folk to a
+tedious and useless existence, art, as it were, steps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+in and finds employment and relief for them.
+Nevertheless, it must be owned that the Spaniards
+(as they themselves admit) are still a little behindhand
+in the method of dyeing and fulling their
+cloths, though when a people possess (as they)
+the raw materials needed, both for making and
+for dyeing, a few men skilled in these processes
+are all that is wanted to perfect several branches
+of this industry; especially when, as is the case
+in Spain, government spares no effort to achieve
+this end. Guadalajara is further the only
+place in Spain which produces the celebrated
+Vicuña cloth; an admirable fabric for which the
+rest of the world has cause to envy Spanish
+America.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> As the use of this cloth has not as yet
+become general, it is not continually manufactured,
+nor is it easy to obtain a few ells of it without
+ordering them several months in advance.
+This stuff is also manufactured for the King of
+Spain, who makes presents of it to various other
+monarchs. In the year 1782, after concluding a
+treaty with the Porte, he sent twenty pieces of
+it to the Sultan of Turkey. They gave great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+satisfaction. It has been imagined from this circumstance
+that Spain would not be loth to supply
+the Turkish market with her cloths; and other of
+the manufacturing nations have felt some measure
+of alarm, perhaps unnecessarily. The Spanish
+government has too much sense to enter upon
+such a competition with other peoples as long as
+Spain does not supply the whole of the two and
+twenty million citizens who live beneath her rule.
+The same government, too, is well aware how
+remote is this degree of prosperity. The clothworks
+of Guadalajara have a kind of branch
+factory at Brihuega, four leagues distant. At
+Brihuega there are a hundred looms, all used for
+making fabrics of the finest quality.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Segovia, famous at all periods for the excellence
+of her wool, was formerly not less so for
+the number and perfection of her clothworks.
+Now, every patriotic Spaniard must lament to
+see how she has fallen. In the year 1785
+the number of her looms did not exceed two
+hundred and fifty. The most important factory
+was that of Ortiz, founded in 1779 under the title
+of <i>Real Fábrica</i>: the King possessed an interest
+in it. In 1785 Ortiz was still employing three
+thousand workers in and about Segovia, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+manufactured every quality of cloth in sixty-three
+looms, from the pieces which contained the two
+thousand threads prescribed by the <i>Ordenanzas</i>, to
+those which should contain four thousand. His
+energy was only hampered by the indolent character
+of the Segovians. The privileges wherewith
+the government has sought to stimulate his first
+experiments in this craft are not at all injurious to
+the other manufacturers. They all concur to sell
+their goods, and at a reasonable price. In
+September of 1785, the most expensive cloths
+cost only ninety reals the <i>vara</i>; that is to say,
+about thirty-one <i>livres</i> and ten <i>sols</i> the ell.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_118.jpg" width="361" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_118.jpg" id="img_118.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">X<br />PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH<br />
+(<i>Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Townsend wrote, precisely at the same time as
+Bourgoing: &ldquo;Segovia was once famous for its
+cloth, made on the King's account; but other
+nations have since become rivals in this branch,
+and the manufacture in this city has been gradually
+declining. When the King gave it up to a private
+company, he left about three thousand pounds in
+trade; but now he is no longer a partner in the
+business.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>  In the year 1612 were made here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+twenty-five thousand five hundred pieces of cloth,
+which consumed forty-four thousand six hundred
+and twenty-five quintals of wool, and employed
+thirty-four thousand one hundred and eighty-nine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+persons; but at present they make only about four
+thousand pieces. The principal imperfections of
+this cloth are, that the thread is not even, and
+that much grease remains in it when it is delivered
+to the dyer; in consequence of which the colour
+is apt to fail. Yet, independently of imperfections,
+so many are the disadvantages under which the
+manufacture labours, that foreigners can afford to
+pay three pounds for the <i>arroba</i> of fine wool, for
+which the Spaniard gives no more than twenty
+shillings, and after all his charges can command
+the market even in the ports of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the year 1525, the city contained five
+thousand families, but now they do not surpass
+two thousand&mdash;a scanty population this for twenty-five
+parishes; yet, besides the twenty-five churches,
+together with the cathedral, they have one and
+twenty convents. When the canal is finished,
+and the communication opened to the Bay of
+Biscay at Santander, the trade and manufactures
+of Segovia may revive; but, previous to that event,
+there can be nothing to inspire them with hope.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Swinburne had written of the same city ten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+years earlier (1776): &ldquo;The inhabitants do not
+appear much the richer for their cloth manufactory.
+Indeed, it is not in a very flourishing
+condition; but what cloth they make is very
+fine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_120.jpg" width="500" height="370"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_120.jpg" id="img_120.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XI<br />PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH<br />
+(<i>Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Ordinances of Granada (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1532), from
+which we learn that cloth was also manufactured
+at that capital, contain the usual dispositions relative
+to the stamping of this product by the city
+officers. The stamps were in a box which was kept
+in a corner of the cathedral and closed by two keys,
+guarded severally by a councillor and an inspector
+of the trade, or <i>veedor</i>. On every day except a
+public festival, between the hours of ten and
+eleven of the morning, and three and four of the
+afternoon, it was the duty of these two authorities
+to proceed to the Alcaicería, and ascertain if any
+cloth required stamping. If so, the stamps were
+fetched forthwith from the cathedral, the cloth
+was marked, and the stamps were solemnly restored
+to their chest beneath the double key.</p>
+
+<p>Among the woven fabrics other than those of
+silk, and which are specified in the Ordinances of
+Granada relative to the <i>tundidores</i> or shearers,
+are cloths of Florence, Flanders, London, Valencia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+Zaragoza, Onteniente, Segovia, and Perpignan;
+<i>velarte</i> (a fine cloth manufactured at Granada),
+red <i>burel</i> (kersey) of Baeza, black kersey of
+Villanueva and La Mancha, <i>ruan</i> (Roan linen),
+fustians, friezes, and <i>cordellate</i> (grogram) of
+Granada, Valencia, Toledo, Segovia, and Cuenca.
+According to Capmany, cloths of the commoner
+kind, and which were popular about this time,
+were the <i>granas treintenas</i> and black cloths of
+Valencia, the white or yellow <i>veintiseiseno</i> cloths
+of Toledo, the white cloths of Ciudad Real, the
+green <i>palmillas</i> of Cuenca, and green <i>dieciochenos</i>
+of Segovia, the <i>contrayes</i> of Cazalla, and the
+<i>pardillos</i> of Aragon. Spanish cloth was also
+manufactured at Vergara, Cordova, Jaen, Murcia,
+Palencia, Tavira de Durango, and Medina del
+Campo.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_122.jpg" width="341" height="499"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_122.jpg" id="img_122.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XII<br />EMBROIDERED CHASUBLE<br />
+(<i>Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Laborde says: &ldquo;In the archives of the Crowns
+of Aragon and Castile there is a notice of the
+duties paid from the thirteenth to the end of the
+seventeenth century for foreign cloths sold in
+Spain, and for other articles of consumption coming
+from abroad. The principal cloths came from
+Bruges, Montpellier, and London; the velvets
+from Malines, Courtrai, Ypres, and Florence.
+This trade became so injurious to Spain, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+Ferdinand and Isabella thought themselves bound
+to limit it entirely to the stuffs required for ornaments
+of the church, which of itself was a considerable
+quantity. Their prohibition is the
+subject of the rescript of September 2nd, 1494,
+for the provinces of the Crown of Castile. Even
+so far back as the Ordinances of Barcelona in
+1271, mention is made of the taxes levied on the
+cloths of Flanders, Arras, Lannoy, Paris, Saint
+Denis, Chalons, Beziers, and Reims.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_124.jpg" width="348" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_124.jpg" id="img_124.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIII<br />EMBROIDERED <i>MANGA</i> OR CASE OF PROCESSIONAL CROSS<br />
+(<i>Early 16th Century; Toledo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1809 the same author remarked: &ldquo;The
+kingdom of Valencia produces little wool, yet
+there are five manufactories of woollens and
+coarse and fine cloths: they are at Morella,
+Enguera, Bocairente, Onteniente, and Alcoy.
+The small woollen stuffs are principally made
+at Enguera; nothing but the coarsest cloths are
+made at Morella, Bocairente, and Onteniente.
+The manufactory at Alcoy is the most considerable:
+the cloths, though finer, are generally of
+an inferior quality. The woof of them is thick,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+with little nap upon it. The finest are scarcely
+superior to the beautiful cloths of Carcassonne.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Colmenares, who wrote a history of Segovia down to the reign
+of Philip the Second, says that in his time the clothmakers of this
+town were &ldquo;true fathers of families, who within and without their
+houses sustain a multitude of persons (in many cases two and three
+hundred), producing, with the aid of other people's hands, a great
+variety of finest cloth: an employment worthy to be ranked with
+agriculture, and that is of the utmost profit to any city, or to any
+kingdom.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> An amusing passage in Fernandez Navarrete's <i>Conservación de
+Monarquías</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1626) tells us that most of the costlier dress-materials
+used in Spain about this time proceeded from abroad, and
+that they were &ldquo;of so fine a texture that the heat of an iron scorches
+them and wears them out in a couple of days; while a great number
+of men employ themselves in the effeminate office of dressing
+collars, who, ceasing also to be men, forsake the plough or warlike
+exercises; for it is certain that when the Spaniards kept the world
+in awe, this land produced a greater number of armourers, and less
+persons who busied themselves with looking after womanish apparel&rdquo;
+(p. 232).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> This recalls the statement made, centuries before, by Alonso de
+Cartagena at the Council of Bâle: &ldquo;And if the English should
+vaunt the cunning of their cloth-makers, then would I tell them
+somewhat; for if our country lack the weavers to make a cloth so
+delicate as the scarlet cloths of London, yet is that substance titled
+<i>grana</i> (the kermes, or scarlet grain), from which the scarlet cloth
+receives its pleasantness of smell and brilliancy of hue, raised in the
+kingdom of Castile, and thence conveyed to England, and even to
+Italy.&rdquo;&mdash;Larruga, <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. XIV., p. 167.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> &ldquo;The weight of an <i>arroba</i> is twenty-seven pounds. The
+average price is from twenty-three to twenty-seven <i>livres</i> the <i>arroba</i>
+of unwashed wool of the best quality, which pays five <i>livres</i> ten <i>sols</i>
+of export duty. The <i>arroba</i> of washed wool pays double.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> &ldquo;It has been calculated that Spain, about this time, paid annually
+to England two million pounds sterling per annum, solely on account
+of her woollens.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> &ldquo;His Majesty maintained this factory by a monthly payment
+from his treasury of one hundred and fifty thousand <i>livres</i>; an
+exorbitant amount, which very possibly would not be covered by the
+sales of cloth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Townsend wrote in 1787 &ldquo;Royal manufactures and monopolies
+have a baneful influence on population: for, as no private adventurers
+can stand the competition with their sovereign, where he is
+the great monopolist, trade will never prosper. The Spanish
+monarch is a manufacturer of</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+Broad cloth, at Guadalajara and Brihuega;<br />
+China, at the palace of the Buen Retiro;<br />
+Cards, at Madrid and Málaga;<br />
+Glass, at San Ildefonso;<br />
+Paper, in Segovia;<br />
+Pottery, at Talavera;<br />
+Saltpetre, at Madrid and various other places;<br />
+Stockings, at Valdemoro;<br />
+Swords, at Toledo;<br />
+Tapestry, at Madrid;<br />
+Tissue, at Talavera.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>He has the monopoly of brandy, cards, gunpowder, lead, quicksilver,
+sealing-wax, salts, sulphur, and tobacco.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Journey through
+Spain</i>, Vol. II., p. 240.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> &ldquo;It is made from wools of Buenos Aires and Peru. The wool
+of the former of these regions is the longer, but the Peruvian is the
+more silky.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> A report presented by the Council of Commerce to the Marquis
+of la Ensenada, put forward, in 1744, the absurd pretence that
+the king of Spain maintained his factories &ldquo;not for any State
+convenience or <i>ad lucrum captandum</i>, but in order to augment
+our own products, and diminish those which are imported from
+abroad.&rdquo;&mdash;Larruga's <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. XV., pp. 70 and 247. Also
+see the conference delivered by the Count of Torreánaz in 1886,
+in the Royal Spanish Academy of Moral and Political Science;
+p. 27, note.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the Spanish Crown factories were finally taken over
+by the association&mdash;immensely wealthy at one period&mdash;known as
+the Five Chief Gremios of Madrid (<i>Los Cinco Gremios Mayores de la
+Villa de Madrid</i>), and it is clear that the investment of a large
+amount of capital, subscribed by many shareholders, would of itself
+be calculated to destroy the narrow ideals and what I may term the
+individually greedy spirit which hitherto had ruled within the craftsman's
+private family. Private interests, in short, were superseded
+by the larger interests of a powerful company. That which I have
+mentioned was composed of the five <i>gremios</i> of the capital of Spain
+which subscribed the largest sums in taxes to the national exchequer;
+namely, the drapers, haberdashers, spicers and druggists, jewellers,
+cloth-merchants, and linen-drapers. For many years this association
+administered, on government's behalf, the <i>alcabalas</i>, <i>tercias</i>,
+and <i>cientos</i> of the town and district of Madrid, and subsequently
+(<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1745) the <i>millones</i> tax, together with other important dues,
+and ultimately, as I have stated, took over, on a liberal scale of
+purchase, the royal cloth and silk factories of Talavera de la Reina
+(<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1785), San Fernando, Guadalajara, Brihuega, Ezcaray, and
+Cuenca. The decay and downfall of the company was due to gross
+mismanagement, and indeed, the idiosyncrasies of the Spanish
+character render this people, even at the present day, but little fitted
+to embark upon commercial schemes requiring competent directors,
+heavy capital, and confident assistance, moral and material, from a
+large body of investors. Spaniards, as I have insisted elsewhere,
+do not pull well together; and so, early in the nineteenth century,
+the association of the five great <i>gremios</i>, which had possessed at
+one time many millions of <i>pesetas</i>, suspended payment of all
+dividends. It is fair to add, however, that this collapse was partly
+owing to the wars between France and Spain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> In the reign of Francis the First, the importation of Catalan
+cloth into France was prohibited altogether.&mdash;Levasseur, <i>Histoire
+des classes ouvrières en France</i>, Vol. II., p. 73.</p>
+
+<p>Among the various cloths (exclusively or chiefly of the less
+expensive kinds) which were manufactured in the capital and
+country of Cataluña, we read of those of pure scarlet, scarlet
+tinted with light or dark purple, ash-coloured, carmine, and rose;
+of cloth of combed wool, <i>medias lanas</i> (half-woollens), serges, and
+<i>cadinas</i> or <i>banyolenchs</i>. But before the close of the fifteenth
+century the production of these fabrics had suffered a serious
+decline caused by the tactless government of Ferdinand the
+Catholic, and above all, by the introduction of the Inquisition into
+Barcelona. A privilege of Ferdinand, granted on November 4th,
+1493, to the Barcelonese clothmakers, admits that this was the
+foremost and most useful local manufacture (&ldquo;no y ha altre art ni
+offici que mes util done&rdquo;), adding, however, that it had fallen into
+a state of sad prostration &ldquo;owing to the indisposition of these
+times.&rdquo; (Capmany, <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. II., <i>Doc.</i> ccxliv).</p>
+
+<p>This was undoubtedly the case; for in a report of the city council
+drawn up in 1491, it is stated that good cloth can only be manufactured
+from good wool, but that this had now become a difficult
+matter at Barcelona, because the clothmakers were without the
+money to purchase such wool. In consequence, they appealed to
+the city (then even more resourceless than themselves) to help
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Although it has become fashionable in some quarters to deny
+that the Inquisition contributed in a sensible degree to the decline
+of Spanish arts and industries, the following passage, quoted from
+the municipal archives of Barcelona, places the fact beyond all
+argument as far as this locality is concerned. The city councillors
+declared in 1492 that &ldquo;by reason of the Inquisition established in
+this city, many evils have befallen our commerce, together with
+the depopulation of the said city, and much other and irreparable
+damage to her welfare; and as much more harm will occur in the
+future, unless a remedy be applied, wherefore the said councillors
+entreat of the king's majesty that of his wonted clemency he order
+the said Inquisition to cease; or else that he repair the matter in
+such wise that <i>the merchants who departed because of the Inquisition</i>
+may return, and continue in the service of their God, their
+king, and of the general welfare of the city aforesaid.&rdquo;</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="EMBROIDERY" id="EMBROIDERY">EMBROIDERY</a></h3>
+
+<p>The art of embroidering, and especially of embroidering
+with the aid of gold and silver thread,
+was communicated to the Spaniards by the
+Spanish Moors, who doubtless had derived it from
+the East. By about the thirteenth century, the
+needle of the Spanish embroiderer had become, in
+the picturesque phrase of one of his compatriots,
+&ldquo;a veritable painter's brush, describing facile outlines
+on luxurious fabrics, and filling in the spaces,
+sometimes with brilliant hues, or sometimes with
+harmonious, softly-graduated tones which imitate
+the entire colour-scheme of Nature.&rdquo; Nevertheless,
+it was not until the fifteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries that this art attained, in the Peninsula,
+its topmost summit of perfection.</p>
+
+<p>It is not at all surprising that embroidery should
+have made great progress among a people so devoted
+to the outward and spectacular forms of worship
+as the Spaniards; nor have the chasubles,
+copes, and other vestments of the Spanish prelacy
+and priesthood ever been surpassed for costly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+splendour<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> (Plates <a href="#img_118.jpg">x</a>., <a href="#img_120.jpg">xi</a>., <a href="#img_122.jpg">xii</a>.). But generally
+where the Spanish embroiderer excelled was in
+the mere manipulation of the needle. In fertility
+of design he was far outdistanced by the Germans
+and Italians, and was even to a large extent their
+imitator; for Spanish embroidery, as occurred with
+Spanish painting, was influenced, almost to an
+overwhelming degree, firstly by northern art, and
+subsequently by the art of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_126.jpg" width="600" height="255"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_126.jpg" id="img_126.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIV<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These tendencies or characteristics will be found
+in nearly all the masterpieces of Spanish embroidery
+that have been preserved until to-day,
+of which perhaps the most remarkable specimens
+are the <i>manga</i> or case of the great processional
+cross presented by Cardinal Cisneros to Toledo
+cathedral, and the &ldquo;<i>Tanto Monta</i>&rdquo; embroidered
+tapestry belonging to the same temple. The
+<i>manga grande</i>, known as that of the Corpus
+(Plate <a href="#img_124.jpg">xiii</a>.), is in the Gothic style, with reminiscences
+of German art, and consists of the
+following four scenes arranged in panels thirty-seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+inches high, and hung successively about
+the handle of the cross:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The Ascension of the Virgin Mary, who is
+supported by six angels.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The Adoration of the Magi.</p>
+
+<p>(3) San Ildefonso in the act of cutting off a
+piece of the veil of Santa Leocadia, patron
+of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The Martyrdom of San Eugenio, another
+patron of the city of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>The ground of this elaborate &ldquo;sleeve&rdquo; is a
+fabric of rich silk, on which the embroidery is
+worked in gold and silver thread and coloured
+silks, principally blue and red, combined in delicate,
+harmonious tones. The figures are outlined with
+fine gold cord, which forms a kind of frame or
+fencing to confine the stretches of smooth silk.
+The careful copying of architectural detail is
+stated by Serrano Fatigati to be strongly
+characteristic of Spanish industrial art in the
+fourteenth, fifteenth, and even sixteenth centuries.
+The same writer considers that this &ldquo;sleeve&rdquo;
+was executed towards the year 1514, when
+embroiderers of great renown, such as Alonso
+Hernández, Juan de Talavera, Martin Ruiz,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+Hernando de la Rica, Pedro de Burgos, and
+Marcos de Covarrubias were engaged on similar
+work in the venerable city of the Tagus. Two
+out of the four panels, says Serrano Fatigati, may
+possibly be from the hand of Covarrubias, who
+was a famous craftsman of his time, and held the
+post of master-embroiderer in Toledo cathedral.
+In any case, the four panels are evidently not all
+by the same artist, nor do they appear to have
+been executed at precisely the same period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_128.jpg" width="600" height="192"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_128.jpg" id="img_128.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XV<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT, WITH THE ARMS OF CARDINAL MENDOZA<br />
+(<i>15th Century. Toledo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gorgeous embroidered tapestry which also
+belongs to this cathedral (where it serves as a
+hanging or <i>colgadura</i> for the altar on the day of
+Corpus Christi), and which is known as the &ldquo;Tanto
+Monta&rdquo; <i>tapiz</i>, is stated by some authorities to
+have been the <i>dosel</i> or bed canopy of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, and to have been purchased,
+in the year 1517, for 900,000 <i>maravedis</i> by
+Alonso Fernández de Tendilla, steward of those
+sovereigns. Riaño gives the following account of
+the same object:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;As a fine specimen of embroidery on a large
+scale, must be mentioned the <i>dosel</i> or canopy called
+the tent of Ferdinand and Isabella, which was
+used in the reception of the English envoys,
+Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan, who were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of
+Prince Henry with the Infanta Doña Catalina.&rdquo;
+The ambassadors describe it in the following
+manner: &ldquo;After the tilting was over, the kings
+returned to the palace, and took the ambassadors
+with them, and entered a large room; and there
+they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson
+velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Castile
+and Aragon, and covered with the device of the
+King which is a &hellip; (blank in original),<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> and
+his motto, written at length, which is &lsquo;Tanto
+Monta.&rsquo;&rdquo; (&ldquo;Memorials of King Henry the
+Seventh,&rdquo; Gairdner, London, 1858, p. 348).</p>
+
+<p>Riaño also describes the mantle of the Virgen
+del Sagrario at Toledo. &ldquo;It is completely covered
+with pearls and jewels forming a most effective
+ornamentation. This embroidery was made in
+the beginning of the seventeenth century, during
+the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented
+it to the church.&rdquo; Señor Parro, in his exhaustive
+work <i>Toledo en la Mano</i> (Vol. I., p. 574), gives
+the following account of it: &ldquo;It is made of twelve
+yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is
+entirely covered with gold and precious stones.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+In the centre there is a jewel of amethysts and
+diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each
+side, of enamelled gold, emeralds, and large
+rubies. A variety of other jewels are placed at
+intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part
+are the arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on
+gold and studded with sapphires and rubies. The
+centre of this mantle is covered with flowers
+and pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of
+different sizes. Round the borders are rows of
+large pearls. Besides the gems which are employed
+in this superb work of art, no less than two
+hundred and fifty-seven ounces of pearls of different
+sizes were used, three hundred ounces of gold
+thread, a hundred and sixty ounces of small pieces
+of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_130.jpg" width="500" height="297"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_130.jpg" id="img_130.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVI<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT<br />
+(<i>Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As in other countries, embroidery in Spain
+was executed in the bygone time, both by paid
+embroiderers, and as a domestic occupation by
+the ladies of the aristocracy. The work of the
+professional embroiderer consisted principally of
+paraments or altar-fronts (Plates <a href="#img_126.jpg">xiv</a>., <a href="#img_128.jpg">xv</a>., <a href="#img_130.jpg">xvi</a>.,
+<a href="#img_132.jpg">xvii</a>xvii.), and ecclesiastical vestments. Among the
+former of this class of objects, nothing is finer than
+the <i>frontal</i> of the Chapel of Saint George in the
+Audiencia of Barcelona. It is believed to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+been wrought by Antonio Sadurni, a Catalan
+embroiderer who flourished in the middle of the
+fifteenth century. The scene represented is the
+combat between Saint George (patron of Cataluña)
+and the dragon. The saint has rescued a
+damsel from the monster's claws, and her parents
+are looking on from a <i>mirador</i> of their palace.
+This central episode is surrounded with borders
+and arabesques of extraordinary richness.</p>
+
+<p>Riaño gives a list, compiled from Cean, Martinez,
+Suarez de Figueroa, and other authors, of forty-seven
+Spanish embroiderers of the fifteenth, sixteenth,
+seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.
+More recently, Ramírez de Arellano has discovered,
+among the municipal archives of Cordova,
+the names of sixteen others, who resided at
+that city towards, or early in, the seventeenth
+century. The craftsmen in question were Diego
+de Aguilar, Juan Bautista, Bernardo Carrillo,
+Luis Carrillo de Quijana, Andrés Fernández de
+Montemayor, Hernán Gómez del Río, Diego
+Fabián de Herrera, Diego del Hierro, Diego
+López de Herrera, Diego López de Valenzuela,
+Antonio de Morales, Gonzalo de Ocaña, Mateo
+Sanguino, Manuel Torralbo, Cristóbal de Valenzuela,
+and Martin de la Vega.</p>
+
+<p>Documents in the same archive contain additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+particulars respecting two or three of these
+artificers. Thus, on February 10th, 1607, Hernán
+Gómez del Río engaged himself to embroider for
+the convent of the Trinity at Cordova, &ldquo;a
+bordering for a chasuble and four <i>faldones</i> for
+dalmatics, with their collars and <i>sabastros</i> and
+<i>bocas mangas</i>. The said <i>bocas mangas</i> to be four
+in number, and the collars two; also the <i>collaretes</i>
+which may be necessary for the two dalmatics,
+and which I am to embroider in silk and gold
+upon white satin. The <i>collaretes</i> also to be embroidered
+by me in silk and gold to match a
+bordering of white satin for a cloak in possession
+of the said convent.&rdquo; Further, the convent was to
+supply the artist with the quantity of white satin
+required, and pay him two hundred and ten ducats,
+secured by certain of the convent's revenues, for
+the gold, the silk, and the workmanship.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_132.jpg" width="500" height="311"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_132.jpg" id="img_132.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVII<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONTS<br />
+(<i>Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Manuel Torralbo contracted to embroider a
+velvet altar-front and its corresponding <i>fronteleras</i>
+for the parish church of Luque, at a price of three
+hundred <i>reales</i>; and Cristóbal de Valenzuela (on
+September 25th, 1604) to embroider two frontals
+for the altar of the church of Obejo. One of them
+was to be of purple velvet worked in gold, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+the other of &ldquo;black velvet, with borders and
+<i>caidas</i> embroidered in yellow satin and white satin,
+with skulls and bones embroidered in gold.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>Turning our attention to the embroidery which
+was executed, principally as a recreation, by highborn
+Spanish ladies of some centuries ago, the
+romance of <i>El Compte Arnau</i>, quoted by Miquel y
+Badía and written in Catalan and Provençal,
+contains the following lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="catalan">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">&ldquo;¿</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Ahout teniu las vostras fillas&mdash;muller leal?</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">¿</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Ahout teniu las vostras fillas&mdash;viudeta igual?</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">A la cambra son que <i>brodan</i>&mdash;Compte l'Arnau</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">A la cambra son que <i>brodan</i>&mdash;seda y estam.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Isabella the Catholic presented to the Chapel
+Royal of the cathedral of Granada an ecclesiastical
+robe embroidered by her own hands for the festival
+of Corpus Christi. The material was black
+satin brocade, with a fringe of white silk, and the
+letters IHS in white damask.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_134.jpg" width="413" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_134.jpg" id="img_134.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVIII<br />WIFE OF WELL-TO-DO MERCHANT<br />
+(<i>Palma, Balearic Islands. About A.D. 1810</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same usage continued in the seventeenth
+century. Countess d'Aulnoy says: &ldquo;Young ladies
+of great beauty and of noble blood engage themselves
+to wait on ladies of the aristocracy, and
+spend most of their time embroidering the collars
+and sleeves of shirts in gold, silver, and coloured
+silk, although, if they be suffered to follow their
+liking, they work but little, and gossip a great
+deal.&rdquo; The same writer refers repeatedly to the
+sumptuous embroideries in use among the upper
+classes of the Spaniards of that time. Thus, the
+bed-pillows of the Princess of Monteleón were
+embroidered with gold. The sleeves of the coat
+of Charles the Second were of white silk, very
+large, opening towards the wrist, and embroidered
+with blue silk and jet, the rest of his costume
+being embroidered in white and blue silk. In the
+palace of the same monarch, the daïs of the throne-room
+was covered with &ldquo;a wondrous carpet, and
+the throne and its canopy were embroidered with
+pearls, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and other
+precious stones.&rdquo; The cloaks of the chevaliers
+who belonged to the Military Orders of Santiago,
+Calatrava, and Alcántara were embroidered with
+gold. The gentlemen of Madrid covered their
+horses with silver gauze, and trappings embroidered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+with gold and pearls.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> The same gentlemen wore
+coats whose sleeves were of coloured satin, embroidered
+with silk and jet, and even their lackeys,
+when they attended their masters in a procession,
+wore uniforms of cloth embroidered with gold and
+silver. Unmarried girls and brides wore gold-embroidered
+bodices. The chairs in which the ladies of
+Madrid paid visits were made of cloth embroidered
+in gold and silver, stretched upon the wooden
+frame. In the train of the Duchess of Terranova
+went six litters covered with embroidered velvet.
+&ldquo;In the parish church of San Sebastián,&rdquo; wrote
+Countess d'Aulnoy, &ldquo;I have seen a hand-chair
+made by order of the queen-mother, for carrying
+the Sacrament to sick persons in bad weather. It
+is lined with crimson velvet embroidered in gold
+and covered with hide studded with gilt nails: it
+has large window-glasses, and a kind of small
+belfry full of golden bells.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>With the succession of a French line of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+sovereigns to the throne of Spain, a taste for French
+embroideries passed into the Peninsula, and these,
+in course of time, were imitated by the Spanish
+craftsmen.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> &ldquo;We find,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;that Madrid
+was the principal centre of this industry, and that
+French designs were universally copied, as was
+the case in the whole of Europe. The splendid
+curtains and embroidered hangings for apartments
+which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the
+Escorial, and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I may mention here the embroidery, often of
+a rich and highly ornate character, which is, or
+used to be, applied to the regional costumes of
+Spain. Plate ix. is reproduced from a rare print
+in my possession, showing the gala dress, as it
+existed in the year 1777, of the <i>charra</i> of Salamanca,
+with full, white sleeves ornamented in
+black embroidery with animals and other devices.
+A similar costume is still worn in that neighbourhood.
+Plate xviii., also copied from a print in my
+collection, dating from about the year 1810, shows
+the costume worn by the women of the well-to-do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+middle class of the island of Majorca. &ldquo;Le jupon
+ou <i>guardapies</i>,&rdquo; says the manuscript description
+prefixed to this series of plates, &ldquo;en mousseline,
+complete le costume de cette insulaire: il est orné
+au bas de riches broderies, mais assez court pour
+laisser voir un joli petit pied chaussé d'un bas de
+coton ou de soie et d'un élégant soulier de satin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> The cathedrals of Toledo and Palencia are particularly rich in
+sets of magnificently embroidered vestments. &ldquo;Each set,&rdquo; says
+Riaño, &ldquo;generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, altar frontal,
+covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces. The embroideries
+on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints, are
+as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MSS.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The device of Ferdinand the Catholic was a yoke; the sheaf of
+arrows, that of Isabella. (See Vol. II., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, etc.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The skull and crossbones were a favourite design upon these
+objects. The Church of the Escorial possesses four paraments so
+decorated, which were shown, in 1878, at the Parisian Exhibition
+of Retrospective Art.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Gómez Moreno; <i>Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del
+bordado de imagineria en Granada</i> (<i>El Liceo de Granada</i>; 6th year,
+No. 18).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> A similar usage prevailed at Valladolid. The account of this
+city as it existed in 1605, published by Gayangos in the <i>Revista de
+España</i>, describes Don Juan de Tassis, Count of Villamediana, as
+&ldquo;riding in the finest clothes imaginable; his cloak, jacket, breeches,
+shoes, and the trappings, harness, reins, etc., of his horse, being all
+embroidered with the finest twisted silver thread. Even his horse's
+blinkers were of the same material.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The use of embroidery was, however, greatly curbed by sumptuary
+pragmatics, issued early in this century (see Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>,
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>). A similar pragmatic had appeared in 1622; but it is clear from
+the passages I have quoted, that little or no attention was paid to it.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="TAPESTRY" id="TAPESTRY">TAPESTRY</a></h3>
+
+<p>There is a dim tradition, derived from or supported
+by a Latin poet (&ldquo;Tunc operosa suis
+<i>Hispana tapetia</i> villis&rdquo;) that carpets or tapestries
+of some kind were made in the Spanish Peninsula
+in the time of the Romans. Undoubtedly this
+craft was practised by the Spanish-Moors, particularly
+in the regions of Valencia, Alicante, Cuenca,
+and Granada. This statement is confirmed by two
+laconic notices which occur in the <i>Description of
+Africa and Spain</i> of Edrisi, a Mohammedan
+geographer of the twelfth century. Of the town
+of Chinchilla, in Alicante province, he wrote,&mdash;&ldquo;woollen
+carpets are made here, such as could
+not be manufactured anywhere else, owing to the
+qualities of the air and water&rdquo;; and of Cuenca,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+&ldquo;excellent woollen carpets are manufactured at
+this town.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;En Espagne,&rdquo; says Müntz, &ldquo;l'industrie textile
+ne tarda pas à prendre également le plus brilliant
+essor, grâce à la conquête maure. Les étoffes
+d'Almeria acquirent rapidement une réputation
+européenne; il est vrai que c'étaient des brocarts,
+des damas, et autres tissus analogues, non des
+tapisseries: l'influence qu'elles furent appelées à
+exercer au dehors se borna donc au domaine de
+l'ornementation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_138.jpg" width="475" height="411"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_138.jpg" id="img_138.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIX<br />THE &ldquo;GENESIS TAPESTRY&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>12th Century; Gerona Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of a similar composition to the foregoing
+fabrics specified by Müntz&mdash;that is to say, not
+genuine tapestries, although requiring for several
+reasons to be classed with these&mdash;is the celebrated
+&ldquo;Genesis&rdquo; (Plate <a href="#img_138.jpg">xix</a>.) of the cathedral of
+Gerona. This primitive yet complicated work
+of art, dating from the twelfth century, is embroidered
+in crewels upon linen, and represents
+the creation of the world. Its dimensions are
+about four yards high by four and a half yards
+wide; but the bordering has been torn away in
+places. The design is thus described by Riaño:&mdash;&ldquo;In
+the centre is a geometrical figure formed by
+two concentric circles. In the lesser circle is a
+figure of Christ holding an open book, on which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+appear the words <i>Sanctus Deus</i>, and on each side
+<i>Rex fortis</i>, surrounded by the inscription, <i>Dixit
+quoque Deus, Fiat lux, Et facta est lux</i>. In the
+larger circle are the words, <i>In principio creavit
+Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia quæ in eis
+sunt, et vidit Deus cuncta quæ egerat et erant
+valde bona</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The space between the two circles is divided
+by radiating lines into eight portions, in which
+are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of
+light and darkness: the division of land from
+water, the creation of sun, moon, and stars, of
+birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve.
+In the angles outside the larger circle are the four
+winds, and the whole is surrounded by a border,
+imperfect in parts, containing representations of
+the months, and apparently of certain scriptural
+incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The royal palaces of Spain and many of her
+noble houses have possessed, from about the
+fifteenth century, splendid collections of the
+costliest tapestries, consisting principally of <i>paños
+de Ras</i>, or &ldquo;Arras cloths&rdquo; (as they were called
+among the Spaniards, and especially in Aragon).
+Until a later period all, or very nearly all, these
+objects were imported from the Flemish workshops.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
+At the palace of a nobleman in Madrid,
+Bertaut de Rouen observed &ldquo;les plus belles
+tapisseries du monde.&rdquo; The same author tells us
+that in the seventeenth century, when he visited
+Spain and wrote his entertaining <i>Journal</i>, it was
+customary for the walls of the royal palace to
+be hung with tapestry in winter, these hangings
+being removed for greater coolness in the summer
+months. In reading descriptions of Spanish life
+referring to the same period, one is struck by the
+craze which prevailed among the Spaniards for
+displaying tapestries and other gay-coloured fabrics
+in all kinds of places and on every possible occasion.
+Thus, Bertaut de Rouen relates that when he saw
+a play performed in the Alcázar, &ldquo;le long de ces
+deux costez de la salle estoient seulement deux
+grands bancs couverts de tapis de Perse&rdquo;; that
+the boxes at the bull-fights, both at Madrid and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+in the country, were &ldquo;tapissées de brocatelle de
+soye&rdquo;; and that the lower part of the dome in
+one of the chapels of Seville cathedral was
+decorated with the same material. At the haunted
+castle of Quebaro, on the road from Galareta
+to Vitoria, Countess d'Aulnoy saw upon the
+walls of a large chamber, some tapestries representing
+the amours of Don Pedro the Cruel and
+of Doña María de Padilla. &ldquo;This lady was
+depicted seated, like a queen, among various other
+ladies, while the king crowned her with a chaplet of
+flowers. Elsewhere Doña María was reposing in
+a forest, as the king offered her a falcon. I also
+saw her dressed as a warrior while the king, in
+armour, offered her a sword. This set me thinking
+whether she had ever accompanied Don Pedro
+in one of his campaigns. All the figures in these
+tapestries were badly drawn, but Don Fernando
+assured me that all well-executed likenesses of
+Doña María de Padilla represented her to be a
+woman of rare charm, the loveliest of her century.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Pinheiro da Veiga says that at Valladolid in
+1605, a banquet was celebrated in &ldquo;a large gallery,
+completely covered with the richest silk brocade, as
+were most of the other apartments.&rdquo; He also says
+that cloths of similar richness were employed as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+street-awnings. &ldquo;Upon the ninth was the Corpus
+procession, at which the king was to assist; and
+a proclamation was issued that none should
+promenade on horseback or in coaches. I found
+nothing remarkable in this procession, unless it
+were the hangings and the awnings to keep off
+the sun, which were of the richest damask and
+brocade.&rdquo; Of the same <i>fiesta</i> Countess d'Aulnoy
+wrote in 1679: &ldquo;The streets through which the
+procession has to pass are adorned with the finest
+tapestries in all the world, since in addition to
+those belonging to the Crown, many of the greatest
+beauty are displayed by private persons. The
+<i>celosías</i> of all the balconies are replaced by
+elaborate canopies and hangings, and the whole
+roadway is covered with an awning to ward off the
+sun, and which, for the sake of greater freshness,
+is moistened with a little water.&rdquo; Nearly identical
+with this account is that of Alexander de Laborde,
+who wrote, a century and a quarter later than the
+Countess; &ldquo;On Corpus Christi day there is a
+grand procession composed of the regular and
+secular clergy of Madrid, followed by the king,
+his ministers, and court, each bearing in his hand
+a wax taper. Magnificent awnings of tapestry are
+raised in the streets through which the procession<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+is to pass; the balconies are decorated with
+splendid hangings; the seats are covered with
+cushions, and occasionally surmounted with a daïs;
+in some of the streets the face of day is darkened
+by canopies which stretch from one side to the
+other. Altars are placed at regular intervals; the
+balconies are thronged with ladies superbly
+dressed, who sprinkle scented water, or scatter
+fragrant flowers on the passing multitudes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Pinheiro da Veiga also describes a set of remarkable
+tapestries, evidently Flemish, which he saw
+in the Chapter-room of the Convent of Cármen
+Calzado at Valladolid. &ldquo;It was hung with the
+richest tapestry, silk, and paintings that had
+belonged to the Duke of Lerma. I greatly
+admired some cloths of green velvet, worked all
+over with the <i>Bucolics</i> of Virgil, in <i>tarjas</i> embroidered
+in silk and gold, as though they were
+<i>sebastos</i><a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> of ecclesiastical vestments, but these
+were old, of great value, and extraordinary merit.
+Finer still were certain cloths of recent workmanship,
+such as I had never seen equalled, of a
+white material painted in tempera, with the borders,
+dresses, and faces of the personages on them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+wrought in twisted gold. I never saw anything
+so brilliant or so novel. The cloths were eight
+in number, with four embroidered <i>guardapuertas</i>.
+The persons figured upon them wore belts of
+real pearls, rings set with diamonds and rubies
+on their fingers, and gold chains and medals
+studded with precious stones, just as living people
+wear them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The fashion of collecting foreign tapestries seems
+to have reached its height at the Spanish capital
+in the first half of the seventeenth century.
+&ldquo;Nowadays,&rdquo; wrote Fernandez de Navarrete, in
+his <i>Conservacion de Monarquías</i>, published in
+1626, &ldquo;gentlemen are not contented with hangings
+which a few years ago were considered good
+enough to adorn a prince's palace. The Spanish
+taffetas and guadamecíes, so highly esteemed in
+other provinces, are held of no account in this one
+(Madrid). The <i>sargas</i> and <i>arãbeles</i> wherewith the
+moderation of the Spanish people was satisfied in
+former days, must now be turned into injurious
+<i>telas rizas</i> of Florence and Milan, and into costliest
+Brussels tapestry.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_144.jpg" width="335" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_144.jpg" id="img_144.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XX<br /><i>TAPIZ</i> OF CRIMSON VELVET WORKED IN GOLD TISSUE<br />
+(<i>16th Century. Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is perhaps allowable to include among the
+oldest makers of Spanish tapestry the names of
+Gonzalo de Mesa and Diego Roman, who, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+the year 1331, were paid respectively one thousand
+<i>maravedis</i> and eighteen hundred <i>maravedis</i>, for
+decorating the tents of King Sancho the Fourth.
+There also exists the following entry, dating from
+the same period; &ldquo;To Boançibre, master of the
+tents; XXX <i>maravedis</i> for his food, for fifteen
+days.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>Far clearer than these laconic excerpts is a
+document preserved in the library of the Academy
+of History at Madrid, in the form of a memorial
+presented to Philip the Second by a Spanish
+tapestry-maker of Salamanca, named Pedro
+Gutierrez,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> and setting forth, in pessimistic
+language, the unhappy condition of this craft in
+the Peninsula. Pedro relates of himself that in
+twenty-four days he made for the Cardinal-archduke
+no less than a hundred and twenty <i>reposteros</i>;
+and that in order to exhibit his cleverness as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+tapestry-weaver, he set up a loom in the royal
+palace (being officially the <i>tapicero</i> to the Crown),
+and worked for forty days where all might criticise
+the product of his toil. Gutierrez also states that
+the township of Madrid had provided him with
+six hundred ducats to enable him to establish
+there a tapestry-factory for the space of ten years,
+together with six hundred and fifty ducats from
+the Cortes for supporting his apprentices, and a
+thousand ducats from the king to defray the cost
+of certain voyages he had made to Lisbon,
+Monzón, and Barcelona, and of removing his residence
+from Salamanca to the capital of Spain. He
+complains, however, that the house he dwells in
+at Madrid is not large enough to contain his loom,
+and replies to the objections of such persons as
+opposed his opening the tapestry-works at all (on
+the ground that this craft was practised better and
+more cheaply in Flanders), by asserting that
+Spanish makers of <i>reposteros</i> were now accustomed
+to receive a daily wage of no more than three
+<i>reales</i> and &ldquo;a miserable meal.&rdquo; This, he urges,
+should render Spanish tapestries at least as inexpensive
+to produce as those of Flanders; although,
+upon the other hand, he admits that the colouring
+of the former is likely to prove inferior to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+Flemish cloths in purity and durability. &ldquo;Common
+tapestry,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;seldom keeps its colour upward
+of a couple of years, so that, if such were
+used in open sunlight on the backs of beasts of
+burden, or to cover carts, exposed to sun, wind,
+dust, and mire, or else for cleaning shoes upon,
+as now is practised with the <i>reposteros</i>, their
+imperfections would become apparent all the
+sooner.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mention of these typically Spanish objects
+known as <i>reposteros</i>,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> induces me to quote an
+interesting notice relating to the visit of Philip the
+Second to Cordova, in the year 1570. The train
+of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, who journeyed
+to this city in order to receive his sovereign,
+consisted of a hundred and three mules covered
+with &ldquo;new <i>reposteros</i> of wool, and of six mules<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+covered with <i>reposteros</i> of purple velvet, embroidered
+with silver and gold, and bearing the
+duke's arms.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>If, as seems most likely, the woollen <i>reposteros</i>
+above referred to were of woven work containing
+a device, this passage would demonstrate that the
+manufacture of the cloths in question was sometimes
+the province of the tapestry-maker and
+sometimes that of the embroiderer. Ramírez de
+Arellano, from whose instructive studies on the
+craftsmen of older Spain I quote the foregoing
+extract, says that the making of <i>reposteros</i>
+constitutes a branch of craftsmanship distinct
+from embroidery of the common class, and that
+the men who produced them deserve to be
+included among artists of real merit. He gives
+the names of two, Hernán Gonzalez and Juan
+Ramos, who worked at Cordova in the middle of
+the sixteenth century. A document relating to the
+former of these men tells us that in those days the
+price of a <i>repostero de estambre</i> measuring sixteen
+palms square, with a coat-of-arms worked in the
+centre, and a decorative border, was ninety <i>reales</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_148.jpg" width="500" height="379"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_148.jpg" id="img_148.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXI<br />THE SPINNERS<br />
+(<i>By Velazquez. Prado Gallery</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Riaño says: &ldquo;I do not find any information of
+a later date which suggests the existence of the
+manufacture of tapestries in Spain during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+Middle Ages.&rdquo; Davillier, however, affirms that
+in the year 1411 two master-makers of tapestry
+were living at the court of the King of Navarre,
+and that other craftsmen, holding the same title,
+were established at Barcelona in 1391 and 1433.
+This notice is accepted by Müntz: &ldquo;A la fin du
+XIV<sup>e</sup> et au commencement du XV<sup>e</sup> siècle, les
+Espagnols tentèrent de fonder dans leur patrie
+quelques ateliers de haute lisse. A Barcelone, en
+1391 et en 1433, plusieurs tapissiers (<i>maestros de
+tapices</i>) firent partie du grand Conseil. Mais ces
+tentaves ne semblent pas avoir eu de résultats
+durables. Il était plus commode de recourir
+aux manufactures flamandes, si merveilleusement
+organisées. Peut-être même ce système était-il
+plus économique. Ne voyons-nous pas aujourd'hui
+jusqu'à l'extrême Orient tirer, pour raison
+d'économie, des fabriques de Manchester et de
+Birmingham les tissus courants dont il a besoin?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The history of tapestry-making at Madrid may
+be said to date from the establishment in this
+town of a small factory by Pedro Gutierrez, whose
+petition to Philip the Second I have already
+quoted, and who received protection both from
+that monarch and from the queen, Doña Ana.
+In 1625 Gutierrez was succeeded by Antonio<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+Ceron, who formally styled himself &ldquo;tapicero de
+nuevo, sucesor de Pedro Gutierrez&rdquo; (&ldquo;maker of
+new tapestries, successor to Pedro Gutierrez&rdquo;),
+and petitioned the king for the grant of a meal a
+day, &ldquo;in recompense of having taught his trade
+to eight lads, and of having mounted eight looms
+in (the factory of) Santa Isabel.&rdquo; This factory of
+Santa Isabel was so called from the street in which
+it lay, and part of it is represented in the celebrated
+painting by Velazquez called <i>Las Hilanderas</i>
+(&ldquo;The Spinners,&rdquo; not, as it is translated in
+Riaño's handbook, &ldquo;The Weavers.&rdquo; Plate xxi.).</p>
+
+<p>This factory was unsuccessful, and declined by
+degrees until it ceased completely, in spite of the
+efforts made to revive it in 1694 by a Belgian
+named Metler, and in 1707 by a Salamanquino,
+Nicholas Hernández.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_150.jpg" width="500" height="367"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_150.jpg" id="img_150.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXII<br />TAPESTRY MADE AT BRUSSELS FROM GRANADA SILK<br />
+(<i>16th Century. Spanish Crown Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A new tapestry-factory&mdash;that of Santa Barbara&mdash;was
+founded shortly afterwards in a building
+known as the Casa del Abreviador. The first
+director, engaged in 1720 by order of Philip the
+Fifth, was Jacob Van der Goten, a native of
+Antwerp,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> who died in 1724, and was succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+at the factory by his sons, Francisco, Jacobo,
+Cornelius, and Adrian. These craftsmen worked
+with <i>basse lisse</i> looms till 1729, in which year a
+<i>haute lisse</i> loom was mounted by a Frenchman,
+Antoine Lenger.</p>
+
+<p>In 1730, when the court removed to Seville, a
+tapestry-factory was established at this city also.
+The director was Jacob Van der Goten the
+younger, assisted by the painter Procaccini. At
+the end of three years this factory closed its
+doors, and Van der Goten and Procaccini, returning
+to Madrid, established themselves at the old
+factory of Santa Isabel, from which, in 1744, they
+again removed to the factory of Santa Barbara.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1774, when, with the exception of Cornelius,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+who was considered the most skilful of them all, the
+family of the Van der Gotens had died out, the
+direction of the Santa Barbara factory was entrusted
+to several Spanish artists, named Manuel
+Sanchez, Antonio Moreno, Tomás del Castillo,
+and Domingo Galan. Sanchez, who acted as
+general superintendent of the works, died in 1786,
+and was succeeded in this office by his nephew,
+Livinio Stuck, whose son resumed the directorship
+in 1815, after the factory had been paralysed
+by the invasion of the Peninsula, and destroyed
+by the French in 1808. Since then it has never
+ceased working, and descendants of the Stucks
+continue to superintend it at the present day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_152.jpg" width="325" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_152.jpg" id="img_152.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIII<br />A PROMENADE IN ANDALUSIA<br />
+(<i>Cartoon for Tapestry. By Goya</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The collection of tapestry belonging to the
+Crown of Spain is probably the finest in the
+world. As far back as the reign of Ferdinand
+and Isabella the walls of the royal palace were
+hung with decorative textile cloths or <i>paños de
+Ras</i>, and among the officers in the household of
+their son, the youthful Prince Don Juan, we find<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+included a keeper of the tapestry and <i>reposteros</i>.
+But it was not until the reigns of Charles the
+Fifth and Philip the Second that the royal collection
+was enriched with numerous sets of celebrated
+tapestries produced in Italy and Flanders&mdash;countries
+which were then subjected to the yoke
+of Spain. Frequent additions were also made
+throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+both from abroad and subsequently (when
+the Brussels industry declined) from the Spanish
+factories of Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the year 1600 a Spaniard wrote
+enthusiastically of &ldquo;the rich and cunning tapestries
+belonging to His Majesty, to whom it would be
+easier to win a kingdom than to get them made
+anew.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> At the present day it is impossible to
+estimate with any certainty the number of these
+tapestries, the greater part of which are locked
+away. Only on certain festivals, such as the days
+of Corpus Christi and the Candelaria (Purification),
+a few are unfolded and displayed in the upper
+galleries of the palace at Madrid. Their total
+number is believed to be not far short of one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+thousand pieces;<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> but Señor Tormo calculates
+that were they no more than five hundred, they
+would, if placed end to end, cover more than two
+miles of ground.</p>
+
+<p>Among the sets which form this wonderful
+collection, distributed between the palaces of
+Madrid, the Prado, and the Escorial, none is of
+greater merit or magnificence than the series of
+twelve cloths depicting the <i>Conquest of Tunis</i>
+(Plate <a href="#img_150.jpg">xxii</a>.), designed for Charles the Fifth by
+his Court painter, Jan Vermay or Vermeyen,
+of Beverwyck, near Haarlem, and executed by
+William Pannemaker, of Brussels. It was agreed
+by Pannemaker in 1549 that the materials employed
+upon this tapestry should consist of the finest
+wool, Granada silk, and, for the woof, the choicest
+Lyons <i>fillet</i>&mdash;the very best that money could procure.
+The Emperor himself was to provide the
+gold and silver thread. Accordingly, Pannemaker
+was supplied with five hundred and fifty-nine
+pounds and one ounce of silk, dyed and spun in
+the city of Granada, where one of Charles' agents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+resided for two years seven months and twenty-five
+days, for the purpose of superintending its
+preparation. The cost of this silk, exclusive of
+the agent's expenses, amounted to 6,637 florins.
+Nineteen colours were employed in the dyeing,
+each colour consisting of from three to seven
+shades, and a hundred and sixty pounds of the
+finest silk were consumed in trying to obtain a
+special shade of blue.</p>
+
+<p>After receiving these materials, Pannemaker
+kept seven workmen constantly engaged upon
+each <i>paño</i> of this tapestry, or eighty-four workmen
+in all. As soon as any one of the pieces was concluded,
+he submitted it to experts who pointed out
+such details as they recommended for correction.
+The entire work required a little more than five
+years, and was therefore terminated in 1554. The
+price paid for it was twelve florins per ell, and
+the number of these was 1246, representing a
+total cost of 14,952 florins, while Pannemaker,
+subject to the Emperor's being satisfied with the
+work, was further promised a yearly pension of a
+hundred florins.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p>Equally remarkable are the spirited design and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+the flawless execution of this series of elaborate
+cloths, recalling, in their swarms of armed figures
+and the lofty point of view, which reduces the sky
+to a mere strip, the vivacious war and camp pictures
+of Snyders. The titles of the subjects, forming,
+as it were, a pictured epitome of the expedition
+led by Charles in person against the Barbary
+pirates, are as follows: (1) A map of the Spanish
+coast; (2) The review of the troops at Barcelona;
+(3) The landing of the forces; (4) A skirmish;
+(5) The camp; (6) Foraging; (7) The capture of
+La Goleta; (8) The battle of Los Pozos, Tunis;
+(9) A sortie of the besieged; (10) The sack of
+Tunis; (11) The victors returning to the harbour;
+(12) The forces embarking.</p>
+
+<p>According to Müntz, this tapestry has been
+copied at least on two occasions; once in the
+eighteenth century by Josse de Vos, of Brussels,
+and also, in the same century, in Spain, partly at
+Seville, and partly at the factories of Santa Isabel
+and Santa Barbara.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_156.jpg" width="600" height="302"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_156.jpg" id="img_156.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIV<br />TAPESTRY. ARRAS WORK, FROM ITALIAN CARTOONS<br />
+(<i>First half of 15th Century. Zamora Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other most valuable and beautiful tapestries
+belonging to the Spanish Crown are the series
+titled <i>The History of the Virgin</i>, believed to be
+from cartoons by Van Eyk, <i>The Passion</i>, from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+cartoons attributed to Van der Weyden, the
+<i>History of David</i> and <i>History of Saint John the
+Baptist</i>, the <i>Mass of Saint Gregory</i>, and the
+<i>Founding of Rome</i>. All of these series date from
+the fifteenth century and early in the sixteenth.
+Belonging to a later period are the reproductions
+of rustic scenes and hunting subjects by Teniers
+and others, executed in Spain between 1721 and
+1724, the <i>Scenes from Don Quixote</i>, made at Santa
+Barbara from Procaccini's cartoons, and the eminently
+national series produced at the same factory
+from designs by Francisco Goya y Lucientes.
+This latter group amounts to several dozen pieces,
+including the well-known <i>Blind Man's Buff</i>,
+<i>A Promenade in Andalusia</i> (Plate <a href="#img_152.jpg">xxiii</a>.), <i>The
+Crockery-seller</i>, <i>The Grape-Gatherers</i> (<i>Frontispiece</i>),
+and other spirited and charming scenes
+of popular Spanish life&mdash;&ldquo;tout cela,&rdquo; as Lefort
+describes it, &ldquo;spirituel, vif, pittoresque, très mouvementé,
+bien groupé, s'élevant sur des fonds champêtres
+ou baignant gaiement en pleine lumière.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other tapestry collections of great merit belong
+to the cathedrals of Burgos, Zamora (where they
+line the walls of the Sacristy; Plate xxiv.), Zaragoza,
+Toledo, Tarragona, and Santiago. The
+first of these temples possesses the following sets,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+which are displayed to decorate the cloisters on
+the feast of Corpus Christi:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(1) The History of Cleopatra and Mark Antony.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(2) The History of David.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(3) The Creation.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(4) An Historical Subject.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(5) The Theological and Cardinal Virtues.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(6) A series of five Gothic tapestries, which
+represent some mystery or allegory, and
+seem to be of Flemish manufacture.
+One other <i>paño</i>, of a similar character,
+accompanies them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_158.jpg" width="338" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_158.jpg" id="img_158.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXV<br />FLEMISH TAPESTRY<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century. Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>All but the last of the above sets are marked
+with two B's separated by a shield, denoting
+Brussels workmanship. The <i>Theological and
+Cardinal Virtues</i> were presented to the cathedral
+about the end of the sixteenth century. They
+are evidently executed from Italian cartoons, and
+the <i>haute-lisse</i> craftsman who made them, in or
+towards the year 1571, was named Francis
+Greubels.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>The tapestries which belong to the cathedral of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+Zaragoza number some sixty or seventy pieces,
+including a series (fifteenth century) representing
+<i>The Life of Saint John the Baptist</i>, from designs
+by Lucas of Holland. Good tapestries were also
+the property of Valencia cathedral, but have been
+dispersed and sold in recent years. The convent
+of the Descalzas Reales at Madrid possesses a
+set from designs by Rubens. Ten pieces of this
+series formerly belonged to the Count-Duke of
+Olivares, who sent them to his town of Loeches;
+four passing subsequently to the Duke of Westminster's
+collection. The small though valuable
+collection formed by the late Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan (Plate <a href="#img_158.jpg">xxv</a>.), passed at this nobleman's
+death to his daughter, Señora de Osma, who
+has presented part of it to the Archæological
+Museum at Madrid. Another collector resident
+in Spain, Mons. Mersmann, of Granada, possesses
+a series of fine Brussels cloths representing scenes
+from <i>Don Quixote</i>, by Van den Hecke.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> &ldquo;A côté de l'Italie, il faut citer l'Espagne, tributaire comme elle
+des ateliers flamands. Les résidences royales regorgeaient de ces
+précieux tissus, qui aujourd'hui encore, à Madrid ou à l'Escurial, se
+chiffrent par centaines. Parmi les présents que le roi de Castille
+envoya à Tamerlan (&#8224; 1405), on remarquait des tapisseries dont les
+portraits étaient faits avec tant de délicatesse, dit un chroniqueur
+persan, que si on voulait leur comparer les ouvrages merveilleux
+autrefois exécutés par le peintre Mani sur la toile d'Artène, Mani
+serait couvert de honte et ses ouvrages paraîtraient difformes.&rdquo;&mdash;Müntz,
+<i>La Tapisserie</i>, p. 172.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> A Portuguese word meaning a strip of silk upon the back of a
+chasuble.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Manuel G. Simancas, <i>Artistas Castellanos del Siglo XIII</i>
+(<i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i> for January,
+1905.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a>  At about the same time that this petition was presented by
+Gutierrez, another tapestry-maker named Pedro de Espinosa, a
+native of Iniesta, was living at Cordova. On February 2nd, 1560,
+he married Leonor de Burgos, and received as dowry from his bride
+the sum of thirty-five thousand <i>maravedis</i>. (Ramírez de Arellano,
+<i>Artistas Exhumados</i>, published in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad
+Española de Excursiones</i>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Reposteros</i>,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;is the ancient name given to the
+hangings which are placed outside the balconies on state occasions
+in Spain. Several splendid examples of the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries may still be seen at the houses of Spanish grandees,
+of which those belonging to the Conde de Oñate and Marques de
+Alcañices at Madrid are the most remarkable for their artistic design.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is surprising that Riaño should insert so incomplete a definition
+of this word, whose primitive and proper meaning, according to the
+Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, is &ldquo;a square piece of cloth
+with the arms of a prince or Señor, which serves for covering
+baggage carried by beasts of burden, and also for hanging in antechambers.&rdquo;
+See also Vol. II., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> (note) of the present work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The royal contract with the elder Van der Goten, dated July
+30th, 1720, was the result of secret negotiations, and largely brought
+about by the influence of Philip's minister, Cardinal Alberoni.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> &ldquo;On Saturday, May 27th, passing through the gate of Saint
+Barbara, I visited the tapestry manufactory, which resembles, and
+equals in beauty, the Gobelins, whence it originally came. I found
+a Frenchman at the head of it, who was civil and communicative.
+This fabric was brought into Spain, and established here under the
+direction of John de Van Dergoten, from Antwerp, in the year 1720.
+They now employ fourscore hands, and work only on the king's
+account, and for his palaces, making and repairing all the tapestry
+and carpets which are wanted at any of the <i>Sitios</i>, or royal residences.&rdquo;&mdash;Townsend,
+in 1786.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The elegant manufacture of tapestry is carried on without Saint
+Barbe's gate, at the entrance of the promenade of Los Altos, or
+Chamberi; it was established in 1720 by Philip the Fifth, at whose
+invitation John Dergoten, of Antwerp, was induced to undertake its
+superintendence, an office at present filled by his descendants.
+The productions of this manufactory are carpets and tapestry, the
+subjects of which are often drawn from fable or history; it sometimes
+copies pictures executed by superior artists, and affords daily
+employment to eighty persons, including dyers, drawers, designers,
+and all its various branches.&rdquo;&mdash;Laborde (about 1800).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Ríos, <i>Noticia general para la
+estimación de las Artes y de la manera en que se conocen las liberales
+de las que son mecánicas y serviles</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Riaño estimates them at this number. See his <i>Report on a
+collection of photographs from tapestries of the Royal Palace of
+Madrid</i>; London, 1875; and also <i>Tapices de la Corona de España</i>,
+with 135 plates in phototype, and text by Count Valencia de Don
+Juan; Madrid, Hauser and Menet, 1903.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Müntz, <i>La Tapisserie</i>, pp. 217, 218. Wauters, <i>Les Tapisseries
+Bruxelloises</i>, pp. 76, 77. Houdoy, <i>Tapisseries représentant la Conqueste
+du Royaulme de Thunes par l'empereur Charles-Quint</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See an article on these tapestries by Señor Lamperez y Romea,
+published in No. 55 of the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+Excursiones</i>; and also Nos. 156 and 157 of the same publication,
+for an article on the Crown and other Spanish collections, by Elías
+Tormo y Monzó.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="LACE" id="LACE">LACE</a></h3>
+
+<p>Although the Spaniards have enjoyed, and still
+enjoy, a widespread fame for lace-making, their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+written records of this craft are unsubstantial.
+Originally, perhaps, they borrowed it from the
+Arabs or Venetians. Certainly, the earliest
+Spanish lace was such as is made with a needle,
+that is, point, not pillow lace. In this form, <i>à la
+aguja</i>, and in the sixteenth century, the Spaniards
+possibly conveyed the secrets of its manufacture
+to the Netherlands, receiving from the natives of
+this country, in exchange, the art of making lace
+by means of bobbins, including the characteristic
+&ldquo;Flemish net,&rdquo; or <i>red flandés</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the sixteenth century the parts of
+Spain where lace was manufactured in the largest
+quantity were some of the Manchegan towns and
+villages, the coast of Finisterre, and nearly the
+whole of Cataluña. In La Mancha lace was made,
+and still is so, at Manzanares, Granatula, Almagro,
+and other places. That of Almagro (the celebrated
+<i>punto de Almagro</i>, resembling the lace of
+Cataluña), is mentioned by nearly all the older
+travellers. In <i>Don Quixote</i>, Teresa writes to
+Sancho Panza that their daughter Sanchita was
+engaged in making bobbin-lace at a daily wage of
+eight <i>sueldos</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_160.jpg" width="334" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_160.jpg" id="img_160.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVI<br />THE MARCHIONESS OF LA SOLANA<br />
+(<i>By Goya</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1877, at the Exhibition of Sumptuary Arts
+which was held in Barcelona, a magnificent lace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+<i>toca</i> was shown, which was affirmed by its possessor,
+Señor Parcerisa, to be the work of a Spaniard of
+the later part of the fifteenth century, and to have
+belonged to Isabella the Catholic. The cathedral
+of the same city owns three thread-lace albs of
+sixteenth century workmanship, and the South
+Kensington Museum other pieces of Spanish lace
+of a comparatively early date, probably made by
+nuns and subtracted from the convents during the
+stormy scenes of 1835.</p>
+
+<p>Dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, we have a number of notices, though
+scrappy and inexplicit as a rule, relating to
+Spanish lace. One of the more complete and interesting
+is quoted by Riaño from the <i>Microcosmia
+y Gobierno Universal del Hombre Cristiano</i>
+(Barcelona, 1592) of Father Marcos Antonio de
+Campos. &ldquo;I will not be silent,&rdquo; wrote this
+austere <i>padre</i>, &ldquo;and fail to mention the time lost
+these last years in the manufacture of <i>cadenetas</i>,
+a work of thread combined with gold and silver;
+this extravagance and excess reached such a point
+that 100 and 1000 ducats were spent in this work,
+in which, besides destroying the eyesight, wasting
+away the lives, and rendering consumptive the
+women who worked it, and preventing them from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+spending their time with more advantage to their
+souls, a few ounces of thread and years of time
+were wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I
+ask myself, after this fancy shall have passed
+away, will the lady or gentleman find that the
+chemises that cost them 50 ducats, or the <i>basquiña</i>
+(petticoat) that cost them 300, are worth half their
+price, which certainly is the case with other objects
+in which the material itself is worth more?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_162.jpg" width="364" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_162.jpg" id="img_162.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVII<br />A SPANISH <i>MAJA</i><br />
+(<i>A.D. 1777</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several of the other notices relating to the
+lace-makers' craft are from the pen of Countess
+d'Aulnoy. Of the Countess of Lemos this writer
+says: &ldquo;Her hair was white, but she carefully
+concealed it beneath a black blonde&rdquo;; and of
+another Spanish lady, Doña Leonor de Toledo,
+that she wore &ldquo;a green velvet skirt trimmed with
+Spanish blonde.&rdquo; In the apartments of the young
+Princess of Monteleón the countess saw &ldquo;a bed
+of green and gold damask, decorated with silver
+brocade and Spanish blonde. The sheets were
+fringed with English point-lace, extremely broad
+and handsome.&rdquo; The countess also says that the
+petticoats of the Spanish ladies were of English
+point-lace,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> and that these ladies, when they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+visited each other, wore on their heads &ldquo;a <i>toca</i>
+of the richest English black point-lace, half a yard
+broad, forming points like the antique laces,
+beautiful to look at, and very dear. This head-dress
+suits them rarely.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Balsa de la Vega, whose interesting
+articles on Spanish lace (published in the
+newspaper <i>El Liberal</i>) are worth perusal by all
+who are interested in this craft, about the middle
+of the seventeenth century the custom originated
+in Spain of making lace in broader pieces, dividing
+the pattern into a number of strips or <i>fajas</i> which
+were subsequently sewn together. In Belgium,
+on the contrary, the design was cut out, following
+the contour of the floral or other decoration.</p>
+
+<p>In former ages gold and silver lace was made
+in France, and also at Genoa. I think it possible
+that Genoese merchants, many of whom are known
+to have settled in Granada and other Spanish
+cities, may first have introduced this branch of
+lace-making among the Spaniards. The sumptuary
+laws of Aragon, Castile, León, and Navarre
+would seem to show that lace of these materials,
+known as <i>punto</i> or <i>redecilla de oro</i> (or <i>plata</i>) was
+manufactured by the Spanish Jews between
+the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. During the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+seventeenth century and part of the eighteenth,
+the quantity produced in the Peninsula was very
+large. In his <i>Fenix de Cataluña</i>, a work which
+was published at Barcelona in 1683, Feliu de la
+Peña says that Spanish <i>randa</i> or <i>réseuil</i>, of gold
+and silver, silk, thread, and aloe fibre, was better
+made in Spain than in the Netherlands. The
+journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the following
+notice of this silver lace: &ldquo;Le Roy y envoya le
+Lieutenant du Maistre des Postes, avec huit
+postillons, couverts de clinquant, et quarante
+chevaux de poste, dont il y en avoit huit avec des
+selles et des brides du Roy où il y avoit de la
+dentelle d'argent, que Monsieur le Mareschal fit
+distribuer à environ autant de gens que nous
+estions, sur une liste qu'il avoit envoyée quelques
+jours auparavant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_164.jpg" width="284" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_164.jpg" id="img_164.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVIII<br /><i>MAJA</i><br />
+(<i>By Goya</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is impossible to mention Spanish lace without
+recalling that most graceful article of headwear,
+the <i>mantilla</i>, the use of which is gradually
+dying out. At present we understand by this
+word a black or white head-covering of lace alone
+(the white being more conspicuous and dressy),
+but about a hundred years ago the <i>mantilla</i> was
+made of a variety of fabrics. Also, it was worn
+in an easier and more <i>negligé</i> manner than nowadays,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+retaining a closer likeness to the <i>velo</i> or
+<i>manto</i> with which the Spanish women of the
+seventeenth century were able, at their pleasure,
+to completely mask their faces (Plates <a href="#img_160.jpg">xxvi</a>. and
+<a href="#img_162.jpg">xxvii</a>.). Indeed, as late as the early part of the
+nineteenth century the <i>mantilla</i> was sometimes
+thrown over the face (Plates <a href="#img_164.jpg">xxviii</a>. and <a href="#img_166.jpg">xxix</a>.).
+The same usage is referred to by Townsend, who
+describes the <i>mantilla</i> as &ldquo;serving the double purpose
+of a cloak and veil.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> To-day it is worn, not
+hanging loose and open, but a good deal bunched
+up at the bosom. The hair, too, is dressed to an
+unusual height, with a tall comb, and over this
+the delicate lace covering should droop a little to
+one side. A flower or two (roses or carnations by
+preference) may be worn at one side of the head,
+and where the <i>mantilla</i> is caught up at the breast.</p>
+
+<p>The manuscript account of Spanish costumes
+early in the nineteenth century, and which is prefixed
+to my copy of Pigal's coloured lithographs,
+contains some excellent descriptions of the older<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+Spanish <i>mantilla</i>. We learn, for instance, that
+at Palma the women of the well-to-do middle class
+wore a <i>mantilla</i> of black taffeta, trimmed with
+blonde (Plate <a href="#img_134.jpg">xviii</a>.).<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In La Mancha, and among
+the peasants, it was of white muslin; at Cordova,
+in cold weather, &ldquo;en flanelle ou en bayette fine:
+elle est garnie de rubans à l'extrémité desquels il
+y a deux gros noeuds: en été elle est en mousseline.&rdquo;
+The small <i>mantilla</i> or &ldquo;mantellina&rdquo; of
+the wife of the smuggler of Tarifa was &ldquo;en flanelle
+blanche, ou noire, ou rose, brodée d'un ruban:
+elle en fait três souvent un usage différent des
+autres femmes espagnoles, car au lieu de la mettre
+sur la tête attachée avec des épingles, elle s'en
+sert de schal: quelque fois elle la met en baudrier
+laissant flotter derrière elle les deux extrémités
+qui sont ornées d'un noeud en ruban.&rdquo; The
+servant-girl of Madrid wore a white <i>mantilla</i> in
+summer, and a black one in winter. The same
+author describes in greater detail the <i>mantillas</i> of
+the fine ladies. &ldquo;La mantille et la basquigne,&rdquo; he
+says, &ldquo;voila de quoi se compose principalement
+le costume du beau sexe en Espagne. Ce costume,
+quoique national, est susceptible de recevoir aussi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+bien que tout autre les divers degrés de luxe que
+les femmes d'une riche classe et celles du plus
+haut rang peuvent apporter dans leur parure: la
+classe la moins aisée porte la mantille en laine
+noire ou blanche et la basquigne en serge ou autre
+étoffe de laine noire. Pendant le jour, lorsque les
+dames espagnoles se présentent en public, c'est
+toujours avec la mantille et la basquigne, mais le
+soir si elles vont au spectacle ou ailleurs, elles
+sortent três souvent habillées à la française.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_166.jpg" width="407" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_166.jpg" id="img_166.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIX<br />A LADY OF SORIA<br />
+(<i>About A.D. 1810</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Elsewhere he says: &ldquo;Nous avons déjà dit qu'un
+simple ruban, un peigne, ou une fleur, est la
+coiffure adoptée par les dames espagnoles, pour
+faire usage de la mantille: celle-ci est dans l'hiver
+quelquefois en serge de soie, taffetas, etc., noir,
+garnie en outre de blondes, ou d'un large ruban
+de velours noir en échiquier (<i>cinta de terciopelo à
+tablero</i>), mais ce ruban est toujours noir. Il y
+eut un temps où la mode, qui ne fut pas de longue
+durée, prescrivait que les bouts de la mantille se
+terminassent en trois pointes ornées chacune d'une
+houppe (<i>borla</i>) noire, ou d'un lacet de ruban noir.
+Jamais les mantilles ne sont doublées.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author remarks of the lady of Madrid;
+&ldquo;La mantille de tulle brodé ne se porte que dans
+la belle saison &hellip; elle ne dépasse jamais la<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+ceinture&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>; and of the lady of Granada: &ldquo;si la
+mantille est blanche, elle est en tulle parsemé de
+petits bouquets et garnie de larges et riches
+dentelles. Si elle est noire, comme cela arrive
+plus ordinairement, elle est alors en blonde: il y
+a de ces mantilles qui coutent cinq cent, mille, et
+jusqu'à deux mille francs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_168.jpg" width="350" height="348"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_168.jpg" id="img_168.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXX<br />HANDKERCHIEF OF CATALAN LACE<br />
+(<i>Presented to Queen Victoria of Spain, on her marriage</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A good deal of lace, principally of the less
+elaborate and cheaper kinds, was formerly manufactured
+in the kingdom of Valencia. Cabanillas
+wrote in 1797 that at Novelda, a small town of
+this region, more than two thousand women and
+children worked at making laces, which were
+hawked about the country by others of the townspeople.
+Swinburne remarks upon the same
+industry, and Ricord tells us in his pamphlet
+(1791) that cotton lace was made in six factories
+at Torrente, Alicante, and Orihuela.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> The total
+product of these factories for the said year was
+1,636,100 yards, which sold at from nine to twelve
+<i>reales</i> the yard. Laborde wrote some years later,
+in the first volume of his book, that lace, and gold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+and silver fringes were then made at Valencia,
+and in the fourth volume; &ldquo;Gold and silver laced
+stuffs, and velvets of all colours brocaded and
+flowered with the same metals, are made at Toledo,
+Barcelona, Valencia, and Talavera de la Reina;
+and the manufacture at the last-named city
+annually consumes four thousand marks of silver,
+and seventy marks of gold.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At Barcelona, Talavera de la Reina, and
+Valencia are also manufactured gold and silver
+edgings, lace, and fringes, though not in a
+sufficient quantity to answer the demands of
+Spain; and the gold is very badly prepared,
+having too red a cast.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Lace-making was an ancient and important
+industry of every part of Cataluña. Lace articles
+for ladies' headwear are known to have been
+made throughout this region at least as far back as
+the fifteenth century, and Capmany reminds us that
+by a <i>cedula</i> dated from the Cortes of Monzón,
+December 16th, 1538, the Emperor Charles the
+Fifth confirmed the Ordinances of the guild,
+established long before, of the <i>tejedores de velos</i>
+of Barcelona. Technical provisions are embodied
+in this code, concerning various articles of lace employed
+as headwear, such as <i>alfardillas</i>, <i>quiñales</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+and <i>espumilla</i>, all of which were largely exported
+to America.</p>
+
+<p>The attention of foreigners who travelled in
+Cataluña towards the eighteenth century was
+constantly attracted by the lace-makers. Swinburne
+mentions &ldquo;Martorell, a large town, where
+much black lace is manufactured,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Espalungera
+(Esparraguera?), a long village, full of
+cloth and lace manufacturers,&rdquo; and wrote of Sarriá
+and its surroundings, close to Barcelona: &ldquo;The
+women in the little hamlets were busy with their
+bobbins making black lace, some of which, of the
+coarser kind, is spun out of the leaf of the aloe.
+It is curious, but of little use, for it grows
+mucilaginous with washing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_170.jpg" width="345" height="481"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_170.jpg" id="img_170.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXI<br />CURTAIN OF SPANISH LACE<br />
+(<i>Point and Pillow Work. Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Martorell,&rdquo; wrote Townsend in 1786, &ldquo;is one
+long, narrow street, in which poverty, industry,
+and filth, although seldom seen together, have
+agreed to take up their abode. The inhabitants
+make lace, and even the little children of three
+and four years old are engaged in this employment.&rdquo;
+Laborde wrote that at the beginning of
+the eighteenth century seventeen manufactories
+of blondes were established at Mataró, and adds
+of Barcelona province generally at that time:
+&ldquo;Laces and blondes constitute the employment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+women and children. The work is principally
+done at Pineda, Malgrat, San Celoni, Tosa,
+Canet, Arenys, Callela, San-Pol, Mataró, Esparraguera,
+Martorell, and Barcelona&hellip;. The laces
+are almost all shipped for the New World.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The most observant and most entertaining of
+all these tourists was Arthur Young, who wrote, in
+1787, of the towns upon the coast of Cataluña:
+&ldquo;The appearance of industry is as great as it can
+be: great numbers of fishing-boats and nets, with
+rows of good white houses on the sea-side; and
+while the men are active in their fisheries, the
+women are equally busy making lace.&rdquo; Of
+Mataró he says: &ldquo;It appears exceedingly industrious;
+some stocking-frames; lace-makers at
+every door&hellip;. I am sorry to add that here also
+the industry of catching lice in each other's heads
+is well understood.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Pass Arrengs (Arenys), a large town &hellip;
+making thread lace universal here. They have
+thread from France; women earn ten to sixteen
+<i>sous</i> at it. Great industry, and in consequence a
+flourishing appearance. Canet, another large
+town, employed also in ship-building, fishing, and
+making lace&hellip;. Pass Malgrat, which is not
+so well built as the other towns, but much lace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+made in it&hellip;. Reach Figueras, whose inhabitants
+seem industrious and active. They make
+lace, cordage, and mats, and have many potteries
+of a common sort.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>Lace-making prevails to-day all through this
+region of north-eastern Spain, particularly in the
+strip or zone of it including the valley of the
+Llobregat as far as Martorell, and which extends
+from Palamós to Barcelona. The towns which
+produce the greatest quantities of lace are Arenys
+de Mar, Malgrat, San Pol, Canet, and Arenys de
+Munt. In the last of these places an important
+Regional Exhibition of Lace was held in July of
+last year, the number of exhibitors amounting to
+one hundred and twenty-five. Due to the increasing
+production of underlinen and woven
+fabrics generally, or to other causes, lace-making
+has declined at Blanes, Pineda, Calella, and one
+or two other places. At San Celoni, Vallgorguina,
+San Vicente, San Andrés de Llevaneras, Argentona,
+Caldeta, and San Acisclo de Vilalta, lace is
+made by women who combine this work with
+dirtier and rougher labour in the field. Most of
+the lace made in these towns is therefore black.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_172.jpg" width="500" height="338"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_172.jpg" id="img_172.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXII<br />POINT LACE FAN, OF MUDEJAR DESIGN<br />
+(<i>Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the spring of last year, an elaborate lace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+pocket-handkerchief (Plate <a href="#img_168.jpg">xxx</a>.), designed by
+Señor Riquer, and executed in a traditional style
+of Cataluña, denominated locally the <i>ret Catalá</i>,
+was made in the old-established lace-factory of the
+widow of Mariano Castells in the town of Arenys
+de Mar, and offered by the Agricultural Institute
+of San Isidro as a wedding-present to Princess
+Ena of Battenberg. Two <i>encajeras</i> worked at
+this handkerchief under the personal direction of
+the widow Castells, and the time employed by
+them in making it was two months.</p>
+
+<p>Plate xxxi. represents a small portion of a
+very original and beautiful lace curtain, ten feet
+high, designed by Señor Aguado, and executed,
+partly by Señorita Pilar Huguet (who superintended
+the work throughout), and partly by
+seventeen of this lady's pupils, at the School of
+Arts and Industries, Toledo. Although it is a
+hackneyed trope to declare that the ornamentation
+of the Spanish-Moors, whether in ivory, wood or
+metal, stone or plaster, was &ldquo;delicate enough to
+seem of lacework,&rdquo; I believe this to be the first
+occasion when such intricate and graceful
+motives have been actually reproduced in lace.
+The result of the experiment has proved surprisingly
+effective. The design is Spanish-Arabic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+in its purest form, recalling various arabesques
+upon the walls of the Alhambra, and includes
+thirty-three medallions which constitute the principal
+decorative scheme, a hundred and forty-eight
+palms or <i>alharacas</i>, and the Arabic expression
+&ldquo;God is all-powerful,&rdquo; repeated sixty-six times.
+The centre of the curtain consists in all of four
+hundred and forty-eight pieces. The broad cenefa
+or bordering, which runs right round the whole,
+contains, in Arabic, the following inscription:
+&ldquo;This curtain was begun in the <i>curso</i> (course or
+series of classes) of the year 1903&ndash;1904, and
+terminated in the <i>curso</i> following, (Art) School
+of Toledo.&rdquo; The style adopted throughout is that
+of Brussels, known erroneously as English point,
+although upon a coarser scale than is considered
+to be proper to this lace, the ground being executed
+by the needle, or in point-work, and the
+rest by bobbins.</p>
+
+<p>Plate xxxii. represents a covering for a fan,
+also executed by Señorita Huguet, and also in
+the Brussels style. The design is a combination
+of Mudejar motives, such as conventional
+foliage and geometrical bordering, with a Spanish
+scutcheon and the double-headed eagle of the
+Emperor Charles the Fifth.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day, and largely owing to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+initiative and the skilled tuition of Señor Salvi,
+excellent lace is manufactured at Madrid, including
+reproductions&mdash;which have been generally admired
+in Great Britain and elsewhere&mdash;of the finest
+point or bobbin work of Malines, Manchester, and
+Venice.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Upon the other hand, a notice dated 1562 says that at that time
+Spanish-made black lace was largely used at the Court of England.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> &ldquo;Pour les femmes, elles ne sortent point qu'emmantelées d'une
+mante noire comme le deüil des dames de France, et elles ne se montrent
+qu'un &oelig;uil, et vont cherchant et agaçant les hommes avec tant
+d'effronterie, qu'elles tiennent à affront quand on ne veut pas aller
+plus loin que la conversation.&rdquo;&mdash;Bertaut de Rouen; <i>Journal du
+Voyage d'Espagne</i>, p. 294.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Blonde, I need hardly state, is silk-lace. It can always be distinguished
+by the glossy surface.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a>  This is incorrect. It was sometimes worn longer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a>  A letter from Vargas y Ponce to Cean Bermudez, dated 1797,
+says that in this year there existed at Murcia a school for making
+blondes, owned by one Castilla. &ldquo;He does good work, teaches well,
+and has executed blondes for the Queen, which are well spoken of.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Tour in Catalonia in 1787; Vol. I., p. 644, etc.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES">Appendices</a></h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX A</h3>
+
+<p class="title">THE LEGEND OF SAN MIGUEL IN EXCELSIS</p>
+
+<p>Towards the year <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 707, when Witiza was king of
+Spain, there dwelt at the castle of Goñi, not far from the
+city of Pamplona in Navarre, a cavalier named Don
+Theodosio, whose wife, Doña Constanza de Viandra,
+was a lady of remarkable beauty. On one occasion
+Don Theodosio found himself obliged to quit his native
+country for a time, in order to command a military
+expedition against the Berbers, and before his departure
+he begged his father and mother to cheer his wife's
+loneliness while he should be away, by taking up their
+residence at his castle. They came accordingly, and as
+a special mark of honour to the parents of her lord, Doña
+Constanza gave up to them her own chamber, together
+with the nuptial couch. After a time, when Theodosio's
+enterprise was concluded, and the warrior, safe and sound,
+was returning to Navarre, the Devil, disguised as a
+hermit, one evening lay in wait for him at a spot called
+Errotavidea, situated at a few miles' distance from Goñi
+castle, in the wooded and romantic valley of the Ollo.
+Stepping up to the cavalier's side, Satan assured him, in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+tone of smooth hypocrisy, that during his absence the lady
+Constanza had been seduced by one of Theodosio's own
+servants. Upon the knight's demanding proof, &ldquo;proceed,&rdquo;
+replied the Devil, &ldquo;to your castle, enter your nuptial
+chamber, and there you will find your consort in the
+very arms of her paramour.&rdquo; Frantic with apprehension,
+the warrior spurred home, broke into his chamber at the
+dead of night, and, passing his hand over the bed, encountered,
+as Satan had malignantly foretold, two bodies;
+whereupon he drew his sword and, in this moment of
+fatal and irreflective haste, murdered his own father
+and mother. Then, just as he was rushing from
+the room, he met, carrying a lighted lamp, the lady
+Constanza herself, returning from the chapel in which,
+as was her custom every night, she had been praying
+for his safe return.</p>
+
+<p>Smitten with deep repentance for the crime, whose
+enormity had been discovered by the impetuous lord in
+so dramatic and dreadful a fashion, Theodosio journeyed
+to Rome, and related what had happened to the Pope,
+who sentenced him to wear a heavy iron collar round
+his neck, and chains about his body, and to wander, in
+a state of rigorous penance, through the loneliest regions
+of Navarre, without setting foot in any town, until, as a
+sign that divine justice was satisfied, the chains should
+fall from off him. Wherever this should come to pass,
+he was instructed to build a temple in honour of the
+archangel Michael.</p>
+
+<p>The sentence was patiently performed, and Theodosio
+had spent some years in solitary wandering, when on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+a day a single link dropped from his ponderous chains.
+This happened on the top of a high mountain called
+Ayedo, in the Sierra de Andía, and accordingly the
+penitent erected on the spot a simple fane in the
+archangel's honour, known by the name of San Miguel
+de Ayedo, and which, in the form of a little hermitage,
+still exists.</p>
+
+<p>This proof of heavenly grace presaged a further and a
+more complete deliverance. When Theodosio's wandering
+had lasted seven years, he reached one day the
+summit of Mount Aralar, at two leagues' distance from
+his own castle, and was there met by a ferocious dragon
+of appalling size. Being, as a penitent, unarmed, as
+well as encumbered by his massive chains, the miserable
+man fell helpless to his knees, and called to God to
+succour him. The prayer was heard. Suddenly the
+form of his patron the archangel flashed out against the
+sky, the dragon fell dead, and all of Theodosio's chains
+were shattered, and dropped from him. Here, therefore,
+he built another and a larger temple in honour of his
+guardian, and, accompanied by Doña Constanza, passed
+the remainder of his life in peaceful and secluded piety.</p>
+
+<p>The castle of Goñi, which was also called &ldquo;Saint
+Michael's palace,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the palace of the cavalier to
+whom Saint Michael revealed himself,&rdquo; was standing as
+late as the year 1685, but, according to Padre Burgui, by
+the close of another century the walls were crumbling
+fast. Until about the year 1715 there also stood an
+ancient wooden cross to mark the spot where Satan, in
+a hermit's garb, had appeared to Don Theodosio.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX B</h3>
+
+<p class="title">JET-WORK OF SANTIAGO</p>
+
+<p>In former times the art of carving jet was largely
+practised at this town. The characteristic form was the
+<i>signaculum</i> or image of Saint James; that is, a more or
+less uncouth representation of the apostle in full pilgrim's
+dress. The height of these images, which are now
+dispersed all over Europe, varies between four and
+seven inches. They are fully described in Drury
+Fortnum's monographs, <i>On a signaculum of Saint James
+of Compostela</i>, and <i>Notes on other signacula of Saint
+James of Compostela</i>, as well as in Villa-amil y Castro's
+<i>La azabachería compostelana</i>. These objects were sold
+in quantities to the pilgrims visiting Santiago, who
+nevertheless were often cheated by the substitution of
+black glass for jet.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>Specimens of this work are in the British and Cluny<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+Museums, and in the Archæological Museum at Madrid.
+An interesting jet figure of the apostle on horseback
+belonged to the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan.
+Jet processional crosses (twelfth and thirteenth century),
+studded with enamel, and which were used at funerals,
+are preserved in the cathedrals of Oviedo and Orense.
+Rings, rosaries, and amulets were also carved from this
+material.</p>
+
+<p>As to Spanish processional crosses generally (the use
+of which was undoubtedly borrowed from the standard
+borne at the head of pagan armies), I may say that they
+are commonly fitted with a handle, called the <i>cruz baja</i>
+or &ldquo;lower cross,&rdquo; though sometimes this handle is dispensed
+with, as, for instance, at the funerals of infants.
+According to Villa-amil y Castro, the typical shape of
+the Spanish processional cross has always been that
+denominated the <i>immissa</i>, consisting of four arms
+terminating in straight edges. The same authority says
+that within this broader definition the primitive form
+was the Greek cross, that is, having four arms of equal
+length. Another early form was the &ldquo;Oviedo&rdquo; cross
+(see Vol. I., Plate <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#img_36.jpg">II</a>.), with the four arms in the shape of
+trapezia, united at the centre by a disc. Of this latter
+shape are, or were, the crosses of Guarrazar and those
+which were presented by Alfonso the Second and Alfonso
+the Third to the cathedrals of Oviedo and Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>A later form was the <i>potenzada</i> cross, which had a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+cross-piece fixed at the extremity of each arm. As time
+advanced, this T-shaped termination to the arms assumed
+such decorative and capricious forms as the trefoil and
+the fleur-de-lis. Early in the history of the Spanish
+church the processional cross consisted often of a
+wooden core, covered with more or less profusely
+ornamented silver plates, and having, between the handle
+and the upper part, an enamelled bulb or <i>n&oelig;ud</i>. The
+image of Christ, converting the cross into the crucifix,
+was not attached until a later period, because, as Villa-amil
+y Castro has remarked, the primitive Christians considered
+the essential glory of their faith, rather than, as
+yet, the perils and the pains to which they were exposed
+by clinging to that faith. The cross was thus the symbol
+of the Christian's glory; the crucifix, of his suffering.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX C</h3>
+
+<p class="title">DESCRIPTION OF THE <i>CUSTODIAS</i> OF SEVILLE AND CORDOVA</p>
+
+<p>The <i>custodia</i> of Seville cathedral is described by its
+author, Juan de Arfe, in the following terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The shape is circular, with projecting friezes and
+bases. The <i>custodia</i> is four yards high, and is divided
+into four orders of symmetrical proportions, the second
+order being smaller by two-fifths than the first, the third
+smaller by the same fraction than the second, and the
+fourth than the third. Each order rests upon four-and-twenty
+columns, twelve of which are of a larger size, and
+wrought in relief. The other and the smaller twelve are
+striated, and serve as imposts to the arches. All these
+orders are of open work, containing twelve <i>vistas</i> (prospects)
+apiece. Six are of full dimensions, and the other
+six spring from half-way up the larger ones, as is shown
+in the appended design, which I will not explain further,
+as the proportion and harmony can be judged of from
+the plan (see Vol. I., Plate <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#img_100.jpg">xvii</a>.).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title">FIRST ORDER</p>
+
+<p>The first order is in the Ionic style. The columns and
+frieze are adorned with vines containing fruits and
+foliage, and some figures of children holding spikes of
+wheat, to signify bread and wine. In the centre of this,
+the largest order, is Faith, represented by the figure of
+a queen, seated on a throne, holding in her right hand a
+chalice with the host, and in the other a standard such
+as is seen in certain ancient medals of the emperors
+Constantine and Theodosius. Beneath her feet is a
+world, and behind her, overthrown and bound with
+chains, a monster with the face of a beautiful woman
+and the trunk or body of a dragon, to represent Heresy,
+which seems to attract by pleasantness of shape, being
+at bottom poison and deceit.</p>
+
+<p>At one side is the figure of a youth with wings, and a
+bandage over his eyes, representing Intelligence. His
+hands are shackled, and he is kneeling, as one that
+surrenders himself captive to Faith in all her mysteries,
+and particularly in this one.</p>
+
+<p>Corresponding to this figure, on the opposite side, is
+that of a beautiful woman, likewise kneeling, crossing
+her hands before her breast, and holding a book, to
+represent Human Wisdom, which acknowledges the
+majesty of the Catholic Faith, and is subservient thereto.</p>
+
+<p>On the right hand of Faith is Saint Peter, seated,
+holding his keys on high, and on her left Saint Paul,
+with naked sword, that is, the preaching of the word of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+God. High up, about the spring of the vault, is the
+figure of the Holy Spirit, assistant in the church.</p>
+
+<p>Between the six <i>asientos</i> of the base are the four
+doctors of the Church, together with Saint Thomas and
+Pope Urban the Fourth, who instituted the festival of
+the Holy Sacrament.</p>
+
+<p>All these figures are half a yard in height; that is, one
+half the height of the larger columns belonging to this
+order.</p>
+
+<p>In the six niches that are between the arches, are the
+figures of six Sacraments, in this wise:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Baptism</i>, represented by the figure of a youth
+holding in one hand a bunch of lilies, signifying purity
+and innocence, and in the other a beautiful vessel,
+showing the act of washing the soul, that is the particular
+virtue of this Sacrament. Over the arch is a scroll
+containing the word <span class="smcap">BAPTISMUS</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Confirmation</i> is a damsel of spirited mien, armed
+with a helmet. In one hand she has some vessels of
+holy oil. Her other hand is raised, while with the index
+finger she expresses firm determination to confess the
+name of Christ. Inscribed upon her is the word
+<span class="smcap">CONFIRMATIO</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Penitence</i> holds in her right hand a wand, denoting
+spiritual jurisdiction, like the wand wherewith they
+smite the excommunicated at his absolution. In her
+left hand is a Roman javelin, that was the symbol of
+liberty, to signify the free estate of the captive's soul,
+and how, through absolution, sin is made a slave;
+together with the word <span class="smcap">P&#338;NITENTIA</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Extreme Unction</i> is represented by an aged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+woman, holding a vase whence issueth an olive bough,
+and in her other hand a candle, as token that this
+Sacrament is a succour to those that be in the last
+agony. The word inscribed is <span class="smcap">UNCTIO</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Order</i> is a priest with his vestments, holding an
+incensory, together with a chalice and the host, signifying
+Oration and Sacrifice. The word inscribed is <span class="smcap">ORDO</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) <i>Matrimony</i> is the figure of a youth, holding in one
+hand a cross with two serpents twined about it, in
+imitation of Mercury's wand. In his other hand he bears
+a yoke, and the inscription <span class="smcap">MATRIMONIUM</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>The Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, as being most
+excellent of all, occupies a loftier place than all these
+other Sacraments.</p>
+
+<p>The basement of this order, forming, as it were, a
+boundary and bordering to this holy edifice of the
+Church, has twelve pedestals beneath the columns,
+making six and thirty sides, which are adorned with
+six and thirty scenes, eighteen whereof are taken from
+the Old Testament, and the other eighteen from the New
+Testament, or relating to the present state of the Church.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The first scene represents how God formed Eve
+from one of Adam's ribs. An inscription at the foot of
+the pedestal says, <i>Humani generis auspicia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Next to the preceding is an image of our Saviour
+with two angels supporting him by the arms, while from
+his wounded side issue seven rays of blood, signifying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+the Church and Sacraments. The inscription says,
+<i>Felicior propagatio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The tree of Life, with Adam and Eve partaking
+of its fruit, and the inscription, <i>Perituræ gaudia vitæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(4) A cross adorned with branches and with blades of
+wheat, surmounted by a chalice and the host, and round
+about it a few prostrate figures, eating this holy fruit,
+and the inscription, <i>Vitæ melioris origo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(5) The angel with the flaming sword, driving our
+fathers from Paradise, without suffering them to reach
+the tree of Life. The inscription says, <i>Procul, procul
+esse prophani</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) The parable of the banquet, from which was
+driven out the man that had no wedding garment. The
+inscription says, <i>Non licet sanctum dare canibus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(7) The stream of water that issued from the rock
+smitten by the rod of Moses, and the thirsty people,
+drinking. The inscription says, <i>Bibebant de spirituali
+petra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(8) Beside the preceding, the figure of Christ, from
+whose side issues a stream of blood, of which some
+sheep are drinking. The inscription says, <i>Petra autem
+erat Christus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(9) The manna which fell from Heaven. The inscription
+says, <i>Manducaverunt et mortui sunt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(10) The miracle of the five loaves, with the inscription,
+<i>Qui manducat vivit in æternum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(11) The raven bringing bread and meat to Elijah.
+The inscription says, <i>Non turpat dona minister</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(12) Next to this, an angel conveying a chalice and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+the host to the saints in the desert, with the inscription,
+<i>Sacerdos Angelus Domini est</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(13) Elisha throwing flour in the pot to sweeten the
+bitterness of the colocynth. The inscription says, <i>Vitæ
+solamen acerbæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(14) Christ turning the water into wine, with the inscription,
+<i>Vertit tristes in gaudia curas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(15) Tobias frightening away the Devil with the
+smoke from the liver of a fish. The inscription says,
+<i>Fumum fugit atra caterva</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(16) Devils flying from an altar containing a chalice
+and the host, with the inscription, <i>Fugiunt phantasmata
+lucem</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(17) Lot inebriated, sleeping with his daughters. The
+inscription says, <i>De vinea sodomorum vinum eorum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(18) A group of virgins prostrating themselves before
+the Sacrament upon the altar, with the inscription, <i>Hoc
+vinum virgines germinat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(19) Abraham harbouring the angels and washing
+their feet. The inscription says, <i>Non licet illotos
+accedere</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(20) Christ washing the feet of his disciples before a
+table. The inscription says, <i>Auferte malum cogitationum
+vestrarum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(21) The supper of the paschal lamb, with the inscription,
+<i>Antiqua novis misteria cedunt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(22) The supper of Christ, with the inscription,
+<i>Melioris fercula mensæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(23) The throne of God, before which stands the
+prophet Isaiah, and an angel whose mouth is smitten by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+a lighted brand. The inscription says, <i>Purgavit filios
+Levi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(24) A priest before an altar, in his robes, administering
+the communion to the Christian people. The inscription
+says, <i>Probet se ipsum homo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(25) Elijah reclining in the shade of the tree, with an
+angel bringing him bread and a vessel. The inscription
+says, <i>In pace in idipsum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(26) A sick man in his bed, with a priest administering
+the Sacrament to him. The inscription says, <i>Dormiam
+et requiescam</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(27) Habbakuk borne by the angels to the den of
+lions, to carry food to Daniel. The inscription says,
+<i>Adjutor in opportunitatibus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(28) An angel with a chalice and the host, which he
+administers to the souls in Purgatory. The inscription
+says, <i>Emissit vinctos de lacu</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(29) Noah sleeping beneath the vine, holding a vessel,
+with his sons gathered about him. The inscription says,
+<i>Humanæ ebrietatis ludibria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(30) Christ with a chalice in his hand, and angels
+round him, holding clusters of grapes, and a cross surrounded
+with a vine. The inscription says, <i>Calix ejus
+inebrians quant præclarus est</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(31) A queen adorned profanely, crowned with a
+snake. She holds a vessel in her hand, and rides upon
+a dragon with seven heads, some of which are drooping,
+as though they were inebriated. The inscription says,
+<i>Hæreticæ impietatis ebrietas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(32) The figure of a virtuous lady wearing a royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+crown. She holds a chalice in her hand, and rides in a
+car borne by the figures of the four evangelists. The
+inscription says, <i>Ecclesiæ Catholicæ veritas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(33) The table with the loaves of propitiation, before
+the tabernacle, with Moses and Aaron standing beside
+it, and the inscription, <i>Umbram fugit veritas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(34) A custodia, with a chalice and the host, borne by
+angels. The inscription says, <i>Ecce panis angelorum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(35) David and his soldiers, who receive bread from
+the priest's hand. The inscription says, <i>Absit mens
+conscia culpæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(36) A priest, administering the Sacrament to two
+persons, each of whom has an angel beside him. The
+inscription says, <i>Sancta sanctis</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>And since all Sacraments have virtue and efficacy
+from the passion of Christ our Saviour, which passion
+is perpetually commemorated by this holiest of Sacraments,
+I placed upon the summit of the twelve columns
+belonging to this order twelve child-angels, naked,
+bearing the signs and instruments of the Passion, as
+voices to announce this sacred mystery.</p>
+
+<p>On the tympanums of the arches are angels bearing
+grapes and ears of wheat, and in the middle of the six
+sides of the frieze are graven, upon some ovals, the
+following images and devices, the inscription corresponding
+to them being on the largest scroll of the architrave.</p>
+
+<p>(1) A garland of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, and
+in the midst thereof an open pomegranate, signifying, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+the number and cohesion of its grains, the Church,
+guarded within the fortress of this holiest of Sacraments.
+The inscription says, <i>Posuit fines tuos pacem</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A hand among clouds, extended over a nest of
+young ravens that have their beaks open and raised,
+with the inscription <i>Quanto magis vos</i>. This signifies,
+that the Lord who taketh care to sustain the infidels and
+pagans, taketh also especial care to sustain His Church
+with abundance of this celestial food.</p>
+
+<p>(3) A fair stalk of wheat, whence issue seven ears of
+great fatness, with the inscription, <i>Sempiterna satietas</i>;
+showing that, not as in the seven years in Egypt, but
+for ever, shall spiritual abundance abide in the Church of
+Christ, owing to this holy table of His body and His blood.</p>
+
+<p>(4) A stork upon a nest woven of wheat-ears and
+vine-tendrils, with the inscription, <i>Pietas incomparabilis</i>.
+Showing the piety and fatherly love that God affordeth
+to us in this Sacrament.</p>
+
+<p>(5) A hare smelling at a bough and some ears of
+wheat, with the inscription, <i>Vani sunt sensus hominis</i>.
+The hare signifies the senses, which are deceived by the
+appearance of the bread and wine, unless they be fortified
+by faith.</p>
+
+<p>(6) A hand bearing a wand, the end whereof is turning
+to a serpent, with this inscription, <i>Hic vita, hic mors</i>;
+because this Sacrament is the judgment and condemnation
+of all that receive it unworthily, but life for such
+as receive it with a clean spirit. The device has reference
+to the rod of Moses, that gave health to the people of
+Israel, affording them a passage through the midst of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+the sea, and making streams of sweet water to gush from
+the rock, but that was ruinous to the Egyptians, causing
+among them terrible sickness and destruction.</p>
+
+<p class="title">SECOND ORDER</p>
+
+<p>The second order is in the Corinthian style, the
+columns and frieze adorned with foliage in the upper
+and lower thirds, and the other one with fluted columns.
+This order contains the Holy Sacrament in a circular
+<i>viril</i> ornamented at its ends. Round it are the four
+evangelists with the figures of the lion, bull, eagle, and
+angel, adorning the majesty of the Lord that is within
+the Sacrament, whereof they gave true testimony, according
+to these words upon a tablet which each one holdeth
+in his hand:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Saint Matthew, <i>Hoc est corpus meum</i>.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Saint Mark, <i>Hic est sanguis meus</i>.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Saint John, <i>Caro mea vere est cibus</i>.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Saint Luke, <i>Hic est calix novi testamenti</i>.</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>On the outside are placed these figures, in pairs:&mdash;Saint
+Justa and Saint Rufina, patron saints of Seville;
+San Isidro and San Leandro, archbishops of the same
+city; San Hermenegildo and San Sebastian; San Servando
+and San Germano, martyrs; San Laureano, archbishop
+of Seville, and San Carpóforo, priest; Saint
+Clement, pope, and Saint Florence, martyr.</p>
+
+<p>On the six running pedestals of the columns of this
+order are six scenes or figures of ancient sacrifices,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+symbolic of this holiest sacrifice of the Eucharist, as
+showing how this one is the consummation and perfection
+of all sacrifices, and that the light thereof dispersed
+the shadows of the others. And these be in the following
+wise:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The sacrifice of Abel.</p>
+
+<p>(2) That of Noah, on his leaving the ark.</p>
+
+<p>(3) That of Melchisidech.</p>
+
+<p>(4) That of Abraham, when he sought to sacrifice Isaac.</p>
+
+<p>(5) That of the lamb which was found in the thornbush
+and placed upon the altar.</p>
+
+<p>(6) Solomon's sacrifice at his dedication of the temple.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>On the tops of these columns are twelve figures
+representing the twelve gifts and fruits of this most holy
+Sacrament, as they are told of by Saint Thomas in his
+treatise on this mystery:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>The conquest of the Devil</i>, represented by a maiden
+beautified and adorned with a palm and a cross. The
+inscription on the pedestal says, <i>Fuga dæmonis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Spiritual cheerfulness and delight</i>, in the form of
+another maiden, holding a wand wreathed with boughs
+and tendrils of the vine, and in her other hand some
+ears of wheat. The inscription says, <i>Hilaritas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Purity of soul</i>, represented by a heart among
+flames, suspended over a crucible. The inscription,
+<i>Puritas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Self-knowledge</i>, represented by a figure of Reason,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+holding in one hand a mirror, in which she regards herself,
+and in the other hand a leafy bough. The inscription
+says, <i>Cognitio sui</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Peace, and the appeasing of the wrath of God</i>, represented
+by a figure holding in one hand an olive bough,
+and in the other a cornucopia filled with grapes and
+wheat. The inscription, <i>Reconciliatio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) <i>Inward quiet and control of the affections</i>, represented
+by a figure holding some poppies in one hand,
+and in the other a lamp, the lower wick of which is
+being extinguished. The inscription says, <i>Animi qui est</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(7) <i>Charity, and profound love for God and for our
+neighbours</i>, represented by a figure holding in one hand
+a lighted heart that has two wings, and with the other
+pouring from a cornucopia. The inscription says,
+<i>Charitas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(8) <i>Increase of true worth</i>, represented by a figure holding
+in one hand a bough of mustard, that is wont to grow
+and multiply exceedingly from a tiny grain, and in the
+other hand a half-moon, receiving greater brightness as
+it waxes. The inscription says, <i>Meritorum multiplicatio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(9) <i>Firmness and constancy in well-doing</i>, represented
+by the figure of a woman holding an anchor in one hand,
+and in the other a palm. The inscription says, <i>Constantia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(10) <i>The hope that guides us to our celestial home</i>, represented
+by a figure holding in one hand a bunch of
+flowers (denoting the hope of the fruit that is to come),
+and in the other hand a star, as one that guideth to a
+haven. The inscription, <i>Deductio in patriam</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(11) <i>Resurrection</i>, represented by the figure of a beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+woman, holding in one hand a snake, and in the other
+an eagle; creatures that renew themselves by casting
+off the slough of their old age. The inscription says,
+<i>Resurrectio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(12) <i>Life Eternal</i>, represented by a figure holding a
+palm in one hand, and a crown in the other. The inscription
+says, <i>Vita æterna</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>The devices contained in this order, and in the middle
+of the frieze, are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) A bunch of grapes upon a wand, surrounded with
+ears of wheat. The inscription says, <i>C&oelig;lestis patriæ
+specimen</i>. This signifies that, as the great bunch of
+grapes that was borne by Joshua and Caleb on their
+shoulders was a token of the fertile land of promise, so
+the greatness and the sweetness of this admirable Sacrament,
+which is afforded to us in the guise of bread and
+wine, is the living sign and earnest of the abundance
+reigning in the kingdom of the blessed.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A hand extending the index-finger, pointing to a
+chalice and the host, with the inscription, <i>Digitus Dei hic
+est</i>. This means that the miracle of this holiest of Sacraments
+is the work of the eternal wisdom, that cannot be
+attained by any wisdom of us humans.</p>
+
+<p>(3) A rainbow, and above it a chalice with the host, and
+the inscription, <i>Signum f&oelig;deris sempiterni</i>. Signifying,
+that as in the olden time God vouchsafed the rainbow to
+Noah in sign of friendship and alliance, so does He now
+vouchsafe His own flesh and blood as a true and effective
+token of His lasting association with mankind.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Two rays, crossed, and in their midst an olive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+bough, with the inscription, <i>Recordabor f&oelig;deris mei
+vobiscum</i>. These are the words that were spoken by
+God to Noah, when He made the said alliance with him,
+giving to understand the clemency wherewith God
+treateth mankind in the lesson of this divinest Sacrament,
+forgetting their errors, and establishing perpetual
+peace and amity with them.</p>
+
+<p>(5) The pelican feeding her young with the life-blood
+issuing from her breast. The inscription says, <i>Majorem
+charitatem nemo habet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) A dead lion, from whose mouth issueth a swarm
+of bees, with the inscription, <i>De forti dulcedo</i>. Giving
+to understand, that as from the mouth of so brave a
+creature there issued a substance so sweet as honey, so
+did the God of vengeance, the brave Lion of the tribe of
+Judah, concert such love and peace with man, that He
+offered His very body for man's food.</p>
+
+<p class="title">THIRD ORDER</p>
+
+<p>The rest of the third order, as far as the summit of
+the <i>custodia</i>, represents the Church triumphant: wherefore
+was placed in the midst of this order (which is in the
+composite style) the history of the Lamb that is upon
+the throne, and round about it the four beasts that are
+full of eyes, as the Apocalypse relateth.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the six continuous pedestals of the columns of
+this order are graved the following six scenes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The saints who wash their stoles in the blood that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+issues from the Lamb, as is told in the Apocalypse.</p>
+
+<p>(2) God the Father, with a sickle in His hand, and
+angels gathering grapes in the vat, and corn in the
+granary, after winnowing out the chaff; signifying the
+reward accorded unto men in sowing, and in the harvest
+of the vine.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The saints in joyful procession, each with his sheaf
+of wheat.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The virgins, crowned with vine-tendrils and ears of
+wheat, that follow the Lamb.</p>
+
+<p>(5) The five prudent virgins, that with their lighted
+lamps go in to the feast of the Bridegroom.</p>
+
+<p>(6) The banquet of the blessed.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>Between the arches of this order are the six hieroglyphs
+following, with their inscriptions above, upon
+tablets.</p>
+
+<p>(1) A burning ph&oelig;nix, with the inscription, <i>Instauratio
+generis humani</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Two cornucopias crossed, with a cross in their
+midst. The cornucopias are full of vine-tendrils and ears
+of wheat. The inscription says, <i>Felicitas humani generis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) A kingfisher brooding over her young in a nest of
+vine-tendrils and blades of wheat, with the inscription,
+<i>Tranquillitas immutabilis</i>. This signifies the calm state
+of the blessed, whereof a token is the nest of the kingfisher,
+which bird, when it crosses the water, causes all
+storms to cease.</p>
+
+<p>(4) A car with flames, rising to heaven, with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+inscription, <i>Sic itur ad astra</i>. Signifying that this
+divinest Sacrament is the harbinger of those that travel
+heavenward, in that Elijah was so swept away, after God
+had sent him bread by the angel and the raven.</p>
+
+<p>(5) Two dolphins, whose tails are crossed, and in the
+middle a chalice and the host, with the inscription, <i>Delitiæ
+generis humani</i>. By this device is signified the love and
+the delight bestowed by God on men by means of this
+Sacrament.</p>
+
+<p>(6) An altar adorned with festoons of vine-tendrils and
+blades of wheat, with flames upon it, and bearing the
+inscription, <i>Æternum sacrificium</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="title">FOURTH ORDER</p>
+
+<p>In this order is represented the Holy Trinity upon a
+rainbow, surrounded by many rays of splendour, and in
+the fifth order is a bell, surmounted by a simple cross.</p>
+
+<p>Thus are all the parts of the <i>custodia</i> adorned with the
+foregoing beautiful decoration, having regard to their
+proportions and their symmetry, according to the rules
+of good architecture, and to the movements and position
+of the statuary, designed after nature, as was prescribed
+by the inventor of histories. &ldquo;<i>Et in his omnibus sensum
+matris Ecclesiæ sequimur, cujus etiam juditium reveremur.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such is the description, written by Arfe himself, of
+this wonderful masterpiece of silver-work. Unfortunately,
+since his time the <i>custodia</i> has been much meddled
+with by profane hands, and has been subjected to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+various impertinent &ldquo;restorations&rdquo; and &ldquo;improvements.&rdquo;
+Thus, the original statuette of Faith, seated on her throne,
+has been replaced by another of the Virgin, and the
+twelve child-angels, holding the instruments of the
+passion, by the same number of figures of a larger size
+and far inferior workmanship. Further, some simple
+pyramids which crowned the fourth order were foolishly
+replaced by badly executed statuettes of children, and
+the Egyptian obelisk, resting on four small spheres,
+which surmounted the whole <i>custodia</i>, by an unwieldy
+statue representing the Catholic Faith.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Description of the <i>Custodia</i> of Cordova Cathedral</span><br />
+(From <i>Córdoba</i>, by <span class="smcap">Pedro de Madrazo</span>)</p>
+
+<p>As I have stated in Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>, the author of this
+<i>custodia</i> was Enrique de Arfe, Juan de Arfe's grandfather.
+&ldquo;The base, supported on small wheels placed in the interior,
+is in the form of a regular dodecagon, each side of
+which measures a foot. On the twelve-sided plate which
+forms the base and which has well executed heads of
+seraphs at each corner, is an order consisting of three
+tiers. The first, which has projecting and receding
+angles, leaves, about six sides of the dodecagon, a free
+space for the handles by which the <i>custodia</i> is raised.
+The first tier forms a kind of socle with six buttresses,
+on the surface of which are represented allegorical
+scenes, alternated in rows with graceful designs in relief,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+grotesque and pastoral dances, and scenes from Bible
+history relative to the carriage of the Tabernacle. This
+tier is surmounted by a gilded balustrade of elegant
+design. The bas-reliefs are wrought alternately in gold
+and silver.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The second tier is formed by a small socle, crowned
+by a band of leaves and diminutive figures. Over this is
+a gilded balustrade, and finally another and a broader
+frieze containing gilded figures, together with delicate
+foliage wrought in dull silver. This second tier grows
+gradually narrower, and sustains the third, whose base
+projects, serving as cornice to the frieze of the tier
+below, and decorated with a gilded balustrade. Upon it
+rises a mass or body with twelve sides, following the
+same arrangement of projecting and receding angles
+as the lower tiers. In each of its receding spaces this
+order contains three compartments, and in each of its
+salient faces it has a small tower or buttress, which
+springs from the base and rests upon a delicate plinth
+carved with a gilded ornamental band. Thus, the order
+we are describing has six salient faces behind the six
+towers or buttresses, and six spaces containing three
+open compartments. In these compartments, separated
+one from another by diminutive buttresses with delicate
+pinnacles, there is the same number of sunken spaces,
+one inch deep, on which are represented, in high relief,
+scenes of the life and passion of our Lord. The figures,
+admirably executed, are two inches high. Above this
+order is a projecting cornice, decorated along its lower
+part with a band of dull silver. It should be noted, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+as the <i>custodia</i> narrows gradually as it rises, the receding
+spaces grow proportionally larger, thus affording
+room for the spacious inner order on which is raised
+the <i>viril</i>. This order is formed by a crystal cylinder
+(containing the host) resting on a base which is also
+cylindrical, the lower part of which is decorated with
+a broad hexagonal band, narrower at the top than at the
+bottom, and wrought with delicate foliage and figures, as
+are the bands which lie beneath it. Above the transparent
+cylinder enclosing the <i>viril</i> rises a Gothic vault,
+drooping over in the manner of a plume, and resting
+on the buttresses which fill the projecting spaces on
+the base of the principal order. These buttresses have
+a similar arrangement to, and coincide with, the other
+ones which spring from the base of the third tier of
+the first order, and are joined one to another by means
+of fine cross-buttresses surmounted by statuettes. The
+circular vault which holds the crystal cylinder containing
+the <i>viril</i>, and which resembles that of the rotunda
+dedicated as a sepulchral chapel by the emperor Constantine
+to the memory of his daughter, saint Constance,
+supports other and finer buttresses, alternated with
+those beneath; but instead of rising from the salient
+spaces of the base, these rise from the receding spaces
+and support another vault, of smooth open-work, beneath
+which is a graceful statuette of Nuestra Señora de la
+Asunción. Over this vault is a kind of open-work
+dome, consisting of an effective series of pinnacles and
+buttresses in the shape of segments of a circle, which
+bridge over the summits of the pinnacles. Upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+dome is a crown surmounted by a statuette of Christ
+triumphant, with the cross. The two vaults&mdash;that which
+encloses the <i>viril</i>, and the other one above it, enclosing
+the image of the Virgin&mdash;are masked on the outside by
+arches of elegant design, crowned by an elaborate
+balustrade. The turrets or buttresses which rise upon
+the lowest and the principal orders are decorated with
+numerous statuettes, resting on plinths of exquisite
+design, covered by open-work canopies.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This masterpiece of art is made of gold, and polished
+and unpolished silver. The weight is 532 marks&hellip;.
+Unfortunately, it lacks its original purity of style, having
+been restored in the year 1735, when it is probable that
+certain details were added which now disfigure it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX D</h3>
+
+<p class="title">THE IMPERIAL CROWN OF THE VIRGEN DEL SAGRARIO, TOLEDO</p>
+
+<p>This was the most elaborate and costly crown that had
+ever been produced in Spain for decorating an image of
+the Virgin. The following is a sketch of it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_205.jpg" width="315" height="350"
+        alt="crown"
+        title="crown" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Before it was enlarged to the imperial shape, this crown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+was executed by a silversmith named Fernando de
+Carrión, who finished it in the year 1556, and was paid
+for his labour 760,000 <i>maravedis</i>. It then consisted of
+a gold diadem adorned with rows of pearls, emeralds,
+rubies, and enamelled devices of various colours, in the
+style of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>The superstructure, which converts it into what is
+known as an imperial crown, was added by Alejo de
+Montoya, another silversmith of Toledo, who began it
+in 1574, and completed it twelve years later. The
+addition consisted of a number of gold statuettes of
+angels, covered with enamel, measuring in height from
+two inches to two and a half, distributed in pairs, and
+supporting decorative devices attached to the body of
+the crown. From behind these angels sprang gold
+bands thickly studded with precious stones, and terminating
+towards their union at the apex of the crown in
+seated allegorical figures grouped about a globe surmounted
+by a cross. This globe consisted of a single
+emerald, clear, perfect both in colour and in shape,
+and measuring an inch and a half in diameter. The
+inside of the hoop was covered with enamels representing
+emblems of the Virgin, disposed in a series
+of medallions, and the dimensions of the entire crown
+were eleven inches high by nine across the widest
+part.</p>
+
+<p>The crown was examined and reported upon by two
+goldsmiths of Madrid, who declared it to contain the
+following precious stones:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+<table summary="stones">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Two balas rubies,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">valued at</td>
+    <td class="tdl">150,000</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><i>maravedis</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Twelve rubies,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">valued at</td>
+    <td class="tdl">403,528</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><i>maravedis</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Twelve emeralds,</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">237,500</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Fifty-seven diamonds,</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">555,396</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">One hundred and eighty-two pearls,</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">397,838</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The precious stones were thus valued at a total of
+1,744,262 <i>maravedis</i>. Besides this, the value of the gold
+and silver contained in the crown was estimated to
+amount to 405,227 <i>maravedis</i>, while 3,097,750 <i>maravedis</i>
+were allowed for the workmanship. These figures relate
+to the part which was made by Alejo de Montoya
+only. That which had previously been executed by
+Fernando de Carrión was valued at 1,954,156 <i>maravedis</i>,
+making a grand total, for the whole jewel, of
+7,201,395 <i>maravedis</i>. At the present day the intrinsic
+value of the crown would be from nine to ten thousand
+pounds sterling.</p>
+
+<p>In 1869 this splendid specimen of Renaissance jewellery
+was stolen from a cupboard in the cathedral of Toledo,
+sharing thus the fate of many other precious objects
+which have been entrusted to the slender vigilance or
+slender probity of Spanish church authorities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX E</h3>
+
+<p class="title">GOLD INLAY ON STEEL AND IRON</p>
+
+<p>The inlaying of iron or steel with gold is often thought
+to be a craft particularly Spanish, and to have been
+inherited directly by the Spanish Christians from the
+Spanish Moors. This work, however, although we may
+assume it to have been of Eastern origin in a period of
+remote antiquity, was quite familiar to the ancient
+Romans, including, probably, such as made their home
+in Spain. The Memoirs of Benvenuto Cellini contain
+the following notice of the work in question:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I met with some little Turkish daggers, the handles
+of which were of iron as well as the blade, and even the
+scabbard was of that metal. On these were engraved
+several fine foliages in the Turkish taste, most beautifully
+filled up with gold. I found I had a strong inclination
+to cultivate this branch likewise, which was so different
+from the rest; and finding that I had great success in it,
+I produced several pieces in this way. My performances,
+indeed, were much finer and more durable than the
+Turkish, for several reasons: one was, that I made a
+much deeper incision in the steel than is generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+practised in Turkish works; the other, that their foliages
+are nothing else but chicory leaves, with some few flowers
+of echites: these have, perhaps, some grace, but they do
+not continue to please like our foliages. In Italy there
+is a variety of tastes, and we cut foliages in many
+different forms. The Lombards make the most beautiful
+wreaths, representing ivy and vine-leaves, and others
+of the same sort, with agreeable twinings highly pleasing
+to the eye. The Romans and the Tuscans have a much
+better notion in this respect, for they represent acanthus
+leaves, with all their festoons and flowers, winding in a
+variety of forms; and amongst these leaves they insert
+birds and animals of several sorts with great ingenuity
+and elegance in the arrangement. They likewise have
+recourse occasionally to wild flowers, such as those
+called Lions' Mouths, from their peculiar shape, accompanied
+by other fine inventions of the imagination,
+which are termed grotesques by the ignorant. These
+foliages have received that name from the moderns,
+because they are found in certain caverns in Rome,
+which in ancient days were chambers, baths, studies,
+halls, and other places of a like nature. The curious
+happened to discover them in these subterranean caverns,
+whose low situation is owing to the raising of the surface
+of the ground in a series of ages; and as these caverns
+in Rome are commonly called grottos, they from thence
+acquired the name of grotesque. But this is not their
+proper name; for, as the ancients delighted in the composition
+of chimerical creatures, and gave to the supposed
+promiscuous breed of animals the appellation of monsters,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+in like manner artists produced by their foliages
+monsters of this sort; and that is the proper name for
+them&mdash;not grotesques. In such a taste I made foliages
+filled up in the manner above mentioned, which were far
+more elegant and pleasing to the eye than the Turkish
+works.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;It happened about this time that certain vases were
+discovered, which appeared to be antique urns filled with
+ashes. Amongst these were iron rings inlaid with gold,
+in each of which was set a diminutive shell. Learned
+antiquarians, upon investigating the nature of these
+rings, declared their opinion that they were worn as
+charms by those who desired to behave with steadiness
+and resolution either in prosperous or adverse fortune.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I likewise took things of this nature in hand at the
+request of some gentlemen who were my particular
+friends, and wrought some of these little rings; but I
+made them of steel well tempered, and then cut and
+inlaid with gold, so that they were very beautiful to
+behold: sometimes for a single ring of this sort I was
+paid above forty crowns.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX F</h3>
+
+<p class="title">OLD SPANISH PULPITS</p>
+
+<p>The earliest pulpits of the Spaniards were similar to
+those of other Christian nations. One of them was the
+<i>tribuna</i> or <i>tribunal</i>, so called, according to Saint Isidore,
+&ldquo;because the minister delivers from it the precepts for
+a righteous life, wherefore it is a seat or place constructed
+upon high, in order that all he utters may be heard.&rdquo;
+The ambo, too, although it is not mentioned by Saint
+Isidore, was probably not unknown among the Spaniards.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>
+Then there were various desks, such as the <i>analogia</i>,
+<i>legitoria</i>, or <i>lectra</i>, on which the scriptures were deposited
+in church, or carried in procession, and from which the
+latter were read aloud by the priest. Saint Isidore remarks
+of the <i>analogium</i>; &ldquo;It is so called because the
+word is preached therefrom, and because it occupies the
+highest place.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> Ducange, quoting from old authors, remarks
+in his Glossary that these desks were often adorned
+with gold and silver plates or precious stones. Thus it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+is extremely probable that Tarik's celebrated &ldquo;table&rdquo;
+(see Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a> <i>et seq.</i>) was merely some elaborate
+and bejewelled <i>analogium</i> of the Christians; such as
+was, in fact, the predecessor of the modern lectern or
+&ldquo;hand-pulpit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Amador de los Ríos, sermons in those
+early times were delivered from the <i>analogium</i> only.
+Towards the twelfth century, the Isidorian liturgy was
+abolished in Spain, and the furniture of Spanish temples
+underwent some change. In the same century and
+throughout the century following, the Spanish Peninsula
+was invaded by the Order of Preachers, while, coinciding
+with, or closely consequent upon, this movement, the
+primitive ambo was succeeded by the <i>jubé</i>, and wood, as
+the material of which the pulpit was constructed, by
+marble, iron, stone, or plaster.</p>
+
+<p>Two Mudejar pulpits of great interest are preserved at
+Toledo, in the church of Santiago del Arabal (thirteenth
+century), and in the convent, erected in the reign of
+Pedro the Cruel, of Santo Domingo el Real. The
+substance of these ancient objects is a brick and plaster
+foundation, with panels of the stucco known as <i>obra de
+yesería</i>, produced from wooden moulds. The pulpit of
+the church of Santiago is traditionally affirmed to be the
+one from which, in 1411, Saint Vincent Ferrer delivered
+a sermon to the Toledan Jews. Whether this be so or
+not, the date of its construction is undoubtedly the
+second half of the fourteenth century, or early in the
+fifteenth. The shape is octagonal&mdash;a very common form
+with Gothic pulpits. It is divided into four <i>cuerpos</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+orders, including the sounding-board. The decoration,
+which is chiefly floral, is a combination of the Gothic
+and the Moorish styles.</p>
+
+<p>The pulpit of Santo Domingo el Real stands in the
+refectory of that convent. It dates from the same period
+as the one belonging to the church of Santiago, but
+unlike this latter, bears no trace of former gilding, painting,
+or enamelling upon the surface of the stone or
+plaster. It has three tiers or compartments, and, as in
+the other pulpit, the decoration consists of leaves and
+flowers, blended with geometrical patterns and Moorish
+<i>lacería</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Moorish <i>mimbar</i> or pulpit of the mosque of
+Cordova was very wonderful. According to Sentenach,
+its situation was near the archway leading to the <i>mihrab</i>,
+and on its desk rested the sacred copy of the Koran
+which had belonged to the Caliph Othman, and which
+was stated to be stained with his blood.</p>
+
+<p>This <i>mimbar</i>, sacrificed long years ago to Christian
+barbarism and neglect, was the richest piece of furniture
+in all that mighty building, seven years of unremitting
+labour being exhausted by Al-Hakem's craftsmen in
+constructing it of the richest and most aromatic woods,
+inlaid with silver, ivory, gold, and precious stones.
+Ambrosio de Morales called it &ldquo;King Almanzor's chair,&rdquo;
+describing it quaintly as a four-wheeled car of richly-wrought
+wood, mounted by means of seven steps. &ldquo;A
+few years since,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;they broke it up, I know
+not wherefore. So disappeared this relic of an olden
+time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX G</h3>
+
+<p class="title">SPANISH CUTLERS</p>
+
+<p>In former times excellent cutlery, such as knives,
+scissors, daggers, spearheads, and surgical instruments,
+was made in Spain, at Seville, Albacete, Toledo, Valencia,
+Pamplona, Ronda, Peñíscola, Guadix, Ripoll, Mora,
+Olot, and Tolosa. Rico y Sinobas has given an
+interesting description of the workshop and apparatus
+of one of these old Spanish cutlers&mdash;his graduated set
+of hammers, weighing from a few ounces to five pounds,
+his hand-saws, bench-saw, chisels, pincers, files, and
+drills, his forge, measuring from a yard square to a yard
+and a half, his two anvils of the toughest iron, the larger
+with a flat surface of three inches by ten inches, for
+ordinary work, the smaller terminated by conical points
+for making the thumb and finger holes of scissors.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>
+The method of tempering and forging practised by
+these cutlers was much the same as that of the Toledo
+swordsmiths.</p>
+
+<p>Rico y Sinobas also embodied in his essay the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+following list of cutlers and cutler-armourers, who
+manufactured knives, penknives, scissors, parts of firearms,
+or heads and blades for lances, halberds, and
+the like. The following is a summary of the list in
+question:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table id="p215" cellpadding="4" summary="cutler_list">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Name.</span></td>
+    <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Date.</span></td>
+    <td class="td2"><span class="smcap">Worked at</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Acacio</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">He made spearheads and fittings for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Aguas, Juan de</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early in 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Guadix.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Alanis</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of fittings for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Albacete</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Ambrosio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Mora. Maker of large scissors for sheep-shearing.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Arbell, Ramón</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century (?)</td>
+    <td class="td4">Olot. Knife-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Azcoitia (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 15th century and early 16th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Guipúzcoa (?). A celebrated maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Azcoitia (Cristóbal)</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Also a maker of pieces for crossbows. He was the fourth descendant of the family who worked at this branch of the cutler's craft.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Azcoitia (Juan)</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Perhaps a member of the same family. He also made pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Beson, Manuel</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Knife-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Bis, Francisco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (see Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>). Maker of knives and arquebuses.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Blanco, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Maker of crossbows, and of pieces for the same.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Castellanos (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Castellanos (the younger)</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century and early 19th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Castillo, Gregorio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Cataluña (?). Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Cerda, Miguel de la</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid and Segovia. He made scissors and other cutlery.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Criado, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Diaz, Pedro</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Escobar, Cristóbal</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Escobar, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Son of the preceding, and also a maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Fernandez Manso de Payba, José</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Guadalajara.  A Portuguese, naturalized in Spain. He was a scissors-maker of considerable fame.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Fuente, Pedro de la</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 15th century or early 16th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of crossbows and their pieces.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">García, Domingo</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Arquebus-maker and cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">García de la Torre, Teodoro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Guadalix and Alcorcón. Cutler. In company with Manuel Beson, he invented a method of converting iron into steel.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Garijo</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Garro, Martín</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 15th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Pamplona. Cutler and swordsmith. A letter dated October 31st, 1406, records that he was paid five <i>escudos</i> for making a sword, and one <i>escudo</i> for a dagger.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Gomez, Mateo</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Grajeras</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Grande, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of lanceheads.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Gutierrez</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Chinchilla. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Hernandez, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Herraez, Andres</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Cuenca. Arquebus-maker and cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Herrezuelo (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Baeza. Cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Herrezuelo (the younger)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Baeza. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Horbeira, Angel</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Cutler; a native of Galicia, and reputed to be one of the best craftsmen of his time. He was known as <i>El Borgoñon</i>, and passed his early life in Flanders.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Hortega<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Lallabe, Juan de</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 19th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Cutler, locksmith, and maker of surgical instruments.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Lastra, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows. He was one for crossbows. He was one of the latest and most celebrated of these craftsmen.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Leon</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Llorens, Pablo</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Olot. Cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Marcoarte, Simon</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Arquebus-maker and cutler. He was the son of another craftsman of the same name, who settled in Spain in the reign of Charles the Fifth (see Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Martinez, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of darts and lancesfor crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Mendoza, Francisco and Manuel</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Trigueros (Old Castile). Cutlers.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Moreno, Luis</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 15th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Moro, El</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century and early 19th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Muñoz of Getafe</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Óipa, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3" align="center">?</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Maker of crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Perez de Villadiego, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Perez, Julian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of darts and lances for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Puebla (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Maker of parts of crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Ramirez, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Cutler. He emigrated to the city of Puebla de los Angeles, in Mexico, where he continued to make knives, scissors, and weapons of good quality.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Renedo (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 16th century(?)</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of darts and lances for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Renedo (the younger)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Son of the preceding. He made the same objects as his father.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Romero</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Rosel</td>
+    <td class="td3" align="center">?</td>
+    <td class="td4">Mora. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">San José, Brother Antonio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Jaen. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Santamaría</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Selva, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Cartagena and Madrid. Cutler and iron-founder.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Segura</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century and early 19th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Mora. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Sierra, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Soler, Isidro</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century and early 19th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid.  Arquebus-maker,  cutler, and author of <i>An Historical Essay on making Arquebuses</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Sosa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of weapons, especially the heads of lances.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Targarona, Francisco</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid.  Arquebus-maker to Charles the Third and Charles the Fourth, and one of the most skilful craftsmen of his day.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Tijerero, El (Domingo Sanchez)</td>
+    <td class="td3" align="center">?</td>
+    <td class="td4">Toledo. Maker of swords and  scissors.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Torres</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Ucedo</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and perhaps early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">V....</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century (?)</td>
+    <td class="td4">Toledo (?).  Scissors-maker. The rest of this craftsman's name is not known.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Valderas, Pedro de</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid and Valladolid. Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Vicen-Perez, Pedro</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Vilarasa, Antonio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Cutler and razor-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Vilarasa, Antonio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Cutler and razor-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">... Emt.., Julian</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker. Only a fragment of his name has been preserved upon a blade. Rico y Sinobas suggests that the entire surname may have been <i>Vicen-Perez</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Zeruantes, Francisco</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Toledo. Maker of blades for halberds.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td5">Zamora (&ldquo;the deaf&rdquo;)</td>
+    <td class="td5">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td6">Castile. Cutler,</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX H</h3>
+
+<p class="title">SPANISH TRADE-GUILDS</p>
+
+<p>The <i>gremios</i> of Spain were copied from the guilds of
+France and other countries, and may be traced originally
+to the <i>corpora</i> and <i>collegia</i> of the Romans and Byzantines.
+The earliest which were formed in the Peninsula were
+those of Barcelona<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> and Soria, succeeded, not long
+after, by Valencia, Seville,<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> and Toledo. Prior, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+to the institution of these trade-guilds proper, whose
+purpose was pre-eminently mercenary,<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> there existed,
+in the case of several cities, <i>cofradías</i> or religious
+brotherhoods, that is, associations of a philanthropic
+character, composed of tradesmen or artificers who
+pledged themselves to assist each other in poverty or
+sickness, or to defray the burial expenses of such members
+as should die without resources.</p>
+
+<p>The formula of admission to a Spanish brotherhood
+was very quaint in its punctilious and precise severity. A
+notice of this ceremony, relating to the Cofradía of Saint
+Eligius, or Silversmiths' Brotherhood of Seville,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> is quoted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+by Gestoso from the venerable <i>Regla de Hermandad</i> or
+statutes of the members, preserved in a codex dating
+from the first half of the sixteenth century. It was required
+that the candidate for admission should be a
+silversmith, married in conformity with the canons of the
+church, a man well spoken of among his neighbours, and
+not a recent convert to the Christian faith. The day
+prescribed for choosing or rejecting him was that which
+was consecrated to Saint John the Baptist, coinciding
+with the festival of Saint Eligius or San Loy, &ldquo;patron
+and representative&rdquo; of silversmiths, and who in life
+had been a silversmith himself. The regulations of the
+Cofradía decreed the following method of election. &ldquo;In
+the chest belonging to the Brotherhood shall be kept a
+wood or metal vessel with space sufficient to contain
+some fifty beans or almonds; and the said vessel shall
+be set in our chapter-room, in a spot where no man is.
+Each of the brothers that are present shall next be given
+one of the beans or almonds, and, rising from his seat,
+arrange his cloak about him so as to conceal his hands, in
+order that none may witness whether he drops, or does
+not drop, the almond or the bean into the vessel. Then,
+with due dissimulation, he shall proceed to where the
+vessel lies, and if he deem that he who seeks to be
+admitted as our brother be an honourable man, and such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+as shall contribute to the lustre of our Brotherhood, then
+shall he drop in a bean or almond, and return to his seat,
+still covering his hands with his cloak. But if, upon the
+contrary, he deem that the said candidate be a sinner,
+and a riotous fellow and bad Christian, that should prove
+a source of evil and vexation to our chapter, or that hath
+wronged another of our brethren, then shall he not cast
+in the bean or almond, but secretly reserve the same,
+and once more seat himself. Lastly, when all shall have
+crossed over to and from the vessel, they shall bear it to
+the table where the officers sit, and void it in the sight
+of all the company, and count the beans or almonds;
+and if the number of these be full, then is it clear that
+we do receive the other for our <i>Hermano</i>. But if there
+be a bean or almond wanting, in that a brother hath
+retained it in his fingers, then shall our <i>Alcaldes</i> speak
+to this effect. &lsquo;Señores: here wants a bean or almond&rsquo;
+(or two, or any number, as may be). &lsquo;Within eight
+days from now let him that kept it back present himself
+to us, or to any one of us, and give account why he that
+sought admission to our Brotherhood deserves to be rejected.&rsquo;
+And if the brother that kept back the bean or
+almond should not present himself within the appointed
+time, then shall the Brotherhood admit the other: but if
+he appear, and state a lawful cause against the other's
+entry, then our <i>Alcaldes</i>, when this last presents himself
+to learn their resolution, shall urge him to have patience,
+in that not all the brothers are content with him, albeit,
+if such cause consisteth in a quarrel between a brother and
+the candidate for entry, peace may be brought about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+between the two, and afterward the <i>Cofradía</i> may admit
+him of their number.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Similar ceremonies and customs were observed in old
+Toledo (see the Ordinances of this city, dated June 24th,
+1423, renewed and amplified in 1524).<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> Here also the
+silversmiths agreed to meet and celebrate the festival of
+their patron saint upon one day in every year, &ldquo;for ever
+and for ever&rdquo; (<i>para siempre jamás</i>). On these occasions
+the image of the saint was carried in procession, and a
+repast was given to the brothers themselves, as well as
+to all persons who were &ldquo;willing to receive it for the
+love of God.&rdquo; Every brother who failed to present
+himself at this solemnity was fined one pound of candle-wax;
+but if he were merely unpunctual, and arrived
+&ldquo;after the singing of the first three psalms,&rdquo; the fine was
+only half a pound. A pound of candle-wax was also
+the statutory tribute for admission to the Brotherhood,
+together with a hundred <i>maravedis</i> and other unimportant
+sums in cash.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the <i>gremios</i> of Valencia has been traced
+in an instructive essay by Luis Tramoyeres Blasco.
+Early in the fifteenth century guilds were established
+here of nearly thirty trades, including tailors, millers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+carpenters, shoemakers, silversmiths, weavers, tanners,
+dyers, swordsmiths, and bonnet-makers. These guilds
+developed greatly in the sixteenth century, expanding
+into powerful and wealthy bodies, who practically controlled
+the entire commerce and commercial products of
+their native town. Among the <i>gremios</i> instituted at a
+later date were those of the firework-makers, basket-makers,
+twisters of silk, stiffeners of dress fabrics, bell-founders,
+and painters of chests and boxes, each of these
+corporations being enrolled by law, and possessing a
+code of regulations for the government and guidance of
+its members. Sometimes, however, owing to diminution
+in its trade, a guild became extinct, as happened
+with the <i>guadamacileros</i> (see Vol. II., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i>), and
+with the clothmakers, of whom, in 1595, but three remained
+in all Valencia. Or else a <i>gremio</i> would purposely
+amalgamate with, or merge insensibly into, another. Thus
+in 1668 the tailors and the makers of trunk-hose united
+in a single corporation, just as, at other times, the glovers
+and the parchment-dressers, the clog-makers and the
+shoemakers.</p>
+
+<p>Those of the Valencian guilds which possessed the
+greatest influence and resources, and enjoyed the highest
+privileges from the city or the crown, were called <i>colegiados</i>.
+Among them were the velvet-makers, hatters,
+bronze-founders, wax-makers, confectioners, dyers, and
+makers of silk hose. The earliest to obtain this
+coveted and honourable title were the booksellers, in
+1539, followed by the wax-makers in 1634, the confectioners
+in 1644, the velvet-makers also in this year,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+and others in succession, terminating with the dyers in
+1763, the hatters in 1770, the bell-founders in 1772, and
+the makers of silk stockings in 1774.</p>
+
+<p>According to Tramoyeres, most of the Valencian trade-guilds
+owned a building in fee-simple, and often gave
+the title of their craft to the entire street in which that
+edifice was situated. Nor did the <i>gremios</i>, in their
+evolution from the simpler and less mercenary form of
+brotherhood or <i>cofradía</i>, wholly abandon the religious
+ceremonies of their prototype. In almost every instance
+the guild erected and maintained a chapel within its
+private <i>domicilio</i>, chose a particular saint to be its patron,
+and held, with fitting pomp and liberality, a yearly
+celebration of that patron's holy-day.</p>
+
+<p>On these occasions masses and other services were
+said or sung, and the embroidered banner of the guild,
+together with the image (which was often of silver) of its
+tutelar saint, was carried in procession through the
+streets of this bright city of the south, abounding at all
+seasons in flowers and sunshine, and famed, from the
+remotest days of Spanish history, for the splendour and
+munificence of her public festivals.</p>
+
+<p>Our earliest record of the formal attendance of the
+<i>gremios</i> of Valencia at one of her <i>fiestas</i>, goes back to
+the visit to this capital of King Pedro the Second, in 1336,
+when the guilds were marshalled in military fashion,
+company by company, each headed by its pennon &ldquo;<i>á la
+saga dels primers</i>,&rdquo; that is, next to the group or company
+immediately in front of it. In 1392, upon the visit of
+another monarch, Juan the First, who was accompanied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+by his queen, Violante, a more elaborate character was
+given to the welcome. Jongleurs and dancers were
+hired to perform, while several of the <i>gremios</i> constructed
+decorative scenes or allegorical tableaux on a platform
+or a waggon, which was wheeled along the street in slow
+procession, surrounded by the marching members of the
+guild. One of these structures represented the winged
+dragon or <i>drach-alat</i> which figures so conspicuously in
+the records of Valencia (see Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>), and was
+attacked and overcome in mimic combat by a body of
+knights armed cap-à-pie. The mariners of the port built
+two large galleys, also moved on wheels and simulating
+an attack, and the <i>freneros</i> or bit-makers presented a
+gathering of folk disguised as savages. Nor was the
+bullfight&mdash;that most characteristic of Spanish sports&mdash;omitted
+from the entertainment, judging from the
+following entry in the city archives: &ldquo;Item. Sien
+aemprats los prohomens carnicers a procurar e haver
+toros e fer per sos dies feta la dita entrada joch ab
+aquells specialment en lo mercat com sia cert quel
+Senyor Rey se agrada e pren plaer de tal joch.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A typical <i>fiesta</i> and procession of these trade-guilds
+is described by Tramoyeres. &ldquo;Formed in two long
+lines, the members of the guild advanced along the
+tortuous and narrow highways of the town, adorned
+with tapestries and altars. Each <i>gremio</i> was preceded
+by a band of cymbal-beaters, pipers, and jongleurs,
+sometimes accompanied by a <i>comparsa</i> allusive to the
+ceremony now being celebrated. Next came the
+standard of the master-craftsmen and apprentices, each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+group of whom attended its <i>divisa</i> or distinguishing
+emblem. Close after followed the banner of the craft
+in general, carried by one or two of the <i>oficiales</i>, who
+made display of their dexterity and strength by supporting
+the staff of the banner upon their shoulder, the palm
+of the hand, or the under-lip. The cords of the banner
+were held by the officers of the guild, denominated
+<i>mayorales</i>, <i>clavarios</i> and <i>prohombres</i>; behind these came
+the masters, and last of all, a triumphal car on which
+were represented scenes relating to the craft. Thus, in
+the year 1655, at the commemoration of the second
+centenary of the canonization of Saint Vincent Ferrer,
+the <i>gremios</i> showed particular ingenuity and novelty
+in these devices.&rdquo; Don Marco Antonio Ortí, who wrote
+an account of the festival in question, thus describes a
+few of them. &ldquo;The millers were preceded by a waggon
+drawn by four mules and covered with boughs and
+flowers. On it was the imitation of a windmill, wheel
+and every other part, contrived so cunningly that
+although the wheel went round at a great speed, the
+artifice which caused it to revolve was kept from view,
+and in the time that the procession lasted, it ground to
+flour a whole <i>caliz</i> of wheat.&rdquo; Another invention, says
+the same chronicler, was that of the masons. &ldquo;The
+scene devised by these was a triumphal car, handsomely
+adorned, on which was borne the great tower (of the
+cathedral),<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> imitated so skilfully that it seemed to have
+been rooted from its foundation, and replanted in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+car aforesaid; and so enormous was its size that a
+special spot required to be chosen in which to set it
+up. This was in the garden of La Punta; and when
+the tower was finished and ready to be taken forth, a
+breach for its passage had to be opened in the garden
+wall. It even contained a peal of bells, which rang by
+turning round and round, and this invention of the bells,
+besides its ingenuity, was rarely fitted to this festival,
+seeing that the clock-bell of the cathedral (that is the
+greatest of them all) was given, when it was baptized,
+the name of San Vicente's bell, as well as of Saint
+Michael the Archangel; whence the tower itself is
+called the Micalet, this, in the language of Valencia,
+being the diminutive for Michael. It were impossible to
+imagine the stir and the applause excited in all quarters
+of the city by the passage of this tower.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same writer describes the decorative car or
+waggon of the flax-weavers. &ldquo;Upon it were a woman
+seated beneath a canopy, weaving at a frame, and
+representing Santa Ana, the child Jesus making
+<i>cañillas</i>, and an aged man, for San Antonio, dressed as
+a hermit, with a live sucking-pig at his side. Before
+these went Our Lady riding on a jennet, with a child
+in her arms, her right hand held by a man of venerable
+age representing Saint Joseph. This artifice was symbolic
+of the weavers' trade, receiving for this reason
+great applause, as well as for the lavish decoration of,
+and curious details that were in, the car.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Tramoyeres further explains that the guild which
+took first place in the procession was that which had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+been most recently created, the oldest and most
+honoured coming last. At Valencia this proud position
+was held from the remotest period by the clothmakers;
+but from time to time, when these for any cause were
+absent from the festival, their place was taken by one or
+other of two companies almost as ancient and as honourable&mdash;the
+tanners or the tailors.</p>
+
+<p>Each guild selected an official dress or livery, distinguished
+from the others by its colour or design:&mdash;the
+tailors, purple and white; the weavers, rose with black
+sleeves; the cutlers, crimson with green sleeves and
+sprinkled with golden roses; the millers, white with
+crimson-striped sleeves; the silversmiths, crimson with
+silver trimming; and so forth. Their banners, too, were
+quite in harmony with the rich apparel of the vain
+<i>agremiados</i>. According to an author of the seventeenth
+century, these flags were &ldquo;not of war, but of a different
+workmanship, and greatly larger. All are of damask,
+most being coloured crimson, and the poles sustaining
+them, and terminated by an image of the sainted patron
+of the guild, are longer than the longest pike of war.
+Truly, a splendid show these banners make, displayed
+with fringes of drawn gold, and shields embroidered with
+the same material.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The image in which the pole of the banner concluded
+was not, however, invariably that of a saint, or of a saint
+alone. In the case of the cask-makers it was a golden
+tun surmounted by a cross, with figures of Saint Helen
+and the Emperor Constantine standing on either side of
+it. That of the armourers was a bat (the <i>rat-penat</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+&ldquo;winged rat&rdquo; contained in the <i>escudo</i> of Valencia); that
+of the cloth-shearers, a pair of scissors with a golden
+crown and the image of Saint Christopher; of the fishermen,
+a boat containing Saint Peter and Saint Andrew;
+of the clothmakers, a sphere inscribed with the name of
+Jesus; of the stonemasons, a silver millwheel and a silver
+image of the Virgin. Similarly, each <i>gremio</i> displayed
+upon its coat-of-arms some kind of emblem such as the
+implement, or implements, associated with its trade:&mdash;the
+silversmiths, a square and compass; the carpenters, a
+hatchet and a saw; the lock-smiths, a pair of hammers
+and an anvil.</p>
+
+<p>Quaintly instructive are the dispositions of the guilds
+relating to apprenticeship. The <i>maestro</i> of a trade,
+described by the Count of Torreánaz as &ldquo;the principal
+worker in the workshop,&rdquo; agreed to feed, clothe, and
+instruct his apprentice or <i>discípulo</i>, and treat him generally
+as a member of his own family. He was permitted
+to punish his apprentice for misconduct, but not to employ
+excessive physical violence; and a law of Jayme
+the First decreed that if the apprentice lost one or both
+of his eyes from a blow inflicted by his master, the latter
+was to &ldquo;make good the injury&rdquo; (<i>sia tengut del mal que
+li haura feyt</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The number of apprentices allowed in any one
+workshop was often (and subsequently to the fifteenth
+century, nearly always) regulated by the law. The first
+disposition of this kind discovered by Tramoyeres dates
+from the year 1451, and refers to the shoemakers,
+whose apprentices might not outnumber three to each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+<i>maestro</i>.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> Similarly, by provisions issued at a later date,
+the mattress-makers and the builders were allowed no
+more than two apprentices, and the silk-weavers three,
+although sometimes the master might admit an extra
+<i>aprenent</i> or so, on payment of a certain sum per head.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>
+The term of the apprenticeship was also often fixed
+by law. In most of the trades it was four years; but
+in the case of the makers of ribbons and of boxes it
+was five years; while stocking-makers were apprenticed
+for six, and wax-makers and confectioners for eight
+years.</p>
+
+<p>Before the father or the guardian of a lad could
+sign his papers of apprenticeship, it was required
+(during and after the sixteenth century) to prove before
+the guild, by means of his certificate of baptism, or on
+the declaration of witnesses, that he was the child of
+parents who were &ldquo;old Christians,&rdquo; and not the offspring
+of Moor, Jew, slave, convert, or (in the fierce
+expression of the stocking-makers) &ldquo;any other infected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+race.&rdquo; Still more absurd and savage was an ordinance,
+dated 1597, of the shoemakers, prohibiting any master
+of this trade from admitting to apprenticeship in any
+form, &ldquo;a black boy, or one of the colour of cooked
+quince, slave or Moor &hellip; so as to avoid the harm
+which might befall our brother shoemakers from the
+ridicule that would be stirred among the populace, if
+they should see in our processions and other public acts,
+a slave, or the son of a black slave, or a lad of the
+colour of cooked quince, or a Moor; as well as the rioting
+and scandals that would be caused by the spectacle of
+creatures of this nature mixing with decent, well-dressed
+people.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These statutes are selected from the mass of local
+legislation which concerned Valencia only. Turning to
+Spanish guilds at large, the study of these institutions
+throws considerable light upon the customs of the
+Spanish nation in the past, and more especially upon the
+social and financial standing of the older Spanish craftsman.
+As in other countries, the principal and primal
+object of the <i>gremio</i> was to organize a system of defence
+against the military and nobility, or even against the
+crown. Presently, however, and long before their evolution
+is completed, errors become apparent in the statutes
+or proceedings of these bodies which denote, very instructively
+and very plainly, the typical defects or weaknesses
+of the Spanish character. Foremost of all was thriftlessness.
+Although it is a fact that several of the Spanish
+guilds owned houses or even land, none of them (except
+the silversmiths of two or three large towns) were really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+affluent;<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> and indeed, in a country racked by incessant
+foreign wars or civil strife, there was every reason why
+they should not be affluent. Yet, notwithstanding this, in
+celebrating any kind of public festival, the poor <i>agremiado</i>
+made no scruple to vie in prodigal disbursements with
+the moneyed aristocracy, clothing himself in fanciful
+and costly stuffs,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> constructing shows and spectacles on
+wheels, raising elaborate altars in the streets, contracting
+for expensive services, performances, and tableaux. More
+than once, the <i>gremios</i> were obliged to borrow funds to
+celebrate the festival of their patron saint.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> So also with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+regard to dress. The costumes of the guildsmen of
+Valencia have been already noticed. An equal recklessness
+and foppery prevailed in other Spanish towns; for
+instance, at Barcelona, where, on a visit of Ferdinand
+and Isabella in 1481, the silversmiths formed part of the
+procession &ldquo;dressed in the richest manner, with robes
+and mantles all covered with silver, and some of them
+with bonnets that were all of silver plate with jewels and
+silver foliage, while others wore silver chains about their
+necks.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Two of the most conspicuous faults among the Spanish
+race are pride and envy. Yet these defects may be
+explained without much puzzling, and, in a measure,
+pardoned. Spaniards, through all the process of their
+national development, have clung by preference to the
+calling of the soldier or the priest; that is, the only
+occupations which directly dissipate the revenue of the
+commonwealth. Since, therefore, they were thus inclined
+from earliest antiquity, as well as tutored by a crafty
+priesthood to believe that might or violence alone
+is right, the haughtiness of the Spanish people is a
+logical, and indeed inevitable, outcome of their history.
+Moreover, side by side with this erroneous theory that
+the only prowess and decorum of a people must consist
+in armed aggressiveness, as well as in a truculent and
+militant intolerance in matters of religion (or rather, of
+superstition), there arose the equally as mischievous and
+erroneous theory that the arts of peace were venal,
+despicable, and effeminate, or, in the current phrase
+of our contemporaries, &ldquo;unworthy of a gentleman.&rdquo;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+&ldquo;The Spaniards,&rdquo; wrote Fernández de Navarrete, &ldquo;are
+so proud-hearted that they do not accommodate themselves
+to servile labour.&rdquo; Therefore this people chose
+their favourites and heroes in a semi-savage freebooter;
+never in a craftsman of gigantic merit, like the elder
+Berruguete, or Juan de Arfe, or Alonso Cano. Sometimes,
+as happened with the <i>reja</i> of the Chapel Royal
+of Granada, they did not even trouble to record the
+surname of her best artificers. These men, in fact,
+exceptions to her universal rule, were coldly looked
+upon, or even persecuted.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Abundant proof is yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+extant of this humiliation of her merchants, craftsmen,
+shopkeepers, as distinguished from her soldiery and
+clergy, gentry and nobility. Undoubtedly, beneath
+such scorn the former of these groups were sensitive to
+their position, and all the more acutely sensitive because
+of their inherent Spanish pride. In fact, so sensitive
+were they, that now and then the crown esteemed it
+prudent to appease their wounded vanity by certain
+declarations or emoluments. Thus, the <i>Repartimiento
+de Sevilla</i> tells us that in the year 1255 Alfonso the
+Tenth rewarded several craftsmen of his capital of Seville
+with the title of <i>Don</i>, &ldquo;a dignity,&rdquo; says Amador, &ldquo;rarely
+bestowed at that time.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> In 1556 Charles the Fifth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+resolved, in favour of the corporation of <i>artistas-plateros</i>
+or &ldquo;artist-silversmiths,&rdquo; that the masters of this craft,
+together with their wives, might dress in silk, &ldquo;in that it
+was an art they exercised, and not an office&rdquo; (Gestoso,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+<i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, Vol. I., p. lx.), while
+Philip the Fourth decreed that they should not be forced
+to contribute to the equipment of his troops, but should
+only be invited to contribute, <i>just as with the nobles</i>.
+Nevertheless, Rico y Sinobas points out (<i>Del vidrio y
+de sus artífices en España</i>) that Philip the Fifth and
+Ferdinand the Sixth, on founding the royal glass
+factory of San Ildefonso, did not dare to ennoble the
+Castilian workmen.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I bestow the name of craftsmen in silver (<i>artífices
+plateros</i>), not upon all who handle silver or gold, but
+only upon such as draw, and grave, and execute in relief,
+whether on a large or small scale, figures and histories
+from life, just as do the sculptors.&rdquo; These words are
+quoted from a book, the whole of which was written
+with the aim of proving that certain classes of Spain's
+older craftsmen were less abject than the rest.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> It is
+not so long ago that the expression <i>viles artesanos</i> (&ldquo;vile
+artisans&rdquo;) was banished from the legal phraseology of
+Spain. &ldquo;That prejudice,&rdquo; wrote Laborde, &ldquo;which regards
+the mechanic arts as base, is not extinguished in Spain,
+but only abated: hence it happens that they are neglected
+or abandoned to such unskilful hands that they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+wonderfully backward in these matters. The influence
+of this cause is striking: in Catalonia, laws, customs,
+and opinions are favourable to artisans, and it is in this
+province that these arts have made the greatest progress.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Townsend commented as follows on what he called
+the <i>national prejudice</i> against trade. &ldquo;Whilst the Jews
+were merchants, and the mechanic arts were left either to
+the Moors or to the vilest of the people, the grandees or
+knights were ambitious only of military fame. After the
+conquest of Granada, the Moors continued to be the
+principal manufacturers, and excelled in the cultivation
+of their lands. When these, with the Jews, were banished,
+a void was left which the high-spirited Spaniard was
+not inclined to fill. Trained for many centuries to the
+exercise of arms, and regarding such mean occupations
+with disdain, his aversion was increased by his hatred
+and contempt for those whom he had been accustomed
+to see engaged in these employments. He had been
+early taught to consider trade as dishonourable; and
+whether he frequented the theatre, or listened to the discourses
+of the pulpit orators, he could not fail to be confirmed
+in his ideas. Even in the present day, many,
+who boast their descent from noble ancestors, had rather
+starve than work, more especially at those trades by
+which, according to the laws, they would be degraded,
+and forfeit their nobility.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Journey through Spain in
+1786 and 1787</i>, pp. 240, 241.)</p>
+
+<p>Laborde endorsed these assertions by uncharitably
+remarking that &ldquo;the Spaniard had always fortitude
+enough to endure privations, but never courage enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+to encounter work.&rdquo; In our time judgments of a still
+severer kind have been passed upon the Spaniards by
+various of their own countrymen&mdash;among others, Unamuno,
+Ganivet, and Pompeyo Gener.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, too, that the cause of the relentless
+exclusion, by the Spanish guilds, of Moors, Moriscos,
+Jews, or converts&mdash;men who, owing to the unsubstantial
+taint of heresy, were hated and derided by
+the Spanish nation almost to a man&mdash;resided also in
+this morbid sensitiveness. Had not the Moorish
+prisoner been formerly considered as the merest chattel,
+legally equivalent to a beast of burden?<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> How, then,
+should he be ever equalled with the Christian Spaniard?
+These haughty and extravagant notions operated, in
+the seventeenth century, to bring about the general
+ruin of Spanish trades and manufactures. Bertaut de
+Rouen wrote at this time:&mdash;>&ldquo;L'acoûtumance qu'avoient
+les Espagnols de faire travailler les Morisques, qui<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+estoient libres parmi eux, et les Mores esclaves, dont
+il y a encor quelques-uns qu'ils prennent sur leurs
+costes et sur celles d'Afrique, les a entretenus dans
+la faineantise et dans l'orgueil, qui fait qu'ils dédaignent
+tous de travailler. Ce qui achève de les y plonger,
+c'est le peu de soucy qu'ils prennent de l'avenir, et
+l'égalité du menu peuple et de tous les moindres
+marchands et artisans qu'ils nomment <i>officiales</i>, avec les
+gentilshommes, qui demeurent tous dans les petites
+villes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the same century the Countess d'Aulnoy recorded
+comical instances of the pride of the tradesmen of
+Madrid. &ldquo;One morning,&rdquo; she says, &ldquo;we stopped awhile
+in the Plaza Mayor to await the return of a servant
+whom my aunt had sent with a message to some place
+not far away. Just then I saw a woman selling some
+slices of salmon, crying them aloud and proclaiming
+their freshness in tones which positively molested the
+passers-by. Presently a shoemaker came up (I knew
+him to be such, because they called him the <i>señor
+zapatero</i>), and asked for a pound of salmon; since here
+they sell everything by the pound, even to coal and
+firewood. &lsquo;You have not been through the market,&rsquo;
+cried the woman who sold the fish, &lsquo;because you fancy
+that my salmon is cheap to-day; but let me tell you
+that it costs an <i>escudo</i> the pound.&rsquo; Furious that his
+poverty should thus be hinted at in public, the shoemaker
+exclaimed in angry tones: &lsquo;It is true that I was
+not aware of the price of fish to-day. Had it been cheap,
+I would have bought a pound of it; but since you say it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+is dear, give me three pounds.&rsquo; With these words, he
+held out his hand with the three <i>escudos</i>, jammed his hat
+upon his eyebrows (tradesmen in this town wear small
+hats, and persons of quality hats of great size), and then,
+twisting the ends of his mustachios, and clapping his
+hand to his rapier, the point of which bobbed upward,
+carrying with it a fold of his ragged cloak, caught up his
+purchase and strode home, looking at us with an arrogant
+air, as though he had performed some heroic deed and
+we had witnessed it. Yet the drollest part of it all was
+that beyond doubt the fellow had no money left at home,
+but had spent his week's wages upon the salmon, so that
+his choleric and haughty act would keep his wife and
+children famishing for all those days, after supping once
+upon abundant fish. Such is the character of this
+people; and there are gentlemen here who take the feet
+of a fowl and hang them so as to show beneath the hem
+of their cloak, to make it appear as though they really
+bore a fowl. But hunger, in truth, is all they carry with
+them.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;You never see a shopman here who does not clothe
+himself in velvet, silk, and satin, like the king; or who
+is not the owner of a mighty rapier, which dangles from
+the wall, together with his dagger and guitar. These
+fellows work as little as they may, for, as I said, they are
+by nature indolent. Only in case of extreme necessity
+do they work at all, and then they never rest, but labour
+even throughout a feast-day; though when they have
+finished what was needed to procure them money, they
+deliver the product of their toil, and with its value<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+relapse into fresh idleness. The shoemaker who has
+two apprentices, and who has only made one pair of
+shoes, hands to his lads a shoe apiece and makes them
+walk before him as though they were his pages; he that
+has three apprentices is preceded by all three; and when
+occasion rises, the master-<i>zapatero</i> will hardly condescend
+to fit upon your feet the shoes which his own hands had
+put together.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It seems that the shoemakers of Madrid were distinguished
+for their insolence and vanity above the rest
+of her tradespeople. In 1659 Bertaut de Rouen wrote
+of the two <i>corrales</i> or theatres of this town, that they
+were &ldquo;toujours pleines de tous les marchands, et de tous
+les artisans, qui quittant leur boutique s'en vont là avec la
+cappe, l'épée, et le poignard, qui s'appellent tous <i>cavalleros</i>
+jusques au <i>çapateros</i>; et ce sont ceux qui décident si la
+comedie est bonne ou non, et à cause qu'ils la sifflent ou
+qu'ils l'applaudissent, et qu'ils sont d'un costé et d'autre
+en rang, outre que c'est comme une espèce de salve, on
+les appelle <i>Mosqueteros</i>, en sorte que la bonne fortune
+des autheurs dépend d'eux.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing narratives sound absurd, and are particularly
+prone to be considered so from being of
+foreign authorship. Their tenor, notwithstanding, is
+supported by the following declarations, gravely set
+down in writing by a Spaniard, within some half a
+dozen years of the visit to Madrid of the Countess
+d'Aulnoy. The name of this author is Alonso Nuñez
+de Castro, and the title of his work (published towards
+the close of the reign of Philip the Fourth), <i>El</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+<i>Cortesano en Madrid</i>. &ldquo;What man,&rdquo; demands this
+<i>madrileño</i> of a bygone century, &ldquo;eminent in any of
+the arts, has belonged to other nations, but has sought
+in Madrid the applause and gain which his native
+country would not, or could not, bestow upon him?
+Thus, either he in person, or else his master-works, visit
+with frequency this court of ours, wherein they meet a
+better fate than in their birthplace, since only at Madrid
+is properly esteemed the value of illustrious effort. Let
+London manufacture as she may her famous cloths,
+Holland her cambrics, Florence her satins, India her
+castors and vicunas, Milan her brocades, Italy and the
+Netherlands the statues and oil-paintings which seem to
+breathe the very life of the original: our Court enjoys
+these products one and all, proving hereby that other
+nations generate artists for Madrid, who is, in sooth, the
+supreme Court of Courts, seeing that she is served by
+all, yet in her turn serves none.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Yet not at slight expense does she enjoy this
+sovereignty, showering upon other hands her gold and
+silver, that they may recreate her mouth with choicest
+drinks and viands, her nostrils with delicious essences,
+her eyes with wondrous works of painting and of statuary,
+her hearing with the skill of world-renowned musicians,
+her luxury with expensive fabrics and with precious
+stones; albeit these disbursements mark her, not as
+prodigal, but as prudent in discovering the proper use
+of gold, together with the fitting aim and purpose of all
+riches. Who was possessor of more gold than Midas?&mdash;seeing
+that not he alone, but all he laid his hand upon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+was gold; or who so wretched?&mdash;seeing that he was
+powerless to keep himself alive on gold, though all he
+touched was golden. Truly that man is rich that maketh
+gold to minister to his wants, and he a miserable pauper
+that to gold himself is slave, not knowing how to turn
+its uses to his good. Therefore let other peoples
+accumulate wealth at ease, heaping up the gold wherewith
+Madrid repays their ministration to her needs.
+Whereas her courtiers prove possession of their gold, in
+that they amassed it formerly, those foreigners show the
+evil and the mischief of their own by jealously confining
+it with lock and key: nay, who shall even tell if it be
+theirs, seeing that they enjoy it not, although they seem
+to be the lords thereof?</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;You will declare that other courts enjoy the same
+conveniences with less expense, because their magistrates
+are stricter to restrain the tradesman from
+establishing his prices at caprice. Truly, it may happen
+that elsewhere the price of foods and luxuries be less
+than in Madrid; yet it is certain that Madrid makes
+fair comparison in cheapness with the other cities of
+Castile. Nay, more, without there seeming to be cause,
+her courtiers daily find that by a marvel articles are
+cheaper here than in the soil which generated them,
+or in the town where they were wrought. The fact that
+in comparison with other kingdoms Madrid is in some
+ways the dearer, proves that she hath the money for
+rewarding labour; and that in other capitals the sweat
+of the artificer is worthless, because money is worth
+more. Always have I remarked that the province or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+the realm that is awarded the name of <i>happy</i>, because all
+things are purchasable there at next to no expense, is
+wrongly titled so, since here is evidence, either that
+money lacks, or that there is no purchaser.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the eighteenth century, when better sense prevailed
+among the statesmen and economists of Spain, the
+greedy and corrupt administration of her guilds began
+to be awarded greater notice. Among the enlightened
+and progressive Spaniards who outspoke their minds
+upon this theme, were Florez Estrada and the Count
+of Campomanes. These, among others of less mark, saw
+and proclaimed that the harm inflicted by the <i>gremios</i>
+in some directions was incalculable, while the good
+they were supposed to bring about in others was rather
+nominal than real.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Apart, however, from the judgment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+uttered by these two authorities, men of acknowledged
+probity and consequence who held the public ear, as well
+as by the patriotic Jovellanos in his spirited appeal in
+favour of the <i>libre ejercicio de las artes</i>, a number of causes,
+such as the propagation of the principles of individual
+liberty by the French Revolution, contributed to give
+the <i>gremios</i> an archaic air, and finally to bring about their
+downfall. The views concerning them which gradually
+filled the popular mind, prior to their extinction as an
+act of government in the year 1834,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> are well expressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+by Townsend. &ldquo;In all the trading companies or <i>gremios</i>,&rdquo;
+wrote this traveller, &ldquo;religious fraternities are formed,
+some incorporated by royal authority and letters patent,
+others by connivance of the crown, but both in violation
+of the laws.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Every fraternity is governed by a mayor and court
+of aldermen, who make laws, sit in judgment on
+offenders, and claim in many cases exemption from the
+common tribunals of the country. None but the
+members of these communities may exercise mechanic
+arts, or be concerned in trade; and to be admitted as a
+member is both attended with a heavy fine, and entails
+upon each individual a constant annual expense.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This, however, is not the greatest evil, for the mayor
+and officers, during their year of service, not only neglect
+their own affairs, but from vanity and ostentation run
+into expenses, such as either ruin their families, or at
+least straiten them exceedingly in trade.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;These corporations, being established in the cities,
+banish, by their oppressive laws, all the mechanic arts
+from towns and villages. In the cities likewise they
+tend only to monopoly, by limiting the numbers in every
+branch of business, and fixing within unreasonable
+bounds the residence of those who are concerned in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+trade. This they do either by assigning the distance
+between shop and shop, under pretence that two shops
+vending the same commodities must not be so near
+together as to interfere, or by assembling all the
+mechanics of the same profession, such as silversmiths,
+and confining them to one street or quarter of the city,
+under the plausible pretext that thus the proper magistrate
+may with ease pay attention to their work, and see
+that the due standard be observed.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In many cases the various <i>gremios</i> bear hard upon
+each other. Thus, for instance, the carpenter must not
+employ his industry on mahogany, or any other wood
+but deal, nor must he invade the province of the turner.
+The turner must confine his ingenuity and labour to soft
+wood, and must not presume to touch either ivory or
+metals, even though he should be reduced to poverty for
+want of work. The wheeler, in similar distress, must
+not, however qualified, extend his operations beyond the
+appointed bounds, so as to encroach on the business of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+the coach-maker, who is equally restrained from either
+making or mending either cart or waggon wheels. The
+barber may shave, draw teeth, and bleed, but he must
+not fill up his leisure time with making wigs.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> As
+mechanics are obliged to keep exactly each to his
+several line, so must shopkeepers confine themselves
+to their proper articles in trade, and under no pretence
+must the manufacturer presume to open magazines, that
+he may sell by retail.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;But neither are these abuses the only evils which call
+for reformation. Many corporations have been impertinently
+meddling, and have absurdly bound the
+hands of the manufacturer by regulations with respect
+to the conduct of his business and the productions of
+his art, such as, being too rigidly observed, would preclude
+all improvements, and would be destructive to his trade,
+by giving to foreigners a manifest advantage in favour
+of their merchandise.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The incorporated fraternities in the kingdoms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+Castile and Aragon are 25,581, and their corporate expenses
+amount to 11,687,861 reals. Their revenue is
+not altogether consumed in feasting, nor in salaries to
+officers, nor in pensions to their widows, nor yet in lawsuits,
+which are said to be both numerous and expensive;
+but considerable sums are expended for religious purposes,
+in procuring masses to be said, either for departed
+spirits and the souls in Purgatory, or for the benefit of
+the fraternity in which each individual has a proportionable
+interest. For this reason, these communities enjoy
+the protection of the ecclesiastical courts, to which, in
+cases of necessity, they frequently appeal.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The chartered corporations claim their exclusive
+privileges by royal grant, and on this plea they resist a
+formation, not considering, as Count Campomanes with
+propriety remarks, the essential condition of these grants,
+<i>Sin perjuicio de tercero</i>, or that nothing therein contained
+shall be to the <i>prejudice of others</i>, or injurious to the
+citizens at large.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX I</h3>
+
+<p class="title">CLASSES OF POTTERY MADE AT ALCORA<br />
+(From <span class="smcap">Riaño</span>'s <i>Industrial Arts in Spain</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Towards the middle of the eighteenth century:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Vases of different shapes.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Small pots (Chinese fashion).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Teapots and covers (Chinese fashion).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Cruets, complete sets (Chinese style).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Entrée dishes.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Salt-cellars (Chinese style).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Escudillas</i> (bowls), of Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Barquillos</i> (sauce bowls), Chinese style.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Bottles (in the Chinese manner).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds, with
+good painted borders in imitation of lace-work
+(<i>puntilla</i>). Some were designed in the Chinese
+manner, and especial care was taken with fruit-stands,
+salad-bowls, and dishes.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Trays and refrigerators.</p></div>
+
+<p>A document, discovered by Riaño, and dated 1777,
+says that in that year the following kinds of pottery
+were manufactured at Alcora:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p>
+
+<table summary="figures_1">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Figures of Demi-Porcelain.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Figures</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of tritons.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of soldiers (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of soldiers, one-third of a <i>palmo</i> high.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of the four seasons (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of dancers.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of tritons in the form of children.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">with brackets.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of different animals.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Dancing figures in the German style.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Figures</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of Neptune.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of shepherd and shepherdess.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of the Moorish king, Armenius.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of the four parts of the world (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of peasant and his wife.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Small figures holding musical instruments.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Figures</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing different monarchies.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing historical personages.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing the history of Alexander the Great (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing Martius Curtius (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of elephants.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of a man mounted on an elephant.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing Chinese figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of Heliogabalus.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of a general on horseback.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large figures representing Julius Cæsar.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets. Groups of Chinese figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Snuff-boxes, sugar-basins, inkstands.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rabbits, horns, and pug-dogs for holding scent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Small scent-bottles.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Needle-cases.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large vases with foot and cover.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Brackets.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Walking-stick handles.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Knife handles.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Teaspoons.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Figures of white Biscuit China.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures representing Spanish costumes (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Groups of two figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures of the four seasons (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We find also, says Riaño, the following figures of
+painted and glazed porcelain:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="figures_2">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Four seasons (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Groups of two figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Figure</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of a Moorish king.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of musicians and huntsmen.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of peasants.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of Chinese.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Small figures of a gardener and female companion.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures of soldiers in the German style.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>From 1789 to 1797, continues Riaño, the following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+kinds of pottery were made at Alcora:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="figures_3">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hard paste porcelain (French).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain of pipeclay (English).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Blue pipeclay porcelain.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Marbled pipeclay porcelain..</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>Bucaros</i>, painted and gilt.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Strasburg ware.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain painted <i>en froid</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Porcelain (Frita).</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Porcelain</td>
+    <td class="tdl">painted with gilt lines.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">painted without gold.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">(<i>frita</i>), canary colour.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Boxes</td>
+    <td class="tdl">in relief.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">plain.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain (<i>frita</i>), painted with marble wares.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plain boxes of the same kind.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain (<i>frita</i>), of blue and brown ground.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cups and saucers of a similar kind.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Biscuit Porcelain.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Vases.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pedestals.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">White</td>
+    <td class="tdl">porcelain (<i>frita</i>) cups of different kinds.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">porcelain, ornamented and plain.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boxes with busts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boxes with ornamentations in relief.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large figures of the four seasons.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Flower vases with rams' heads.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plain boxes.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boxes with ornaments in relief.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>White Porcelain.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plates, cups, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures of different kinds.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Painted Porcelain.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cups, saucers, plates, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cream-pots.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plain snuff-boxes, or in the shape of a dog.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fruit-stands in relief.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> The following passage from Townsend's Journey through Spain (Vol.
+II., p. 56), is curious as showing where jet was formerly found in this
+Peninsula. &ldquo;When I returned to Oviedo, a gentleman gave me a collection
+of amber and of jet, of which there is great abundance in this province:
+but the two most considerable mines of it are in the territory of Beloncia,
+one in a valley called Las Guerrias, the other on the side of a high mountain
+in the village of Arenas, in the parish of Val de Soto. The former is found
+in slate, and looks like wood: but when broke, the nodules discover a white
+crust, inclosing yellow amber, bright and transparent. Jet and a species of
+kennel coal, abounding with marcasites, universally accompany the amber.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> As for the clothing of sacred images in Spain, even these are subject to
+changes in the fashion of costume. Ford makes merry over &ldquo;the Saviour in
+a court-dress, with wig and breeches.&rdquo; Swinburne wrote in 1775, from
+Alicante: &ldquo;We have been all the morning in great uneasiness about Sir
+T. G.'s valet de chambre, who, till within this hour, was not to be found in
+any of the places he usually frequents. His appearance has quieted our
+apprehensions; and it seems he has been from sunrise till dinner-time
+locked up in the sacristy of the great church, curling and frizzling the flaxen
+periwig of the statue of the Virgin, who is to-morrow to be carried in
+solemn procession through the city.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A similar passage occurs in one of the letters of Lady Mary Wortley
+Montagu. &ldquo;I was particularly diverted,&rdquo; she wrote from Nuremberg in
+1716, &ldquo;in a little Roman Catholic church which is permitted here, where
+the professors of that religion are not very rich, and consequently cannot
+adorn their images in so rich a manner as their neighbours. For, not to
+be quite destitute of all finery, they have dressed up an image of our
+Saviour over the altar in a fair, full-bottomed wig, very well powdered.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> &ldquo;Ambo, pulpitum ubi ex duabus partibus sunt gradus.&rdquo; Ugutio,
+quoted by Ducange.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Originum</i>, Book XV., Chap. iv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> <i>Noticia Histórica de la Cuchillería y de los Cuchilleros Antiguos en
+España</i> (<i>Almanaque de El Museo de la Industria</i>, Madrid, 1870).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a>  See Pérez Pujol, <i>Condición social de las personas á principios del siglo
+V</i>. &ldquo;The ironsmiths of Barcelona,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;formed an extensive guild
+in the thirteenth century; in 1257, four of its members formed part of the
+chief municipal council; this guild increased in importance in the following
+centuries.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a>  The history of the Sevillian trade-guilds begins properly with the
+fifteenth century, although Gestoso states in his <i>Diccionario de Artífices
+Sevillanos</i> that he has found a few documents which seem to point to their
+existence in the century preceding.</p>
+
+<p>When the Spanish Christians pitched their camp before this city, prior
+to their victorious assault upon its walls, the besieging army was divided
+according to the various trades of its component soldiery: the spicers in one
+part of the camp, the apothecaries in another, and so forth. It is therefore
+probable that the Sevillian trade-guilds were instituted shortly after the
+re-conquest. The wages of smiths, shoemakers, silversmiths, armourers,
+and other craftsmen were decreed by Pedro the First in his <i>Ordenamiento
+de Menestrales</i>. The ordinances of the silversmiths, in particular, are so
+old that Gestoso believes them to have been renewed and confirmed by
+Juan the Second, in the year 1416. However this may be, it is certain
+that the Seville guilds were regularly constituted in the reign of Ferdinand
+and Isabella.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Barzanallana defines the word <i>gremio</i> &ldquo;as it came to be understood in
+Spain,&rdquo; as &ldquo;any gathering of merchants, artisans, labourers, or other
+persons who practised the same profession, art, or office; and who were
+bound to comply with certain ordinances, applicable to each individual
+of their number.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is well, however, to distinguish broadly between actual manufacturers
+or producers (<i>menestrales de manos</i>) and merchants or shopkeepers
+(<i>mercaderes de tienda y de escriptorio</i>), who merely trafficked in what was
+executed by another.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> This guild, as all the others, held an annual convocation of its
+members, and possessed a chapel of its own in the convent of San
+Francisco. It exercised a strict and constant supervision upon the gold
+and silver work produced throughout the city. On April 15th, 1567, the
+inspectors appointed and salaried by the guild visited the shop of Antonio
+de Cuevas, and seized an <i>Agnus Dei</i> and a faultily executed cross, both of
+which objects were destroyed forthwith. On February 8th, 1569, they
+repeated their visit to the same silversmith, and seized an <i>apretador</i>, which
+was likewise broken up. On February 9th, 1602, they entered the shop
+of Antonio de Ahumada, and took away &ldquo;two rings, a gold <i>encomienda</i>,
+a cross of Saint John, some small cocks, a toothpick, and a San Diego of
+silver.&rdquo; Similar notices of fines, confiscations, and other punishments
+exist in great abundance, and may be studied in Gestoso's dictionary.
+See also Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>, of the present work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> The foremost in importance of the <i>gremios</i> of Toledo was that of the
+silk-weavers (<i>arte mayor de la seda</i>), whose earliest ordinances date from
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1533.</p>
+
+<p>Interesting particulars of the old Toledan <i>gremios</i> generally will be found
+in the municipal archives of this city, in the <i>Ordenanzas para el buen
+régimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal é imperial ciudad de Toledo</i>
+(reprinted in 1858); in Martín Gamero's <i>History of Toledo</i>; and in the
+Count of Cedillo's scholarly monograph, <i>Toledo in the Sixteenth Century</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> That is, the ponderous structure known as the Miguelete, which stands
+unfinished to this day.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> The Count of Torreánaz quotes an earlier instance, relative to another
+city, from the shoemakers' ordinances of Burgos, confirmed by the emperor
+Alfonso in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1270. These laws decreed, obviously with the purpose of
+limiting the number of apprentices, that every master-craftsman who engaged
+an apprentice was to pay two thousand <i>maravedis</i> &ldquo;for the service of God
+and of the hospital.&rdquo; Similar legislation, lasting many centuries, was in
+force elsewhere, for Larruga says that at Valladolid, although the city
+produced fourteen thousand hats yearly, most of the master-hatters had no
+apprentices in their workshops, and only one <i>oficial</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, the silk-weavers (Statute of 1701). &ldquo;Que ningun collegial de dit
+collegi puixa matricular francament mes de tres aprenents y si volgués
+tenirne mes, hatja de pagar á dit collegi deu lliures, moneda real de Valencia
+per cascú dels que excedirá de dit numero.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> It is not often, for instance, that we meet with notices of Spanish craftsmen
+such as Miguel Jerónimo Monegro, a silversmith of Seville, who at
+his death, towards the middle of the sixteenth century, was in a position to
+bequeath the following money and effects: 15,000 <i>maravedis</i> to his servant,
+Catalina Mexia, 6000 <i>maravedis</i>  to Juan Ortiz, &ldquo;a boy that was in my
+house, that he may learn a trade,&rdquo; 6000 <i>maravedis</i>  yearly to his slavewomen,
+Juana and Luisa, and a black mule to his executor, Hernando de
+Morales.&mdash;Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanas</i>, Vol. II., p. 256.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> This did not happen only at Valencia. The Cortes assembled at Valladolid
+in 1537 complained that it was &ldquo;tolerable that costly stuffs should
+be worn by lords, gentlemen, and wealthy persons; but such is become our
+nation, that there is not an hidalgo, squire, merchant, or <i>oficial</i> of any
+trade, but wears rich clothing; wherefore many grow impoverished and lack
+the money to pay the <i>alcabalas</i> and the other taxes owing to His Majesty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fernandez de Navarrete stated, in 1626, that &ldquo;the wives of common
+<i>mecánicos</i> (<i>i.e.</i> craftsmen) furnish their dwellings more luxuriously than
+titled personages of the realm were wont to furnish theirs some few
+years ago,&rdquo; and that hangings of taffeta or Spanish <i>guadamecíes</i> were now
+regarded with contempt, being replaced, even in the homes of the moderately
+well-to-do, by sumptuous fabrics of Florence and Milan, and by the
+costliest Brussels tapestry.&mdash;(<i>Conservación de Monarquías</i>, p. 246).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Larruga, in Vol. XVIII. of his <i>Memorias</i>, inserts an account of the
+heavy debts incurred by the <i>gremios</i> of Valladolid, upon the celebration of
+various of their festivals.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The treatment of distinguished craftsmen by the Spanish church was
+often sheerly villainous. A document, inserted by Zarco del Valle among
+his collection of <i>Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes
+en España</i>, p. 362, and in the handwriting of &ldquo;Maestre&rdquo; Domingo (see
+Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>), states that after making the choir-<i>reja</i> for Toledo
+cathedral, &ldquo;so richly wrought, that in the elegance and rarity thereof it
+far surpasseth all that has been witnessed in our time, whether in his
+majesty's dominions or abroad,&rdquo; and expending on it &ldquo;all the money I
+had earned in my youth,&rdquo; this eminent <i>rejero</i> found himself by now
+&ldquo;owing a great quantity of <i>maravedis</i>, seeing that I am utterly without
+resources,&rdquo; concluding by an appeal to the archbishop to &ldquo;take heed how
+that I shall not perish through such poverty, and my wife and children in
+the hospital.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In another document the same artificer complains that in producing the
+aforesaid <i>reja</i>, he had sacrificed &ldquo;not only my labour, but my property
+to boot, having been compelled to sell my house and my inheritance to
+compensate me for my losses,&rdquo; adding that the cathedral authorities had
+violated their engagement with him.</p>
+
+<p>In answer to a series of petitions such as this, the archbishop tardily
+gave orders for the payment to Domingo of a lump sum of fifteen thousand
+<i>maravedis</i> and a pension for the rest of his life of two silver <i>reales</i> of
+Castilian money, &ldquo;to aid him to support himself.&rdquo; This was in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>
+1563. By 1565 death had ended the miseries of the master-craftsman,
+and again we find his widow and children knocking at the archbishop's
+door, pleading that &ldquo;extreme is our necessity,&rdquo; and declaring that
+Domingo had succumbed overburdened with debt, <i>affirming on his deathbed
+that the cathedral owed him three thousand ducats, being half the value
+of a reja he had made</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In answer to this terrible appeal, the thrifty prelate ordered that <i>since it
+was found to be true that Master Domingo had lost his maravedis in making
+the rejas of the choir</i>, his widow and children should receive a daily pension
+of one <i>real</i>, and that a suit of clothes should be given to each of his sons
+and his two daughters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> So rarely, that Salazar de Mendoza affirms in his book upon <i>Castilian
+Dignities</i> that this &ldquo;high prenomen&rdquo; (<i>alto prenombre Don</i>) might properly
+be used by none but kings, <i>infantes</i>, prelates, and the <i>ricos-homes</i> of the
+realm.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1626, Fernández de Navarrete complained of the tendency prevailing
+among the Spaniards generally to usurp the title <i>Don</i>. &ldquo;Nowadays
+in Castile,&rdquo; he wrote (<i>Conservación de Monarquías</i>, p. 71, etc.), &ldquo;exists a
+horde of turbulent and idle fellows that so style themselves, since you will
+hardly find the son of a craftsman (<i>oficial mecánico</i>) that does not endeavour
+by this trick to filch the honour that is owed to true nobility alone; and so,
+impeded and weighed down by the false appearance of <i>caballeros</i>, they are
+unsuited to follow any occupation that is incompatible with the empty
+authority of a <i>Don</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Some of the reasons why these rogues or <i>pseudonobles</i> (as Fernández de
+Navarrete called them), attempted to pass for <i>hidalgos</i> or &ldquo;sons of somebody,&rdquo;
+are disclosed by Townsend, writing a century and a half later.
+&ldquo;Numerous privileges and immunities enjoyed by the <i>hidalgos</i> or knights,
+sometimes called <i>hijos dalgo</i>, have contributed very much to confirm hereditary
+prejudices to the detriment of trade. Their depositions are taken in
+their own houses. They are seated in the courts of justice, and are placed
+near the judge. Till the year 1784, their persons, arms, and horses were
+free from arrest. They are not sent to the common jails, but are either
+confined in castles or in their own houses on their parole of honour. They
+are not hanged, but strangled, and this operation is called <i>garrotar</i>, from
+<i>garrote</i>, the little stick used by carriers to twist the cord and bind hard
+their loading. They cannot be examined on the rack. They are, moreover,
+exempted from the various taxes called <i>fechos</i>, <i>pedidos</i>, <i>monedas</i>, <i>martiniegas</i>,
+and <i>contribuciones reales</i> and <i>civiles</i>: that is, from subsidies,
+benevolence, and poll tax, or taille paid by the common people, at the
+rate of two per cent., in this province, but in others at the rate of four.
+They are free from personal service, except where the sovereign is, and
+even then they cannot be compelled to follow him. None but the royal
+family can be quartered on them. To conclude, the noble female conveys
+all these privileges to her husband and her children, just in the same
+manner as the eldest daughter of the titular nobility transmits the titles of
+her progenitors.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The proportion of <i>hidalgos</i> in the kingdom of Granada is not considerable;
+for out of six hundred and fifty-two thousand nine hundred and ninety
+inhabitants, only one thousand nine hundred and seventy-nine are noble;
+whereas, in the province of León, upon little more than one-third that
+population, the knights are twenty-two thousand. In the province of
+Burgos, on four hundred and sixty thousand three hundred and ninety-five
+inhabitants, one hundred and thirty-four thousand and fifty-six are entitled
+to all the privileges of nobility; and in Asturias, of three hundred
+and forty-five thousand eight hundred and thirty-three, nearly one-third
+enjoy the same distinction.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Journey through Spain in the years 1786
+and 1787</i>: Vol. III., pp. 79, 80.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Ríos, <i>Noticia general para la
+estimación de las Artes y la manera en que se conocen las liberales de las que
+son mecánicas y serviles</i>. Madrid, 1600. I again have occasion to mention
+this curious work in my chapter on Spanish tapestries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> It is stated in the Fuero of Nájera (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1076) that the price of the
+blood of a Moorish slave was twelve <i>sueldos</i> and a half, while the Fuero
+Viejo of Castile (Book II., Tit. III., Ley IV.) contains the significantly
+contemptuous phrase, &ldquo;If a man demand of another a beast or a Moor&rdquo;
+(<i>si algún ome demanda á otro bestia ó moro</i>). The Countess d'Aulnoy
+wrote in 1679;&mdash;&ldquo;There are here (at Madrid) a large number of Turkish
+and Moorish slaves, who are bought and sold at heavy prices, some of them
+costing four hundred and five hundred <i>escudos</i>. Until some time ago the
+owners of these slaves possessed the right to kill them at their pleasure, as
+though they had been so many dogs; but since it was remarked that this
+usage tallied but poorly with the maxims of our Christian faith, so
+scandalous a license was prohibited. Nowadays the owner of a slave
+may often break his bones without incurring censure. Not many, however,
+resort to so extreme a chastisement.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> To further show the extravagant way of thinking and behaving of the
+Spaniard of the seventeenth century, the same author sets aside the sneering
+objection justly made by foreign writers to the river Manzanares at
+Madrid&mdash;namely, that it has no water&mdash;by remarking with exquisite
+complacency, that here precisely lies the crowning merit and advantage of
+the Manzanares over rival streams; in that it amuses people without
+endangering their lives. In the reigns of Philip the Fourth and Charles
+the Second, a favourite promenade of the Madrid aristocracy was the waterless
+channel of this river, in which, according to this work, &ldquo;coaches and
+carriages do duty for a gondola, and form a pleasant imitation of the boats
+and palaces of Venice.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> The object avowedly pursued by Campomanes was not, however, the
+absolute suppression of the Spanish trade-guilds, but merely their reconstruction
+upon a sounder basis. He still believed that admission to a guild
+should be preceded by a formal period of apprenticeship, as well as that
+the title and the privileges of the master of a trade should be hereditary.
+An instance of the grossly fraudulent methods employed by the <i>gremios</i>
+in order to retain the privilege of manufacture in a certain family, is quoted
+by Larruga (<i>Memorias</i>, Vol. II., p. 201), who states that the silk-cord
+makers of Madrid conferred the title of <i>master-craftsman</i> on a babe only
+twenty-two months old.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Barzanallana says that the earliest sign of a movement in the direction
+of emancipating the Spanish people from the thraldom of the <i>gremios</i> is
+contained in the royal <i>cedula</i> of May 17th, 1790, abolishing several of the
+noxious prerogatives which had hitherto been enjoyed by the families of
+master-craftsmen. A further crown decree, dated the same month and
+year, empowered the Audiencias and Chancillerías to authorize persons to
+pursue a craft (provided they were reasonably competent) without the
+necessity of approval from the <i>gremios</i> and their <i>veedores</i>. Three years
+later, the same monarch (Charles the Fourth) suppressed the <i>gremios</i> and
+<i>colegios</i> of the silk-twisters, and declared this craft to be open to all such
+persons, of either sex, as wished to practise it. In 1797 it was permitted
+to all foreigners who should be competent in any art or industry (except
+Jews) to establish themselves in Spain or her dominions, nor were they
+to be molested in their religious theories if they should happen not to be
+Roman Catholics.</p>
+
+<p>At a later time the Cortes annulled, or very nearly so, the <i>ordenanzas</i>
+of the <i>gremios</i>, and allowed the exercise of any lawful trade or craft to
+everybody, Spaniards and foreigners alike, without the requisite of
+special license or examination, or approval by the officers of the guilds
+(decree of June 8th, 1813). This measure was revoked in 1815, but again
+became law in 1836, and two years before this latter date was issued the
+decree of Queen María Cristina prohibiting associations which, under the
+semblance of a <i>gremio</i>, should aim at converting any craft or office into a
+monopoly.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish <i>gremios</i> still exist, but all their sting has departed. To-day
+they may be said to spring from the natural and beneficial interdependence
+of persons working together in the same groove, and seeking mutual support
+by means of peaceable association. Thus the abuses which rendered
+them so terrible and evil in the olden time are fortunately now no more.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> This custom was borrowed from the East, and explains why, in many
+of the older Spanish cities, a number of their streets have taken their title
+from the trades that formerly were plied in them, or (in some instances)
+that still are so. Especially was this the case at Valencia and Toledo. In
+the latter capital there are, or used to be, the streets, <i>plazas</i>, or <i>barrios</i>, of
+the silversmiths, armourers, bakers, old-clothes vendors, potters, esparto-weavers,
+dyers, chairmakers, and many more. Martín Gamero, in his
+excellent <i>History of Toledo</i> (Introduction, p. 60), says that in the centre of
+the city were located the quiet crafts, such as those of the jewellers, silversmiths,
+chandlers, and clog-makers, as well as the shops of the silk, brocade,
+and tissue-vendors. Noisy trades, such as the swordsmiths', tinsmiths',
+boiler-makers', chairmakers', and turners', were practised on the outskirts
+of the town.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Colmeiro has published <i>memoriales</i> presented by the hatters of
+Zaragoza, in which they pray to be allowed to line, by their own hands, or
+by those of their wives, the hats which they had manufactured, instead of
+being required to give up this finishing and accessorial process to the makers
+of silk cord.&mdash;<i>Historia de la Economía Política en España</i>, and <i>Biblioteca
+de los economistas españoles de los siglos XVI., XVII., y XVIII</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> This meddlesomeness almost exceeds belief. It was at its worst,
+perhaps, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who decreed that the
+wicks of candles were to be made of the same kind of tow, and horse-shoes
+and nails to be of the same weight in every part of their dominions. It was
+required that machines, which might have been to great advantage moved
+by mules or horses, should only be worked by the hand of man, however
+lengthy and exhausting this might prove. The Count of Torreánaz, who
+quotes these ridiculous dispositions from the <i>Libro de bulas y pragmáticas</i>
+of Juan Ramírez, further recalls that, as late as the middle of the eighteenth
+century, costly woven stuffs of Seville and Valencia used to be confiscated
+because, although the ground of the fabric was of a colour which the law
+allowed, the flowers or other devices which formed the decoration were of
+a forbidden shade. On one occasion the chief lady-in-waiting of the queen
+was prohibited from wearing a dress which she had ordered from a weaver
+of Valencia, because the flowered pattern was contrary to the <i>ordenanzas</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following is a fairly complete list of the works I have
+consulted for the preparation of these volumes.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Abdón de Paz.</span> <i>La España de la Edad Media.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Academia de San Fernando, Real.</span> <i>Colección de Antigüedades
+Arabes de Granada y Córdoba</i>; 2 vols.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alba, Duchess of Berwick and.</span> <i>Catálogo de las colecciones
+expuestas en las vitrinas del Palacio de Liria.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alderete.</span> <i>Antigüedades de España.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alzola y Minondo, Pablo.</span> <i>El Arte Industrial en España.</i>
+Bilbao, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Amador de los Ríos.</span> <i>El Arte Latino-Bizantino en España
+y las Coronas Visigodas de Guarrazar.</i> Madrid, 1861.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Antón, Francisco.</span> <i>Estudio sobre el Coro de la Catedral de
+Zamora</i>; 1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Argote de Molina.</span> <i>Nuevos Paseos Históricos, Artísticos,
+Económico-Políticos por Granada y sus Contornos.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arphe y Villafañe.</span> <i>Varia Conmensuración para la Escultura
+y Arquitectura.</i> Seventh edition; Madrid, 1795.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arte en España, El</i>; 8 vols.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arts italiens en Espagne, Les, ou histoire des artistes italiens
+qui contribuerent à embellir les Castilles.</i> Rome, 1825.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Balsa de la Vega.</span> <i>Las Industrias Artísticas en Madrid</i>
+(Lace, etc.). Articles published in <i>El Liberal</i>, 1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Barrantes.</span> <i>Barros emeritenses.</i> Madrid, 1877.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bertaut de Rouen.</span> <i>Journal du Voyage d'Espagne.</i> Paris,
+1669.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Birch, Samuel.</span> <i>History of Ancient Pottery.</i> London, 1873.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bock.</span> <i>Die Kleinodien des heil. römischen Reichs deutscher
+Nation, nebst den Kroninsignien Böhmens, Ungarns, und
+der Lombardei.</i> Vienna, 1864.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Geschichte der liturgischen Gewänder des Mittelalters.</i> Bonn, 1871.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bonsor, Georges.</span> <i>Les Colonies pre-Romaines de la Vallée du
+Bétis.</i> Paris, 1899.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bourgoing, Jean-François de.</span> <i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne.</i>
+3 vols.; Paris, 1789.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Breñosa y Castellarnau.</span> <i>Guía y Descripción del Real Sitio
+de San Ildefonso.</i> Madrid, 1884.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Caballero Infante, Francisco.</span> <i>Aureos y barras de oro y
+plata encontrados en el pueblo de Santiponce.</i> Seville, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Campos Munilla, Manuel.</span> <i>Mosaicos del Museo Arqueológico
+Provincial de Sevilla.</i> 1897.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Capmany y Montpalau, Antonio.</span> <i>Memorias históricas sobre
+la marina, comercio, y artes de la ciudad de Barcelona.</i>
+Madrid, 1779.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Carrasco y Sáinz, Adolfo.</span> <i>Catálogo de los recuerdos históricos
+existentes en el Museo de Artillería.</i> Part I.; Madrid,
+1893.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cascales, Francisco.</span> <i>Discursos históricos sobre Murcia.</i>
+Murcia, 1624.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cean Bermudez, Juan Agustin.</span> <i>Descripción Artística de la
+Catedral de Sevilla.</i> Seville, 1863.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Diccionario de las Bellas Artes en España.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cedillo, Count of.</span> <i>Toledo en el siglo XVI.</i> Madrid, 1901.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Clonard, Count of.</span> <i>Memorias para la historia del traje</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+<i>español</i>; published in the <i>Memorias de la Real Academia
+de la Historia</i>, Vol. IX. Madrid, 1879.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Conferencias leidas en el Ateneo Barcelonés sobre el estado
+de la cultura española y particularmente catalana, en el siglo
+XV.</i> Barcelona, 1893.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cole, Alan S.</span> <i>Ornament in European Silks.</i> London, 1899.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Contreras, Rafael.</span> <i>Recuerdos de la Dominación de los
+Arabes en España.</i> Granada, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cox.</span> <i>L'Art de décorer les Tissus.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cruzada Villaamil.</span> <i>Los tapices de Goya.</i> Madrid, 1870.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Danvila y Collado.</span> <i>Trajes y Armas de los Españoles.</i>
+Madrid, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Davillier, Baron.</span> <i>Recherches sur l'orfévrerie en Espagne.</i>
+Paris, 1879.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Les arts decoratifs en Espagne au moyen âge et à la
+Renaissance.</i> Paris, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nota sobre los cueros de Cordoba, Guadameciles de
+España</i>, etc. (Spanish edition.) Gerona, 1879.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Diaz y Perez, Nicolás.</span> <i>Historia de Talavera la Real.</i>
+Madrid, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dozy.</span> <i>Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne.</i> Leyden, 1881.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dupont-Auberville.</span> <i>L'Ornement des Tissus.</i> Paris, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Echeverría.</span> <i>Paseos por Granada y sus Contornos</i>. 2 vols.;
+Granada, 1814.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eguilaz Yanguas, Leopoldo.</span> <i>Reseña Histórica de la
+Conquista del Reino de Granada por los Reyes Católicos.</i>
+Granada, 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Errera, Madame Isabelle.</span>  <i>Collection d'Anciennes Étoffes</i>
+(Catalogue). Brussels, 1901.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fernandez y Gonzalez, Francisco.</span> <i>Estado social y político
+de los mudéjares de Castilla.</i> Madrid, 1866.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Florez.</span> <i>España Sagrada.</i> (2nd edition). Madrid, 1824.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ford, Richard.</span> <i>Handbook for Travellers in Spain.</i> 2 vols.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+London, 1845.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gayangos, Pascual de</span> (edited by). <i>History of the Mohammedan
+Dynasties in Spain.</i> London, 1843.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p>(annotated by). <i>Chronicle of Rassis the Moor.</i> Madrid,
+1850.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gayet.</span> <i>L'Art Persan.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gestoso y Perez, José.</span> <i>Documentos relativos á la historia de
+la Armería de Sevilla.</i> Seville, 1887.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Ensayo de un Diccionario de los artífices que florecieron
+en Sevilla desde el siglo XIII al XVIII inclusive.</i> 2 vols.;
+Seville, 1899.</p>
+
+<p><i>Historia de los barros vidriados sevillanos desde sus
+orígenes hasta nuestros días.</i> Seville, 1903.</p>
+
+<p><i>Curiosidades antiguas sevillanas.</i> Seville, 1885.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Goblet d'Alviella, Comte.</span> <i>La Migration des Symboles.</i>
+Paris, 1891.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gómez Moreno, Manuel.</span> <i>Apuntes que pueden servir de
+historia del bordado de imaginería en Granada</i> (published in
+the magazine <i>El Liceo de Granada</i>; 6th year, No. 18).</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Guía de Granada.</i> Granada, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Góngora.</span> <i>Antigüedades Prehistóricas de Andalucía.</i> Madrid,
+1868.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Granada, Ordinances of.</span> <i>Titulo de las Ordenanças que los
+muy Ilustres y muy magníficos Señores Granada mandaron
+que se guarden para la buena governacion de su República.
+Las quales mandaron imprimir para que todos las sepan y
+las guarden.</i> 1552.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Ordenanzas que los Muy Ilustres y Muy Magnificos
+Señores Granada mandaron guardar, para la buena
+governacion de su Republica, impressas año de 1552. Que
+se han buelto a imprimir mandado de los Señores Presidente,</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+<i>y Oydores de la Real Chancilleria de esta ciudad de
+Granada, año de 1670. Añadiendo otras que no estauan
+impressas. Impressas en Granada. En la Imprenta
+Real de Francisco de Ochoa, en la Calle de Abenamar.
+Año de</i> 1678.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Guillen Robles, Francisco.</span> <i>Málaga musulmana.</i> Málaga,
+1880.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gutierrez de la Hacera, Pascual Ramon.</span> <i>Descripción
+General y Cronológica de España.</i> 2 vols.; Madrid, 1771.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hübner.</span> <i>Inscriptiones Hispaniæ latinæ.</i> Berlin, 1892.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Inscriptionum Hispaniæ latinarum supplementum.</i>
+Berlin, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jones, Owen.</span> <i>The Alhambra.</i> London, 1842.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lane-Poole, Stanley.</span> <i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt.</i>
+London, 1888.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>The Moors in Spain.</i> London, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Larruga.</span> <i>Memorias políticas y económicas sobre los frutos,
+comercio, y minas de España.</i> Madrid, 1788.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Le Breton, Gaston.</span> <i>Céramique espagnole. Le salon en
+porcelaine du Palais Royal de Madrid et les porcelaines de
+Buen Retiro.</i> Paris, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lecea y Garcia.</span> <i>Recuerdos de la antigua industria Segoviana.</i>
+Segovia, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lopez de Arenas, Diego.</span> <i>Carpintería de lo Blanco y Tratado
+de Alarifes.</i> (3rd edition.) Madrid, 1867.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Madrazo, Pedro de.</span> <i>Córdoba.</i> Barcelona, 1884.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Martorell y Peña, Juan.</span> <i>Apuntes arqueológicos de, ordenados
+por Salvador Samper y Miquel.</i> Barcelona, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Medina, Pedro de.</span> <i>Primera y Segunda parte de las grandezas
+y cosas notables de España.</i> Alcalá de Henares, 1595.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Menendez y Pelayo, Marcelino.</span> <i>Historia de las Ideas
+Estéticas en España.</i> Madrid, 1886 and following years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Morales, Ambrosio de.</span> <i>La crónica general de España del
+Maestro Florián de Ocampo, continuada con el libro de las
+antigüedades de España.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Moreno de Vargas, Bernabé.</span> <i>Historia de la Ciudad de
+Mérida.</i> Merida, 1633; reprinted at Merida, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Murguía, Manuel.</span> <i>El Arte en Santiago durante el siglo
+XVIII., y noticia de los artistas que florecieron en dicho
+ciudad y centuria.</i> Madrid, 1884.</p>
+
+<p><i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i> (many articles in the). Madrid,
+1872 and following years.</p>
+
+<p><i>Noticia de la Fábrica de Espadas de Toledo que por tantos
+siglos existió hasta fines del XVII en que acabó, y del
+método que tenían aquellos artífices Armeros para forjarlas
+y templarlas, aceros de que usaban, y otras particularidades
+que las hicieron tan famosas en todo el Mundo como apetecidas
+al presente, y de la que por el Rey N.S. que Dios gue.
+se estableció en esta Ciudad año de 1760; por Francisco de
+Santiago Palomares Escriuano mayor de primeros remates
+de Rentas decimales de Toledo y su Arzobispado.</i> MS. in
+the Library of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid;
+in the volume inscribed <i>Varios de Historia</i>, 8, E, 141.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ordenanzas de la muy noble é muy leal Cibdad de Sevilla é
+su tierra, assi de las tocantes al Cabildo y regimiento della,
+que se contienen en la primera parte, como de todos los
+oficios mecánicos, de que es la segunda parte. Impressas con
+mucha diligencia en la dicha Cibdad de Sevilla por Juan
+Varela de Salamanca, vezino della. Acabáronse de imprimir
+á catorze dias del mes de Febrero, año de Nuestro Redemptor
+Iesu Christo de mil quinientos é veynte y siete años (1527).</i>
+The second edition was published, also at Seville, in
+1632.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ordenanzas para el buen regimen y gobierno de la muy noble,</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+<i>muy leal é imperial ciudad de Toledo.</i> Reprinted by the
+Town Council. Toledo, 1858.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ortega Rubio.</span> <i>Los Visigodos en España.</i> Madrid, 1903.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Osma, Guillermo J. de.</span> <i>Azulejos sevillanos del siglo XIII.</i>
+Madrid, 1902.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Los letreros ornamentales en la cerámica morisca del siglo
+XV.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pérez de Villa-amil.</span> <i>España Artistica y Monumental.</i>
+Paris, 1842&ndash;1850.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pérez Villaamil, Manuel.</span> <i>Artes é Industrias del Buen
+Retiro.</i> Madrid, 1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Picatoste, Felipe.</span> <i>Ultimos escritos.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Estudios sobre la grandeza y decadencia de España.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pigal.</span> <i>Collection de Costumes des diverses Provinces de
+l'Espagne.</i> Paris, about 1810.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ponz, Antonio.</span> <i>Viaje de España.</i> 18 vols.; Madrid, 1787.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ramírez de Arellano, Rafael.</span> <i>Ciudad Real Artística.</i>
+Ciudad Real, 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Riaño, Juan Facundo.</span> <i>The Industrial Arts in Spain</i> (South
+Kensington Museum Art Handbooks). London, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ricord, Tomás.</span> <i>Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones
+del Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que tenían en el
+año 1791.</i> Valencia, 1793.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rodríguez Villa, Antonio</span> (edited by). <i>La Corte y
+Monarquía de España en los años de 1636 y 1637.</i> Madrid,
+1886.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sanpere y Miquel.</span> <i>La Plateria catalana en los siglos XVI y
+XV</i> (article published in the <i>Revista de Ciencias Históricas</i>;
+Vol. I.).</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Las Costumbres Catalanas en tiempo de Juan I.</i> Gerona,
+1878.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sempere.</span> <i>Historia del lujo en España.</i> Madrid, 1788.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Simonet, Francisco Javier.</span> <i>Descripción del Reino de Granada,
+sacada de los autores arábigos.</i> Granada, 1872.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stirling, William.</span> <i>Annals of the Artists of Spain.</i> London,
+1848.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Strabo.</span> <i>Geography.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Street.</span> <i>Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain.</i> London,
+1865.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Swinburne, Henry.</span> <i>Travels through Spain.</i> London, 1779.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Townsend, Joseph.</span> <i>Journey through Spain.</i> 3 vols.; London,
+1792.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Valladar, F. de Paula.</span> <i>Guía de Granada.</i> Granada, 1890
+and 1906.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Van de Put.</span> <i>Hispano-Moresque Ware of the Fifteenth
+Century.</i> London, 1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vargas y Ponce.</span> <i>Correspondencia epistolar en materias de
+Arte.</i> Collected by Cesáreo Fernández Duro. Madrid,
+1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Villa-amil y Castro.</span> <i>Antigüedades prehistóricas y célticas de
+Galicia.</i> Lugo, 1873.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Arqueología Sagrada.</i> Lugo, 1867.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Viñaza, Count of La.</span> <i>Adiciones al Diccionario de Cean
+Bermudez.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Goya.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Viollet-le-Duc.</span> <i>Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français
+de l'époque Carlovingienne à la Renaissance.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wallis, Henry.</span> <i>The Oriental Influence on the Ceramic Art
+of the Italian Renaissance.</i> London, 1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Young, Arthur.</span> <i>Tour in Catalonia.</i> Dublin, 1793.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Zarco del Valle.</span> <i>Documentos inéditos para la Historia de
+las Bellas Artes en España.</i> Madrid, 1870.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Abd-al-Azis, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li>Abd-er-Rhaman the First, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+<li>Abd-er-Rhaman the Third, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Aben-Said, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li>Abolais, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_226">226</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+<li>Abreviador, the Casa del, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>Abu-Said, III. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Adargas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>Addison, Lancelot, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Alberoni, Cardinal, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Albuquerque, the inventory of the Dukes of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+<li>Alcaicería of Granada, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Alcarrazas</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Alcázar of Seville, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Alcora, pottery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Alcoy, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Aleman, Cristóbal, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Aleros</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Alfarge</i> ceilings, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Alfonso the Second, III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Third (&ldquo;the Great&rdquo;), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_57">57</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Sixth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>; III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Ninth, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Tenth (&ldquo;the Learned&rdquo;), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>; III. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Eleventh, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>; III. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Eleventh, the Chronicle of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Thirteenth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_42">42</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Alfonso the First of Aragon, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Algeciras, the siege of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Hakem the First, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>; III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Hakem the Second, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>Alhambra, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_64">64</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_154">154</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Aliceres</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Jattib, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Aljofar</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>; III. <a href="#Page_11">11</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></li>
+<li>Al-Khattib, III. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Almagro Cardenas, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Almagro, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Makkari, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>; III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Manzor, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Almexía</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+<li>Almohades, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; III. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Almoravides, the, III. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Almotalefes, III. <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Altar-screens (see <a href="#RETABLOS"><i>Retablos</i></a>).</li>
+<li>Alvarez de Colmenar, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_110">110</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_199">199</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Amador de los Ríos, José, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_59">59</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Amador de los Ríos, Rodrigo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li>Amphoræ, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Analogia</i>, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Ancheta, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>Andino, Cristóbal de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_151">151</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Angels, the Cross of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_41">41</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li>Apocalypse, the Codex of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Arabian Nights, The</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_63">63</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Aranda, the Count of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Arca Santa</i> of Oviedo, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Arenys de Mar, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Arenys de Munt, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Arfe, Antonio de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Arfe, Enrique de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>; III. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Arfe, Juan de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_96">96</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Argote de Molina, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Armouries of Spain, private, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li>Armoury, Madrid, the Royal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_217">217</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_229">229</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_231">231</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_248">248</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Arnao de Flandes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Arquetas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_48">48</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&ldquo;Arras cloths&rdquo; (see <a href="#PANOS_DE_RAS"><i>Paños de Ras</i></a>).</li>
+<li><i>Artesonados</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Ash Shakandi, III. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+<li>Augusta, Cristóbal de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Axorcas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Azulejos</i> (see <a href="#TILES">Tiles</a>).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Baculi</i>, ivory, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Balconies, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_154">154</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Balearics, slingers of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Bâle, the Council of, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Balsa de la Vega, III. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Banyolenchs</i>, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Barcelona, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Barros Saguntinos</i> (see <a href="#SAGUNTINE_WARE">&ldquo;Saguntine ware&rdquo;</a>).</li>
+<li><i>Barros tarraconenses</i> (see <a href="#SAGUNTINE_WARE">&ldquo;Saguntine ware&rdquo;</a>).</li>
+<li>Bartholomew, Master, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Barzanallana, III. <a href="#Page_222">222</a> (note), <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Bayan Almoghreb, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Becerra, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Becerriles, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+<li>Bedclothes, Spanish mediæval, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_4">4</a> (note).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></li>
+<li>Benvenuto Cellini, III. <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Berruguete, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>Bertaut de Rouen, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_67">67</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>; III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> (note), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Boabdil el Chico, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_227">227</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>Bocairente, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Bonsor, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>Bourgoing, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; III. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Bowles, William, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_4">4</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_263">263</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_196">196</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Brihuega, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Brims of Wells (see <a href="#BROCALES"><i>Brocales</i></a>).</li>
+<li><i>Brinquiños</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>British Museum, The, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Brocade, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> (note).</li>
+<li><a name="BROCALES" id="BROCALES"><i>Brocales</i></a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Bronzes, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Brun, Sigismund, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Búcaros</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Buckram, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Buen Retiro, pottery of the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Buonaparte, Joseph, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Burel</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cadalso, glass of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cadinas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Campomanes, Count, III. <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Candil</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Cannon, early Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cano, Alonso, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cántigas de Santa María</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Capmany, III. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note), <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Carpentry, artistic, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_46">46</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Carpintería de lo blanco</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Carpinteros de lo blanco</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Carrión, Fernando de, III. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Casa de los Tíros, Granada, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Casiri, III. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Cataluña, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Cataluña, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Catherine of Lancaster, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Cato, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Cean Bermudez, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_83">83</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_246">246</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Cedillo, Count of, III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a> (note), <a href="#Page_225">225</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Celosías, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Celtiberians, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cendal</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Chair-makers of Granada, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_28">28</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Chamelot</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Charles the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>; III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Charles the Third, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>; III. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+<li>Charles the Fourth, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>; III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></li>
+<li>Charles the Fifth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li>Chests, makers of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Ciclaton</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Cid, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+<li>Cid, the Chronicle of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Cid, the Poem of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Cisneros, Cardinal, III. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Ciudad Real, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Clemencin, III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Clonard, Count of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_215">215</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_5">5</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a> (note); III. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_14">14</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Cloostermans, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_209">209</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cloth of Gold, III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Cloths, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cluny, the Museum of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Coaches, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cofradías</i>, III. <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Commercial Company of Extremadura, the, III. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li>Compañia Real de Comercio y Fábricas de Granada, the, III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Contrayes</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Contreras, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cordellate</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, embroiderers of, III. <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&ldquo;Cordova leathers,&rdquo; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, <i>rejeros</i> of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, the Council of, III. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, the mosque of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, the Ordinances of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Covarrubias, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>; III. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Crossbows, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_220">220</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Crosses, iron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li>Crown of Spain, tapestries of the, III. <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Cueros de Córdoba</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cunninghame Graham, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_277">277</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_20">20</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> (note).</li>
+<li><i>Cursi</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Custodia</i> of Cordova, the, III. <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Custodia</i> of Seville, the, III. <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Custodias</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cutlers, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Dagobert, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li>Dancart, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Danis, Juan, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>D'Aulnoy, Countess, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_107">107</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_25">25</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>; III. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Davillier, Baron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Diago, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Diodorus Siculus, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li>Diptyches, ivory, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_89">89</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Dolfin, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+<li>Domingo, &ldquo;Maestre,&rdquo; I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; III. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Doncel, Guillermo, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Don Quixote</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_286">286</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Dozy, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Drach-alat</i>, the, III. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li>Drury Fortnum, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Ducange, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li>Duque y Cornejo, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Echeverría, Father, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></li>
+<li>Eder, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li>Edrisi, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>; III. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li>Egilona, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li>Eguilaz Yanguas, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>; III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> (note).</li>
+<li>El Nubiense, III. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+<li>Embroidery, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Ena of Battenberg, Princess, III. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Enguera, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Entalladores</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Escolano, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Escorial, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Eximenes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Ferdinand and Isabella, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_69">69</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>; III. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> (note), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the Catholic, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_253">253</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>; III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the Second, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="FERDINAND_THE_THIRD" id="FERDINAND_THE_THIRD">Ferdinand the Third</a> (San Fernando), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>; III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the Sixth, III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the Second of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li>Fernandez de Navarrete, III. <a href="#Page_109">109</a> (note), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> (note), <a href="#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="#Page_237">237</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Fernandez y Gonzalez, III. <a href="#Page_17">17</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Fez, III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Florez Estrada, III. <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>Floridablanca, Count of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>; III. <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Fonseca, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Fonts, baptismal, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Ford, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_83">83</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_63">63</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+<li>Fortuny, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Fouquet, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>Foz, Manuel, III. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+<li>Francés, Juan, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_140">140</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Francis the First, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Frisleva, Cristóbal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li>Fuero Viejo of Castile, the, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a> (note).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Gamero, Martin, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Ganivet, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>García Llansó, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_202">202</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+<li>Gates, bronze, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Gayangos, Pascual de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>; III. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> (note), <a href="#Page_135">135</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Gelmirez, Bishop, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Gener, Pompeyo, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>George, Master, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li>Gestoso, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_73">73</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_84">84</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_114">114</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_150">150</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_187">187</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_51">51</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_142">142</a> (note) <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a> (note) <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>; III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Giralda, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_177">177</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Goblet d'Alviella, III. <a href="#Page_71">71</a> (note).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></li>
+<li>Gomez Moreno, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_172">172</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+<li>Gonzalo de Cordova, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+<li>Goya, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Goyeneche, Juan, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li>Granada, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Granada, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Granada, the Alcaicería of, III. <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Granada, the Ordinances of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_4">4</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Granas treintenas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Gricci, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+<li>Guadalajara, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Guadalete, the battle of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Guadamacileros</i>, III. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Guadamacileros</i> of Cordova, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Guadameciles</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Guarrazar, the treasure of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Guise, Duke of, III. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li>Gutierrez, Pedro, III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Hannibal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Harness for horses, war, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li>Henry, Master, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>Henry the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Henry the Second, III. <a href="#Page_34">34</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Henry the Eighth of England, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Hernández, Gregorio, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Herranz, Francisco, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li>Hita, Archpriest of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li>Hixem, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>Hübner, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li>Hurtado de Mendoza, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Alwardi, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Batutah, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Hayyan, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Hud, III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Khaldoun, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>; III. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Said, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>; III. <a href="#Page_33">33</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Illiberis, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Inlay on steel and iron, gold, III. <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Inns, furniture of Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Irving, Washington, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Isabel Farnese, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Isabella the Catholic, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_244">244</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Isabella the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+<li>Isidore, Saint, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_12">12</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_166">166</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Jacquemart, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Jaeces colgantes</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Jaen, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Jayme the First of Aragon (&ldquo;the Conqueror&rdquo;), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (note), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>Jewellery in Spain, Roman, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+<li>Jewellery, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_73">73</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Jewellery, Morisco, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Jones, Owen, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_172">172</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Jovellanos, III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Juana, Doña, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Juan of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Juan the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>; III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li>Juan the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>Juni, Juan de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Kersey, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Keys of Seville, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Keys, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_124">124</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Laborde, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_116">116</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_34">34</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> (note), <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Lace, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>La Granja (or San Ildefonso), the glass factory of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>La Higueruela, the battle of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>Lalaing, III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Lambot, Diodonet, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>La Milanesa, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+<li>La Moncloa, the porcelain factory of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li>Lampérez, Vicente, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>; III. <a href="#Page_158">158</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Lamps, Roman, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_165">165</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Lamps, ware, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li>Lane-Poole, Stanley, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>; III. <a href="#Page_9">9</a> (note), <a href="#Page_21">21</a> (note).</li>
+<li>La Payessa, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+<li>Larruga, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>; III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a> (note), <a href="#Page_111">111</a> (note), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> (note), <a href="#Page_233">233</a> (note), <a href="#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Lasteyrie, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Latticinio</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lazo</i>-work doors, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Leather, Spanish decorative, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Lefort, III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Lenger, Antoine, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>León, the Synod of, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Lerma, Duke of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Libros de Pasantía</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li>Locks and keys, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Lope de Vega, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Lopez de Arenas, Diego, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>Lugo, exhibition of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li>Luis de León, Fray, III. <a href="#Page_99">99</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Luna, Alvaro de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+<li>Lustred pottery, Hispano-Moresque, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_161">161</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Machuca, Pedro, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>Madrid, the Gremios of, III. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Madrid, the National Museum, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; III. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>Majolica ware, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Manillas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Mantilla</i>, the, III. <a href="#Page_164">164</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Marckwart, the brothers, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li>María Cristina, Queen, III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).</li>
+<li>María de Padilla, III. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li>Marineus Siculus, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>; III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Marmol, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Martial, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li>Martinez de la Mata, III. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li>Martinez Guijarro, Fernan, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Martinez Montañes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Martin Hume, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_113">113</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Martin of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>; III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Mary of England, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></li>
+<li>Maskell, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Medias lanas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Medina del Campo, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Medina, Pedro de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>Mélida, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_175">175</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Mena, Alonso de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Menandro, Vicente, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Mena, Pedro de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Mendez Silva, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Mendoza, the <i>guión</i> of Cardinal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li>Micerguillo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Mimbar</i> of the Mosque of Cordova, the, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Mimbar</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Mines, gold and silver, in Spain, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Mines of Spain, the iron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Miquel y Badía, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (note), <a href="#Page_70">70</a> (note), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+<li>Moawia, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Mocarabes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Mohammed the Third  of Granada, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Mondejar, the Marquis of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Monistrol, the Marquis of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, III. <a href="#Page_184">184</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Monte-Fuerte, the Marquis of, III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Montoya, Alejo de, III. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Montserrat, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Monzón, the Cortes of, III. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Morales, Ambrosio de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Morel, Bartolomé, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_183">183</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Morella, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Moriscos, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_29">29</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li>Moriscos, the expulsion of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_80">80</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Mosaic-work, Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_128">128</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Müntz, III. <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> (note), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> (note), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Murcia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Murcia, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Muza, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Muzquiz, Miguel de, III. <a href="#Page_92">92</a> (note).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Nails, decorative, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Napoleon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_141">141</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Navagiero, III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Nebrija, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+<li>Ney, Marshal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>Nuevo Baztán, the glass-factory of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_250">250</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Olivares, Damian de, III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Olivares, the Count-Duke of, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Ollery, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li>Onteniente, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>&ldquo;Opening images,&rdquo; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li>Order of Preachers, the, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Barcelona, the, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Burgos, the, III. <a href="#Page_233">233</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Cordova, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Granada, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_119">119</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; III. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></li>
+<li>Ordinances of Seville, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_31">31</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Toledo, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>; III. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>Ortiz de Zúñiga, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Ortiz, Lorenzo, III. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Osma, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_140">140</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_161">161</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_188">188</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Othman, the Caliph, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Pacheco, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Palencia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pallia aquilinata</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pallia leonata</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pallia rotata</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Palmillas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Pannemaker, William, III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="PANOS_DE_RAS" id="PANOS_DE_RAS"><i>Paños de Ras</i></a>, III. <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pardillos</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Passo Honroso</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>Pedro the Cruel, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>; III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+<li>Pedro the Second, III. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+<li>Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li>Pelayo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Petronius, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>; III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the Third, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>; III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the Fourth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>; III. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the Fifth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>; III. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Pinheiro da Veiga, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>; III. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Pisano, Francesco Niculoso, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_143">143</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Pizarro, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Plato, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Pliny, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_223">223</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Poblet, the monastery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Poem of the Cid</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Polybius, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Ponz, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+<li>Porous pottery, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Porrón</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+<li>Potosi, the silver mines of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Pottery, prehistoric Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_111">111</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Primavera</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+<li>Procaccini, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Processional crosses, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Procopius, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Psephosis fsefysa</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Ptolemy, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li>Puente del Arzobispo ware, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Pulgar, Hernando del, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Pulpits, iron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_139">139</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Pulpits, old Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Punto de oro</i>, III. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Rácimos</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Ramírez de Arellano, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_91">91</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_46">46</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_55">55</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>; III. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> (note), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+<li>Ramírez, Sancho, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Rapiers, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_259">259</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Rassis, III. <a href="#Page_2">2</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Reboul, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Recared, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></li>
+<li>Recceswinth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Red flandés</i>, III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Rejas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_141">141</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Relicarios</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Renaissance, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Reposteros</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Retablo</i> of Gerona Cathedral, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="RETABLOS" id="RETABLOS"><i>Retablos</i></a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_82">82</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Ret Catalá</i>, III. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Riaño, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a> (note) <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_185">185</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_93">93</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> (note), <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> (note), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> (note), <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Ricord, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_260">260</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+<li>Rico y Sinobas, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_228">228</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_259">259</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Riotinto, the mines of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Roderick, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li>Rodrigo, Maese, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Roldan, Pedro, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosmithal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>; III. <a href="#Page_34">34</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Roulière, Jean, III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+<li>Rubens, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Sagrado, Diego de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="SAGUNTINE_WARE" id="SAGUNTINE_WARE">Saguntine ware</a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_114">114</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Saint Ferdinand (<i>see</i> <a href="#FERDINAND_THE_THIRD">Ferdinand the Third</a>).</li>
+<li>Saint Isidore, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_223">223</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li>Saint Isidro, diamonds of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>Saint Vincent Ferrer, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Samit</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanchez, Martin, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancho the Fourth, III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancho the Great, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li>Sandoval, Cardinal, III. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li>San Fernando, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>San Isidro, the burial chest of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+<li>San Miguel in Excelsis, the legend of, III. <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Santa Barbara, the tapestry factory of, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Santa Isabel, the tapestry factory of, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Santiago Cathedral, the treasure of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_53">53</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Santiago, jet-work of, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Santas Creus, the monastery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Sculpture in wood, Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Segovia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Segovia, woollens of, III. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Sentenach, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Sepúlveda, the Fuero of, III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Serrano Fatigati, III. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Seville, the Ordinances of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Shields, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_239">239</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Ships, silver, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></li>
+<li>Silk, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Sillerías</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Silos, the Chronicle of the Monk of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Sisenand, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>Sit, Ventura, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Soria, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>South Kensington Museum, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_53">53</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>; III. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Stalactite decoration, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Stirling, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li>Strabo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li>Street, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_64">64</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+<li>Stuck family, the, III. <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Superstitions, Andalusian, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Susillo, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Swinburne, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_172">172</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_240">240</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_285">285</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_61">61</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_261">261</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (note), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Swinthila, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>Swords, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_244">244</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Swords, spurious Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Symonds, John Addington, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Tabis</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Takcht</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Talavera de la Reina, pottery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Talavera de la Reina, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>Talavera de la Reina, the silk-factories of, III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Tapestry, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Tardwahsh</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Tarik, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Tarik's &ldquo;table,&rdquo; I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Tartaricas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li>Tavira de Durango, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Teniers, III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Testaments, the Codex of the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_3">3</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Thimbles, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+<li>Throne of Don Martin, the silver, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="TILES" id="TILES">Tiles</a>, Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Tinajas</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>; III. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Tiraz</i>, III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Tirso de Molina, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Toledo, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Toledo, the Ordinances of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li>Toledo, the trade-guilds of, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>Torreánaz, the Count of, III. <a href="#Page_119">119</a> (note), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> (note), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Torre del Oro, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li>Townsend, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_25">25</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_176">176</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; III. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> (note), <a href="#Page_115">115</a> (note), <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> (note), <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a> (note), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> (note), <a href="#Page_250">250</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Trade-guilds, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Tramoyeres Blasco, Luis, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>et seq.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></li>
+<li>Triptych reliquaries, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Turismund, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Ulloa, Martin de, III. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li>Unamuno, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Valencia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>Valencia, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Valencia, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Valencia, the trade-guilds of, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Valencia, woollens of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Valencia de Don Juan, the Count of, III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> (note), <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Valladar, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Valladolid, the Council of, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Adrian, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Cornelius, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Francisco, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Jacob, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Jacob (the younger), III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van Eyk, III. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Vargas y Ponce, III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Vargüeños, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Vaucanson, III. <a href="#Page_86">86</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Veintiseiseno</i>, cloths, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Velarte</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Velazquez, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Velón</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Vergara, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Vermay, Jan, III. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Victory, the Cross of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Vigarny, Philip, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Villa-amil y Castro, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_140">140</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_143">143</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Villalpando, Francisco de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Villamediana, the Count of, III. <a href="#Page_135">135</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Viollet-le-Duc, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_3">3</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the, crown of the, III. <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the mantle of the, III. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li>&ldquo;Virgin of Battles,&rdquo; the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Visigothic jewellery, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_15">15</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Wallis, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Washington Irving, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Weathercocks, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li>Witiza, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+<li>Woollens, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Xelizes, III. <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Young, Arthur, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>; III. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Yusuf of Granada, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Zafra, Hernando de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+<li>Zaragoza, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Zaragoza, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Zarco del Valle, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_87">87</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_141">141</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_71">71</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_245">245</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p class="title">PRINTED BY<br />
+NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,<br />
+EDINBURGH.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have
+been maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as a misprint.</p>
+
+<p>This book contains links to other books in the Project Gutenberg collection.
+Although we verify the correctness of these links at the time of posting, these
+links may not work, for various reasons, for various people, at various times.</p>
+
+<table summary="corrections">
+  <tr>
+    <td><b>The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.</b></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 6: Cortes of Monzon &#8594; Monzón</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 8: <i>Almexia</i> &#8594; <i>Almexía</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 15: edging of the same; &#8594; edging of the same;&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 33: Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib &#8594; Al-Khattib</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 37: in the form of a scarf. &#8594; in the form of a scarf.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 48: il est en indiennne. &#8594; indienne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 51: qui croist assez prés &#8594; près</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 51: près de deux cens &#8594; cent</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 51: qui est une espece &#8594; espèce</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 51: Ses habitans &#8594; habitants</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 108: il y avoit autresfois &#8594; autrefois</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 109: quatre heures aprés &#8594; après</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 123: Chalons, Beziers, and Rheims &#8594; Reims</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 129: it to the church. &#8594; it to the church.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 151: invitation John Vergoten &#8594; Dergoten</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 154: Madrid, the Pardo &#8594; Prado</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 165: Pour les femmes &#8594; &ldquo;Pour les femmes</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 165: Journal du Voyage d Espagne &#8594; d'Espagne</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 166: de rubans à l'extremité &#8594; l'extrémité</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 166: sur la tête attachée &#8594; attachés</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 167: autre les divers dégrés &#8594; degrés</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 167: elle ne depasse &#8594; dépasse</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 200: inscription, <i>Aeternum</i> &#8594; Æternum</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 217: Sebastian. Early &#8594; Early.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 217: Madrid. Cutler; a native &#8594; native of</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 217: early life in Flanders &#8594; Flanders.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 220: Sosa, &#8594; Sosa</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 229: in these devices. &#8594; in these devices.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 242: maxims of our Christain &#8594; Christian</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 243: through the market, &#8594; through the market,&rsquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 245: that they were &ldquo;toûjours &#8594; toujours</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 249: in the royal <i>cédula</i> &#8594; <i>cedula</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 262: Die Kleinodien des heil &#8594; heil.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 262: Nation, nebst den Kroninsignen &#8594; Kroninsignien</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: la buena gouernacion &#8594; governacion</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: que los Mvy Ilvstres &#8594; Muy Ilustres</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: mandaron gvardar &#8594; guardar</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: gouernacion &#8594; governacion</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: se han bvelto &#8594; buelto</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 273: III. 131, 16 &#8594; 168</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 276: Granada, cloths of, &#8594; Granada, cloths of, III.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 276: Juni, Juan de, 68, 69. &#8594; Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 280: Sepulveda &#8594; Sepúlveda</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 281: 20 <i>et seq.</i>; III. &#8594; 20 <i>et seq.</i>,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 281: 276 (note), &#8594; 276 (note); II.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 282: Veintiseseno &#8594; Veintiseiseno</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44393 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
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+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #44393 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44393)
diff --git a/old/44393-8.txt b/old/44393-8.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume
+III (of 3), by Leonard Williams
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume III (of 3)
+
+
+Author: Leonard Williams
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 10, 2013  [eBook #44393]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER
+SPAIN, VOLUME III (OF 3)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44393-h.htm or 44393-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
+      Volume I: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44391
+      Volume II: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44392
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The dagger sign has been marked as [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (XIV^e).
+
+      [=a] represents a letter (in this instance a lower case
+      "a") with a macron above it.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: "THE GRAPE-GATHERERS"
+(_Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya. El Escorial_)]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME III
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME THREE
+
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                     1-38
+
+  SPANISH SILK                                                   38-105
+
+  CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS                                           105-125
+
+  EMBROIDERY                                                    125-137
+
+  TAPESTRY                                                      137-159
+
+  LACE                                                          159-175
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+  APPENDICES                                                    177-258
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                  259-268
+
+  INDEX                                                         271-282
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                             _VOLUME THREE_
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+
+    PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+          "The Grape-Gatherers"; Tapestry from Cartoon
+          by Goya; El Escorial                          _Frontispiece_
+
+       I. The "Banner of Las Navas"; Monastery of Las Huelgas,
+          Burgos                                                    22
+
+      II. Fragment of the Burial Mantle of Ferdinand the Third;
+          Royal Armoury, Madrid                                     26
+
+     III. King Alfonso the Learned; from "The Book of Chess," MS.
+          in the Escorial Library                                   28
+
+      IV. Spanish Velvet; about A.D. 1500                           30
+
+       V. The Tunic of Boabdil el Chico; National Museum of
+          Artillery, Madrid                                         36
+
+      VI. The "Banner of Saint Ferdinand"; Seville Cathedral        40
+
+     VII. Velvet made at Granada                                    56
+
+    VIII. The Daughters of Philip the Second; Prado Gallery,
+          Madrid                                                    98
+
+      IX. A _Charra_ or Peasant Woman of Salamanca, in the
+          year 1777                                                102
+
+       X. Embroidered Priest's Robe; about A.D. 1500               118
+
+      XI. Embroidered Priest's Robe; about A.D. 1500               120
+
+     XII. Embroidered Chasuble; Palencia Cathedral                 122
+
+    XIII. Embroidered Case of Processional Cross; Toledo Cathedral 124
+
+     XIV. Embroidered Altar-Front                                  126
+
+      XV. Embroidered Altar-Front; Toledo Cathedral                128
+
+     XVI. Embroidered Altar-Front; Palencia Cathedral              130
+
+    XVII. Embroidered Altar-Fronts; Palencia Cathedral             132
+
+   XVIII. Costume of Woman of the Balearic Islands; about
+          A.D. 1810                                                134
+
+     XIX. The "Genesis Tapestry"; Gerona Cathedral                 138
+
+      XX. _Tapiz_ of Crimson Velvet worked in gold tissue;
+          Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos                         144
+
+     XXI. "The Spinners," by Velazquez; Prado Gallery, Madrid      148
+
+    XXII. Tapestry made at Brussels from Granada Silk              150
+
+   XXIII. "A Promenade in Andalusia"; Cartoon for Tapestry,
+          by Goya                                                  152
+
+    XXIV. Tapestry; Arras-Work, from Italian Cartoons; Zamora
+          Cathedral                                                156
+
+     XXV. Flemish Tapestry; Collection of the late Count of
+          Valencia de Don Juan                                     158
+
+    XXVI. The Marchioness of La Solana, by Goya                    160
+
+   XXVII. A Spanish _Maja_; A.D. 1777                              162
+
+  XXVIII. A _Maja_, by Goya                                        164
+
+    XXIX. A Lady of Soria; about A.D. 1810                         166
+
+     XXX. Handkerchief of Catalan Lace, presented to Queen
+          Victoria of Spain on her marriage                        168
+
+    XXXI. Curtain of Spanish Lace; Point and Pillow Work, modern   170
+
+   XXXII. Point Lace Fan, of Mudejar Design, modern                172
+
+
+
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+                              INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Our earliest intelligence respecting textile fabrics of old Spain
+derives almost exclusively from Moorish sources, and shows, together
+with the silence of Saint Isidore, that until the subjugation of the
+Visigoths, the occupants of the Peninsula attached no great importance
+to this industry. Under the Moors, the south and east of Spain grew
+rapidly famous for the manufacture of all kinds of textile stuffs, and
+in particular those of silk. The origin of these silks, or of the most
+luxurious and artistic of them, may be traced to Almer�a. According to
+Al-Makkari, what made this Andalusian capital superior to all other
+cities of the world was her "various manufactures of silks and other
+dress materials, such as the _dibaj_, a silken fabric of many colours,
+surpassing, both in quality and durability, all other products made
+elsewhere, and also the _tiraz_, a costly stuff whereon are inscribed
+the names of sultans, princes, and other personages, and for making
+which there used to be no fewer than eight hundred looms. Inferior
+fabrics were the _holol_ (a kind of striped silk), and brocades woven
+upon a thousand looms, while as many more were employed continually in
+making the scarlet stuffs called _iskalaton_. Another thousand produced
+the robes called _al jorjani_ (or 'the Georgian'), and yet another
+thousand the Isbahani robes, from Isfahan, and yet another thousand the
+robes of Atabi. The making of damask for gay-coloured curtains and
+turbans for the women kept busy as many persons as the articles
+above-mentioned."
+
+Edrisi, a chronicler of the twelfth century, says of the same capital
+that she was the principal city belonging to the Moors in the time of
+the Moravides. In fact, she was then a great and prosperous industrial
+centre, possessing, together with other kinds of looms, eight hundred
+which produced the fabrics known as _holla_, _debady_, _siglaton_,
+_espahani_, and _djordjani_, curtains with a flowered decoration, cloths
+of a smaller size, and the stuffs which were denominated _attabi_ and
+_mi djar_.
+
+A similar notice is contained in the _Chronicle of Rassis the Moor_.
+Referring to the end of the tenth century, this author wrote that
+"Almer�a is the key of profit and of all prosperity. Within her walls
+dwell cunning weavers who produce in quantities magnificent silken
+cloths inwoven with gold thread." Other important centres of this trade
+and craft were M�laga, Baeza, Alicante, Seville, and Granada. Rassis
+wrote of M�laga: "She has a fertile territory, wherein is made the
+finest _sirgo_ in the world. From here they trade in it with every part
+of Spain. Here too is made the finest of all linens, and that which the
+women best esteem." Of Baeza he wrote: "She manufactures excellent and
+famous silken cloths of the kind which are called _tapetes_"; and of
+Alicante, "This city lies in the Sierra de Benalcatil, which in its turn
+is situated in the midst of other ranges containing prosperous towns
+where silken cloths of finest quality were made in other days; and the
+weavers of these cloths were skilled exceedingly."
+
+M�laga is described by the Cordovese historian Ash Shakandi (thirteenth
+century) as "famous for its manufactures of silks of every colour and
+design, some of them so costly that a suit is sold for thousands; such
+are the brocades of beautiful pattern, inwoven with the names of
+caliphs, emirs and other wealthy personages.... As at M�laga and
+Almer�a, there are at Murcia several manufactories of silken cloth
+called _al washiu thalathat_, or 'the variegated.' This town is also
+celebrated for the carpets called _tantili_, which are exported to all
+countries of the east and west, as well as for a sort of bright-coloured
+mat with which the Murcians cover the walls of their houses."
+
+The ancient Illiberia or Illiberis, believed to have been situated not
+far from where is nowadays Granada, is described in Rassis' chronicle as
+"a city great and flourishing by reason of the quantity of silk that she
+exports to every part of Spain. She lies at sixty thousand paces
+distance from, and on the southward side of Cordova, and six thousand
+paces from, and to the north of the Frozen Sierra" (_i.e._ the Sierra
+Nevada).
+
+Another chronicle--that of El Nubiense, who visited Spain towards the
+twelfth century--states that in the kingdom of Jaen alone were six
+hundred towns which produced and carried on a trade in silk.
+
+The foregoing extracts show that under the Spanish Moors the manufacture
+of textile fabrics attained in medi�val times a very great importance.
+It is also certain that during the same period the textile fabrics in
+use among the Christian Spaniards were strongly and continually
+influenced, and even to a large extent produced, by Spanish Moors,
+while, as the Moorish cities fell into the power of the enemy, the
+Christian rulers encouraged their newly-sworn Mohammedan lieges to
+prosecute this industry with unabated zeal. A privilege is extant which
+was granted by Jayme the Conqueror in the year 1273, to a Moor named Ali
+and his sons Mohammed and Bocaron, empowering these artificers to
+manufacture silk and cloth of gold at Jativa, in the kingdom of
+Valencia. The fabrics produced by Mussulman weavers such as these, found
+ready purchase with the wealthier classes of the Christian Spaniards.
+The dress and other materials thus elaborated possessed a great variety
+of names, whose meaning cannot always be determined at the present day.
+Among the fabrics most in vogue were those denominated _samit_ (also
+_xamed_ or _examitum_), _ciclaton_, _tabis_ or _atabi_, _zarzahan_,
+_fustian_ or _fustan_, _cendal_ or _sendat_, _camelote_ (also
+_chamelote_ or _xamellot_), _drap imperial_, and _bougran_ (also
+_bouckram_, _buckram_), stated by Dr Bock to be derived from Bokhara,
+and which was of a quality far superior to the buckram of more modern
+times. These Saracenic or semi-Saracenic stuffs were manufactured from
+an early period, but modern experts are not agreed as to their
+character. Miquel y Bad�a and some other authorities believe that
+_samit_ was a costly material which was sometimes coloured green, and
+shot with gold or silver thread. Others believe it to have been a kind
+of velvet. In either case it is known to have been used for shrouding
+the bodies of the wealthy. _Ciclaton_ was a strong though flexible
+material used for robes and also for wall-hangings. _Tabis_ or _atabi_
+was a kind of taffeta, and probably consisted, as a general rule, of
+silk, though sometimes it was mixed with cotton. _Chamelot_ was an
+oriental fabric of rich silk, coloured white, black, or grey. It is
+mentioned, together with velvets, taffetas, and _cendal_ or _sendat_
+(another silken stuff) in a law passed by the Cortes of Monz�n in 1375,
+and which is quoted in Capmany's _Memorias_.[1] Fustian is thought to
+have been first produced in Egypt. It was woven of thread or cotton, and
+was largely used in England from at least as early as the twelfth
+century. From about the same time buckram was also popular in northern
+countries.
+
+  [1] "Perco con los draps d'or � d'argent, � de seda axi brocats d'or �
+      d'argent con altres � velluts, xamelots, tafetanes, � sendats se
+      usen molt de vestir en lo dit Principat d'alguna generalitat ne
+      dret no y sia posat, mes solament vi liners per liura per la
+      entrada."
+
+Early in the fourteenth century a number of other costly stuffs began to
+be made in various quarters of the civilized world, including Spain.
+Among these fabrics were _zatonin_ or _zatony_ (perhaps the same as
+_zetani_, _aceituni_, or _aceytoni_--that is, satin), several kinds of
+_drap d'aur_ or cloth of gold, several kinds of velvet, _sarga_ or
+serge, and _camocas_, which is stated by Miquel y Bad�a to have been a
+strong material used for lining curtains, coats of mail, etc. The same
+writer observes that the stuff called by the name _zatonin_ and its
+variations is the same as the Castilian raso and the Catalan _set�_ or
+_sat�_, a favourite though expensive and luxurious fabric in the
+fourteenth and succeeding centuries. Under the name _aceytoni_ it is
+mentioned in a work in the Catalan language titled _Croniques
+d'Espanya_, by Pedro Miguel Carbonell, in which we read that at the
+coronation of Don Martin of Aragon this monarch's consort, Do�a Mar�a,
+was "dressed in white cloth of gold and a long mantle ... and rode upon
+a white horse covered with trappings of white _aceytoni_."
+
+Miquel y Bad�a has discovered the names of other fabrics which are known
+from documentary evidence to have been used in older Spain, and which
+were called _aducar_, _alama_, _tela de nacar_, _primavera_ or
+_primavert_, _almexia_, _picote_, and _velillo_. It is probable that
+_alama_ and _tela de nacar_ had silver interwoven with their texture.
+The _primavera_ or "spring fabric" was so named from the flowers which
+adorned it. _Almex�a_ is mentioned in the _Chronicle of the Cid_. It was
+a costly and elaborate stuff, and is believed by Miquel to have taken
+its title from the city of Almer�a. _Picote_ was a kind of satin
+manufactured in the island of Majorca, and _velillo_ a thin, delicate
+fabric decorated with flowers and with silver thread.
+
+The devices on all these stuffs were very varied. Prominent types among
+them were the _pallia rotata_, containing circles which are commonly
+combined with other ornament, the _pallia aquilinata_, in which the
+dominant motive was the eagle, and the _pallia leonata_, in which it was
+the lion. Other beasts, birds, and monsters were also figured with great
+frequency, such as griffins, peacocks, swans, crows, bulls, tigers, or
+dogs; but the emblem most in favour, especially throughout the tenth,
+eleventh, and twelfth centuries, was the eagle, owing to the numerous
+and illustrious qualities attributed to it, such as majesty, victory,
+valour, and good omen. These creatures, too, were frequently represented
+face to face or back to back, in pairs; nor were they so disposed in
+textile fabrics only, but on ivory, wood, or silver caskets, and on
+numerous other objects, as well as on the painted friezes of a place of
+worship.[2]
+
+  [2] "We have seen many instances of such opposed animals and birds on
+      the metal-work and carving of the thirteenth century, and there is
+      no doubt that the design is much older than Mohammedan times, and
+      goes back to the productions of the old artists of Mesopotamia and
+      Persia. We read in Quintus Curtius of robes worn by Persian satraps,
+      adorned with birds beak to beak--_aurei accipitres veluti rostri in
+      se irruerunt pallam adornabant_. Plautus mentions Alexandrian
+      carpets ornamented with beasts: _Alexandrina belluata conchyliata
+      tapetia_. There is indeed reason to believe that the notion of such
+      pairs of birds or beasts may have originated with the weavers of
+      ancient Persia, and have been borrowed from them by the engravers of
+      metal-work; for the advantage of such double figures would be
+      specially obvious to a weaver. The symmetrical repetition of the
+      figure of the bird or animal, reversed, saved both labour and
+      elaboration of the loom. The old weavers, not yet masters of
+      mechanical improvements, were obliged to work their warp up and down
+      by means of strings, and the larger the design the more numerous
+      became these strings and the more complicated the loom. Hence, to be
+      able to repeat the pattern in reverse was a considerable economy of
+      labour, and could be effected very simply on a loom constructed to
+      work _� pointe et � reverse_. Examples of such repetitions of
+      patterns, especially of symmetrical pairs of animals within circles,
+      are common in Byzantine and Sassanian woven work, and the Saracens
+      followed these models."--Stanley Lane-Poole, _The Art of the
+      Saracens in Egypt_, p. 288.
+
+The colours of these fabrics also varied very greatly. That which was
+most admired was probably red, crimson, or carmine, used by preference
+as a ground, with the pattern inwoven or super-woven in gold, silver, or
+otherwise. Velvets, too, were not invariably in monochrome, but would
+contain two or three colours such as purple, crimson, blue, or yellow,
+besides gold and silver. Miquel y Bad�a mentions a magnificent velvet
+pluvial in gold and three colours, belonging to a church in Catalu�a.
+The following observations are by the same authority, who himself
+possesses a valuable collection of early textile fabrics, many of which
+are Spanish. "The same prevailing colours are found in the Mudejar
+textile fabrics as in those of the Spanish Moors--the same ground of red
+inclining to carmine, of dark blue, or of bluish green, with a pattern
+in yellow, green, blue, or red, according to the colour which combines
+with it. I have seen copies of Mudejar stuffs in which there is no
+white, because this was wanting in the fragments which the copying
+artist had before him. And it is a fact that from some cause, which we
+cannot now determine, white silk is that which disappears soonest from
+among the textile fabrics of the Spanish Moors and Mudejares, so that by
+far the greater part of them contain no white at all, or only traces of
+it."
+
+In Spain these handsome stuffs were used by all the wealthier classes,
+and some idea of their prevalence and popularity may be formed from the
+voluminous mass of sumptuary laws which deal with them at almost every
+stage of Spanish history. Thus, an edict of Jayme the First of Aragon
+established, in the year 1234, that neither the monarch nor any of his
+subjects were to decorate their clothes with gold and silver, or fasten
+their cloaks with gold or silver clasps. The _Ordenamiento_ of Alfonso
+the Tenth, subscribed at Seville, February 27th, 1256, provides that no
+woman is to carry _aljofar_-work, trim her dress with gold or silver, or
+wear a _toca_ decorated with those metals, but only a plain white one,
+the price of which is not to exceed three _maravedis_. It is also
+provided by this edict that on the celebration of a wedding, the cost of
+the bridal clothes must not exceed sixty _maravedis_, nor may the number
+of guests who sit down to the marriage banquet exceed five women and
+five men, besides the witnesses of the ceremony and relatives of the
+bride and bridegroom. This absurd law was so extensively neglected that
+two years later the Cortes of Valladolid took up the matter afresh, and
+even resolved that the expenses of the king's table, without the cost of
+his invited guests, were not to exceed a daily total of a hundred and
+fifty _maravedis_.
+
+In A.D. 1286 the Council of Cordova decreed that knights and squires,
+upon the celebration of their marriage, were not to present their brides
+with more than two dresses, one of these to be of scarlet, without
+trimming of ermine or grey fur, or decoration of gold, silver, or
+_aljofar_. A law of Alfonso the Eleventh, dated May 6th, 1338,
+proclaimed that the women of the upper classes were not to clothe
+themselves in any silken fabric decorated with gold thread. Similar
+restrictions were laid upon the other sex. "No man, whatever be his
+condition (excepting only Us, the King), shall wear cloth of gold, or
+silk, or any stuff adorned with gold lace, _aljofar_, or any other
+trimming, or with enamel: only his cloak may bear _aljofar_ pearl-work,
+or fillets without pearls." Other dispositions signed by the same
+monarch show that the Spaniards of his time were in the habit of wearing
+costly cloth adorned with gold and silver, pearls, gold buttons, enamel,
+and other ornament, while even the squires wore furs and gilded shoes.
+The _ricos-hombres_ loaded their saddles with gold and with
+_aljofar_-work, and their wives were licensed to bear on each of their
+dresses the same _aljofar_-work or strings of tiny pearls, to the value
+of four thousand _maravedis_.
+
+Provisions of the same tenor are contained in the prolix sumptuary
+pragmatic of Pedro the Cruel, signed in the year 1351 at Valladolid, as
+well as in that of Juan the First, A.D. 1385, which ordained, together
+with other vexatious prohibitions, that "neither man nor woman, whatever
+be their condition or estate, shall wear cloth of gold or any
+silk-stuff, gold or silver _aljofar_, or other precious stones,
+excepting the Infante and Infantas, who may wear whatever pleases them."
+
+The extravagance of Isabella the Catholic in dress and personal
+adornment generally, was illustrated in an earlier chapter of this work.
+A further instance is recorded by Clemencin. According to this
+chronicler, in 1476 and 1477, upon her reception at Alcal� of two
+embassies from France, the queen was dressed in a magnificent robe,
+which drew upon her a sharp rebuke from her confessor, the virtuous and
+austere Hernando de Talavera. From this charge Isabella defended herself
+with more spirit than truthfulness. "Neither myself nor my ladies," she
+wrote in her letter of reply, "were dressed in new apparel. All that I
+wore on this occasion I had already worn in Aragon, and the French
+themselves had seen me wearing it. I only used one robe at all, and that
+of silk with three marks of gold, the plainest I could find: in this was
+all my festival. I say this much in that my clothing was not new; nor
+did we deem that error could dwell therein."[3]
+
+  [3] _Elogio de la Reina Cat�lica_, p. 374.
+
+Although their own extravagance is past all question, on September 30th,
+1499, Ferdinand and his consort issued a proclamation at Granada, in
+which it was commanded that "no persons shall wear clothing of brocade,
+or silk, or silk _chamelote_, or _zarzahan_, or taffeta, or carry
+linings of the same upon the trappings of their horses, or upon hoods,
+or the straps and scabbards of their swords, or bits, or saddles, or
+_alcorques_[4] ... nor shall they wear embroidered silk-stuffs
+decorated with gold plates, whether such gold be drawn or hammered, spun
+to a thread, or interwoven with the fabric."
+
+  [4] These are defined by the Count of Clonard as "a kind of clog
+      (_chap�n_) with a cork sole, and which was introduced by the Moors
+      under the name _al-kork_."
+
+These prohibitions, or others of their import, were ratified by Do�a
+Juana at the Cortes of Burgos, and, in 1533, by Charles the Fifth at
+Valladolid. In 1551 the Emperor again prohibited "all brocaded stuffs,
+or gold or silver cloth, whether embroidered or enriched with gold or
+silver thread, or bound with cord or edging of the same;" and a royal
+edict of January 12th, 1611, forbade the wearing of brocade and every
+other costly stuff to all except the clergy and the military.
+
+The clergy, indeed, had always been notorious for extravagance, and not
+a few of all these sumptuary laws are aimed specifically at them. In
+A.D. 1228 the Council of Valladolid prohibited the use by priests of
+sleeved robes, or gilded saddles, bits, spurs, or poitrels. In 1267 the
+Synod of Le�n repeated these prohibitions, further insisting that the
+garments of the clergy, besides being sleeveless, were not to be red or
+green, and were to have a moderate length ("_non muy largas, non muy
+cortas_"), and that their cloaks were not to fasten with a clasp or
+cord; these regulations to be rigidly adhered to _en sennal de
+honestidat_--"as a sign of honesty."
+
+We also know that at this time (thirteenth century) the shirts of many
+of the wealthier Spaniards were woven of finest linen imported from the
+East, embroidered and picked out with gold and silver thread, and that
+the clergy were at least the equals of the laity in their craze for
+costly clothing. In A.D. 1273, an inventory was made of the effects
+belonging to Don Gonzalo Palomeque, on his election to the bishopric of
+Cuenca. It mentions _almadraques_ and Murcian _tapetes_, _carpitas
+viadas_ from Tlemcen, fine Murcian blankets (_alhamares_), silk
+_xamedes_, Murcian matting for covering walls and da�ses ("_para paret
+et para estrado_"), and stuffs from Syria. Another inventory, that of
+Don Gonzalo Gudiel, archbishop of Toledo, is dated A.D. 1280, and
+mentions, as included with his property, quantities of oriental fabrics
+which are designated by the general name _tartaricas_.[5] Among them
+were "unus pannus operatus ad aves de auro et campus de serica viridi,
+item unus alius pannus tartaricus cum campo de seta alba et vite aurea,
+item unus pannus tartaricus de seta rubea cum pinis aureis, item unus
+pannus tartaricus de seta viridi."[6]
+
+  [5] Specifically, _tartari_ was a costly fabric, heavily embroidered.
+      Ducange considers that it came, or came originally, from Tartary.
+      We read of it twice in the _Chronicle of the Cid_, and again, in
+      the _Chronicle of Ferdinand the Fourth_:--"tiraron los pa�os de
+      marhega que tenia vestidos por su padre � visti�ronle unos pa�os
+      nobles de tartari."
+
+  [6] Quoted by Fernandez y Gonzalez, _Mudejares de Castilla_, p. 231,
+      from the originals in the Archiepiscopal Library of Toledo.
+
+A number of medi�val textile fabrics, some in fragments, some intact,
+have been preserved in Spanish private collections or museums. It is,
+however, seldom easy to determine whether they were made in this
+Peninsula, or whether in Sicily, Byzantium, Venice, or the East. Among
+the most remarkable of all these interesting specimens are, a strip
+which was extracted from the mausoleum of a Spanish bishop, Don Bernardo
+Calb�, a native of Vich in Catalu�a, and which is now in the museum of
+that town; other fragments in the same collection, including one of
+_holosericum_ or pure silk, which was formerly in the neighbouring
+church of San Juan de las Abadesas, and is commonly known as the
+_pallium_ or altar front "of the witches" (owing to certain beasts or
+monsters figuring in the design), a Moorish _tiraz_, now in the Academy
+of History at Madrid, the celebrated Moorish "banner of the battle of
+Las Navas," now in the Monastery of Santa Mar�a la Real de las Huelgas
+at Burgos, the banner (also Moorish) of the battle of the River Salado,
+the chasubles "of the Constable" and of Chiriana, preserved respectively
+at Burgos and at Caravaca, a fragment, preserved in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid, of the shroud of Ferdinand the Third, and the Moorish clothing
+of the son of the same King Ferdinand, the Infante Don Felipe, and of
+Felipe's second wife, Do�a Leonor Ruiz de Castro.
+
+The strip of woven material found in the sepulchre of Bishop Calb�, who
+is said to have accompanied Don Jayme the Conqueror in the conquest of
+Valencia (A.D. 1238), is described by Miquel y Bad�a as belonging to the
+class denominated _pallia rotata_--that is, with circles forming part of
+their design,--and dates most probably from the twelfth century; but it
+is impossible to say whether it was manufactured in the East, or whether
+at Valencia or some other Spanish town. The same remark applies to other
+fragments which are also, as I stated, in the Vich Museum. The one
+discovered in the tomb of Bishop Calb� contains, coloured in green,
+grey, and black upon a carmine ground, a decorative scheme of circles,
+flowers, and gryphons or other monsters in pairs, _affront�s_, and also,
+within the circles, the figure of a man grappling with two lions,
+tigers, dogs, or other beasts, and who is believed to represent Samson
+or Daniel--more probably the latter. Miquel y Bad�a points out that in
+this fragment the figure of the man recalls Egyptian art, suggested by
+his curious head-dress, and by the crossing of his clothes upon his
+breast.
+
+Another textile fragment in the same collection is coloured black, red,
+and grey upon a yellowish ground. It is decorated with long-tailed birds
+resembling peacocks, and with sphinxes which fill the circles or
+medallions. A third fragment, also in the Vich Museum, belongs to the
+type of _pallia cum aquilis et bestiolis_. The design consists of a
+double-headed eagle with half-extended wings, holding in the claws of
+either foot some kind of quadruped--perhaps a bull. The colour of the
+ground resembles carmine, and on it the design is wrought in greenish
+black--that may have been originally green--relieved at intervals with
+yellow.
+
+The "witches'" _pallium_ in the same collection is decorated with the
+series of extraordinary beasts or monsters that have won for it this
+title with the vulgar, depicted in yellow, white, black, and dark green
+upon a red ground. Miquel believes this fabric to proceed from
+Byzantium, and to date from not much earlier than the eleventh century.
+The devices are disposed in two rows, the lower containing peacocks
+_affront�s_, and the upper a series of fantastic monsters, each of which
+possesses a head, two bodies, and four feet--the head being semi-human,
+semi-bestial, the double body that of a bird, and the claws those of a
+lion or some other formidable quadruped.
+
+The Royal Academy of History at Madrid possesses a fragment of the
+costly fabric known as _tiraz_, an eastern word (corrupted by the
+Spaniards into _taracea_, _i.e._ embroidery on clothing), which means
+the bordering for a royal robe. Such bordering, which contained
+inscriptions, or the sultan's name, or both together, is said to have
+been first used in Spain by Abderrahman the Second, who ruled from A.D.
+825 to 852. "The caliphs of Cordova," says Ria�o, "had a place set apart
+in their palaces where this stuff was kept: this custom lasted until the
+eleventh century, when it disappeared, and was re-established in the
+thirteenth century with the kings of Granada." _Tiraz_, in fact, was
+both produced and stored in special departments of the Sultan's
+palaces[7]; or so we must infer from the following passage by
+Ibn-Khaldun. "The places (_almedinas_) where these stuffs were woven
+were situated within the palaces of the caliphs, and were known as the
+'pavilions of the _tiraz_.' The person at the head of these workshops
+was called the superintendent of the _tiraz_: he had charge of both the
+weavers and the looms, administered the salaries, and looked to the
+quality of the work. This post was entrusted by the princes to one of
+the foremost officers of their kingdom, or else to some freedman who
+thoroughly deserved their confidence." The same historian adds that the
+manufacture of _tiraz_ was conducted in Spain in the same manner as in
+the East under the dynasty of the Ommeyades. It is, however, certain
+that among the Spanish Moors _tiraz_ was not produced exclusively in
+royal factories. Al-Makkari states that in the time of the Somadies and
+the Almoravides there were looms at Nerja (and possibly at Almer�a) for
+weaving this luxurious fabric, as well as _holas_, a fine brocade,
+heavily embroidered, and adorned with figures representing the caliphs
+and other personages. In the time of the Almoravides there were at
+Almer�a as many as a thousand factories for making _holas_.
+
+  [7] "An interesting parallel to the royal silk factory, or
+      D[=a]r-et-tir[=a]z of Kay-Kub[=a]d, and to that of the F[=a]timy
+      Khalif at Tinn[=i]s, is found in the similar institution at Palermo,
+      which owed its foundation to the Kelby Am[=i]rs who ruled Sicily as
+      vassals of the F[=a]timis in the ninth and tenth centuries, though
+      it maintained its special character and excellence of work under
+      the Norman kings. The factory was in the palace, and the weavers
+      were Mohammedans, as indeed is obvious from a glance at the famous
+      silk cloth preserved at Vienna, and called the "Mantle of N�rnberg,"
+      where a long Arabic inscription testifies to the hands that made it,
+      by order of King Roger, in the year of the Hijra 528, or
+      A.D. 1133."--Stanley Lane-Poole, _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt_,
+      p. 289.
+
+The piece of _tiraz_ which belongs to the Spanish Academy of History
+measures about a yard and a half in length by eighteen inches wide.
+Ria�o describes it as of wool, embroidered in silks with "seated figures
+which appear to be a king, a lady, lions, birds, and quadrupeds"; but
+after carefully examining it I cannot but agree with Miquel y Bad�a that
+this fabric is woven throughout of pure silk, without the slightest
+trace of hand-embroidery. It has two borders containing these
+inscriptions in Cufic letters: "In the name of God, the clement, the
+merciful. (May) the blessing of God and happiness (be) for the Caliph
+Iman Abdallah Hixem, the favoured of God and prince of believers." This
+monarch, second of the name, reigned at the end of the tenth century and
+early in the eleventh, and the _tiraz_ we are noticing was found in a
+casket on the altar of a church at San Esteban de Gormaz, in the
+province of Soria. As Ria�o suggests, it was very probably a war trophy.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                       THE "BANNER OF LAS NAVAS"
+      (_Monastery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas, Burgos_)]
+
+Another most interesting example of Saracenic textile work is the
+so-called "banner of Las Navas" (Plate i.), which popular tradition
+affirms to have been captured (A.D. 1212) in the memorable battle of Las
+Navas de Tolosa, between the Almohades and the Spanish Christians. Most
+experts now consider that this object is not a military ensign, but a
+curtain or some other hanging for a tent or doorway. The material is
+_sirgo_ or silken serge, and both the decoration and the workmanship are
+purely Moorish. The design is rich and intricate throughout, consisting
+of scrolls, leaves, stems, and inscriptions from the Koran, disposed
+with exquisite effect about the principal and central motive, formed by
+a large eight-pointed star within a circle, and which contains, so as to
+form the angles of the star, eight repetitions of the words in Arabic,
+"_The Empire_." The dominant colour is carmine, and the fabric
+terminates in eight _farpas_ or scallops with red and yellow edges, and
+bearing a series of inscriptions in the African character.
+
+The "_pendon_ of the Rio Salado," a trophy which seems to have really
+been a war-flag, belongs to the cathedral of Toledo. It measures at this
+day about nine feet two inches by seven feet four inches, but is
+believed to have been originally of a square form, with scalloped edges.
+The dominant colours are red, green, and gold. The decorative scheme
+consists of tastefully combined circles and inscriptions in the Cufic
+character, and the lower end concludes in the following sentences, now
+rendered incomplete through the loss of nearly two feet of the
+material:--"... the wise, the victorious, the assiduous, the generous,
+the sultan, the caliph, the famous emir of the Muslims and
+representative of the Lord of the Universe, Abu-Said Otsmin, son of our
+lord and master ... the worshipper of (Allah), the modest, the warlike,
+the emir of the Mussulmans Nassir-li-Din (_defender of the law_), Abu
+Yusuf Yacub, son of Abd-il-Hac. In the Alc�zar of Fez (God bless it.
+Praised be God), in the Moon of Moharran of the year twelve and seven
+hundred" (712 of the Hegira, or May 9th-June 7th, A.D. 1312).
+
+Tastefully disposed in white Cufic characters, within four rows of
+circles woven in gold, are the words which sum the Mussulman
+religion,--"There is no God but God: Mahoma is His Messenger"; and on
+other parts of the flag are inscribed these sentences:--
+
+"The prophet believes in the purpose for which he was sent by his Lord,
+and all the faithful believe in God, in His angels, in His writings, and
+in His messengers. We make no distinction between any of His messengers.
+And these declare: 'We hear and do obey. Pardon us, O Lord.'
+
+".... And unto Thee we shall return. God will not lay on any soul but
+such a weight as it can bear; for it or against it shall be the deeds it
+may have done. O Lord, chastise not our forgetfulness or errors. O Lord,
+lay not upon us the burden Thou hadst laid on those that were before us.
+
+".... O Lord, burden us not too heavily. Blot out our faults, and pardon
+them to us, and have mercy on us. Thou art our Lord. Grant us victory
+over the infidel. There came to us a glorious prophet that was born
+among us.
+
+"On him rests the weight of your faults, and full of goodness and of
+clemency he longs ardently for you to believe. If you should be
+forsaken, exclaim, 'God is sufficient for me. There is no God but He. I
+trust in Him, because He is Lord of the throne that is on high.'"
+
+Miquel y Bad�a considers that when it was intact this object must have
+measured eleven feet square. Attention was first drawn to its merit and
+antiquity when it was shown at the Exposici�n Hist�rico Europea of 1892.
+
+The chasubles of Chirinos (Caravaca) and of the Chapel of the Constable
+in Burgos cathedral are both considered to be of Spanish-Moorish
+workmanship. The former is woven of silk of various colours, but without
+admixture of gold thread, and bears an inscription in Arabic which
+Amador de los R�os has interpreted as, "Glory to our Sultan
+Abul-Hachach." The same authority deduces that the fabric dates from the
+fourteenth or the fifteenth century--that is, from the time of the
+Sultan Abul-Hachach (Yusuf the First) or of his immediate successors.
+
+The chasuble preserved at Burgos is also woven of variegated silk
+without gold thread, and may originally have been a _tiraz_, since it
+bears, in African letters, the inscription, "Glory to our lord the
+Sultan." The date is probably the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
+Fragments of similar material are in the collections of Se�ores Osma and
+Miquel y Bad�a.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+          FRAGMENT OF THE BURIAL MANTLE OF FERDINAND THE THIRD
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The object represented in Plate ii. is described in the Catalogue of the
+Royal Armoury at Madrid as _A fragment of the royal mantle in which was
+buried the king and saint, Ferdinand the Third of Castile_ (A.D.
+1217-1252). Gestoso, in the course of his researches into the history of
+old Seville, has found that in the year 1579 Philip the Second caused an
+examination to be made at that city of the remains, enshrined in her
+cathedral, of Saint Ferdinand. The body was found "with a ring with a
+blue stone on a finger of the right hand, and wearing sword and spurs."
+In 1677 Charles the Second sent for the ring in question, and eleven
+years later a fresh examination was made, when the mummy of the saint
+was stated to be wrapped in "clothing of a stuff the nature of which
+cannot now be recognised, but which is chequered all over with the royal
+arms of Castile, and with lions." A third examination was made in 1729,
+when the "holy body of Se�or San Fernando" was reported to be "covered,
+the greater part, with a royal mantle, of a stuff which could not be
+recognised for its decay: only it was seen to be embroidered with
+castles and lions."
+
+Probably, therefore, this fragment was taken to Madrid at the same time
+as the ring--that is, in the year 1677. It has an irregular shape, and
+measures eighteen inches long by thirteen and a half in breadth. The
+material is a woven mixture of silk and gold thread, and the decoration
+consists of castles and lions in gold and red respectively, upon a
+ground of carmine and dirty white. Count Valencia de Don Juan points out
+that this strip belonged to the lower end of the mantle, since it
+includes a portion of the border, formed by a series of horizontal
+stripes, blue, yellow, red, and gold. The character of the whole
+fragment is decidedly Mohammedan, and indicates a Mudejar fabric, made
+at Seville in the thirteenth century.
+
+I find that in the _Book of Chess_ of Alfonso the Learned (an
+illuminated Spanish manuscript executed in the thirteenth century, and
+now preserved at the Escorial), Alfonso himself is represented (Plate
+iii.) as wearing a mantle with this very pattern of lions and castles
+contained in squares. Therefore it seems extremely probable, either that
+this device was not uncommon on the robes of Spanish kings, or else that
+at some time the body of San Fernando was enveloped in a mantle
+belonging to, and which perhaps had been inherited by, his son.
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                        KING ALFONSO THE LEARNED
+       (_From "The Book of Chess"; MS. in the Escorial Library_)]
+
+The clothing of the Infante Don Felipe and of Do�a Leonor, his wife,
+consists of the prince's cloak, which is nearly intact, a piece of his
+_aljuba_, his cap, and a strip of silken cloth inwoven with gold. The
+latter fragment is thought to have belonged to the robe of the Infanta.
+
+These objects, discovered in 1848, in the tomb of Don Felipe and Do�a
+Leonor, at Villalcazar de Sirga, near Palencia, are now in the National
+Museum. The cloak or mantle is richly wrought in silk and gold, and
+bears the word _Blessing_, woven in Cufic characters upon the ground.
+The _aljuba_ is also of silk and gold, showing a delicate combination of
+blue and yellow, and the style and workmanship of all these fragments
+are unmistakably Mohammedan.
+
+Therefore, in textile crafts, the Spanish Moors supplied the wants and
+the caprices both of themselves and of their enemies the Christians.
+
+The relationship between certain under-garments of the two peoples is
+evident from the very titles of those garments. Thus, the Spanish
+_joquejo_ or _soquejo_, a scarf for winding round a woman's body, is
+obviously derived, or merely corrupted, from the Arabic _jocob_; the
+Spanish _arrede_ or _arrelde_, a kind of cloak, from the Arabic
+_arrida_, and the Spanish shirt or tunic for ordinary wear, called the
+_casot_, _quesote_, or _quizote_ (which was sometimes white and
+sometimes coloured) from the Arabic _al-kuesnat_. The _Chronicle of Juan
+the Second_ (A.D. 1410) tells of a mountain covered with Moorish troops,
+"and all of them had red _quesotes_."
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                             SPANISH VELVET
+               (_Red upon Gold Ground. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+Among the cities of Moorish Spain, Almer�a and Granada were undoubtedly
+those which produced the handsomest stuffs--Almer�a from comparatively
+early in the days of Muslim domination, Granada from a somewhat later
+time.[8] Notices are extant of Christian princes who directly ordered
+these materials from Granada; _e.g._ in 1392 Don Juan the First caused
+to be purchased there, as a present to his daughter on her marriage,
+"una cambra de saya orlada ab son dozer e cobertor de color vermella,
+blaua, � vert, � otro que fuera de buena vista" (_Archives of the Crown
+of Aragon_). The manufacture of velvet was probably introduced into
+Aragon in the reign of Pedro the Fourth. Excellent silks and cloth of
+gold were also made at M�laga, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. Indeed, no
+better source exists for studying the character of this important
+industry in older Spain than the Ordinances of the cities I have just
+enumerated.[9] We learn from these municipal provisions, most of which
+were framed or ratified in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, that the
+mingling of fine with base material was forbidden in the strictest
+terms, and that the styles and classes of even the luxurious and
+elaborate stuffs, which bore an infinite variety of devices, were very
+numerous. Thus, there were satins, taffetas, _azeytunis_, double and
+single velvets (Plates iv. and vii.), brocades, and silken serges; as
+well as fabrics interwoven with gold and silver thread, including the
+_gorgoranes_, _resta�os_, _sargas_, and _jergas de filigrana de plata_.
+The Ordinances of Toledo mention the following fabrics as manufactured
+in that city in the reigns of Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Charles the
+Fifth:--
+
+  "Stuffs of gold and silver made in the same manner as satin.
+
+  "Satins woven with gold.
+
+  "Satins brocaded with silk and gold, or silver flowers.
+
+  "Silver serges with double filigree.
+
+  "Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge.
+
+  "Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, or in silver
+   with silk flowers.
+
+  "Embroidered stuffs.
+
+  "Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_.
+
+  "_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with watering in silver.
+
+  "Plain silk-stuffs woven with silver or gold, and called _resta�o_.
+
+  "Silk-stuffs woven with gold or silver, and called _relampagos_.
+
+  "Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments.
+
+  "Plain filigree serges.
+
+  "_Velillo_ of silver.
+
+  "Satin woven with gold and silver.
+
+  "Brocades of different kinds.
+
+  "Church vestments.
+
+  "Silver _primaveras_.
+
+  "Serges for church vestments."
+
+  [8] The Alburquerque inventory mentions, in 1560, "two Almer�a sheets,
+      one with green and purple edging, and the other with white and red";
+      also "two _short_ holland shirts for sleeping in at night."
+      Commenting on the word _short_, Se�or de la Torre de Trassierra
+      aptly recalls the thrifty proverb of the Spaniards,--"A shirt which
+      reaches below the navel is so much linen wasted."
+
+  [9] See particularly _Las Ordenanzas de los tejedores de seda de
+      Sevilla_ (officially proclaimed on March 2nd, 1502), and also _Las
+      Ordenanzas para el buen r�gimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy
+      leal, � imperial cuidad de Toledo_. (_Tit._ cxxxv: "silk-weavers.")
+
+It was usual for ladies of the Christian-Spanish aristocracy to trim
+their clothes, in Moorish fashion, with strings of larger pearls or of
+_aljofar_-work--a custom which continued until the extinction of the
+House of Austria. The Alburquerque inventory includes "a _marlota_ of
+crimson satin, trimmed with pearls and with _aljofar_, as to the hem,
+the sleeves, and the hood; with twelve buttons of _aljofar_-pearls in
+the front thereof, that on a time were thirteen; but one is missing
+_which was ground up for the said Duchess when she was sick_, and six
+buttons on each sleeve, and the same where each sleeve meets the
+shoulder."
+
+Early in the seventeenth century, Pinheiro da Veiga mentions the same
+fashion at Valladolid:--"At the sale of the Marchioness of Mondejar, I
+saw twelve of her _sayas_ with long trains to them, and satin bodices,
+all of embroidered silk, and some with _aljofar_-work, besides a number
+of all kinds of _diabluras_."
+
+It is stated by Ibn-Said, Al-Makkari, Al-Khattib, and Ibn-Khaldun, that
+the Moors of Granada occasionally adopted Christian clothing, and we
+know that the Sultan Mohammed, a contemporary of Alfonso the Learned of
+Castile, was assassinated by Abrahim and Abomet, the sons of Osmin,
+because he was so clothed, and because he had further violated the
+precepts of the Koran by eating at Alfonso's table.[10] But as a rule
+the costume of the Spanish Moors was almost wholly that of orientals.
+Where they were tolerated in a city under Christian rule, a certain
+dress was sometimes forced upon them by their subjugators, as by the
+_Ordenamiento_ (A.D. 1408) of Do�a Catalina, issued on behalf of her
+son, Juan the Second, and which prescribed for the Moorish men a _capuz_
+of yellow cloth with a mark upon it in the form of a blue half-moon
+measuring an inch from point to point, and which was to be worn on the
+right shoulder. The garments of the women were to be similarly marked,
+on pain of fifty lashes administered publicly, together with the
+forfeiture of all such clothes as lacked this necessary and humiliating
+token.
+
+  [10] On the other hand, Rosmithal recorded in his narrative of a tour of
+       Spain that Henry the Second of Castile affected the costume of the
+       Mohammedans.
+
+But where the Spanish Moors were in possession of the soil, their
+clothes were similar in most respects to those of eastern peoples.
+Detailed notices of these costumes are furnished us by Ibn-Said and
+other writers. Fray Pedro de Alcal� explains in his _Vocabulary_ that,
+among the Granadinos, the use of one garment in particular was limited
+to royalty, or nobles of high rank. This was the _libas_ (or, in the
+Granadino dialect, _libis_), shaped like roomy breeches, and greatly
+resembling the _zarag�elles_ worn until this hour by the peasants of the
+Huerta of Valencia. Ibn-Said, quoted by Al-Makkari (see Gayangos,
+_History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain_, Vol. I., p. 116) says
+that the dress of the Moors of Andalusia was not identical with that of
+the Asiatic Mussulman. The former, he declares, would often discard the
+turban; especially those who lived towards the eastern frontier. In the
+western region the turban continued to be generally worn by the upper
+classes and by the leading State officials. Thus, at Cordova and Seville
+every _cadi_ and _alfaqui_ would wear a turban, while at Valencia and
+Murcia even the nobles went without it, and among the lower classes it
+had fallen into absolute disuse. Neither officers nor soldiers of the
+army wore the turban.
+
+We learn from Casiri (_Bibl. Arabico-Hispana_, II., p. 258) that the
+_imama_[11] was the only form of head-dress used by the _cheiks_,
+_cadis_, and _ulemas_ of Granada. At this capital red was the
+distinctive colour of the sovereigns of the Alahmar dynasty, who took
+their very title from this circumstance, the Arabic word _alahmar_
+meaning "red." The distinctive colour of the Nasrite sultans was purple,
+which was replaced by black in time of mourning. In this last fashion
+the sultans were probably influenced by the Christian usage, for
+Ibn-Khaldun remarks that black was not a colour approved of by the
+orientals, who considered it to be related with the spirits of evil.
+However this may be, the manuscript _History of the House of Cordova_
+quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas, says that when Boabdil el Chico entered that
+city as a prisoner, "the captive monarch was dressed in black velvet, in
+token of his adverse fortune and defeat. He rode a richly caparisoned
+charger, whose coat was black and glossy."
+
+  [11] This was a large form of turban. In the well-known painting in the
+       Hall of Justice of the Alhambra, the head-dress is the _aharim_ or
+       _almaizar_.
+
+The Moors regarded green or white as pleasant and well-omened colours,
+symbolic of the angels and of all good fortune. Perhaps this preference
+was suggested to them by the cool oasis in the desert. Nevertheless,
+when Ibn-Hud became ruler of Andalusia, his shields and banners were
+black, as well as his costume. Black, too, was the colour adopted by the
+Abbaside Sultans, to whom Ibn-Hud was subject. Under the Beni-Nasr and
+Beni-Alahmar, this gloomy hue was changed, as we have seen, to purple or
+to scarlet, though black continued to be used in sign of mourning.
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                     THE TUNIC OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+               (_National Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+The chronicle says that Abu-Said, "the Red," who was assassinated at
+Tablada, under the walls of Seville, by Pedro the Cruel, was clothed in
+scarlet at the time of that atrocious deed. Boabdil was also clothed in
+red at the battle of Lucena. The _History of the House of Cordova_, from
+which I have already quoted, says: "Il �tait arm� d'une forte cuirasse �
+clous dor�s, doubl�e de velours _cramoisi_, d'un morion teint de
+_grenat_ et dor�.... Sur sa cuirasse �tait pass� un caban de brocart et
+de velours cramoisi" (Plate v.). Eguilaz quotes a further passage from
+Hurtado de Mendoza, to prove that red continued to be the official
+colour of the Moorish rulers of Granada; for when the Moriscos had risen
+in the Alpujarra, and met together to invest their leaders, Aben-Abu and
+Aben-Humeya, with the insignia of royalty, they clothed the former in a
+red costume and the latter in purple, "passing about his neck and
+shoulders a red token in the form of a scarf."[12]
+
+  [12] Eguilaz Yanguas, _Les Peintures de l'Alhambra_.
+
+As I remarked in speaking of the _tiraz_, the clothing of the Moorish
+kings of Spain was of the richest quality obtainable, massively wrought,
+embroidered in colours and in gold, and bearing "sometimes a prince's
+name, sometimes his device or motto, or even a portrait of himself
+embroidered on the right breast of his _caban_ or robe, thus following
+the fashion of the monarchs of Assyria and Persia."
+
+
+                              SPANISH SILK
+
+A very fair idea of the magnitude of the craft and trade of Spanish silk
+in bygone epochs may be formed by tracing chronologically the production
+and treatment of the raw material in various parts of the Peninsula.
+During the centuries of Moorish rule, Spain's principal silk-producing
+centre was the kingdom of Granada, which then embraced a large extent of
+coast, together with M�laga and other thriving ports. In proof of this,
+and in his interesting memorial on the silk factories of Seville,[13]
+Ulloa quotes old Spanish ordinances of the weavers, stating that
+quantities of this substance were exported from "tierra de Moros" for
+use by Christian craftsmen, and also the _Chronology of the Kings of
+Granada_, concluded by Al-Khattib in the year 1364. A fragment of this
+chronicle is preserved at the Escorial, and states, in the well-known
+version of Casiri, that the silk produced at Granada was both abundant
+and of excellent quality, surpassing even the Assyrian.
+
+  [13] Don Martin de Ulloa, _Discurso sobre las f�bricas de seda de
+       Sevilla_.
+
+The growing of mulberry trees and rearing of silkworms was also busily
+pursued in the kingdom of Aragon, which formerly included Catalu�a,
+Valencia, and the Balearic Islands. Hence, though somewhat gradually, it
+seems to have spread to Seville. In the ordinances of this town relating
+to her weavers of silks and velvets, and which are dated 1492, it is
+stated that her _oficiales de texer sedas_ were so few that, as a
+stimulus to augment their number, all who wished might join them in the
+practice of this craft without examination. Between that year and 1502
+they evidently multiplied, since subjects of examination of no easy
+character are formulated in the ordinances of this later date, examined
+and confirmed by Ferdinand and Isabella. Nevertheless, it is impossible
+to credit the assertion of some authors that by the year 1519 Seville
+possessed no less than sixteen thousand looms, affording occupation to
+one hundred and fifty thousand persons. As Ulloa suggests, it is far
+more reasonable to suppose that her silk trade grew in proportion as the
+Spaniards continued to discover, and to open up to commerce, new regions
+of America; and that it reached the maximum of its development in the
+reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second. The same writer
+attributes its decline and downfall to the "piracies and insults" of
+Spain's foreign enemies and rivals.
+
+The price of Seville silks was also raised and the trade injuriously
+affected, by the imposition, at the close of the reign of Philip the
+Second, of the onerous _millones_ tax, as well as of the minor dues
+denominated _alcavalas_ and _cientos_; while finally, when Philip the
+Third was on the throne, the expulsion of the Moriscos precipitated the
+utter ruin of this industry.
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                    THE "BANNER OF SAINT FERDINAND"
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+The Spanish government proved quite incapable of grappling with these
+wrongs and difficulties. There were, however, numerous attempts to
+legislate in the direction of reform. Measures forbidding the
+introduction of silk proceeding from abroad received the royal signature
+in 1500, 1514, 1525, 1532, and 1552. A petition to the same effect,
+framed by the procurators of the Cortes, was presented to the king in
+1618, urging that no skein or twisted silk proceeding from the
+Portuguese Indies, China, or Persia should be imported into Spain in
+view of the damage thus inflicted on the silk-producing regions of
+Granada, Murcia, and Valencia. At the same time the petitioners
+suggested that if it should be found impracticable to suppress such
+importation altogether, the foreign silk should be required to be in the
+form of stuffs already woven.
+
+Matters grew steadily worse all through the reign of Philip the Fourth.
+The principal cause of this additional decline lay in the constant
+depreciation of the national currency, which kept at an intolerable
+pitch of dearness the price of home-grown silk, and enabled foreign
+traders to undersell the Spaniard. This will be better understood if we
+consider that the composition of the copper and silver coinage was often
+tampered with by Crown and Parliament in such a way as to allow the
+foreigner to rid the country of nearly all her gold and silver, leaving
+in exchange only the baser metal. At intervals of a few years,
+proclamations were issued altering the values of the coinage in the most
+capricious and disastrous terms, and Ulloa mentions as still in
+circulation in the eighteenth century, _ochavos_ of Philip the Third
+which bore inscribed the value of twelve _maravedis_ in Roman numerals,
+and also (owing to the restamping of the coins by order of the Crown),
+the second and successive value of eight _maravedis_, marked in ordinary
+numerals. In fact, so grave were these abuses, that the arbitrary value
+imposed upon the coins in question grew to be six times that of the
+actual value of the metal.
+
+At the close of the seventeenth century, when Charles the Second was on
+the throne, a couple of well-meant and not completely ineffectual
+attempts were made to bring about a fresh revival in the growth of
+Spanish silk. On November 18th, 1683, the silk-makers of Toledo,
+Seville, Granada, and Valencia were summoned to a council at Madrid, and
+the dispositions they then agreed upon received the royal signature and
+became law on January 30th of the following year, the pragmatic which
+embodied them being issued to the public ten days later. It was
+commanded by this document that all the silk produced at the above-named
+towns should be examined and approved by the _veedores_ or _mayorales_,
+and bear the official stamp which guaranteed their quality. The effect
+of these ordinances was further strengthened by a Crown _cedula_ of July
+15th, 1692, confirming other dispositions dated 1635; and later still,
+in June of 1699, a law was passed prohibiting the exportation of all
+home-made silks to other countries.
+
+The accession of the Bourbon kings heralded a further slight
+improvement. Philip the Fifth had barely mounted the throne when the
+Junta de Comercio was revived by his command, and drafted various laws
+for bettering this and other industries. Royal decrees of June 20th and
+September 17th, 1718, renewed in June of 1728 and in April and August of
+1734, forbade the introduction of silk and certain other stuffs from
+China and the rest of Asia--a measure which was made more strict as time
+went on, the prohibition being extended to linens and cottons produced
+and printed in Africa or Asia or imitated in Europe. In the meantime
+another _cedula_, signed at the Escorial on November 10th, 1726, had
+ordered that every Spanish citizen of either sex should dress
+exclusively in silks or cloths of Spanish manufacture.
+
+These laws, though founded on mistaken principles, undoubtedly restored
+the national silk trade for a while. In 1713 the silk looms of Seville
+had increased to four hundred and five, and by 1732--in which year the
+Court resided at that capital--to a thousand; but on the return of the
+royal family to Madrid, and the declaration of war against England in
+1739, the number dropped to a hundred and forty. In 1743 an effort was
+made to remedy this by exempting Seville silks from payment of the
+_alcabalas_ and _cientos_, and further support was rendered in 1749 by
+Ferdinand the Sixth, who lowered to eighty _maravedis_ per pound weight
+the tax on Spanish silks exported from the kingdom, and issued, in 1752,
+1753, and 1756, additional decrees intended to encourage and protect
+this industry. In 1748 the same ruler established the celebrated silk
+factories of Talavera de la Reina, sparing no pains to bring their
+products to a level with the best in Europe, and choosing as director of
+the works a thoroughly proficient Frenchman named Jean Rouli�re, a
+native of N�mes, who was assisted by a carefully selected staff of
+experts, also principally foreigners.
+
+About the end of the century Laborde described this enterprise as
+follows:--"The manufactures of silks, gildings, and galloons are highly
+useful and important.... There has also been raised at Cervera, a
+village two leagues from Talavera, another large edifice, in which are
+twelve mills for twisting the silk, four large windles for winding it,
+and six machines for doubling it. This complicated machinery is put in
+motion by four oxen, and the various processes of twisting, winding, and
+doubling seven thousand and seventy-two threads of silk are thus
+performed at once.
+
+"This establishment was rapidly augmented under the direction of
+Rouli�re and the other French mechanics who succeeded him in its
+superintendence. So successful were their labours that, in a short time,
+stuffs were fabricated in Spain not unworthy of competition with those
+of France, the demand for which was found to diminish. In 1762, Rouli�re
+being obliged to withdraw from this manufactory, the care of it was
+committed to a company to the exclusion of almost all the French who had
+previously assisted in its establishment. The consequences of this
+change were soon discovered; the manufacture declined, the stuffs
+deteriorated, and the consumption diminished; the artisans were
+discharged from the loom, and everything threatened the total subversion
+of the establishment, when the king interposed, and again extended to it
+his care and protection, It has since been yielded to the incorporated
+society of the Gremios at Madrid, but has never recovered its former
+splendour and prosperity.
+
+"Taffetas, satins, silk cloths, and serges are fabricated here, as are
+silk ribbons, plain and figured velvets, stuffs of silk and silver,
+stuffs of silk and gold, galloons, gold and silver fringes, and silk
+stockings. The factory employs three hundred and sixty-six looms, and
+affords occupation to two thousand persons. There are annually consumed
+in it about a hundred thousand pounds of silk, four thousand marks of
+silver, and seventy marks of gold.
+
+"Some of the stuffs issuing from the manufactory are beautiful and good,
+but they want the gloss and lustre of the French stuffs; and as they are
+dearer than those, with all the contingent expense of commission and
+transportation, they are far from being able to maintain a competition
+with them. The stockings are of the vilest quality, being thin, shaggy,
+and ill-dressed. The greater part of these articles are exported to the
+Spanish colonies."
+
+Further efforts to improve the quality of Spanish silk were made by
+Charles the Third, in whose reign the silk looms of Seville increased to
+four hundred and sixty-two for weaving larger pieces, sixty-two for
+silver and gold galloons, three hundred and fifty-four for finely-worked
+ribbons, twenty-three for small pieces of gold and silver stuffs, eight
+for fringes and _cintas de rizo_, sixty-three for stockings, sixty-five
+for _redecillas_, three for caps, and one thousand three hundred and
+ninety-one for ordinary ribbon. At the same time, according to Ulloa,
+one hundred thousand pounds of silk required to be annually brought to
+Seville to supply these factories.
+
+"In its fortunate days," wrote Alexander de Laborde, "Seville had many
+splendid manufactures; it wove silks of every kind, gold and silver
+tissues, linens, and cottons.[14] A memoir presented in 1601 by the
+seventeen companies of arts and trades of this city gives us an idea of
+the brilliant state of those manufactures: the amount of the silk looms
+is there stated to be 16,000, and the persons of both sexes employed at
+them, 130,000. These manufactures had greatly declined even in the last
+century. We learn from Francisco Mart�nez de la Mata, in his
+_Discursos_, published in 1659, according to a memoir presented to the
+king by an _alcalde_ of the silk manufactures of Seville, that there
+were no more, at that time, than sixty-five looms, that a great number
+of persons having no work had quitted the town, that the population had
+decreased a third, and that many houses were shut up, uninhabited, and
+going to ruin. The silk manufactures began to look up again in the
+eighteenth century, but they are very far below the brilliant state they
+formerly displayed: in 1779 there were 2318 silk looms in Seville,
+including those for stockings, slight stuffs, and ribbons."[15]
+
+  [14] In former times, linens and cottons painted, stencilled, or stamped
+       with decorative patterns from an iron or boxwood matrix, were
+       considered to be luxurious fabrics, and are denounced as such in
+       the sumptuary pragmatic (quoted by Miquel y Bad�a) issued by Jayme
+       the Conqueror in A.D. 1234: "Item statuimos quod nos nec aliquis
+       subditus noster non portet vestes _incisas_, _listatas_, vel
+       trepatas."
+
+       Latterly, these kind of stuffs were made in great quantities at
+       Barcelona, and exported to other Spanish provinces, as well as to
+       America. "Several manufactures of printed linens are established
+       here," wrote Swinburne, in 1775, "but have not yet arrived at any
+       great elegance of design or liveliness of colour." The manuscript
+       (dated about A.D. 1810) attached to my copy of Pigal's plates of
+       Spanish costume, says that the _pa�oleta_ or _fichu_ (neckerchief)
+       of the women of Cartagena in their gala-dress was at that time of
+       "mousseline blanche, quelquefois brod�, et tr�s souvent n'est
+       qu'un mouchoir d'indienne des fabriques de Barcelonne, avec une
+       brodure en fleurs rouges, le fond blanc et parsem� de petits
+       bouquets." The same manuscript describes the dress of a cook at
+       Granada:--"Le jupon (_refajo_), qui est toujours tr�s court, est
+       en hiver de laine avec une garniture au bas: en �t� il est en
+       indienne. Cette _indienne_ est une sorte de percale ou toile de
+       coton peinte, dont il y a plusieurs fabriques en Catalogne. On en
+       exportait autrefois une quantit�, immense que l'on portait dans
+       les Am�riques Espagnoles; c'est ce qui lui a fait donner le nom
+       d'indienne."
+
+       From the same source we learn respecting another cotton fabric,
+       which might easily be thought by the unwary reader of to-day to
+       have been of Spanish manufacture, that "l'habitant de Mahon fait
+       en �t� un grand usage de l'�toffe des Indes appel�e _nankin_.
+       Cette �toffe n'est connue dans plusieurs parties de l'Espagne que
+       sous le nom de _Mahon_."
+
+  [15] In 1799 the Marquis of Monte-Fuerte declared the silk of Seville
+       to be of as fine a quality as that of Valencia and Carmona.
+       (_Discurso sobre el plant�o de moreras en Sevilla y sus
+       inmediaciones._)
+
+Turning our attention from Seville to Granada, we find that the fame of
+the silks produced in this latter city, or rather kingdom (for silk was
+raised in great quantities throughout the entire region) extended as far
+abroad as Constantinople, and that they were used in Greece in the reign
+of Comnenus. The Muzarabs, who petitioned Alfonso el Batallador to bring
+an expedition to their rescue and wrest Granada from her Mussulman
+lords, reported to him in enthusiastic terms the quality and abundance
+of the silk of that locality, and many a document and chronicle record
+its vogue among the Spanish Christians of the Middle Ages.
+
+The Alcaicer�a or silk-market of Granada is referred to by various of
+the older writers, including Marineus Siculus, Navagiero, Lalaing,
+Bertaut de Rouen, and Alvarez de Colmenar. The name itself is stated in
+Fray Pedro de Alcal�'s _Vocabulario_ to be derived from the Arabic
+_al-aqqisariya_, meaning "an exchange for merchants." Buildings, or
+groups of buildings, of this kind existed both in Spain and in Morocco.
+Early in the eighteenth century a Spanish friar wrote of Fez; "The
+Moorish portion of this city is the Alcaicer�a. It stands nearly in the
+centre of the level part of the town, and near the principal mosque,
+resembling a town in itself, with solid walls and doors, and chains
+across it to keep out the horses. It consists of fifteen streets of
+wealthy shops, stretching without a break, and what is sold in
+them--whether of linen, silk, or cloth--is of the richest and the
+noblest quality."
+
+Very similar are the descriptions relative to the Alcaicer�a of Granada
+in the olden time. Bertaut de Rouen wrote of it, and of the adjoining
+Zacatin; "En retournant devers la porte d'Elvire est le _Zacatin_, qui
+est une rue paralelle au Canal du Darro, longue et assez estroite, qui
+vient de la place de la Chancellerie � la place de _Vivarambla_. Dans
+cette rue sont tous les orf�vres, les marchands de soie, de rubans, de
+vermillon, qui croist assez pr�s de Grenade, dont on fait l� grand
+trafic. C'est une plante semblable � celle du Safran, dont il y a
+beaucoup dans ces quartiers-l�.
+
+"Dans cette mesme rue du _Zacatin_ donne d'un cost� l'_Alcayzerie_, qui
+est une esp�ce de Halle couverte � la mani�re de la Foire Saint Germain,
+o� sont plusieurs boutiques remplies des Marchandises les plus
+curieuses. Ils disent que cette place, aussi bien que beaucoup d'autres
+des autres Villes d'Andalousie, se nomme ainsi � cause d'un privilege
+que donnerent les Cesars aux Arabes de travailler en Soye."
+
+Alvarez de Colmenar wrote of the same edifice, a few years later than
+Bertaut; "Vis-�-vis de la Chancellerie on voit une maison fort longue,
+nomm�e Alcac�ria (_sic_), partag�e en pr�s de deux cent boutiques, o�
+les Marchands �talent tout sorte de marchandises, particuli�rement des
+�toffes en soie." On the authority of the same writer, the makers and
+the dyers of silk-stuffs inhabited another quarter of the town. "Le
+dernier quartier de la Ville, nomm� Antiqueruela, est dans une plaine,
+peupl� de gens venus d'Antechera, d'o� lui vient le nom qu'il porte. Ses
+habitants sont pour la plupart ouvriers en soie, tisseurs de satin, de
+tafetas, de damas; teinturiers qui teignent en pourpre, en �carlate, et
+autres ouvriers semblables." He adds; "Il s'y fait grand commerce
+d'�toffe de soie; et la Ville et les environs sont pour cet effet
+plant�s d'un si grand nombre de meuriers, que le seul imp�t sur les
+feuilles de ces arbres vaut annuellement trente mille �cus au Roi."
+
+About the beginning of the nineteenth century Laborde wrote: "The
+Alcaicer�a is in the Bivarambla: it is merely an immense edifice,
+without ornament, covering a considerable extent of ground. The Moors
+used it as a bazaar, and a good many tradesmen still carry on their
+business there. It contains about two hundred shops." It remained, in
+fact, in much the same condition as when the Moors possessed it, until
+the year 1843, when a fire, which broke out on the night of July 20th of
+that year, reduced it almost totally to ashes. To-day the historic silk
+trade is no more; but the Alcaicer�a, consisting of a chapel and a
+street which call to mind the graceful and effective decoration of its
+predecessor, has been rebuilt with taste and accuracy from the model of
+the old.
+
+The _Ordenanzas_ of Granada city, the first edition of which was
+published in 1552, and the second in 1678, inform us very closely of the
+silk trade of that region in the times immediately succeeding the
+reconquest. Having regard to the fact that the silk was now spun in
+skeins in an imperfect manner, "with much deceit and trickery," and that
+its quality was of the worst (Ordinance of A.D. 1535), nobody was
+allowed henceforth to spin silk in or about Granada without being
+qualified through examination by the _veedores_ or inspectors appointed
+for this purpose by the corporation. The inspector might charge for this
+examination a fee of twenty-five _maravedis_, and if the candidate were
+successful he was permitted to set up his loom forthwith, and engage two
+lads or girls, not less than twelve years old, to fetch and carry at his
+wheel, "so that the work may be continued all day long."
+
+Minute instructions follow as to the method of spinning the silk, wages,
+the treatment of apprentices, and other detail. Many of these narrow
+points of city law were troublesome and senseless, and must have tended
+to destroy the trade. For instance, the earnings of a master-spinner,
+after paying the lads or girls who worked for him, were limited to a
+maximum of two _reales_ and a half per day. Women were allowed to spin
+upon the following conditions: "Also, seeing that there be some honest
+women here who have no access to a public wheel, but work within their
+dwellings only, we (_i.e._ the city councillors) command that these may
+spin per thousand of cocoons, or at a daily wage, not to exceed two
+_reales_ and a half." The silk was not to be spun with an _escobilla_ or
+brush, but with the hand, obedient to the rhyming Spanish proverb which
+says, or used to say, _con escobilla el pa�o, y la seda con la mano_
+("brush cloth with a brush, and silk with the hand").
+
+The laws affecting the dyers of silk contain the following provisions.
+They were not to dye with pomegranate or sumach, and if the rind of the
+former fruit were found in their houses, they were liable to a fine of
+six thousand _maravedis_ and thirty days' imprisonment. Dyeing with
+Brazil-wood was also prohibited in the case of silks of finer quality
+exposed for sale in the Alcaicer�a. Elaborate directions follow as to
+the manner of applying the dye. In the case of silks dyed blue or
+purple, the dyer, before he drew the fabric from the vat, was required
+to show it to the _alamin_ or inspector of the silk, or else to one of
+the _veedores_ nominated by the city councillors. The fines imposed upon
+the dyers who were found to contravene these regulations were
+distributed in the following proportion: one-third towards repairing the
+ramparts or _adarves_ of Granada; another third between the _alamin_,
+the _veedores_, and the other officials who discovered and denounced the
+culprit; and the remaining third between the magistrates and other
+authorities who tried and sentenced him.
+
+Further, each silk-dyer was to have six _tinajas_, or large jars (see
+Vol. II., pp. 120 _et seq._), kept continually full of dye, well
+settled, and liable at any hour to be analyzed by the _veedores_. In
+dyeing fabrics black, each pound of silk was to be treated with ten
+ounces of foreign galls of fine quality, two ounces of copperas, and two
+ounces of gum-arabic.
+
+It is evident that nearly all this legislation was of a mischievous
+character, nor can it cause surprise that certain of the silk-makers of
+this locality should have been in the habit of committing many kinds of
+fraud, such as mixing salt or oil with the raw material, in order to
+increase its weight. Thus, at the same time that the laws themselves
+were made more numerous and stringent, the more elaborate and various
+were the shifts invented by the citizens as a means to violate those
+laws. The inspectors were empowered to enter a shop and examine its
+contents at any hour. Sometimes, we read, such ingress was denied them,
+and the door was kept closed, or slammed in their faces. The penalty for
+this resistance was a fine of two thousand _maravedis_ and twenty days
+imprisonment. No silk-spinner was allowed to possess more than two
+spinning-wheels (Ordinance of November 18th, 1501), or to keep these
+working after midnight, for we are told that in this way the _veedores_
+were impeded from paying their official visit in the small hours of the
+morning, and much "deceit and insult" was the consequence. This
+Ordinance was confirmed by a royal rescript of 1542.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                         VELVET MADE AT GRANADA
+                         (_Late 15th Century_)]
+
+Another group of _Ordenanzas_ concerns the weavers and the
+silk-merchants of the Alcaicer�a, determining that no silk was to be
+imported from the kingdoms of Valencia or Murcia, and that no merchant
+was to buy the raw material in order to resell it at a profit, but might
+only trade in the productions of his own factory. Minute instructions
+are appended for weaving the various stuffs which had a silk foundation,
+such as several kinds of damask, scarlet velvet[16] many kinds of satin,
+velvet dyed with Brazil-wood, taffeta of four leishes, taffeta of two
+leishes, and _sargas_, or silken serge. Other fabrics mentioned in the
+Ordinances are _tocas_ called "San Juanes," _campuses moriscos_
+(elsewhere "las tocas moriscas que se llaman _campuzas_"), "las tocas
+moriscas labradas que se dizen _coninos_," _quinales_ and _alfardillas_,
+_alcaydias_, _tocas de Reyna_, and _espumillas_. Most of these names are
+of obscure meaning at the present day; but I find that _espumillas_ were
+silken crape, while _alfardillas_ are defined in the old dictionary of
+Fathers Connelly and Higgins as "an ancient kind of silken ribbon, or
+tape."
+
+  [16] Granada was especially renowned for her velvets (Plate vii.),
+       grounded or relieved, in the oriental manner, with gold or silver.
+
+No weaver was allowed to be the owner of more than four looms for making
+velvet, satin, damask, taffeta, or silken serges. The apprentice to a
+satin-maker required to be bound for a minimum term of three years, the
+apprentice to a damask-maker for five years, the apprentice to a
+taffeta-maker for three years. No weaver was to have more than three
+apprentices at one time, except in the case of the damask-makers, who
+might have four. No weaver might dismiss his apprentice without deponing
+to the cause before the city officers, nor might he accept money, or
+anything in lieu of money, from an apprentice. Master-weavers were
+required to pass their examinations in Granada; no other city would
+suffice.
+
+We further learn that many of the apprentices were "of evil character,"
+and damaged velvet stuffs "maliciously, though knowing perfectly how to
+weave the same." If any worker at this craft fell sick, the guild or
+_oficio_ was to defray the expenses of his cure, including physic "until
+he be recovered, provided his be not a venereal ailment, or a wound
+inflicted with a knife." If he succumbed, the guild was to bury him; and
+when a master-weaver died, his apprentices were compelled to serve out
+the rest of their indentures with his widow, or his sons. No slave might
+learn to weave, even though he should be made a _horro_ or freedman.
+
+Other ordinances refer to the officers known as Xelizes and Almotalefes
+of the silk, the privilege of appointing whom had been conferred upon
+the town-council by Ferdinand and Isabella. It was the business of the
+_almotalefe_ or _motalefe_ to collect silk throughout the _alcarias_ or
+villages of the surrounding districts, and convey it, on behalf of the
+owner, to a _xeliz_ or "superintendent of the market," attached to one
+or other of the three Alcaicer�as of the kingdom of Granada. The
+_xeliz_, in his turn, was required to see that the parcel was put up for
+sale by public auction and disposed of to the highest bidder, after
+which he handed to the _motalefe_ a certificate of the price obtained,
+together with the corresponding cash, less certain fees deducted for
+himself and calculated on a reasonable scale. The number of _motalefes_
+throughout this region was evidently large, because in the year 1520 the
+town-council resolved to appoint as many as "one or two in every town
+and district."
+
+Ordinances to the above effect were notified to the city of Almu�ecar,
+and the towns of Motril, Salobre�a, and the Alpujarras; from which we
+must infer that, though subordinated to the capital herself, these
+places also were silk-producing centres of no slight importance.
+
+Further laws relating to the Xelizes were passed in 1535. On August
+13th, the mayor of Granada (described as the "very magnificent" Se�or
+Hernan Darias de Saavedra) summoned before him these officials in order
+to admonish them respecting certain fresh decisions that had been
+adopted by the councillors. The said Xelizes were six in all, known
+severally as Juan Ximenez, Hernando el Comarxi, Juan Infante Zaybona,
+Juan de Granada, Lorenzo el Mombatan, and Francisco Hernandez
+Almorox--names which are of interest, as showing that the Morisco
+element was still of weight among the manufacturers and merchants of
+Granada. From this time forth, and by the resolution of the town
+authorities, the Xelizes in question were called upon to lodge a deposit
+of one thousand ducats as security for the value of the silk entrusted
+them for sale. Besides this, the silk was to be sold in the
+Zaguaque--that is, by public auction "as in the time of the Moors," from
+two in the afternoon onward. The buyer was required to settle his
+account before ten in the morning of the day next following his
+purchase. Failing this, the silk was to be again put up for sale, and
+the costs of this new operation were charged to the defaulting first
+purchaser, who was further obliged to pay a daily compensation of two
+_reales_ to the _motalefe_ who had brought the silk to market. Xelizes
+were strictly forbidden to traffic on their own account, and the fines
+for infringing any of these laws were heavy. If the infraction were
+repeated once, the fine was doubled; if twice, in addition to the same
+amount in money, the transgressor was banished for all his lifetime from
+Granada.
+
+All pieces of stuff which measured ten yards long and upwards, and which
+it was desired to sell within the capital or district of Granada,
+required to be marked with the weaver's stamp. If three pieces were sold
+together, or sent abroad to other places to be sold, they required to be
+stamped with the city seal at a fee for stamping of two _maravedis_ the
+piece. This was to be performed by the _veedores_, who were also to keep
+a register of all the city looms, and pay them a visit of inspection
+once at least in every month.
+
+Finally, one of the most ridiculous and noxious of these ordinances
+forbade the planting of more mulberry-trees in or about Granada;
+notwithstanding that it was also forbidden to deal in silk imported from
+Valencia or Murcia, as the merchants were said to mingle these foreign
+silks with that of Granada herself, to the detriment of the latter.
+
+Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the silk-trade of
+this capital remained in much the same condition. In 1747 a company was
+formed at Granada titled the "Compa��a Real de Comercio y F�bricas de
+Granada," and the formal prospectus of this society, of which document a
+printed copy is in my possession, was embodied in a royal _cedula_ dated
+in the same year. The preliminary remarks attached to this certificate
+explain that the people of Granada were now reduced to "the most unhappy
+state of poverty, insomuch that nowhere is there memory of a greater
+horde of mendicants." The principal cause of this distress is stated to
+be the ruin of the silk-trade, in which disaster may be recognised the
+consequences of the senseless legislation I have instanced in the
+foregoing paragraphs. The fifteen thousand looms which once upon a time
+existed there had dwindled to six hundred, and the production of raw
+silk, from one million pounds a year to one hundred thousand. The new
+Company was floated with the professed ambition of restoring Granada to
+a measure of her old prosperity. The capital was half a million _pesos_,
+divided into shares of two hundred _pesos_ each; but silk and woven
+fabrics generally, whose value had been suitably appraised by the
+authorities, were admissible in payment of a share. The holder of each
+five shares enjoyed one vote, except in the case of founders, who were
+privileged, as "instruments of this important establishment," to vote
+upon possession of a single share. If a shareholder wished to sell his
+interest, the Company was to have the first refusal. It further
+possessed initially in cash a sum exceeding one hundred and twenty
+thousand _pesos_--sufficient to construct and work three thousand looms
+in all; and it engaged, in return for certain favours and exemptions
+under royal warrant, to set up twenty looms for making serges of fine
+quality, and eight more in each year, for the space of ten years, for
+making _carros de oro_, _medios carros_, _anascotes finos_,
+_christales_, "and every other kind of stuff that is not manufactured in
+this kingdom."
+
+The favours and exemptions thus solicited were of a very mischievous
+character; for the political mind of Spain was not yet shrewd enough to
+grasp the fact that where all competition is removed, quality cannot but
+decline. The products of the Company were freed from paying taxes for
+ten, or in the case of stuffs whose price amounted to six _reales_ per
+yard, for twenty years. Similarly, all of its merchandise exported to
+America "in _flotas_, _galeones_, _registros_, or other craft of those
+that are permitted," was freed from all except the royal dues on
+loading, although if shipped to other parts it was to pay a tax of fifty
+_maravedis_ for each Castilian pound of sixteen ounces. All the
+materials and ingredients required by the Company in the preparation of
+its fabrics were exempted from customs and other dues. The Company
+enjoyed a preferential right to purchase silk throughout the kingdom of
+Granada, and such as it abstained from purchasing was to be sold by
+public auction in the Alcaicer�as of Granada and M�laga, that of Almer�a
+being henceforth suppressed. The Company was also empowered to introduce
+silk from Murcia and Valencia, and the determination to crush all
+private enterprise is clearly expressed by the twenty-second heading of
+this document, which says; "All manufacturers and traders who do not
+associate themselves with this body shall pay the full tariff of dues at
+present established." The Company was further empowered to compel the
+inhabitants of this locality to plant new lots of mulberry-trees, "in
+view of the notorious fact that not the one-hundredth part remains of
+all that were delivered by the Royal Census to the occupants of the
+kingdom of Granada at the time of the reconquest." The Company might
+further open shops and erect warehouses wherever it chose. Its assets
+were to enjoy perpetual immunity from seizure by the city council,
+whether as a loan or otherwise, and none of its servants might be called
+upon to serve the Crown in the event of war.
+
+Very shortly after its foundation, this Company united (each bringing
+half the capital) with another powerful association titled the
+Commercial Company of Estremadura, with a view to securing a conjoint
+Crown monopoly or "exclusive privilege" for Portugal, "to the effect
+that only these two companies may traffic there in silk, and none other
+of my vassals or the inhabitants of my dominions may do business,
+whether in pure silk, or silk mixed with silver or with gold, in the
+kingdom of Portugal aforesaid."
+
+The privilege was granted in these terms, and bears the royal signature,
+attached at Aranjuez, June 17th, 1747. Its provisions were to last for
+ten years, and, in return for their concession, the two Companies
+engaged for a like term of ten years to set up fifty silk-looms annually
+at Toledo, "over and above the looms at present working in that city."
+
+I have not been able to trace, in writing or in print, the subsequent
+records of the Royal Commercial and Manufacturing Company of Granada,
+although I have been told that it existed for some time, and that on one
+occasion there was a riot among the townsfolk in opposition to its
+tyranny.[17] In 1776 Swinburne wrote of the same region: "The annual
+produce of silk in this province, before the year 1726, seldom fell
+short of two millions six hundred thousand pounds weight, whereas now it
+does not exceed one hundred thousand." Judging from this, the Company
+does not appear to have prospered. In 1775 the same author wrote of
+other and more fertile silk-producing districts: "The manufacturers of
+silk are the cause of a population (_i.e._ in Valencia) that may be
+reckoned considerable, if compared to that of other provinces of Spain.
+The produce of this article came this year to one million pounds, but
+one year with another the average quantity is about nine hundred
+thousand pounds, worth a doubloon a pound in the country. The crop of
+silk this last season was very abundant. Government has prohibited the
+exportation of Valencian raw silk, in order to lay in a stock to keep
+the artificers constantly employed in bad years; for it has happened in
+some, that half the workmen have been laid idle for want of materials.
+As they are not so strict about Murcian silk, which is of an inferior
+quality, I am told that some from Valencia is sent out of Spain under
+that denomination. The great nurseries of mulberry-plants in this plain
+(the Huerta of Valencia) are produced from seed obtained by rubbing a
+rope of _esparto_ over heaps of ripe mulberries, and then burying the
+rope two inches under ground. As the young plants come up, they are
+drawn and transplanted. The trees, which are all of the white kind, are
+afterwards set out in rows in the fields, and pruned every second year;
+in Murcia, only every third year, and in Granada never. The Granadine
+silk is esteemed the best of all; and the trees are all of the black
+sort of mulberry."
+
+  [17] Similar companies were formed at Toledo, Zaragoza, Burgos, Seville,
+       and Zarza. For the Crown _cedula_, dated February 10th, 1748,
+       authorizing the Real Compa��a de Comercio y F�bricas of Toledo,
+       see Larruga's _Memorias_, Vol. VII., p. 63.
+
+According to Laborde, who wrote some twenty-five years later; "The
+cultivation of silk was formerly very flourishing in Andalusia; the
+kingdoms of Granada, Seville, and Jaen produced immense quantities of
+it, but after the conquest of those countries it was burdened with heavy
+taxes: silk was made subject to ecclesiastical tithes payable in kind;
+the royal tenth it paid under the Moors was retained, estimated at three
+_reales vellon_ each pound of silk. To these were added a duty of
+_tartil_ of seventeen _maravedis_ per pound and duties of _alcabalas_
+and _cientos_, fixed at eleven _reales_ thirty-two _maraved�s_. There
+accrued from it a tax of fifteen _reales_ fifteen _maraved�s_ for the
+king, and six _reales_, or thereabouts, for the ecclesiastical tithe,
+making together twenty-one _reales_ fifteen _maraved�s_, or about four
+shillings and sixpence the pound, which at that time sold only for
+thirty _reales_, or six shillings and three pence English. The
+speculators were consequently discouraged, most of them relinquished a
+labour from which they derived so little profit, and this branch of
+industry entirely failed in the kingdoms of Cordova and Seville, and
+afterwards in those of Granada and Jaen. For some time it has been
+looking up in the two latter kingdoms, but it is very far from what it
+was under the Moors. The mulberries of Granada and Jaen are black; they
+are suffered to grow without any care or management, are never lopped or
+dressed, and look as if they were planted by chance."
+
+Of Murcia he wrote; "This province has the raw materials of other
+manufactures no less important. In the first place, it has a prodigious
+quantity of silkworms, which are not turned to advantage; most of the
+raw silks are sold to the neighbouring provinces, and manufactured silk
+is imported from foreign looms, though the inhabitants might manufacture
+their own materials, and make it an article of considerable exportation.
+The town of Murcia is the only place where they work some small
+quantity; there they manufacture a few slight silks, chiefly taffetas
+and velvets, but of an inferior quality; and the whole is confined to a
+small number of looms. They make a much greater quantity of ribbons, in
+which twelve hundred looms are employed; but they are badly dyed, and
+have not a good gloss. The Murcians likewise prepare the raw silk, spin,
+and twist it; they have even a warden, and a great number of masters in
+this business, and, in spite of its importance, they carry it on without
+being subject to any superintendence, everyone doing as he pleases. The
+consequence is that the silk is badly prepared and spun unequally. The
+threads are collected without any method, sometimes more, sometimes
+less, and then twisted unequally. They are of course unfit to make fine
+stuffs, and the trade of Murcia is therefore declining.... Silk stuffs,
+satins, velvets, and taffetas are made here, but there is no great
+manufactory of them. They are wrought at private houses, and are but of
+a middling quality."
+
+Toledo silk, including the delicate and costly _cendal_ (see pp. 5, 6)
+which is mentioned in the sumptuary law, dated 1348, of Alfonso the
+Eleventh, was largely in demand from early in the Middle Ages till about
+the sixteenth century. The statements of the older writers as to this
+neighbourhood are contradictory. According to Dami�n de Olivares,
+himself a native of Toledo, this city in the sixteenth century possessed
+between five thousand five hundred and six thousand looms, consuming
+annually more than six hundred thousand pounds of raw silk. Other
+authors estimate the number of her looms at twenty, thirty, or even
+forty thousand. Writing in our own time, Count Cedillo is responsible
+for declaring that after the revolt of the Communities, the persons
+occupied in weaving silk amounted to fifty thousand, all of whom were
+natives of Toledo and the neighbouring villages; and he adds, perhaps a
+little rashly, that the velvets, damasks, satins, and taffetas of this
+locality were "unrivalled, even in comparison with the admirable
+products of Seville, Cordova, and Granada."[18] Certainly, the silk
+stockings of Toledo enjoyed a wide-spread fame, and were used, among
+other distinguished patrons, by the Duke of Guise and by Philip the
+Second. They were also exported in quantities to America. Banners,
+altar-fronts, and vestments for religious worship were also made here in
+large numbers, and of excellent quality, both in silk alone, and in this
+substance mixed with gold and silver.
+
+  [18] _Toledo en el Siglo XVI._ Miquel y Bad�a says that in the fifteenth
+       century Toledo, together with Genoa and Venice, manufactured superb
+       velvets, coloured crimson, blue, purple, or yellow, and figured
+       with pineapples or pomegranates (Plate iv.). The latter tree and
+       fruit are commonly related, in Spain, with the city of _Granada_;
+       but quite apart from this, the pomegranate was formerly regarded as
+       a symbol of fecundity and life. (See Goblet d'Alviella, _La
+       Migration des Symboles_, p. 184, and also Madame Errera's
+       Catalogue, No. 50.) In these velvets the gold thread is woven with
+       consummate skill, and forms, in the costliest and most elaborate
+       specimens, a groundwork of exceedingly small rings. These fabrics
+       were used as hangings for beds and walls, as well as for the
+       clothing of great lords and ladies. Touching the use of silk for
+       certain articles of dress, an amusing story is told in the MS.
+       account of Valladolid, published by Gayangos in the _Revista de
+       Espa�a_. "One day, Don Pedro de Medicis is reported to have paid
+       a visit to a married lady, to whom he had presented some damask
+       curtains, and he was wearing at the time some taffeta hose which
+       made a creaking as he walked. The lady came out of her room, and,
+       finding him in one of the lower apartments, exclaimed, 'Why do you
+       come here at such an hour, and with that silk on you which creaks
+       so loudly? Take care my husband does not hear it.' Whereto the
+       gentleman replied; 'Good God, madam, is it possible that the two
+       hundred yards of damask which I gave you for that curtain have
+       made no noise at all, but that a mere four yards of simple taffeta
+       about my breeches should put you in such consternation?'"
+
+Laborde wrote of all these manufactures at the time of their decline;
+"It is easy to estimate their former importance from the loss they
+sustained by the introduction of foreign merchandise. The memorial
+states that the consumption of silk was materially diminished, and
+computes the loss sustained by thirty-eight thousand artisans, from the
+interruption of their occupation, at 1,937,727 ducats. Symptoms of decay
+continued to increase till the middle of the sixteenth century, when
+every vestige of commerce was effaced.
+
+"Toledo remained in this state of listless despondence till the present
+archbishop made a noble effort to revive the love of industry, and to
+open an asylum for the tribes of mendicants, accustomed from infancy to
+subsist on precarious bounty. The measure adopted by this prelate was to
+establish in the Alcazar various branches of manufacture, such as linen,
+ribbons, cloths, serges, woollen stuffs, and silk stuffs of every
+description. He introduced also another branch of occupation,
+appropriated solely to the production of sacerdotal ornaments. In 1791
+there were a hundred and twelve manufactories in Toledo, ten for lawns
+and canvas, twelve for ribbons, fifty-five for silk, and seven for
+sacerdotal ornaments. At this period the indigent class employed in them
+amounted to six hundred people, who were instructed in various
+processes, and were led insensibly to acquire the useful habits of
+industry. They were taught to draw, to prepare the materials, and to
+perform the manufacture; and each was destined to pursue some occupation
+suitable to his age, his inclination, and his abilities."
+
+In 1786 Townsend, himself a clergyman, had written of Toledo in far less
+hopeful terms. "This city, which contained two hundred thousand souls,
+is now reduced to less than twenty-five thousand. The citizens are fled;
+the monks remain. Here we find twenty-six parish churches, thirty-eight
+convents, seventeen hospitals, four colleges, twelve chapels, and
+nineteen hermitages, the monuments of its former opulence." Townsend's
+good taste, unusual for a traveller of that time, was horrified at the
+profanation of the Alcazar, whose "magnificent apartments are now
+occupied with spinning-wheels and looms, and instead of princes they are
+filled with beggars. The good archbishop here feeds seven hundred
+persons, who are employed in the silk manufactory; but unfortunately,
+with the best intentions, he has completed the ruin of the city; for by
+his weight of capital, he has raised the price both of labour and of the
+raw material, whilst, by carrying a greater quantity of goods to the
+common market, he has sunk the price of the commodity so much, that the
+manufacturers, who employed from forty to sixty workmen, now employ only
+two or three, and many who were in affluence are now reduced to penury.
+
+"These people are so far from earning their own maintenance, that over
+and above the produce of their labour they require forty thousand ducats
+a year for their support."
+
+Alvarez de Colmenar, Ricord, Bourgoing, Laborde, and other writers,
+Spanish and non-Spanish, of the eighteenth century, inserted full
+descriptions of the silk trade of Valencia and Barcelona. "On y fait,"
+wrote Alvarez de Colmenar of the former of these towns, "de tr�s bonnes
+draperies, fortes, d'un bon et long usage, et propres � r�sister � la
+pluie, et grande quantit� d'�toffes de soie; del� vient que les
+meuriers, dont les feuilles servent � nourrir les vers � soie, y font
+d'un fort gros revenu pour les habitans." Ricord, in his scarce
+pamphlet, printed at Valencia in 1793, gives valuable statistics
+relating to this industry and locality, prefacing his figures arranged
+in tabular form by the following remarks: "The silk factories of this
+province form the principal basis of her commerce. They not only consume
+all the silk which is raised in the kingdom (of Valencia), and which, in
+1791, amounted to 581,688 pounds of fine silk, 93,800 of that of
+Alducar, and 26,115 of _hiladillo_, but they also require to provide
+themselves from Aragon and other parts of Spain, or even from abroad,
+seeing that in the year aforesaid more than 37,000 pounds were imported
+from foreign countries." The tabular statement appended to these
+observations tells us that in the region of Valencia the looms for
+making fine and silken fabrics such as velvets, _anascotes_, stockings,
+handkerchiefs, scarves, garters, and ribbons, gave employment to a total
+of 9,668 workmen, and were distributed among the towns or villages of
+Valencia, Alcira, San Felipe, Alcoy, Vilanesa, Denia, Ruzafa, Alicante,
+Peniscola, Beniganim, Pego, Olivo, Liria, Asuevar, Orihuela, Gandia,
+Elche, Castellon, and Vall de Almonacid. Ria�o admits, however, that
+this manufacture might have prospered even more, if means had been
+adopted to suppress certain acts committed by the weavers, spinners, and
+twisters of the silk.
+
+More curious and instructive is the description of the same industry by
+Jean-Fran�ois Bourgoing, whose observations, evidently secured at
+first-hand, are worth translating _in extenso_:--
+
+"What attracted us still more than the fine-art works were the stuffs
+produced at the silk-factories, which constitute the principal glory of
+Valencia and contribute to her prosperous condition. We followed all the
+process of this manufacture, from the cultivation of the mulberry-tree
+to the weaving of the richest fabrics. I will try, therefore, to give a
+comprehensive account of them.
+
+"Spain, and particularly the kingdom of Valencia, could well export her
+silk to foreign parts, even after setting apart a quantity sufficient
+for her factories. Government, however, does not appear to be convinced
+of this, because it offers constant hindrance to such exportation, or
+else, when it consents to it, imposes heavy dues. These dues consist of
+nine _reales_ and a _quartillo_, or nearly two _livres_ seven _francs_
+per each Valencian pound of silk, which only weighs twelve ounces, and
+is worth at least fifteen _livres_ when it is in the raw state. When the
+silk harvest has been scanty, as in the year 1784, it has been known to
+fetch eighty _reales_ or twenty _livres_. This year, too, the yield of
+silk has been so small that the manufacturers of Valencia petitioned
+Government to allow the introduction, duty-free, of two hundred thousand
+pounds of it from Italy and France.
+
+"In ordinary years, the pound of (raw) silk costs eight _reales_ for
+twisting and three _reales_ for dyeing in green, blue or other common
+colours; so that this material, ready to use, costs altogether about
+seventy-one _reales_ the pound, or seventeen to eighteen francs of our
+money.
+
+"Of course this price varies according to circumstances. One of the
+causes which exercise the greatest influence on this fluctuation is the
+harvest of the mulberry. These valuable trees are thickly planted over
+the champaign of Valencia, and all of them are of the white-leaved kind.
+This distinction, which would be superfluous in France, is by no means
+so in Spain, where, in several provinces, as, for instance, the kingdom
+of Granada, the leaves of the black mulberry are used to nourish the
+silkworms, and yield almost as handsome a silk as those of the
+white.[19]
+
+  [19] "The mulberry of Valencia is the _white_, as being most suitable to
+       a well-watered plain. In Granada they give the preference to the
+       _black_, as thriving well in elevated stations, as more durable,
+       more abundant in leaves, and yielding a much finer and more
+       valuable silk. But then it does not begin bearing till it is about
+       twenty years of age. In this province they reckon that five trees
+       should produce two pounds of silk.
+
+       "I had the curiosity to examine their method of feeding the
+       silkworms. These industrious spinners are spread upon wicker
+       shelves, which are placed one above the other, all round, and
+       likewise in the middle of each apartment, so as to leave room only
+       for the good woman to pass with their provisions. In one house I
+       saw the produce of six ounces of seed, and was informed that to
+       every ounce, during their feeding season, they allow sixty
+       _arrobas_ of leaves, valued at two pounds five. Each ounce of seed
+       is supposed to yield ten pounds of silk, at twelve ounces to the
+       pound. March 28th, the worms began to hatch, and May 22nd they went
+       up to spin. On the eleventh day, from the time that they were
+       hatched, they slept; and on the fourteenth, they awoke to eat
+       again, receiving food twice a day till the twenty-second day.
+       Having then slept a second time, without interruption, for three
+       days, they were fed thrice a day; and thus alternately they
+       continued eating eight days and sleeping three, till the
+       forty-seventh day; after which they ate voraciously for ten
+       days, and not being stinted, consumed sometimes from thirty to
+       fifty _arrobas_ in four and twenty hours. They then climbed up
+       into rosemary bushes, fixed for that purpose between the shelves,
+       and began to spin.
+
+       "Upon examination, they appear evidently to draw out two threads
+       by the same operation, and to glue these together, covering them
+       with wax. Thismay be proved by spirit of wine, which will dissolve
+       the wax, and leave the thread. Having exhausted her magazine, the
+       worm changes her form and becomes a nymph, until the seventy-first
+       day from the time that the little animal was hatched, when she
+       comes forth with plumage, and having found her mate, begins to
+       lay her eggs. At the end of six days from this period of existence,
+       having answered the end of their creation, they both lie down and
+       die. This would be the natural progress; but, to preserve the silk,
+       the animal is killed by heat, and the cones being thrown into
+       boiling water, the women and children wind off the
+       silk."--Townsend; _Journey through Spain in the years 1786 and
+       1787_; Vol. III., pp. 264-266.
+
+"The leaves to these mulberry-trees are sold by the load of ten
+_arrobas_; and the Valencian _arroba_, which is about equal to
+twenty-seven French pounds, cost, in 1783, about thirty _sols tournois_.
+
+"The mulberry leaves are gathered once, twice, or, at most, three times
+in each year; but it is not often that the two last crops are of as fine
+a quality or as abundant as the first. The greater part of the year is
+suited for harvesting the leaves, and this harvesting is carried out
+progressively as the silkworms copulate, steadily increasing in quantity
+up to the moment when they build their cocoons. As a rule only the
+leaves are plucked, the branches being spared as far as possible. Thus
+despoiled of its verdure in the middle of the finest times of year,
+although surrounded by a dazzling vegetation, the tree looks like a dry
+log floating on a green expanse of waters, while the mass of naked
+trunks which seem to be completely sterile, and which grow more numerous
+as the season advances, combine to render cheerless a prospect otherwise
+so fertile and so smiling. Still worse becomes their state when the
+trees are pruned entirely of their branches--an operation which is
+performed upon them at least once in every three years.
+
+"In the space of ten years the kingdom of Valencia has yielded six
+million pounds of silk, which makes a yearly average of six hundred
+thousand pounds; and as the whole of Spain produces a million pounds per
+annum, we see from this that Valencia alone supplies more than half of
+the entire quantity. The silks of Valencia are the finest of the whole
+Peninsula, and fit to be compared with the best of Europe generally, but
+the spinning is still imperfect, because in Spain there are not, as in
+France and elsewhere, houses where the women who spin are gathered
+together under the eye of an inspector to see that all the silk is spun
+evenly. In the kingdom of Valencia the spinning is distributed among
+several thousand hands, who introduce six, seven, eight, or even more
+ends in a thread of silk which should always have the same number; hence
+the unevennesses in the fabrics which are woven from them, while for the
+same reason we do not utilize for any delicate work the raw material
+which we import from Spain. The silk we employ for our costlier fabrics
+is of the kind which we import from Piedmont and the southern provinces
+of France. Also, for the last few years we have felt less need of the
+Valencian silk. The laws prohibiting the exportation of this Spanish
+silk have stimulated the cultivation of mulberry-trees in Languedoc,
+where the peasantry, alive to the profit which these trees could render
+them, have preferred them to other kinds for planting round their
+property. This is why, in the year 1783, French silk could be bought for
+a lower price than the Valencian silk purchased in that region, plus the
+dues levied upon its exportation. I know of a merchant who at this time
+enjoyed the privilege of exporting for six years a hundred thousand
+pounds free of all dues, but who throughout the year 1783 was unable to
+find a purchaser in France. Spain could perhaps remedy the egress of her
+raw material by further increasing (as, indeed, she daily does) the
+number of her looms, and by exporting a greater number of her products
+to her American possessions; but her silk-stuffs will never be perfected
+until she markets them in foreign countries, where the taste of her
+customers may tend to better that of her manufacturers.
+
+"The silk raised in the kingdom of Valencia is estimated, during an
+average year, to be worth six or seven millions of _piastres_ (nineteen
+to twenty-two millions of _livres_.) At the time of my visit to this
+city, she only employed one half this quantity, although her looms of
+every size amounted to four thousand. The rest, in spite of the
+prohibitions laid upon its extraction, is smuggled off to foreign
+countries, escaping, sometimes to France by way of Barcelona, and
+sometimes to Portugal by way of Seville and Extremadura. Nevertheless,
+there is probably more silk in Spain to-day than formerly, and measures
+have been earnestly adopted to encourage the industries which make use
+of it. For some time past, silk-looms have been scattered over the whole
+of Catalu�a, and in the kingdoms of Granada, Cordova, Seville, etc.,
+producing handkerchiefs, ribbons, and other stuffs in sufficient
+quantity to supply, or nearly so, the national market: nevertheless this
+still left a large market for our stocking-factories of Languedoc. The
+Spanish Government, by the law of 1778, limited itself to excluding
+these stockings from forming part of the foreign cargoes to the
+Colonies, but as they continued to be imported into Spain, this law was
+readily evaded, since it sufficed to stamp the French article with the
+mark of a Spanish factory. It would have required an excessive
+vigilance, almost a positive inquisition, to guard against a fraud of
+this kind, prompted by the avarice of traders. The Spanish Government
+next sought, by the law of 1785, to put a stop to it by totally
+excluding our silk stockings, and this measure, together with the
+establishment of a number of new looms in Spain, has produced an almost
+absolute stagnation in the market which our factories of Languedoc had
+formerly enjoyed in the Peninsula. But let me return now to the
+Valencian factories.
+
+"This city has no one building in which might be performed the whole of
+the processes through which the silk must pass. Any person who wishes to
+examine them, must visit several workshops; and this was the course
+which we adopted, under the guidance of a manufacturer as intelligent as
+he is amiable, named Don Manuel Foz, a gentleman who has travelled
+extensively in order to perfect his knowledge of handling silk, and who,
+among other secrets, has brought from Constantinople the art of watering
+silken stuffs. As a reward for his activity, he has been appointed
+_Intendente_ of all the factories of Valencia.
+
+"There are hardly any merchants at Valencia who are not more or less
+concerned in silk-making: indeed, they look upon this industry as quite
+a _point d'honneur_. Some of them supply with silk no more than four or
+five looms, which work at their expense, while others have under their
+control as many as several hundred.
+
+"After the silkworm has cleverly built its cell, the first thing to be
+done is to stifle it before it can pierce the cocoon in search of a new
+existence. For this purpose the cocoons are thrown into a moderately
+heated oven; and then, when once the worm is killed, they can be kept
+without being spun for as long as may be needed.
+
+"In order to strip them of their covering of silk, they are thrown into
+hot water, after which the women workers pick up, and with surprising
+quickness, the threads of several of them, join them, and deal them out,
+thus joined, on wheels constructed for this object. On the design of the
+wheels depends the degree of thoroughness with which the silk is spun;
+but those which are employed in Spain are generally the most imperfect,
+as I shall presently explain.
+
+"I have already said that the slip of silk should be drawn from at least
+four cocoons, and even then it only serves for making slender fabrics,
+such as taffeta or ribbon. We were shown, indeed, a skein which was
+assured to contain no more than two cocoons; but so slight a slip is of
+no use at all. Most of them are made from seven or eight cocoons, and
+two of the former are joined in order to form a thread sufficient to be
+placed upon the loom.
+
+"My readers are sure to know that all woven fabrics consist of two
+distinct parts, the woof and the warp. The woof is that which is passed
+by the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other, and which is
+enchased between the two surfaces formed by the warp. As the woof is
+subjected to more wear and tear than the warp, it should be stouter. For
+this reason each of the two ends of which it is composed is twisted
+separately before the two are twisted together, while for the warp the
+latter of these processes is sufficient. The result of this difference
+is that, when looked at beneath the microscope, the thread of the woof
+has an uneven look, as though it were a small cable, while that of the
+warp looks flat and smooth, and is therefore adapted to reflect the
+light, receiving the shiny look which makes a silk-stuff so attractive.
+
+"But the beauty of these fabrics depends, above all else, upon the way
+in which the silk is divided as it is drawn from the cocoon. This first
+stage of the spinning is performed in one or other of three ways,
+according to the kind of wheel which is employed for it. The method
+which the Spaniards have adopted from an early period has the following
+drawback; that the small threads of six, seven, and eight cocoons which
+are stripped at the same time, go to form a single thread, and are
+deposited upon a small spindle without the thread rubbing against
+another one, which friction serves to lay the little hairs which bristle
+up, so that the slip of silk thus formed retains a hairy nap and is
+easily frayed. In the Piedmontese method, on the other hand, each slip
+is joined to another, and is not drawn apart until it has been twisted
+round it four or five times.
+
+"The third method, known as that of Vaucanson, is more expensive than
+the one last mentioned. In the wheel invented by Vaucanson, the two
+silk-slips are reunited after the first twisting, in order to be twisted
+once again. This operation is called the 'double _croissade_.'
+
+"If these threads, thus placed on bobbins, are intended for the woof,
+they are enchased perpendicularly in a machine consisting of several
+compartments, in which they are twisted separately. Thence they are
+transferred to another machine, in which they are twisted all together;
+after which they are ready for the loom. Those which are destined for
+the web are not twisted (as I have explained above) until the moment
+when they are united. Both at Valencia and at Talavera de la Reina these
+machines, so precious to the weaver's craft, and which economise manual
+toil, are not unknown.[20]
+
+  [20] They certainly were not unknown at Valencia. I have before me a
+       copy of the work, _Disertacion descriptiva de la Hilaza de la Seda,
+       segun el antiguo modo de hilar y el nuevo llamado de Vaucanson_,
+       written by the priest Francisco Ortells y Gombau, and published at
+       Valencia in 1783, by order of the Royal Council of Commerce and
+       Agriculture. This book, which clearly sets forth the superiority
+       of Vaucanson's method over those which had preceded it, states
+       that at first the Valencians were strongly opposed to the
+       Vaucanson wheel, believing that it caused a loss and waste of
+       silk. Probably the real reason was that it prevented the
+       manufacturers from adding spurious weight to the silk by mixing it
+       with oil. This practice, says Ortells, was then "so widespread an
+       evil in the kingdom of Valencia, that there is hardly anybody who
+       does not resort to it: notwithstanding it has been so often
+       prohibited by His Majesty, yet openly, where all the world may
+       witness, do the workers spin with much oil added to the silk."
+
+       The Vaucanson form of wheel was also more expensive. In the region
+       of Valencia its cost was about thirty _pesos_, that of the older
+       wheels being only fifteen or sixteen _pesos_. However, this
+       difficulty was not insuperable, for in the year 1779 the Royal
+       Council of Commerce presented a hundred and twenty Vaucanson
+       wheels to the peasants who had raised a minimum crop of a hundred
+       pounds of silk, requiring, in return, that the recipients of the
+       gift should spin not less than fifty pounds of silk per annum.
+
+"At the latter of these towns I had already seen a single toothed-wheel,
+which set in motion up to a thousand of these tiny bobbins on which are
+wound the twisted slips of silk. The wheels I saw at Valencia were
+smaller, because in this city there is not, as there is at Talavera, a
+royal factory self-contained within a single building. At Valencia each
+manufacturer, in order to carry out these various processes, requires to
+deal with workmen and machines distributed through several quarters of
+the town, and chooses from among them such as he best prefers.
+
+"Nothing can be simpler than the working of these silk-twisting
+machines, when once the toothed-wheel has set them going. The
+perpendicular movement of all these little bobbins is looked after by
+women, and even children.[21]
+
+  [21] At the time when Vaucanson's wheels began to be used in Spain, silk
+       was spun by men all over the Peninsula, except in the immediate
+       neighbourhood of Valencia (Orteils; _Hilaza de la Seda_, pp. 134
+       _et seq._) In every other region devoted to this industry such as
+       the valley of the Jucar and the Huertas of Orihuela and Murviedro,
+       as well as in the factories of Toledo, Seville, Granada, Cordova,
+       Ja�n, Baeza, Talavera, and Priego, the spinning was performed by
+       men exclusively. Women, however, were often engaged in harvesting
+       the cocoons.
+
+"If they should happen to clog, a touch of the finger disengages them.
+If one of the slips should break, the harm is mended in a trice: the
+practised fingers of the machinist pick up the broken ends with
+marvellous despatch, tie them together by an imperceptible knot, and the
+bobbin which was thus delayed loses no time in overtaking its
+neighbours.
+
+"The slips of silk, before being twisted two by two, are put through
+another process which I ought to mention. When they are still in skeins
+they are spread upon a large tub in which is a quantity of viscous
+substances heated to boiling point, the gases from which tend to make
+them adhere to one another. This is termed _passer � la br�ve_.
+
+"Thence they are removed to the machine for twisting them. The silk, on
+issuing from this machine, is called organzine; and it is only when it
+is in this state that it can be exported from Piedmont, where the
+twisting process was better executed than elsewhere, until the time when
+it was rendered yet more perfect by Vaucanson.[22] This clever mechanic
+has combined all possible advantages relating to the business of the
+silk-weaver. His system, and no other, is practised in the Lyons
+factories; but these wheels _� double croissade_ are only available for
+silk produced in France; since that which is exported from abroad and
+which is principally used in these factories, requires to be reduced to
+organzine before it can again be taken out of the country.
+
+  [22] "I should here remark that the silk which is spun and twisted
+       according to the method of Vaucanson, forms a fabric a third part
+       closer and stronger than ordinary silk-stuffs."
+
+"In this respect Spain possesses a sensible advantage over other
+manufacturing nations; since she raises a greater quantity of silk than
+she is able to consume, and could easily put it through the most
+advanced and perfect processes; in spite of which she has clung for ages
+to her faulty method. The present government has attacked this method by
+the only means efficient to bring about a change; that is, the slow but
+certain influence of persuasion. In 1781 the Count of Floridablanca
+contracted with a French merchant settled in Madrid, that he should
+supply a hundred _tours_ of the Vaucanson pattern for spinning silk,
+first to the Murcian factories (of which province the Count was a
+native), next to the Valencian, and subsequently to any others that
+might wish for them; and with this object he granted to the merchant in
+question the privilege of exporting, free of duty, six hundred thousand
+pounds of silk in six years. Nevertheless, it is possible that this
+measure may yet remain fruitless for many years owing to the apathy of
+the Spanish manufacturers, who were loth to use a finer, closer quality
+of silk, because it must be woven with greater care owing to its
+containing three ends instead of two, the work being greater on this
+account without a corresponding increase in the gain. It has also been
+found necessary to employ Frenchmen in the earliest trials made in Spain
+of this new method.
+
+"The success of the Spaniards should not be counted on, if we are to
+judge of it by a factory, which was founded some years since at _La
+Milanesa_, a league's distance from Valencia, by an intelligent man
+named La Payessa.[23]
+
+  [23] This man, Joseph Lapayese or La Payessa, did not initiate
+       Vaucanson's method in this region. He succeeded a Frenchman named
+       Reboul, who, in 1769, and holding privileges from the Crown, began
+       to work with Vaucanson wheels at Vilanesa, near Valencia--the same
+       place which Bourgoing calls _La Milanesa_. Both the king and his
+       minister of finance, Don Miguel de Muzquiz, were keenly interested
+       in these experiments, and Muzquiz, who owned an estate near the
+       town of Sueca, in the same neighbourhood, imported four more of
+       the new wheels there, under Reboul's direction. This craftsman,
+       however, was not successful. Lapayese, who came after him and
+       enjoyed the same Crown privileges, made considerably better
+       progress, his efforts being seconded by the Royal Junta, the
+       archbishop, and other bodies or individuals of Valencia, who
+       awarded prizes of wheels and money to the best workers in the new
+       style.
+
+"He introduced the method of Vaucanson, but when I went to see his
+factory he had not seen his way to recover the money which this
+improvement had cost him. He employed barely two hundred persons for the
+most important work; nothing more was done than to spin the silk, divide
+it, and convert it into organzine. Thus treated, it cost from fifty to
+sixty _reales_ more per pound than that which is prepared according to
+the Spanish method, so that its success was but small.
+
+"I shall not describe in detail either the method of dyeing the silk, or
+that of weaving it. The first of these operations is readily imagined;
+the second is hard to understand, and still more so to explain, unless
+one is assisted by engravings. I will merely observe that all silk is
+dyed in skeins, just before it enters the loom. If it be required
+occasionally to dye it after it is woven, this is only when the silk is
+spotted, or when the dyeing of the skeins has proved a failure. At the
+time of my visit to Valencia, there were a hundred and seventeen
+master-dyers in that city, but not all of them were working.
+
+"The stuffs in which the factories of Valencia are most successful are
+principally of the smooth sort; they also make there handsome damask
+_broch�s_ with large flowers for wall-hangings; but generally all that
+is undertaken is by order of the Court, Madrid, and the provinces. The
+Valencians follow as closely as possible the rapidity with which the
+French designs are changed, and those who profess to invent new ones are
+but copying the French ones in a greater or less degree.
+Notwithstanding, the Valencian Fine-Arts Academy is taking serious steps
+to form designers, and a school has been founded which has already
+developed able pupils--amongst others, a young man called Ferrers, who
+had died a short while before our arrival at the city, and some of whose
+designs of flowers we had occasion to admire.
+
+"But the process in which the Valencians particularly excel is that of
+watering stuffs, which M. Foz has rendered absolutely perfect. He gave
+us a clear account of this process, which consists in passing a cylinder
+over the stuff to be watered, this cylinder being pressed upon by a
+heavy mass moved to and fro by a mule which draws a lever round and
+round. The stuff is folded in the manner of a closed jalousie, and these
+folds require to be often varied so as to distribute the undulations
+evenly. M. Foz admitted that the shape and the arrangement of these
+undulations are more or less a matter of chance, but he proved to us
+that it is possible to influence them to some extent by moistening the
+stuff in a certain manner and direction, and this is the particular
+secret which he alone possesses in the whole of Spain. The excellence of
+this method is demonstrated by the beauty of the watered silk which
+issues from these presses. M. Foz himself set us to judge of this by
+asking us to compare the blue ribbon of the Order of Charles the Third,
+watered by himself, with those of the Order of the Holy Spirit. The
+comparison, I must admit, was far from advantageous to these last."
+
+The subsequent vicissitudes of the Valencian silk trade are indicated by
+Laborde, who wrote, some few years later than the conscientious and
+observant author of the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_:--
+
+"The mulberry-trees are of great importance; the fields of Valencia are
+covered with them, particularly in the environs of that town, in the
+dale of Elda, in the county of Carlet, in almost all the places situated
+on the sea coast, etc. There are white mulberry-trees, which are lopped
+every two years.
+
+"The leaves of these trees serve as nourishment to silkworms, which are
+raised almost everywhere in the kingdom of Valencia. Algemesi, Alcira,
+Carcagente, Castillo of San Felipe, the county of Carlet, Undasuar,
+Gandia, Denia, Orihuela, and all the villages near the sea are places
+which produce the greatest quantity.
+
+"The silk made from them is the finest in Spain. It would be equal to
+the best and finest silks of Europe, if the Valencians, in spite of the
+vivacity of their imagination, did not obstinately persist in their old
+routine in the skeining; for in the skein they put an undetermined
+number of threads. The government has hired a man who has the most
+experience in this kind of work; but in vain does he endeavour to
+instruct them, since the manufacturers continue their bad custom just
+the same. The quantity of silk wound annually is, on an average, about
+1,500,000 pounds of twelve Valencian ounces (1,312,500 pounds of sixteen
+ounces avoirdupois). It is commonly sold raw for fifty reals of vellon a
+Valencian pound, which gives a total of 75,000,000 reals of vellon
+(�731,250)....
+
+"Silk is twisted in different places in the kingdom of Valencia, for
+which purpose machines and mills are established at Gandia, San Felipe,
+Carcagente, Orihuela, and Valencia. The most important establishment of
+this kind is at La Milanesa, near the last mentioned town. Nevertheless,
+these machines are not able to furnish as much as the manufactures of
+the country require. Part of the silk is sent to Priego and Toledo in
+Andalusia, whence it is returned into the kingdom of Valencia to be
+worked....
+
+"A great many impediments are thrown in the way of the exportation of
+silk, which is only allowed for six months after the harvest. If in that
+period the national manufacturers want it, they are at liberty to take
+it from the merchants who have bought it, on reimbursing them the
+purchase-money together with six per cent. interest. The consequence is
+that the merchants, uncertain whether they will be allowed to export the
+silk which they have purchased, no longer take any foreign commissions
+for it, and so this branch of exportation has fallen. Besides this, a
+duty has been laid upon the silk sent out of the kingdom, of nine reals
+of vellon and one quartillo (1s. 11-1/4d. sterling) on every pound of
+twelve Valencian ounces, which is almost a fifth of its value. This is
+another obstacle to the exportation of it. A very small quantity,
+twisted and dyed, is sent into Portugal.
+
+"Generally 1,500,000 pounds of silk are made annually, of which
+1,100,000 are consumed in the province, and 400,000 pounds are exported
+to Talavera de la Reina, Reque�a, Toledo, Granada, Seville, Priego, and
+Catalu�a. From this results a product of 20,000,000 reals (�208,333,
+6s.)."
+
+Of the city of Valencia, Laborde wrote:--
+
+"The manufactories of silk are the most considerable. They employ nearly
+25,000 persons, and make taffetas, serges, silks, satins, plain damasks,
+striped, printed, of one colour and of mixed colours, full velvets,
+flowered velvets, plain and of various colours. The plain stuffs are
+those in which they succeed best. There are also fine damasks made and
+worked with large flowers."
+
+According to the same writer, the manufacture at Valencia of silk
+stockings, galloons, silk ribbon, handkerchiefs, and sashes revived to
+such an extent, that in the year 1799 the looms for producing these
+articles were 423 more than they had been in 1769. "There are 3618 silk
+looms, which work about 800,000 pounds of silk annually; the
+handkerchiefs, sashes, and other little articles of lace consume 100,000
+pounds."
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                   THE DAUGHTERS OF PHILIP THE SECOND
+                 (_By Sanchez Coello. Prado Gallery_)]
+
+Equally as instructive is Laborde's account of Barcelona.[24] After
+remarking that the decay in her manufactures lasted from the end
+of the sixteenth century till the middle of the eighteenth, he
+continues:--"They are at present in a very flourishing state, and are
+more numerous and varied than ever.... There are 524 looms of silk
+stuffs, and 2700 of ribbons and silk galloon. The silk works consist of
+taffetas, twilled and common silks, satins, and velvets of every kind
+and colour. These are mixed with gold and silver. Gold cloths and
+brocades are also made there.[25] The manufactures are not carried on by
+companies, but dispersed among the workmen themselves, by which perhaps
+the qualities may in some degree be injured. It is remarked that the
+stuffs would be better if they were closer, for their texture is
+commonly loose; they are also different in the gloss, which is seldom
+fine, and is never equal to that in the manufactures of France. Another
+fault in all these stuffs is the imperfect preparation of the silk,
+which leaves it nearly always shaggy: the cause of this is the silk
+being spun or twisted in an uneven manner. The same unpleasant effect is
+observed in the silk stockings. They cannot be fine, their stitches
+being uneven, and often large and shaggy. They do not last long, and are
+as dear as the French stockings after the duty on their entrance into
+Spain has been paid.
+
+  [24] The art of weaving silk appears to have found its way into
+       Barcelona comparatively late, for the veil-makers did not form a
+       guild of their own till A.D. 1553, the velvet-makers till 1548,
+       the silk-twisters till 1619, and the dyers of silk till 1624.
+
+  [25] Brocade (Spanish _brocado_ or _brocato_) may be generally described
+       as a silk-stuff woven with devices or raised figures in gold and
+       silver thread, or either of these metals separately (Plate viii.).
+       This costly fabric, which may be said to have superseded the
+       earlier kinds of cloth of gold, was greatly in vogue in older
+       Spain, especially throughout the fifteenth, sixteenth, and
+       seventeenth centuries. It is constantly referred to by her writers
+       ("No siendo nueva la que prohibe las telas de oro, los _brocados_,
+       y tabies."--Fernandez Navarrete; _Conservacion de Monarqu�as_,
+       p. 231), and denounced by her priests (Fray Luis de Le�n, "Y ha de
+       venir la tela de no s� donde, y _el brocado de mas altos_, y el
+       ambar que ba�e el guante"), or in the pragmatics of her kings
+       (_e.g._ that of September 2nd, 1494, and of 1611: "Est� prohibido
+       todo g�nero de colgaduras, tapicerias sillas, coches, y literas de
+       _brocados_, telas de oro � plata.... Asi mismo se prohiben
+       bordaduras en el campo de los doseles y camas; pero no en las
+       cenefas, que podr�n llevar alamares, y fluecos de oro, � plata,
+       � _brocado_").
+
+       Brocade was made in Spain at Toledo, Barcelona, Seville, Valencia
+       and elsewhere, but as a rule it could not be compared in quality
+       with that of Genoa or Venice. A cheaper, though showy and
+       attractive modification of brocade was brocatel, in which the silk
+       was mixed with common thread or flax. According to the Dictionary
+       of the Spanish Academy, this commoner fabric was used for hangings
+       for churches, halls, beds, etc., and a document of 1680 tells us
+       that the price of brocatel made at Granada, and containing two
+       colours, was twenty-two _reales_ the yard.
+
+"At Barcelona, laces, blonds, net-work, and tapes employ about twelve
+thousand persons. Galloons, laces, and gold and silver fringes, are
+likewise made here; but these are of no great importance. Silk, gold,
+and silver embroideries are very common, and the embroiderers are so
+numerous that they are to be found in every street.
+
+"_Silk Stuffs._--These are manufactured at Manresa, Cardona, and Matar�,
+which has forty-eight looms; but principally at Barcelona, where there
+are five hundred and twenty-four. There they make velvets, satins,
+damasks, silks, taffetas, and gold and silver stuffs. The town of
+Barcelona alone uses annually 300,000 pounds of raw silk.
+
+"_Taffetas, Handkerchiefs, and silk sashes._--They make a great quantity
+of these at Barcelona, where there are a good many little manufactories
+of this kind. There are a hundred and fifty looms at Reus, and six
+hundred at Manresa. At the last place sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs
+are made, which take about seventy thousand pounds of raw silk.
+
+"_Silk twisters._--There are some of these in several towns, and a great
+many in Barcelona. There are eighteen frames at Matar�, which twist, one
+year with another, one hundred and twenty-four quintals of silk; and
+thirty-seven at Tarragona, which twist eleven thousand quintals."
+
+Elsewhere in the course of his exhaustive tomes, Laborde sums up the
+general revival of the Spanish silk-trade in the following terms:--
+
+"Silk stockings are woven at M�laga, Zaragoza, Valencia, and at various
+other places in the kingdom of Valencia; at Valdemoro, and at Talavera
+de la Reina in New Castile; also in different parts of Catalu�a, more
+especially at Matar�, Arenys del Mar, and Barcelona. The most extensive
+manufacture is carried on at the latter city, where the number of frames
+amounts to nine hundred. In the city of Matar� are fifty-two, in
+Valencia one hundred and fifty, and nearly as many in Talavera. The
+stockings made in Spain are of a loose texture; owing to the improper
+method in which silk-throwsting is conducted, they are badly dressed and
+worse glossed. The Spanish people themselves prefer French stockings,
+and most of those manufactured in the country are exported to America.
+
+"Ribbons hold a distinguished place among the manufactured articles of
+Spain. Some few are woven at Jaen, Granada, and Cordova; but more at
+Talavera. Cadiz has but twenty ribbon-looms, Manresa five hundred,
+Matar� eighty, Vich twenty-two, Reque�a two hundred, Valencia four
+hundred, Murcia twelve hundred, and Barcelona nearly three thousand.
+These looms are not in factories, but individually dispersed. The
+Spanish ribbons are in general thin and flimsy, have little lustre, and
+their colours are neither brilliant nor permanent. Ribbons are made of
+floss-silk at Toledo, where there are about twelve looms, and at
+Manresa, where there is a greater number.[26]
+
+  [26] Towards the nineteenth century, ribbon was a great deal worn upon,
+       or together with, the regional costumes of the Spanish women; for
+       instance, on the gala bodice or _cotilla_ of the _hortelana_ of
+       Valencia, who further used it to make fast her _alpargatas_ or
+       sandals, described in the manuscript account attached to Pigal's
+       plates as "esp�ce de cothurnes, attach�s avec des rubans en soie
+       ou fil bleu ou rouge." The same fabric served the peasant woman
+       of Carthagena for securing the sleeves of her gala camisole, for
+       lacing the bodice of the woman of Iviza, and in the other Balearic
+       Islands, for tying the _rebocillo_ or _reboci�o_ beneath the chin.
+       Also it was with ribbon that the servant-girls of Granada suspended
+       a cross round their necks, that the _charra_ of Salamanca
+       (Plate ix.) trimmed her hat, that the women of Madrid, La Mancha,
+       and Andalusia bound up their knots of hair (_mo�os
+       con cinta_), and that, in some localities, even ladies of the
+       highest class secured their shoes about the lower leg and ankle.
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                      A _CHARRA_ OR PEASANT WOMAN
+                       (_Salamanca, A.D. 1777_)]
+
+"Silk taffetas, serges, and other articles, such as common and figured
+satins, damasks, and plain and flowered velvets, are made at Jaen,
+Granada, Murcia, Valencia, and the adjacent villages; at M�laga,
+Zaragoza, Toledo, Reque�a, Talavera de la Reina, Matar�, Manresa,
+Cardona, and Barcelona. The silk-trade of Jaen and Granada is at present
+in a very languishing state; the manufacture of Murcia is dwindled to a
+few individual looms. At Toledo are fifty looms, fifty at Matar�, forty
+at M�laga, six hundred at Reque�a, four hundred at Talavera, which
+consume annually two hundred thousand pounds of silk; five hundred at
+Barcelona, which annually manufacture, in conjunction with those of
+Cardona and Manresa, about three thousand pounds weight of silk; and in
+the city of Valencia are three thousand, whose annual demand of silk is
+eight hundred thousand pounds, while twenty-two thousand persons are
+employed in the trade. In Zaragoza are sixty looms, which consume fifty
+thousand pounds of silk; but taffetas only are manufactured there. The
+cities of Toledo and Talavera de la Reina are the only places where the
+looms are collected together in factories: in all other places they are
+separated, and are found individually at the houses of the respective
+weavers.
+
+"A great portion of the silks manufactured in Spain are stout and
+excellent, but they are destitute of the brilliancy observable in French
+silks. The damasks made at Valencia are extremely beautiful, and in that
+city they excel in the art of mixing silk and mohair, and produce mohair
+stuffs which appear to be superior to those of France and England.
+
+"Quantities of silk handkerchiefs and bands are manufactured at Reus,
+Manresa, and Barcelona. Reus had five hundred looms, Manresa six
+hundred, and annually made sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs;
+Barcelona, a much larger quantity.
+
+"At Barcelona is a very considerable manufacture of white, coloured,
+plain, and figured gauzes.
+
+"The art of silk-throwsting tends greatly to improve the silk
+manufactures in Spain. Machines invented in other countries have been
+adopted here, and in many places profitable changes and corrections have
+taken place in the trade. Silk is principally thrown at Priego, Toledo
+in Andalusia, at Murcia in the kingdom of the same name, at Cervera near
+Talavera de la Reina in New Castile, at Valencia, at Milanesa near that
+city, at Gandia, San Felipe, and Carcagente in the kingdom of Valencia.
+The silk-throwsters, who work at their own houses, and are paid in the
+great, that is, according to the quantity of work they perform, are very
+numerous in Murcia; but they perform the business there in a very
+slovenly way. In the city of Murcia a factory is established, where silk
+is thrown in an excellent manner by means of an ingenious machine, which
+has been already described. The establishment at La Milanesa is a very
+important one, and well administered. At Cervera are a dozen silk-mills,
+each having four large dividers, and six machines for doubling and
+twisting, by which seven thousand and seventy-two threads are divided,
+doubled, and twisted at the same time."
+
+
+                          CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS
+
+Although the history of Spanish cloths and woollens is not of great
+importance, I think it well to briefly sketch their history. Sails and
+other fabrics of the coarsest kind are said to have been made, almost in
+prehistoric times, at S�tabi (the modern J�tiva) and at Saguntum
+(Murviedro). From the thirteenth century cloths of good quality were
+made at Barcelona, Lerida, San Daniel, Ba�olas, Valls, and other towns
+of Catalu�a. A privilege of Alfonso the Learned, dated May 18th, 1283,
+contains the following technical disposition relative to the cloth-looms
+of the city of Soria: "Que la trenza cuando sea ordida que haya 88
+varas, que pese una aranzada � 5 libras de estambre; � cualquier que la
+fallare menor, que peche 5 sueldos. Que todos los tejedores � tejedoras
+de la dicha cibdad � de su tierra, que pongan en las telas de lino 42
+linnuelos � en las de estopazo 32 linnuelos; � en las de marga � de
+sayal 32 linnuelos."
+
+Segovia was another ancient centre of this manufacture, which Larruga
+considers to have been transferred hither upon the extinction of the
+factories of Cameros, Burgos, and Palencia. However this may be, the
+_fuero_ of Sep�lveda, signed by Alfonso the Sixth, tells us that
+clothworks existed here as early as the eleventh century. Towards the
+end of the fourteenth, when Catherine of Lancaster was married to the
+Infante Don Enrique, the English princess brought over, as part of her
+dowry, a flock of merino sheep. These are believed to have pastured near
+Segovia--a city where Catherine made her home for many years. In any
+case, Segovian cloths improved considerably from about this time, and by
+the reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second, when thirty-four
+thousand persons were employed in the manufacture and twenty-five
+thousand pieces of cloth were produced annually, were thought
+(especially the baizes and the serges) to be unsurpassed in Europe.[27]
+Sovereigns, including Charles the Second and Charles the Fifth of Spain,
+and Henry the Eighth of England, were among the patrons of these
+fabrics, while as late as the year 1700 the Franciscan friars engaged in
+redeeming captives from the Turks, reported that "at Constantinople,
+whither they had carried Segovian cloths as presents to the principal
+rulers of that country, those cloths were spoken of in terms of high
+approval."
+
+  [27] Colmenares, who wrote a history of Segovia down to the reign of
+       Philip the Second, says that in his time the clothmakers of this
+       town were "true fathers of families, who within and without their
+       houses sustain a multitude of persons (in many cases two and three
+       hundred), producing, with the aid of other people's hands, a great
+       variety of finest cloth: an employment worthy to be ranked with
+       agriculture, and that is of the utmost profit to any city, or to
+       any kingdom."
+
+Early in the seventeenth century, and owing to a series of causes such
+as impertinent or improvident legislation, heavy taxes, and the
+importation of foreign cloths, the trade showed symptoms of decay.[28]
+Bertaut de Rouen wrote in 1659, referring to the Spanish character at
+this time: "Bien souvent le pain leur manque, comme j'ay veu dans
+_Almagro_, petite ville situ�e dans le meilleur pays d'Andalousie, et
+dans _Segovie_, qui est une des grandes villes d'Espagne, et o� il y
+avoit autrefois des plus riches marchands � cause des draps et des
+chapeaux que l'on y faisoit, qui a est� longtemps le sejour des Roys de
+Castille, et qui n'est qu'environ � douze ou quatorze lieu�s de Madrid,
+o� il n'y avoit point de pain dans toute la ville le jour que j'y
+arrivay, et il n'y en eut qu'� quatre heures apr�s midy, que l'on le
+distribua par ordre du _Corregidor_, aussi bien qu'� Almagro."
+
+  [28] An amusing passage in Fernandez Navarrete's _Conservaci�n de
+       Monarqu�as_ (A.D. 1626) tells us that most of the costlier
+       dress-materials used in Spain about this time proceeded from
+       abroad, and that they were "of so fine a texture that the heat of
+       an iron scorches them and wears them out in a couple of days;
+       while a great number of men employ themselves in the effeminate
+       office of dressing collars, who, ceasing also to be men, forsake
+       the plough or warlike exercises; for it is certain that when the
+       Spaniards kept the world in awe, this land produced a greater
+       number of armourers, and less persons who busied themselves with
+       looking after womanish apparel" (p. 232).
+
+The rise, decay, and subsequent revival of the Spanish cloth industries,
+and particularly the Segovian, are well described by Laborde, Bourgoing,
+and Townsend. According to the first of these authorities, "at so early
+a period as 1629 the merchants (of Segovia) complained that there was
+every year a reduction in the fabrication of cloth, to the amount of
+five thousand five hundred pieces; and that there resulted from this
+deficiency an annual loss of 2,424,818 ducats and 2 reals, or about
+�274,000 sterling. In the eighteenth century it appeared, from the
+observations of the Economical Society, that the fabrication of stuffs
+and cloths employed but one hundred and twenty looms, in which only four
+thousand three hundred and eighteen quintals of washed wool were
+consumed.
+
+"About forty years ago these manufactures began to revive, the looms
+were multiplied, and the consumption of wool considerably augmented. A
+single individual, Don Lorenzo Ortiz, has for some years accelerated
+their progress. In 1790 there was an addition of sixty-three looms,
+which employed eight or nine hundred quintals of wool, and afforded
+occupation to two thousand four hundred manufacturers."
+
+The same author wrote that early in the nineteenth century, "the woollen
+manufactures of New Castile are the most numerous and important. Cloths
+are made at Toledo, Chinchon, Brihuega, Guadalajara; serges, stuffs, and
+flannels at Toledo and Cuenca. The cloths of Brihuega are of an
+excellent quality, but those of Guadalajara are still superior to them;
+in particular, the cloth of Vigonia. There are twenty-eight looms at
+Toledo, forty at Guasmenia, a hundred at Brihuega, and six hundred and
+fifty-six at Guadalajara."
+
+Bourgoing wrote, a dozen years or so before the close of the eighteenth
+century: "Spanish wool is eagerly demanded by manufacturing peoples of
+the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, it is not turned to so much advantage
+as it might be. French, Dutch, and English come to Spain to purchase the
+wools of Segovia and Le�n at the ports of Bilbao and Santander.[29] Not
+even so much as the commission on their sale is left in power of the
+Spaniards, for the foreigners buy up the wool straight from the
+shepherd, and wash it on their own account. Out of one million of
+_arrobas_[30] of fine wool which Spain produces annually, she exports
+more than half in washed wool, and a lesser quantity, by far, of
+unwashed. It has been estimated that the export duties on this wool and
+which it has not been hitherto thought prudent to curtail, produce a sum
+of close upon five millions for the King of Spain. Here, therefore, is
+another reason for not suppressing the 'abusive measure' of which the
+patriotic Spaniards complain so loudly; since it is far from easy to do
+away with so appreciable a source of revenue unless one has at hand a
+swift and sure alternative measure by which it may be substituted. All
+the same, government is endeavouring to derive a greater fiscal profit
+from the exportation of these wools, and at the same time to bring about
+a greater use of them in the Peninsula. For a long time past, all kinds
+of common woollen fabrics, such as clothing for the soldiery and lower
+classes, have been made in Spain. The exportation of these fabrics is
+prohibited. As for the finer wools, these also are employed in several
+places, but more than anywhere else at Guadalajara, where I visited the
+factories towards the end of the year 1783. I was surprised to remark
+that in several respects the manufacture had reached a great pitch of
+perfection. I say _I was surprised_, because I had heard, times without
+number, that the Spaniards were completely ignorant of these processes,
+and did not know how to card, or spin, or weave, or dye, or full, or
+calender; that their stuffs grew loose and wore badly; that the price
+was exorbitant, etc. How many prejudices of this nature was I able to
+throw aside after fair and deliberate examination of the stuffs in
+question! I will only quote a single point to prove that the censures
+which are aimed at the Spaniards respecting the quality of their cloths
+are not applicable to them all, and that they are well upon the road to
+being entirely undeserving of them. I was shown at Guadalajara a piece
+of scarlet cloth, which, both for its excellent quality and for its
+skilful dyeing, seemed to me to be quite comparable with the best cloths
+of Julienne. These latter cost at their place of manufacture as much as
+thirty-nine _livres_ the ell. At Guadalajara, I noted from the tariff
+established in the factory, that the price of the finest scarlet cloth
+was only from thirty-one to thirty-two _livres_ the ell. Comparing these
+and other figures on the tariff, I came to the conclusion that there was
+about the same difference in price between Spanish cloths and French
+cloths, in favour of the former. What seems more singular still is that
+the factories which work at the King's expense are generally
+administered in a thriftless fashion, and that the factory of
+Guadalajara was being greatly mismanaged at the time in question.
+However, subsequently to my visit, changes for the better have been
+introduced, which will improve the quality of, as well as cheapen, its
+products, though, even when I saw it, this factory was one of the most
+perfect to be seen anywhere. Within a space by no means large, it
+contained all the machines and apparatus required for clothmaking,
+except the thin, polished pasteboards which are placed between the
+folds of a piece of cloth as it is passed through the press. These were
+still brought from England; but everything else was prepared upon the
+spot, even to the large scissors used in the shearing. There were eighty
+looms for the finest cloths, whose proper name is _cloths of San
+Fernando_, from the town where they were first produced; a hundred for
+cloths of the second quality; and five hundred and six for making
+serges, in which, in course of time, hopes are entertained of excelling
+those of England.[31] All these looms were contained in two buildings,
+and kept employed three thousand eight hundred and twenty-five persons,
+all of them paid by the King,[32] without counting some forty thousand
+more dispersed all over the Castilian and Manchegan tableland, engaged
+in spinning the wool which is made up into stuffs at Guadalajara. It
+would be difficult, I am sure, to find a factory better organized. Even
+the town in which it is, presents a striking contrast with others of
+that neighbourhood. I did not see one single mendicant or idler among
+all its fifteen or sixteen thousand inhabitants. Such are the good
+results of its manufactures, and, above all, those of cloth, including
+many small and detailed processes which women, children, aged people, or
+even the sick are able to perform. Here, where Nature seemed to have
+condemned these ailing folk to a tedious and useless existence, art, as
+it were, steps in and finds employment and relief for them.
+Nevertheless, it must be owned that the Spaniards (as they themselves
+admit) are still a little behindhand in the method of dyeing and
+fulling their cloths, though when a people possess (as they) the raw
+materials needed, both for making and for dyeing, a few men skilled in
+these processes are all that is wanted to perfect several branches of
+this industry; especially when, as is the case in Spain, government
+spares no effort to achieve this end. Guadalajara is further the only
+place in Spain which produces the celebrated Vicu�a cloth; an admirable
+fabric for which the rest of the world has cause to envy Spanish
+America.[33] As the use of this cloth has not as yet become general, it
+is not continually manufactured, nor is it easy to obtain a few ells of
+it without ordering them several months in advance. This stuff is also
+manufactured for the King of Spain, who makes presents of it to various
+other monarchs. In the year 1782, after concluding a treaty with the
+Porte, he sent twenty pieces of it to the Sultan of Turkey. They gave
+great satisfaction. It has been imagined from this circumstance that
+Spain would not be loth to supply the Turkish market with her cloths;
+and other of the manufacturing nations have felt some measure of alarm,
+perhaps unnecessarily. The Spanish government has too much sense to
+enter upon such a competition with other peoples as long as Spain does
+not supply the whole of the two and twenty million citizens who live
+beneath her rule. The same government, too, is well aware how remote is
+this degree of prosperity. The clothworks of Guadalajara have a kind of
+branch factory at Brihuega, four leagues distant. At Brihuega there are
+a hundred looms, all used for making fabrics of the finest quality.
+
+  [29] This recalls the statement made, centuries before, by Alonso de
+       Cartagena at the Council of B�le: "And if the English should vaunt
+       the cunning of their cloth-makers, then would I tell them somewhat;
+       for if our country lack the weavers to make a cloth so delicate as
+       the scarlet cloths of London, yet is that substance titled _grana_
+       (the kermes, or scarlet grain), from which the scarlet cloth
+       receives its pleasantness of smell and brilliancy of hue, raised
+       in the kingdom of Castile, and thence conveyed to England, and
+       even to Italy."--Larruga, _Memorias_, Vol. XIV., p. 167.
+
+  [30] "The weight of an _arroba_ is twenty-seven pounds. The average
+       price is from twenty-three to twenty-seven _livres_ the _arroba_
+       of unwashed wool of the best quality, which pays five _livres_ ten
+       _sols_ of export duty. The _arroba_ of washed wool pays double."
+
+  [31] "It has been calculated that Spain, about this time, paid annually
+       to England two million pounds sterling per annum, solely on account
+       of her woollens."
+
+  [32] "His Majesty maintained this factory by a monthly payment from his
+       treasury of one hundred and fifty thousand _livres_; an exorbitant
+       amount, which very possibly would not be covered by the sales of
+       cloth."
+
+       Townsend wrote in 1787 "Royal manufactures and monopolies have a
+       baneful influence on population: for, as no private adventurers
+       can stand the competition with their sovereign, where he is the
+       great monopolist, trade will never prosper. The Spanish monarch is
+       a manufacturer of
+
+            Broad cloth, at Guadalajara and Brihuega;
+            China, at the palace of the Buen Retiro;
+            Cards, at Madrid and M�laga;
+            Glass, at San Ildefonso;
+            Paper, in Segovia;
+            Pottery, at Talavera;
+            Saltpetre, at Madrid and various other places;
+            Stockings, at Valdemoro;
+            Swords, at Toledo;
+            Tapestry, at Madrid;
+            Tissue, at Talavera.
+
+       He has the monopoly of brandy, cards, gunpowder, lead, quicksilver,
+       sealing-wax, salts, sulphur, and tobacco."--(_Journey through
+       Spain_, Vol. II., p. 240.)
+
+  [33] "It is made from wools of Buenos Aires and Peru. The wool of the
+       former of these regions is the longer, but the Peruvian is the more
+       silky."
+
+"Segovia, famous at all periods for the excellence of her wool, was
+formerly not less so for the number and perfection of her clothworks.
+Now, every patriotic Spaniard must lament to see how she has fallen. In
+the year 1785 the number of her looms did not exceed two hundred and
+fifty. The most important factory was that of Ortiz, founded in 1779
+under the title of _Real F�brica_: the King possessed an interest in it.
+In 1785 Ortiz was still employing three thousand workers in and about
+Segovia, and manufactured every quality of cloth in sixty-three looms,
+from the pieces which contained the two thousand threads prescribed by
+the _Ordenanzas_, to those which should contain four thousand. His
+energy was only hampered by the indolent character of the Segovians. The
+privileges wherewith the government has sought to stimulate his first
+experiments in this craft are not at all injurious to the other
+manufacturers. They all concur to sell their goods, and at a reasonable
+price. In September of 1785, the most expensive cloths cost only ninety
+reals the _vara_; that is to say, about thirty-one _livres_ and ten
+_sols_ the ell."
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                         PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH
+       (_Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+Townsend wrote, precisely at the same time as Bourgoing: "Segovia was
+once famous for its cloth, made on the King's account; but other nations
+have since become rivals in this branch, and the manufacture in this
+city has been gradually declining. When the King gave it up to a private
+company, he left about three thousand pounds in trade; but now he is no
+longer a partner in the business.[34] In the year 1612 were made here
+twenty-five thousand five hundred pieces of cloth, which consumed
+forty-four thousand six hundred and twenty-five quintals of wool, and
+employed thirty-four thousand one hundred and eighty-nine persons; but
+at present they make only about four thousand pieces. The principal
+imperfections of this cloth are, that the thread is not even, and that
+much grease remains in it when it is delivered to the dyer; in
+consequence of which the colour is apt to fail. Yet, independently of
+imperfections, so many are the disadvantages under which the manufacture
+labours, that foreigners can afford to pay three pounds for the _arroba_
+of fine wool, for which the Spaniard gives no more than twenty
+shillings, and after all his charges can command the market even in the
+ports of Spain.
+
+"In the year 1525, the city contained five thousand families, but now
+they do not surpass two thousand--a scanty population this for
+twenty-five parishes; yet, besides the twenty-five churches, together
+with the cathedral, they have one and twenty convents. When the canal is
+finished, and the communication opened to the Bay of Biscay at
+Santander, the trade and manufactures of Segovia may revive; but,
+previous to that event, there can be nothing to inspire them with hope."
+
+  [34] A report presented by the Council of Commerce to the Marquis of la
+       Ensenada, put forward, in 1744, the absurd pretence that the king
+       of Spain maintained his factories "not for any State convenience
+       or _ad lucrum captandum_, but in order to augment our own products,
+       and diminish those which are imported from abroad."--Larruga's
+       _Memorias_, Vol. XV., pp. 70 and 247. Also see the conference
+       delivered by the Count of Torre�naz in 1886, in the Royal Spanish
+       Academy of Moral and Political Science; p. 27, note.
+
+       Several of the Spanish Crown factories were finally taken over by
+       the association--immensely wealthy at one period--known as the Five
+       Chief Gremios of Madrid (_Los Cinco Gremios Mayores de la Villa de
+       Madrid_), and it is clear that the investment of a large amount of
+       capital, subscribed by many shareholders, would of itself be
+       calculated to destroy the narrow ideals and what I may term the
+       individually greedy spirit which hitherto had ruled within the
+       craftsman's private family. Private interests, in short, were
+       superseded by the larger interests of a powerful company. That
+       which I have mentioned was composed of the five _gremios_ of the
+       capital of Spain which subscribed the largest sums in taxes to the
+       national exchequer; namely, the drapers, haberdashers, spicers and
+       druggists, jewellers, cloth-merchants, and linen-drapers. For many
+       years this association administered, on government's behalf, the
+       _alcabalas_, _tercias_, and _cientos_ of the town and district of
+       Madrid, and subsequently (A.D. 1745) the _millones_ tax, together
+       with other important dues, and ultimately, as I have stated, took
+       over, on a liberal scale of purchase, the royal cloth and silk
+       factories of Talavera de la Reina (A.D. 1785), San Fernando,
+       Guadalajara, Brihuega, Ezcaray, and Cuenca. The decay and downfall
+       of the company was due to gross mismanagement, and indeed, the
+       idiosyncrasies of the Spanish character render this people, even
+       at the present day, but little fitted to embark upon commercial
+       schemes requiring competent directors, heavy capital, and confident
+       assistance, moral and material, from a large body of investors.
+       Spaniards, as I have insisted elsewhere, do not pull well together;
+       and so, early in the nineteenth century, the association of the
+       five great _gremios_, which had possessed at one time many millions
+       of _pesetas_, suspended payment of all dividends. It is fair to
+       add, however, that this collapse was partly owing to the wars
+       between France and Spain.
+
+Swinburne had written of the same city ten years earlier (1776): "The
+inhabitants do not appear much the richer for their cloth manufactory.
+Indeed, it is not in a very flourishing condition; but what cloth they
+make is very fine."
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                         PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH
+       (_Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+The Ordinances of Granada (A.D. 1532), from which we learn that cloth
+was also manufactured at that capital, contain the usual dispositions
+relative to the stamping of this product by the city officers. The
+stamps were in a box which was kept in a corner of the cathedral and
+closed by two keys, guarded severally by a councillor and an inspector
+of the trade, or _veedor_. On every day except a public festival,
+between the hours of ten and eleven of the morning, and three and four
+of the afternoon, it was the duty of these two authorities to proceed to
+the Alcaicer�a, and ascertain if any cloth required stamping. If so, the
+stamps were fetched forthwith from the cathedral, the cloth was marked,
+and the stamps were solemnly restored to their chest beneath the double
+key.
+
+Among the woven fabrics other than those of silk, and which are
+specified in the Ordinances of Granada relative to the _tundidores_ or
+shearers, are cloths of Florence, Flanders, London, Valencia, Zaragoza,
+Onteniente, Segovia, and Perpignan; _velarte_ (a fine cloth manufactured
+at Granada), red _burel_ (kersey) of Baeza, black kersey of Villanueva
+and La Mancha, _ruan_ (Roan linen), fustians, friezes, and _cordellate_
+(grogram) of Granada, Valencia, Toledo, Segovia, and Cuenca. According
+to Capmany, cloths of the commoner kind, and which were popular about
+this time, were the _granas treintenas_ and black cloths of Valencia,
+the white or yellow _veintiseiseno_ cloths of Toledo, the white cloths
+of Ciudad Real, the green _palmillas_ of Cuenca, and green
+_dieciochenos_ of Segovia, the _contrayes_ of Cazalla, and the
+_pardillos_ of Aragon. Spanish cloth was also manufactured at Vergara,
+Cordova, Jaen, Murcia, Palencia, Tavira de Durango, and Medina del
+Campo.
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                          EMBROIDERED CHASUBLE
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Laborde says: "In the archives of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile there
+is a notice of the duties paid from the thirteenth to the end of the
+seventeenth century for foreign cloths sold in Spain, and for other
+articles of consumption coming from abroad. The principal cloths came
+from Bruges, Montpellier, and London; the velvets from Malines,
+Courtrai, Ypres, and Florence. This trade became so injurious to Spain,
+that Ferdinand and Isabella thought themselves bound to limit it
+entirely to the stuffs required for ornaments of the church, which of
+itself was a considerable quantity. Their prohibition is the subject of
+the rescript of September 2nd, 1494, for the provinces of the Crown of
+Castile. Even so far back as the Ordinances of Barcelona in 1271,
+mention is made of the taxes levied on the cloths of Flanders, Arras,
+Lannoy, Paris, Saint Denis, Chalons, Beziers, and Reims."[35]
+
+  [35] In the reign of Francis the First, the importation of Catalan cloth
+       into France was prohibited altogether.--Levasseur, _Histoire des
+       classes ouvri�res en France_, Vol. II., p. 73.
+
+       Among the various cloths (exclusively or chiefly of the less
+       expensive kinds) which were manufactured in the capital and country
+       of Catalu�a, we read of those of pure scarlet, scarlet tinted with
+       light or dark purple, ash-coloured, carmine, and rose; of cloth of
+       combed wool, _medias lanas_ (half-woollens), serges, and _cadinas_
+       or _banyolenchs_. But before the close of the fifteenth century
+       the production of these fabrics had suffered a serious decline
+       caused by the tactless government of Ferdinand the Catholic, and
+       above all, by the introduction of the Inquisition into Barcelona.
+       A privilege of Ferdinand, granted on November 4th, 1493, to the
+       Barcelonese clothmakers, admits that this was the foremost and
+       most useful local manufacture ("no y ha altre art ni offici que mes
+       util done"), adding, however, that it had fallen into a state of
+       sad prostration "owing to the indisposition of these times."
+       (Capmany, _Memorias_, Vol. II., _Doc._ ccxliv).
+
+       This was undoubtedly the case; for in a report of the city council
+       drawn up in 1491, it is stated that good cloth can only be
+       manufactured from good wool, but that this had now become a
+       difficult matter at Barcelona, because the clothmakers were without
+       the money to purchase such wool. In consequence, they appealed to
+       the city (then even more resourceless than themselves) to help
+       them.
+
+       Although it has become fashionable in some quarters to deny that
+       the Inquisition contributed in a sensible degree to the decline of
+       Spanish arts and industries, the following passage, quoted from the
+       municipal archives of Barcelona, places the fact beyond all
+       argument as far as this locality is concerned. The city councillors
+       declared in 1492 that "by reason of the Inquisition established in
+       this city, many evils have befallen our commerce, together with the
+       depopulation of the said city, and much other and irreparable
+       damage to her welfare; and as much more harm will occur in the
+       future, unless a remedy be applied, wherefore the said councillors
+       entreat of the king's majesty that of his wonted clemency he order
+       the said Inquisition to cease; or else that he repair the matter in
+       such wise that _the merchants who departed because of the
+       Inquisition_ may return, and continue in the service of their God,
+       their king, and of the general welfare of the city aforesaid."
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+           EMBROIDERED _MANGA_ OR CASE OF PROCESSIONAL CROSS
+               (_Early 16th Century; Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+In 1809 the same author remarked: "The kingdom of Valencia produces
+little wool, yet there are five manufactories of woollens and coarse and
+fine cloths: they are at Morella, Enguera, Bocairente, Onteniente, and
+Alcoy. The small woollen stuffs are principally made at Enguera; nothing
+but the coarsest cloths are made at Morella, Bocairente, and Onteniente.
+The manufactory at Alcoy is the most considerable: the cloths, though
+finer, are generally of an inferior quality. The woof of them is thick,
+with little nap upon it. The finest are scarcely superior to the
+beautiful cloths of Carcassonne."
+
+
+                               EMBROIDERY
+
+The art of embroidering, and especially of embroidering with the aid of
+gold and silver thread, was communicated to the Spaniards by the Spanish
+Moors, who doubtless had derived it from the East. By about the
+thirteenth century, the needle of the Spanish embroiderer had become, in
+the picturesque phrase of one of his compatriots, "a veritable painter's
+brush, describing facile outlines on luxurious fabrics, and filling in
+the spaces, sometimes with brilliant hues, or sometimes with harmonious,
+softly-graduated tones which imitate the entire colour-scheme of
+Nature." Nevertheless, it was not until the fifteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries that this art attained, in the Peninsula, its topmost summit
+of perfection.
+
+It is not at all surprising that embroidery should have made great
+progress among a people so devoted to the outward and spectacular forms
+of worship as the Spaniards; nor have the chasubles, copes, and other
+vestments of the Spanish prelacy and priesthood ever been surpassed for
+costly splendour[36] (Plates x., xi., xii.). But generally where the
+Spanish embroiderer excelled was in the mere manipulation of the needle.
+In fertility of design he was far outdistanced by the Germans and
+Italians, and was even to a large extent their imitator; for Spanish
+embroidery, as occurred with Spanish painting, was influenced, almost to
+an overwhelming degree, firstly by northern art, and subsequently by the
+art of the Renaissance.
+
+  [36] The cathedrals of Toledo and Palencia are particularly rich in
+       sets of magnificently embroidered vestments. "Each set," says
+       Ria�o, "generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, altar
+       frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces.
+       The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of
+       saints, are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MSS."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT]
+
+These tendencies or characteristics will be found in nearly all the
+masterpieces of Spanish embroidery that have been preserved until
+to-day, of which perhaps the most remarkable specimens are the _manga_
+or case of the great processional cross presented by Cardinal Cisneros
+to Toledo cathedral, and the "_Tanto Monta_" embroidered tapestry
+belonging to the same temple. The _manga grande_, known as that of the
+Corpus (Plate xiii.), is in the Gothic style, with reminiscences of
+German art, and consists of the following four scenes arranged in panels
+thirty-seven inches high, and hung successively about the handle of the
+cross:--
+
+  (1) The Ascension of the Virgin Mary, who is supported by six angels.
+
+  (2) The Adoration of the Magi.
+
+  (3) San Ildefonso in the act of cutting off a piece of the veil of
+      Santa Leocadia, patron of Toledo.
+
+  (4) The Martyrdom of San Eugenio, another patron of the city of Toledo.
+
+The ground of this elaborate "sleeve" is a fabric of rich silk, on which
+the embroidery is worked in gold and silver thread and coloured silks,
+principally blue and red, combined in delicate, harmonious tones. The
+figures are outlined with fine gold cord, which forms a kind of frame or
+fencing to confine the stretches of smooth silk. The careful copying of
+architectural detail is stated by Serrano Fatigati to be strongly
+characteristic of Spanish industrial art in the fourteenth, fifteenth,
+and even sixteenth centuries. The same writer considers that this
+"sleeve" was executed towards the year 1514, when embroiderers of great
+renown, such as Alonso Hern�ndez, Juan de Talavera, Martin Ruiz,
+Hernando de la Rica, Pedro de Burgos, and Marcos de Covarrubias were
+engaged on similar work in the venerable city of the Tagus. Two out of
+the four panels, says Serrano Fatigati, may possibly be from the hand of
+Covarrubias, who was a famous craftsman of his time, and held the post
+of master-embroiderer in Toledo cathedral. In any case, the four panels
+are evidently not all by the same artist, nor do they appear to have
+been executed at precisely the same period.
+
+                           [Illustration: XV
+       EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT, WITH THE ARMS OF CARDINAL MENDOZA
+                  (_15th Century. Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+The gorgeous embroidered tapestry which also belongs to this cathedral
+(where it serves as a hanging or _colgadura_ for the altar on the day of
+Corpus Christi), and which is known as the "Tanto Monta" _tapiz_, is
+stated by some authorities to have been the _dosel_ or bed canopy of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, and to have been purchased, in the year 1517,
+for 900,000 _maravedis_ by Alonso Fern�ndez de Tendilla, steward of
+those sovereigns. Ria�o gives the following account of the same
+object:--
+
+"As a fine specimen of embroidery on a large scale, must be mentioned
+the _dosel_ or canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabella, which
+was used in the reception of the English envoys, Thomas Salvaige and
+Richard Nanfan, who were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage
+of Prince Henry with the Infanta Do�a Catalina." The ambassadors
+describe it in the following manner: "After the tilting was over, the
+kings returned to the palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and
+entered a large room; and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of
+rich crimson velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and
+Aragon, and covered with the device of the King which is a ... (blank
+in original),[37] and his motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto
+Monta.'" ("Memorials of King Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, London, 1858,
+p. 348).
+
+  [37] The device of Ferdinand the Catholic was a yoke; the sheaf of
+       arrows, that of Isabella. (See Vol. II., p. 147, etc.).
+
+Ria�o also describes the mantle of the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo.
+"It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most
+effective ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of
+the seventeenth century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who
+presented it to the church." Se�or Parro, in his exhaustive work _Toledo
+en la Mano_ (Vol. I., p. 574), gives the following account of it: "It is
+made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is
+entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a
+jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side,
+of enamelled gold, emeralds, and large rubies. A variety of other jewels
+are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the
+arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires
+and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and
+pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the
+borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which are employed in
+this superb work of art, no less than two hundred and fifty-seven ounces
+of pearls of different sizes were used, three hundred ounces of gold
+thread, a hundred and sixty ounces of small pieces of enamelled gold,
+and eight ounces of emeralds."
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+As in other countries, embroidery in Spain was executed in the bygone
+time, both by paid embroiderers, and as a domestic occupation by the
+ladies of the aristocracy. The work of the professional embroiderer
+consisted principally of paraments or altar-fronts (Plates xiv., xv.,
+xvi., xvii.), and ecclesiastical vestments. Among the former of this
+class of objects, nothing is finer than the _frontal_ of the Chapel of
+Saint George in the Audiencia of Barcelona. It is believed to have been
+wrought by Antonio Sadurni, a Catalan embroiderer who flourished in the
+middle of the fifteenth century. The scene represented is the combat
+between Saint George (patron of Catalu�a) and the dragon. The saint has
+rescued a damsel from the monster's claws, and her parents are looking
+on from a _mirador_ of their palace. This central episode is surrounded
+with borders and arabesques of extraordinary richness.
+
+Ria�o gives a list, compiled from Cean, Martinez, Suarez de Figueroa,
+and other authors, of forty-seven Spanish embroiderers of the fifteenth,
+sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. More recently, Ram�rez
+de Arellano has discovered, among the municipal archives of Cordova, the
+names of sixteen others, who resided at that city towards, or early in,
+the seventeenth century. The craftsmen in question were Diego de
+Aguilar, Juan Bautista, Bernardo Carrillo, Luis Carrillo de Quijana,
+Andr�s Fern�ndez de Montemayor, Hern�n G�mez del R�o, Diego Fabi�n de
+Herrera, Diego del Hierro, Diego L�pez de Herrera, Diego L�pez de
+Valenzuela, Antonio de Morales, Gonzalo de Oca�a, Mateo Sanguino, Manuel
+Torralbo, Crist�bal de Valenzuela, and Martin de la Vega.
+
+Documents in the same archive contain additional particulars respecting
+two or three of these artificers. Thus, on February 10th, 1607, Hern�n
+G�mez del R�o engaged himself to embroider for the convent of the
+Trinity at Cordova, "a bordering for a chasuble and four _faldones_ for
+dalmatics, with their collars and _sabastros_ and _bocas mangas_. The
+said _bocas mangas_ to be four in number, and the collars two; also the
+_collaretes_ which may be necessary for the two dalmatics, and which I
+am to embroider in silk and gold upon white satin. The _collaretes_ also
+to be embroidered by me in silk and gold to match a bordering of white
+satin for a cloak in possession of the said convent." Further, the
+convent was to supply the artist with the quantity of white satin
+required, and pay him two hundred and ten ducats, secured by certain of
+the convent's revenues, for the gold, the silk, and the workmanship.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVII
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONTS
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Manuel Torralbo contracted to embroider a velvet altar-front and its
+corresponding _fronteleras_ for the parish church of Luque, at a price
+of three hundred _reales_; and Crist�bal de Valenzuela (on September
+25th, 1604) to embroider two frontals for the altar of the church of
+Obejo. One of them was to be of purple velvet worked in gold, and the
+other of "black velvet, with borders and _caidas_ embroidered in yellow
+satin and white satin, with skulls and bones embroidered in gold."[38]
+
+  [38] The skull and crossbones were a favourite design upon these
+       objects. The Church of the Escorial possesses four paraments so
+       decorated, which were shown, in 1878, at the Parisian Exhibition
+       of Retrospective Art.
+
+Turning our attention to the embroidery which was executed, principally
+as a recreation, by highborn Spanish ladies of some centuries ago, the
+romance of _El Compte Arnau_, quoted by Miquel y Bad�a and written in
+Catalan and Proven�al, contains the following lines:--
+
+             "� Ahout teniu las vostras fillas--muller leal?
+              � Ahout teniu las vostras fillas--viudeta igual?
+                A la cambra son que _brodan_--Compte l'Arnau
+                A la cambra son que _brodan_--seda y estam."
+
+Isabella the Catholic presented to the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of
+Granada an ecclesiastical robe embroidered by her own hands for the
+festival of Corpus Christi. The material was black satin brocade, with a
+fringe of white silk, and the letters IHS in white damask.[39]
+
+  [39] G�mez Moreno; _Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del bordado
+       de imagineria en Granada_ (_El Liceo de Granada_; 6th year,
+       No. 18).
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+                      WIFE OF WELL-TO-DO MERCHANT
+             (_Palma, Balearic Islands. About A.D. 1810_)]
+
+The same usage continued in the seventeenth century. Countess d'Aulnoy
+says: "Young ladies of great beauty and of noble blood engage themselves
+to wait on ladies of the aristocracy, and spend most of their time
+embroidering the collars and sleeves of shirts in gold, silver, and
+coloured silk, although, if they be suffered to follow their liking,
+they work but little, and gossip a great deal." The same writer refers
+repeatedly to the sumptuous embroideries in use among the upper classes
+of the Spaniards of that time. Thus, the bed-pillows of the Princess of
+Montele�n were embroidered with gold. The sleeves of the coat of Charles
+the Second were of white silk, very large, opening towards the wrist,
+and embroidered with blue silk and jet, the rest of his costume being
+embroidered in white and blue silk. In the palace of the same monarch,
+the da�s of the throne-room was covered with "a wondrous carpet, and the
+throne and its canopy were embroidered with pearls, diamonds, rubies,
+emeralds, and other precious stones." The cloaks of the chevaliers who
+belonged to the Military Orders of Santiago, Calatrava, and Alc�ntara
+were embroidered with gold. The gentlemen of Madrid covered their horses
+with silver gauze, and trappings embroidered with gold and pearls.[40]
+The same gentlemen wore coats whose sleeves were of coloured satin,
+embroidered with silk and jet, and even their lackeys, when they
+attended their masters in a procession, wore uniforms of cloth
+embroidered with gold and silver. Unmarried girls and brides wore
+gold-embroidered bodices. The chairs in which the ladies of Madrid paid
+visits were made of cloth embroidered in gold and silver, stretched upon
+the wooden frame. In the train of the Duchess of Terranova went six
+litters covered with embroidered velvet. "In the parish church of San
+Sebasti�n," wrote Countess d'Aulnoy, "I have seen a hand-chair made by
+order of the queen-mother, for carrying the Sacrament to sick persons in
+bad weather. It is lined with crimson velvet embroidered in gold and
+covered with hide studded with gilt nails: it has large window-glasses,
+and a kind of small belfry full of golden bells."
+
+  [40] A similar usage prevailed at Valladolid. The account of this city
+       as it existed in 1605, published by Gayangos in the _Revista de
+       Espa�a_, describes Don Juan de Tassis, Count of Villamediana, as
+       "riding in the finest clothes imaginable; his cloak, jacket,
+       breeches, shoes, and the trappings, harness, reins, etc., of his
+       horse, being all embroidered with the finest twisted silver thread.
+       Even his horse's blinkers were of the same material."
+
+With the succession of a French line of sovereigns to the throne of
+Spain, a taste for French embroideries passed into the Peninsula, and
+these, in course of time, were imitated by the Spanish craftsmen.[41]
+"We find," says Ria�o, "that Madrid was the principal centre of this
+industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was the
+case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered
+hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the
+Escorial, and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens."
+
+  [41] The use of embroidery was, however, greatly curbed by sumptuary
+       pragmatics, issued early in this century (see Vol. I., pp. 287,
+       289). A similar pragmatic had appeared in 1622; but it is clear
+       from the passages I have quoted, that little or no attention was
+       paid to it.
+
+I may mention here the embroidery, often of a rich and highly ornate
+character, which is, or used to be, applied to the regional costumes of
+Spain. Plate ix. is reproduced from a rare print in my possession,
+showing the gala dress, as it existed in the year 1777, of the _charra_
+of Salamanca, with full, white sleeves ornamented in black embroidery
+with animals and other devices. A similar costume is still worn in that
+neighbourhood. Plate xviii., also copied from a print in my collection,
+dating from about the year 1810, shows the costume worn by the women of
+the well-to-do middle class of the island of Majorca. "Le jupon ou
+_guardapies_," says the manuscript description prefixed to this series
+of plates, "en mousseline, complete le costume de cette insulaire: il
+est orn� au bas de riches broderies, mais assez court pour laisser voir
+un joli petit pied chauss� d'un bas de coton ou de soie et d'un �l�gant
+soulier de satin."
+
+
+                                TAPESTRY
+
+There is a dim tradition, derived from or supported by a Latin poet
+("Tunc operosa suis _Hispana tapetia_ villis") that carpets or
+tapestries of some kind were made in the Spanish Peninsula in the time
+of the Romans. Undoubtedly this craft was practised by the
+Spanish-Moors, particularly in the regions of Valencia, Alicante,
+Cuenca, and Granada. This statement is confirmed by two laconic notices
+which occur in the _Description of Africa and Spain_ of Edrisi, a
+Mohammedan geographer of the twelfth century. Of the town of Chinchilla,
+in Alicante province, he wrote,--"woollen carpets are made here, such as
+could not be manufactured anywhere else, owing to the qualities of the
+air and water"; and of Cuenca, "excellent woollen carpets are
+manufactured at this town."
+
+"En Espagne," says M�ntz, "l'industrie textile ne tarda pas � prendre
+�galement le plus brilliant essor, gr�ce � la conqu�te maure. Les
+�toffes d'Almeria acquirent rapidement une r�putation europ�enne; il est
+vrai que c'�taient des brocarts, des damas, et autres tissus analogues,
+non des tapisseries: l'influence qu'elles furent appel�es � exercer au
+dehors se borna donc au domaine de l'ornementation."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIX
+                         THE "GENESIS TAPESTRY"
+                  (_12th Century; Gerona Cathedral_)]
+
+Of a similar composition to the foregoing fabrics specified by
+M�ntz--that is to say, not genuine tapestries, although requiring for
+several reasons to be classed with these--is the celebrated "Genesis"
+(Plate xix.) of the cathedral of Gerona. This primitive yet complicated
+work of art, dating from the twelfth century, is embroidered in crewels
+upon linen, and represents the creation of the world. Its dimensions are
+about four yards high by four and a half yards wide; but the bordering
+has been torn away in places. The design is thus described by
+Ria�o:--"In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by two concentric
+circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ holding an open
+book, on which appear the words _Sanctus Deus_, and on each side _Rex
+fortis_, surrounded by the inscription, _Dixit quoque Deus, Fiat lux, Et
+facta est lux_. In the larger circle are the words, _In principio
+creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia qu� in eis sunt, et vidit
+Deus cuncta qu� egerat et erant valde bona_.
+
+"The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into
+eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of
+light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of
+sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve.
+In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the
+whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing
+representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural
+incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out."
+
+The royal palaces of Spain and many of her noble houses have possessed,
+from about the fifteenth century, splendid collections of the costliest
+tapestries, consisting principally of _pa�os de Ras_, or "Arras cloths"
+(as they were called among the Spaniards, and especially in Aragon).
+Until a later period all, or very nearly all, these objects were
+imported from the Flemish workshops.[42] At the palace of a nobleman in
+Madrid, Bertaut de Rouen observed "les plus belles tapisseries du
+monde." The same author tells us that in the seventeenth century, when
+he visited Spain and wrote his entertaining _Journal_, it was customary
+for the walls of the royal palace to be hung with tapestry in winter,
+these hangings being removed for greater coolness in the summer months.
+In reading descriptions of Spanish life referring to the same period,
+one is struck by the craze which prevailed among the Spaniards for
+displaying tapestries and other gay-coloured fabrics in all kinds of
+places and on every possible occasion. Thus, Bertaut de Rouen relates
+that when he saw a play performed in the Alc�zar, "le long de ces deux
+costez de la salle estoient seulement deux grands bancs couverts de
+tapis de Perse"; that the boxes at the bull-fights, both at Madrid and
+in the country, were "tapiss�es de brocatelle de soye"; and that the
+lower part of the dome in one of the chapels of Seville cathedral was
+decorated with the same material. At the haunted castle of Quebaro, on
+the road from Galareta to Vitoria, Countess d'Aulnoy saw upon the walls
+of a large chamber, some tapestries representing the amours of Don Pedro
+the Cruel and of Do�a Mar�a de Padilla. "This lady was depicted seated,
+like a queen, among various other ladies, while the king crowned her
+with a chaplet of flowers. Elsewhere Do�a Mar�a was reposing in a
+forest, as the king offered her a falcon. I also saw her dressed as a
+warrior while the king, in armour, offered her a sword. This set me
+thinking whether she had ever accompanied Don Pedro in one of his
+campaigns. All the figures in these tapestries were badly drawn, but Don
+Fernando assured me that all well-executed likenesses of Do�a Mar�a de
+Padilla represented her to be a woman of rare charm, the loveliest of
+her century."
+
+  [42] "A c�t� de l'Italie, il faut citer l'Espagne, tributaire comme
+       elle des ateliers flamands. Les r�sidences royales regorgeaient
+       de ces pr�cieux tissus, qui aujourd'hui encore, � Madrid ou �
+       l'Escurial, se chiffrent par centaines. Parmi les pr�sents que le
+       roi de Castille envoya � Tamerlan ([dagger] 1405), on remarquait
+       des tapisseries dont les portraits �taient faits avec tant de
+       d�licatesse, dit un chroniqueur persan, que si on voulait leur
+       comparer les ouvrages merveilleux autrefois ex�cut�s par le
+       peintre Mani sur la toile d'Art�ne, Mani serait couvert de honte
+       et ses ouvrages para�traient difformes."--M�ntz, _La Tapisserie_,
+       p. 172.
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga says that at Valladolid in 1605, a banquet was
+celebrated in "a large gallery, completely covered with the richest silk
+brocade, as were most of the other apartments." He also says that cloths
+of similar richness were employed as street-awnings. "Upon the ninth was
+the Corpus procession, at which the king was to assist; and a
+proclamation was issued that none should promenade on horseback or in
+coaches. I found nothing remarkable in this procession, unless it were
+the hangings and the awnings to keep off the sun, which were of the
+richest damask and brocade." Of the same _fiesta_ Countess d'Aulnoy
+wrote in 1679: "The streets through which the procession has to pass are
+adorned with the finest tapestries in all the world, since in addition
+to those belonging to the Crown, many of the greatest beauty are
+displayed by private persons. The _celos�as_ of all the balconies are
+replaced by elaborate canopies and hangings, and the whole roadway is
+covered with an awning to ward off the sun, and which, for the sake of
+greater freshness, is moistened with a little water." Nearly identical
+with this account is that of Alexander de Laborde, who wrote, a century
+and a quarter later than the Countess; "On Corpus Christi day there is a
+grand procession composed of the regular and secular clergy of Madrid,
+followed by the king, his ministers, and court, each bearing in his hand
+a wax taper. Magnificent awnings of tapestry are raised in the streets
+through which the procession is to pass; the balconies are decorated
+with splendid hangings; the seats are covered with cushions, and
+occasionally surmounted with a da�s; in some of the streets the face of
+day is darkened by canopies which stretch from one side to the other.
+Altars are placed at regular intervals; the balconies are thronged with
+ladies superbly dressed, who sprinkle scented water, or scatter fragrant
+flowers on the passing multitudes."
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga also describes a set of remarkable tapestries,
+evidently Flemish, which he saw in the Chapter-room of the Convent of
+C�rmen Calzado at Valladolid. "It was hung with the richest tapestry,
+silk, and paintings that had belonged to the Duke of Lerma. I greatly
+admired some cloths of green velvet, worked all over with the _Bucolics_
+of Virgil, in _tarjas_ embroidered in silk and gold, as though they were
+_sebastos_[43] of ecclesiastical vestments, but these were old, of great
+value, and extraordinary merit. Finer still were certain cloths of
+recent workmanship, such as I had never seen equalled, of a white
+material painted in tempera, with the borders, dresses, and faces of the
+personages on them wrought in twisted gold. I never saw anything so
+brilliant or so novel. The cloths were eight in number, with four
+embroidered _guardapuertas_. The persons figured upon them wore belts of
+real pearls, rings set with diamonds and rubies on their fingers, and
+gold chains and medals studded with precious stones, just as living
+people wear them."
+
+  [43] A Portuguese word meaning a strip of silk upon the back of a
+       chasuble.
+
+The fashion of collecting foreign tapestries seems to have reached its
+height at the Spanish capital in the first half of the seventeenth
+century. "Nowadays," wrote Fernandez de Navarrete, in his _Conservacion
+de Monarqu�as_, published in 1626, "gentlemen are not contented with
+hangings which a few years ago were considered good enough to adorn a
+prince's palace. The Spanish taffetas and guadamec�es, so highly
+esteemed in other provinces, are held of no account in this one
+(Madrid). The _sargas_ and _ar�beles_ wherewith the moderation of the
+Spanish people was satisfied in former days, must now be turned into
+injurious _telas rizas_ of Florence and Milan, and into costliest
+Brussels tapestry."
+
+                           [Illustration: XX
+            _TAPIZ_ OF CRIMSON VELVET WORKED IN GOLD TISSUE
+          (_16th Century. Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos_)]
+
+It is perhaps allowable to include among the oldest makers of Spanish
+tapestry the names of Gonzalo de Mesa and Diego Roman, who, in the year
+1331, were paid respectively one thousand _maravedis_ and eighteen
+hundred _maravedis_, for decorating the tents of King Sancho the Fourth.
+There also exists the following entry, dating from the same period; "To
+Boan�ibre, master of the tents; XXX _maravedis_ for his food, for
+fifteen days."[44]
+
+  [44] Manuel G. Simancas, _Artistas Castellanos del Siglo XIII_ (_Bolet�n
+       de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones_ for January, 1905.)
+
+Far clearer than these laconic excerpts is a document preserved in the
+library of the Academy of History at Madrid, in the form of a memorial
+presented to Philip the Second by a Spanish tapestry-maker of Salamanca,
+named Pedro Gutierrez,[45] and setting forth, in pessimistic language,
+the unhappy condition of this craft in the Peninsula. Pedro relates of
+himself that in twenty-four days he made for the Cardinal-archduke no
+less than a hundred and twenty _reposteros_; and that in order to
+exhibit his cleverness as a tapestry-weaver, he set up a loom in the
+royal palace (being officially the _tapicero_ to the Crown), and worked
+for forty days where all might criticise the product of his toil.
+Gutierrez also states that the township of Madrid had provided him with
+six hundred ducats to enable him to establish there a tapestry-factory
+for the space of ten years, together with six hundred and fifty ducats
+from the Cortes for supporting his apprentices, and a thousand ducats
+from the king to defray the cost of certain voyages he had made to
+Lisbon, Monz�n, and Barcelona, and of removing his residence from
+Salamanca to the capital of Spain. He complains, however, that the house
+he dwells in at Madrid is not large enough to contain his loom, and
+replies to the objections of such persons as opposed his opening the
+tapestry-works at all (on the ground that this craft was practised
+better and more cheaply in Flanders), by asserting that Spanish makers
+of _reposteros_ were now accustomed to receive a daily wage of no more
+than three _reales_ and "a miserable meal." This, he urges, should
+render Spanish tapestries at least as inexpensive to produce as those of
+Flanders; although, upon the other hand, he admits that the colouring of
+the former is likely to prove inferior to the Flemish cloths in purity
+and durability. "Common tapestry," he says, "seldom keeps its colour
+upward of a couple of years, so that, if such were used in open sunlight
+on the backs of beasts of burden, or to cover carts, exposed to sun,
+wind, dust, and mire, or else for cleaning shoes upon, as now is
+practised with the _reposteros_, their imperfections would become
+apparent all the sooner."
+
+  [45] At about the same time that this petition was presented by
+       Gutierrez, another tapestry-maker named Pedro de Espinosa, a native
+       of Iniesta, was living at Cordova. On February 2nd, 1560, he
+       married Leonor de Burgos, and received as dowry from his bride the
+       sum of thirty-five thousand _maravedis_. (Ram�rez de Arellano,
+       _Artistas Exhumados_, published in the _Bolet�n de la Sociedad
+       Espa�ola de Excursiones_.)
+
+Mention of these typically Spanish objects known as _reposteros_,[46]
+induces me to quote an interesting notice relating to the visit of
+Philip the Second to Cordova, in the year 1570. The train of the Duke of
+Medina Sidonia, who journeyed to this city in order to receive his
+sovereign, consisted of a hundred and three mules covered with "new
+_reposteros_ of wool, and of six mules covered with _reposteros_ of
+purple velvet, embroidered with silver and gold, and bearing the duke's
+arms."
+
+  [46] "_Reposteros_," says Ria�o, "is the ancient name given to the
+       hangings which are placed outside the balconies on state occasions
+       in Spain. Several splendid examples of the sixteenth and
+       seventeenth centuries may still be seen at the houses of Spanish
+       grandees, of which those belonging to the Conde de O�ate and
+       Marques de Alca�ices at Madrid are the most remarkable for their
+       artistic design."
+
+       It is surprising that Ria�o should insert so incomplete a
+       definition of this word, whose primitive and proper meaning,
+       according to the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, is "a square
+       piece of cloth with the arms of a prince or Se�or, which serves for
+       covering baggage carried by beasts of burden, and also for hanging
+       in antechambers." See also Vol. II., p. 16 (note) of the present
+       work.
+
+If, as seems most likely, the woollen _reposteros_ above referred to
+were of woven work containing a device, this passage would demonstrate
+that the manufacture of the cloths in question was sometimes the
+province of the tapestry-maker and sometimes that of the embroiderer.
+Ram�rez de Arellano, from whose instructive studies on the craftsmen of
+older Spain I quote the foregoing extract, says that the making of
+_reposteros_ constitutes a branch of craftsmanship distinct from
+embroidery of the common class, and that the men who produced them
+deserve to be included among artists of real merit. He gives the names
+of two, Hern�n Gonzalez and Juan Ramos, who worked at Cordova in the
+middle of the sixteenth century. A document relating to the former of
+these men tells us that in those days the price of a _repostero de
+estambre_ measuring sixteen palms square, with a coat-of-arms worked in
+the centre, and a decorative border, was ninety _reales_.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                              THE SPINNERS
+                    (_By Velazquez. Prado Gallery_)]
+
+Ria�o says: "I do not find any information of a later date which
+suggests the existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during
+the Middle Ages." Davillier, however, affirms that in the year 1411 two
+master-makers of tapestry were living at the court of the King of
+Navarre, and that other craftsmen, holding the same title, were
+established at Barcelona in 1391 and 1433. This notice is accepted by
+M�ntz: "A la fin du XIV^e et au commencement du XV^e si�cle, les
+Espagnols tent�rent de fonder dans leur patrie quelques ateliers de
+haute lisse. A Barcelone, en 1391 et en 1433, plusieurs tapissiers
+(_maestros de tapices_) firent partie du grand Conseil. Mais ces
+tentaves ne semblent pas avoir eu de r�sultats durables. Il �tait plus
+commode de recourir aux manufactures flamandes, si merveilleusement
+organis�es. Peut-�tre m�me ce syst�me �tait-il plus �conomique. Ne
+voyons-nous pas aujourd'hui jusqu'� l'extr�me Orient tirer, pour raison
+d'�conomie, des fabriques de Manchester et de Birmingham les tissus
+courants dont il a besoin?"
+
+The history of tapestry-making at Madrid may be said to date from the
+establishment in this town of a small factory by Pedro Gutierrez, whose
+petition to Philip the Second I have already quoted, and who received
+protection both from that monarch and from the queen, Do�a Ana. In 1625
+Gutierrez was succeeded by Antonio Ceron, who formally styled himself
+"tapicero de nuevo, sucesor de Pedro Gutierrez" ("maker of new
+tapestries, successor to Pedro Gutierrez"), and petitioned the king for
+the grant of a meal a day, "in recompense of having taught his trade to
+eight lads, and of having mounted eight looms in (the factory of) Santa
+Isabel." This factory of Santa Isabel was so called from the street in
+which it lay, and part of it is represented in the celebrated painting
+by Velazquez called _Las Hilanderas_ ("The Spinners," not, as it is
+translated in Ria�o's handbook, "The Weavers." Plate xxi.).
+
+This factory was unsuccessful, and declined by degrees until it ceased
+completely, in spite of the efforts made to revive it in 1694 by a
+Belgian named Metler, and in 1707 by a Salamanquino, Nicholas Hern�ndez.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXII
+              TAPESTRY MADE AT BRUSSELS FROM GRANADA SILK
+              (_16th Century. Spanish Crown Collection_)]
+
+A new tapestry-factory--that of Santa Barbara--was founded shortly
+afterwards in a building known as the Casa del Abreviador. The first
+director, engaged in 1720 by order of Philip the Fifth, was Jacob Van
+der Goten, a native of Antwerp,[47] who died in 1724, and was succeeded
+at the factory by his sons, Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian.
+These craftsmen worked with _basse lisse_ looms till 1729, in which year
+a _haute lisse_ loom was mounted by a Frenchman, Antoine Lenger.
+
+  [47] The royal contract with the elder Van der Goten, dated July 30th,
+       1720, was the result of secret negotiations, and largely brought
+       about by the influence of Philip's minister, Cardinal Alberoni.
+
+In 1730, when the court removed to Seville, a tapestry-factory was
+established at this city also. The director was Jacob Van der Goten the
+younger, assisted by the painter Procaccini. At the end of three years
+this factory closed its doors, and Van der Goten and Procaccini,
+returning to Madrid, established themselves at the old factory of Santa
+Isabel, from which, in 1744, they again removed to the factory of Santa
+Barbara.[48]
+
+  [48] "On Saturday, May 27th, passing through the gate of Saint Barbara,
+       I visited the tapestry manufactory, which resembles, and equals
+       in beauty, the Gobelins, whence it originally came. I found a
+       Frenchman at the head of it, who was civil and communicative.
+       This fabric was brought into Spain, and established here under
+       the direction of John de Van Dergoten, from Antwerp, in the year
+       1720. They now employ fourscore hands, and work only on the king's
+       account, and for his palaces, making and repairing all the tapestry
+       and carpets which are wanted at any of the _Sitios_, or royal
+       residences."--Townsend, in 1786.
+
+       "The elegant manufacture of tapestry is carried on without Saint
+       Barbe's gate, at the entrance of the promenade of Los Altos, or
+       Chamberi; it was established in 1720 by Philip the Fifth, at whose
+       invitation John Dergoten, of Antwerp, was induced to undertake its
+       superintendence, an office at present filled by his descendants.
+       The productions of this manufactory are carpets and tapestry, the
+       subjects of which are often drawn from fable or history; it
+       sometimes copies pictures executed by superior artists, and affords
+       daily employment to eighty persons, including dyers, drawers,
+       designers, and all its various branches."--Laborde (about 1800).
+
+In 1774, when, with the exception of Cornelius, who was considered the
+most skilful of them all, the family of the Van der Gotens had died out,
+the direction of the Santa Barbara factory was entrusted to several
+Spanish artists, named Manuel Sanchez, Antonio Moreno, Tom�s del
+Castillo, and Domingo Galan. Sanchez, who acted as general
+superintendent of the works, died in 1786, and was succeeded in this
+office by his nephew, Livinio Stuck, whose son resumed the directorship
+in 1815, after the factory had been paralysed by the invasion of the
+Peninsula, and destroyed by the French in 1808. Since then it has never
+ceased working, and descendants of the Stucks continue to superintend it
+at the present day.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                        A PROMENADE IN ANDALUSIA
+                   (_Cartoon for Tapestry. By Goya_)]
+
+The collection of tapestry belonging to the Crown of Spain is probably
+the finest in the world. As far back as the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabella the walls of the royal palace were hung with decorative textile
+cloths or _pa�os de Ras_, and among the officers in the household of
+their son, the youthful Prince Don Juan, we find included a keeper of
+the tapestry and _reposteros_. But it was not until the reigns of
+Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second that the royal collection was
+enriched with numerous sets of celebrated tapestries produced in Italy
+and Flanders--countries which were then subjected to the yoke of Spain.
+Frequent additions were also made throughout the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, both from abroad and subsequently (when the
+Brussels industry declined) from the Spanish factories of Santa Isabel
+and Santa Barbara.
+
+As early as the year 1600 a Spaniard wrote enthusiastically of "the rich
+and cunning tapestries belonging to His Majesty, to whom it would be
+easier to win a kingdom than to get them made anew."[49] At the present
+day it is impossible to estimate with any certainty the number of these
+tapestries, the greater part of which are locked away. Only on certain
+festivals, such as the days of Corpus Christi and the Candelaria
+(Purification), a few are unfolded and displayed in the upper galleries
+of the palace at Madrid. Their total number is believed to be not far
+short of one thousand pieces;[50] but Se�or Tormo calculates that were
+they no more than five hundred, they would, if placed end to end, cover
+more than two miles of ground.
+
+  [49] Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los R�os, _Noticia general para la
+       estimaci�n de las Artes y de la manera en que se conocen las
+       liberales de las que son mec�nicas y serviles_.
+
+  [50] Ria�o estimates them at this number. See his _Report on a
+       collection of photographs from tapestries of the Royal Palace of
+       Madrid_; London, 1875; and also _Tapices de la Corona de Espa�a_,
+       with 135 plates in phototype, and text by Count Valencia de Don
+       Juan; Madrid, Hauser and Menet, 1903.
+
+Among the sets which form this wonderful collection, distributed between
+the palaces of Madrid, the Prado, and the Escorial, none is of greater
+merit or magnificence than the series of twelve cloths depicting the
+_Conquest of Tunis_ (Plate xxii.), designed for Charles the Fifth by his
+Court painter, Jan Vermay or Vermeyen, of Beverwyck, near Haarlem, and
+executed by William Pannemaker, of Brussels. It was agreed by Pannemaker
+in 1549 that the materials employed upon this tapestry should consist of
+the finest wool, Granada silk, and, for the woof, the choicest Lyons
+_fillet_--the very best that money could procure. The Emperor himself
+was to provide the gold and silver thread. Accordingly, Pannemaker was
+supplied with five hundred and fifty-nine pounds and one ounce of silk,
+dyed and spun in the city of Granada, where one of Charles' agents
+resided for two years seven months and twenty-five days, for the purpose
+of superintending its preparation. The cost of this silk, exclusive of
+the agent's expenses, amounted to 6,637 florins. Nineteen colours were
+employed in the dyeing, each colour consisting of from three to seven
+shades, and a hundred and sixty pounds of the finest silk were consumed
+in trying to obtain a special shade of blue.
+
+After receiving these materials, Pannemaker kept seven workmen
+constantly engaged upon each _pa�o_ of this tapestry, or eighty-four
+workmen in all. As soon as any one of the pieces was concluded, he
+submitted it to experts who pointed out such details as they recommended
+for correction. The entire work required a little more than five years,
+and was therefore terminated in 1554. The price paid for it was twelve
+florins per ell, and the number of these was 1246, representing a total
+cost of 14,952 florins, while Pannemaker, subject to the Emperor's being
+satisfied with the work, was further promised a yearly pension of a
+hundred florins.[51]
+
+  [51] M�ntz, _La Tapisserie_, pp. 217, 218. Wauters, _Les Tapisseries
+       Bruxelloises_, pp. 76, 77. Houdoy, _Tapisseries repr�sentant la
+       Conqueste du Royaulme de Thunes par l'empereur Charles-Quint_.
+
+Equally remarkable are the spirited design and the flawless execution of
+this series of elaborate cloths, recalling, in their swarms of armed
+figures and the lofty point of view, which reduces the sky to a mere
+strip, the vivacious war and camp pictures of Snyders. The titles of the
+subjects, forming, as it were, a pictured epitome of the expedition led
+by Charles in person against the Barbary pirates, are as follows: (1) A
+map of the Spanish coast; (2) The review of the troops at Barcelona; (3)
+The landing of the forces; (4) A skirmish; (5) The camp; (6) Foraging;
+(7) The capture of La Goleta; (8) The battle of Los Pozos, Tunis; (9) A
+sortie of the besieged; (10) The sack of Tunis; (11) The victors
+returning to the harbour; (12) The forces embarking.
+
+According to M�ntz, this tapestry has been copied at least on two
+occasions; once in the eighteenth century by Josse de Vos, of Brussels,
+and also, in the same century, in Spain, partly at Seville, and partly
+at the factories of Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIV
+              TAPESTRY. ARRAS WORK, FROM ITALIAN CARTOONS
+           (_First half of 15th Century. Zamora Cathedral_)]
+
+Other most valuable and beautiful tapestries belonging to the Spanish
+Crown are the series titled _The History of the Virgin_, believed to be
+from cartoons by Van Eyk, _The Passion_, from cartoons attributed to Van
+der Weyden, the _History of David_ and _History of Saint John the
+Baptist_, the _Mass of Saint Gregory_, and the _Founding of Rome_. All
+of these series date from the fifteenth century and early in the
+sixteenth. Belonging to a later period are the reproductions of rustic
+scenes and hunting subjects by Teniers and others, executed in Spain
+between 1721 and 1724, the _Scenes from Don Quixote_, made at Santa
+Barbara from Procaccini's cartoons, and the eminently national series
+produced at the same factory from designs by Francisco Goya y Lucientes.
+This latter group amounts to several dozen pieces, including the
+well-known _Blind Man's Buff_, _A Promenade in Andalusia_ (Plate
+xxiii.), _The Crockery-seller_, _The Grape-Gatherers_ (_Frontispiece_),
+and other spirited and charming scenes of popular Spanish life--"tout
+cela," as Lefort describes it, "spirituel, vif, pittoresque, tr�s
+mouvement�, bien group�, s'�levant sur des fonds champ�tres ou baignant
+gaiement en pleine lumi�re."
+
+Other tapestry collections of great merit belong to the cathedrals of
+Burgos, Zamora (where they line the walls of the Sacristy; Plate xxiv.),
+Zaragoza, Toledo, Tarragona, and Santiago. The first of these temples
+possesses the following sets, which are displayed to decorate the
+cloisters on the feast of Corpus Christi:--
+
+
+             (1) The History of Cleopatra and Mark Antony.
+             (2) The History of David.
+             (3) The Creation.
+             (4) An Historical Subject.
+             (5) The Theological and Cardinal Virtues.
+             (6) A series of five Gothic tapestries, which represent some
+                 mystery or allegory, and seem to be of Flemish
+                 manufacture. One other _pa�o_, of a similar character,
+                 accompanies them.
+
+All but the last of the above sets are marked with two B's separated by
+a shield, denoting Brussels workmanship. The _Theological and Cardinal
+Virtues_ were presented to the cathedral about the end of the sixteenth
+century. They are evidently executed from Italian cartoons, and the
+_haute-lisse_ craftsman who made them, in or towards the year 1571, was
+named Francis Greubels.[52]
+
+  [52] See an article on these tapestries by Se�or Lamperez y Romea,
+       published in No. 55 of the _Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de
+       Excursiones_; and also Nos. 156 and 157 of the same publication,
+       for an article on the Crown and other Spanish collections, by
+       El�as Tormo y Monz�.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                            FLEMISH TAPESTRY
+  (_Late 15th Century. Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don
+                                Juan_)]
+
+The tapestries which belong to the cathedral of Zaragoza number some
+sixty or seventy pieces, including a series (fifteenth century)
+representing _The Life of Saint John the Baptist_, from designs by Lucas
+of Holland. Good tapestries were also the property of Valencia
+cathedral, but have been dispersed and sold in recent years. The convent
+of the Descalzas Reales at Madrid possesses a set from designs by
+Rubens. Ten pieces of this series formerly belonged to the Count-Duke of
+Olivares, who sent them to his town of Loeches; four passing
+subsequently to the Duke of Westminster's collection. The small though
+valuable collection formed by the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+(Plate xxv.), passed at this nobleman's death to his daughter, Se�ora de
+Osma, who has presented part of it to the Arch�ological Museum at
+Madrid. Another collector resident in Spain, Mons. Mersmann, of Granada,
+possesses a series of fine Brussels cloths representing scenes from _Don
+Quixote_, by Van den Hecke.
+
+
+                                  LACE
+
+Although the Spaniards have enjoyed, and still enjoy, a widespread fame
+for lace-making, their written records of this craft are unsubstantial.
+Originally, perhaps, they borrowed it from the Arabs or Venetians.
+Certainly, the earliest Spanish lace was such as is made with a needle,
+that is, point, not pillow lace. In this form, _� la aguja_, and in the
+sixteenth century, the Spaniards possibly conveyed the secrets of its
+manufacture to the Netherlands, receiving from the natives of this
+country, in exchange, the art of making lace by means of bobbins,
+including the characteristic "Flemish net," or _red fland�s_.
+
+Towards the sixteenth century the parts of Spain where lace was
+manufactured in the largest quantity were some of the Manchegan towns
+and villages, the coast of Finisterre, and nearly the whole of Catalu�a.
+In La Mancha lace was made, and still is so, at Manzanares, Granatula,
+Almagro, and other places. That of Almagro (the celebrated _punto de
+Almagro_, resembling the lace of Catalu�a), is mentioned by nearly all
+the older travellers. In _Don Quixote_, Teresa writes to Sancho Panza
+that their daughter Sanchita was engaged in making bobbin-lace at a
+daily wage of eight _sueldos_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVI
+                      THE MARCHIONESS OF LA SOLANA
+                              (_By Goya_)]
+
+In 1877, at the Exhibition of Sumptuary Arts which was held in
+Barcelona, a magnificent lace _toca_ was shown, which was affirmed by
+its possessor, Se�or Parcerisa, to be the work of a Spaniard of the
+later part of the fifteenth century, and to have belonged to Isabella
+the Catholic. The cathedral of the same city owns three thread-lace albs
+of sixteenth century workmanship, and the South Kensington Museum other
+pieces of Spanish lace of a comparatively early date, probably made by
+nuns and subtracted from the convents during the stormy scenes of 1835.
+
+Dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we have a number of
+notices, though scrappy and inexplicit as a rule, relating to Spanish
+lace. One of the more complete and interesting is quoted by Ria�o from
+the _Microcosmia y Gobierno Universal del Hombre Cristiano_ (Barcelona,
+1592) of Father Marcos Antonio de Campos. "I will not be silent," wrote
+this austere _padre_, "and fail to mention the time lost these last
+years in the manufacture of _cadenetas_, a work of thread combined with
+gold and silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that
+100 and 1000 ducats were spent in this work, in which, besides
+destroying the eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering
+consumptive the women who worked it, and preventing them from spending
+their time with more advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread
+and years of time were wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask
+myself, after this fancy shall have passed away, will the lady or
+gentleman find that the chemises that cost them 50 ducats, or the
+_basqui�a_ (petticoat) that cost them 300, are worth half their price,
+which certainly is the case with other objects in which the material
+itself is worth more?"
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                            A SPANISH _MAJA_
+                             (_A.D. 1777_)]
+
+Several of the other notices relating to the lace-makers' craft are from
+the pen of Countess d'Aulnoy. Of the Countess of Lemos this writer says:
+"Her hair was white, but she carefully concealed it beneath a black
+blonde"; and of another Spanish lady, Do�a Leonor de Toledo, that she
+wore "a green velvet skirt trimmed with Spanish blonde." In the
+apartments of the young Princess of Montele�n the countess saw "a bed of
+green and gold damask, decorated with silver brocade and Spanish blonde.
+The sheets were fringed with English point-lace, extremely broad and
+handsome." The countess also says that the petticoats of the Spanish
+ladies were of English point-lace,[53] and that these ladies, when they
+visited each other, wore on their heads "a _toca_ of the richest English
+black point-lace, half a yard broad, forming points like the antique
+laces, beautiful to look at, and very dear. This head-dress suits them
+rarely."
+
+  [53] Upon the other hand, a notice dated 1562 says that at that time
+       Spanish-made black lace was largely used at the Court of England.
+
+According to Balsa de la Vega, whose interesting articles on Spanish
+lace (published in the newspaper _El Liberal_) are worth perusal by all
+who are interested in this craft, about the middle of the seventeenth
+century the custom originated in Spain of making lace in broader pieces,
+dividing the pattern into a number of strips or _fajas_ which were
+subsequently sewn together. In Belgium, on the contrary, the design was
+cut out, following the contour of the floral or other decoration.
+
+In former ages gold and silver lace was made in France, and also at
+Genoa. I think it possible that Genoese merchants, many of whom are
+known to have settled in Granada and other Spanish cities, may first
+have introduced this branch of lace-making among the Spaniards. The
+sumptuary laws of Aragon, Castile, Le�n, and Navarre would seem to show
+that lace of these materials, known as _punto_ or _redecilla de oro_ (or
+_plata_) was manufactured by the Spanish Jews between the twelfth and
+fifteenth centuries. During the seventeenth century and part of the
+eighteenth, the quantity produced in the Peninsula was very large. In
+his _Fenix de Catalu�a_, a work which was published at Barcelona in
+1683, Feliu de la Pe�a says that Spanish _randa_ or _r�seuil_, of gold
+and silver, silk, thread, and aloe fibre, was better made in Spain than
+in the Netherlands. The journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the
+following notice of this silver lace: "Le Roy y envoya le Lieutenant du
+Maistre des Postes, avec huit postillons, couverts de clinquant, et
+quarante chevaux de poste, dont il y en avoit huit avec des selles et
+des brides du Roy o� il y avoit de la dentelle d'argent, que Monsieur le
+Mareschal fit distribuer � environ autant de gens que nous estions, sur
+une liste qu'il avoit envoy�e quelques jours auparavant."
+
+                         [Illustration: XXVIII
+                                A _MAJA_
+                              (_By Goya_)]
+
+It is impossible to mention Spanish lace without recalling that most
+graceful article of headwear, the _mantilla_, the use of which is
+gradually dying out. At present we understand by this word a black or
+white head-covering of lace alone (the white being more conspicuous and
+dressy), but about a hundred years ago the _mantilla_ was made of a
+variety of fabrics. Also, it was worn in an easier and more _neglig�_
+manner than nowadays, retaining a closer likeness to the _velo_ or
+_manto_ with which the Spanish women of the seventeenth century were
+able, at their pleasure, to completely mask their faces (Plates xxvi.
+and xxvii.). Indeed, as late as the early part of the nineteenth century
+the _mantilla_ was sometimes thrown over the face (Plates xxviii. and
+xxix.). The same usage is referred to by Townsend, who describes the
+_mantilla_ as "serving the double purpose of a cloak and veil."[54]
+To-day it is worn, not hanging loose and open, but a good deal bunched
+up at the bosom. The hair, too, is dressed to an unusual height, with a
+tall comb, and over this the delicate lace covering should droop a
+little to one side. A flower or two (roses or carnations by preference)
+may be worn at one side of the head, and where the _mantilla_ is caught
+up at the breast.
+
+  [54] "Pour les femmes, elles ne sortent point qu'emmantel�es d'une mante
+       noire comme le de�il des dames de France, et elles ne se montrent
+       qu'un [oe]uil, et vont cherchant et aga�ant les hommes avec tant
+       d'effronterie, qu'elles tiennent � affront quand on ne veut pas
+       aller plus loin que la conversation."--Bertaut de Rouen; _Journal
+       du Voyage d'Espagne_, p. 294.
+
+The manuscript account of Spanish costumes early in the nineteenth
+century, and which is prefixed to my copy of Pigal's coloured
+lithographs, contains some excellent descriptions of the older Spanish
+_mantilla_. We learn, for instance, that at Palma the women of the
+well-to-do middle class wore a _mantilla_ of black taffeta, trimmed with
+blonde (Plate xviii.).[55] In La Mancha, and among the peasants, it was
+of white muslin; at Cordova, in cold weather, "en flanelle ou en bayette
+fine: elle est garnie de rubans � l'extr�mit� desquels il y a deux gros
+noeuds: en �t� elle est en mousseline." The small _mantilla_ or
+"mantellina" of the wife of the smuggler of Tarifa was "en flanelle
+blanche, ou noire, ou rose, brod�e d'un ruban: elle en fait tr�s souvent
+un usage diff�rent des autres femmes espagnoles, car au lieu de la
+mettre sur la t�te attach�s avec des �pingles, elle s'en sert de schal:
+quelque fois elle la met en baudrier laissant flotter derri�re elle les
+deux extr�mit�s qui sont orn�es d'un noeud en ruban." The servant-girl
+of Madrid wore a white _mantilla_ in summer, and a black one in winter.
+The same author describes in greater detail the _mantillas_ of the fine
+ladies. "La mantille et la basquigne," he says, "voila de quoi se
+compose principalement le costume du beau sexe en Espagne. Ce costume,
+quoique national, est susceptible de recevoir aussi bien que tout autre
+les divers degr�s de luxe que les femmes d'une riche classe et celles du
+plus haut rang peuvent apporter dans leur parure: la classe la moins
+ais�e porte la mantille en laine noire ou blanche et la basquigne en
+serge ou autre �toffe de laine noire. Pendant le jour, lorsque les dames
+espagnoles se pr�sentent en public, c'est toujours avec la mantille et
+la basquigne, mais le soir si elles vont au spectacle ou ailleurs, elles
+sortent tr�s souvent habill�es � la fran�aise."
+
+  [55] Blonde, I need hardly state, is silk-lace. It can always be
+       distinguished by the glossy surface.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIX
+                            A LADY OF SORIA
+                          (_About A.D. 1810_)]
+
+Elsewhere he says: "Nous avons d�j� dit qu'un simple ruban, un peigne,
+ou une fleur, est la coiffure adopt�e par les dames espagnoles, pour
+faire usage de la mantille: celle-ci est dans l'hiver quelquefois en
+serge de soie, taffetas, etc., noir, garnie en outre de blondes, ou d'un
+large ruban de velours noir en �chiquier (_cinta de terciopelo �
+tablero_), mais ce ruban est toujours noir. Il y eut un temps o� la
+mode, qui ne fut pas de longue dur�e, prescrivait que les bouts de la
+mantille se terminassent en trois pointes orn�es chacune d'une houppe
+(_borla_) noire, ou d'un lacet de ruban noir. Jamais les mantilles ne
+sont doubl�es."
+
+The same author remarks of the lady of Madrid; "La mantille de tulle
+brod� ne se porte que dans la belle saison ... elle ne d�passe jamais
+la ceinture"[56]; and of the lady of Granada: "si la mantille est
+blanche, elle est en tulle parsem� de petits bouquets et garnie de
+larges et riches dentelles. Si elle est noire, comme cela arrive plus
+ordinairement, elle est alors en blonde: il y a de ces mantilles qui
+coutent cinq cent, mille, et jusqu'� deux mille francs."
+
+  [56] This is incorrect. It was sometimes worn longer.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                      HANDKERCHIEF OF CATALAN LACE
+       (_Presented to Queen Victoria of Spain, on her marriage_)]
+
+A good deal of lace, principally of the less elaborate and cheaper
+kinds, was formerly manufactured in the kingdom of Valencia. Cabanillas
+wrote in 1797 that at Novelda, a small town of this region, more than
+two thousand women and children worked at making laces, which were
+hawked about the country by others of the townspeople. Swinburne remarks
+upon the same industry, and Ricord tells us in his pamphlet (1791) that
+cotton lace was made in six factories at Torrente, Alicante, and
+Orihuela.[57] The total product of these factories for the said year was
+1,636,100 yards, which sold at from nine to twelve _reales_ the yard.
+Laborde wrote some years later, in the first volume of his book, that
+lace, and gold and silver fringes were then made at Valencia, and in the
+fourth volume; "Gold and silver laced stuffs, and velvets of all colours
+brocaded and flowered with the same metals, are made at Toledo,
+Barcelona, Valencia, and Talavera de la Reina; and the manufacture at
+the last-named city annually consumes four thousand marks of silver, and
+seventy marks of gold.
+
+  [57] A letter from Vargas y Ponce to Cean Bermudez, dated 1797, says
+       that in this year there existed at Murcia a school for making
+       blondes, owned by one Castilla. "He does good work, teaches well,
+       and has executed blondes for the Queen, which are well spoken of."
+
+"At Barcelona, Talavera de la Reina, and Valencia are also manufactured
+gold and silver edgings, lace, and fringes, though not in a sufficient
+quantity to answer the demands of Spain; and the gold is very badly
+prepared, having too red a cast."
+
+Lace-making was an ancient and important industry of every part of
+Catalu�a. Lace articles for ladies' headwear are known to have been made
+throughout this region at least as far back as the fifteenth century,
+and Capmany reminds us that by a _cedula_ dated from the Cortes of
+Monz�n, December 16th, 1538, the Emperor Charles the Fifth confirmed the
+Ordinances of the guild, established long before, of the _tejedores de
+velos_ of Barcelona. Technical provisions are embodied in this code,
+concerning various articles of lace employed as headwear, such as
+_alfardillas_, _qui�ales_, and _espumilla_, all of which were largely
+exported to America.
+
+The attention of foreigners who travelled in Catalu�a towards the
+eighteenth century was constantly attracted by the lace-makers.
+Swinburne mentions "Martorell, a large town, where much black lace is
+manufactured," and "Espalungera (Esparraguera?), a long village, full of
+cloth and lace manufacturers," and wrote of Sarri� and its surroundings,
+close to Barcelona: "The women in the little hamlets were busy with
+their bobbins making black lace, some of which, of the coarser kind, is
+spun out of the leaf of the aloe. It is curious, but of little use, for
+it grows mucilaginous with washing."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXI
+                        CURTAIN OF SPANISH LACE
+                   (_Point and Pillow Work. Modern_)]
+
+"Martorell," wrote Townsend in 1786, "is one long, narrow street, in
+which poverty, industry, and filth, although seldom seen together, have
+agreed to take up their abode. The inhabitants make lace, and even the
+little children of three and four years old are engaged in this
+employment." Laborde wrote that at the beginning of the eighteenth
+century seventeen manufactories of blondes were established at Matar�,
+and adds of Barcelona province generally at that time: "Laces and
+blondes constitute the employment of women and children. The work is
+principally done at Pineda, Malgrat, San Celoni, Tosa, Canet, Arenys,
+Callela, San-Pol, Matar�, Esparraguera, Martorell, and Barcelona.... The
+laces are almost all shipped for the New World."
+
+The most observant and most entertaining of all these tourists was
+Arthur Young, who wrote, in 1787, of the towns upon the coast of
+Catalu�a: "The appearance of industry is as great as it can be: great
+numbers of fishing-boats and nets, with rows of good white houses on the
+sea-side; and while the men are active in their fisheries, the women are
+equally busy making lace." Of Matar� he says: "It appears exceedingly
+industrious; some stocking-frames; lace-makers at every door.... I am
+sorry to add that here also the industry of catching lice in each
+other's heads is well understood.
+
+"Pass Arrengs (Arenys), a large town ... making thread lace universal
+here. They have thread from France; women earn ten to sixteen _sous_ at
+it. Great industry, and in consequence a flourishing appearance. Canet,
+another large town, employed also in ship-building, fishing, and making
+lace.... Pass Malgrat, which is not so well built as the other towns,
+but much lace made in it.... Reach Figueras, whose inhabitants seem
+industrious and active. They make lace, cordage, and mats, and have many
+potteries of a common sort."[58]
+
+  [58] Tour in Catalonia in 1787; Vol. I., p. 644, etc.
+
+Lace-making prevails to-day all through this region of north-eastern
+Spain, particularly in the strip or zone of it including the valley of
+the Llobregat as far as Martorell, and which extends from Palam�s to
+Barcelona. The towns which produce the greatest quantities of lace are
+Arenys de Mar, Malgrat, San Pol, Canet, and Arenys de Munt. In the last
+of these places an important Regional Exhibition of Lace was held in
+July of last year, the number of exhibitors amounting to one hundred and
+twenty-five. Due to the increasing production of underlinen and woven
+fabrics generally, or to other causes, lace-making has declined at
+Blanes, Pineda, Calella, and one or two other places. At San Celoni,
+Vallgorguina, San Vicente, San Andr�s de Llevaneras, Argentona, Caldeta,
+and San Acisclo de Vilalta, lace is made by women who combine this work
+with dirtier and rougher labour in the field. Most of the lace made in
+these towns is therefore black.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                   POINT LACE FAN, OF MUDEJAR DESIGN
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+In the spring of last year, an elaborate lace pocket-handkerchief (Plate
+xxx.), designed by Se�or Riquer, and executed in a traditional style of
+Catalu�a, denominated locally the _ret Catal�_, was made in the
+old-established lace-factory of the widow of Mariano Castells in the
+town of Arenys de Mar, and offered by the Agricultural Institute of San
+Isidro as a wedding-present to Princess Ena of Battenberg. Two
+_encajeras_ worked at this handkerchief under the personal direction of
+the widow Castells, and the time employed by them in making it was two
+months.
+
+Plate xxxi. represents a small portion of a very original and beautiful
+lace curtain, ten feet high, designed by Se�or Aguado, and executed,
+partly by Se�orita Pilar Huguet (who superintended the work throughout),
+and partly by seventeen of this lady's pupils, at the School of Arts and
+Industries, Toledo. Although it is a hackneyed trope to declare that the
+ornamentation of the Spanish-Moors, whether in ivory, wood or metal,
+stone or plaster, was "delicate enough to seem of lacework," I believe
+this to be the first occasion when such intricate and graceful motives
+have been actually reproduced in lace. The result of the experiment has
+proved surprisingly effective. The design is Spanish-Arabic in its
+purest form, recalling various arabesques upon the walls of the
+Alhambra, and includes thirty-three medallions which constitute the
+principal decorative scheme, a hundred and forty-eight palms or
+_alharacas_, and the Arabic expression "God is all-powerful," repeated
+sixty-six times. The centre of the curtain consists in all of four
+hundred and forty-eight pieces. The broad cenefa or bordering, which
+runs right round the whole, contains, in Arabic, the following
+inscription: "This curtain was begun in the _curso_ (course or series of
+classes) of the year 1903-1904, and terminated in the _curso_ following,
+(Art) School of Toledo." The style adopted throughout is that of
+Brussels, known erroneously as English point, although upon a coarser
+scale than is considered to be proper to this lace, the ground being
+executed by the needle, or in point-work, and the rest by bobbins.
+
+Plate xxxii. represents a covering for a fan, also executed by Se�orita
+Huguet, and also in the Brussels style. The design is a combination of
+Mudejar motives, such as conventional foliage and geometrical bordering,
+with a Spanish scutcheon and the double-headed eagle of the Emperor
+Charles the Fifth.
+
+At the present day, and largely owing to the initiative and the skilled
+tuition of Se�or Salvi, excellent lace is manufactured at Madrid,
+including reproductions--which have been generally admired in Great
+Britain and elsewhere--of the finest point or bobbin work of Malines,
+Manchester, and Venice.
+
+
+
+
+                               Appendices
+
+                               APPENDIX A
+
+                  THE LEGEND OF SAN MIGUEL IN EXCELSIS
+
+
+Towards the year A.D. 707, when Witiza was king of Spain, there dwelt at
+the castle of Go�i, not far from the city of Pamplona in Navarre, a
+cavalier named Don Theodosio, whose wife, Do�a Constanza de Viandra, was
+a lady of remarkable beauty. On one occasion Don Theodosio found himself
+obliged to quit his native country for a time, in order to command a
+military expedition against the Berbers, and before his departure he
+begged his father and mother to cheer his wife's loneliness while he
+should be away, by taking up their residence at his castle. They came
+accordingly, and as a special mark of honour to the parents of her lord,
+Do�a Constanza gave up to them her own chamber, together with the
+nuptial couch. After a time, when Theodosio's enterprise was concluded,
+and the warrior, safe and sound, was returning to Navarre, the Devil,
+disguised as a hermit, one evening lay in wait for him at a spot called
+Errotavidea, situated at a few miles' distance from Go�i castle, in the
+wooded and romantic valley of the Ollo. Stepping up to the cavalier's
+side, Satan assured him, in a tone of smooth hypocrisy, that during his
+absence the lady Constanza had been seduced by one of Theodosio's own
+servants. Upon the knight's demanding proof, "proceed," replied the
+Devil, "to your castle, enter your nuptial chamber, and there you will
+find your consort in the very arms of her paramour." Frantic with
+apprehension, the warrior spurred home, broke into his chamber at the
+dead of night, and, passing his hand over the bed, encountered, as Satan
+had malignantly foretold, two bodies; whereupon he drew his sword and,
+in this moment of fatal and irreflective haste, murdered his own father
+and mother. Then, just as he was rushing from the room, he met, carrying
+a lighted lamp, the lady Constanza herself, returning from the chapel in
+which, as was her custom every night, she had been praying for his safe
+return.
+
+Smitten with deep repentance for the crime, whose enormity had been
+discovered by the impetuous lord in so dramatic and dreadful a fashion,
+Theodosio journeyed to Rome, and related what had happened to the Pope,
+who sentenced him to wear a heavy iron collar round his neck, and chains
+about his body, and to wander, in a state of rigorous penance, through
+the loneliest regions of Navarre, without setting foot in any town,
+until, as a sign that divine justice was satisfied, the chains should
+fall from off him. Wherever this should come to pass, he was instructed
+to build a temple in honour of the archangel Michael.
+
+The sentence was patiently performed, and Theodosio had spent some years
+in solitary wandering, when on a day a single link dropped from his
+ponderous chains. This happened on the top of a high mountain called
+Ayedo, in the Sierra de And�a, and accordingly the penitent erected on
+the spot a simple fane in the archangel's honour, known by the name of
+San Miguel de Ayedo, and which, in the form of a little hermitage, still
+exists.
+
+This proof of heavenly grace presaged a further and a more complete
+deliverance. When Theodosio's wandering had lasted seven years, he
+reached one day the summit of Mount Aralar, at two leagues' distance
+from his own castle, and was there met by a ferocious dragon of
+appalling size. Being, as a penitent, unarmed, as well as encumbered by
+his massive chains, the miserable man fell helpless to his knees, and
+called to God to succour him. The prayer was heard. Suddenly the form of
+his patron the archangel flashed out against the sky, the dragon fell
+dead, and all of Theodosio's chains were shattered, and dropped from
+him. Here, therefore, he built another and a larger temple in honour of
+his guardian, and, accompanied by Do�a Constanza, passed the remainder
+of his life in peaceful and secluded piety.
+
+The castle of Go�i, which was also called "Saint Michael's palace," and
+"the palace of the cavalier to whom Saint Michael revealed himself," was
+standing as late as the year 1685, but, according to Padre Burgui, by
+the close of another century the walls were crumbling fast. Until about
+the year 1715 there also stood an ancient wooden cross to mark the spot
+where Satan, in a hermit's garb, had appeared to Don Theodosio.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX B
+
+                          JET-WORK OF SANTIAGO
+
+In former times the art of carving jet was largely practised at this
+town. The characteristic form was the _signaculum_ or image of Saint
+James; that is, a more or less uncouth representation of the apostle in
+full pilgrim's dress. The height of these images, which are now
+dispersed all over Europe, varies between four and seven inches. They
+are fully described in Drury Fortnum's monographs, _On a signaculum of
+Saint James of Compostela_, and _Notes on other signacula of Saint James
+of Compostela_, as well as in Villa-amil y Castro's _La azabacher�a
+compostelana_. These objects were sold in quantities to the pilgrims
+visiting Santiago, who nevertheless were often cheated by the
+substitution of black glass for jet.[59]
+
+  [59] The following passage from Townsend's Journey through Spain (Vol.
+       II., p. 56), is curious as showing where jet was formerly found in
+       this Peninsula. "When I returned to Oviedo, a gentleman gave me a
+       collection of amber and of jet, of which there is great abundance
+       in this province: but the two most considerable mines of it are in
+       the territory of Beloncia, one in a valley called Las Guerrias, the
+       other on the side of a high mountain in the village of Arenas, in
+       the parish of Val de Soto. The former is found in slate, and looks
+       like wood: but when broke, the nodules discover a white crust,
+       inclosing yellow amber, bright and transparent. Jet and a species
+       of kennel coal, abounding with marcasites, universally accompany
+       the amber."
+
+Specimens of this work are in the British and Cluny Museums, and in the
+Arch�ological Museum at Madrid. An interesting jet figure of the apostle
+on horseback belonged to the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan. Jet
+processional crosses (twelfth and thirteenth century), studded with
+enamel, and which were used at funerals, are preserved in the cathedrals
+of Oviedo and Orense. Rings, rosaries, and amulets were also carved from
+this material.
+
+As to Spanish processional crosses generally (the use of which was
+undoubtedly borrowed from the standard borne at the head of pagan
+armies), I may say that they are commonly fitted with a handle, called
+the _cruz baja_ or "lower cross," though sometimes this handle is
+dispensed with, as, for instance, at the funerals of infants. According
+to Villa-amil y Castro, the typical shape of the Spanish processional
+cross has always been that denominated the _immissa_, consisting of four
+arms terminating in straight edges. The same authority says that within
+this broader definition the primitive form was the Greek cross, that is,
+having four arms of equal length. Another early form was the "Oviedo"
+cross (see Vol. I., Plate II.), with the four arms in the shape of
+trapezia, united at the centre by a disc. Of this latter shape are, or
+were, the crosses of Guarrazar and those which were presented by Alfonso
+the Second and Alfonso the Third to the cathedrals of Oviedo and
+Santiago.
+
+A later form was the _potenzada_ cross, which had a cross-piece fixed at
+the extremity of each arm. As time advanced, this T-shaped termination
+to the arms assumed such decorative and capricious forms as the trefoil
+and the fleur-de-lis. Early in the history of the Spanish church the
+processional cross consisted often of a wooden core, covered with more
+or less profusely ornamented silver plates, and having, between the
+handle and the upper part, an enamelled bulb or _n[oe]ud_. The image of
+Christ, converting the cross into the crucifix, was not attached until a
+later period, because, as Villa-amil y Castro has remarked, the
+primitive Christians considered the essential glory of their faith,
+rather than, as yet, the perils and the pains to which they were exposed
+by clinging to that faith. The cross was thus the symbol of the
+Christian's glory; the crucifix, of his suffering.[60]
+
+  [60] As for the clothing of sacred images in Spain, even these are
+       subject to changes in the fashion of costume. Ford makes merry over
+       "the Saviour in a court-dress, with wig and breeches." Swinburne
+       wrote in 1775, from Alicante: "We have been all the morning in
+       great uneasiness about Sir T. G.'s valet de chambre, who, till
+       within this hour, was not to be found in any of the places he
+       usually frequents. His appearance has quieted our apprehensions;
+       and it seems he has been from sunrise till dinner-time locked up
+       in the sacristy of the great church, curling and frizzling the
+       flaxen periwig of the statue of the Virgin, who is to-morrow to be
+       carried in solemn procession through the city."
+
+       A similar passage occurs in one of the letters of Lady Mary Wortley
+       Montagu. "I was particularly diverted," she wrote from Nuremberg in
+       1716, "in a little Roman Catholic church which is permitted here,
+       where the professors of that religion are not very rich, and
+       consequently cannot adorn their images in so rich a manner as their
+       neighbours. For, not to be quite destitute of all finery, they have
+       dressed up an image of our Saviour over the altar in a fair,
+       full-bottomed wig, very well powdered."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX C
+
+         DESCRIPTION OF THE _CUSTODIAS_ OF SEVILLE AND CORDOVA
+
+The _custodia_ of Seville cathedral is described by its author, Juan de
+Arfe, in the following terms:--
+
+The shape is circular, with projecting friezes and bases. The _custodia_
+is four yards high, and is divided into four orders of symmetrical
+proportions, the second order being smaller by two-fifths than the
+first, the third smaller by the same fraction than the second, and the
+fourth than the third. Each order rests upon four-and-twenty columns,
+twelve of which are of a larger size, and wrought in relief. The other
+and the smaller twelve are striated, and serve as imposts to the arches.
+All these orders are of open work, containing twelve _vistas_
+(prospects) apiece. Six are of full dimensions, and the other six spring
+from half-way up the larger ones, as is shown in the appended design,
+which I will not explain further, as the proportion and harmony can be
+judged of from the plan (see Vol. I., Plate xvii.).
+
+
+                              FIRST ORDER
+
+The first order is in the Ionic style. The columns and frieze are
+adorned with vines containing fruits and foliage, and some figures of
+children holding spikes of wheat, to signify bread and wine. In the
+centre of this, the largest order, is Faith, represented by the figure
+of a queen, seated on a throne, holding in her right hand a chalice with
+the host, and in the other a standard such as is seen in certain ancient
+medals of the emperors Constantine and Theodosius. Beneath her feet is a
+world, and behind her, overthrown and bound with chains, a monster with
+the face of a beautiful woman and the trunk or body of a dragon, to
+represent Heresy, which seems to attract by pleasantness of shape, being
+at bottom poison and deceit.
+
+At one side is the figure of a youth with wings, and a bandage over his
+eyes, representing Intelligence. His hands are shackled, and he is
+kneeling, as one that surrenders himself captive to Faith in all her
+mysteries, and particularly in this one.
+
+Corresponding to this figure, on the opposite side, is that of a
+beautiful woman, likewise kneeling, crossing her hands before her
+breast, and holding a book, to represent Human Wisdom, which
+acknowledges the majesty of the Catholic Faith, and is subservient
+thereto.
+
+On the right hand of Faith is Saint Peter, seated, holding his keys on
+high, and on her left Saint Paul, with naked sword, that is, the
+preaching of the word of God. High up, about the spring of the vault, is
+the figure of the Holy Spirit, assistant in the church.
+
+Between the six _asientos_ of the base are the four doctors of the
+Church, together with Saint Thomas and Pope Urban the Fourth, who
+instituted the festival of the Holy Sacrament.
+
+All these figures are half a yard in height; that is, one half the
+height of the larger columns belonging to this order.
+
+In the six niches that are between the arches, are the figures of six
+Sacraments, in this wise:--
+
+(1) _Baptism_, represented by the figure of a youth holding in one hand
+a bunch of lilies, signifying purity and innocence, and in the other a
+beautiful vessel, showing the act of washing the soul, that is the
+particular virtue of this Sacrament. Over the arch is a scroll
+containing the word BAPTISMUS.
+
+(2) _Confirmation_ is a damsel of spirited mien, armed with a helmet. In
+one hand she has some vessels of holy oil. Her other hand is raised,
+while with the index finger she expresses firm determination to confess
+the name of Christ. Inscribed upon her is the word CONFIRMATIO.
+
+(3) _Penitence_ holds in her right hand a wand, denoting spiritual
+jurisdiction, like the wand wherewith they smite the excommunicated at
+his absolution. In her left hand is a Roman javelin, that was the symbol
+of liberty, to signify the free estate of the captive's soul, and how,
+through absolution, sin is made a slave; together with the word
+P[OE]NITENTIA.
+
+(4) _Extreme Unction_ is represented by an aged woman, holding a vase
+whence issueth an olive bough, and in her other hand a candle, as token
+that this Sacrament is a succour to those that be in the last agony. The
+word inscribed is UNCTIO.
+
+(5) _Order_ is a priest with his vestments, holding an incensory,
+together with a chalice and the host, signifying Oration and Sacrifice.
+The word inscribed is ORDO.
+
+(6) _Matrimony_ is the figure of a youth, holding in one hand a cross
+with two serpents twined about it, in imitation of Mercury's wand. In
+his other hand he bears a yoke, and the inscription MATRIMONIUM.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, as being most excellent of all,
+occupies a loftier place than all these other Sacraments.
+
+The basement of this order, forming, as it were, a boundary and
+bordering to this holy edifice of the Church, has twelve pedestals
+beneath the columns, making six and thirty sides, which are adorned with
+six and thirty scenes, eighteen whereof are taken from the Old
+Testament, and the other eighteen from the New Testament, or relating to
+the present state of the Church.
+
+(1) The first scene represents how God formed Eve from one of Adam's
+ribs. An inscription at the foot of the pedestal says, _Humani generis
+auspicia_.
+
+(2) Next to the preceding is an image of our Saviour with two angels
+supporting him by the arms, while from his wounded side issue seven rays
+of blood, signifying the Church and Sacraments. The inscription says,
+_Felicior propagatio_.
+
+(3) The tree of Life, with Adam and Eve partaking of its fruit, and the
+inscription, _Peritur� gaudia vit�_.
+
+(4) A cross adorned with branches and with blades of wheat, surmounted
+by a chalice and the host, and round about it a few prostrate figures,
+eating this holy fruit, and the inscription, _Vit� melioris origo_.
+
+(5) The angel with the flaming sword, driving our fathers from Paradise,
+without suffering them to reach the tree of Life. The inscription says,
+_Procul, procul esse prophani_.
+
+(6) The parable of the banquet, from which was driven out the man that
+had no wedding garment. The inscription says, _Non licet sanctum dare
+canibus_.
+
+(7) The stream of water that issued from the rock smitten by the rod of
+Moses, and the thirsty people, drinking. The inscription says, _Bibebant
+de spirituali petra_.
+
+(8) Beside the preceding, the figure of Christ, from whose side issues a
+stream of blood, of which some sheep are drinking. The inscription says,
+_Petra autem erat Christus_.
+
+(9) The manna which fell from Heaven. The inscription says,
+_Manducaverunt et mortui sunt_.
+
+(10) The miracle of the five loaves, with the inscription, _Qui manducat
+vivit in �ternum_.
+
+(11) The raven bringing bread and meat to Elijah. The inscription says,
+_Non turpat dona minister_.
+
+(12) Next to this, an angel conveying a chalice and the host to the
+saints in the desert, with the inscription, _Sacerdos Angelus Domini
+est_.
+
+(13) Elisha throwing flour in the pot to sweeten the bitterness of the
+colocynth. The inscription says, _Vit� solamen acerb�_.
+
+(14) Christ turning the water into wine, with the inscription, _Vertit
+tristes in gaudia curas_.
+
+(15) Tobias frightening away the Devil with the smoke from the liver of
+a fish. The inscription says, _Fumum fugit atra caterva_.
+
+(16) Devils flying from an altar containing a chalice and the host, with
+the inscription, _Fugiunt phantasmata lucem_.
+
+(17) Lot inebriated, sleeping with his daughters. The inscription says,
+_De vinea sodomorum vinum eorum_.
+
+(18) A group of virgins prostrating themselves before the Sacrament upon
+the altar, with the inscription, _Hoc vinum virgines germinat_.
+
+(19) Abraham harbouring the angels and washing their feet. The
+inscription says, _Non licet illotos accedere_.
+
+(20) Christ washing the feet of his disciples before a table. The
+inscription says, _Auferte malum cogitationum vestrarum_.
+
+(21) The supper of the paschal lamb, with the inscription, _Antiqua
+novis misteria cedunt_.
+
+(22) The supper of Christ, with the inscription, _Melioris fercula
+mens�_.
+
+(23) The throne of God, before which stands the prophet Isaiah, and an
+angel whose mouth is smitten by a lighted brand. The inscription says,
+_Purgavit filios Levi_.
+
+(24) A priest before an altar, in his robes, administering the communion
+to the Christian people. The inscription says, _Probet se ipsum homo_.
+
+(25) Elijah reclining in the shade of the tree, with an angel bringing
+him bread and a vessel. The inscription says, _In pace in idipsum_.
+
+(26) A sick man in his bed, with a priest administering the Sacrament to
+him. The inscription says, _Dormiam et requiescam_.
+
+(27) Habbakuk borne by the angels to the den of lions, to carry food to
+Daniel. The inscription says, _Adjutor in opportunitatibus_.
+
+(28) An angel with a chalice and the host, which he administers to the
+souls in Purgatory. The inscription says, _Emissit vinctos de lacu_.
+
+(29) Noah sleeping beneath the vine, holding a vessel, with his sons
+gathered about him. The inscription says, _Human� ebrietatis ludibria_.
+
+(30) Christ with a chalice in his hand, and angels round him, holding
+clusters of grapes, and a cross surrounded with a vine. The inscription
+says, _Calix ejus inebrians quant pr�clarus est_.
+
+(31) A queen adorned profanely, crowned with a snake. She holds a vessel
+in her hand, and rides upon a dragon with seven heads, some of which are
+drooping, as though they were inebriated. The inscription says,
+_H�retic� impietatis ebrietas_.
+
+(32) The figure of a virtuous lady wearing a royal crown. She holds a
+chalice in her hand, and rides in a car borne by the figures of the four
+evangelists. The inscription says, _Ecclesi� Catholic� veritas_.
+
+(33) The table with the loaves of propitiation, before the tabernacle,
+with Moses and Aaron standing beside it, and the inscription, _Umbram
+fugit veritas_.
+
+(34) A custodia, with a chalice and the host, borne by angels. The
+inscription says, _Ecce panis angelorum_.
+
+(35) David and his soldiers, who receive bread from the priest's hand.
+The inscription says, _Absit mens conscia culp�_.
+
+(36) A priest, administering the Sacrament to two persons, each of whom
+has an angel beside him. The inscription says, _Sancta sanctis_.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+And since all Sacraments have virtue and efficacy from the passion of
+Christ our Saviour, which passion is perpetually commemorated by this
+holiest of Sacraments, I placed upon the summit of the twelve columns
+belonging to this order twelve child-angels, naked, bearing the signs
+and instruments of the Passion, as voices to announce this sacred
+mystery.
+
+On the tympanums of the arches are angels bearing grapes and ears of
+wheat, and in the middle of the six sides of the frieze are graven, upon
+some ovals, the following images and devices, the inscription
+corresponding to them being on the largest scroll of the architrave.
+
+(1) A garland of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, and in the midst
+thereof an open pomegranate, signifying, by the number and cohesion of
+its grains, the Church, guarded within the fortress of this holiest of
+Sacraments. The inscription says, _Posuit fines tuos pacem_.
+
+(2) A hand among clouds, extended over a nest of young ravens that have
+their beaks open and raised, with the inscription _Quanto magis vos_.
+This signifies, that the Lord who taketh care to sustain the infidels
+and pagans, taketh also especial care to sustain His Church with
+abundance of this celestial food.
+
+(3) A fair stalk of wheat, whence issue seven ears of great fatness,
+with the inscription, _Sempiterna satietas_; showing that, not as in the
+seven years in Egypt, but for ever, shall spiritual abundance abide in
+the Church of Christ, owing to this holy table of His body and His
+blood.
+
+(4) A stork upon a nest woven of wheat-ears and vine-tendrils, with the
+inscription, _Pietas incomparabilis_. Showing the piety and fatherly
+love that God affordeth to us in this Sacrament.
+
+(5) A hare smelling at a bough and some ears of wheat, with the
+inscription, _Vani sunt sensus hominis_. The hare signifies the senses,
+which are deceived by the appearance of the bread and wine, unless they
+be fortified by faith.
+
+(6) A hand bearing a wand, the end whereof is turning to a serpent, with
+this inscription, _Hic vita, hic mors_; because this Sacrament is the
+judgment and condemnation of all that receive it unworthily, but life
+for such as receive it with a clean spirit. The device has reference to
+the rod of Moses, that gave health to the people of Israel, affording
+them a passage through the midst of the sea, and making streams of sweet
+water to gush from the rock, but that was ruinous to the Egyptians,
+causing among them terrible sickness and destruction.
+
+
+                              SECOND ORDER
+
+The second order is in the Corinthian style, the columns and frieze
+adorned with foliage in the upper and lower thirds, and the other one
+with fluted columns. This order contains the Holy Sacrament in a
+circular _viril_ ornamented at its ends. Round it are the four
+evangelists with the figures of the lion, bull, eagle, and angel,
+adorning the majesty of the Lord that is within the Sacrament, whereof
+they gave true testimony, according to these words upon a tablet which
+each one holdeth in his hand:--
+
+              Saint Matthew, _Hoc est corpus meum_.
+              Saint Mark, _Hic est sanguis meus_.
+              Saint John, _Caro mea vere est cibus_.
+              Saint Luke, _Hic est calix novi testamenti_.
+
+On the outside are placed these figures, in pairs:--Saint Justa and
+Saint Rufina, patron saints of Seville; San Isidro and San Leandro,
+archbishops of the same city; San Hermenegildo and San Sebastian; San
+Servando and San Germano, martyrs; San Laureano, archbishop of Seville,
+and San Carp�foro, priest; Saint Clement, pope, and Saint Florence,
+martyr.
+
+On the six running pedestals of the columns of this order are six scenes
+or figures of ancient sacrifices, symbolic of this holiest sacrifice of
+the Eucharist, as showing how this one is the consummation and
+perfection of all sacrifices, and that the light thereof dispersed the
+shadows of the others. And these be in the following wise:--
+
+(1) The sacrifice of Abel.
+
+(2) That of Noah, on his leaving the ark.
+
+(3) That of Melchisidech.
+
+(4) That of Abraham, when he sought to sacrifice Isaac.
+
+(5) That of the lamb which was found in the thornbush and placed upon
+the altar.
+
+(6) Solomon's sacrifice at his dedication of the temple.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+On the tops of these columns are twelve figures representing the twelve
+gifts and fruits of this most holy Sacrament, as they are told of by
+Saint Thomas in his treatise on this mystery:--
+
+(1) _The conquest of the Devil_, represented by a maiden beautified and
+adorned with a palm and a cross. The inscription on the pedestal says,
+_Fuga d�monis_.
+
+(2) _Spiritual cheerfulness and delight_, in the form of another maiden,
+holding a wand wreathed with boughs and tendrils of the vine, and in her
+other hand some ears of wheat. The inscription says, _Hilaritas_.
+
+(3) _Purity of soul_, represented by a heart among flames, suspended
+over a crucible. The inscription, _Puritas_.
+
+(4) _Self-knowledge_, represented by a figure of Reason, holding in one
+hand a mirror, in which she regards herself, and in the other hand a
+leafy bough. The inscription says, _Cognitio sui_.
+
+(5) _Peace, and the appeasing of the wrath of God_, represented by a
+figure holding in one hand an olive bough, and in the other a cornucopia
+filled with grapes and wheat. The inscription, _Reconciliatio_.
+
+(6) _Inward quiet and control of the affections_, represented by a
+figure holding some poppies in one hand, and in the other a lamp, the
+lower wick of which is being extinguished. The inscription says, _Animi
+qui est_.
+
+(7) _Charity, and profound love for God and for our neighbours_,
+represented by a figure holding in one hand a lighted heart that has two
+wings, and with the other pouring from a cornucopia. The inscription
+says, _Charitas_.
+
+(8) _Increase of true worth_, represented by a figure holding in one
+hand a bough of mustard, that is wont to grow and multiply exceedingly
+from a tiny grain, and in the other hand a half-moon, receiving greater
+brightness as it waxes. The inscription says, _Meritorum multiplicatio_.
+
+(9) _Firmness and constancy in well-doing_, represented by the figure of
+a woman holding an anchor in one hand, and in the other a palm. The
+inscription says, _Constantia_.
+
+(10) _The hope that guides us to our celestial home_, represented by a
+figure holding in one hand a bunch of flowers (denoting the hope of the
+fruit that is to come), and in the other hand a star, as one that
+guideth to a haven. The inscription, _Deductio in patriam_.
+
+(11) _Resurrection_, represented by the figure of a beautiful woman,
+holding in one hand a snake, and in the other an eagle; creatures that
+renew themselves by casting off the slough of their old age. The
+inscription says, _Resurrectio_.
+
+(12) _Life Eternal_, represented by a figure holding a palm in one hand,
+and a crown in the other. The inscription says, _Vita �terna_.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+The devices contained in this order, and in the middle of the frieze,
+are as follows:--
+
+(1) A bunch of grapes upon a wand, surrounded with ears of wheat. The
+inscription says, _C[oe]lestis patri� specimen_. This signifies that, as
+the great bunch of grapes that was borne by Joshua and Caleb on their
+shoulders was a token of the fertile land of promise, so the greatness
+and the sweetness of this admirable Sacrament, which is afforded to us
+in the guise of bread and wine, is the living sign and earnest of the
+abundance reigning in the kingdom of the blessed.
+
+(2) A hand extending the index-finger, pointing to a chalice and the
+host, with the inscription, _Digitus Dei hic est_. This means that the
+miracle of this holiest of Sacraments is the work of the eternal wisdom,
+that cannot be attained by any wisdom of us humans.
+
+(3) A rainbow, and above it a chalice with the host, and the
+inscription, _Signum f[oe]deris sempiterni_. Signifying, that as in the
+olden time God vouchsafed the rainbow to Noah in sign of friendship and
+alliance, so does He now vouchsafe His own flesh and blood as a true and
+effective token of His lasting association with mankind.
+
+(4) Two rays, crossed, and in their midst an olive bough, with the
+inscription, _Recordabor f[oe]deris mei vobiscum_. These are the words
+that were spoken by God to Noah, when He made the said alliance with
+him, giving to understand the clemency wherewith God treateth mankind in
+the lesson of this divinest Sacrament, forgetting their errors, and
+establishing perpetual peace and amity with them.
+
+(5) The pelican feeding her young with the life-blood issuing from her
+breast. The inscription says, _Majorem charitatem nemo habet_.
+
+(6) A dead lion, from whose mouth issueth a swarm of bees, with the
+inscription, _De forti dulcedo_. Giving to understand, that as from the
+mouth of so brave a creature there issued a substance so sweet as honey,
+so did the God of vengeance, the brave Lion of the tribe of Judah,
+concert such love and peace with man, that He offered His very body for
+man's food.
+
+
+                              THIRD ORDER
+
+The rest of the third order, as far as the summit of the _custodia_,
+represents the Church triumphant: wherefore was placed in the midst of
+this order (which is in the composite style) the history of the Lamb
+that is upon the throne, and round about it the four beasts that are
+full of eyes, as the Apocalypse relateth.
+
+Upon the six continuous pedestals of the columns of this order are
+graved the following six scenes:--
+
+(1) The saints who wash their stoles in the blood that issues from the
+Lamb, as is told in the Apocalypse.
+
+(2) God the Father, with a sickle in His hand, and angels gathering
+grapes in the vat, and corn in the granary, after winnowing out the
+chaff; signifying the reward accorded unto men in sowing, and in the
+harvest of the vine.
+
+(3) The saints in joyful procession, each with his sheaf of wheat.
+
+(4) The virgins, crowned with vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, that
+follow the Lamb.
+
+(5) The five prudent virgins, that with their lighted lamps go in to the
+feast of the Bridegroom.
+
+(6) The banquet of the blessed.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Between the arches of this order are the six hieroglyphs following, with
+their inscriptions above, upon tablets.
+
+(1) A burning ph[oe]nix, with the inscription, _Instauratio generis
+humani_.
+
+(2) Two cornucopias crossed, with a cross in their midst. The
+cornucopias are full of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat. The inscription
+says, _Felicitas humani generis_.
+
+(3) A kingfisher brooding over her young in a nest of vine-tendrils and
+blades of wheat, with the inscription, _Tranquillitas immutabilis_. This
+signifies the calm state of the blessed, whereof a token is the nest of
+the kingfisher, which bird, when it crosses the water, causes all storms
+to cease.
+
+(4) A car with flames, rising to heaven, with the inscription, _Sic itur
+ad astra_. Signifying that this divinest Sacrament is the harbinger of
+those that travel heavenward, in that Elijah was so swept away, after
+God had sent him bread by the angel and the raven.
+
+(5) Two dolphins, whose tails are crossed, and in the middle a chalice
+and the host, with the inscription, _Deliti� generis humani_. By this
+device is signified the love and the delight bestowed by God on men by
+means of this Sacrament.
+
+(6) An altar adorned with festoons of vine-tendrils and blades of wheat,
+with flames upon it, and bearing the inscription, _�ternum sacrificium_.
+
+
+                              FOURTH ORDER
+
+In this order is represented the Holy Trinity upon a rainbow, surrounded
+by many rays of splendour, and in the fifth order is a bell, surmounted
+by a simple cross.
+
+Thus are all the parts of the _custodia_ adorned with the foregoing
+beautiful decoration, having regard to their proportions and their
+symmetry, according to the rules of good architecture, and to the
+movements and position of the statuary, designed after nature, as was
+prescribed by the inventor of histories. "_Et in his omnibus sensum
+matris Ecclesi� sequimur, cujus etiam juditium reveremur._"
+
+Such is the description, written by Arfe himself, of this wonderful
+masterpiece of silver-work. Unfortunately, since his time the _custodia_
+has been much meddled with by profane hands, and has been subjected to
+various impertinent "restorations" and "improvements." Thus, the
+original statuette of Faith, seated on her throne, has been replaced by
+another of the Virgin, and the twelve child-angels, holding the
+instruments of the passion, by the same number of figures of a larger
+size and far inferior workmanship. Further, some simple pyramids which
+crowned the fourth order were foolishly replaced by badly executed
+statuettes of children, and the Egyptian obelisk, resting on four small
+spheres, which surmounted the whole _custodia_, by an unwieldy statue
+representing the Catholic Faith.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+           DESCRIPTION OF THE _CUSTODIA_ OF CORDOVA CATHEDRAL
+
+                 (From _C�rdoba_, by PEDRO DE MADRAZO)
+
+As I have stated in Vol. I., p. 98, the author of this _custodia_ was
+Enrique de Arfe, Juan de Arfe's grandfather. "The base, supported on
+small wheels placed in the interior, is in the form of a regular
+dodecagon, each side of which measures a foot. On the twelve-sided plate
+which forms the base and which has well executed heads of seraphs at
+each corner, is an order consisting of three tiers. The first, which has
+projecting and receding angles, leaves, about six sides of the
+dodecagon, a free space for the handles by which the _custodia_ is
+raised. The first tier forms a kind of socle with six buttresses, on the
+surface of which are represented allegorical scenes, alternated in rows
+with graceful designs in relief, grotesque and pastoral dances, and
+scenes from Bible history relative to the carriage of the Tabernacle.
+This tier is surmounted by a gilded balustrade of elegant design. The
+bas-reliefs are wrought alternately in gold and silver.
+
+"The second tier is formed by a small socle, crowned by a band of leaves
+and diminutive figures. Over this is a gilded balustrade, and finally
+another and a broader frieze containing gilded figures, together with
+delicate foliage wrought in dull silver. This second tier grows
+gradually narrower, and sustains the third, whose base projects, serving
+as cornice to the frieze of the tier below, and decorated with a gilded
+balustrade. Upon it rises a mass or body with twelve sides, following
+the same arrangement of projecting and receding angles as the lower
+tiers. In each of its receding spaces this order contains three
+compartments, and in each of its salient faces it has a small tower or
+buttress, which springs from the base and rests upon a delicate plinth
+carved with a gilded ornamental band. Thus, the order we are describing
+has six salient faces behind the six towers or buttresses, and six
+spaces containing three open compartments. In these compartments,
+separated one from another by diminutive buttresses with delicate
+pinnacles, there is the same number of sunken spaces, one inch deep, on
+which are represented, in high relief, scenes of the life and passion of
+our Lord. The figures, admirably executed, are two inches high. Above
+this order is a projecting cornice, decorated along its lower part with
+a band of dull silver. It should be noted, that as the _custodia_
+narrows gradually as it rises, the receding spaces grow proportionally
+larger, thus affording room for the spacious inner order on which is
+raised the _viril_. This order is formed by a crystal cylinder
+(containing the host) resting on a base which is also cylindrical, the
+lower part of which is decorated with a broad hexagonal band, narrower
+at the top than at the bottom, and wrought with delicate foliage and
+figures, as are the bands which lie beneath it. Above the transparent
+cylinder enclosing the _viril_ rises a Gothic vault, drooping over in
+the manner of a plume, and resting on the buttresses which fill the
+projecting spaces on the base of the principal order. These buttresses
+have a similar arrangement to, and coincide with, the other ones which
+spring from the base of the third tier of the first order, and are
+joined one to another by means of fine cross-buttresses surmounted by
+statuettes. The circular vault which holds the crystal cylinder
+containing the _viril_, and which resembles that of the rotunda
+dedicated as a sepulchral chapel by the emperor Constantine to the
+memory of his daughter, saint Constance, supports other and finer
+buttresses, alternated with those beneath; but instead of rising from
+the salient spaces of the base, these rise from the receding spaces and
+support another vault, of smooth open-work, beneath which is a graceful
+statuette of Nuestra Se�ora de la Asunci�n. Over this vault is a kind of
+open-work dome, consisting of an effective series of pinnacles and
+buttresses in the shape of segments of a circle, which bridge over the
+summits of the pinnacles. Upon the dome is a crown surmounted by a
+statuette of Christ triumphant, with the cross. The two vaults--that
+which encloses the _viril_, and the other one above it, enclosing the
+image of the Virgin--are masked on the outside by arches of elegant
+design, crowned by an elaborate balustrade. The turrets or buttresses
+which rise upon the lowest and the principal orders are decorated with
+numerous statuettes, resting on plinths of exquisite design, covered by
+open-work canopies.
+
+"This masterpiece of art is made of gold, and polished and unpolished
+silver. The weight is 532 marks.... Unfortunately, it lacks its original
+purity of style, having been restored in the year 1735, when it is
+probable that certain details were added which now disfigure it."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX D
+
+         THE IMPERIAL CROWN OF THE VIRGEN DEL SAGRARIO, TOLEDO
+
+This was the most elaborate and costly crown that had ever been produced
+in Spain for decorating an image of the Virgin. The following is a
+sketch of it:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Before it was enlarged to the imperial shape, this crown was executed by
+a silversmith named Fernando de Carri�n, who finished it in the year
+1556, and was paid for his labour 760,000 _maravedis_. It then consisted
+of a gold diadem adorned with rows of pearls, emeralds, rubies, and
+enamelled devices of various colours, in the style of the Renaissance.
+
+The superstructure, which converts it into what is known as an imperial
+crown, was added by Alejo de Montoya, another silversmith of Toledo, who
+began it in 1574, and completed it twelve years later. The addition
+consisted of a number of gold statuettes of angels, covered with enamel,
+measuring in height from two inches to two and a half, distributed in
+pairs, and supporting decorative devices attached to the body of the
+crown. From behind these angels sprang gold bands thickly studded with
+precious stones, and terminating towards their union at the apex of the
+crown in seated allegorical figures grouped about a globe surmounted by
+a cross. This globe consisted of a single emerald, clear, perfect both
+in colour and in shape, and measuring an inch and a half in diameter.
+The inside of the hoop was covered with enamels representing emblems of
+the Virgin, disposed in a series of medallions, and the dimensions of
+the entire crown were eleven inches high by nine across the widest part.
+
+The crown was examined and reported upon by two goldsmiths of Madrid,
+who declared it to contain the following precious stones:--
+
+    Two balas rubies,                valued at 150,000 _maravedis_
+    Twelve rubies,                       "     403,528      "
+    Twelve emeralds,                     "     237,500      "
+    Fifty-seven diamonds,                "     555,396      "
+    One hundred and eighty-two pearls,   "     397,838      "
+
+The precious stones were thus valued at a total of 1,744,262
+_maravedis_. Besides this, the value of the gold and silver contained in
+the crown was estimated to amount to 405,227 _maravedis_, while
+3,097,750 _maravedis_ were allowed for the workmanship. These figures
+relate to the part which was made by Alejo de Montoya only. That which
+had previously been executed by Fernando de Carri�n was valued at
+1,954,156 _maravedis_, making a grand total, for the whole jewel, of
+7,201,395 _maravedis_. At the present day the intrinsic value of the
+crown would be from nine to ten thousand pounds sterling.
+
+In 1869 this splendid specimen of Renaissance jewellery was stolen from
+a cupboard in the cathedral of Toledo, sharing thus the fate of many
+other precious objects which have been entrusted to the slender
+vigilance or slender probity of Spanish church authorities.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX E
+
+                      GOLD INLAY ON STEEL AND IRON
+
+The inlaying of iron or steel with gold is often thought to be a craft
+particularly Spanish, and to have been inherited directly by the Spanish
+Christians from the Spanish Moors. This work, however, although we may
+assume it to have been of Eastern origin in a period of remote
+antiquity, was quite familiar to the ancient Romans, including,
+probably, such as made their home in Spain. The Memoirs of Benvenuto
+Cellini contain the following notice of the work in question:--
+
+"I met with some little Turkish daggers, the handles of which were of
+iron as well as the blade, and even the scabbard was of that metal. On
+these were engraved several fine foliages in the Turkish taste, most
+beautifully filled up with gold. I found I had a strong inclination to
+cultivate this branch likewise, which was so different from the rest;
+and finding that I had great success in it, I produced several pieces in
+this way. My performances, indeed, were much finer and more durable than
+the Turkish, for several reasons: one was, that I made a much deeper
+incision in the steel than is generally practised in Turkish works; the
+other, that their foliages are nothing else but chicory leaves, with
+some few flowers of echites: these have, perhaps, some grace, but they
+do not continue to please like our foliages. In Italy there is a variety
+of tastes, and we cut foliages in many different forms. The Lombards
+make the most beautiful wreaths, representing ivy and vine-leaves, and
+others of the same sort, with agreeable twinings highly pleasing to the
+eye. The Romans and the Tuscans have a much better notion in this
+respect, for they represent acanthus leaves, with all their festoons and
+flowers, winding in a variety of forms; and amongst these leaves they
+insert birds and animals of several sorts with great ingenuity and
+elegance in the arrangement. They likewise have recourse occasionally to
+wild flowers, such as those called Lions' Mouths, from their peculiar
+shape, accompanied by other fine inventions of the imagination, which
+are termed grotesques by the ignorant. These foliages have received that
+name from the moderns, because they are found in certain caverns in
+Rome, which in ancient days were chambers, baths, studies, halls, and
+other places of a like nature. The curious happened to discover them in
+these subterranean caverns, whose low situation is owing to the raising
+of the surface of the ground in a series of ages; and as these caverns
+in Rome are commonly called grottos, they from thence acquired the name
+of grotesque. But this is not their proper name; for, as the ancients
+delighted in the composition of chimerical creatures, and gave to the
+supposed promiscuous breed of animals the appellation of monsters, in
+like manner artists produced by their foliages monsters of this sort;
+and that is the proper name for them--not grotesques. In such a taste I
+made foliages filled up in the manner above mentioned, which were far
+more elegant and pleasing to the eye than the Turkish works.
+
+"It happened about this time that certain vases were discovered, which
+appeared to be antique urns filled with ashes. Amongst these were iron
+rings inlaid with gold, in each of which was set a diminutive shell.
+Learned antiquarians, upon investigating the nature of these rings,
+declared their opinion that they were worn as charms by those who
+desired to behave with steadiness and resolution either in prosperous or
+adverse fortune.
+
+"I likewise took things of this nature in hand at the request of some
+gentlemen who were my particular friends, and wrought some of these
+little rings; but I made them of steel well tempered, and then cut and
+inlaid with gold, so that they were very beautiful to behold: sometimes
+for a single ring of this sort I was paid above forty crowns."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX F
+
+                          OLD SPANISH PULPITS
+
+The earliest pulpits of the Spaniards were similar to those of other
+Christian nations. One of them was the _tribuna_ or _tribunal_, so
+called, according to Saint Isidore, "because the minister delivers from
+it the precepts for a righteous life, wherefore it is a seat or place
+constructed upon high, in order that all he utters may be heard." The
+ambo, too, although it is not mentioned by Saint Isidore, was probably
+not unknown among the Spaniards.[61] Then there were various desks, such
+as the _analogia_, _legitoria_, or _lectra_, on which the scriptures
+were deposited in church, or carried in procession, and from which the
+latter were read aloud by the priest. Saint Isidore remarks of the
+_analogium_; "It is so called because the word is preached therefrom,
+and because it occupies the highest place."[62] Ducange, quoting from
+old authors, remarks in his Glossary that these desks were often adorned
+with gold and silver plates or precious stones. Thus it is extremely
+probable that Tarik's celebrated "table" (see Vol. I., pp. 31 _et seq._)
+was merely some elaborate and bejewelled _analogium_ of the Christians;
+such as was, in fact, the predecessor of the modern lectern or
+"hand-pulpit."
+
+  [61] "Ambo, pulpitum ubi ex duabus partibus sunt gradus." Ugutio,
+       quoted by Ducange.
+
+  [62] _Originum_, Book XV., Chap. iv.
+
+According to Amador de los R�os, sermons in those early times were
+delivered from the _analogium_ only. Towards the twelfth century, the
+Isidorian liturgy was abolished in Spain, and the furniture of Spanish
+temples underwent some change. In the same century and throughout the
+century following, the Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Order of
+Preachers, while, coinciding with, or closely consequent upon, this
+movement, the primitive ambo was succeeded by the _jub�_, and wood, as
+the material of which the pulpit was constructed, by marble, iron,
+stone, or plaster.
+
+Two Mudejar pulpits of great interest are preserved at Toledo, in the
+church of Santiago del Arabal (thirteenth century), and in the convent,
+erected in the reign of Pedro the Cruel, of Santo Domingo el Real. The
+substance of these ancient objects is a brick and plaster foundation,
+with panels of the stucco known as _obra de yeser�a_, produced from
+wooden moulds. The pulpit of the church of Santiago is traditionally
+affirmed to be the one from which, in 1411, Saint Vincent Ferrer
+delivered a sermon to the Toledan Jews. Whether this be so or not, the
+date of its construction is undoubtedly the second half of the
+fourteenth century, or early in the fifteenth. The shape is octagonal--a
+very common form with Gothic pulpits. It is divided into four _cuerpos_
+or orders, including the sounding-board. The decoration, which is
+chiefly floral, is a combination of the Gothic and the Moorish styles.
+
+The pulpit of Santo Domingo el Real stands in the refectory of that
+convent. It dates from the same period as the one belonging to the
+church of Santiago, but unlike this latter, bears no trace of former
+gilding, painting, or enamelling upon the surface of the stone or
+plaster. It has three tiers or compartments, and, as in the other
+pulpit, the decoration consists of leaves and flowers, blended with
+geometrical patterns and Moorish _lacer�a_.
+
+The Moorish _mimbar_ or pulpit of the mosque of Cordova was very
+wonderful. According to Sentenach, its situation was near the archway
+leading to the _mihrab_, and on its desk rested the sacred copy of the
+Koran which had belonged to the Caliph Othman, and which was stated to
+be stained with his blood.
+
+This _mimbar_, sacrificed long years ago to Christian barbarism and
+neglect, was the richest piece of furniture in all that mighty building,
+seven years of unremitting labour being exhausted by Al-Hakem's
+craftsmen in constructing it of the richest and most aromatic woods,
+inlaid with silver, ivory, gold, and precious stones. Ambrosio de
+Morales called it "King Almanzor's chair," describing it quaintly as a
+four-wheeled car of richly-wrought wood, mounted by means of seven
+steps. "A few years since," he adds, "they broke it up, I know not
+wherefore. So disappeared this relic of an olden time."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX G
+
+                            SPANISH CUTLERS
+
+In former times excellent cutlery, such as knives, scissors, daggers,
+spearheads, and surgical instruments, was made in Spain, at Seville,
+Albacete, Toledo, Valencia, Pamplona, Ronda, Pe��scola, Guadix, Ripoll,
+Mora, Olot, and Tolosa. Rico y Sinobas has given an interesting
+description of the workshop and apparatus of one of these old Spanish
+cutlers--his graduated set of hammers, weighing from a few ounces to
+five pounds, his hand-saws, bench-saw, chisels, pincers, files, and
+drills, his forge, measuring from a yard square to a yard and a half,
+his two anvils of the toughest iron, the larger with a flat surface of
+three inches by ten inches, for ordinary work, the smaller terminated by
+conical points for making the thumb and finger holes of scissors.[63]
+The method of tempering and forging practised by these cutlers was much
+the same as that of the Toledo swordsmiths.
+
+  [63] _Noticia Hist�rica de la Cuchiller�a y de los Cuchilleros Antiguos
+       en Espa�a_ (_Almanaque de El Museo de la Industria_, Madrid, 1870).
+
+Rico y Sinobas also embodied in his essay the following list of cutlers
+and cutler-armourers, who manufactured knives, penknives, scissors,
+parts of firearms, or heads and blades for lances, halberds, and the
+like. The following is a summary of the list in question:--
+
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+        NAME.         |    DATE.            |         WORKED AT
+  --------------------+---------------------+----------------------------
+  Acacio              |17th century         |? He made spearheads and
+                      |                     |  fittings for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Aguas, Juan de      |Early in 18th century|Guadix.
+                      |                     |
+  Alanis              |Late 16th century    |? Maker of fittings for
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Albacete            |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Ambrosio            |Late 18th century    |Mora. Maker of large
+                      |                     |scissors for
+                      |                     |sheep-shearing.
+                      |                     |
+  Arbell, Ram�n       |17th century (?)     |Olot. Knife-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (the elder)|Late 15th century    |Guip�zcoa (?). A celebrated
+                      |and early 16th       |maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (Crist�bal)|16th century         |? Also a maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |  crossbows. He was the
+                      |                     |  fourth descendant of the
+                      |                     |  family who worked at this
+                      |                     |  branch of the cutler's
+                      |                     |  craft.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (Juan)     |16th century         |? Perhaps a member of the
+                      |                     |  same family. He also made
+                      |                     |  pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Beson, Manuel       |18th century         |Madrid. Knife-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Bis, Francisco      |18th century         |Madrid (see Vol. I.,
+                      |                     |p. 273). Maker of knives and
+                      |                     |arquebuses.
+                      |                     |
+  Blanco, Juan        |16th century         |Maker of crossbows, and of
+                      |                     |pieces for the same.
+                      |                     |
+  Castellanos (the    |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+  elder)              |                     |
+                      |                     |
+  Castellanos (the    |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+  younger)            |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Castillo, Gregorio  |Late 16th century    |Catalu�a (?).
+                      |                     |Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Cerda, Miguel de la |Late 16th century    |Madrid and Segovia. He made
+                      |                     |scissors and other
+                      |                     |cutlery.
+                      |                     |
+  Criado, Juan        |Early 17th century   |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Diaz, Pedro         |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Escobar, Crist�bal  |Late 16th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |and early 17th       |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Escobar, Juan       |17th century         |Madrid (?). Son of the
+                      |                     |preceding, and also a maker
+                      |                     |of pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Fernandez Manso     |Late 18th century    |Guadalajara.  A Portuguese,
+  de Payba, Jos�      |                     |naturalized in Spain.  He
+                      |                     |was a scissors-maker of
+                      |                     |considerable fame.
+                      |                     |
+  Fuente, Pedro de la |Late 15th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of
+                      |or early 16th        |crossbows and their pieces.
+                      |                     |
+  Garc�a, Domingo     |Late 17th century    |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |                     |cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Garc�a de la Torre, |Early 18th century   |Guadalix and Alcorc�n.
+  Teodoro             |                     |Cutler. In company with
+                      |                     |Manuel Beson, he invented a
+                      |                     |method of converting iron
+                      |                     |into steel.
+                      |                     |
+  Garijo              |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Garro, Mart�n       |Early 15th century   |Pamplona. Cutler and
+                      |                     |swordsmith. A letter dated
+                      |                     |October 31st, 1406, records
+                      |                     |that he was paid five
+                      |                     |_escudos_ for making a
+                      |                     |sword, and one _escudo_ for
+                      |                     |a dagger.
+                      |                     |
+  Gomez, Mateo        |Late 17th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Grajeras            |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Grande, Juan        |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of
+                      |                     |lanceheads.
+                      |                     |
+  Gutierrez           |Late 17th century    |Chinchilla. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Hernandez, Juan     |16th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Herraez, Andres     |Late 16th century    |Cuenca. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |                     |cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Herrezuelo (the     |Late 16th century    |Baeza. Cutler.
+  elder)              |and early 17th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Herrezuelo (the     |Early 17th century   |Baeza.
+  younger)            |                     |Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Horbeira, Angel     |Late 17th century    |Madrid. Cutler; a native of
+                      |                     |Galicia, and reputed to be
+                      |                     |one of the best craftsmen of
+                      |                     |his time. He was known as
+                      |                     |_El Borgo�on_, and passed
+                      |                     |his early life in Flanders.
+                      |                     |
+  Hortega             |Early 16th century   |? Maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Lallabe, Juan de    |Early 19th century   |? Cutler, locksmith, and
+                      |                     |  maker of surgical
+                      |                     |  instruments.
+                      |                     |
+  Lastra, Juan        |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows. He was one
+                      |                     |of the latest and most
+                      |                     |celebrated of these
+                      |                     |craftsmen.
+                      |                     |
+  Leon                |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Llorens, Pablo      |Late 17th century    |Olot. Cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Marcoarte, Simon    |Late 16th century    |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |and early 17th       |cutler. He was the son of
+                      |                     |another craftsman of the
+                      |                     |same name, who settled in
+                      |                     |Spain in the reign of
+                      |                     |Charles the Fifth
+                      |                     |(see Vol. I., p. 273).
+                      |                     |
+  Martinez, Juan      |Early 16th century   |? Maker of darts and lances
+                      |                     |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Mendoza, Francisco  |Early 18th century   |Trigueros (Old Castile).
+  and Manuel          |                     |Cutlers.
+                      |                     |
+  Moreno, Luis        |Late 15th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |or early 16th        |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Moro, El            |Late 18th century    |Madrid. Cutler.
+                      |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Mu�oz of Getafe     |16th century and     |? Maker of pieces for
+                      |early 17th           |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  �ipa, Juan          |       ?             |Madrid. Maker of crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Perez de Villadiego,|16th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+  Juan                |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Perez, Julian       |Early 17th century   |Madrid (?). Maker of darts
+                      |                     |  and lances for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Puebla (the elder)  |Early 16th century   |Madrid. Maker of parts of
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Ramirez, Juan       |Late 16th century    |? Cutler. He emigrated to
+                      |                     |  the city of Puebla de los
+                      |                     |  Angeles, in Mexico, where
+                      |                     |  he continued to make
+                      |                     |  knives, scissors, and
+                      |                     |  weapons of good quality.
+                      |                     |
+  Renedo (the elder)  |Early 16th century(?)|? Maker of darts and lances
+                      |                     |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Renedo (the younger)| Late 16th century   |? Son of the preceding. He
+                      |                     |  and early 17th  made the
+                      |                     |  same objects as his
+                      |                     |  father.
+                      |                     |
+  Romero              |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Rosel               |         ?           |Mora. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  San Jos�, Brother   |Late 17th century    |Jaen. Scissors-maker.
+  Antonio             |                     |
+                      |                     |
+  Santamar�a          |Late 16th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |and early 17th       |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Selva, Juan         |Late 18th century    |Cartagena and Madrid. Cutler
+                      |                     |and iron-founder.
+                      |                     |
+  Segura              |Late 18th century    |Mora. Scissors-maker.
+                      |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Sierra, Juan        |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Soler, Isidro       |Late 18th century    |Madrid.  Arquebus-maker,
+                      |                     |and early 19th  cutler, and
+                      |                     |author of _An Historical
+                      |                     |Essay on making Arquebuses_.
+                      |                     |
+  Sosa                |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of weapons,
+                      |                     |especially the heads of
+                      |                     |lances.
+                      |                     |
+  Targarona,          |Late 18th century    |Madrid.  Arquebus-maker to
+  Francisco           |                     |Charles the Third and
+                      |                     |Charles the Fourth, and one
+                      |                     |of the most skilful
+                      |                     |craftsmen of his day.
+                      |                     |
+  Tijerero, El        |         ?           |Toledo. Maker of swords and
+  (Domingo Sanchez)   |                     |scissors.
+                      |                     |
+  Torres              |Early 17th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Ucedo               |Late 16th century and|? Maker of pieces for
+                      |perhaps early 17th   |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  V....               |16th century (?)     |Toledo (?).  Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |The rest of this craftsman's
+                      |                     |name is not known.
+                      |                     |
+  Valderas, Pedro de  |16th century         |Madrid and Valladolid. Maker
+                      |                     |of pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Vicen-Perez, Pedro  |Late 17th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Vilarasa, Antonio   |Late 17th century    |? Cutler and razor-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  ... Emt.., Julian   |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |Only a fragment of his name
+                      |                     |has been preserved upon a
+                      |                     |blade. Rico y Sinobas
+                      |                     |suggests thatthe entire
+                      |                     |surname may have been
+                      |                     |_Vicen-Perez_.
+                      |                     |
+  Zeruantes,          |Late 17th century    |Toledo. Maker of blades for
+  Francisco           |                     |halberds.
+                      |                     |
+  Zamora ("the deaf") |Late 16th century    |Castile. Cutler,
+                      |and early 17th       |
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+                               APPENDIX H
+
+                          SPANISH TRADE-GUILDS
+
+The _gremios_ of Spain were copied from the guilds of France and other
+countries, and may be traced originally to the _corpora_ and _collegia_
+of the Romans and Byzantines. The earliest which were formed in the
+Peninsula were those of Barcelona[64] and Soria, succeeded, not long
+after, by Valencia, Seville,[65] and Toledo. Prior, however, to the
+institution of these trade-guilds proper, whose purpose was
+pre-eminently mercenary,[66] there existed, in the case of several
+cities, _cofrad�as_ or religious brotherhoods, that is, associations of
+a philanthropic character, composed of tradesmen or artificers who
+pledged themselves to assist each other in poverty or sickness, or to
+defray the burial expenses of such members as should die without
+resources.
+
+  [64] See P�rez Pujol, _Condici�n social de las personas � principios del
+       siglo V_. "The ironsmiths of Barcelona," says Ria�o, "formed an
+       extensive guild in the thirteenth century; in 1257, four of its
+       members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild
+       increased in importance in the following centuries."
+
+  [65] The history of the Sevillian trade-guilds begins properly with the
+       fifteenth century, although Gestoso states in his _Diccionario de
+       Art�fices Sevillanos_ that he has found a few documents which seem
+       to point to their existence in the century preceding.
+
+       When the Spanish Christians pitched their camp before this city,
+       prior to their victorious assault upon its walls, the besieging
+       army was divided according to the various trades of its component
+       soldiery: the spicers in one part of the camp, the apothecaries in
+       another, and so forth. It is therefore probable that the Sevillian
+       trade-guilds were instituted shortly after the re-conquest. The
+       wages of smiths, shoemakers, silversmiths, armourers, and other
+       craftsmen were decreed by Pedro the First in his _Ordenamiento de
+       Menestrales_. The ordinances of the silversmiths, in particular,
+       are so old that Gestoso believes them to have been renewed and
+       confirmed by Juan the Second, in the year 1416. However this may
+       be, it is certain that the Seville guilds were regularly
+       constituted in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+  [66] Barzanallana defines the word _gremio_ "as it came to be understood
+       in Spain," as "any gathering of merchants, artisans, labourers, or
+       other persons who practised the same profession, art, or office;
+       and who were bound to comply with certain ordinances, applicable to
+       each individual of their number."
+
+       It is well, however, to distinguish broadly between actual
+       manufacturers or producers (_menestrales de manos_) and merchants
+       or shopkeepers (_mercaderes de tienda y de escriptorio_), who
+       merely trafficked in what was executed by another.
+
+The formula of admission to a Spanish brotherhood was very quaint in its
+punctilious and precise severity. A notice of this ceremony, relating to
+the Cofrad�a of Saint Eligius, or Silversmiths' Brotherhood of
+Seville,[67] is quoted by Gestoso from the venerable _Regla de
+Hermandad_ or statutes of the members, preserved in a codex dating from
+the first half of the sixteenth century. It was required that the
+candidate for admission should be a silversmith, married in conformity
+with the canons of the church, a man well spoken of among his
+neighbours, and not a recent convert to the Christian faith. The day
+prescribed for choosing or rejecting him was that which was consecrated
+to Saint John the Baptist, coinciding with the festival of Saint Eligius
+or San Loy, "patron and representative" of silversmiths, and who in life
+had been a silversmith himself. The regulations of the Cofrad�a decreed
+the following method of election. "In the chest belonging to the
+Brotherhood shall be kept a wood or metal vessel with space sufficient
+to contain some fifty beans or almonds; and the said vessel shall be set
+in our chapter-room, in a spot where no man is. Each of the brothers
+that are present shall next be given one of the beans or almonds, and,
+rising from his seat, arrange his cloak about him so as to conceal his
+hands, in order that none may witness whether he drops, or does not
+drop, the almond or the bean into the vessel. Then, with due
+dissimulation, he shall proceed to where the vessel lies, and if he deem
+that he who seeks to be admitted as our brother be an honourable man,
+and such as shall contribute to the lustre of our Brotherhood, then
+shall he drop in a bean or almond, and return to his seat, still
+covering his hands with his cloak. But if, upon the contrary, he deem
+that the said candidate be a sinner, and a riotous fellow and bad
+Christian, that should prove a source of evil and vexation to our
+chapter, or that hath wronged another of our brethren, then shall he not
+cast in the bean or almond, but secretly reserve the same, and once more
+seat himself. Lastly, when all shall have crossed over to and from the
+vessel, they shall bear it to the table where the officers sit, and void
+it in the sight of all the company, and count the beans or almonds; and
+if the number of these be full, then is it clear that we do receive the
+other for our _Hermano_. But if there be a bean or almond wanting, in
+that a brother hath retained it in his fingers, then shall our
+_Alcaldes_ speak to this effect. 'Se�ores: here wants a bean or almond'
+(or two, or any number, as may be). 'Within eight days from now let him
+that kept it back present himself to us, or to any one of us, and give
+account why he that sought admission to our Brotherhood deserves to be
+rejected.' And if the brother that kept back the bean or almond should
+not present himself within the appointed time, then shall the
+Brotherhood admit the other: but if he appear, and state a lawful cause
+against the other's entry, then our _Alcaldes_, when this last presents
+himself to learn their resolution, shall urge him to have patience, in
+that not all the brothers are content with him, albeit, if such cause
+consisteth in a quarrel between a brother and the candidate for entry,
+peace may be brought about between the two, and afterward the _Cofrad�a_
+may admit him of their number."
+
+  [67] This guild, as all the others, held an annual convocation of its
+       members, and possessed a chapel of its own in the convent of San
+       Francisco. It exercised a strict and constant supervision upon the
+       gold and silver work produced throughout the city. On April 15th,
+       1567, the inspectors appointed and salaried by the guild visited
+       the shop of Antonio de Cuevas, and seized an _Agnus Dei_ and a
+       faultily executed cross, both of which objects were destroyed
+       forthwith. On February 8th, 1569, they repeated their visit to the
+       same silversmith, and seized an _apretador_, which was likewise
+       broken up. On February 9th, 1602, they entered the shop of Antonio
+       de Ahumada, and took away "two rings, a gold _encomienda_, a cross
+       of Saint John, some small cocks, a toothpick, and a San Diego of
+       silver." Similar notices of fines, confiscations, and other
+       punishments exist in great abundance, and may be studied in
+       Gestoso's dictionary. See also Vol. I., p. 114, of the present
+       work.
+
+Similar ceremonies and customs were observed in old Toledo (see the
+Ordinances of this city, dated June 24th, 1423, renewed and amplified in
+1524).[68] Here also the silversmiths agreed to meet and celebrate the
+festival of their patron saint upon one day in every year, "for ever and
+for ever" (_para siempre jam�s_). On these occasions the image of the
+saint was carried in procession, and a repast was given to the brothers
+themselves, as well as to all persons who were "willing to receive it
+for the love of God." Every brother who failed to present himself at
+this solemnity was fined one pound of candle-wax; but if he were merely
+unpunctual, and arrived "after the singing of the first three psalms,"
+the fine was only half a pound. A pound of candle-wax was also the
+statutory tribute for admission to the Brotherhood, together with a
+hundred _maravedis_ and other unimportant sums in cash.
+
+The history of the _gremios_ of Valencia has been traced in an
+instructive essay by Luis Tramoyeres Blasco. Early in the fifteenth
+century guilds were established here of nearly thirty trades, including
+tailors, millers, carpenters, shoemakers, silversmiths, weavers,
+tanners, dyers, swordsmiths, and bonnet-makers. These guilds developed
+greatly in the sixteenth century, expanding into powerful and wealthy
+bodies, who practically controlled the entire commerce and commercial
+products of their native town. Among the _gremios_ instituted at a later
+date were those of the firework-makers, basket-makers, twisters of
+silk, stiffeners of dress fabrics, bell-founders, and painters of
+chests and boxes, each of these corporations being enrolled by law, and
+possessing a code of regulations for the government and guidance of its
+members. Sometimes, however, owing to diminution in its trade, a guild
+became extinct, as happened with the _guadamacileros_ (see Vol. II., pp.
+38 _et seq._), and with the clothmakers, of whom, in 1595, but three
+remained in all Valencia. Or else a _gremio_ would purposely amalgamate
+with, or merge insensibly into, another. Thus in 1668 the tailors and
+the makers of trunk-hose united in a single corporation, just as, at
+other times, the glovers and the parchment-dressers, the clog-makers and
+the shoemakers.
+
+  [68] The foremost in importance of the _gremios_ of Toledo was that of
+       the silk-weavers (_arte mayor de la seda_), whose earliest
+       ordinances date from A.D. 1533.
+
+       Interesting particulars of the old Toledan _gremios_ generally will
+       be found in the municipal archives of this city, in the _Ordenanzas
+       para el buen r�gimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal �
+       imperial ciudad de Toledo_ (reprinted in 1858); in Mart�n Gamero's
+       _History of Toledo_; and in the Count of Cedillo's scholarly
+       monograph, _Toledo in the Sixteenth Century_.
+
+Those of the Valencian guilds which possessed the greatest influence and
+resources, and enjoyed the highest privileges from the city or the
+crown, were called _colegiados_. Among them were the velvet-makers,
+hatters, bronze-founders, wax-makers, confectioners, dyers, and makers
+of silk hose. The earliest to obtain this coveted and honourable title
+were the booksellers, in 1539, followed by the wax-makers in 1634, the
+confectioners in 1644, the velvet-makers also in this year, and others
+in succession, terminating with the dyers in 1763, the hatters in 1770,
+the bell-founders in 1772, and the makers of silk stockings in 1774.
+
+According to Tramoyeres, most of the Valencian trade-guilds owned a
+building in fee-simple, and often gave the title of their craft to the
+entire street in which that edifice was situated. Nor did the _gremios_,
+in their evolution from the simpler and less mercenary form of
+brotherhood or _cofrad�a_, wholly abandon the religious ceremonies of
+their prototype. In almost every instance the guild erected and
+maintained a chapel within its private _domicilio_, chose a particular
+saint to be its patron, and held, with fitting pomp and liberality, a
+yearly celebration of that patron's holy-day.
+
+On these occasions masses and other services were said or sung, and the
+embroidered banner of the guild, together with the image (which was
+often of silver) of its tutelar saint, was carried in procession through
+the streets of this bright city of the south, abounding at all seasons
+in flowers and sunshine, and famed, from the remotest days of Spanish
+history, for the splendour and munificence of her public festivals.
+
+Our earliest record of the formal attendance of the _gremios_ of
+Valencia at one of her _fiestas_, goes back to the visit to this capital
+of King Pedro the Second, in 1336, when the guilds were marshalled in
+military fashion, company by company, each headed by its pennon "_� la
+saga dels primers_," that is, next to the group or company immediately
+in front of it. In 1392, upon the visit of another monarch, Juan the
+First, who was accompanied by his queen, Violante, a more elaborate
+character was given to the welcome. Jongleurs and dancers were hired to
+perform, while several of the _gremios_ constructed decorative scenes or
+allegorical tableaux on a platform or a waggon, which was wheeled along
+the street in slow procession, surrounded by the marching members of the
+guild. One of these structures represented the winged dragon or
+_drach-alat_ which figures so conspicuously in the records of Valencia
+(see Vol. I., p. 210), and was attacked and overcome in mimic combat by
+a body of knights armed cap-�-pie. The mariners of the port built two
+large galleys, also moved on wheels and simulating an attack, and the
+_freneros_ or bit-makers presented a gathering of folk disguised as
+savages. Nor was the bullfight--that most characteristic of Spanish
+sports--omitted from the entertainment, judging from the following entry
+in the city archives: "Item. Sien aemprats los prohomens carnicers a
+procurar e haver toros e fer per sos dies feta la dita entrada joch ab
+aquells specialment en lo mercat com sia cert quel Senyor Rey se agrada
+e pren plaer de tal joch."
+
+A typical _fiesta_ and procession of these trade-guilds is described by
+Tramoyeres. "Formed in two long lines, the members of the guild advanced
+along the tortuous and narrow highways of the town, adorned with
+tapestries and altars. Each _gremio_ was preceded by a band of
+cymbal-beaters, pipers, and jongleurs, sometimes accompanied by a
+_comparsa_ allusive to the ceremony now being celebrated. Next came the
+standard of the master-craftsmen and apprentices, each group of whom
+attended its _divisa_ or distinguishing emblem. Close after followed the
+banner of the craft in general, carried by one or two of the
+_oficiales_, who made display of their dexterity and strength by
+supporting the staff of the banner upon their shoulder, the palm of the
+hand, or the under-lip. The cords of the banner were held by the
+officers of the guild, denominated _mayorales_, _clavarios_ and
+_prohombres_; behind these came the masters, and last of all, a
+triumphal car on which were represented scenes relating to the craft.
+Thus, in the year 1655, at the commemoration of the second centenary of
+the canonization of Saint Vincent Ferrer, the _gremios_ showed
+particular ingenuity and novelty in these devices." Don Marco Antonio
+Ort�, who wrote an account of the festival in question, thus describes a
+few of them. "The millers were preceded by a waggon drawn by four mules
+and covered with boughs and flowers. On it was the imitation of a
+windmill, wheel and every other part, contrived so cunningly that
+although the wheel went round at a great speed, the artifice which
+caused it to revolve was kept from view, and in the time that the
+procession lasted, it ground to flour a whole _caliz_ of wheat." Another
+invention, says the same chronicler, was that of the masons. "The scene
+devised by these was a triumphal car, handsomely adorned, on which was
+borne the great tower (of the cathedral),[69] imitated so skilfully that
+it seemed to have been rooted from its foundation, and replanted in the
+car aforesaid; and so enormous was its size that a special spot required
+to be chosen in which to set it up. This was in the garden of La Punta;
+and when the tower was finished and ready to be taken forth, a breach
+for its passage had to be opened in the garden wall. It even contained a
+peal of bells, which rang by turning round and round, and this invention
+of the bells, besides its ingenuity, was rarely fitted to this festival,
+seeing that the clock-bell of the cathedral (that is the greatest of
+them all) was given, when it was baptized, the name of San Vicente's
+bell, as well as of Saint Michael the Archangel; whence the tower itself
+is called the Micalet, this, in the language of Valencia, being the
+diminutive for Michael. It were impossible to imagine the stir and the
+applause excited in all quarters of the city by the passage of this
+tower."
+
+  [69] That is, the ponderous structure known as the Miguelete, which
+       stands unfinished to this day.
+
+The same writer describes the decorative car or waggon of the
+flax-weavers. "Upon it were a woman seated beneath a canopy, weaving at
+a frame, and representing Santa Ana, the child Jesus making _ca�illas_,
+and an aged man, for San Antonio, dressed as a hermit, with a live
+sucking-pig at his side. Before these went Our Lady riding on a jennet,
+with a child in her arms, her right hand held by a man of venerable age
+representing Saint Joseph. This artifice was symbolic of the weavers'
+trade, receiving for this reason great applause, as well as for the
+lavish decoration of, and curious details that were in, the car."
+
+Tramoyeres further explains that the guild which took first place in the
+procession was that which had been most recently created, the oldest and
+most honoured coming last. At Valencia this proud position was held from
+the remotest period by the clothmakers; but from time to time, when
+these for any cause were absent from the festival, their place was taken
+by one or other of two companies almost as ancient and as
+honourable--the tanners or the tailors.
+
+Each guild selected an official dress or livery, distinguished from the
+others by its colour or design:--the tailors, purple and white; the
+weavers, rose with black sleeves; the cutlers, crimson with green
+sleeves and sprinkled with golden roses; the millers, white with
+crimson-striped sleeves; the silversmiths, crimson with silver trimming;
+and so forth. Their banners, too, were quite in harmony with the rich
+apparel of the vain _agremiados_. According to an author of the
+seventeenth century, these flags were "not of war, but of a different
+workmanship, and greatly larger. All are of damask, most being coloured
+crimson, and the poles sustaining them, and terminated by an image of
+the sainted patron of the guild, are longer than the longest pike of
+war. Truly, a splendid show these banners make, displayed with fringes
+of drawn gold, and shields embroidered with the same material."
+
+The image in which the pole of the banner concluded was not, however,
+invariably that of a saint, or of a saint alone. In the case of the
+cask-makers it was a golden tun surmounted by a cross, with figures of
+Saint Helen and the Emperor Constantine standing on either side of it.
+That of the armourers was a bat (the _rat-penat_ or "winged rat"
+contained in the _escudo_ of Valencia); that of the cloth-shearers, a
+pair of scissors with a golden crown and the image of Saint Christopher;
+of the fishermen, a boat containing Saint Peter and Saint Andrew; of the
+clothmakers, a sphere inscribed with the name of Jesus; of the
+stonemasons, a silver millwheel and a silver image of the Virgin.
+Similarly, each _gremio_ displayed upon its coat-of-arms some kind of
+emblem such as the implement, or implements, associated with its
+trade:--the silversmiths, a square and compass; the carpenters, a
+hatchet and a saw; the lock-smiths, a pair of hammers and an anvil.
+
+Quaintly instructive are the dispositions of the guilds relating to
+apprenticeship. The _maestro_ of a trade, described by the Count of
+Torre�naz as "the principal worker in the workshop," agreed to feed,
+clothe, and instruct his apprentice or _disc�pulo_, and treat him
+generally as a member of his own family. He was permitted to punish his
+apprentice for misconduct, but not to employ excessive physical
+violence; and a law of Jayme the First decreed that if the apprentice
+lost one or both of his eyes from a blow inflicted by his master, the
+latter was to "make good the injury" (_sia tengut del mal que li haura
+feyt_).
+
+The number of apprentices allowed in any one workshop was often (and
+subsequently to the fifteenth century, nearly always) regulated by the
+law. The first disposition of this kind discovered by Tramoyeres dates
+from the year 1451, and refers to the shoemakers, whose apprentices
+might not outnumber three to each _maestro_.[70] Similarly, by
+provisions issued at a later date, the mattress-makers and the builders
+were allowed no more than two apprentices, and the silk-weavers three,
+although sometimes the master might admit an extra _aprenent_ or so, on
+payment of a certain sum per head.[71] The term of the apprenticeship
+was also often fixed by law. In most of the trades it was four years;
+but in the case of the makers of ribbons and of boxes it was five years;
+while stocking-makers were apprenticed for six, and wax-makers and
+confectioners for eight years.
+
+  [70] The Count of Torre�naz quotes an earlier instance, relative to
+       another city, from the shoemakers' ordinances of Burgos, confirmed
+       by the emperor Alfonso in A.D. 1270. These laws decreed, obviously
+       with the purpose of limiting the number of apprentices, that every
+       master-craftsman who engaged an apprentice was to pay two thousand
+       _maravedis_ "for the service of God and of the hospital." Similar
+       legislation, lasting many centuries, was in force elsewhere, for
+       Larruga says that at Valladolid, although the city produced
+       fourteen thousand hats yearly, most of the master-hatters had no
+       apprentices in their workshops, and only one _oficial_.
+
+  [71] _E.g._, the silk-weavers (Statute of 1701). "Que ningun collegial
+       de dit collegi puixa matricular francament mes de tres aprenents y
+       si volgu�s tenirne mes, hatja de pagar � dit collegi deu lliures,
+       moneda real de Valencia per casc� dels que excedir� de dit numero."
+
+Before the father or the guardian of a lad could sign his papers of
+apprenticeship, it was required (during and after the sixteenth century)
+to prove before the guild, by means of his certificate of baptism, or on
+the declaration of witnesses, that he was the child of parents who were
+"old Christians," and not the offspring of Moor, Jew, slave, convert, or
+(in the fierce expression of the stocking-makers) "any other infected
+race." Still more absurd and savage was an ordinance, dated 1597, of the
+shoemakers, prohibiting any master of this trade from admitting to
+apprenticeship in any form, "a black boy, or one of the colour of cooked
+quince, slave or Moor ... so as to avoid the harm which might befall
+our brother shoemakers from the ridicule that would be stirred among the
+populace, if they should see in our processions and other public acts, a
+slave, or the son of a black slave, or a lad of the colour of cooked
+quince, or a Moor; as well as the rioting and scandals that would be
+caused by the spectacle of creatures of this nature mixing with decent,
+well-dressed people."
+
+These statutes are selected from the mass of local legislation which
+concerned Valencia only. Turning to Spanish guilds at large, the study
+of these institutions throws considerable light upon the customs of the
+Spanish nation in the past, and more especially upon the social and
+financial standing of the older Spanish craftsman. As in other
+countries, the principal and primal object of the _gremio_ was to
+organize a system of defence against the military and nobility, or even
+against the crown. Presently, however, and long before their evolution
+is completed, errors become apparent in the statutes or proceedings of
+these bodies which denote, very instructively and very plainly, the
+typical defects or weaknesses of the Spanish character. Foremost of all
+was thriftlessness. Although it is a fact that several of the Spanish
+guilds owned houses or even land, none of them (except the silversmiths
+of two or three large towns) were really affluent;[72] and indeed, in a
+country racked by incessant foreign wars or civil strife, there was
+every reason why they should not be affluent. Yet, notwithstanding this,
+in celebrating any kind of public festival, the poor _agremiado_ made no
+scruple to vie in prodigal disbursements with the moneyed aristocracy,
+clothing himself in fanciful and costly stuffs,[73] constructing shows
+and spectacles on wheels, raising elaborate altars in the streets,
+contracting for expensive services, performances, and tableaux. More
+than once, the _gremios_ were obliged to borrow funds to celebrate the
+festival of their patron saint.[74] So also with regard to dress. The
+costumes of the guildsmen of Valencia have been already noticed. An
+equal recklessness and foppery prevailed in other Spanish towns; for
+instance, at Barcelona, where, on a visit of Ferdinand and Isabella in
+1481, the silversmiths formed part of the procession "dressed in the
+richest manner, with robes and mantles all covered with silver, and some
+of them with bonnets that were all of silver plate with jewels and
+silver foliage, while others wore silver chains about their necks."
+
+  [72] It is not often, for instance, that we meet with notices of Spanish
+       craftsmen such as Miguel Jer�nimo Monegro, a silversmith of
+       Seville, who at his death, towards the middle of the sixteenth
+       century, was in a position to bequeath the following money and
+       effects: 15,000 _maravedis_ to his servant, Catalina Mexia, 6000
+       _maravedis_ to Juan Ortiz, "a boy that was in my house, that he may
+       learn a trade," 6000 _maravedis_ yearly to his slavewomen, Juana
+       and Luisa, and a black mule to his executor, Hernando de
+       Morales.--Gestoso, _Diccionario de Art�fices Sevillanas_,
+       Vol. II., p. 256.
+
+  [73] This did not happen only at Valencia. The Cortes assembled at
+       Valladolid in 1537 complained that it was "tolerable that costly
+       stuffs should be worn by lords, gentlemen, and wealthy persons; but
+       such is become our nation, that there is not an hidalgo, squire,
+       merchant, or _oficial_ of any trade, but wears rich clothing;
+       wherefore many grow impoverished and lack the money to pay the
+       _alcabalas_ and the other taxes owing to His Majesty."
+
+       Fernandez de Navarrete stated, in 1626, that "the wives of common
+       _mec�nicos_ (_i.e._ craftsmen) furnish their dwellings more
+       luxuriously than titled personages of the realm were wont to
+       furnish theirs some few years ago," and that hangings of taffeta
+       or Spanish _guadamec�es_ were now regarded with contempt, being
+       replaced, even in the homes of the moderately well-to-do, by
+       sumptuous fabrics of Florence and Milan, and by the costliest
+       Brussels tapestry.--(_Conservaci�n de Monarqu�as_, p. 246).
+
+  [74] Larruga, in Vol. XVIII. of his _Memorias_, inserts an account of
+       the heavy debts incurred by the _gremios_ of Valladolid, upon the
+       celebration of various of their festivals.
+
+Two of the most conspicuous faults among the Spanish race are pride and
+envy. Yet these defects may be explained without much puzzling, and, in
+a measure, pardoned. Spaniards, through all the process of their
+national development, have clung by preference to the calling of the
+soldier or the priest; that is, the only occupations which directly
+dissipate the revenue of the commonwealth. Since, therefore, they were
+thus inclined from earliest antiquity, as well as tutored by a crafty
+priesthood to believe that might or violence alone is right, the
+haughtiness of the Spanish people is a logical, and indeed inevitable,
+outcome of their history. Moreover, side by side with this erroneous
+theory that the only prowess and decorum of a people must consist in
+armed aggressiveness, as well as in a truculent and militant intolerance
+in matters of religion (or rather, of superstition), there arose the
+equally as mischievous and erroneous theory that the arts of peace were
+venal, despicable, and effeminate, or, in the current phrase of our
+contemporaries, "unworthy of a gentleman." "The Spaniards," wrote
+Fern�ndez de Navarrete, "are so proud-hearted that they do not
+accommodate themselves to servile labour." Therefore this people chose
+their favourites and heroes in a semi-savage freebooter; never in a
+craftsman of gigantic merit, like the elder Berruguete, or Juan de Arfe,
+or Alonso Cano. Sometimes, as happened with the _reja_ of the Chapel
+Royal of Granada, they did not even trouble to record the surname of her
+best artificers. These men, in fact, exceptions to her universal rule,
+were coldly looked upon, or even persecuted.[75] Abundant proof is yet
+extant of this humiliation of her merchants, craftsmen, shopkeepers, as
+distinguished from her soldiery and clergy, gentry and nobility.
+Undoubtedly, beneath such scorn the former of these groups were
+sensitive to their position, and all the more acutely sensitive because
+of their inherent Spanish pride. In fact, so sensitive were they, that
+now and then the crown esteemed it prudent to appease their wounded
+vanity by certain declarations or emoluments. Thus, the _Repartimiento
+de Sevilla_ tells us that in the year 1255 Alfonso the Tenth rewarded
+several craftsmen of his capital of Seville with the title of _Don_, "a
+dignity," says Amador, "rarely bestowed at that time."[76] In 1556
+Charles the Fifth resolved, in favour of the corporation of
+_artistas-plateros_ or "artist-silversmiths," that the masters of this
+craft, together with their wives, might dress in silk, "in that it was
+an art they exercised, and not an office" (Gestoso, _Diccionario de
+Art�fices Sevillanos_, Vol. I., p. lx.), while Philip the Fourth decreed
+that they should not be forced to contribute to the equipment of his
+troops, but should only be invited to contribute, _just as with the
+nobles_. Nevertheless, Rico y Sinobas points out (_Del vidrio y de sus
+art�fices en Espa�a_) that Philip the Fifth and Ferdinand the Sixth, on
+founding the royal glass factory of San Ildefonso, did not dare to
+ennoble the Castilian workmen.
+
+  [75] The treatment of distinguished craftsmen by the Spanish church was
+       often sheerly villainous. A document, inserted by Zarco del Valle
+       among his collection of _Documentos In�ditos para la Historia de
+       las Bellas Artes en Espa�a_, p. 362, and in the handwriting of
+       "Maestre" Domingo (see Vol. I., pp. 148, 149), states that after
+       making the choir-_reja_ for Toledo cathedral, "so richly wrought,
+       that in the elegance and rarity thereof it far surpasseth all that
+       has been witnessed in our time, whether in his majesty's dominions
+       or abroad," and expending on it "all the money I had earned in my
+       youth," this eminent _rejero_ found himself by now "owing a great
+       quantity of _maravedis_, seeing that I am utterly without
+       resources," concluding by an appeal to the archbishop to "take heed
+       how that I shall not perish through such poverty, and my wife and
+       children in the hospital."
+
+       In another document the same artificer complains that in producing
+       the aforesaid _reja_, he had sacrificed "not only my labour, but my
+       property to boot, having been compelled to sell my house and my
+       inheritance to compensate me for my losses," adding that the
+       cathedral authorities had violated their engagement with him.
+
+       In answer to a series of petitions such as this, the archbishop
+       tardily gave orders for the payment to Domingo of a lump sum of
+       fifteen thousand _maravedis_ and a pension for the rest of his life
+       of two silver _reales_ of Castilian money, "to aid him to support
+       himself." This was in A.D. 1563. By 1565 death had ended the
+       miseries of the master-craftsman, and again we find his widow and
+       children knocking at the archbishop's door, pleading that "extreme
+       is our necessity," and declaring that Domingo had succumbed
+       overburdened with debt, _affirming on his deathbed that the
+       cathedral owed him three thousand ducats, being half the value of
+       a reja he had made_.
+
+       In answer to this terrible appeal, the thrifty prelate ordered that
+       _since it was found to be true that Master Domingo had lost his
+       maravedis in making the rejas of the choir_, his widow and children
+       should receive a daily pension of one _real_, and that a suit of
+       clothes should be given to each of his sons and his two daughters.
+
+  [76] So rarely, that Salazar de Mendoza affirms in his book upon
+       _Castilian Dignities_ that this "high prenomen" (_alto prenombre
+       Don_) might properly be used by none but kings, _infantes_,
+       prelates, and the _ricos-homes_ of the realm.
+
+       In A.D. 1626, Fern�ndez de Navarrete complained of the tendency
+       prevailing among the Spaniards generally to usurp the title _Don_.
+       "Nowadays in Castile," he wrote (_Conservaci�n de Monarqu�as_,
+       p. 71, etc.), "exists a horde of turbulent and idle fellows that so
+       style themselves, since you will hardly find the son of a craftsman
+       (_oficial mec�nico_) that does not endeavour by this trick to filch
+       the honour that is owed to true nobility alone; and so, impeded and
+       weighed down by the false appearance of _caballeros_, they are
+       unsuited to follow any occupation that is incompatible with the
+       empty authority of a _Don_."
+
+       Some of the reasons why these rogues or _pseudonobles_ (as
+       Fern�ndez de Navarrete called them), attempted to pass for
+       _hidalgos_ or "sons of somebody," are disclosed by Townsend,
+       writing a century and a half later. "Numerous privileges and
+       immunities enjoyed by the _hidalgos_ or knights, sometimes called
+       _hijos dalgo_, have contributed very much to confirm hereditary
+       prejudices to the detriment of trade. Their depositions are taken
+       in their own houses. They are seated in the courts of justice, and
+       are placed near the judge. Till the year 1784, their persons, arms,
+       and horses were free from arrest. They are not sent to the common
+       jails, but are either confined in castles or in their own houses on
+       their parole of honour. They are not hanged, but strangled, and
+       this operation is called _garrotar_, from _garrote_, the little
+       stick used by carriers to twist the cord and bind hard their
+       loading. They cannot be examined on the rack. They are, moreover,
+       exempted from the various taxes called _fechos_, _pedidos_,
+       _monedas_, _martiniegas_, and _contribuciones reales_ and
+       _civiles_: that is, from subsidies, benevolence, and poll tax, or
+       taille paid by the common people, at the rate of two per cent., in
+       this province, but in others at the rate of four. They are free
+       from personal service, except where the sovereign is, and even then
+       they cannot be compelled to follow him. None but the royal family
+       can be quartered on them. To conclude, the noble female conveys all
+       these privileges to her husband and her children, just in the same
+       manner as the eldest daughter of the titular nobility transmits the
+       titles of her progenitors.
+
+       "The proportion of _hidalgos_ in the kingdom of Granada is not
+       considerable; for out of six hundred and fifty-two thousand nine
+       hundred and ninety inhabitants, only one thousand nine hundred and
+       seventy-nine are noble; whereas, in the province of Le�n, upon
+       little more than one-third that population, the knights are
+       twenty-two thousand. In the province of Burgos, on four hundred and
+       sixty thousand three hundred and ninety-five inhabitants, one
+       hundred and thirty-four thousand and fifty-six are entitled to all
+       the privileges of nobility; and in Asturias, of three hundred and
+       forty-five thousand eight hundred and thirty-three, nearly
+       one-third enjoy the same distinction."--(_Journey through Spain in
+       the years 1786 and 1787_: Vol. III., pp. 79, 80.)
+
+"I bestow the name of craftsmen in silver (_art�fices plateros_), not
+upon all who handle silver or gold, but only upon such as draw, and
+grave, and execute in relief, whether on a large or small scale, figures
+and histories from life, just as do the sculptors." These words are
+quoted from a book, the whole of which was written with the aim of
+proving that certain classes of Spain's older craftsmen were less abject
+than the rest.[77] It is not so long ago that the expression _viles
+artesanos_ ("vile artisans") was banished from the legal phraseology of
+Spain. "That prejudice," wrote Laborde, "which regards the mechanic arts
+as base, is not extinguished in Spain, but only abated: hence it happens
+that they are neglected or abandoned to such unskilful hands that they
+are wonderfully backward in these matters. The influence of this cause
+is striking: in Catalonia, laws, customs, and opinions are favourable to
+artisans, and it is in this province that these arts have made the
+greatest progress."
+
+  [77] Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los R�os, _Noticia general para la
+       estimaci�n de las Artes y la manera en que se conocen las liberales
+       de las que son mec�nicas y serviles_. Madrid, 1600. I again have
+       occasion to mention this curious work in my chapter on Spanish
+       tapestries.
+
+Townsend commented as follows on what he called the _national prejudice_
+against trade. "Whilst the Jews were merchants, and the mechanic arts
+were left either to the Moors or to the vilest of the people, the
+grandees or knights were ambitious only of military fame. After the
+conquest of Granada, the Moors continued to be the principal
+manufacturers, and excelled in the cultivation of their lands. When
+these, with the Jews, were banished, a void was left which the
+high-spirited Spaniard was not inclined to fill. Trained for many
+centuries to the exercise of arms, and regarding such mean occupations
+with disdain, his aversion was increased by his hatred and contempt for
+those whom he had been accustomed to see engaged in these employments.
+He had been early taught to consider trade as dishonourable; and whether
+he frequented the theatre, or listened to the discourses of the pulpit
+orators, he could not fail to be confirmed in his ideas. Even in the
+present day, many, who boast their descent from noble ancestors, had
+rather starve than work, more especially at those trades by which,
+according to the laws, they would be degraded, and forfeit their
+nobility."--(_Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787_, pp. 240, 241.)
+
+Laborde endorsed these assertions by uncharitably remarking that "the
+Spaniard had always fortitude enough to endure privations, but never
+courage enough to encounter work." In our time judgments of a still
+severer kind have been passed upon the Spaniards by various of their own
+countrymen--among others, Unamuno, Ganivet, and Pompeyo Gener.
+
+It is evident, too, that the cause of the relentless exclusion, by the
+Spanish guilds, of Moors, Moriscos, Jews, or converts--men who, owing to
+the unsubstantial taint of heresy, were hated and derided by the Spanish
+nation almost to a man--resided also in this morbid sensitiveness. Had
+not the Moorish prisoner been formerly considered as the merest chattel,
+legally equivalent to a beast of burden?[78] How, then, should he be
+ever equalled with the Christian Spaniard? These haughty and extravagant
+notions operated, in the seventeenth century, to bring about the general
+ruin of Spanish trades and manufactures. Bertaut de Rouen wrote at this
+time:--"L'aco�tumance qu'avoient les Espagnols de faire travailler les
+Morisques, qui estoient libres parmi eux, et les Mores esclaves, dont il
+y a encor quelques-uns qu'ils prennent sur leurs costes et sur celles
+d'Afrique, les a entretenus dans la faineantise et dans l'orgueil, qui
+fait qu'ils d�daignent tous de travailler. Ce qui ach�ve de les y
+plonger, c'est le peu de soucy qu'ils prennent de l'avenir, et l'�galit�
+du menu peuple et de tous les moindres marchands et artisans qu'ils
+nomment _officiales_, avec les gentilshommes, qui demeurent tous dans
+les petites villes."
+
+  [78] It is stated in the Fuero of N�jera (A.D. 1076) that the price of
+       the blood of a Moorish slave was twelve _sueldos_ and a half, while
+       the Fuero Viejo of Castile (Book II., Tit. III., Ley IV.) contains
+       the significantly contemptuous phrase, "If a man demand of another
+       a beast or a Moor" (_si alg�n ome demanda � otro bestia � moro_).
+       The Countess d'Aulnoy wrote in 1679;--"There are here (at Madrid) a
+       large number of Turkish and Moorish slaves, who are bought and sold
+       at heavy prices, some of them costing four hundred and five hundred
+       _escudos_. Until some time ago the owners of these slaves possessed
+       the right to kill them at their pleasure, as though they had been
+       so many dogs; but since it was remarked that this usage tallied but
+       poorly with the maxims of our Christian faith, so scandalous a
+       license was prohibited. Nowadays the owner of a slave may often
+       break his bones without incurring censure. Not many, however,
+       resort to so extreme a chastisement."
+
+In the same century the Countess d'Aulnoy recorded comical instances of
+the pride of the tradesmen of Madrid. "One morning," she says, "we
+stopped awhile in the Plaza Mayor to await the return of a servant whom
+my aunt had sent with a message to some place not far away. Just then I
+saw a woman selling some slices of salmon, crying them aloud and
+proclaiming their freshness in tones which positively molested the
+passers-by. Presently a shoemaker came up (I knew him to be such,
+because they called him the _se�or zapatero_), and asked for a pound of
+salmon; since here they sell everything by the pound, even to coal and
+firewood. 'You have not been through the market,' cried the woman who
+sold the fish, 'because you fancy that my salmon is cheap to-day; but
+let me tell you that it costs an _escudo_ the pound.' Furious that his
+poverty should thus be hinted at in public, the shoemaker exclaimed in
+angry tones: 'It is true that I was not aware of the price of fish
+to-day. Had it been cheap, I would have bought a pound of it; but since
+you say it is dear, give me three pounds.' With these words, he held out
+his hand with the three _escudos_, jammed his hat upon his eyebrows
+(tradesmen in this town wear small hats, and persons of quality hats of
+great size), and then, twisting the ends of his mustachios, and clapping
+his hand to his rapier, the point of which bobbed upward, carrying with
+it a fold of his ragged cloak, caught up his purchase and strode home,
+looking at us with an arrogant air, as though he had performed some
+heroic deed and we had witnessed it. Yet the drollest part of it all was
+that beyond doubt the fellow had no money left at home, but had spent
+his week's wages upon the salmon, so that his choleric and haughty act
+would keep his wife and children famishing for all those days, after
+supping once upon abundant fish. Such is the character of this people;
+and there are gentlemen here who take the feet of a fowl and hang them
+so as to show beneath the hem of their cloak, to make it appear as
+though they really bore a fowl. But hunger, in truth, is all they carry
+with them.
+
+"You never see a shopman here who does not clothe himself in velvet,
+silk, and satin, like the king; or who is not the owner of a mighty
+rapier, which dangles from the wall, together with his dagger and
+guitar. These fellows work as little as they may, for, as I said, they
+are by nature indolent. Only in case of extreme necessity do they work
+at all, and then they never rest, but labour even throughout a
+feast-day; though when they have finished what was needed to procure
+them money, they deliver the product of their toil, and with its value
+relapse into fresh idleness. The shoemaker who has two apprentices, and
+who has only made one pair of shoes, hands to his lads a shoe apiece and
+makes them walk before him as though they were his pages; he that has
+three apprentices is preceded by all three; and when occasion rises, the
+master-_zapatero_ will hardly condescend to fit upon your feet the shoes
+which his own hands had put together."
+
+It seems that the shoemakers of Madrid were distinguished for their
+insolence and vanity above the rest of her tradespeople. In 1659 Bertaut
+de Rouen wrote of the two _corrales_ or theatres of this town, that they
+were "toujours pleines de tous les marchands, et de tous les artisans,
+qui quittant leur boutique s'en vont l� avec la cappe, l'�p�e, et le
+poignard, qui s'appellent tous _cavalleros_ jusques au _�apateros_; et
+ce sont ceux qui d�cident si la comedie est bonne ou non, et � cause
+qu'ils la sifflent ou qu'ils l'applaudissent, et qu'ils sont d'un cost�
+et d'autre en rang, outre que c'est comme une esp�ce de salve, on les
+appelle _Mosqueteros_, en sorte que la bonne fortune des autheurs d�pend
+d'eux."
+
+The foregoing narratives sound absurd, and are particularly prone to be
+considered so from being of foreign authorship. Their tenor,
+notwithstanding, is supported by the following declarations, gravely set
+down in writing by a Spaniard, within some half a dozen years of the
+visit to Madrid of the Countess d'Aulnoy. The name of this author is
+Alonso Nu�ez de Castro, and the title of his work (published towards the
+close of the reign of Philip the Fourth), _El Cortesano en Madrid_.
+"What man," demands this _madrile�o_ of a bygone century, "eminent in
+any of the arts, has belonged to other nations, but has sought in Madrid
+the applause and gain which his native country would not, or could not,
+bestow upon him? Thus, either he in person, or else his master-works,
+visit with frequency this court of ours, wherein they meet a better fate
+than in their birthplace, since only at Madrid is properly esteemed the
+value of illustrious effort. Let London manufacture as she may her
+famous cloths, Holland her cambrics, Florence her satins, India her
+castors and vicunas, Milan her brocades, Italy and the Netherlands the
+statues and oil-paintings which seem to breathe the very life of the
+original: our Court enjoys these products one and all, proving hereby
+that other nations generate artists for Madrid, who is, in sooth, the
+supreme Court of Courts, seeing that she is served by all, yet in her
+turn serves none.
+
+"Yet not at slight expense does she enjoy this sovereignty, showering
+upon other hands her gold and silver, that they may recreate her mouth
+with choicest drinks and viands, her nostrils with delicious essences,
+her eyes with wondrous works of painting and of statuary, her hearing
+with the skill of world-renowned musicians, her luxury with expensive
+fabrics and with precious stones; albeit these disbursements mark her,
+not as prodigal, but as prudent in discovering the proper use of gold,
+together with the fitting aim and purpose of all riches. Who was
+possessor of more gold than Midas?--seeing that not he alone, but all he
+laid his hand upon, was gold; or who so wretched?--seeing that he was
+powerless to keep himself alive on gold, though all he touched was
+golden. Truly that man is rich that maketh gold to minister to his
+wants, and he a miserable pauper that to gold himself is slave, not
+knowing how to turn its uses to his good. Therefore let other peoples
+accumulate wealth at ease, heaping up the gold wherewith Madrid repays
+their ministration to her needs. Whereas her courtiers prove possession
+of their gold, in that they amassed it formerly, those foreigners show
+the evil and the mischief of their own by jealously confining it with
+lock and key: nay, who shall even tell if it be theirs, seeing that they
+enjoy it not, although they seem to be the lords thereof?
+
+"You will declare that other courts enjoy the same conveniences with
+less expense, because their magistrates are stricter to restrain the
+tradesman from establishing his prices at caprice. Truly, it may happen
+that elsewhere the price of foods and luxuries be less than in Madrid;
+yet it is certain that Madrid makes fair comparison in cheapness with
+the other cities of Castile. Nay, more, without there seeming to be
+cause, her courtiers daily find that by a marvel articles are cheaper
+here than in the soil which generated them, or in the town where they
+were wrought. The fact that in comparison with other kingdoms Madrid is
+in some ways the dearer, proves that she hath the money for rewarding
+labour; and that in other capitals the sweat of the artificer is
+worthless, because money is worth more. Always have I remarked that the
+province or the realm that is awarded the name of _happy_, because all
+things are purchasable there at next to no expense, is wrongly titled
+so, since here is evidence, either that money lacks, or that there is no
+purchaser."[79]
+
+  [79] To further show the extravagant way of thinking and behaving of the
+       Spaniard of the seventeenth century, the same author sets aside the
+       sneering objection justly made by foreign writers to the river
+       Manzanares at Madrid--namely, that it has no water--by remarking
+       with exquisite complacency, that here precisely lies the crowning
+       merit and advantage of the Manzanares over rival streams; in that
+       it amuses people without endangering their lives. In the reigns of
+       Philip the Fourth and Charles the Second, a favourite promenade of
+       the Madrid aristocracy was the waterless channel of this river, in
+       which, according to this work, "coaches and carriages do duty for
+       a gondola, and form a pleasant imitation of the boats and palaces
+       of Venice."
+
+In the eighteenth century, when better sense prevailed among the
+statesmen and economists of Spain, the greedy and corrupt administration
+of her guilds began to be awarded greater notice. Among the enlightened
+and progressive Spaniards who outspoke their minds upon this theme, were
+Florez Estrada and the Count of Campomanes. These, among others of less
+mark, saw and proclaimed that the harm inflicted by the _gremios_ in
+some directions was incalculable, while the good they were supposed to
+bring about in others was rather nominal than real.[80] Apart, however,
+from the judgment uttered by these two authorities, men of acknowledged
+probity and consequence who held the public ear, as well as by the
+patriotic Jovellanos in his spirited appeal in favour of the _libre
+ejercicio de las artes_, a number of causes, such as the propagation of
+the principles of individual liberty by the French Revolution,
+contributed to give the _gremios_ an archaic air, and finally to bring
+about their downfall. The views concerning them which gradually filled
+the popular mind, prior to their extinction as an act of government in
+the year 1834,[81] are well expressed by Townsend. "In all the trading
+companies or _gremios_," wrote this traveller, "religious fraternities
+are formed, some incorporated by royal authority and letters patent,
+others by connivance of the crown, but both in violation of the laws.
+
+  [80] The object avowedly pursued by Campomanes was not, however, the
+       absolute suppression of the Spanish trade-guilds, but merely their
+       reconstruction upon a sounder basis. He still believed that
+       admission to a guild should be preceded by a formal period of
+       apprenticeship, as well as that the title and the privileges of the
+       master of a trade should be hereditary. An instance of the grossly
+       fraudulent methods employed by the _gremios_ in order to retain the
+       privilege of manufacture in a certain family, is quoted by Larruga
+       (_Memorias_, Vol. II., p. 201), who states that the silk-cord
+       makers of Madrid conferred the title of _master-craftsman_ on a
+       babe only twenty-two months old.
+
+  [81] Barzanallana says that the earliest sign of a movement in the
+       direction of emancipating the Spanish people from the thraldom of
+       the _gremios_ is contained in the royal _cedula_ of May 17th, 1790,
+       abolishing several of the noxious prerogatives which had hitherto
+       been enjoyed by the families of master-craftsmen. A further crown
+       decree, dated the same month and year, empowered the Audiencias and
+       Chanciller�as to authorize persons to pursue a craft (provided they
+       were reasonably competent) without the necessity of approval from
+       the _gremios_ and their _veedores_. Three years later, the same
+       monarch (Charles the Fourth) suppressed the _gremios_ and
+       _colegios_ of the silk-twisters, and declared this craft to be open
+       to all such persons, of either sex, as wished to practise it. In
+       1797 it was permitted to all foreigners who should be competent in
+       any art or industry (except Jews) to establish themselves in Spain
+       or her dominions, nor were they to be molested in their religious
+       theories if they should happen not to be Roman Catholics.
+
+       At a later time the Cortes annulled, or very nearly so, the
+       _ordenanzas_ of the _gremios_, and allowed the exercise of any
+       lawful trade or craft to everybody, Spaniards and foreigners alike,
+       without the requisite of special license or examination, or
+       approval by the officers of the guilds (decree of June 8th, 1813).
+       This measure was revoked in 1815, but again became law in 1836, and
+       two years before this latter date was issued the decree of Queen
+       Mar�a Cristina prohibiting associations which, under the semblance
+       of a _gremio_, should aim at converting any craft or office into a
+       monopoly.
+
+       The Spanish _gremios_ still exist, but all their sting has
+       departed. To-day they may be said to spring from the natural and
+       beneficial interdependence of persons working together in the same
+       groove, and seeking mutual support by means of peaceable
+       association. Thus the abuses which rendered them so terrible and
+       evil in the olden time are fortunately now no more.
+
+"Every fraternity is governed by a mayor and court of aldermen, who make
+laws, sit in judgment on offenders, and claim in many cases exemption
+from the common tribunals of the country. None but the members of these
+communities may exercise mechanic arts, or be concerned in trade; and to
+be admitted as a member is both attended with a heavy fine, and entails
+upon each individual a constant annual expense.
+
+"This, however, is not the greatest evil, for the mayor and officers,
+during their year of service, not only neglect their own affairs, but
+from vanity and ostentation run into expenses, such as either ruin their
+families, or at least straiten them exceedingly in trade.
+
+"These corporations, being established in the cities, banish, by their
+oppressive laws, all the mechanic arts from towns and villages. In the
+cities likewise they tend only to monopoly, by limiting the numbers in
+every branch of business, and fixing within unreasonable bounds the
+residence of those who are concerned in trade. This they do either by
+assigning the distance between shop and shop, under pretence that two
+shops vending the same commodities must not be so near together as to
+interfere, or by assembling all the mechanics of the same profession,
+such as silversmiths, and confining them to one street or quarter of the
+city, under the plausible pretext that thus the proper magistrate may
+with ease pay attention to their work, and see that the due standard be
+observed.[82]
+
+  [82] This custom was borrowed from the East, and explains why, in many
+       of the older Spanish cities, a number of their streets have taken
+       their title from the trades that formerly were plied in them, or
+       (in some instances) that still are so. Especially was this the case
+       at Valencia and Toledo. In the latter capital there are, or used to
+       be, the streets, _plazas_, or _barrios_, of the silversmiths,
+       armourers, bakers, old-clothes vendors, potters, esparto-weavers,
+       dyers, chairmakers, and many more. Mart�n Gamero, in his excellent
+       _History of Toledo_ (Introduction, p. 60), says that in the centre
+       of the city were located the quiet crafts, such as those of the
+       jewellers, silversmiths, chandlers, and clog-makers, as well as
+       the shops of the silk, brocade, and tissue-vendors. Noisy trades,
+       such as the swordsmiths', tinsmiths', boiler-makers', chairmakers',
+       and turners', were practised on the outskirts of the town.
+
+"In many cases the various _gremios_ bear hard upon each other. Thus,
+for instance, the carpenter must not employ his industry on mahogany, or
+any other wood but deal, nor must he invade the province of the turner.
+The turner must confine his ingenuity and labour to soft wood, and must
+not presume to touch either ivory or metals, even though he should be
+reduced to poverty for want of work. The wheeler, in similar distress,
+must not, however qualified, extend his operations beyond the appointed
+bounds, so as to encroach on the business of the coach-maker, who is
+equally restrained from either making or mending either cart or waggon
+wheels. The barber may shave, draw teeth, and bleed, but he must not
+fill up his leisure time with making wigs.[83] As mechanics are obliged
+to keep exactly each to his several line, so must shopkeepers confine
+themselves to their proper articles in trade, and under no pretence must
+the manufacturer presume to open magazines, that he may sell by retail.
+
+  [83] Colmeiro has published _memoriales_ presented by the hatters of
+       Zaragoza, in which they pray to be allowed to line, by their own
+       hands, or by those of their wives, the hats which they had
+       manufactured, instead of being required to give up this finishing
+       and accessorial process to the makers of silk cord.--_Historia de
+       la Econom�a Pol�tica en Espa�a_, and _Biblioteca de los economistas
+       espa�oles de los siglos XVI., XVII., y XVIII_.
+
+"But neither are these abuses the only evils which call for reformation.
+Many corporations have been impertinently meddling, and have absurdly
+bound the hands of the manufacturer by regulations with respect to the
+conduct of his business and the productions of his art, such as, being
+too rigidly observed, would preclude all improvements, and would be
+destructive to his trade, by giving to foreigners a manifest advantage
+in favour of their merchandise.[84]
+
+  [84] This meddlesomeness almost exceeds belief. It was at its worst,
+       perhaps, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who decreed that
+       the wicks of candles were to be made of the same kind of tow, and
+       horse-shoes and nails to be of the same weight in every part of
+       their dominions. It was required that machines, which might have
+       been to great advantage moved by mules or horses, should only be
+       worked by the hand of man, however lengthy and exhausting this
+       might prove. The Count of Torre�naz, who quotes these ridiculous
+       dispositions from the _Libro de bulas y pragm�ticas_ of Juan
+       Ram�rez, further recalls that, as late as the middle of the
+       eighteenth century, costly woven stuffs of Seville and Valencia
+       used to be confiscated because, although the ground of the fabric
+       was of a colour which the law allowed, the flowers or other devices
+       which formed the decoration were of a forbidden shade. On one
+       occasion the chief lady-in-waiting of the queen was prohibited from
+       wearing a dress which she had ordered from a weaver of Valencia,
+       because the flowered pattern was contrary to the _ordenanzas_.
+
+"The incorporated fraternities in the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon are
+25,581, and their corporate expenses amount to 11,687,861 reals. Their
+revenue is not altogether consumed in feasting, nor in salaries to
+officers, nor in pensions to their widows, nor yet in lawsuits, which
+are said to be both numerous and expensive; but considerable sums are
+expended for religious purposes, in procuring masses to be said, either
+for departed spirits and the souls in Purgatory, or for the benefit of
+the fraternity in which each individual has a proportionable interest.
+For this reason, these communities enjoy the protection of the
+ecclesiastical courts, to which, in cases of necessity, they frequently
+appeal.
+
+"The chartered corporations claim their exclusive privileges by royal
+grant, and on this plea they resist a formation, not considering, as
+Count Campomanes with propriety remarks, the essential condition of
+these grants, _Sin perjuicio de tercero_, or that nothing therein
+contained shall be to the _prejudice of others_, or injurious to the
+citizens at large."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX I
+
+                   CLASSES OF POTTERY MADE AT ALCORA
+
+               (From RIA�O's _Industrial Arts in Spain_)
+
+Towards the middle of the eighteenth century:--
+
+  Vases of different shapes.
+
+  Small pots (Chinese fashion).
+
+  Teapots and covers (Chinese fashion).
+
+  Cruets, complete sets (Chinese style).
+
+  Entr�e dishes.
+
+  Salt-cellars (Chinese style).
+
+  _Escudillas_ (bowls), of Constantinople.
+
+  _Barquillos_ (sauce bowls), Chinese style.
+
+  Bottles (in the Chinese manner).
+
+  Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds, with good painted borders
+  in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_). Some were designed in the
+  Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with fruit-stands,
+  salad-bowls, and dishes.
+
+  Trays and refrigerators.
+
+A document, discovered by Ria�o, and dated 1777, says that in that year
+the following kinds of pottery were manufactured at Alcora:--
+
+                      _Figures of Demi-Porcelain._
+
+  Figures of tritons.
+     "    of soldiers (two sizes).
+     "    of soldiers, one-third of a _palmo_ high.
+     "    of the four seasons (two sizes).
+     "    of dancers.
+     "    of tritons in the form of children.
+     "    with brackets.
+     "    of different animals.
+     "    of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.
+  Dancing figures in the German style.
+  Figures of Neptune.
+     "    of shepherd and shepherdess.
+     "    of the Moorish king, Armenius.
+     "    of the four parts of the world (two sizes).
+     "    of peasant and his wife.
+  Small figures holding musical instruments.
+  Figures representing different monarchies.
+     "    representing historical personages.
+     "    representing the history of Alexander the Great (two sizes).
+     "    representing Martius Curtius (two sizes).
+     "    of elephants.
+     "    of a man mounted on an elephant.
+     "    representing Chinese figures.
+     "    of Heliogabalus.
+     "    of a general on horseback.
+     "    of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.
+  Large figures representing Julius C�sar.
+  Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets.
+  Groups of Chinese figures.
+  Snuff-boxes, sugar-basins, inkstands.
+  Rabbits, horns, and pug-dogs for holding scent.
+  Small scent-bottles.
+  Needle-cases.
+  Large vases with foot and cover.
+  Brackets.
+  Walking-stick handles.
+  Knife handles.
+
+                   _Figures of white Biscuit China._
+
+  Figures representing Spanish costumes (two sizes).
+  Groups of two figures.
+  Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.
+  Figures of the four seasons (two sizes).
+
+We find also, says Ria�o, the following figures of painted and glazed
+porcelain:--
+
+  Four seasons (two sizes).
+  Groups of two figures.
+  Figure of a Moorish king.
+     "   of musicians and huntsmen.
+     "   of peasants.
+     "   of Chinese.
+  Small figures of a gardener and female companion.
+  Figures of soldiers in the German style.
+
+From 1789 to 1797, continues Ria�o, the following kinds of pottery were
+made at Alcora:--
+
+  Hard paste porcelain (French).
+  Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.
+  Porcelain of pipeclay (English).
+  Blue pipeclay porcelain.
+  Marbled pipeclay porcelain.
+  _Bucaros_, painted and gilt.
+  Strasburg ware.
+  Porcelain painted _en froid_.
+  Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.
+
+                          _Porcelain (Frita)._
+
+  Porcelain painted with gilt lines.
+      "     painted without gold.
+      "     (_frita_), canary colour.
+  Boxes in relief.
+    "      plain.
+  Porcelain (_frita_), painted with marble wares.
+  Plain boxes of the same kind.
+  Porcelain (_frita_), of blue and brown ground.
+  Cups and saucers of a similar kind.
+
+                          _Biscuit Porcelain._
+
+  Figures.
+  Vases.
+  Pedestals.
+  White porcelain (_frita_) cups of different kinds.
+    "   porcelain, ornamented and plain.
+  Boxes with busts.
+  Boxes with ornamentations in relief.
+  Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.
+  Large figures of the four seasons.
+  Flower vases with rams' heads.
+  Plain boxes.
+  Boxes with ornaments in relief.
+
+                           _White Porcelain._
+
+  Plates, cups, etc.
+  Figures of different kinds.
+
+                          _Painted Porcelain._
+
+  Cups, saucers, plates, etc.
+  Cream-pots.
+  Plain snuff-boxes, or in the shape of a dog.
+  Fruit-stands in relief.
+
+
+                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+The following is a fairly complete list of the works I have
+consulted for the preparation of these volumes.
+
+ABD�N DE PAZ. _La Espa�a de la Edad Media._
+
+ACADEMIA DE SAN FERNANDO, REAL. _Colecci�n de Antig�edades Arabes de
+Granada y C�rdoba_; 2 vols.
+
+ALBA, DUCHESS OF BERWICK AND. _Cat�logo de las colecciones expuestas en
+las vitrinas del Palacio de Liria._
+
+ALDERETE. _Antig�edades de Espa�a._
+
+ALZOLA Y MINONDO, PABLO. _El Arte Industrial en Espa�a._ Bilbao, 1892.
+
+AMADOR DE LOS R�OS. _El Arte Latino-Bizantino en Espa�a y las Coronas
+Visigodas de Guarrazar._ Madrid, 1861.
+
+ANT�N, FRANCISCO. _Estudio sobre el Coro de la Catedral de Zamora_; 1904.
+
+ARGOTE DE MOLINA. _Nuevos Paseos Hist�ricos, Art�sticos,
+Econ�mico-Pol�ticos por Granada y sus Contornos._
+
+ARPHE Y VILLAFA�E. _Varia Conmensuraci�n para la Escultura y
+Arquitectura._ Seventh edition; Madrid, 1795.
+
+_Arte en Espa�a, El_; 8 vols.
+
+_Arts italiens en Espagne, Les, ou histoire des artistes italiens qui
+contribuerent � embellir les Castilles._ Rome, 1825.
+
+BALSA DE LA VEGA. _Las Industrias Art�sticas en Madrid_ (Lace, etc.).
+Articles published in _El Liberal_, 1907.
+
+BARRANTES. _Barros emeritenses._ Madrid, 1877.
+
+BERTAUT DE ROUEN. _Journal du Voyage d'Espagne._ Paris, 1669.
+
+BIRCH, SAMUEL. _History of Ancient Pottery._ London, 1873.
+
+BOCK. _Die Kleinodien des heil. r�mischen Reichs deutscher Nation, nebst
+den Kroninsignien B�hmens, Ungarns, und der Lombardei._ Vienna, 1864.
+
+  _Geschichte der liturgischen Gew�nder des Mittelalters._ Bonn, 1871.
+
+BONSOR, GEORGES. _Les Colonies pre-Romaines de la Vall�e du B�tis._
+Paris, 1899.
+
+BOURGOING, JEAN-FRAN�OIS DE. _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne._ 3 vols.;
+Paris, 1789.
+
+BRE�OSA Y CASTELLARNAU. _Gu�a y Descripci�n del Real Sitio de San
+Ildefonso._ Madrid, 1884.
+
+CABALLERO INFANTE, FRANCISCO. _Aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados
+en el pueblo de Santiponce._ Seville, 1898.
+
+CAMPOS MUNILLA, MANUEL. _Mosaicos del Museo Arqueol�gico Provincial de
+Sevilla._ 1897.
+
+CAPMANY Y MONTPALAU, ANTONIO. _Memorias hist�ricas sobre la marina,
+comercio, y artes de la ciudad de Barcelona._ Madrid, 1779.
+
+CARRASCO Y S�INZ, ADOLFO. _Cat�logo de los recuerdos hist�ricos
+existentes en el Museo de Artiller�a._ Part I.; Madrid, 1893.
+
+CASCALES, FRANCISCO. _Discursos hist�ricos sobre Murcia._ Murcia, 1624.
+
+CEAN BERMUDEZ, JUAN AGUSTIN. _Descripci�n Art�stica de la Catedral de
+Sevilla._ Seville, 1863.
+
+  _Diccionario de las Bellas Artes en Espa�a._
+
+CEDILLO, COUNT OF. _Toledo en el siglo XVI._ Madrid, 1901.
+
+CLONARD, COUNT OF. _Memorias para la historia del traje espa�ol_;
+published in the _Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia_,
+Vol. IX. Madrid, 1879.
+
+  _Conferencias leidas en el Ateneo Barcelon�s sobre el estado de la
+  cultura espa�ola y particularmente catalana, en el siglo XV._
+  Barcelona, 1893.
+
+COLE, ALAN S. _Ornament in European Silks._ London, 1899.
+
+CONTRERAS, RAFAEL. _Recuerdos de la Dominaci�n de los Arabes en Espa�a._
+Granada, 1882.
+
+COX. _L'Art de d�corer les Tissus._
+
+CRUZADA VILLAAMIL. _Los tapices de Goya._ Madrid, 1870.
+
+DANVILA Y COLLADO. _Trajes y Armas de los Espa�oles._ Madrid, 1877.
+
+DAVILLIER, BARON. _Recherches sur l'orf�vrerie en Espagne._ Paris, 1879.
+
+  _Les arts decoratifs en Espagne au moyen �ge et � la Renaissance._
+  Paris, 1879.
+
+  _Nota sobre los cueros de Cordoba, Guadameciles de Espa�a_, etc.
+  (Spanish edition.) Gerona, 1879.
+
+DIAZ Y PEREZ, NICOL�S. _Historia de Talavera la Real._ Madrid, 1879.
+
+DOZY. _Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne._ Leyden, 1881.
+
+DUPONT-AUBERVILLE. _L'Ornement des Tissus._ Paris, 1877.
+
+ECHEVERR�A. _Paseos por Granada y sus Contornos_. 2 vols.; Granada,
+1814.
+
+EGUILAZ YANGUAS, LEOPOLDO. _Rese�a Hist�rica de la Conquista del Reino
+de Granada por los Reyes Cat�licos._ Granada, 1894.
+
+ERRERA, MADAME ISABELLE. _Collection d'Anciennes �toffes_ (Catalogue).
+Brussels, 1901.
+
+FERNANDEZ Y GONZALEZ, FRANCISCO. _Estado social y pol�tico de los
+mud�jares de Castilla._ Madrid, 1866.
+
+FLOREZ. _Espa�a Sagrada._ (2nd edition). Madrid, 1824.
+
+FORD, RICHARD. _Handbook for Travellers in Spain._ 2 vols. London, 1845.
+
+GAYANGOS, PASCUAL DE (edited by). _History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in
+Spain._ London, 1843.
+
+  (annotated by). _Chronicle of Rassis the Moor._ Madrid, 1850.
+
+GAYET. _L'Art Persan._
+
+GESTOSO Y PEREZ, JOS�. _Documentos relativos � la historia de la Armer�a
+de Sevilla._ Seville, 1887.
+
+  _Ensayo de un Diccionario de los art�fices que florecieron en Sevilla
+  desde el siglo XIII al XVIII inclusive._ 2 vols.; Seville, 1899.
+
+  _Historia de los barros vidriados sevillanos desde sus or�genes hasta
+  nuestros d�as._ Seville, 1903.
+
+  _Curiosidades antiguas sevillanas._ Seville, 1885.
+
+GOBLET D'ALVIELLA, COMTE. _La Migration des Symboles._ Paris, 1891.
+
+G�MEZ MORENO, MANUEL. _Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del bordado
+de imaginer�a en Granada_ (published in the magazine _El Liceo de
+Granada_; 6th year, No. 18).
+
+  _Gu�a de Granada._ Granada, 1892.
+
+G�NGORA. _Antig�edades Prehist�ricas de Andaluc�a._ Madrid, 1868.
+
+GRANADA, ORDINANCES OF. _Titulo de las Ordenan�as que los muy Ilustres y
+muy magn�ficos Se�ores Granada mandaron que se guarden para la buena
+governacion de su Rep�blica. Las quales mandaron imprimir para que todos
+las sepan y las guarden._ 1552.
+
+  _Ordenanzas que los Muy Ilustres y Muy Magnificos Se�ores Granada
+  mandaron guardar, para la buena governacion de su Republica, impressas
+  a�o de 1552. Que se han buelto a imprimir mandado de los Se�ores
+  Presidente, y Oydores de la Real Chancilleria de esta ciudad de Granada,
+  a�o de 1670. A�adiendo otras que no estauan impressas. Impressas en
+  Granada. En la Imprenta Real de Francisco de Ochoa, en la Calle de
+  Abenamar. A�o de_ 1678.
+
+GUILLEN ROBLES, FRANCISCO. _M�laga musulmana._ M�laga, 1880.
+
+GUTIERREZ DE LA HACERA, PASCUAL RAMON. _Descripci�n General y Cronol�gica
+de Espa�a._ 2 vols.; Madrid, 1771.
+
+H�BNER. _Inscriptiones Hispani� latin�._ Berlin, 1892.
+
+  _Inscriptionum Hispani� latinarum supplementum._ Berlin, 1892.
+
+JONES, OWEN. _The Alhambra._ London, 1842.
+
+LANE-POOLE, STANLEY. _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt._ London, 1888.
+
+  _The Moors in Spain._ London, 1897.
+
+LARRUGA. _Memorias pol�ticas y econ�micas sobre los frutos, comercio, y
+minas de Espa�a._ Madrid, 1788.
+
+LE BRETON, GASTON. _C�ramique espagnole. Le salon en porcelaine du
+Palais Royal de Madrid et les porcelaines de Buen Retiro._ Paris, 1879.
+
+LECEA Y GARCIA. _Recuerdos de la antigua industria Segoviana._ Segovia,
+1897.
+
+LOPEZ DE ARENAS, DIEGO. _Carpinter�a de lo Blanco y Tratado de
+Alarifes._ (3rd edition.) Madrid, 1867.
+
+MADRAZO, PEDRO DE. _C�rdoba._ Barcelona, 1884.
+
+MARTORELL Y PE�A, JUAN. _Apuntes arqueol�gicos de, ordenados por
+Salvador Samper y Miquel._ Barcelona, 1879.
+
+MEDINA, PEDRO DE. _Primera y Segunda parte de las grandezas y cosas
+notables de Espa�a._ Alcal� de Henares, 1595.
+
+MENENDEZ Y PELAYO, MARCELINO. _Historia de las Ideas Est�ticas en
+Espa�a._ Madrid, 1886 and following years.
+
+MORALES, AMBROSIO DE. _La cr�nica general de Espa�a del Maestro Flori�n de
+Ocampo, continuada con el libro de las antig�edades de Espa�a._
+
+MORENO DE VARGAS, BERNAB�. _Historia de la Ciudad de M�rida._ Merida,
+1633; reprinted at Merida, 1892.
+
+MURGU�A, MANUEL. _El Arte en Santiago durante el siglo XVIII., y noticia
+de los artistas que florecieron en dicho ciudad y centuria._ Madrid, 1884.
+
+_Museo Espa�ol de Antig�edades_ (many articles in the). Madrid, 1872 and
+following years.
+
+_Noticia de la F�brica de Espadas de Toledo que por tantos siglos
+existi� hasta fines del XVII en que acab�, y del m�todo que ten�an
+aquellos art�fices Armeros para forjarlas y templarlas, aceros de que
+usaban, y otras particularidades que las hicieron tan famosas en todo el
+Mundo como apetecidas al presente, y de la que por el Rey N.S. que Dios
+gue. se estableci� en esta Ciudad a�o de 1760; por Francisco de Santiago
+Palomares Escriuano mayor de primeros remates de Rentas decimales de
+Toledo y su Arzobispado._ MS. in the Library of the Royal Academy of
+History, Madrid; in the volume inscribed _Varios de Historia_, 8, E,
+141.
+
+_Ordenanzas de la muy noble � muy leal Cibdad de Sevilla � su tierra,
+assi de las tocantes al Cabildo y regimiento della, que se contienen en
+la primera parte, como de todos los oficios mec�nicos, de que es la
+segunda parte. Impressas con mucha diligencia en la dicha Cibdad de
+Sevilla por Juan Varela de Salamanca, vezino della. Acab�ronse de
+imprimir � catorze dias del mes de Febrero, a�o de Nuestro Redemptor
+Iesu Christo de mil quinientos � veynte y siete a�os (1527)._ The second
+edition was published, also at Seville, in 1632.
+
+_Ordenanzas para el buen regimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal �
+imperial ciudad de Toledo._ Reprinted by the Town Council. Toledo, 1858.
+
+ORTEGA RUBIO. _Los Visigodos en Espa�a._ Madrid, 1903.
+
+OSMA, GUILLERMO J. DE. _Azulejos sevillanos del siglo XIII._ Madrid,
+1902.
+
+  _Los letreros ornamentales en la cer�mica morisca del siglo XV._
+
+P�REZ DE VILLA-AMIL. _Espa�a Artistica y Monumental._ Paris, 1842-1850.
+
+P�REZ VILLAAMIL, MANUEL. _Artes � Industrias del Buen Retiro._ Madrid,
+1904.
+
+PICATOSTE, FELIPE. _Ultimos escritos._
+
+  _Estudios sobre la grandeza y decadencia de Espa�a._
+
+PIGAL. _Collection de Costumes des diverses Provinces de l'Espagne._
+Paris, about 1810.
+
+PONZ, ANTONIO. _Viaje de Espa�a._ 18 vols.; Madrid, 1787.
+
+RAM�REZ DE ARELLANO, RAFAEL. _Ciudad Real Art�stica._ Ciudad Real, 1894.
+
+RIA�O, JUAN FACUNDO. _The Industrial Arts in Spain_ (South Kensington
+Museum Art Handbooks). London, 1879.
+
+RICORD, TOM�S. _Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones del
+Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que ten�an en el a�o 1791._
+Valencia, 1793.
+
+RODR�GUEZ VILLA, ANTONIO (edited by). _La Corte y Monarqu�a de Espa�a en
+los a�os de 1636 y 1637._ Madrid, 1886.
+
+SANPERE Y MIQUEL. _La Plateria catalana en los siglos XVI y XV_ (article
+published in the _Revista de Ciencias Hist�ricas_; Vol. I.).
+
+  _Las Costumbres Catalanas en tiempo de Juan I._ Gerona, 1878.
+
+SEMPERE. _Historia del lujo en Espa�a._ Madrid, 1788.
+
+SIMONET, FRANCISCO JAVIER. _Descripci�n del Reino de Granada, sacada de
+los autores ar�bigos._ Granada, 1872.
+
+STIRLING, WILLIAM. _Annals of the Artists of Spain._ London, 1848.
+
+STRABO. _Geography._
+
+STREET. _Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain._ London, 1865.
+
+SWINBURNE, HENRY. _Travels through Spain._ London, 1779.
+
+TOWNSEND, JOSEPH. _Journey through Spain._ 3 vols.; London, 1792.
+
+VALLADAR, F. DE PAULA. _Gu�a de Granada._ Granada, 1890 and 1906.
+
+VAN DE PUT. _Hispano-Moresque Ware of the Fifteenth Century._ London,
+1904.
+
+VARGAS Y PONCE. _Correspondencia epistolar en materias de Arte._
+Collected by Ces�reo Fern�ndez Duro. Madrid, 1900.
+
+VILLA-AMIL Y CASTRO. _Antig�edades prehist�ricas y c�lticas de Galicia._
+Lugo, 1873.
+
+ _Arqueolog�a Sagrada._ Lugo, 1867.
+
+VI�AZA, COUNT OF LA. _Adiciones al Diccionario de Cean Bermudez._
+
+  _Goya._
+
+VIOLLET-LE-DUC. _Dictionnaire raisonn� du mobilier fran�ais de l'�poque
+Carlovingienne � la Renaissance._
+
+WALLIS, HENRY. _The Oriental Influence on the Ceramic Art of the Italian
+Renaissance._ London, 1900.
+
+YOUNG, ARTHUR. _Tour in Catalonia._ Dublin, 1793.
+
+ZARCO DEL VALLE. _Documentos in�ditos para la Historia de las Bellas
+Artes en Espa�a._ Madrid, 1870.
+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX
+
+  Abd-al-Azis, I. 31.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the First, II. 57.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, II. 57; III. 20.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the Third, II. 98.
+  Aben-Said, I. 225; II. 135, 136.
+  Abolais, II. 226 _et seq._, 237.
+  Abreviador, the Casa del, III. 150.
+  Abu-Said, III. 37.
+  _Adargas_, I. 241, 242.
+  Addison, Lancelot, II. 18 _et seq._, 32, 45 (note).
+  Alberoni, Cardinal, III. 150 (note).
+  Albuquerque, the inventory of the Dukes of, I. 272, 273, 279, 283, 284;
+    II. 9, 10.
+  Alcaicer�a of Granada, the, I. 78; II. 194 _et seq._
+  _Alcarrazas_, II. 194 _et seq._
+  Alc�zar of Seville, the, II. 60 _et seq._, 138, 141, 143, 148, 150, 152.
+  Alcora, pottery of, II. 203 _et seq._
+  Alcoy, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Aleman, Crist�bal, II. 245.
+  _Aleros_, II. 65, 66.
+  _Alfarge_ ceilings, II. 52 _et seq._
+  Alfonso the Second, III. 183.
+  Alfonso the Third ("the Great"), I. 44, 57 (note); II. 106; III. 183.
+  Alfonso the Sixth, I. 45 (note), 276; II. 15, 106; III. 106.
+  Alfonso the Ninth, II. 39.
+  Alfonso the Tenth ("the Learned"), I. 61, 62, 129, 205; II. 226, 239;
+  III. 11, 28, 33, 34, 106, 238.
+  Alfonso the Eleventh, I. 68; III. 12, 70.
+  Alfonso the Eleventh, the Chronicle of, I. 207, 209, 268, 269,
+    280 (note).
+  Alfonso the Thirteenth, I. 42 (note).
+  Alfonso the First of Aragon, II. 14.
+  Algeciras, the siege of, I. 269.
+  Al-Hakem the First, II. 135; III. 213.
+  Al-Hakem the Second, II. 57.
+  Alhambra, the, II. 54, 56, 59, 64 _et seq._, 86, 121, 154 _et seq._, 168
+    _et seq._, 183, 232, 233.
+  _Aliceres_, II. 136.
+  Al-Jattib, I. 77 (note), 226, 268.
+  _Aljofar_, I. 67; III. 11 _et seq._, 33.
+  Al-Khattib, III. 33, 39.
+  Almagro Cardenas, II. 65 (note).
+  Almagro, lace of, III. 160.
+  Al-Makkari, I. 32, 76; II. 137, 163, 231; III. 1, 2, 21, 33, 35.
+  Al-Manzor, I. 227; II. 57.
+  _Almex�a_, III. 8.
+  Almohades, the, II. 136; III. 23.
+  Almoravides, the, III. 22.
+  Almotalefes, III. 58 _et seq._
+  Altar-screens (see _Retablos_).
+  Alvarez de Colmenar, I. 110 (note), 267; II. 23, 24, 31, 199 (note),
+    260; III. 50 _et seq._, 74.
+  Amador de los R�os, Jos�, I. 17, 23, 28; II. 59 (note).
+  Amador de los R�os, Rodrigo, I. 36, 48, 49, 61, 62, 128, 129, 176, 179,
+    183, 185; II. 58, 101, 103, 135, 136; III. 212, 238.
+  Amphor�, II. 116, 117.
+  _Analogia_, III. 211, 212.
+  Ancheta, II. 80.
+  Andino, Crist�bal de, I. 151 _et seq._
+  Angels, the Cross of, I. 41 _et seq._, 58.
+  Apocalypse, the Codex of the, I. 223.
+  _Arabian Nights, The_, II. 62, 63 (note).
+  Aranda, the Count of, II. 182, 204 _et seq._
+  _Arca Santa_ of Oviedo, the, I. 44.
+  Arenys de Mar, lace of, III. 172.
+  Arenys de Munt, lace of, III. 172.
+  Arfe, Antonio de, I. 98.
+  Arfe, Enrique de, I. 97, 101; III. 201.
+  Arfe, Juan de, I. 85, 96 _et seq._; III. 185, 201.
+  Argote de Molina, II. 23.
+  Armouries of Spain, private, I. 243, 244.
+  Armoury, Madrid, the Royal, I. 17, 210, 214 (note), 217 _et seq._,
+    229 (note), 231 (note), 235 _et seq._, 248 _et seq._, 273, 274, 276,
+    278, 282.
+  Arnao de Flandes, II. 243.
+  _Arquetas_, I. 48 _et seq._
+  "Arras cloths" (see _Pa�os de Ras_).
+  _Artesonados_, II. 47, 55 _et seq._
+  Ash Shakandi, III. 3, 4.
+  Augusta, Crist�bal de, II. 152.
+  _Axorcas_, I. 77, 79.
+  _Azulejos_ (see Tiles).
+
+  _Baculi_, ivory, II. 105, 106.
+  Balconies, Spanish, I. 154 _et seq._
+  Balearics, slingers of the, I. 200, 201.
+  B�le, the Council of, III. 110, 111 (note).
+  Balsa de la Vega, III. 163.
+  _Banyolenchs_, III. 123 (note).
+  Barcelona, silk of, III. 98 _et seq._
+  _Barros Saguntinos_ (see "Saguntine ware").
+  _Barros tarraconenses_ (see "Saguntine ware").
+  Bartholomew, Master, I. 149 _et seq._
+  Barzanallana, III. 222 (note), 249 (note).
+  Bayan Almoghreb, I. 32.
+  Becerra, II. 68.
+  Becerriles, the, I. 94, 95.
+  Bedclothes, Spanish medi�val, II. 4 (note).
+  Benvenuto Cellini, III. 208 _et seq._
+  Berruguete, I. 189; II. 68, 71, 79, 80.
+  Bertaut de Rouen, I. 3, 38, 82, 97, 101, 102, 109, 154, 155, 203;
+    II. 39, 59, 60, 63, 67 (note), 169, 262; III. 50, 51, 108, 109, 140,
+    141, 164, 165 (note), 242, 243, 245.
+  Boabdil el Chico, I. 75, 227 _et seq._; III. 36, 37.
+  Bocairente, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Bonsor, II. 113, 114.
+  Bourgoing, II. 159, 181, 216, 217; III. 74, 76 _et seq._
+  Bowles, William, I. 4 _et seq._, 23 (note), 56 (note), 263 _et seq._;
+    II. 58 (note), 196 _et seq._, 254, 255.
+  Brihuega, cloths of, III. 110, 115 (note).
+  Brims of Wells (see _Brocales_).
+  _Brinqui�os_, II. 191, 192.
+  British Museum, The, II. 177; III. 183.
+  Brocade, III. 98, 99 (note).
+  _Brocales_, II. 123, 124.
+  Bronzes, Moorish, I. 169 _et seq._
+  Brun, Sigismund, II. 259.
+  _B�caros_, II. 191, 193.
+  Buckram, III. 5, 7.
+  Buen Retiro, pottery of the, II. 203, 212 _et seq._
+  Buonaparte, Joseph, II. 218.
+  _Burel_, III. 122.
+
+  Cadalso, glass of, II. 232.
+  _Cadinas_, III. 123 (note).
+  Campomanes, Count, III. 248, 253.
+  _Candil_, the, I. 167, 168.
+  Cannon, early Spanish, I. 268 _et seq._
+  Cano, Alonso, II. 69, 81.
+  _C�ntigas de Santa Mar�a_, the, I. 282.
+  Capmany, III. 6, 123 (note), 169.
+  Carpentry, artistic, II. 46 _et seq._
+  _Carpinter�a de lo blanco_, II. 52, 53.
+  _Carpinteros de lo blanco_, II. 50.
+  Carri�n, Fernando de, III. 206, 207.
+  Casa de los T�ros, Granada, the, II. 65, 156.
+  Casiri, III. 35, 39.
+  Catalu�a, cloths of, III. 123 (note).
+  Catalu�a, lace of, III. 169 _et seq._
+  Catherine of Lancaster, III. 107, 129.
+  Cato, I. 5.
+  Cean Bermudez, I. 88, 148 (note), 185; II. 62, 80, 83 _et seq._, 149,
+    246 (note); III. 131, 168 (note).
+  Cedillo, Count of, III. 70 (note), 225 (note).
+  Celos�as, II. 47, 62 _et seq._
+  Celtiberians, the, I. 195, 196.
+  _Cendal_, III. 5, 6.
+  Chair-makers of Granada, the, II. 28 _et seq._
+  _Chamelot_, III. 5, 6, 14.
+  Charles the Second, I. 107, 273, 274; II. 46; III. 27, 107, 134,
+    248 (note).
+  Charles the Third, I. 115, 235 (note); II. 212, 218, 258; III. 46.
+  Charles the Fourth, II. 215; III. 249 (note).
+  Charles the Fifth, I. 129, 222, 223, 235 _et seq._, 253, 273, 283;
+    II. 40, 56, 77; III. 15, 31, 40, 107, 153, 169, 174, 238, 239.
+  Chests, makers of, II. 30.
+  _Ciclaton_, III. 5, 6.
+  Cid, the, II. 12.
+  Cid, the Chronicle of the, I. 207.
+  Cid, the Poem of the, I. 203, 207 (note); II. 45 (note).
+  Cisneros, Cardinal, III. 126.
+  Ciudad Real, II. 39.
+  Clemencin, III. 13, 14.
+  Clonard, Count of, I. 204, 206, 208, 213, 215 (note), 268; II. 2 (note),
+    5 (note), 39 (note); III. 14 (note).
+  Cloostermans, II. 209 _et seq._
+  Cloth of Gold, III. 7.
+  Cloths, Spanish, III. 105 _et seq._
+  Cluny, the Museum of, II. 40; III. 183.
+  Coaches, Spanish, I. 283.
+  _Cofrad�as_, III. 222 _et seq._
+  Commercial Company of Extremadura, the, III. 65.
+  Compa�ia Real de Comercio y F�bricas de Granada, the, III. 61 _et seq._
+  _Contrayes_, III. 122.
+  Contreras, II. 173.
+  _Cordellate_, III. 122.
+  Cordova, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Cordova, embroiderers of, III. 131 _et seq._
+  "Cordova leathers," II. 38, 39.
+  Cordova, _rejeros_ of, I. 145, 146.
+  Cordova, the Council of, III. 12.
+  Cordova, the mosque of, II. 57, 58, 135.
+  Cordova, the Ordinances of, II. 43, 44.
+  Covarrubias, II. 38, 137; III. 128.
+  Crossbows, Spanish, I. 220 _et seq._
+  Crosses, iron, I. 138.
+  Crown of Spain, tapestries of the, III. 152 _et seq._
+  _Cueros de C�rdoba_, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Cunninghame Graham, I. 131, 132, 235 (note), 277 (note); II. 20 (note),
+    126 (note).
+  _Cursi_, the, II. 22.
+  _Custodia_ of Cordova, the, III. 201 _et seq._
+  _Custodia_ of Seville, the, III. 185 _et seq._
+  _Custodias_, I. 95 _et seq._
+  Cutlers, Spanish, III. 214 _et seq._
+
+  Dagobert, I. 29, 30.
+  Dancart, II. 77, 83.
+  Danis, Juan, II. 247, 248.
+  D'Aulnoy, Countess, I. 107 _et seq._; II. 25 (note), 224; III. 134, 135,
+    141, 142, 162, 242 _et seq._
+  Davillier, Baron, I. 72, 87, 280 (note); II. 78, 144, 249, 162, 165,
+    166, 186 _et seq._; III. 149.
+  Diago, II. 163, 180.
+  Diodorus Siculus, I. 199.
+  Diptyches, ivory, II. 89 _et seq._
+  Dolfin, II. 240, 241.
+  Domingo, "Maestre," I. 148, 149; III. 237, 238 (note).
+  Doncel, Guillermo, II. 79, 80.
+  _Don Quixote_, I. 286 (note); III. 160.
+  Dozy, II. 135 (note), 136.
+  _Drach-alat_, the, III. 228.
+  Drury Fortnum, III. 182.
+  Ducange, III. 211.
+  Duque y Cornejo, II. 81.
+
+  Echeverr�a, Father, I. 82.
+  Eder, II. 259.
+  Edrisi, I. 224; II. 162; III. 137, 138.
+  Egilona, I. 30, 31.
+  Eguilaz Yanguas, II. 22; III. 36, 37 (note).
+  El Nubiense, III. 4.
+  Embroidery, Spanish, III. 125 _et seq._
+  Ena of Battenberg, Princess, III. 173.
+  Enguera, cloths of, III. 124.
+  _Entalladores_, II. 50, 76, 78.
+  Escolano, II. 163, 164.
+  Escorial, the, I. 98.
+  Eximenes, II. 163, 164, 180.
+
+  Ferdinand and Isabella, I. 65, 69 _et seq._, 252, 253; II. 74, 125, 143,
+    184 (note), 190, 234; III. 14, 31, 39, 123, 128, 129 (note), 152, 236,
+    252.
+  Ferdinand the Catholic, I. 229, 253 _et seq._; II. 236; III. 123 (note).
+  Ferdinand the First, I. 45 (note); II. 13, 39, 99, 104.
+  Ferdinand the Second, II. 107.
+  Ferdinand the Third (San Fernando), I. 128, 129, 250, 252, 276; II. 85;
+    III. 18.
+  Ferdinand the Sixth, III. 44, 240.
+  Ferdinand the Second of Aragon, I. 210.
+  Fernandez de Navarrete, III. 109 (note), 144, 199 (note), 235 (note),
+    237 _et seq._
+  Fernandez y Gonzalez, III. 17 (note).
+  Fez, III. 50.
+  Florez Estrada, III. 248.
+  Floridablanca, Count of, II. 177; III. 90, 91.
+  Fonseca, I. 80, 81.
+  Fonts, baptismal, II. 124, 125.
+  Ford, I. 40, 53, 56 (note), 59, 83 (note); II. 63 (note), 184 (note),
+    195, 196, 218, 219.
+  Fortuny, I. 171; II. 168, 174, 183.
+  Fouquet, II. 162.
+  Foz, Manuel, III. 83, 84, 93, 94.
+  Franc�s, Juan, I. 140 _et seq._
+  Francis the First, III. 123 (note).
+  Frisleva, Crist�bal, I. 273.
+  Fuero Viejo of Castile, the, III. 242 (note).
+
+  Gamero, Martin, III. 225, 251 (note).
+  Ganivet, III. 242.
+  Garc�a Llans�, II. 156 (note), 180, 198, 202 (note), 233.
+  Gates, bronze, I. 181.
+
+  Gayangos, Pascual de, I. 102, 104, 127, 155, 232; II. 24; III. 35,
+    71 (note), 135 (note).
+  Gelmirez, Bishop, I. 53, 54.
+  Gener, Pompeyo, III. 242.
+  George, Master, I. 61.
+  Gestoso, I. 72, 73 (note), 84 (note), 114 (note), 150 (note),
+    187 (note), 247 (note); II. 45 (note), 51 (note), 121 _et seq._,
+    136 _et seq._, 142 (note) _et seq._, 149 _et seq._, 152 (note)
+    _et seq._, 155, 187, 189, 198; III. 27, 221 _et seq._, 235 (note),
+    239, 240.
+  Giralda, the, I. 177 (note), 183, 186, 187; II. 77, 151.
+  Goblet d'Alviella, III. 71 (note).
+  Gomez Moreno, II. 56, 57, 65 (note), 155, 172 (note); III. 133.
+  Gonzalo de Cordova, I. 257, 258.
+  Goya, I. 113; III. 157.
+  Goyeneche, Juan, II. 250.
+  Granada, cloths of, III. 121 _et seq._
+  Granada, silk of, III. 149 _et seq._
+  Granada, the Alcaicer�a of, III. 49 _et seq._
+  Granada, the Ordinances of, I. 3, 4 (note), 135, 157, 158, 247 (note),
+    248; II. 27 _et seq._, 52.
+  _Granas treintenas_, III. 122.
+  Gricci, II. 213, 214.
+  Guadalajara, cloths of, III. 110, 112 _et seq._
+  Guadalete, the battle of, I. 30.
+  _Guadamacileros_, III. 226.
+  _Guadamacileros_ of Cordova, the, II. 42, 43.
+  _Guadameciles_, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Guarrazar, the treasure of, I. 16 _et seq._
+  Guise, Duke of, III. 71.
+  Gutierrez, Pedro, III. 145 _et seq._, 149, 150.
+
+  Hannibal, I. 7.
+  Harness for horses, war, I. 219, 220.
+  Henry, Master, II. 241, 242.
+  Henry the First, I. 68.
+  Henry the Second, III. 34 (note).
+  Henry the Eighth of England, III. 107.
+  Hern�ndez, Gregorio, II. 68, 69.
+  Herranz, Francisco, II. 247.
+  Hita, Archpriest of, I. 67.
+  Hixem, II. 57.
+  H�bner, II. 115.
+  Hurtado de Mendoza, II. 23, 37.
+
+  Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, I. 35.
+  Ibn Alwardi, I. 31, 32.
+  Ibn Batutah, II. 162, 163.
+  Ibn Hayyan, I. 33, 34.
+  Ibn Hud, III. 36, 37.
+  Ibn Khaldoun, II. 22; III. 21, 33, 36.
+  Ibn Said, II. 163, 180; III. 33 _et seq._
+  Illiberis, I. 173, 174.
+  Inlay on steel and iron, gold, III. 208 _et seq._
+  Inns, furniture of Spanish, II. 30 _et seq._
+  Irving, Washington, I. 82; II. 170, 171.
+  Isabel Farnese, I. 274; II. 252.
+  Isabella the Catholic, I. 254; II. 16, 244 (note); III. 13, 14, 133,
+    161.
+  Isabella the Second, I. 25.
+  Isidore, Saint, I. 12 (note), 15, 27, 166 (note), 198, 201; II. 2, 7.
+
+  Jacquemart, II. 186.
+  _Jaeces colgantes_, I. 281, 282.
+  Jaen, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Jayme the First of Aragon ("the Conqueror"), I. 210 _et seq._; II. 101,
+    108; III. 5, 11, 18, 47 (note), 232.
+  Jewellery in Spain, Roman, I. 11, 12.
+  Jewellery, Moorish, I. 73 _et seq._
+  Jewellery, Morisco, I. 77 _et seq._
+  Jones, Owen, II. 171, 172 (note).
+  Jovellanos, III. 249.
+  Juana, Do�a, III. 15.
+  Juan of Aragon, I. 212; II. 5.
+  Juan the First, I. 215; III. 13, 30, 227, 228.
+  Juan the Second, I. 130, 280 (note); III. 34.
+  Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.
+
+  Kersey, III. 122.
+  Keys of Seville, the, I. 126 _et seq._
+  Keys, Spanish, I. 124 _et seq._
+
+  Laborde, I. 7 _et seq._, 116 _et seq._, 133, 134, 266, 267; II. 34
+    _et seq._, 38 (note), 131 _et seq._, 182, 183, 194, 195, 200, 201,
+    203, 216, 254, 260; III. 44 _et seq._, 55, 67 _et seq._, 94 _et seq._,
+    108, 109, 122 _et seq._, 142, 143, 151, 152 (note), 168 _et seq._,
+    240 _et seq._
+  Lace, Spanish, III. 159 _et seq._
+  La Granja (or San Ildefonso), the glass factory of, II. 252 _et seq._;
+    III. 240.
+  La Higueruela, the battle of, I. 218.
+  Lalaing, III. 50.
+  Lambot, Diodonet, II. 249.
+  La Milanesa, III. 91, 105.
+  La Moncloa, the porcelain factory of, II. 219, 220.
+  Lamp�rez, Vicente, II. 62; III. 158 (note).
+  Lamps, Roman, I. 165 _et seq._
+  Lamps, ware, II. 116.
+  Lane-Poole, Stanley, II. 47, 48; III. 9 (note), 21 (note).
+  La Payessa, Joseph, III. 91, 92.
+  Larruga, II. 200, 213, 235, 251, 252; III. 66 (note), 111 (note), 118,
+    119 (note), 233 (note), 235 (note), 248, 249 (note).
+  Lasteyrie, I. 21.
+  _Latticinio_, II. 225, 261.
+  _Lazo_-work doors, II. 47, 58 _et seq._
+  Leather, Spanish decorative, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Lefort, III. 157.
+  Lenger, Antoine, III. 151.
+  Le�n, the Synod of, III. 15.
+  Lerma, Duke of, I. 102, 103, 219, 220.
+  _Libros de Pasant�a_, I. 72, 73.
+  Locks and keys, I. 135.
+  Lope de Vega, I. 86; II. 23 (note).
+  Lopez de Arenas, Diego, II. 51 _et seq._, 56.
+  Lugo, exhibition of, I. 41.
+  Luis de Le�n, Fray, III. 99 (note).
+  Luna, Alvaro de, I. 189, 216.
+  Lustred pottery, Hispano-Moresque, II. 161 _et seq._
+
+  Machuca, Pedro, II. 57.
+  Madrid, the Gremios of, III. 45, 119, 120 (note).
+  Madrid, the National Museum, II. 58, 60, 79, 91, 94 _et seq._, 108;
+    III. 29.
+  Majolica ware, II. 165, 166.
+  _Manillas_, I. 78.
+  _Mantilla_, the, III. 164 _et seq._
+  Marckwart, the brothers, I. 273.
+  Mar�a Cristina, Queen, III. 249 (note).
+  Mar�a de Padilla, III. 141.
+  Marineus Siculus, I. 254; II. 180, 233, 234; III. 50.
+  Marmol, II. 169.
+  Martial, I. 199.
+  Martinez de la Mata, III. 48.
+  Martinez Guijarro, Fernan, II. 151, 152.
+  Martinez Monta�es, II. 68.
+  Martin Hume, II. 113 (note).
+  Martin of Aragon, I. 212; III. 7.
+  Mary of England, II. 237.
+  Maskell, II. 97 _et seq._
+  _Medias lanas_, III. 123 (note).
+  Medina del Campo, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Medina, Pedro de, I. 55; II. 185.
+  M�lida, II. 167, 175 (note).
+  Mena, Alonso de, II. 69.
+  Menandro, Vicente, II. 246.
+  Mena, Pedro de, II. 69, 81.
+  Mendez Silva, I. 147, 284; II. 234, 255.
+  Mendoza, the _gui�n_ of Cardinal, I. 65.
+  Micerguillo, I. 273.
+  _Mimbar_ of the Mosque of Cordova, the, III. 213.
+  _Mimbar_, the, II. 22.
+  Mines, gold and silver, in Spain, I. 1 _et seq._
+  Mines of Spain, the iron, I. 123.
+  Miquel y Bad�a, II. 2 (note), 7 (note); III. 7, 8, 10, 18, 19, 22, 26,
+    47 (note), 70 (note), 133.
+  Moawia, II. 22.
+  Mocarabes, II. 54.
+  Mohammed the Third of Granada, I. 74.
+  Mondejar, the Marquis of, I. 286.
+  Monistrol, the Marquis of, II. 27.
+  Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, III. 184 (note).
+  Monte-Fuerte, the Marquis of, III. 149 (note).
+  Montoya, Alejo de, III. 206, 207.
+  Montserrat, II. 156.
+  Monz�n, the Cortes of, III. 169.
+  Morales, Ambrosio de, I. 54, 55, 58 (note); II. 7 (note), 14, 41, 57,
+    58 (note), 100, 107, 108; III. 213.
+  Morel, Bartolom�, I. 183 _et seq._
+  Morella, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Moriscos, the, II. 29 (note); III. 40.
+  Moriscos, the expulsion of the, I. 80 _et seq._
+  Mosaic-work, Spanish, II. 128 _et seq._
+  M�ntz, III. 138, 140 (note), 149, 155 (note), 156.
+  Murcia, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Murcia, silk of, III. 67 _et seq._, 103 _et seq._
+  Muza, I. 31, 34, 35.
+  Muzquiz, Miguel de, III. 92 (note).
+
+  Nails, decorative, I. 134, 135.
+  Napoleon, I. 141 (note).
+  Navagiero, III. 50.
+  Nebrija, II. 137.
+  Ney, Marshal, I. 56.
+  Nuevo Bazt�n, the glass-factory of, II. 250 _et seq._
+
+  Olivares, Damian de, III. 70.
+  Olivares, the Count-Duke of, III. 159.
+  Ollery, II. 205.
+  Onteniente, cloths of, III. 122, 124.
+  "Opening images," II. 107, 108.
+  Order of Preachers, the, III. 212.
+  Ordinances of Barcelona, the, III. 123.
+  Ordinances of Burgos, the, III. 233 (note).
+  Ordinances of Cordova, the, II. 43, 44.
+  Ordinances of Granada, the, I. 78, 79, 132, 133; II. 27 _et seq._, 52,
+    119 _et seq._, 125, 126; III. 39, 52 _et seq._, 121, 122.
+  Ordinances of Seville, the, II. 50 _et seq._; III. 31 (note).
+  Ordinances of Toledo, the, II. 52; III. 31, 225.
+  Ortiz de Z��iga, I. 127, 128.
+  Ortiz, Lorenzo, III. 109, 117, 118.
+  Osma, II. 140 _et seq._, 160, 161 (note), 168, 183 _et seq._,
+    188 (note), 189.
+  Othman, the Caliph, III. 213.
+
+  Pacheco, II. 68.
+  Palencia, cloths of, III. 122.
+  _Pallia aquilinata_, III. 8.
+  _Pallia leonata_, III. 8.
+  _Pallia rotata_, III. 8, 18.
+  _Palmillas_, III. 122.
+  Pannemaker, William, III. 155, 156.
+  _Pa�os de Ras_, III. 139, 140, 152.
+  _Pardillos_, III. 122.
+  _Passo Honroso_, the, I. 218.
+  Pedro the Cruel, I. 270; II. 60, 61; III. 13, 37, 141, 221.
+  Pedro the Second, III. 227.
+  Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, I. 210 _et seq._; III. 30.
+  Pelayo, I. 43.
+  Petronius, I. 165.
+  Philip the First, I. 237, 238.
+  Philip the Second, I. 86, 129, 265, 280 (note); II. 69, 175, 236, 237;
+    III. 27, 40, 71, 107, 145, 149, 153.
+  Philip the Third, I. 241; III. 40.
+  Philip the Fourth, I. 102, 243; III. 41, 240, 245, 248.
+  Philip the Fifth, I. 274; II. 252; III. 43, 240.
+  Pinheiro da Veiga, II. 250; III. 33, 141 _et seq._
+  Pisano, Francesco Niculoso, II. 139, 140, 143 _et seq._
+  Pizarro, I. 257 _et seq._
+  Plato, I. 165.
+  Pliny, I. 166, 195, 201; II. 223 (note), 225 (note).
+  Poblet, the monastery of, II. 156.
+  _Poem of the Cid_, the, II. 45 (note).
+  Polybius, I. 201.
+  Ponz, II. 13, 62.
+  Porous pottery, II. 190 _et seq._
+  _Porr�n_, the, II. 261.
+  Potosi, the silver mines of, I. 88.
+  Pottery, prehistoric Spanish, II. 111 _et seq._
+  _Primavera_, III. 8.
+  Procaccini, III. 151, 157.
+  Processional crosses, Spanish, I. 181, 182; III. 183, 184.
+  Procopius, I. 201.
+  _Psephosis fsefysa_, II. 135.
+  Ptolemy, I. 195.
+  Puente del Arzobispo ware, II. 186 _et seq._
+  Pulgar, Hernando del, II. 13, 23.
+  Pulpits, iron, I. 139 _et seq._
+  Pulpits, old Spanish, III. 211 _et seq._
+  _Punto de oro_, III. 163.
+
+  _R�cimos_, II. 54.
+  Ram�rez de Arellano, I. 52, 84, 91 _et seq._, 145; II. 40, 42,
+    46 (note), 55 (note), 56 (note), 154; III. 131, 145 (note), 147.
+  Ram�rez, Sancho, II. 160.
+  Rapiers, I. 259 _et seq._
+  Rassis, III. 2 _et seq._
+  Reboul, III. 91, 92 (note).
+  Recared, I. 20.
+  Recceswinth, I. 17.
+  _Red fland�s_, III. 160.
+  _Rejas_, I. 141 _et seq._
+  _Relicarios_, I. 45 _et seq._
+  Renaissance, the, I. 95 _et seq._
+  _Reposteros_, II. 16 (note); III. 146 _et seq._, 153.
+  _Retablo_ of Gerona Cathedral, the, I. 63, 64.
+  _Retablos_, II. 82 _et seq._
+  _Ret Catal�_, III. 173.
+  Ria�o, I. 9, 12, 13, 17, 40, 44, 47, 61 (note) _et seq._, 72, 88, 95,
+    107, 115, 123, 126 (note), 129, 139, 174, 179, 181, 185 (note);
+    II. 93 _et seq._, 118, 121, 123, 136, 153, 173, 177, 184, 186, 190,
+    191, 198, 199, 204 _et seq._, 213, 217, 225, 231, 232; III. 20, 23,
+    75, 126 (note), 128 _et seq._, 138, 139, 147 (note), 148, 154 (note),
+    161, 221, 254 _et seq._
+  Ricord, II. 203, 260 (note); III. 74, 75, 203.
+  Rico y Sinobas, II. 225, 228 _et seq._, 238, 259 (note); III. 240.
+  Riotinto, the mines of, I. 6.
+  Roderick, I. 30, II. 89.
+  Rodrigo, Maese, I. 217; II. 76.
+  Roldan, Pedro, II. 68, 69, 81.
+  Rosmithal, I. 37; III. 34 (note).
+  Rouli�re, Jean, III. 44, 45.
+  Rubens, III. 159.
+
+  Sagrado, Diego de, II. 70.
+  Saguntine ware, II. 114 _et seq._
+  Saint Ferdinand (_see_ Ferdinand the Third).
+  Saint Isidore, II. 117, 129, 134, 223 _et seq._; III. 1, 211.
+  Saint Isidro, diamonds of, II. 224, 225.
+  Saint Vincent Ferrer, III. 212, 229, 230.
+  _Samit_, III. 5, 6.
+  Sanchez, Martin, II. 73, 74, 77, 78.
+  Sancho the Fourth, III. 145.
+  Sancho the Great, I. 51.
+  Sandoval, Cardinal, III. 129, 130.
+  San Fernando, cloths of, III. 114.
+  San Isidro, the burial chest of, II. 13.
+  San Miguel in Excelsis, the legend of, III. 179 _et seq._
+  Santa Barbara, the tapestry factory of, III. 150 _et seq._, 156.
+  Santa Isabel, the tapestry factory of, III. 150 _et seq._, 156.
+  Santiago Cathedral, the treasure of, I. 53 _et seq._
+  Santiago, jet-work of, III. 182 _et seq._
+  Santas Creus, the monastery of, II. 156.
+  Sculpture in wood, Spanish, II. 68 _et seq._
+  Segovia, cloths of, III. 106 _et seq._, 122.
+  Segovia, woollens of, III. 117 _et seq._
+  Sentenach, III. 213.
+  Sep�lveda, the Fuero of, III. 106.
+  Serrano Fatigati, III. 127, 128.
+  Seville, the Ordinances of, I. 247; II. 50 _et seq._
+  Shields, Spanish, I. 207, 208, 239 _et seq._
+  Ships, silver, I. 65, 66.
+  Silk, Spanish, III. 38 _et seq._
+  _Siller�as_, II. 69 _et seq._
+  Silos, the Chronicle of the Monk of, II. 13 (note).
+  Sisenand, I. 29.
+  Sit, Ventura, II. 252.
+  Soria, cloths of, III. 106.
+  South Kensington Museum, the, II. 40, 53 (note), 97, 98, 121, 123, 184;
+    III. 161.
+  Stalactite decoration, II. 54.
+  Stirling, I. 138.
+  Strabo, I. 195, 196, 198, 200.
+  Street, I. 64 (note), 139.
+  Stuck family, the, III. 152.
+  Superstitions, Andalusian, I. 168, 169.
+  Susillo, II. 69.
+  Swinburne, I. 82, 104, 105, 168 (note), 172 (note), 235 (note),
+    240 (note), 274, 285 (note); II. 2 (note), 61 (note), 77 (note), 133,
+    155, 170, 193, 194, 224, 253, 257, 258, 261 (note); III. 47 (note),
+    66, 121, 168, 170, 184 (note).
+  Swinthila, I. 22, 29.
+  Swords, Spanish, I. 203 _et seq._, 239, 244 _et seq._
+  Swords, spurious Spanish, I. 265, 266.
+  Symonds, John Addington, I. 2; II. 67.
+
+  _Tabis_, III. 5, 6.
+  _Takcht_, the, II. 22.
+  Talavera de la Reina, pottery of, II. 186, 190 _et seq._, 198 _et seq._
+  Talavera de la Reina, silk of, III. 87.
+  Talavera de la Reina, the silk-factories of, III. 44 _et seq._
+  Tapestry, Spanish, III. 137 _et seq._
+  _Tardwahsh_, II. 18 (note).
+  Tarik, I. 31, 32, 34, 35.
+  Tarik's "table," I. 31 _et seq._; III. 212.
+  _Tartaricas_, III. 16, 17.
+  Tavira de Durango, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Teniers, III. 157.
+  Testaments, the Codex of the, II. 3 (note).
+  Thimbles, Moorish, I. 178, 179.
+  Throne of Don Martin, the silver, I. 60, 64, 65.
+  Tiles, Spanish, II. 136 _et seq._
+  _Tinajas_, II. 120 _et seq._, 195, 199; III. 55.
+  _Tiraz_, III. 1, 17, 20 _et seq._, 38.
+  Tirso de Molina, I. 282.
+  Toledo, silk of, III. 70 _et seq._
+  Toledo, the Ordinances of, II. 52.
+  Toledo, the trade-guilds of, III. 225.
+  Torre�naz, the Count of, III. 119 (note), 232, 233 (note), 252,
+    253 (note).
+  Torre del Oro, the, II. 140, 141.
+  Townsend, I. 95, 235 (note), 266, 275, 276 (note); II. 17, 25 (note),
+    33, 34, 176 (note), 215, 253, 254; III. 73, 74, 79 (note), 115 (note),
+    118 _et seq._, 151 (note), 165, 170, 182, 183 (note), 239, 240 (note),
+    250 _et seq._
+  Trade-guilds, Spanish, III. 221 _et seq._
+  Tramoyeres Blasco, Luis, III. 225 _et seq._
+  Triptych reliquaries, I. 60 _et seq._
+  Turismund, I. 29.
+
+  Ulloa, Martin de, III. 38 _et seq._, 47
+  Unamuno, III. 242.
+
+  Valencia, cloths of, III. 121.
+  Valencia, lace of, III. 169 _et seq._
+  Valencia, silk of, III. 66, 74 _et seq._
+  Valencia, the trade-guilds of, III. 225 _et seq._
+  Valencia, woollens of, III. 124, 125.
+  Valencia de Don Juan, the Count of, III. 27, 154 (note), 159, 183.
+  Valladar, II. 65 (note).
+  Valladolid, the Council of, III. 15.
+  Van der Goten, Adrian, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Cornelius, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Francisco, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Jacob, III. 150, 151.
+  Van der Goten, Jacob (the younger), III. 151.
+  Van Eyk, III. 156.
+  Vargas y Ponce, III. 168 (note).
+  Varg�e�os, II. 27.
+  Vaucanson, III. 86 _et seq._
+  _Veintiseiseno_, cloths, III. 122.
+  _Velarte_, III. 122.
+  Velazquez, I. 102, 113; III. 150.
+  _Vel�n_, the, I. 167, 168.
+  Vergara, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Vermay, Jan, III. 154.
+  Victory, the Cross of, I. 41, 43.
+  Vigarny, Philip, II. 78 _et seq._
+  Villa-amil y Castro, I. 140 (note), 143 (note), 167; II. 111;
+    III. 182 _et seq._
+  Villalpando, Francisco de, I. 147, 148, 189.
+  Villamediana, the Count of, III. 135 (note).
+  Viollet-le-Duc, I. 211; II. 3 (note).
+  Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the, crown of the, III. 205 _et seq._
+  Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the mantle of the, III. 129, 130.
+  "Virgin of Battles," the, II. 104.
+  Visigothic jewellery, I. 15 _et seq._
+
+  Wallis, II. 164, 167, 168, 173, 174.
+  Washington Irving, I. 82; II. 170, 171.
+  Weathercocks, Moorish, I. 188.
+  Witiza, I. 276.
+  Woollens, Spanish, III. 105 _et seq._
+
+  Xelizes, III. 58 _et seq._
+
+  Young, Arthur, II. 262, 263; III. 171, 172.
+  Yusuf of Granada, I. 280 (note).
+
+  Zafra, Hernando de, II. 234.
+  Zaragoza, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Zaragoza, silk of, III. 103, 104.
+  Zarco del Valle, I. 87 (note), 141 (note), 148 (note); II. 71 (note),
+     245 (note), 247 (note); III. 7, 237.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+               PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as a misprint.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. 6: Cortes of Monzon -> Monz�n
+  p. 8: _Almexia_ -> _Almex�a_
+  p. 15: edging of the same; -> edging of the same;"
+  p. 33: Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib -> Al-Khattib
+  p. 37: in the form of a scarf. -> in the form of a scarf."
+  p. 48: il est en indiennne. -> indienne.
+  p. 51: qui croist assez pr�s -> pr�s
+  p. 51: pr�s de deux cens -> cent
+  p. 51: qui est une espece -> esp�ce
+  p. 51: Ses habitans -> habitants
+  p. 108: il y avoit autresfois -> autrefois
+  p. 109: quatre heures apr�s -> apr�s
+  p. 123: Chalons, Beziers, and Rheims -> Reims
+  p. 129: it to the church. -> it to the church."
+  p. 151: invitation John Vergoten -> Dergoten
+  p. 154: Madrid, the Pardo -> Prado
+  p. 165: Journal du Voyage d Espagne -> d'Espagne
+  p. 166: de rubans � l'extremit� -> l'extr�mit�
+  p. 166: sur la t�te attach�e -> attach�s
+  p. 167: autre les divers d�gr�s -> degr�s
+  p. 167: elle ne depasse -> d�passe
+  p. 200: inscription, _Aeternum_ -> �ternum
+  p. 217: Sebastian. Early -> Early.
+  p. 217: Madrid. Cutler; a native -> native of
+  p. 217: early life in Flanders -> Flanders.
+  p. 220: Sosa, -> Sosa
+  p. 242: maxims of our Christain -> Christian
+  p. 243: through the market, -> through the market,'
+  p. 245: that they were "to�jours -> "toujours
+  p. 249: in the royal _c�dula_ -> _cedula_
+  p. 262: Die Kleinodien des heil -> heil.
+  p. 262: Nation, nebst den Kroninsignen -> Kroninsignien
+  p. 264: la buena gouernacion -> governacion
+  p. 264: que los Mvy Ilvstres -> Muy Ilustres
+  p. 264: mandaron gvardar -> guardar
+  p. 264: gouernacion -> governacion
+  p. 264: se han bvelto -> buelto
+  p. 273: III. 131, 16 -> 168
+  p. 276: Granada, cloths of, -> Granada, cloths of, III.
+  p. 276: Juni, Juan de, 68, 69. -> Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.
+  p. 280: Sepulveda -> Sep�lveda
+  p. 281: 20 _et seq._; III. -> 20 _et seq._,
+  p. 281: 276 (note), -> 276 (note); II.
+  p. 282: Veintiseseno -> Vientiseiseno
+
+
+
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+<body>
+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume
+III (of 3), by Leonard Williams</h1>
+<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a
+href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
+<p>Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume III (of 3)</p>
+<p>Author: Leonard Williams</p>
+<p>Release Date: December 10, 2013  [eBook #44393]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME III (OF 3)***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3 class="pg">E-text prepared by<br />
+    Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm">Volume I</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm">Volume II</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm
+      <a href="">
+      </a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="345" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a>
+        <p class="caption">"THE GRAPE-GATHERERS"<br />
+        (<i>Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya. El Escorial</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;"><br /><br />The World of Art Series</span></p>
+
+<h1>The Arts and Crafts<br />
+of Older Spain</h1>
+
+<p class="title">BY<br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 150%;">LEONARD WILLIAMS</span><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy, of<br />
+the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the<br />
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts; Author<br />
+Of &ldquo;The Land of the Dons&rdquo;; &ldquo;Toledo and<br />
+Madrid&rdquo;; &ldquo;Granada,&rdquo; etc.</span><br /><br />
+
+<i>IN THREE VOLUMES, ILLUSTRATED</i><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">VOLUME III</span><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_03.jpg" width="100" height="99"
+        alt="title-symbol"
+        title="title-symbol" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">CHICAGO<br />
+A. C. McCLURG &amp; CO.</span><br />
+EDINBURGH: T. N. FOULIS<br />
+1908<br /><br /><br />
+AMERICAN EDITION<br />
+Published October 10, 1908</p>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME THREE</h2>
+
+<h3>TEXTILE FABRICS</h3>
+
+<table summary="TOC" cellpadding="4">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGES</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#INTRODUCTION"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">1&ndash;38</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#SPANISH_SILK"><span class="smcap">Spanish Silk</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">38&ndash;105</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#CLOTHS_AND_WOOLLENS"><span class="smcap">Cloths and Woollens</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">105&ndash;125</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#EMBROIDERY"><span class="smcap">Embroidery</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">125&ndash;137</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#TAPESTRY"><span class="smcap">Tapestry</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">137&ndash;159</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#LACE"><span class="smcap">Lace</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">159&ndash;175</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><hr class="hr65" /></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><a href="#APPENDICES"><span class="smcap">Appendices</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">177&ndash;258</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">259&ndash;268</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">271&ndash;282</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><i>VOLUME THREE</i></p>
+
+<table summary="LOI" cellpadding="2">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">TEXTILE FABRICS</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">PLATE</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Grape-Gatherers&rdquo;; Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya; El Escorial</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">I.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Banner of Las Navas&rdquo;; Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_22.jpg">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">II.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Fragment of the Burial Mantle of Ferdinand the Third; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_26.jpg">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">III.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">King Alfonso the Learned; from &ldquo;The Book of Chess,&rdquo; MS. in the Escorial Library</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_28.jpg">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Velvet; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1500</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_30.jpg">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">V.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Tunic of Boabdil el Chico; National Museum of Artillery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_36.jpg">36</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Banner of Saint Ferdinand&rdquo;; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_40.jpg">40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Velvet made at Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_56.jpg">56</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VIII.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Daughters of Philip the Second; Prado Gallery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_98.jpg">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Charra</i> or Peasant Woman of Salamanca, in the year 1777</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_102.jpg">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">X.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Priest's Robe; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1500</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_118.jpg">118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Priest's Robe; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1500</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_120.jpg">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Chasuble; Palencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_122.jpg">122</a></td>
+  </tr>  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Case of Processional Cross; Toledo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_124.jpg">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Front</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_126.jpg">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Front; Toledo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_128.jpg">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Front; Palencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_130.jpg">130</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Embroidered Altar-Fronts; Palencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_132.jpg">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Costume of Woman of the Balearic Islands; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1810</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_134.jpg">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Genesis Tapestry&rdquo;; Gerona Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_138.jpg">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Tapiz</i> of Crimson Velvet worked in gold tissue; Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_144.jpg">144</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Spinners,&rdquo; by Velazquez; Prado Gallery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_148.jpg">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Tapestry made at Brussels from Granada Silk</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_150.jpg">150</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;A Promenade in Andalusia&rdquo;; Cartoon for Tapestry, by Goya</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_152.jpg">152</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Tapestry; Arras-Work, from Italian Cartoons; Zamora Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_156.jpg">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXV.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Flemish Tapestry; Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_158.jpg">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Marchioness of La Solana, by Goya</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_160.jpg">160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A Spanish <i>Maja</i>; <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1777</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_162.jpg">162</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Maja</i>, by Goya</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_164.jpg">164</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A Lady of Soria; about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1810</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_166.jpg">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Handkerchief of Catalan Lace, presented to Queen Victoria of Spain on her marriage</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_168.jpg">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Curtain of Spanish Lace; Point and Pillow Work, modern</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_170.jpg">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Point Lace Fan, of Mudejar Design, modern</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_172.jpg">172</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>TEXTILE FABRICS</h2>
+
+<h3><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></h3>
+
+<p>Our earliest intelligence respecting textile fabrics
+of old Spain derives almost exclusively from
+Moorish sources, and shows, together with the
+silence of Saint Isidore, that until the subjugation
+of the Visigoths, the occupants of the Peninsula
+attached no great importance to this industry.
+Under the Moors, the south and east of Spain
+grew rapidly famous for the manufacture of all
+kinds of textile stuffs, and in particular those of
+silk. The origin of these silks, or of the most
+luxurious and artistic of them, may be traced to
+Almer�a. According to Al-Makkari, what made
+this Andalusian capital superior to all other cities
+of the world was her &ldquo;various manufactures of
+silks and other dress materials, such as the <i>dibaj</i>,
+a silken fabric of many colours, surpassing, both
+in quality and durability, all other products made
+elsewhere, and also the <i>tiraz</i>, a costly stuff whereon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+are inscribed the names of sultans, princes, and
+other personages, and for making which there used
+to be no fewer than eight hundred looms. Inferior
+fabrics were the <i>holol</i> (a kind of striped silk), and
+brocades woven upon a thousand looms, while as
+many more were employed continually in making
+the scarlet stuffs called <i>iskalaton</i>. Another
+thousand produced the robes called <i>al jorjani</i> (or
+&lsquo;the Georgian&rsquo;), and yet another thousand the
+Isbahani robes, from Isfahan, and yet another
+thousand the robes of Atabi. The making of
+damask for gay-coloured curtains and turbans for
+the women kept busy as many persons as the
+articles above-mentioned.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Edrisi, a chronicler of the twelfth century, says
+of the same capital that she was the principal city
+belonging to the Moors in the time of the Moravides.
+In fact, she was then a great and prosperous
+industrial centre, possessing, together with other
+kinds of looms, eight hundred which produced the
+fabrics known as <i>holla</i>, <i>debady</i>, <i>siglaton</i>, <i>espahani</i>,
+and <i>djordjani</i>, curtains with a flowered decoration,
+cloths of a smaller size, and the stuffs which were
+denominated <i>attabi</i> and <i>mi djar</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A similar notice is contained in the <i>Chronicle
+of Rassis the Moor</i>. Referring to the end of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+tenth century, this author wrote that &ldquo;Almer�a is
+the key of profit and of all prosperity. Within
+her walls dwell cunning weavers who produce
+in quantities magnificent silken cloths inwoven
+with gold thread.&rdquo; Other important centres of
+this trade and craft were M�laga, Baeza, Alicante,
+Seville, and Granada. Rassis wrote of M�laga:
+&ldquo;She has a fertile territory, wherein is made
+the finest <i>sirgo</i> in the world. From here they
+trade in it with every part of Spain. Here too
+is made the finest of all linens, and that which the
+women best esteem.&rdquo; Of Baeza he wrote: &ldquo;She
+manufactures excellent and famous silken cloths
+of the kind which are called <i>tapetes</i>&rdquo;; and of
+Alicante, &ldquo;This city lies in the Sierra de Benalcatil,
+which in its turn is situated in the midst of
+other ranges containing prosperous towns where
+silken cloths of finest quality were made in other
+days; and the weavers of these cloths were skilled
+exceedingly.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>M�laga is described by the Cordovese historian
+Ash Shakandi (thirteenth century) as &ldquo;famous for
+its manufactures of silks of every colour and design,
+some of them so costly that a suit is sold for
+thousands; such are the brocades of beautiful
+pattern, inwoven with the names of caliphs, emirs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+and other wealthy personages&hellip;. As at M�laga
+and Almer�a, there are at Murcia several manufactories
+of silken cloth called <i>al washiu thalathat</i>,
+or &lsquo;the variegated.&rsquo; This town is also celebrated
+for the carpets called <i>tantili</i>, which are exported
+to all countries of the east and west, as well as for
+a sort of bright-coloured mat with which the
+Murcians cover the walls of their houses.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Illiberia or Illiberis, believed to
+have been situated not far from where is nowadays
+Granada, is described in Rassis' chronicle as &ldquo;a
+city great and flourishing by reason of the quantity
+of silk that she exports to every part of Spain.
+She lies at sixty thousand paces distance from,
+and on the southward side of Cordova, and six
+thousand paces from, and to the north of the
+Frozen Sierra&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> the Sierra Nevada).</p>
+
+<p>Another chronicle&mdash;that of El Nubiense, who
+visited Spain towards the twelfth century&mdash;states
+that in the kingdom of Jaen alone were six
+hundred towns which produced and carried on a
+trade in silk.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing extracts show that under the
+Spanish Moors the manufacture of textile fabrics
+attained in medi�val times a very great importance.
+It is also certain that during the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+period the textile fabrics in use among the Christian
+Spaniards were strongly and continually influenced,
+and even to a large extent produced, by Spanish
+Moors, while, as the Moorish cities fell into the
+power of the enemy, the Christian rulers encouraged
+their newly-sworn Mohammedan lieges
+to prosecute this industry with unabated zeal. A
+privilege is extant which was granted by Jayme
+the Conqueror in the year 1273, to a Moor named
+Ali and his sons Mohammed and Bocaron, empowering
+these artificers to manufacture silk and
+cloth of gold at Jativa, in the kingdom of
+Valencia. The fabrics produced by Mussulman
+weavers such as these, found ready purchase with
+the wealthier classes of the Christian Spaniards.
+The dress and other materials thus elaborated
+possessed a great variety of names, whose meaning
+cannot always be determined at the present
+day. Among the fabrics most in vogue were
+those denominated <i>samit</i> (also <i>xamed</i> or <i>examitum</i>),
+<i>ciclaton</i>, <i>tabis</i> or <i>atabi</i>, <i>zarzahan</i>, <i>fustian</i> or
+<i>fustan</i>, <i>cendal</i> or <i>sendat</i>, <i>camelote</i> (also <i>chamelote</i>
+or <i>xamellot</i>), <i>drap imperial</i>, and <i>bougran</i> (also
+<i>bouckram</i>, <i>buckram</i>), stated by Dr Bock to be
+derived from Bokhara, and which was of a quality
+far superior to the buckram of more modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+times. These Saracenic or semi-Saracenic stuffs
+were manufactured from an early period, but
+modern experts are not agreed as to their character.
+Miquel y Bad�a and some other authorities
+believe that <i>samit</i> was a costly material which was
+sometimes coloured green, and shot with gold or
+silver thread. Others believe it to have been a
+kind of velvet. In either case it is known to have
+been used for shrouding the bodies of the wealthy.
+<i>Ciclaton</i> was a strong though flexible material used
+for robes and also for wall-hangings. <i>Tabis</i> or
+<i>atabi</i> was a kind of taffeta, and probably consisted,
+as a general rule, of silk, though sometimes it
+was mixed with cotton. <i>Chamelot</i> was an oriental
+fabric of rich silk, coloured white, black, or grey.
+It is mentioned, together with velvets, taffetas,
+and <i>cendal</i> or <i>sendat</i> (another silken stuff) in a law
+passed by the Cortes of Monz�n in 1375, and
+which is quoted in Capmany's <i>Memorias</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Fustian
+is thought to have been first produced in Egypt.
+It was woven of thread or cotton, and was
+largely used in England from at least as early as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+the twelfth century. From about the same time
+buckram was also popular in northern countries.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the fourteenth century a number of
+other costly stuffs began to be made in various
+quarters of the civilized world, including Spain.
+Among these fabrics were <i>zatonin</i> or <i>zatony</i>
+(perhaps the same as <i>zetani</i>, <i>aceituni</i>, or <i>aceytoni</i>&mdash;that
+is, satin), several kinds of <i>drap d'aur</i> or cloth
+of gold, several kinds of velvet, <i>sarga</i> or serge,
+and <i>camocas</i>, which is stated by Miquel y Bad�a
+to have been a strong material used for lining
+curtains, coats of mail, etc.  The same writer
+observes that the stuff called by the name <i>zatonin</i>
+and its variations is the same as the Castilian raso
+and the Catalan <i>set�</i> or <i>sat�</i>, a favourite though
+expensive and luxurious fabric in the fourteenth
+and succeeding centuries.  Under the name
+<i>aceytoni</i> it is mentioned in a work in the Catalan
+language titled <i>Croniques d'Espanya</i>, by Pedro
+Miguel Carbonell, in which we read that at
+the coronation of Don Martin of Aragon this
+monarch's consort, Do�a Mar�a, was &ldquo;dressed in
+white cloth of gold and a long mantle &hellip; and
+rode upon a white horse covered with trappings
+of white <i>aceytoni</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Miquel y Bad�a has discovered the names of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+other fabrics which are known from documentary
+evidence to have been used in older Spain, and
+which were called <i>aducar</i>, <i>alama</i>, <i>tela de nacar</i>,
+<i>primavera</i> or <i>primavert</i>, <i>almexia</i>, <i>picote</i>, and
+<i>velillo</i>. It is probable that <i>alama</i> and <i>tela de
+nacar</i> had silver interwoven with their texture.
+The <i>primavera</i> or &ldquo;spring fabric&rdquo; was so named
+from the flowers which adorned it. <i>Almex�a</i> is
+mentioned in the <i>Chronicle of the Cid</i>. It was a
+costly and elaborate stuff, and is believed by
+Miquel to have taken its title from the city of
+Almer�a. <i>Picote</i> was a kind of satin manufactured
+in the island of Majorca, and <i>velillo</i> a thin, delicate
+fabric decorated with flowers and with silver thread.</p>
+
+<p>The devices on all these stuffs were very varied.
+Prominent types among them were the <i>pallia
+rotata</i>, containing circles which are commonly combined
+with other ornament, the <i>pallia aquilinata</i>,
+in which the dominant motive was the eagle, and
+the <i>pallia leonata</i>, in which it was the lion. Other
+beasts, birds, and monsters were also figured with
+great frequency, such as griffins, peacocks, swans,
+crows, bulls, tigers, or dogs; but the emblem
+most in favour, especially throughout the tenth,
+eleventh, and twelfth centuries, was the eagle,
+owing to the numerous and illustrious qualities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+attributed to it, such as majesty, victory, valour,
+and good omen. These creatures, too, were
+frequently represented face to face or back to
+back, in pairs; nor were they so disposed in textile
+fabrics only, but on ivory, wood, or silver caskets,
+and on numerous other objects, as well as on the
+painted friezes of a place of worship.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>The colours of these fabrics also varied very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+greatly. That which was most admired was probably
+red, crimson, or carmine, used by preference
+as a ground, with the pattern inwoven or super-woven
+in gold, silver, or otherwise. Velvets, too,
+were not invariably in monochrome, but would contain
+two or three colours such as purple, crimson,
+blue, or yellow, besides gold and silver. Miquel
+y Bad�a mentions a magnificent velvet pluvial in
+gold and three colours, belonging to a church in
+Catalu�a. The following observations are by the
+same authority, who himself possesses a valuable
+collection of early textile fabrics, many of which
+are Spanish. &ldquo;The same prevailing colours are
+found in the Mudejar textile fabrics as in those
+of the Spanish Moors&mdash;the same ground of red
+inclining to carmine, of dark blue, or of bluish
+green, with a pattern in yellow, green, blue, or
+red, according to the colour which combines with
+it. I have seen copies of Mudejar stuffs in which
+there is no white, because this was wanting in the
+fragments which the copying artist had before
+him. And it is a fact that from some cause,
+which we cannot now determine, white silk is that
+which disappears soonest from among the textile
+fabrics of the Spanish Moors and Mudejares, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+that by far the greater part of them contain no
+white at all, or only traces of it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In Spain these handsome stuffs were used by all
+the wealthier classes, and some idea of their prevalence
+and popularity may be formed from the
+voluminous mass of sumptuary laws which deal
+with them at almost every stage of Spanish history.
+Thus, an edict of Jayme the First of Aragon
+established, in the year 1234, that neither the
+monarch nor any of his subjects were to decorate
+their clothes with gold and silver, or fasten their
+cloaks with gold or silver clasps. The <i>Ordenamiento</i>
+of Alfonso the Tenth, subscribed at Seville,
+February 27th, 1256, provides that no woman is
+to carry <i>aljofar</i>-work, trim her dress with gold or
+silver, or wear a <i>toca</i> decorated with those metals,
+but only a plain white one, the price of which is
+not to exceed three <i>maravedis</i>. It is also provided
+by this edict that on the celebration of a
+wedding, the cost of the bridal clothes must not
+exceed sixty <i>maravedis</i>, nor may the number of
+guests who sit down to the marriage banquet
+exceed five women and five men, besides the
+witnesses of the ceremony and relatives of the
+bride and bridegroom. This absurd law was so
+extensively neglected that two years later the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+Cortes of Valladolid took up the matter afresh,
+and even resolved that the expenses of the king's
+table, without the cost of his invited guests, were
+not to exceed a daily total of a hundred and fifty
+<i>maravedis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1286 the Council of Cordova decreed
+that knights and squires, upon the celebration of
+their marriage, were not to present their brides
+with more than two dresses, one of these to be of
+scarlet, without trimming of ermine or grey fur, or
+decoration of gold, silver, or <i>aljofar</i>. A law of
+Alfonso the Eleventh, dated May 6th, 1338, proclaimed
+that the women of the upper classes were
+not to clothe themselves in any silken fabric decorated
+with gold thread. Similar restrictions
+were laid upon the other sex. &ldquo;No man, whatever
+be his condition (excepting only Us, the
+King), shall wear cloth of gold, or silk, or any
+stuff adorned with gold lace, <i>aljofar</i>, or any other
+trimming, or with enamel: only his cloak may
+bear <i>aljofar</i> pearl-work, or fillets without pearls.&rdquo;
+Other dispositions signed by the same monarch
+show that the Spaniards of his time were in the
+habit of wearing costly cloth adorned with gold
+and silver, pearls, gold buttons, enamel, and other
+ornament, while even the squires wore furs and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+gilded shoes. The <i>ricos-hombres</i> loaded their
+saddles with gold and with <i>aljofar</i>-work, and their
+wives were licensed to bear on each of their
+dresses the same <i>aljofar</i>-work or strings of tiny
+pearls, to the value of four thousand <i>maravedis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Provisions of the same tenor are contained in
+the prolix sumptuary pragmatic of Pedro the
+Cruel, signed in the year 1351 at Valladolid, as
+well as in that of Juan the First, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1385, which
+ordained, together with other vexatious prohibitions,
+that &ldquo;neither man nor woman, whatever be
+their condition or estate, shall wear cloth of gold
+or any silk-stuff, gold or silver <i>aljofar</i>, or other
+precious stones, excepting the Infante and Infantas,
+who may wear whatever pleases them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The extravagance of Isabella the Catholic in
+dress and personal adornment generally, was illustrated
+in an earlier chapter of this work. A
+further instance is recorded by Clemencin. According
+to this chronicler, in 1476 and 1477,
+upon her reception at Alcal� of two embassies
+from France, the queen was dressed in a magnificent
+robe, which drew upon her a sharp rebuke
+from her confessor, the virtuous and austere
+Hernando de Talavera. From this charge Isabella
+defended herself with more spirit than truthfulness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+&ldquo;Neither myself nor my ladies,&rdquo; she
+wrote in her letter of reply, &ldquo;were dressed in new
+apparel. All that I wore on this occasion I had
+already worn in Aragon, and the French themselves
+had seen me wearing it. I only used one
+robe at all, and that of silk with three marks
+of gold, the plainest I could find: in this was all
+my festival. I say this much in that my clothing
+was not new; nor did we deem that error could
+dwell therein.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Although their own extravagance is past all
+question, on September 30th, 1499, Ferdinand
+and his consort issued a proclamation at Granada,
+in which it was commanded that &ldquo;no persons shall
+wear clothing of brocade, or silk, or silk <i>chamelote</i>,
+or <i>zarzahan</i>, or taffeta, or carry linings of the same
+upon the trappings of their horses, or upon hoods,
+or the straps and scabbards of their swords, or
+bits, or saddles, or <i>alcorques</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> &hellip; nor shall they
+wear embroidered silk-stuffs decorated with gold
+plates, whether such gold be drawn or hammered,
+spun to a thread, or interwoven with the fabric.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These prohibitions, or others of their import,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+were ratified by Do�a Juana at the Cortes of
+Burgos, and, in 1533, by Charles the Fifth at
+Valladolid. In 1551 the Emperor again prohibited
+&ldquo;all brocaded stuffs, or gold or silver cloth,
+whether embroidered or enriched with gold or
+silver thread, or bound with cord or edging of
+the same;&rdquo; and a royal edict of January 12th,
+1611, forbade the wearing of brocade and every
+other costly stuff to all except the clergy and the
+military.</p>
+
+<p>The clergy, indeed, had always been notorious
+for extravagance, and not a few of all these
+sumptuary laws are aimed specifically at them.
+In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1228 the Council of Valladolid prohibited
+the use by priests of sleeved robes, or gilded
+saddles, bits, spurs, or poitrels. In 1267 the
+Synod of Le�n repeated these prohibitions, further
+insisting that the garments of the clergy, besides
+being sleeveless, were not to be red or green, and
+were to have a moderate length (&ldquo;<i>non muy largas,
+non muy cortas</i>&rdquo;), and that their cloaks were not
+to fasten with a clasp or cord; these regulations
+to be rigidly adhered to <i>en sennal de honestidat</i>&mdash;&ldquo;as
+a sign of honesty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We also know that at this time (thirteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+century) the shirts of many of the wealthier
+Spaniards were woven of finest linen imported from
+the East, embroidered and picked out with gold and
+silver thread, and that the clergy were at least the
+equals of the laity in their craze for costly clothing.
+In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1273, an inventory was made of the effects
+belonging to Don Gonzalo Palomeque, on his
+election to the bishopric of Cuenca. It mentions
+<i>almadraques</i> and Murcian <i>tapetes</i>, <i>carpitas viadas</i>
+from Tlemcen, fine Murcian blankets (<i>alhamares</i>),
+silk <i>xamedes</i>, Murcian matting for covering walls
+and da�ses (&ldquo;<i>para paret et para estrado</i>&rdquo;), and
+stuffs from Syria. Another inventory, that of Don
+Gonzalo Gudiel, archbishop of Toledo, is dated
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1280, and mentions, as included with his
+property, quantities of oriental fabrics which are
+designated by the general name <i>tartaricas</i>.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+Among them were &ldquo;unus pannus operatus ad
+aves de auro et campus de serica viridi, item unus
+alius pannus tartaricus cum campo de seta alba et
+vite aurea, item unus pannus tartaricus de seta<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+rubea cum pinis aureis, item unus pannus tartaricus
+de seta viridi.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>A number of medi�val textile fabrics, some in
+fragments, some intact, have been preserved in
+Spanish private collections or museums. It is,
+however, seldom easy to determine whether they
+were made in this Peninsula, or whether in Sicily,
+Byzantium, Venice, or the East. Among the
+most remarkable of all these interesting specimens
+are, a strip which was extracted from the
+mausoleum of a Spanish bishop, Don Bernardo
+Calb�, a native of Vich in Catalu�a, and which is
+now in the museum of that town; other fragments
+in the same collection, including one of <i>holosericum</i>
+or pure silk, which was formerly in the neighbouring
+church of San Juan de las Abadesas, and is
+commonly known as the <i>pallium</i> or altar front &ldquo;of
+the witches&rdquo; (owing to certain beasts or monsters
+figuring in the design), a Moorish <i>tiraz</i>, now in
+the Academy of History at Madrid, the celebrated
+Moorish &ldquo;banner of the battle of Las
+Navas,&rdquo; now in the Monastery of Santa Mar�a la
+Real de las Huelgas at Burgos, the banner (also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+Moorish) of the battle of the River Salado, the
+chasubles &ldquo;of the Constable&rdquo; and of Chiriana, preserved
+respectively at Burgos and at Caravaca,
+a fragment, preserved in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid, of the shroud of Ferdinand the Third, and
+the Moorish clothing of the son of the same King
+Ferdinand, the Infante Don Felipe, and of Felipe's
+second wife, Do�a Leonor Ruiz de Castro.</p>
+
+<p>The strip of woven material found in the
+sepulchre of Bishop Calb�, who is said to have
+accompanied Don Jayme the Conqueror in the
+conquest of Valencia (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1238), is described by
+Miquel y Bad�a as belonging to the class denominated
+<i>pallia rotata</i>&mdash;that is, with circles forming
+part of their design,&mdash;and dates most probably
+from the twelfth century; but it is impossible to
+say whether it was manufactured in the East, or
+whether at Valencia or some other Spanish town.
+The same remark applies to other fragments which
+are also, as I stated, in the Vich Museum. The
+one discovered in the tomb of Bishop Calb� contains,
+coloured in green, grey, and black upon a
+carmine ground, a decorative scheme of circles,
+flowers, and gryphons or other monsters in pairs,
+<i>affront�s</i>, and also, within the circles, the figure of
+a man grappling with two lions, tigers, dogs, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+other beasts, and who is believed to represent
+Samson or Daniel&mdash;more probably the latter.
+Miquel y Bad�a points out that in this fragment
+the figure of the man recalls Egyptian art, suggested
+by his curious head-dress, and by the
+crossing of his clothes upon his breast.</p>
+
+<p>Another textile fragment in the same collection
+is coloured black, red, and grey upon a yellowish
+ground. It is decorated with long-tailed birds
+resembling peacocks, and with sphinxes which fill
+the circles or medallions. A third fragment, also
+in the Vich Museum, belongs to the type of <i>pallia
+cum aquilis et bestiolis</i>. The design consists of a
+double-headed eagle with half-extended wings,
+holding in the claws of either foot some kind of
+quadruped&mdash;perhaps a bull. The colour of the
+ground resembles carmine, and on it the design is
+wrought in greenish black&mdash;that may have been
+originally green&mdash;relieved at intervals with yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;witches'&rdquo; <i>pallium</i> in the same collection
+is decorated with the series of extraordinary
+beasts or monsters that have won for it this title
+with the vulgar, depicted in yellow, white, black,
+and dark green upon a red ground. Miquel
+believes this fabric to proceed from Byzantium,
+and to date from not much earlier than the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+eleventh century. The devices are disposed in
+two rows, the lower containing peacocks <i>affront�s</i>,
+and the upper a series of fantastic monsters, each
+of which possesses a head, two bodies, and four
+feet&mdash;the head being semi-human, semi-bestial, the
+double body that of a bird, and the claws those
+of a lion or some other formidable quadruped.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal Academy of History at Madrid
+possesses a fragment of the costly fabric known as
+<i>tiraz</i>, an eastern word (corrupted by the Spaniards
+into <i>taracea</i>, <i>i.e.</i> embroidery on clothing), which
+means the bordering for a royal robe. Such
+bordering, which contained inscriptions, or the
+sultan's name, or both together, is said to have
+been first used in Spain by Abderrahman the
+Second, who ruled from <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 825 to 852. &ldquo;The
+caliphs of Cordova,&rdquo; says Ria�o, &ldquo;had a place set
+apart in their palaces where this stuff was kept:
+this custom lasted until the eleventh century, when
+it disappeared, and was re-established in the thirteenth
+century with the kings of Granada.&rdquo; <i>Tiraz</i>,
+in fact, was both produced and stored in special
+departments of the Sultan's palaces<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>; or so we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+must infer from the following passage by Ibn-Khaldun.
+&ldquo;The places (<i>almedinas</i>) where these
+stuffs were woven were situated within the palaces
+of the caliphs, and were known as the &lsquo;pavilions
+of the <i>tiraz</i>.&rsquo; The person at the head of these
+workshops was called the superintendent of the
+<i>tiraz</i>: he had charge of both the weavers and the
+looms, administered the salaries, and looked to the
+quality of the work. This post was entrusted by
+the princes to one of the foremost officers of their
+kingdom, or else to some freedman who thoroughly
+deserved their confidence.&rdquo; The same historian
+adds that the manufacture of <i>tiraz</i> was conducted
+in Spain in the same manner as in the East
+under the dynasty of the Ommeyades. It is,
+however, certain that among the Spanish Moors
+<i>tiraz</i> was not produced exclusively in royal
+factories. Al-Makkari states that in the time of
+the Somadies and the Almoravides there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+looms at Nerja (and possibly at Almer�a) for
+weaving this luxurious fabric, as well as <i>holas</i>, a
+fine brocade, heavily embroidered, and adorned
+with figures representing the caliphs and other
+personages. In the time of the Almoravides
+there were at Almer�a as many as a thousand
+factories for making <i>holas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The piece of <i>tiraz</i> which belongs to the Spanish
+Academy of History measures about a yard and a
+half in length by eighteen inches wide. Ria�o
+describes it as of wool, embroidered in silks with
+&ldquo;seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady,
+lions, birds, and quadrupeds&rdquo;; but after carefully
+examining it I cannot but agree with Miquel y
+Bad�a that this fabric is woven throughout of pure
+silk, without the slightest trace of hand-embroidery.
+It has two borders containing these inscriptions in
+Cufic letters: &ldquo;In the name of God, the clement,
+the merciful. (May) the blessing of God and
+happiness (be) for the Caliph Iman Abdallah
+Hixem, the favoured of God and prince of believers.&rdquo;
+This monarch, second of the name,
+reigned at the end of the tenth century and early
+in the eleventh, and the <i>tiraz</i> we are noticing was
+found in a casket on the altar of a church at San
+Esteban de Gormaz, in the province of Soria.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+As Ria�o suggests, it was very probably a war
+trophy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_22.jpg" width="360" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_22.jpg" id="img_22.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">I<br />THE &ldquo;BANNER OF LAS NAVAS&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Monastery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas, Burgos</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another most interesting example of Saracenic
+textile work is the so-called &ldquo;banner of Las Navas&rdquo;
+(Plate <a href="#img_22.jpg">i</a>.), which popular tradition affirms to
+have been captured (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1212) in the memorable
+battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, between the
+Almohades and the Spanish Christians. Most
+experts now consider that this object is not a
+military ensign, but a curtain or some other
+hanging for a tent or doorway. The material is
+<i>sirgo</i> or silken serge, and both the decoration
+and the workmanship are purely Moorish. The
+design is rich and intricate throughout, consisting
+of scrolls, leaves, stems, and inscriptions from
+the Koran, disposed with exquisite effect about
+the principal and central motive, formed by a
+large eight-pointed star within a circle, and
+which contains, so as to form the angles of the
+star, eight repetitions of the words in Arabic, &ldquo;<i>The
+Empire</i>.&rdquo; The dominant colour is carmine, and
+the fabric terminates in eight <i>farpas</i> or scallops
+with red and yellow edges, and bearing a series
+of inscriptions in the African character.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;<i>pendon</i> of the Rio Salado,&rdquo; a trophy which
+seems to have really been a war-flag, belongs to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+the cathedral of Toledo. It measures at this day
+about nine feet two inches by seven feet four
+inches, but is believed to have been originally of a
+square form, with scalloped edges. The dominant
+colours are red, green, and gold. The decorative
+scheme consists of tastefully combined circles and
+inscriptions in the Cufic character, and the lower
+end concludes in the following sentences, now
+rendered incomplete through the loss of nearly
+two feet of the material:&mdash;&ldquo; &hellip; the wise, the
+victorious, the assiduous, the generous, the sultan,
+the caliph, the famous emir of the Muslims and
+representative of the Lord of the Universe, Abu-Said
+Otsmin, son of our lord and master &hellip;
+the worshipper of (Allah), the modest, the warlike,
+the emir of the Mussulmans Nassir-li-Din
+(<i>defender of the law</i>), Abu Yusuf Yacub, son
+of Abd-il-Hac. In the Alc�zar of Fez (God
+bless it. Praised be God), in the Moon of
+Moharran of the year twelve and seven hundred&rdquo;
+(712 of the Hegira, or May 9th&ndash;June 7th, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>
+1312).</p>
+
+<p>Tastefully disposed in white Cufic characters,
+within four rows of circles woven in gold, are the
+words which sum the Mussulman religion,&mdash;&ldquo;There
+is no God but God: Mahoma is His Messenger&rdquo;;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+and on other parts of the flag are inscribed these
+sentences:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The prophet believes in the purpose for which
+he was sent by his Lord, and all the faithful believe
+in God, in His angels, in His writings, and in His
+messengers. We make no distinction between
+any of His messengers. And these declare:
+&lsquo;We hear and do obey. Pardon us, O Lord.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&hellip;. And unto Thee we shall return. God
+will not lay on any soul but such a weight as it
+can bear; for it or against it shall be the deeds
+it may have done. O Lord, chastise not our
+forgetfulness or errors. O Lord, lay not upon us
+the burden Thou hadst laid on those that were
+before us.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&hellip;. O Lord, burden us not too heavily.
+Blot out our faults, and pardon them to us, and
+have mercy on us. Thou art our Lord. Grant
+us victory over the infidel. There came to us a
+glorious prophet that was born among us.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;On him rests the weight of your faults, and
+full of goodness and of clemency he longs ardently
+for you to believe. If you should be forsaken,
+exclaim, &lsquo;God is sufficient for me. There is no
+God but He. I trust in Him, because He is
+Lord of the throne that is on high.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Miquel y Bad�a considers that when it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+intact this object must have measured eleven feet
+square. Attention was first drawn to its merit
+and antiquity when it was shown at the Exposici�n
+Hist�rico Europea of 1892.</p>
+
+<p>The chasubles of Chirinos (Caravaca) and of
+the Chapel of the Constable in Burgos cathedral
+are both considered to be of Spanish-Moorish
+workmanship. The former is woven of silk of
+various colours, but without admixture of gold
+thread, and bears an inscription in Arabic which
+Amador de los R�os has interpreted as, &ldquo;Glory to
+our Sultan Abul-Hachach.&rdquo; The same authority
+deduces that the fabric dates from the fourteenth
+or the fifteenth century&mdash;that is, from the time of
+the Sultan Abul-Hachach (Yusuf the First) or of
+his immediate successors.</p>
+
+<p>The chasuble preserved at Burgos is also woven
+of variegated silk without gold thread, and may
+originally have been a <i>tiraz</i>, since it bears, in African
+letters, the inscription, &ldquo;Glory to our lord the
+Sultan.&rdquo; The date is probably the fifteenth or
+sixteenth century. Fragments of similar material
+are in the collections of Se�ores Osma and Miquel
+y Bad�a.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_26.jpg" width="500" height="403"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_26.jpg" id="img_26.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">II<br />FRAGMENT OF THE BURIAL MANTLE OF FERDINAND THE THIRD<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The object represented in Plate ii. is described<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+in the Catalogue of the Royal Armoury at Madrid
+as <i>A fragment of the royal mantle in which was
+buried the king and saint, Ferdinand the Third
+of Castile</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1217&ndash;1252). Gestoso, in the course
+of his researches into the history of old Seville, has
+found that in the year 1579 Philip the Second
+caused an examination to be made at that city of
+the remains, enshrined in her cathedral, of Saint
+Ferdinand. The body was found &ldquo;with a ring
+with a blue stone on a finger of the right hand,
+and wearing sword and spurs.&rdquo; In 1677 Charles
+the Second sent for the ring in question, and
+eleven years later a fresh examination was made,
+when the mummy of the saint was stated to
+be wrapped in &ldquo;clothing of a stuff the nature of
+which cannot now be recognised, but which is
+chequered all over with the royal arms of Castile,
+and with lions.&rdquo; A third examination was made
+in 1729, when the &ldquo;holy body of Se�or San
+Fernando&rdquo; was reported to be &ldquo;covered, the
+greater part, with a royal mantle, of a stuff
+which could not be recognised for its decay: only it
+was seen to be embroidered with castles and lions.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Probably, therefore, this fragment was taken to
+Madrid at the same time as the ring&mdash;that is, in
+the year 1677. It has an irregular shape, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+measures eighteen inches long by thirteen and a
+half in breadth. The material is a woven mixture
+of silk and gold thread, and the decoration consists
+of castles and lions in gold and red respectively,
+upon a ground of carmine and dirty white. Count
+Valencia de Don Juan points out that this strip
+belonged to the lower end of the mantle, since it
+includes a portion of the border, formed by a series
+of horizontal stripes, blue, yellow, red, and gold.
+The character of the whole fragment is decidedly
+Mohammedan, and indicates a Mudejar fabric,
+made at Seville in the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>I find that in the <i>Book of Chess</i> of Alfonso the
+Learned (an illuminated Spanish manuscript executed
+in the thirteenth century, and now preserved
+at the Escorial), Alfonso himself is represented
+(Plate <a href="#img_28.jpg">iii</a>.) as wearing a mantle with this very
+pattern of lions and castles contained in squares.
+Therefore it seems extremely probable, either
+that this device was not uncommon on the robes
+of Spanish kings, or else that at some time the
+body of San Fernando was enveloped in a mantle
+belonging to, and which perhaps had been inherited
+by, his son.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_28.jpg" width="500" height="292"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_28.jpg" id="img_28.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">III<br />KING ALFONSO THE LEARNED<br />
+(<i>From &ldquo;The Book of Chess&rdquo;; MS. in the Escorial Library</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The clothing of the Infante Don Felipe and of
+Do�a Leonor, his wife, consists of the prince's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+cloak, which is nearly intact, a piece of his <i>aljuba</i>,
+his cap, and a strip of silken cloth inwoven with
+gold. The latter fragment is thought to have
+belonged to the robe of the Infanta.</p>
+
+<p>These objects, discovered in 1848, in the tomb
+of Don Felipe and Do�a Leonor, at Villalcazar
+de Sirga, near Palencia, are now in the National
+Museum. The cloak or mantle is richly wrought
+in silk and gold, and bears the word <i>Blessing</i>,
+woven in Cufic characters upon the ground.
+The <i>aljuba</i> is also of silk and gold, showing a
+delicate combination of blue and yellow, and the
+style and workmanship of all these fragments are
+unmistakably Mohammedan.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, in textile crafts, the Spanish Moors
+supplied the wants and the caprices both of themselves
+and of their enemies the Christians.</p>
+
+<p>The relationship between certain under-garments
+of the two peoples is evident from the very
+titles of those garments. Thus, the Spanish
+<i>joquejo</i> or <i>soquejo</i>, a scarf for winding round a
+woman's body, is obviously derived, or merely
+corrupted, from the Arabic <i>jocob</i>; the Spanish
+<i>arrede</i> or <i>arrelde</i>, a kind of cloak, from the Arabic
+<i>arrida</i>, and the Spanish shirt or tunic for ordinary
+wear, called the <i>casot</i>, <i>quesote</i>, or <i>quizote</i> (which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+was sometimes white and sometimes coloured)
+from the Arabic <i>al-kuesnat</i>. The <i>Chronicle of
+Juan the Second</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1410) tells of a mountain
+covered with Moorish troops, &ldquo;and all of them
+had red <i>quesotes</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_30.jpg" width="445" height="450"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_30.jpg" id="img_30.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IV<br />SPANISH VELVET<br />
+(<i>Red upon Gold Ground. About A.D. 1500</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the cities of Moorish Spain, Almer�a and
+Granada were undoubtedly those which produced
+the handsomest stuffs&mdash;Almer�a from comparatively
+early in the days of Muslim domination,
+Granada from a somewhat later time.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Notices
+are extant of Christian princes who directly ordered
+these materials from Granada; <i>e.g.</i> in 1392 Don
+Juan the First caused to be purchased there, as
+a present to his daughter on her marriage, &ldquo;una
+cambra de saya orlada ab son dozer e cobertor de
+color vermella, blaua, � vert, � otro que fuera de
+buena vista&rdquo; (<i>Archives of the Crown of Aragon</i>).
+The manufacture of velvet was probably introduced
+into Aragon in the reign of Pedro the Fourth.
+Excellent silks and cloth of gold were also made
+at M�laga, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. Indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+no better source exists for studying the character
+of this important industry in older Spain than the
+Ordinances of the cities I have just enumerated.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+We learn from these municipal provisions, most of
+which were framed or ratified in the reign of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, that the mingling of fine with
+base material was forbidden in the strictest terms,
+and that the styles and classes of even the luxurious
+and elaborate stuffs, which bore an infinite variety
+of devices, were very numerous. Thus, there
+were satins, taffetas, <i>azeytunis</i>, double and single
+velvets (Plates <a href="#img_30.jpg">iv</a>. and <a href="#img_56.jpg">vii</a>.), brocades, and silken
+serges; as well as fabrics interwoven with gold and
+silver thread, including the <i>gorgoranes</i>, <i>resta�os</i>,
+<i>sargas</i>, and <i>jergas de filigrana de plata</i>. The
+Ordinances of Toledo mention the following fabrics
+as manufactured in that city in the reigns of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Charles the Fifth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Stuffs of gold and silver made in the same manner as satin.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Satins woven with gold.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Satins brocaded with silk and gold, or silver<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silver serges with double filigree.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silver and gold materials, which are made
+like <i>gorgoran</i> or serge.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silver and gold stuffs which are made like
+taffetas, or in silver with silk flowers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Embroidered stuffs.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or
+<i>berguilla</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Lama</i>, cloth of silver, shaded with watering
+in silver.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Plain silk-stuffs woven with silver or gold,
+and called <i>resta�o</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silk-stuffs woven with gold or silver, and
+called <i>relampagos</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Serges woven with gold and silver for church
+vestments.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Plain filigree serges.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Velillo</i> of silver.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Satin woven with gold and silver.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Brocades of different kinds.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Church vestments.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silver <i>primaveras</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Serges for church vestments.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It was usual for ladies of the Christian-Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+aristocracy to trim their clothes, in Moorish fashion,
+with strings of larger pearls or of <i>aljofar</i>-work&mdash;a
+custom which continued until the extinction
+of the House of Austria. The Alburquerque
+inventory includes &ldquo;a <i>marlota</i> of crimson satin,
+trimmed with pearls and with <i>aljofar</i>, as to
+the hem, the sleeves, and the hood; with twelve
+buttons of <i>aljofar</i>-pearls in the front thereof, that
+on a time were thirteen; but one is missing <i>which
+was ground up for the said Duchess when she was
+sick</i>, and six buttons on each sleeve, and the same
+where each sleeve meets the shoulder.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Early in the seventeenth century, Pinheiro da
+Veiga mentions the same fashion at Valladolid:&mdash;&ldquo;At
+the sale of the Marchioness of Mondejar, I
+saw twelve of her <i>sayas</i> with long trains to them,
+and satin bodices, all of embroidered silk, and
+some with <i>aljofar</i>-work, besides a number of all
+kinds of <i>diabluras</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is stated by Ibn-Said, Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib,
+and Ibn-Khaldun, that the Moors of Granada
+occasionally adopted Christian clothing, and we
+know that the Sultan Mohammed, a contemporary
+of Alfonso the Learned of Castile, was assassinated
+by Abrahim and Abomet, the sons of Osmin,
+because he was so clothed, and because he had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+further violated the precepts of the Koran by
+eating at Alfonso's table.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> But as a rule the
+costume of the Spanish Moors was almost wholly
+that of orientals. Where they were tolerated in a
+city under Christian rule, a certain dress was
+sometimes forced upon them by their subjugators,
+as by the <i>Ordenamiento</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1408) of Do�a
+Catalina, issued on behalf of her son, Juan the
+Second, and which prescribed for the Moorish men
+a <i>capuz</i> of yellow cloth with a mark upon it in the
+form of a blue half-moon measuring an inch from
+point to point, and which was to be worn on the
+right shoulder. The garments of the women were
+to be similarly marked, on pain of fifty lashes
+administered publicly, together with the forfeiture
+of all such clothes as lacked this necessary and
+humiliating token.</p>
+
+<p>But where the Spanish Moors were in possession
+of the soil, their clothes were similar in most
+respects to those of eastern peoples. Detailed
+notices of these costumes are furnished us by Ibn-Said
+and other writers. Fray Pedro de Alcal�
+explains in his <i>Vocabulary</i> that, among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+Granadinos, the use of one garment in particular
+was limited to royalty, or nobles of high rank.
+This was the <i>libas</i> (or, in the Granadino dialect,
+<i>libis</i>), shaped like roomy breeches, and greatly
+resembling the <i>zarag�elles</i> worn until this hour
+by the peasants of the Huerta of Valencia. Ibn-Said,
+quoted by Al-Makkari (see Gayangos,
+<i>History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain</i>,
+Vol. I., p. 116) says that the dress of the Moors
+of Andalusia was not identical with that of the
+Asiatic Mussulman. The former, he declares,
+would often discard the turban; especially those
+who lived towards the eastern frontier. In the
+western region the turban continued to be generally
+worn by the upper classes and by the leading
+State officials. Thus, at Cordova and Seville
+every <i>cadi</i> and <i>alfaqui</i> would wear a turban, while
+at Valencia and Murcia even the nobles went
+without it, and among the lower classes it had
+fallen into absolute disuse. Neither officers nor
+soldiers of the army wore the turban.</p>
+
+<p>We learn from Casiri (<i>Bibl. Arabico-Hispana</i>,
+II., p. 258) that the <i>imama</i><a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> was the only form of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+head-dress used by the <i>cheiks</i>, <i>cadis</i>, and <i>ulemas</i> of
+Granada. At this capital red was the distinctive
+colour of the sovereigns of the Alahmar dynasty,
+who took their very title from this circumstance,
+the Arabic word <i>alahmar</i> meaning &ldquo;red.&rdquo; The
+distinctive colour of the Nasrite sultans was purple,
+which was replaced by black in time of mourning.
+In this last fashion the sultans were probably
+influenced by the Christian usage, for Ibn-Khaldun
+remarks that black was not a colour approved of
+by the orientals, who considered it to be related
+with the spirits of evil. However this may be,
+the manuscript <i>History of the House of Cordova</i>
+quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas, says that when
+Boabdil el Chico entered that city as a prisoner,
+&ldquo;the captive monarch was dressed in black velvet,
+in token of his adverse fortune and defeat. He
+rode a richly caparisoned charger, whose coat was
+black and glossy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Moors regarded green or white as pleasant
+and well-omened colours, symbolic of the angels
+and of all good fortune. Perhaps this preference
+was suggested to them by the cool oasis in the
+desert. Nevertheless, when Ibn-Hud became ruler
+of Andalusia, his shields and banners were black,
+as well as his costume. Black, too, was the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+colour adopted by the Abbaside Sultans, to whom
+Ibn-Hud was subject. Under the Beni-Nasr and
+Beni-Alahmar, this gloomy hue was changed, as
+we have seen, to purple or to scarlet, though black
+continued to be used in sign of mourning.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_36.jpg" width="393" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_36.jpg" id="img_36.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">V<br />THE TUNIC OF BOABDIL EL CHICO<br />
+(<i>National Museum of Artillery, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chronicle says that Abu-Said, &ldquo;the Red,&rdquo;
+who was assassinated at Tablada, under the walls
+of Seville, by Pedro the Cruel, was clothed in
+scarlet at the time of that atrocious deed. Boabdil
+was also clothed in red at the battle of Lucena.
+The <i>History of the House of Cordova</i>, from which
+I have already quoted, says: &ldquo;Il �tait arm� d'une
+forte cuirasse � clous dor�s, doubl�e de velours
+<i>cramoisi</i>, d'un morion teint de <i>grenat</i> et dor�&hellip;.
+Sur sa cuirasse �tait pass� un caban de brocart
+et de velours cramoisi&rdquo; (Plate <a href="#img_36.jpg">v</a>.). Eguilaz
+quotes a further passage from Hurtado de Mendoza,
+to prove that red continued to be the official
+colour of the Moorish rulers of Granada; for when
+the Moriscos had risen in the Alpujarra, and met
+together to invest their leaders, Aben-Abu and
+Aben-Humeya, with the insignia of royalty, they
+clothed the former in a red costume and the latter
+in purple, &ldquo;passing about his neck and shoulders
+a red token in the form of a scarf.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>As I remarked in speaking of the <i>tiraz</i>, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+clothing of the Moorish kings of Spain was of
+the richest quality obtainable, massively wrought,
+embroidered in colours and in gold, and bearing
+&ldquo;sometimes a prince's name, sometimes his device
+or motto, or even a portrait of himself embroidered
+on the right breast of his <i>caban</i> or robe, thus
+following the fashion of the monarchs of Assyria
+and Persia.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> &ldquo;Perco con los draps d'or � d'argent, � de seda axi brocats d'or
+� d'argent con altres � velluts, xamelots, tafetanes, � sendats se usen
+molt de vestir en lo dit Principat d'alguna generalitat ne dret no y
+sia posat, mes solament vi liners per liura per la entrada.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> &ldquo;We have seen many instances of such opposed animals and
+birds on the metal-work and carving of the thirteenth century, and
+there is no doubt that the design is much older than Mohammedan
+times, and goes back to the productions of the old artists of
+Mesopotamia and Persia. We read in Quintus Curtius of robes
+worn by Persian satraps, adorned with birds beak to beak&mdash;<i>aurei
+accipitres veluti rostri in se irruerunt pallam adornabant</i>. Plautus
+mentions Alexandrian carpets ornamented with beasts: <i>Alexandrina
+belluata conchyliata tapetia</i>. There is indeed reason to believe that
+the notion of such pairs of birds or beasts may have originated with
+the weavers of ancient Persia, and have been borrowed from them
+by the engravers of metal-work; for the advantage of such double
+figures would be specially obvious to a weaver. The symmetrical
+repetition of the figure of the bird or animal, reversed, saved both
+labour and elaboration of the loom. The old weavers, not yet
+masters of mechanical improvements, were obliged to work their
+warp up and down by means of strings, and the larger the design
+the more numerous became these strings and the more complicated
+the loom. Hence, to be able to repeat the pattern in reverse was a
+considerable economy of labour, and could be effected very simply
+on a loom constructed to work <i>� pointe et � reverse</i>. Examples of
+such repetitions of patterns, especially of symmetrical pairs of animals
+within circles, are common in Byzantine and Sassanian woven work,
+and the Saracens followed these models.&rdquo;&mdash;Stanley Lane-Poole,
+<i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i>, p. 288.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Elogio de la Reina Cat�lica</i>, p. 374.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> These are defined by the Count of Clonard as &ldquo;a kind of clog
+(<i>chap�n</i>) with a cork sole, and which was introduced by the Moors
+under the name <i>al-kork</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Specifically, <i>tartari</i> was a costly fabric, heavily embroidered.
+Ducange considers that it came, or came originally, from Tartary.
+We read of it twice in the <i>Chronicle of the Cid</i>, and again, in the
+<i>Chronicle of Ferdinand the Fourth</i>:&mdash;&ldquo;tiraron los pa�os de
+marhega que tenia vestidos por su padre � visti�ronle unos pa�os
+nobles de tartari.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Quoted by Fernandez y Gonzalez, <i>Mudejares de Castilla</i>, p. 231,
+from the originals in the Archiepiscopal Library of Toledo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> &ldquo;An interesting parallel to the royal silk factory, or D&#257;r-et-tir&#257;z
+of Kay-Kub&#257;d, and to that of the F&#257;timy Khalif at Tinn&#299;s, is found
+in the similar institution at Palermo, which owed its foundation to
+the Kelby Am&#299;rs who ruled Sicily as vassals of the F&#257;timis in
+the ninth and tenth centuries, though it maintained its special
+character and excellence of work under the Norman kings. The
+factory was in the palace, and the weavers were Mohammedans, as
+indeed is obvious from a glance at the famous silk cloth preserved
+at Vienna, and called the &ldquo;Mantle of N�rnberg,&rdquo; where a long
+Arabic inscription testifies to the hands that made it, by order of
+King Roger, in the year of the Hijra 528, or <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1133.&rdquo;&mdash;Stanley
+Lane-Poole, <i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i>, p. 289.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The Alburquerque inventory mentions, in 1560, &ldquo;two Almer�a
+sheets, one with green and purple edging, and the other with white
+and red&rdquo;; also &ldquo;two <i>short</i> holland shirts for sleeping in at night.&rdquo;
+Commenting on the word <i>short</i>, Se�or de la Torre de Trassierra
+aptly recalls the thrifty proverb of the Spaniards,&mdash;&ldquo;A shirt which
+reaches below the navel is so much linen wasted.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See particularly <i>Las Ordenanzas de los tejedores de seda
+de Sevilla</i> (officially proclaimed on March 2nd, 1502), and also
+<i>Las Ordenanzas para el buen r�gimen y gobierno de la muy
+noble, muy leal, � imperial cuidad de Toledo</i>. (<i>Tit.</i> cxxxv: &ldquo;silk-weavers.&rdquo;)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> On the other hand, Rosmithal recorded in his narrative of a tour
+of Spain that Henry the Second of Castile affected the costume of
+the Mohammedans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> This was a large form of turban. In the well-known painting
+in the Hall of Justice of the Alhambra, the head-dress is the <i>aharim</i>
+or <i>almaizar</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Eguilaz Yanguas, <i>Les Peintures de l'Alhambra</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="SPANISH_SILK" id="SPANISH_SILK">SPANISH SILK</a></h3>
+
+<p>A very fair idea of the magnitude of the craft
+and trade of Spanish silk in bygone epochs may
+be formed by tracing chronologically the production
+and treatment of the raw material in
+various parts of the Peninsula. During the
+centuries of Moorish rule, Spain's principal silk-producing
+centre was the kingdom of Granada,
+which then embraced a large extent of coast,
+together with M�laga and other thriving ports.
+In proof of this, and in his interesting memorial
+on the silk factories of Seville,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Ulloa quotes
+old Spanish ordinances of the weavers, stating
+that quantities of this substance were exported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+from &ldquo;tierra de Moros&rdquo; for use by Christian
+craftsmen, and also the <i>Chronology of the Kings
+of Granada</i>, concluded by Al-Khattib in the year
+1364. A fragment of this chronicle is preserved
+at the Escorial, and states, in the well-known
+version of Casiri, that the silk produced at
+Granada was both abundant and of excellent
+quality, surpassing even the Assyrian.</p>
+
+<p>The growing of mulberry trees and rearing
+of silkworms was also busily pursued in the
+kingdom of Aragon, which formerly included
+Catalu�a, Valencia, and the Balearic Islands.
+Hence, though somewhat gradually, it seems to
+have spread to Seville. In the ordinances of this
+town relating to her weavers of silks and velvets,
+and which are dated 1492, it is stated that her
+<i>oficiales de texer sedas</i> were so few that, as a
+stimulus to augment their number, all who wished
+might join them in the practice of this craft
+without examination. Between that year and
+1502 they evidently multiplied, since subjects of
+examination of no easy character are formulated
+in the ordinances of this later date, examined and
+confirmed by Ferdinand and Isabella. Nevertheless,
+it is impossible to credit the assertion of some
+authors that by the year 1519 Seville possessed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+no less than sixteen thousand looms, affording
+occupation to one hundred and fifty thousand
+persons. As Ulloa suggests, it is far more
+reasonable to suppose that her silk trade grew in
+proportion as the Spaniards continued to discover,
+and to open up to commerce, new regions of
+America; and that it reached the maximum of its
+development in the reigns of Charles the Fifth
+and Philip the Second. The same writer attributes
+its decline and downfall to the &ldquo;piracies
+and insults&rdquo; of Spain's foreign enemies and rivals.</p>
+
+<p>The price of Seville silks was also raised and
+the trade injuriously affected, by the imposition, at
+the close of the reign of Philip the Second, of the
+onerous <i>millones</i> tax, as well as of the minor dues
+denominated <i>alcavalas</i> and <i>cientos</i>; while finally,
+when Philip the Third was on the throne, the expulsion
+of the Moriscos precipitated the utter ruin
+of this industry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_40.jpg" width="500" height="366"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_40.jpg" id="img_40.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VI<br />THE &ldquo;BANNER OF SAINT FERDINAND&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spanish government proved quite incapable
+of grappling with these wrongs and difficulties.
+There were, however, numerous attempts to legislate
+in the direction of reform. Measures forbidding
+the introduction of silk proceeding from abroad
+received the royal signature in 1500, 1514, 1525,
+1532, and 1552. A petition to the same effect,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+framed by the procurators of the Cortes, was presented
+to the king in 1618, urging that no skein or
+twisted silk proceeding from the Portuguese Indies,
+China, or Persia should be imported into Spain in
+view of the damage thus inflicted on the silk-producing
+regions of Granada, Murcia, and Valencia.
+At the same time the petitioners suggested that if
+it should be found impracticable to suppress such
+importation altogether, the foreign silk should be
+required to be in the form of stuffs already woven.</p>
+
+<p>Matters grew steadily worse all through the
+reign of Philip the Fourth. The principal cause
+of this additional decline lay in the constant depreciation
+of the national currency, which kept at
+an intolerable pitch of dearness the price of home-grown
+silk, and enabled foreign traders to undersell
+the Spaniard. This will be better understood
+if we consider that the composition of the copper
+and silver coinage was often tampered with by
+Crown and Parliament in such a way as to allow
+the foreigner to rid the country of nearly all her
+gold and silver, leaving in exchange only the baser
+metal. At intervals of a few years, proclamations
+were issued altering the values of the coinage in the
+most capricious and disastrous terms, and Ulloa
+mentions as still in circulation in the eighteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+century, <i>ochavos</i> of Philip the Third which bore
+inscribed the value of twelve <i>maravedis</i> in Roman
+numerals, and also (owing to the restamping of
+the coins by order of the Crown), the second and
+successive value of eight <i>maravedis</i>, marked in
+ordinary numerals. In fact, so grave were these
+abuses, that the arbitrary value imposed upon the
+coins in question grew to be six times that of the
+actual value of the metal.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the seventeenth century, when
+Charles the Second was on the throne, a couple
+of well-meant and not completely ineffectual
+attempts were made to bring about a fresh revival
+in the growth of Spanish silk. On November
+18th, 1683, the silk-makers of Toledo, Seville,
+Granada, and Valencia were summoned to a
+council at Madrid, and the dispositions they then
+agreed upon received the royal signature and
+became law on January 30th of the following year,
+the pragmatic which embodied them being issued
+to the public ten days later. It was commanded
+by this document that all the silk produced
+at the above-named towns should be examined
+and approved by the <i>veedores</i> or <i>mayorales</i>, and
+bear the official stamp which guaranteed their
+quality. The effect of these ordinances was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+further strengthened by a Crown <i>cedula</i> of July
+15th, 1692, confirming other dispositions dated
+1635; and later still, in June of 1699, a law was
+passed prohibiting the exportation of all home-made
+silks to other countries.</p>
+
+<p>The accession of the Bourbon kings heralded
+a further slight improvement. Philip the Fifth
+had barely mounted the throne when the Junta de
+Comercio was revived by his command, and drafted
+various laws for bettering this and other industries.
+Royal decrees of June 20th and September 17th,
+1718, renewed in June of 1728 and in April and
+August of 1734, forbade the introduction of silk
+and certain other stuffs from China and the rest
+of Asia&mdash;a measure which was made more strict as
+time went on, the prohibition being extended to
+linens and cottons produced and printed in Africa
+or Asia or imitated in Europe. In the meantime
+another <i>cedula</i>, signed at the Escorial on November
+10th, 1726, had ordered that every Spanish
+citizen of either sex should dress exclusively in
+silks or cloths of Spanish manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>These laws, though founded on mistaken principles,
+undoubtedly restored the national silk trade
+for a while. In 1713 the silk looms of Seville had
+increased to four hundred and five, and by 1732&mdash;in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+which year the Court resided at that capital&mdash;to
+a thousand; but on the return of the royal
+family to Madrid, and the declaration of war
+against England in 1739, the number dropped to
+a hundred and forty. In 1743 an effort was made
+to remedy this by exempting Seville silks from
+payment of the <i>alcabalas</i> and <i>cientos</i>, and further
+support was rendered in 1749 by Ferdinand the
+Sixth, who lowered to eighty <i>maravedis</i> per pound
+weight the tax on Spanish silks exported from
+the kingdom, and issued, in 1752, 1753, and 1756,
+additional decrees intended to encourage and
+protect this industry. In 1748 the same ruler
+established the celebrated silk factories of Talavera
+de la Reina, sparing no pains to bring their
+products to a level with the best in Europe, and
+choosing as director of the works a thoroughly
+proficient Frenchman named Jean Rouli�re, a
+native of N�mes, who was assisted by a carefully
+selected staff of experts, also principally foreigners.</p>
+
+<p>About the end of the century Laborde described
+this enterprise as follows:&mdash;&ldquo;The manufactures
+of silks, gildings, and galloons are highly useful
+and important&hellip;. There has also been raised
+at Cervera, a village two leagues from Talavera,
+another large edifice, in which are twelve mills<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+for twisting the silk, four large windles for winding
+it, and six machines for doubling it. This
+complicated machinery is put in motion by four
+oxen, and the various processes of twisting, winding,
+and doubling seven thousand and seventy-two
+threads of silk are thus performed at once.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This establishment was rapidly augmented
+under the direction of Rouli�re and the other
+French mechanics who succeeded him in its superintendence.
+So successful were their labours that,
+in a short time, stuffs were fabricated in Spain not
+unworthy of competition with those of France, the
+demand for which was found to diminish. In
+1762, Rouli�re being obliged to withdraw from
+this manufactory, the care of it was committed
+to a company to the exclusion of almost all
+the French who had previously assisted in its
+establishment. The consequences of this change
+were soon discovered; the manufacture declined,
+the stuffs deteriorated, and the consumption
+diminished; the artisans were discharged from
+the loom, and everything threatened the total
+subversion of the establishment, when the king
+interposed, and again extended to it his care and
+protection, It has since been yielded to the incorporated
+society of the Gremios at Madrid, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+has never recovered its former splendour and
+prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Taffetas, satins, silk cloths, and serges are
+fabricated here, as are silk ribbons, plain and
+figured velvets, stuffs of silk and silver, stuffs of
+silk and gold, galloons, gold and silver fringes,
+and silk stockings. The factory employs three
+hundred and sixty-six looms, and affords occupation
+to two thousand persons. There are annually
+consumed in it about a hundred thousand pounds
+of silk, four thousand marks of silver, and seventy
+marks of gold.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Some of the stuffs issuing from the manufactory
+are beautiful and good, but they want the
+gloss and lustre of the French stuffs; and as
+they are dearer than those, with all the contingent
+expense of commission and transportation, they
+are far from being able to maintain a competition
+with them. The stockings are of the vilest
+quality, being thin, shaggy, and ill-dressed. The
+greater part of these articles are exported to the
+Spanish colonies.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Further efforts to improve the quality of Spanish
+silk were made by Charles the Third, in whose
+reign the silk looms of Seville increased to four
+hundred and sixty-two for weaving larger pieces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+sixty-two for silver and gold galloons, three
+hundred and fifty-four for finely-worked ribbons,
+twenty-three for small pieces of gold and silver
+stuffs, eight for fringes and <i>cintas de rizo</i>, sixty-three
+for stockings, sixty-five for <i>redecillas</i>, three
+for caps, and one thousand three hundred and
+ninety-one for ordinary ribbon. At the same time,
+according to Ulloa, one hundred thousand pounds
+of silk required to be annually brought to Seville
+to supply these factories.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In its fortunate days,&rdquo; wrote Alexander de
+Laborde, &ldquo;Seville had many splendid manufactures;
+it wove silks of every kind, gold and silver
+tissues, linens, and cottons.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> A memoir presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+in 1601 by the seventeen companies of arts and
+trades of this city gives us an idea of the brilliant
+state of those manufactures: the amount of the
+silk looms is there stated to be 16,000, and the
+persons of both sexes employed at them, 130,000.
+These manufactures had greatly declined even
+in the last century. We learn from Francisco
+Mart�nez de la Mata, in his <i>Discursos</i>, published
+in 1659, according to a memoir presented to the
+king by an <i>alcalde</i> of the silk manufactures of
+Seville, that there were no more, at that time,
+than sixty-five looms, that a great number of
+persons having no work had quitted the town,
+that the population had decreased a third, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+that many houses were shut up, uninhabited, and
+going to ruin. The silk manufactures began to
+look up again in the eighteenth century, but they
+are very far below the brilliant state they formerly
+displayed: in 1779 there were 2318 silk looms in
+Seville, including those for stockings, slight stuffs,
+and ribbons.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>Turning our attention from Seville to Granada,
+we find that the fame of the silks produced in this
+latter city, or rather kingdom (for silk was raised
+in great quantities throughout the entire region)
+extended as far abroad as Constantinople, and
+that they were used in Greece in the reign of
+Comnenus. The Muzarabs, who petitioned Alfonso
+el Batallador to bring an expedition to their rescue
+and wrest Granada from her Mussulman lords,
+reported to him in enthusiastic terms the quality
+and abundance of the silk of that locality, and
+many a document and chronicle record its vogue
+among the Spanish Christians of the Middle
+Ages.</p>
+
+<p>The Alcaicer�a or silk-market of Granada is referred
+to by various of the older writers, including<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+Marineus Siculus, Navagiero, Lalaing, Bertaut de
+Rouen, and Alvarez de Colmenar. The name
+itself is stated in Fray Pedro de Alcal�'s <i>Vocabulario</i>
+to be derived from the Arabic <i>al-aqqisariya</i>,
+meaning &ldquo;an exchange for merchants.&rdquo; Buildings,
+or groups of buildings, of this kind existed both
+in Spain and in Morocco. Early in the eighteenth
+century a Spanish friar wrote of Fez; &ldquo;The
+Moorish portion of this city is the Alcaicer�a. It
+stands nearly in the centre of the level part of the
+town, and near the principal mosque, resembling
+a town in itself, with solid walls and doors, and
+chains across it to keep out the horses. It consists
+of fifteen streets of wealthy shops, stretching without
+a break, and what is sold in them&mdash;whether
+of linen, silk, or cloth&mdash;is of the richest and the
+noblest quality.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Very similar are the descriptions relative to the
+Alcaicer�a of Granada in the olden time. Bertaut
+de Rouen wrote of it, and of the adjoining Zacatin;
+&ldquo;En retournant devers la porte d'Elvire est le
+<i>Zacatin</i>, qui est une rue paralelle au Canal du
+Darro, longue et assez estroite, qui vient de la
+place de la Chancellerie � la place de <i>Vivarambla</i>.
+Dans cette rue sont tous les orf�vres, les marchands
+de soie, de rubans, de vermillon, qui croist assez<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+pr�s de Grenade, dont on fait l� grand trafic.
+C'est une plante semblable � celle du Safran, dont
+il y a beaucoup dans ces quartiers-l�.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Dans cette mesme rue du <i>Zacatin</i> donne d'un
+cost� l'<i>Alcayzerie</i>, qui est une esp�ce de Halle
+couverte � la mani�re de la Foire Saint Germain,
+o� sont plusieurs boutiques remplies des Marchandises
+les plus curieuses. Ils disent que cette place,
+aussi bien que beaucoup d'autres des autres Villes
+d'Andalousie, se nomme ainsi � cause d'un privilege
+que donnerent les Cesars aux Arabes de travailler
+en Soye.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Alvarez de Colmenar wrote of the same edifice,
+a few years later than Bertaut; &ldquo;Vis-�-vis de la
+Chancellerie on voit une maison fort longue,
+nomm�e Alcac�ria (<i>sic</i>), partag�e en pr�s de deux
+cent boutiques, o� les Marchands �talent tout sorte
+de marchandises, particuli�rement des �toffes en
+soie.&rdquo; On the authority of the same writer, the
+makers and the dyers of silk-stuffs inhabited
+another quarter of the town. &ldquo;Le dernier quartier
+de la Ville, nomm� Antiqueruela, est dans une
+plaine, peupl� de gens venus d'Antechera, d'o� lui
+vient le nom qu'il porte. Ses habitants sont pour
+la plupart ouvriers en soie, tisseurs de satin, de
+tafetas, de damas; teinturiers qui teignent en<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+pourpre, en �carlate, et autres ouvriers semblables.&rdquo;
+He adds; &ldquo;Il s'y fait grand commerce d'�toffe de
+soie; et la Ville et les environs sont pour cet effet
+plant�s d'un si grand nombre de meuriers, que le
+seul imp�t sur les feuilles de ces arbres vaut
+annuellement trente mille �cus au Roi.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>About the beginning of the nineteenth century
+Laborde wrote: &ldquo;The Alcaicer�a is in the Bivarambla:
+it is merely an immense edifice, without
+ornament, covering a considerable extent of
+ground. The Moors used it as a bazaar, and a
+good many tradesmen still carry on their business
+there. It contains about two hundred shops.&rdquo;
+It remained, in fact, in much the same condition
+as when the Moors possessed it, until the year
+1843, when a fire, which broke out on the night of
+July 20th of that year, reduced it almost totally to
+ashes. To-day the historic silk trade is no more;
+but the Alcaicer�a, consisting of a chapel and a
+street which call to mind the graceful and effective
+decoration of its predecessor, has been rebuilt with
+taste and accuracy from the model of the old.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ordenanzas</i> of Granada city, the first
+edition of which was published in 1552, and the
+second in 1678, inform us very closely of the silk
+trade of that region in the times immediately succeeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+the reconquest. Having regard to the
+fact that the silk was now spun in skeins in an imperfect
+manner, &ldquo;with much deceit and trickery,&rdquo;
+and that its quality was of the worst (Ordinance of
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1535), nobody was allowed henceforth to spin
+silk in or about Granada without being qualified
+through examination by the <i>veedores</i> or inspectors
+appointed for this purpose by the corporation.
+The inspector might charge for this examination a
+fee of twenty-five <i>maravedis</i>, and if the candidate
+were successful he was permitted to set up his
+loom forthwith, and engage two lads or girls, not
+less than twelve years old, to fetch and carry at
+his wheel, &ldquo;so that the work may be continued all
+day long.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Minute instructions follow as to the method of
+spinning the silk, wages, the treatment of apprentices,
+and other detail. Many of these narrow
+points of city law were troublesome and senseless,
+and must have tended to destroy the trade. For
+instance, the earnings of a master-spinner, after
+paying the lads or girls who worked for him, were
+limited to a maximum of two <i>reales</i> and a half
+per day. Women were allowed to spin upon the
+following conditions: &ldquo;Also, seeing that there be
+some honest women here who have no access to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+a public wheel, but work within their dwellings
+only, we (<i>i.e.</i> the city councillors) command that
+these may spin per thousand of cocoons, or at a
+daily wage, not to exceed two <i>reales</i> and a half.&rdquo;
+The silk was not to be spun with an <i>escobilla</i> or
+brush, but with the hand, obedient to the rhyming
+Spanish proverb which says, or used to say, <i>con
+escobilla el pa�o, y la seda con la mano</i> (&ldquo;brush
+cloth with a brush, and silk with the hand&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>The laws affecting the dyers of silk contain the
+following provisions. They were not to dye with
+pomegranate or sumach, and if the rind of the
+former fruit were found in their houses, they were
+liable to a fine of six thousand <i>maravedis</i> and
+thirty days' imprisonment. Dyeing with Brazil-wood
+was also prohibited in the case of silks of
+finer quality exposed for sale in the Alcaicer�a.
+Elaborate directions follow as to the manner of
+applying the dye. In the case of silks dyed blue
+or purple, the dyer, before he drew the fabric from
+the vat, was required to show it to the <i>alamin</i> or
+inspector of the silk, or else to one of the <i>veedores</i>
+nominated by the city councillors. The fines
+imposed upon the dyers who were found to contravene
+these regulations were distributed in the
+following proportion: one-third towards repairing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+the ramparts or <i>adarves</i> of Granada; another
+third between the <i>alamin</i>, the <i>veedores</i>, and the
+other officials who discovered and denounced the
+culprit; and the remaining third between the
+magistrates and other authorities who tried and
+sentenced him.</p>
+
+<p>Further, each silk-dyer was to have six <i>tinajas</i>,
+or large jars (see Vol. II., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>), kept continually
+full of dye, well settled, and liable at any
+hour to be analyzed by the <i>veedores</i>. In dyeing
+fabrics black, each pound of silk was to be treated
+with ten ounces of foreign galls of fine quality,
+two ounces of copperas, and two ounces of gum-arabic.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that nearly all this legislation was
+of a mischievous character, nor can it cause
+surprise that certain of the silk-makers of this
+locality should have been in the habit of committing
+many kinds of fraud, such as mixing salt
+or oil with the raw material, in order to increase
+its weight. Thus, at the same time that the laws
+themselves were made more numerous and stringent,
+the more elaborate and various were the
+shifts invented by the citizens as a means to violate
+those laws. The inspectors were empowered to
+enter a shop and examine its contents at any hour.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+Sometimes, we read, such ingress was denied
+them, and the door was kept closed, or slammed in
+their faces. The penalty for this resistance was a
+fine of two thousand <i>maravedis</i> and twenty days
+imprisonment. No silk-spinner was allowed to
+possess more than two spinning-wheels (Ordinance
+of November 18th, 1501), or to keep these
+working after midnight, for we are told that in
+this way the <i>veedores</i> were impeded from paying
+their official visit in the small hours of the morning,
+and much &ldquo;deceit and insult&rdquo; was the consequence.
+This Ordinance was confirmed by a
+royal rescript of 1542.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_56.jpg" width="313" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_56.jpg" id="img_56.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VII<br />VELVET MADE AT GRANADA<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another group of <i>Ordenanzas</i> concerns the
+weavers and the silk-merchants of the Alcaicer�a,
+determining that no silk was to be imported
+from the kingdoms of Valencia or Murcia, and
+that no merchant was to buy the raw material in
+order to resell it at a profit, but might only trade
+in the productions of his own factory. Minute
+instructions are appended for weaving the various
+stuffs which had a silk foundation, such as several
+kinds of damask, scarlet velvet<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> many kinds of
+satin, velvet dyed with Brazil-wood, taffeta of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+four leishes, taffeta of two leishes, and <i>sargas</i>, or
+silken serge. Other fabrics mentioned in the
+Ordinances are <i>tocas</i> called &ldquo;San Juanes,&rdquo; <i>campuses
+moriscos</i> (elsewhere &ldquo;las tocas moriscas que se
+llaman <i>campuzas</i>&rdquo;), &ldquo;las tocas moriscas labradas
+que se dizen <i>coninos</i>,&rdquo; <i>quinales</i> and <i>alfardillas</i>,
+<i>alcaydias</i>, <i>tocas de Reyna</i>, and <i>espumillas</i>. Most of
+these names are of obscure meaning at the present
+day; but I find that <i>espumillas</i> were silken crape,
+while <i>alfardillas</i> are defined in the old dictionary
+of Fathers Connelly and Higgins as &ldquo;an ancient
+kind of silken ribbon, or tape.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>No weaver was allowed to be the owner of
+more than four looms for making velvet, satin,
+damask, taffeta, or silken serges. The apprentice
+to a satin-maker required to be bound for a
+minimum term of three years, the apprentice to
+a damask-maker for five years, the apprentice to
+a taffeta-maker for three years. No weaver was
+to have more than three apprentices at one time,
+except in the case of the damask-makers, who
+might have four. No weaver might dismiss his
+apprentice without deponing to the cause before
+the city officers, nor might he accept money,
+or anything in lieu of money, from an apprentice.
+Master-weavers were required to pass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+their examinations in Granada; no other city
+would suffice.</p>
+
+<p>We further learn that many of the apprentices
+were &ldquo;of evil character,&rdquo; and damaged velvet
+stuffs &ldquo;maliciously, though knowing perfectly
+how to weave the same.&rdquo; If any worker at this
+craft fell sick, the guild or <i>oficio</i> was to defray the
+expenses of his cure, including physic &ldquo;until he
+be recovered, provided his be not a venereal
+ailment, or a wound inflicted with a knife.&rdquo; If
+he succumbed, the guild was to bury him; and
+when a master-weaver died, his apprentices were
+compelled to serve out the rest of their indentures
+with his widow, or his sons. No slave might
+learn to weave, even though he should be made
+a <i>horro</i> or freedman.</p>
+
+<p>Other ordinances refer to the officers known as
+Xelizes and Almotalefes of the silk, the privilege
+of appointing whom had been conferred upon the
+town-council by Ferdinand and Isabella. It was
+the business of the <i>almotalefe</i> or <i>motalefe</i> to
+collect silk throughout the <i>alcarias</i> or villages of
+the surrounding districts, and convey it, on behalf
+of the owner, to a <i>xeliz</i> or &ldquo;superintendent of the
+market,&rdquo; attached to one or other of the three
+Alcaicer�as of the kingdom of Granada. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+<i>xeliz</i>, in his turn, was required to see that the
+parcel was put up for sale by public auction and
+disposed of to the highest bidder, after which he
+handed to the <i>motalefe</i> a certificate of the price
+obtained, together with the corresponding cash,
+less certain fees deducted for himself and calculated
+on a reasonable scale. The number of <i>motalefes</i>
+throughout this region was evidently large, because
+in the year 1520 the town-council resolved to
+appoint as many as &ldquo;one or two in every town
+and district.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ordinances to the above effect were notified to
+the city of Almu�ecar, and the towns of Motril,
+Salobre�a, and the Alpujarras; from which we
+must infer that, though subordinated to the capital
+herself, these places also were silk-producing
+centres of no slight importance.</p>
+
+<p>Further laws relating to the Xelizes were passed
+in 1535. On August 13th, the mayor of Granada
+(described as the &ldquo;very magnificent&rdquo; Se�or Hernan
+Darias de Saavedra) summoned before him these
+officials in order to admonish them respecting certain
+fresh decisions that had been adopted by the councillors.
+The said Xelizes were six in all, known
+severally as Juan Ximenez, Hernando el Comarxi,
+Juan Infante Zaybona, Juan de Granada, Lorenzo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+el Mombatan, and Francisco Hernandez Almorox&mdash;names
+which are of interest, as showing that the
+Morisco element was still of weight among the
+manufacturers and merchants of Granada. From
+this time forth, and by the resolution of the town
+authorities, the Xelizes in question were called
+upon to lodge a deposit of one thousand ducats as
+security for the value of the silk entrusted them
+for sale. Besides this, the silk was to be sold in
+the Zaguaque&mdash;that is, by public auction &ldquo;as in
+the time of the Moors,&rdquo; from two in the afternoon
+onward. The buyer was required to settle his
+account before ten in the morning of the day next
+following his purchase. Failing this, the silk was
+to be again put up for sale, and the costs of this
+new operation were charged to the defaulting first
+purchaser, who was further obliged to pay a daily
+compensation of two <i>reales</i> to the <i>motalefe</i> who
+had brought the silk to market. Xelizes were
+strictly forbidden to traffic on their own account,
+and the fines for infringing any of these laws were
+heavy. If the infraction were repeated once, the
+fine was doubled; if twice, in addition to the
+same amount in money, the transgressor was
+banished for all his lifetime from Granada.</p>
+
+<p>All pieces of stuff which measured ten yards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+long and upwards, and which it was desired to
+sell within the capital or district of Granada,
+required to be marked with the weaver's stamp.
+If three pieces were sold together, or sent abroad
+to other places to be sold, they required to be
+stamped with the city seal at a fee for stamping
+of two <i>maravedis</i> the piece. This was to be
+performed by the <i>veedores</i>, who were also to
+keep a register of all the city looms, and pay
+them a visit of inspection once at least in every
+month.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, one of the most ridiculous and noxious
+of these ordinances forbade the planting of more
+mulberry-trees in or about Granada; notwithstanding
+that it was also forbidden to deal in
+silk imported from Valencia or Murcia, as the
+merchants were said to mingle these foreign silks
+with that of Granada herself, to the detriment of
+the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries the silk-trade of this capital remained
+in much the same condition. In 1747 a company
+was formed at Granada titled the &ldquo;Compa��a
+Real de Comercio y F�bricas de Granada,&rdquo; and
+the formal prospectus of this society, of which
+document a printed copy is in my possession,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+was embodied in a royal <i>cedula</i> dated in the same
+year. The preliminary remarks attached to this
+certificate explain that the people of Granada
+were now reduced to &ldquo;the most unhappy state of
+poverty, insomuch that nowhere is there memory
+of a greater horde of mendicants.&rdquo; The principal
+cause of this distress is stated to be the ruin of
+the silk-trade, in which disaster may be recognised
+the consequences of the senseless legislation
+I have instanced in the foregoing paragraphs.
+The fifteen thousand looms which once upon a
+time existed there had dwindled to six hundred,
+and the production of raw silk, from one million
+pounds a year to one hundred thousand. The
+new Company was floated with the professed
+ambition of restoring Granada to a measure of
+her old prosperity. The capital was half a
+million <i>pesos</i>, divided into shares of two hundred
+<i>pesos</i> each; but silk and woven fabrics generally,
+whose value had been suitably appraised by the
+authorities, were admissible in payment of a
+share. The holder of each five shares enjoyed
+one vote, except in the case of founders, who
+were privileged, as &ldquo;instruments of this important
+establishment,&rdquo; to vote upon possession of a
+single share. If a shareholder wished to sell his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+interest, the Company was to have the first
+refusal. It further possessed initially in cash a
+sum exceeding one hundred and twenty thousand
+<i>pesos</i>&mdash;sufficient to construct and work three
+thousand looms in all; and it engaged, in return
+for certain favours and exemptions under royal
+warrant, to set up twenty looms for making
+serges of fine quality, and eight more in each
+year, for the space of ten years, for making
+<i>carros de oro</i>, <i>medios carros</i>, <i>anascotes finos</i>,
+<i>christales</i>, &ldquo;and every other kind of stuff that is
+not manufactured in this kingdom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The favours and exemptions thus solicited
+were of a very mischievous character; for the
+political mind of Spain was not yet shrewd
+enough to grasp the fact that where all competition
+is removed, quality cannot but decline.
+The products of the Company were freed from
+paying taxes for ten, or in the case of stuffs whose
+price amounted to six <i>reales</i> per yard, for twenty
+years. Similarly, all of its merchandise exported
+to America &ldquo;in <i>flotas</i>, <i>galeones</i>, <i>registros</i>, or other
+craft of those that are permitted,&rdquo; was freed
+from all except the royal dues on loading, although
+if shipped to other parts it was to pay a tax
+of fifty <i>maravedis</i> for each Castilian pound of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+sixteen ounces. All the materials and ingredients
+required by the Company in the preparation of
+its fabrics were exempted from customs and other
+dues. The Company enjoyed a preferential right
+to purchase silk throughout the kingdom of
+Granada, and such as it abstained from purchasing
+was to be sold by public auction in the Alcaicer�as
+of Granada and M�laga, that of Almer�a being
+henceforth suppressed. The Company was also
+empowered to introduce silk from Murcia and
+Valencia, and the determination to crush all
+private enterprise is clearly expressed by the
+twenty-second heading of this document, which
+says; &ldquo;All manufacturers and traders who do not
+associate themselves with this body shall pay the
+full tariff of dues at present established.&rdquo; The
+Company was further empowered to compel the
+inhabitants of this locality to plant new lots of
+mulberry-trees, &ldquo;in view of the notorious fact
+that not the one-hundredth part remains of all
+that were delivered by the Royal Census to the
+occupants of the kingdom of Granada at the time
+of the reconquest.&rdquo; The Company might further
+open shops and erect warehouses wherever it
+chose. Its assets were to enjoy perpetual immunity
+from seizure by the city council, whether<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+as a loan or otherwise, and none of its servants
+might be called upon to serve the Crown in the
+event of war.</p>
+
+<p>Very shortly after its foundation, this Company
+united (each bringing half the capital) with another
+powerful association titled the Commercial Company
+of Estremadura, with a view to securing a
+conjoint Crown monopoly or &ldquo;exclusive privilege&rdquo;
+for Portugal, &ldquo;to the effect that only these two
+companies may traffic there in silk, and none other
+of my vassals or the inhabitants of my dominions
+may do business, whether in pure silk, or silk
+mixed with silver or with gold, in the kingdom of
+Portugal aforesaid.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The privilege was granted in these terms, and
+bears the royal signature, attached at Aranjuez, June
+17th, 1747. Its provisions were to last for ten
+years, and, in return for their concession, the two
+Companies engaged for a like term of ten years to
+set up fifty silk-looms annually at Toledo, &ldquo;over and
+above the looms at present working in that city.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I have not been able to trace, in writing or in
+print, the subsequent records of the Royal Commercial
+and Manufacturing Company of Granada,
+although I have been told that it existed for some
+time, and that on one occasion there was a riot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+among the townsfolk in opposition to its tyranny.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+In 1776 Swinburne wrote of the same region:
+&ldquo;The annual produce of silk in this province,
+before the year 1726, seldom fell short of two
+millions six hundred thousand pounds weight,
+whereas now it does not exceed one hundred
+thousand.&rdquo; Judging from this, the Company does
+not appear to have prospered. In 1775 the same
+author wrote of other and more fertile silk-producing
+districts: &ldquo;The manufacturers of silk are the
+cause of a population (<i>i.e.</i> in Valencia) that may be
+reckoned considerable, if compared to that of other
+provinces of Spain. The produce of this article
+came this year to one million pounds, but one year
+with another the average quantity is about nine
+hundred thousand pounds, worth a doubloon a
+pound in the country. The crop of silk this last
+season was very abundant. Government has prohibited
+the exportation of Valencian raw silk, in
+order to lay in a stock to keep the artificers constantly
+employed in bad years; for it has happened
+in some, that half the workmen have been laid
+idle for want of materials. As they are not so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+strict about Murcian silk, which is of an inferior
+quality, I am told that some from Valencia is sent
+out of Spain under that denomination. The great
+nurseries of mulberry-plants in this plain (the
+Huerta of Valencia) are produced from seed obtained
+by rubbing a rope of <i>esparto</i> over heaps of
+ripe mulberries, and then burying the rope two
+inches under ground. As the young plants come
+up, they are drawn and transplanted. The trees,
+which are all of the white kind, are afterwards set
+out in rows in the fields, and pruned every second
+year; in Murcia, only every third year, and in
+Granada never. The Granadine silk is esteemed
+the best of all; and the trees are all of the black
+sort of mulberry.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Laborde, who wrote some twenty-five
+years later; &ldquo;The cultivation of silk was
+formerly very flourishing in Andalusia; the kingdoms
+of Granada, Seville, and Jaen produced
+immense quantities of it, but after the conquest of
+those countries it was burdened with heavy taxes:
+silk was made subject to ecclesiastical tithes payable
+in kind; the royal tenth it paid under the
+Moors was retained, estimated at three <i>reales
+vellon</i> each pound of silk. To these were added
+a duty of <i>tartil</i> of seventeen <i>maravedis</i> per pound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+and duties of <i>alcabalas</i> and <i>cientos</i>, fixed at eleven
+<i>reales</i> thirty-two <i>maraved�s</i>. There accrued from
+it a tax of fifteen <i>reales</i> fifteen <i>maraved�s</i> for the
+king, and six <i>reales</i>, or thereabouts, for the
+ecclesiastical tithe, making together twenty-one
+<i>reales</i> fifteen <i>maraved�s</i>, or about four shillings
+and sixpence the pound, which at that time sold
+only for thirty <i>reales</i>, or six shillings and three
+pence English. The speculators were consequently
+discouraged, most of them relinquished
+a labour from which they derived so little profit,
+and this branch of industry entirely failed in the
+kingdoms of Cordova and Seville, and afterwards
+in those of Granada and Jaen. For some time
+it has been looking up in the two latter kingdoms,
+but it is very far from what it was under the
+Moors. The mulberries of Granada and Jaen are
+black; they are suffered to grow without any care
+or management, are never lopped or dressed, and
+look as if they were planted by chance.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Of Murcia he wrote; &ldquo;This province has the
+raw materials of other manufactures no less
+important. In the first place, it has a prodigious
+quantity of silkworms, which are not turned to
+advantage; most of the raw silks are sold to the
+neighbouring provinces, and manufactured silk is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+imported from foreign looms, though the inhabitants
+might manufacture their own materials, and
+make it an article of considerable exportation.
+The town of Murcia is the only place where they
+work some small quantity; there they manufacture
+a few slight silks, chiefly taffetas and velvets, but of
+an inferior quality; and the whole is confined to a
+small number of looms. They make a much
+greater quantity of ribbons, in which twelve
+hundred looms are employed; but they are badly
+dyed, and have not a good gloss. The Murcians
+likewise prepare the raw silk, spin, and twist it;
+they have even a warden, and a great number of
+masters in this business, and, in spite of its
+importance, they carry it on without being subject
+to any superintendence, everyone doing as he
+pleases. The consequence is that the silk is badly
+prepared and spun unequally. The threads are
+collected without any method, sometimes more,
+sometimes less, and then twisted unequally.
+They are of course unfit to make fine stuffs, and
+the trade of Murcia is therefore declining&hellip;.
+Silk stuffs, satins, velvets, and taffetas are made
+here, but there is no great manufactory of them.
+They are wrought at private houses, and are but
+of a middling quality.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Toledo silk, including the delicate and costly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+<i>cendal</i> (see pp. 5, 6) which is mentioned in the
+sumptuary law, dated 1348, of Alfonso the
+Eleventh, was largely in demand from early in
+the Middle Ages till about the sixteenth century.
+The statements of the older writers as to this
+neighbourhood are contradictory. According
+to Dami�n de Olivares, himself a native of
+Toledo, this city in the sixteenth century possessed
+between five thousand five hundred and
+six thousand looms, consuming annually more
+than six hundred thousand pounds of raw silk.
+Other authors estimate the number of her looms
+at twenty, thirty, or even forty thousand. Writing
+in our own time, Count Cedillo is responsible
+for declaring that after the revolt of the Communities,
+the persons occupied in weaving silk
+amounted to fifty thousand, all of whom were
+natives of Toledo and the neighbouring villages;
+and he adds, perhaps a little rashly, that the velvets,
+damasks, satins, and taffetas of this locality were
+&ldquo;unrivalled, even in comparison with the admirable
+products of Seville, Cordova, and Granada.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+Certainly, the silk stockings of Toledo enjoyed
+a wide-spread fame, and were used, among other
+distinguished patrons, by the Duke of Guise and
+by Philip the Second. They were also exported in
+quantities to America. Banners, altar-fronts, and
+vestments for religious worship were also made
+here in large numbers, and of excellent quality,
+both in silk alone, and in this substance mixed
+with gold and silver.</p>
+
+<p>Laborde wrote of all these manufactures at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+the time of their decline; &ldquo;It is easy to estimate
+their former importance from the loss they sustained
+by the introduction of foreign merchandise.
+The memorial states that the consumption of silk
+was materially diminished, and computes the loss
+sustained by thirty-eight thousand artisans, from
+the interruption of their occupation, at 1,937,727
+ducats. Symptoms of decay continued to increase
+till the middle of the sixteenth century, when
+every vestige of commerce was effaced.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Toledo remained in this state of listless
+despondence till the present archbishop made a
+noble effort to revive the love of industry, and to
+open an asylum for the tribes of mendicants,
+accustomed from infancy to subsist on precarious
+bounty. The measure adopted by this prelate
+was to establish in the Alcazar various branches
+of manufacture, such as linen, ribbons, cloths,
+serges, woollen stuffs, and silk stuffs of every
+description. He introduced also another branch
+of occupation, appropriated solely to the production
+of sacerdotal ornaments. In 1791 there were a
+hundred and twelve manufactories in Toledo, ten
+for lawns and canvas, twelve for ribbons, fifty-five
+for silk, and seven for sacerdotal ornaments. At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+this period the indigent class employed in them
+amounted to six hundred people, who were instructed
+in various processes, and were led insensibly
+to acquire the useful habits of industry.
+They were taught to draw, to prepare the
+materials, and to perform the manufacture; and
+each was destined to pursue some occupation suitable
+to his age, his inclination, and his abilities.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1786 Townsend, himself a clergyman, had
+written of Toledo in far less hopeful terms.
+&ldquo;This city, which contained two hundred thousand
+souls, is now reduced to less than twenty-five
+thousand. The citizens are fled; the monks
+remain. Here we find twenty-six parish churches,
+thirty-eight convents, seventeen hospitals, four
+colleges, twelve chapels, and nineteen hermitages,
+the monuments of its former opulence.&rdquo; Townsend's
+good taste, unusual for a traveller of that
+time, was horrified at the profanation of the
+Alcazar, whose &ldquo;magnificent apartments are now
+occupied with spinning-wheels and looms, and
+instead of princes they are filled with beggars.
+The good archbishop here feeds seven hundred
+persons, who are employed in the silk manufactory;
+but unfortunately, with the best intentions, he has
+completed the ruin of the city; for by his weight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+of capital, he has raised the price both of labour
+and of the raw material, whilst, by carrying a
+greater quantity of goods to the common market,
+he has sunk the price of the commodity so much,
+that the manufacturers, who employed from forty
+to sixty workmen, now employ only two or three,
+and many who were in affluence are now reduced
+to penury.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;These people are so far from earning their
+own maintenance, that over and above the produce
+of their labour they require forty thousand ducats
+a year for their support.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Alvarez de Colmenar, Ricord, Bourgoing,
+Laborde, and other writers, Spanish and non-Spanish,
+of the eighteenth century, inserted full
+descriptions of the silk trade of Valencia and
+Barcelona. &ldquo;On y fait,&rdquo; wrote Alvarez de
+Colmenar of the former of these towns, &ldquo;de tr�s
+bonnes draperies, fortes, d'un bon et long usage,
+et propres � r�sister � la pluie, et grande quantit�
+d'�toffes de soie; del� vient que les meuriers,
+dont les feuilles servent � nourrir les vers � soie,
+y font d'un fort gros revenu pour les habitans.&rdquo;
+Ricord, in his scarce pamphlet, printed at Valencia
+in 1793, gives valuable statistics relating to this
+industry and locality, prefacing his figures arranged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+in tabular form by the following remarks:
+&ldquo;The silk factories of this province form the
+principal basis of her commerce. They not only
+consume all the silk which is raised in the kingdom
+(of Valencia), and which, in 1791, amounted to
+581,688 pounds of fine silk, 93,800 of that of
+Alducar, and 26,115 of <i>hiladillo</i>, but they also
+require to provide themselves from Aragon and
+other parts of Spain, or even from abroad, seeing
+that in the year aforesaid more than 37,000 pounds
+were imported from foreign countries.&rdquo; The
+tabular statement appended to these observations
+tells us that in the region of Valencia the looms
+for making fine and silken fabrics such as velvets,
+<i>anascotes</i>, stockings, handkerchiefs, scarves, garters,
+and ribbons, gave employment to a total of 9,668
+workmen, and were distributed among the towns
+or villages of Valencia, Alcira, San Felipe, Alcoy,
+Vilanesa, Denia, Ruzafa, Alicante, Peniscola,
+Beniganim, Pego, Olivo, Liria, Asuevar, Orihuela,
+Gandia, Elche, Castellon, and Vall de Almonacid.
+Ria�o admits, however, that this manufacture
+might have prospered even more, if means had
+been adopted to suppress certain acts committed
+by the weavers, spinners, and twisters of the silk.</p>
+
+<p>More curious and instructive is the description<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+of the same industry by Jean-Fran�ois Bourgoing,
+whose observations, evidently secured at first-hand,
+are worth translating <i>in extenso</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;What attracted us still more than the fine-art
+works were the stuffs produced at the silk-factories,
+which constitute the principal glory of Valencia
+and contribute to her prosperous condition. We
+followed all the process of this manufacture, from
+the cultivation of the mulberry-tree to the weaving
+of the richest fabrics. I will try, therefore, to
+give a comprehensive account of them.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Spain, and particularly the kingdom of
+Valencia, could well export her silk to foreign
+parts, even after setting apart a quantity sufficient
+for her factories. Government, however, does not
+appear to be convinced of this, because it offers
+constant hindrance to such exportation, or else,
+when it consents to it, imposes heavy dues.
+These dues consist of nine <i>reales</i> and a <i>quartillo</i>,
+or nearly two <i>livres</i> seven <i>francs</i> per each
+Valencian pound of silk, which only weighs twelve
+ounces, and is worth at least fifteen <i>livres</i> when it
+is in the raw state. When the silk harvest has
+been scanty, as in the year 1784, it has been
+known to fetch eighty <i>reales</i> or twenty <i>livres</i>.
+This year, too, the yield of silk has been so small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+that the manufacturers of Valencia petitioned
+Government to allow the introduction, duty-free,
+of two hundred thousand pounds of it from Italy
+and France.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In ordinary years, the pound of (raw) silk
+costs eight <i>reales</i> for twisting and three <i>reales</i> for
+dyeing in green, blue or other common colours;
+so that this material, ready to use, costs altogether
+about seventy-one <i>reales</i> the pound, or seventeen
+to eighteen francs of our money.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Of course this price varies according to circumstances.
+One of the causes which exercise
+the greatest influence on this fluctuation is the
+harvest of the mulberry. These valuable trees
+are thickly planted over the champaign of
+Valencia, and all of them are of the white-leaved
+kind. This distinction, which would be superfluous
+in France, is by no means so in Spain,
+where, in several provinces, as, for instance, the
+kingdom of Granada, the leaves of the black
+mulberry are used to nourish the silkworms, and
+yield almost as handsome a silk as those of the
+white.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The leaves to these mulberry-trees are sold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+by the load of ten <i>arrobas</i>; and the Valencian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+<i>arroba</i>, which is about equal to twenty-seven
+French pounds, cost, in 1783, about thirty <i>sols
+tournois</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The mulberry leaves are gathered once, twice,
+or, at most, three times in each year; but it is not
+often that the two last crops are of as fine a quality
+or as abundant as the first. The greater part of
+the year is suited for harvesting the leaves, and this
+harvesting is carried out progressively as the silkworms
+copulate, steadily increasing in quantity up
+to the moment when they build their cocoons.
+As a rule only the leaves are plucked, the
+branches being spared as far as possible. Thus
+despoiled of its verdure in the middle of the finest
+times of year, although surrounded by a dazzling
+vegetation, the tree looks like a dry log floating
+on a green expanse of waters, while the mass of
+naked trunks which seem to be completely sterile,
+and which grow more numerous as the season
+advances, combine to render cheerless a prospect
+otherwise so fertile and so smiling. Still worse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+becomes their state when the trees are pruned
+entirely of their branches&mdash;an operation which is
+performed upon them at least once in every three
+years.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the space of ten years the kingdom of
+Valencia has yielded six million pounds of silk,
+which makes a yearly average of six hundred
+thousand pounds; and as the whole of Spain produces
+a million pounds per annum, we see from
+this that Valencia alone supplies more than half
+of the entire quantity. The silks of Valencia are
+the finest of the whole Peninsula, and fit to be
+compared with the best of Europe generally, but
+the spinning is still imperfect, because in Spain
+there are not, as in France and elsewhere, houses
+where the women who spin are gathered together
+under the eye of an inspector to see that all the
+silk is spun evenly. In the kingdom of Valencia
+the spinning is distributed among several thousand
+hands, who introduce six, seven, eight, or even
+more ends in a thread of silk which should always
+have the same number; hence the unevennesses in
+the fabrics which are woven from them, while for
+the same reason we do not utilize for any delicate
+work the raw material which we import from
+Spain.  The silk we employ for our costlier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+fabrics is of the kind which we import from
+Piedmont and the southern provinces of France.
+Also, for the last few years we have felt less need
+of the Valencian silk. The laws prohibiting the
+exportation of this Spanish silk have stimulated
+the cultivation of mulberry-trees in Languedoc,
+where the peasantry, alive to the profit which
+these trees could render them, have preferred
+them to other kinds for planting round their
+property. This is why, in the year 1783, French
+silk could be bought for a lower price than the
+Valencian silk purchased in that region, plus the
+dues levied upon its exportation. I know of a
+merchant who at this time enjoyed the privilege
+of exporting for six years a hundred thousand
+pounds free of all dues, but who throughout the
+year 1783 was unable to find a purchaser in
+France. Spain could perhaps remedy the egress
+of her raw material by further increasing (as,
+indeed, she daily does) the number of her looms,
+and by exporting a greater number of her products
+to her American possessions; but her silk-stuffs
+will never be perfected until she markets
+them in foreign countries, where the taste of her
+customers may tend to better that of her
+manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The silk raised in the kingdom of Valencia is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+estimated, during an average year, to be worth
+six or seven millions of <i>piastres</i> (nineteen to
+twenty-two millions of <i>livres</i>.) At the time of
+my visit to this city, she only employed one half
+this quantity, although her looms of every size
+amounted to four thousand. The rest, in spite
+of the prohibitions laid upon its extraction, is
+smuggled off to foreign countries, escaping,
+sometimes to France by way of Barcelona, and
+sometimes to Portugal by way of Seville and
+Extremadura. Nevertheless, there is probably
+more silk in Spain to-day than formerly, and
+measures have been earnestly adopted to encourage
+the industries which make use of it. For
+some time past, silk-looms have been scattered
+over the whole of Catalu�a, and in the kingdoms
+of Granada, Cordova, Seville, etc., producing
+handkerchiefs, ribbons, and other stuffs in
+sufficient quantity to supply, or nearly so, the
+national market: nevertheless this still left
+a large market for our stocking-factories of
+Languedoc. The Spanish Government, by the
+law of 1778, limited itself to excluding these
+stockings from forming part of the foreign cargoes
+to the Colonies, but as they continued to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+imported into Spain, this law was readily evaded,
+since it sufficed to stamp the French article with
+the mark of a Spanish factory. It would have
+required an excessive vigilance, almost a positive
+inquisition, to guard against a fraud of this kind,
+prompted by the avarice of traders. The Spanish
+Government next sought, by the law of 1785, to
+put a stop to it by totally excluding our silk
+stockings, and this measure, together with the
+establishment of a number of new looms in Spain,
+has produced an almost absolute stagnation in the
+market which our factories of Languedoc had
+formerly enjoyed in the Peninsula. But let me
+return now to the Valencian factories.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This city has no one building in which might
+be performed the whole of the processes through
+which the silk must pass. Any person who
+wishes to examine them, must visit several
+workshops; and this was the course which we
+adopted, under the guidance of a manufacturer
+as intelligent as he is amiable, named Don Manuel
+Foz, a gentleman who has travelled extensively
+in order to perfect his knowledge of handling
+silk, and who, among other secrets, has brought
+from Constantinople the art of watering silken
+stuffs. As a reward for his activity, he has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+appointed <i>Intendente</i> of all the factories of
+Valencia.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;There are hardly any merchants at Valencia
+who are not more or less concerned in silk-making:
+indeed, they look upon this industry as quite a
+<i>point d'honneur</i>. Some of them supply with silk
+no more than four or five looms, which work at
+their expense, while others have under their control
+as many as several hundred.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;After the silkworm has cleverly built its cell,
+the first thing to be done is to stifle it before it
+can pierce the cocoon in search of a new existence.
+For this purpose the cocoons are thrown into a
+moderately heated oven; and then, when once
+the worm is killed, they can be kept without being
+spun for as long as may be needed.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In order to strip them of their covering of
+silk, they are thrown into hot water, after which
+the women workers pick up, and with surprising
+quickness, the threads of several of them, join
+them, and deal them out, thus joined, on wheels
+constructed for this object. On the design of
+the wheels depends the degree of thoroughness
+with which the silk is spun; but those which
+are employed in Spain are generally the most
+imperfect, as I shall presently explain.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I have already said that the slip of silk should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+be drawn from at least four cocoons, and even then
+it only serves for making slender fabrics, such as
+taffeta or ribbon. We were shown, indeed, a
+skein which was assured to contain no more than
+two cocoons; but so slight a slip is of no use at
+all. Most of them are made from seven or eight
+cocoons, and two of the former are joined in order
+to form a thread sufficient to be placed upon the
+loom.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;My readers are sure to know that all woven
+fabrics consist of two distinct parts, the woof and
+the warp. The woof is that which is passed by
+the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other,
+and which is enchased between the two surfaces
+formed by the warp. As the woof is subjected to
+more wear and tear than the warp, it should be
+stouter. For this reason each of the two ends
+of which it is composed is twisted separately
+before the two are twisted together, while for the
+warp the latter of these processes is sufficient.
+The result of this difference is that, when looked
+at beneath the microscope, the thread of the
+woof has an uneven look, as though it were a
+small cable, while that of the warp looks flat and
+smooth, and is therefore adapted to reflect the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+light, receiving the shiny look which makes a
+silk-stuff so attractive.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;But the beauty of these fabrics depends, above
+all else, upon the way in which the silk is divided
+as it is drawn from the cocoon. This first stage
+of the spinning is performed in one or other of
+three ways, according to the kind of wheel which is
+employed for it. The method which the Spaniards
+have adopted from an early period has the following
+drawback; that the small threads of six, seven,
+and eight cocoons which are stripped at the same
+time, go to form a single thread, and are deposited
+upon a small spindle without the thread rubbing
+against another one, which friction serves to
+lay the little hairs which bristle up, so that
+the slip of silk thus formed retains a hairy
+nap and is easily frayed. In the Piedmontese
+method, on the other hand, each slip is joined to
+another, and is not drawn apart until it has been
+twisted round it four or five times.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The third method, known as that of Vaucanson,
+is more expensive than the one last mentioned.
+In the wheel invented by Vaucanson, the two silk-slips
+are reunited after the first twisting, in order
+to be twisted once again. This operation is called
+the &lsquo;double <i>croissade</i>.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;If these threads, thus placed on bobbins, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+intended for the woof, they are enchased perpendicularly
+in a machine consisting of several compartments,
+in which they are twisted separately.
+Thence they are transferred to another machine,
+in which they are twisted all together; after which
+they are ready for the loom. Those which are
+destined for the web are not twisted (as I have
+explained above) until the moment when they are
+united. Both at Valencia and at Talavera de la
+Reina these machines, so precious to the weaver's
+craft, and which economise manual toil, are not
+unknown.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At the latter of these towns I had already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+seen a single toothed-wheel, which set in motion
+up to a thousand of these tiny bobbins on
+which are wound the twisted slips of silk. The
+wheels I saw at Valencia were smaller, because in
+this city there is not, as there is at Talavera, a
+royal factory self-contained within a single building.
+At Valencia each manufacturer, in order to
+carry out these various processes, requires to deal
+with workmen and machines distributed through
+several quarters of the town, and chooses from
+among them such as he best prefers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Nothing can be simpler than the working
+of these silk-twisting machines, when once the
+toothed-wheel has set them going. The perpendicular
+movement of all these little bobbins
+is looked after by women, and even children.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;If they should happen to clog, a touch of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+finger disengages them. If one of the slips should
+break, the harm is mended in a trice: the practised
+fingers of the machinist pick up the broken ends
+with marvellous despatch, tie them together by
+an imperceptible knot, and the bobbin which was
+thus delayed loses no time in overtaking its
+neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The slips of silk, before being twisted two by
+two, are put through another process which I
+ought to mention. When they are still in skeins
+they are spread upon a large tub in which is a
+quantity of viscous substances heated to boiling
+point, the gases from which tend to make them
+adhere to one another. This is termed <i>passer �
+la br�ve</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Thence they are removed to the machine for
+twisting them. The silk, on issuing from this
+machine, is called organzine; and it is only when
+it is in this state that it can be exported from
+Piedmont, where the twisting process was better
+executed than elsewhere, until the time when it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+was rendered yet more perfect by Vaucanson.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+This clever mechanic has combined all possible
+advantages relating to the business of the silk-weaver.
+His system, and no other, is practised in
+the Lyons factories; but these wheels <i>� double
+croissade</i> are only available for silk produced in
+France; since that which is exported from abroad
+and which is principally used in these factories,
+requires to be reduced to organzine before it can
+again be taken out of the country.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In this respect Spain possesses a sensible
+advantage over other manufacturing nations;
+since she raises a greater quantity of silk than
+she is able to consume, and could easily put it
+through the most advanced and perfect processes;
+in spite of which she has clung for ages to her
+faulty method. The present government has
+attacked this method by the only means efficient
+to bring about a change; that is, the slow but certain
+influence of persuasion. In 1781 the Count of
+Floridablanca contracted with a French merchant
+settled in Madrid, that he should supply a hundred
+<i>tours</i> of the Vaucanson pattern for spinning silk,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+first to the Murcian factories (of which province
+the Count was a native), next to the Valencian,
+and subsequently to any others that might wish
+for them; and with this object he granted to the
+merchant in question the privilege of exporting,
+free of duty, six hundred thousand pounds of silk
+in six years. Nevertheless, it is possible that this
+measure may yet remain fruitless for many years
+owing to the apathy of the Spanish manufacturers,
+who were loth to use a finer, closer quality of silk,
+because it must be woven with greater care owing
+to its containing three ends instead of two, the
+work being greater on this account without a
+corresponding increase in the gain. It has also
+been found necessary to employ Frenchmen in
+the earliest trials made in Spain of this new
+method.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The success of the Spaniards should not be
+counted on, if we are to judge of it by a factory,
+which was founded some years since at <i>La
+Milanesa</i>, a league's distance from Valencia, by an
+intelligent man named La Payessa.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;He introduced the method of Vaucanson, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+when I went to see his factory he had not seen his
+way to recover the money which this improvement
+had cost him. He employed barely two hundred
+persons for the most important work; nothing
+more was done than to spin the silk, divide it,
+and convert it into organzine. Thus treated, it
+cost from fifty to sixty <i>reales</i> more per pound than
+that which is prepared according to the Spanish
+method, so that its success was but small.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I shall not describe in detail either the method
+of dyeing the silk, or that of weaving it. The first
+of these operations is readily imagined; the second
+is hard to understand, and still more so to explain,
+unless one is assisted by engravings. I will
+merely observe that all silk is dyed in skeins, just
+before it enters the loom. If it be required
+occasionally to dye it after it is woven, this is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+only when the silk is spotted, or when the dyeing
+of the skeins has proved a failure. At the time
+of my visit to Valencia, there were a hundred and
+seventeen master-dyers in that city, but not all of
+them were working.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The stuffs in which the factories of Valencia
+are most successful are principally of the smooth
+sort; they also make there handsome damask
+<i>broch�s</i> with large flowers for wall-hangings; but
+generally all that is undertaken is by order of the
+Court, Madrid, and the provinces. The Valencians
+follow as closely as possible the rapidity
+with which the French designs are changed, and
+those who profess to invent new ones are but
+copying the French ones in a greater or less
+degree. Notwithstanding, the Valencian Fine-Arts
+Academy is taking serious steps to form
+designers, and a school has been founded which
+has already developed able pupils&mdash;amongst
+others, a young man called Ferrers, who had died
+a short while before our arrival at the city, and
+some of whose designs of flowers we had occasion
+to admire.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;But the process in which the Valencians
+particularly excel is that of watering stuffs, which
+M. Foz has rendered absolutely perfect. He gave<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+us a clear account of this process, which consists
+in passing a cylinder over the stuff to be watered,
+this cylinder being pressed upon by a heavy mass
+moved to and fro by a mule which draws a lever
+round and round. The stuff is folded in the
+manner of a closed jalousie, and these folds require
+to be often varied so as to distribute the undulations
+evenly. M. Foz admitted that the shape
+and the arrangement of these undulations are
+more or less a matter of chance, but he proved to
+us that it is possible to influence them to some
+extent by moistening the stuff in a certain manner
+and direction, and this is the particular secret
+which he alone possesses in the whole of Spain.
+The excellence of this method is demonstrated by
+the beauty of the watered silk which issues from
+these presses. M. Foz himself set us to judge of
+this by asking us to compare the blue ribbon of
+the Order of Charles the Third, watered by himself,
+with those of the Order of the Holy Spirit.
+The comparison, I must admit, was far from
+advantageous to these last.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The subsequent vicissitudes of the Valencian silk
+trade are indicated by Laborde, who wrote, some
+few years later than the conscientious and observant
+author of the <i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The mulberry-trees are of great importance;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+the fields of Valencia are covered with them,
+particularly in the environs of that town, in the
+dale of Elda, in the county of Carlet, in almost
+all the places situated on the sea coast, etc.
+There are white mulberry-trees, which are lopped
+every two years.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The leaves of these trees serve as nourishment
+to silkworms, which are raised almost everywhere
+in the kingdom of Valencia. Algemesi,
+Alcira, Carcagente, Castillo of San Felipe, the
+county of Carlet, Undasuar, Gandia, Denia,
+Orihuela, and all the villages near the sea are
+places which produce the greatest quantity.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The silk made from them is the finest in
+Spain. It would be equal to the best and finest
+silks of Europe, if the Valencians, in spite of the
+vivacity of their imagination, did not obstinately
+persist in their old routine in the skeining; for in
+the skein they put an undetermined number of
+threads. The government has hired a man who
+has the most experience in this kind of work;
+but in vain does he endeavour to instruct them,
+since the manufacturers continue their bad custom
+just the same. The quantity of silk wound
+annually is, on an average, about 1,500,000 pounds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+of twelve Valencian ounces (1,312,500 pounds
+of sixteen ounces avoirdupois). It is commonly
+sold raw for fifty reals of vellon a Valencian pound,
+which gives a total of 75,000,000 reals of vellon
+(�731,250)&hellip;.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silk is twisted in different places in the kingdom
+of Valencia, for which purpose machines and
+mills are established at Gandia, San Felipe,
+Carcagente, Orihuela, and Valencia. The most
+important establishment of this kind is at La
+Milanesa, near the last mentioned town. Nevertheless,
+these machines are not able to furnish as
+much as the manufactures of the country require.
+Part of the silk is sent to Priego and Toledo in
+Andalusia, whence it is returned into the kingdom
+of Valencia to be worked&hellip;.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A great many impediments are thrown in the
+way of the exportation of silk, which is only
+allowed for six months after the harvest. If in
+that period the national manufacturers want it,
+they are at liberty to take it from the merchants
+who have bought it, on reimbursing them the
+purchase-money together with six per cent. interest.
+The consequence is that the merchants,
+uncertain whether they will be allowed to export
+the silk which they have purchased, no longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+take any foreign commissions for it, and so this
+branch of exportation has fallen. Besides this, a
+duty has been laid upon the silk sent out of the
+kingdom, of nine reals of vellon and one quartillo
+(1s. 11�d. sterling) on every pound of twelve
+Valencian ounces, which is almost a fifth of its
+value. This is another obstacle to the exportation
+of it. A very small quantity, twisted and dyed,
+is sent into Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Generally 1,500,000 pounds of silk are made
+annually, of which 1,100,000 are consumed in the
+province, and 400,000 pounds are exported to
+Talavera de la Reina, Reque�a, Toledo, Granada,
+Seville, Priego, and Catalu�a. From this results
+a product of 20,000,000 reals (�208,333, 6s.).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Of the city of Valencia, Laborde wrote:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The manufactories of silk are the most considerable.
+They employ nearly 25,000 persons,
+and make taffetas, serges, silks, satins, plain
+damasks, striped, printed, of one colour and of
+mixed colours, full velvets, flowered velvets, plain
+and of various colours. The plain stuffs are those
+in which they succeed best. There are also fine
+damasks made and worked with large flowers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to the same writer, the manufacture
+at Valencia of silk stockings, galloons, silk ribbon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+handkerchiefs, and sashes revived to such an
+extent, that in the year 1799 the looms for producing
+these articles were 423 more than they had
+been in 1769. &ldquo;There are 3618 silk looms, which
+work about 800,000 pounds of silk annually; the
+handkerchiefs, sashes, and other little articles of
+lace consume 100,000 pounds.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_98.jpg" width="500" height="462"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_98.jpg" id="img_98.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VIII<br />THE DAUGHTERS OF PHILIP THE SECOND<br />
+(<i>By Sanchez Coello. Prado Gallery</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Equally as instructive is Laborde's account of
+Barcelona.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> After remarking that the decay in
+her manufactures lasted from the end of the
+sixteenth century till the middle of the eighteenth,
+he continues:&mdash;&ldquo;They are at present in a very
+flourishing state, and are more numerous and
+varied than ever&hellip;. There are 524 looms of
+silk stuffs, and 2700 of ribbons and silk galloon.
+The silk works consist of taffetas, twilled and
+common silks, satins, and velvets of every kind
+and colour. These are mixed with gold and silver.
+Gold cloths and brocades are also made there.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+The manufactures are not carried on by companies,
+but dispersed among the workmen themselves, by
+which perhaps the qualities may in some degree
+be injured. It is remarked that the stuffs would
+be better if they were closer, for their texture is
+commonly loose; they are also different in the
+gloss, which is seldom fine, and is never equal to
+that in the manufactures of France. Another
+fault in all these stuffs is the imperfect preparation
+of the silk, which leaves it nearly always shaggy:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+the cause of this is the silk being spun or twisted
+in an uneven manner. The same unpleasant
+effect is observed in the silk stockings. They
+cannot be fine, their stitches being uneven, and
+often large and shaggy. They do not last long,
+and are as dear as the French stockings after the
+duty on their entrance into Spain has been paid.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At Barcelona, laces, blonds, net-work, and
+tapes employ about twelve thousand persons.
+Galloons, laces, and gold and silver fringes, are
+likewise made here; but these are of no great
+importance. Silk, gold, and silver embroideries
+are very common, and the embroiderers are so
+numerous that they are to be found in every street.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Silk Stuffs.</i>&mdash;These are manufactured at
+Manresa, Cardona, and Matar�, which has forty-eight
+looms; but principally at Barcelona, where
+there are five hundred and twenty-four. There
+they make velvets, satins, damasks, silks, taffetas,
+and gold and silver stuffs. The town of Barcelona
+alone uses annually 300,000 pounds of raw silk.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Taffetas, Handkerchiefs, and silk sashes.</i>&mdash;They
+make a great quantity of these at Barcelona,
+where there are a good many little manufactories
+of this kind. There are a hundred and
+fifty looms at Reus, and six hundred at Manresa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+At the last place sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs
+are made, which take about seventy
+thousand pounds of raw silk.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Silk twisters.</i>&mdash;There are some of these in
+several towns, and a great many in Barcelona.
+There are eighteen frames at Matar�, which
+twist, one year with another, one hundred and
+twenty-four quintals of silk; and thirty-seven at
+Tarragona, which twist eleven thousand quintals.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere in the course of his exhaustive
+tomes, Laborde sums up the general revival of
+the Spanish silk-trade in the following terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silk stockings are woven at M�laga, Zaragoza,
+Valencia, and at various other places in the
+kingdom of Valencia; at Valdemoro, and at
+Talavera de la Reina in New Castile; also in
+different parts of Catalu�a, more especially at
+Matar�, Arenys del Mar, and Barcelona. The
+most extensive manufacture is carried on at the
+latter city, where the number of frames amounts
+to nine hundred. In the city of Matar� are fifty-two,
+in Valencia one hundred and fifty, and nearly
+as many in Talavera. The stockings made in
+Spain are of a loose texture; owing to the improper
+method in which silk-throwsting is conducted,
+they are badly dressed and worse glossed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+The Spanish people themselves prefer French
+stockings, and most of those manufactured in the
+country are exported to America.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Ribbons hold a distinguished place among
+the manufactured articles of Spain. Some few
+are woven at Jaen, Granada, and Cordova; but
+more at Talavera. Cadiz has but twenty ribbon-looms,
+Manresa five hundred, Matar� eighty, Vich
+twenty-two, Reque�a two hundred, Valencia four
+hundred, Murcia twelve hundred, and Barcelona
+nearly three thousand. These looms are not in
+factories, but individually dispersed. The Spanish
+ribbons are in general thin and flimsy, have little
+lustre, and their colours are neither brilliant nor
+permanent. Ribbons are made of floss-silk at
+Toledo, where there are about twelve looms, and
+at Manresa, where there is a greater number.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_102.jpg" width="364" height="501"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_102.jpg" id="img_102.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IX<br />A <i>CHARRA</i> OR PEASANT WOMAN<br />
+(<i>Salamanca, A.D. 1777</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Silk taffetas, serges, and other articles, such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+as common and figured satins, damasks, and plain
+and flowered velvets, are made at Jaen, Granada,
+Murcia, Valencia, and the adjacent villages; at
+M�laga, Zaragoza, Toledo, Reque�a, Talavera
+de la Reina, Matar�, Manresa, Cardona, and
+Barcelona. The silk-trade of Jaen and Granada
+is at present in a very languishing state; the
+manufacture of Murcia is dwindled to a few
+individual looms. At Toledo are fifty looms,
+fifty at Matar�, forty at M�laga, six hundred at
+Reque�a, four hundred at Talavera, which
+consume annually two hundred thousand pounds
+of silk; five hundred at Barcelona, which annually
+manufacture, in conjunction with those of Cardona
+and Manresa, about three thousand pounds
+weight of silk; and in the city of Valencia are
+three thousand, whose annual demand of silk is
+eight hundred thousand pounds, while twenty-two
+thousand persons are employed in the trade. In
+Zaragoza are sixty looms, which consume fifty
+thousand pounds of silk; but taffetas only are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+manufactured there. The cities of Toledo and
+Talavera de la Reina are the only places where
+the looms are collected together in factories:
+in all other places they are separated, and are
+found individually at the houses of the respective
+weavers.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A great portion of the silks manufactured
+in Spain are stout and excellent, but they are
+destitute of the brilliancy observable in French
+silks. The damasks made at Valencia are
+extremely beautiful, and in that city they excel
+in the art of mixing silk and mohair, and produce
+mohair stuffs which appear to be superior to those
+of France and England.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Quantities of silk handkerchiefs and bands
+are manufactured at Reus, Manresa, and Barcelona.
+Reus had five hundred looms, Manresa
+six hundred, and annually made sixty thousand
+dozen handkerchiefs; Barcelona, a much larger
+quantity.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At Barcelona is a very considerable manufacture
+of white, coloured, plain, and figured gauzes.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The art of silk-throwsting tends greatly to
+improve the silk manufactures in Spain. Machines
+invented in other countries have been adopted
+here, and in many places profitable changes and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+corrections have taken place in the trade. Silk
+is principally thrown at Priego, Toledo in Andalusia,
+at Murcia in the kingdom of the same name,
+at Cervera near Talavera de la Reina in New
+Castile, at Valencia, at Milanesa near that city,
+at Gandia, San Felipe, and Carcagente in the
+kingdom of Valencia. The silk-throwsters, who
+work at their own houses, and are paid in the
+great, that is, according to the quantity of work
+they perform, are very numerous in Murcia; but
+they perform the business there in a very slovenly
+way. In the city of Murcia a factory is established,
+where silk is thrown in an excellent manner
+by means of an ingenious machine, which has
+been already described. The establishment at
+La Milanesa is a very important one, and well
+administered. At Cervera are a dozen silk-mills,
+each having four large dividers, and six machines
+for doubling and twisting, by which seven thousand
+and seventy-two threads are divided, doubled,
+and twisted at the same time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Don Martin de Ulloa, <i>Discurso sobre las f�bricas de seda
+de Sevilla</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> In former times, linens and cottons painted, stencilled, or
+stamped with decorative patterns from an iron or boxwood matrix,
+were considered to be luxurious fabrics, and are denounced as such
+in the sumptuary pragmatic (quoted by Miquel y Bad�a) issued by
+Jayme the Conqueror in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1234: &ldquo;Item statuimos quod nos nec
+aliquis subditus noster non portet vestes <i>incisas</i>, <i>listatas</i>, vel
+trepatas.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Latterly, these kind of stuffs were made in great quantities at
+Barcelona, and exported to other Spanish provinces, as well as to
+America. &ldquo;Several manufactures of printed linens are established
+here,&rdquo; wrote Swinburne, in 1775, &ldquo;but have not yet arrived at any
+great elegance of design or liveliness of colour.&rdquo; The manuscript
+(dated about <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1810) attached to my copy of Pigal's plates of
+Spanish costume, says that the <i>pa�oleta</i> or <i>fichu</i> (neckerchief) of
+the women of Cartagena in their gala-dress was at that time of
+&ldquo;mousseline blanche, quelquefois brod�, et tr�s souvent n'est qu'un
+mouchoir d'indienne des fabriques de Barcelonne, avec une brodure
+en fleurs rouges, le fond blanc et parsem� de petits bouquets.&rdquo; The
+same manuscript describes the dress of a cook at Granada:&mdash;&ldquo;Le
+jupon (<i>refajo</i>), qui est toujours tr�s court, est en hiver de laine avec
+une garniture au bas: en �t� il est en indienne. Cette <i>indienne</i>
+est une sorte de percale ou toile de coton peinte, dont il y a plusieurs
+fabriques en Catalogne. On en exportait autrefois une quantit�,
+immense que l'on portait dans les Am�riques Espagnoles; c'est ce
+qui lui a fait donner le nom d'indienne.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From the same source we learn respecting another cotton fabric,
+which might easily be thought by the unwary reader of to-day to
+have been of Spanish manufacture, that &ldquo;l'habitant de Mahon fait
+en �t� un grand usage de l'�toffe des Indes appel�e <i>nankin</i>. Cette
+�toffe n'est connue dans plusieurs parties de l'Espagne que sous
+le nom de <i>Mahon</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In 1799 the Marquis of Monte-Fuerte declared the silk of
+Seville to be of as fine a quality as that of Valencia and Carmona.
+(<i>Discurso sobre el plant�o de moreras en Sevilla y sus inmediaciones.</i>)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Granada was especially renowned for her velvets (Plate <a href="#img_40.jpg">vi</a>.),
+grounded or relieved, in the oriental manner, with gold or silver.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Similar companies were formed at Toledo, Zaragoza, Burgos,
+Seville, and Zarza. For the Crown <i>cedula</i>, dated February 10th,
+1748, authorizing the Real Compa��a de Comercio y F�bricas of
+Toledo, see Larruga's <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. VII., p. 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Toledo en el Siglo XVI.</i> Miquel y Bad�a says that in the
+fifteenth century Toledo, together with Genoa and Venice, manufactured
+superb velvets, coloured crimson, blue, purple, or yellow,
+and figured with pineapples or pomegranates (Plate <a href="#img_30.jpg">iv</a>.). The latter
+tree and fruit are commonly related, in Spain, with the city of
+<i>Granada</i>; but quite apart from this, the pomegranate was formerly
+regarded as a symbol of fecundity and life. (See Goblet d'Alviella,
+<i>La Migration des Symboles</i>, p. 184, and also Madame Errera's
+Catalogue, No. 50.) In these velvets the gold thread is woven with
+consummate skill, and forms, in the costliest and most elaborate
+specimens, a groundwork of exceedingly small rings. These
+fabrics were used as hangings for beds and walls, as well as for the
+clothing of great lords and ladies. Touching the use of silk for
+certain articles of dress, an amusing story is told in the MS. account
+of Valladolid, published by Gayangos in the <i>Revista de Espa�a</i>.
+&ldquo;One day, Don Pedro de Medicis is reported to have paid a visit
+to a married lady, to whom he had presented some damask curtains,
+and he was wearing at the time some taffeta hose which made a
+creaking as he walked. The lady came out of her room, and, finding
+him in one of the lower apartments, exclaimed, &lsquo;Why do you come
+here at such an hour, and with that silk on you which creaks so
+loudly? Take care my husband does not hear it.&rsquo; Whereto the
+gentleman replied; &lsquo;Good God, madam, is it possible that the two
+hundred yards of damask which I gave you for that curtain have
+made no noise at all, but that a mere four yards of simple taffeta
+about my breeches should put you in such consternation?&rsquo;&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> &ldquo;The mulberry of Valencia is the <i>white</i>, as being most suitable
+to a well-watered plain. In Granada they give the preference to
+the <i>black</i>, as thriving well in elevated stations, as more durable,
+more abundant in leaves, and yielding a much finer and more valuable
+silk. But then it does not begin bearing till it is about twenty
+years of age. In this province they reckon that five trees should
+produce two pounds of silk.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I had the curiosity to examine their method of feeding the silkworms.
+These industrious spinners are spread upon wicker shelves,
+which are placed one above the other, all round, and likewise in the
+middle of each apartment, so as to leave room only for the good
+woman to pass with their provisions. In one house I saw the produce
+of six ounces of seed, and was informed that to every ounce,
+during their feeding season, they allow sixty <i>arrobas</i> of leaves,
+valued at two pounds five. Each ounce of seed is supposed to yield
+ten pounds of silk, at twelve ounces to the pound. March 28th,
+the worms began to hatch, and May 22nd they went up to spin.
+On the eleventh day, from the time that they were hatched, they
+slept; and on the fourteenth, they awoke to eat again, receiving
+food twice a day till the twenty-second day. Having then slept a
+second time, without interruption, for three days, they were fed
+thrice a day; and thus alternately they continued eating eight days
+and sleeping three, till the forty-seventh day; after which they ate
+voraciously for ten days, and not being stinted, consumed sometimes
+from thirty to fifty <i>arrobas</i> in four and twenty hours. They then
+climbed up into rosemary bushes, fixed for that purpose between
+the shelves, and began to spin.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Upon examination, they appear evidently to draw out two
+threads by the same operation, and to glue these together, covering
+them with wax. This may be proved by spirit of wine, which will dissolve
+the wax, and leave the thread. Having exhausted her magazine,
+the worm changes her form and becomes a nymph, until the
+seventy-first day from the time that the little animal was hatched,
+when she comes forth with plumage, and having found her mate,
+begins to lay her eggs. At the end of six days from this period of
+existence, having answered the end of their creation, they both lie
+down and die. This would be the natural progress; but, to preserve
+the silk, the animal is killed by heat, and the cones being
+thrown into boiling water, the women and children wind off the
+silk.&rdquo;&mdash;Townsend; <i>Journey through Spain in the years 1786 and
+1787</i>; Vol. III., pp. 264&ndash;266.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> They certainly were not unknown at Valencia. I have before
+me a copy of the work, <i>Disertacion descriptiva de la Hilaza de la
+Seda, segun el antiguo modo de hilar y el nuevo llamado de
+Vaucanson</i>, written by the priest Francisco Ortells y Gombau, and
+published at Valencia in 1783, by order of the Royal Council of
+Commerce and Agriculture. This book, which clearly sets forth the
+superiority of Vaucanson's method over those which had preceded it,
+states that at first the Valencians were strongly opposed to the
+Vaucanson wheel, believing that it caused a loss and waste of silk.
+Probably the real reason was that it prevented the manufacturers
+from adding spurious weight to the silk by mixing it with oil. This
+practice, says Ortells, was then &ldquo;so widespread an evil in the kingdom
+of Valencia, that there is hardly anybody who does not resort to it:
+notwithstanding it has been so often prohibited by His Majesty, yet
+openly, where all the world may witness, do the workers spin with
+much oil added to the silk.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Vaucanson form of wheel was also more expensive. In the
+region of Valencia its cost was about thirty <i>pesos</i>, that of the older
+wheels being only fifteen or sixteen <i>pesos</i>. However, this difficulty
+was not insuperable, for in the year 1779 the Royal Council of
+Commerce presented a hundred and twenty Vaucanson wheels to
+the peasants who had raised a minimum crop of a hundred pounds
+of silk, requiring, in return, that the recipients of the gift should spin
+not less than fifty pounds of silk per annum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> At the time when Vaucanson's wheels began to be used in
+Spain, silk was spun by men all over the Peninsula, except in the
+immediate neighbourhood of Valencia (Orteils; <i>Hilaza de la Seda</i>,
+pp. 134 <i>et seq.</i>) In every other region devoted to this industry
+such as the valley of the Jucar and the Huertas of Orihuela and
+Murviedro, as well as in the factories of Toledo, Seville, Granada,
+Cordova, Ja�n, Baeza, Talavera, and Priego, the spinning was performed
+by men exclusively. Women, however, were often engaged
+in harvesting the cocoons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> &ldquo;I should here remark that the silk which is spun and twisted
+according to the method of Vaucanson, forms a fabric a third part
+closer and stronger than ordinary silk-stuffs.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> This man, Joseph Lapayese or La Payessa, did not initiate
+Vaucanson's method in this region. He succeeded a Frenchman
+named Reboul, who, in 1769, and holding privileges from the Crown,
+began to work with Vaucanson wheels at Vilanesa, near Valencia&mdash;the
+same place which Bourgoing calls <i>La Milanesa</i>. Both the king
+and his minister of finance, Don Miguel de Muzquiz, were keenly
+interested in these experiments, and Muzquiz, who owned an estate
+near the town of Sueca, in the same neighbourhood, imported four
+more of the new wheels there, under Reboul's direction. This
+craftsman, however, was not successful. Lapayese, who came after
+him and enjoyed the same Crown privileges, made considerably
+better progress, his efforts being seconded by the Royal Junta, the
+archbishop, and other bodies or individuals of Valencia, who
+awarded prizes of wheels and money to the best workers in the new
+style.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The art of weaving silk appears to have found its way into
+Barcelona comparatively late, for the veil-makers did not form a
+guild of their own till <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1553, the velvet-makers till 1548, the
+silk-twisters till 1619, and the dyers of silk till 1624.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Brocade (Spanish <i>brocado</i> or <i>brocato</i>) may be generally described
+as a silk-stuff woven with devices or raised figures in gold and
+silver thread, or either of these metals separately (Plate <a href="#img_98.jpg">viii</a>.).
+This costly fabric, which may be said to have superseded the earlier
+kinds of cloth of gold, was greatly in vogue in older Spain, especially
+throughout the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. It
+is constantly referred to by her writers (&ldquo;No siendo nueva la que
+prohibe las telas de oro, los <i>brocados</i>, y tabies.&rdquo;&mdash;Fernandez
+Navarrete; <i>Conservacion de Monarqu�as</i>, p. 231), and denounced
+by her priests (Fray Luis de Le�n, &ldquo;Y ha de venir la tela de no s�
+donde, y <i>el brocado de mas altos</i>, y el ambar que ba�e el guante&rdquo;),
+or in the pragmatics of her kings (<i>e.g.</i> that of September 2nd, 1494,
+and of 1611: &ldquo;Est� prohibido todo g�nero de colgaduras, tapicerias
+sillas, coches, y literas de <i>brocados</i>, telas de oro � plata&hellip;. Asi
+mismo se prohiben bordaduras en el campo de los doseles y camas;
+pero no en las cenefas, que podr�n llevar alamares, y fluecos de
+oro, � plata, � <i>brocado</i>&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>Brocade was made in Spain at Toledo, Barcelona, Seville, Valencia
+and elsewhere, but as a rule it could not be compared in quality
+with that of Genoa or Venice. A cheaper, though showy and
+attractive modification of brocade was brocatel, in which the silk
+was mixed with common thread or flax. According to the
+Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, this commoner fabric was used
+for hangings for churches, halls, beds, etc., and a document of 1680
+tells us that the price of brocatel made at Granada, and containing
+two colours, was twenty-two <i>reales</i> the yard.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Towards the nineteenth century, ribbon was a great deal worn
+upon, or together with, the regional costumes of the Spanish women;
+for instance, on the gala bodice or <i>cotilla</i> of the <i>hortelana</i> of Valencia,
+who further used it to make fast her <i>alpargatas</i> or sandals, described
+in the manuscript account attached to Pigal's plates as &ldquo;esp�ce de
+cothurnes, attach�s avec des rubans en soie ou fil bleu ou rouge.&rdquo;
+The same fabric served the peasant woman of Carthagena for
+securing the sleeves of her gala camisole, for lacing the bodice of
+the woman of Iviza, and in the other Balearic Islands, for tying the
+<i>rebocillo</i> or <i>reboci�o</i> beneath the chin. Also it was with ribbon that
+the servant-girls of Granada suspended a cross round their necks,
+that the <i>charra</i> of Salamanca (Plate <a href="#img_102.jpg">ix</a>.) trimmed her hat, that the
+women of Madrid, La Mancha, and Andalusia bound up their knots
+of hair (<i>mo�os con cinta</i>), and that, in some localities, even ladies
+of the highest class secured their shoes about the lower leg and
+ankle.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="CLOTHS_AND_WOOLLENS" id="CLOTHS_AND_WOOLLENS">CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS</a></h3>
+
+<p>Although the history of Spanish cloths and
+woollens is not of great importance, I think it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+well to briefly sketch their history. Sails and
+other fabrics of the coarsest kind are said to have
+been made, almost in prehistoric times, at S�tabi
+(the modern J�tiva) and at Saguntum (Murviedro).
+From the thirteenth century cloths of good
+quality were made at Barcelona, Lerida, San
+Daniel, Ba�olas, Valls, and other towns of
+Catalu�a. A privilege of Alfonso the Learned,
+dated May 18th, 1283, contains the following
+technical disposition relative to the cloth-looms of
+the city of Soria: &ldquo;Que la trenza cuando sea
+ordida que haya 88 varas, que pese una aranzada
+� 5 libras de estambre; � cualquier que la fallare
+menor, que peche 5 sueldos. Que todos los
+tejedores � tejedoras de la dicha cibdad � de su
+tierra, que pongan en las telas de lino 42 linnuelos
+� en las de estopazo 32 linnuelos; � en las de
+marga � de sayal 32 linnuelos.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Segovia was another ancient centre of this
+manufacture, which Larruga considers to have
+been transferred hither upon the extinction of the
+factories of Cameros, Burgos, and Palencia.
+However this may be, the <i>fuero</i> of Sep�lveda,
+signed by Alfonso the Sixth, tells us that clothworks
+existed here as early as the eleventh
+century.  Towards the end of the fourteenth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+when Catherine of Lancaster was married to the
+Infante Don Enrique, the English princess
+brought over, as part of her dowry, a flock of
+merino sheep. These are believed to have pastured
+near Segovia&mdash;a city where Catherine made
+her home for many years. In any case, Segovian
+cloths improved considerably from about this time,
+and by the reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip
+the Second, when thirty-four thousand persons
+were employed in the manufacture and twenty-five
+thousand pieces of cloth were produced
+annually, were thought (especially the baizes and
+the serges) to be unsurpassed in Europe.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Sovereigns,
+including Charles the Second and Charles
+the Fifth of Spain, and Henry the Eighth of
+England, were among the patrons of these fabrics,
+while as late as the year 1700 the Franciscan
+friars engaged in redeeming captives from the
+Turks, reported that &ldquo;at Constantinople, whither<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+they had carried Segovian cloths as presents to
+the principal rulers of that country, those cloths
+were spoken of in terms of high approval.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Early in the seventeenth century, and owing to
+a series of causes such as impertinent or improvident
+legislation, heavy taxes, and the importation
+of foreign cloths, the trade showed
+symptoms of decay.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Bertaut de Rouen wrote in
+1659, referring to the Spanish character at this
+time: &ldquo;Bien souvent le pain leur manque, comme
+j'ay veu dans <i>Almagro</i>, petite ville situ�e dans le
+meilleur pays d'Andalousie, et dans <i>Segovie</i>, qui
+est une des grandes villes d'Espagne, et o� il y
+avoit autrefois des plus riches marchands � cause
+des draps et des chapeaux que l'on y faisoit, qui a
+est� longtemps le sejour des Roys de Castille, et
+qui n'est qu'environ � douze ou quatorze lieu�s de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+Madrid, o� il n'y avoit point de pain dans toute la
+ville le jour que j'y arrivay, et il n'y en eut qu'�
+quatre heures apr�s midy, que l'on le distribua par
+ordre du <i>Corregidor</i>, aussi bien qu'� Almagro.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The rise, decay, and subsequent revival of the
+Spanish cloth industries, and particularly the
+Segovian, are well described by Laborde, Bourgoing,
+and Townsend. According to the first of
+these authorities, &ldquo;at so early a period as 1629
+the merchants (of Segovia) complained that there
+was every year a reduction in the fabrication of
+cloth, to the amount of five thousand five hundred
+pieces; and that there resulted from this deficiency
+an annual loss of 2,424,818 ducats and 2 reals,
+or about �274,000 sterling. In the eighteenth
+century it appeared, from the observations of the
+Economical Society, that the fabrication of stuffs
+and cloths employed but one hundred and twenty
+looms, in which only four thousand three hundred
+and eighteen quintals of washed wool were consumed.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;About forty years ago these manufactures
+began to revive, the looms were multiplied, and
+the consumption of wool considerably augmented.
+A single individual, Don Lorenzo Ortiz, has
+for some years accelerated their progress. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+1790 there was an addition of sixty-three looms,
+which employed eight or nine hundred quintals
+of wool, and afforded occupation to two thousand
+four hundred manufacturers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author wrote that early in the
+nineteenth century, &ldquo;the woollen manufactures of
+New Castile are the most numerous and important.
+Cloths are made at Toledo, Chinchon,
+Brihuega, Guadalajara; serges, stuffs, and flannels
+at Toledo and Cuenca. The cloths of Brihuega
+are of an excellent quality, but those of Guadalajara
+are still superior to them; in particular, the
+cloth of Vigonia. There are twenty-eight looms
+at Toledo, forty at Guasmenia, a hundred at
+Brihuega, and six hundred and fifty-six at Guadalajara.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Bourgoing wrote, a dozen years or so before
+the close of the eighteenth century: &ldquo;Spanish
+wool is eagerly demanded by manufacturing
+peoples of the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, it
+is not turned to so much advantage as it might be.
+French, Dutch, and English come to Spain to
+purchase the wools of Segovia and Le�n at the
+ports of Bilbao and Santander.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Not even so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+much as the commission on their sale is left in
+power of the Spaniards, for the foreigners buy
+up the wool straight from the shepherd, and wash
+it on their own account. Out of one million of
+<i>arrobas</i><a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> of fine wool which Spain produces
+annually, she exports more than half in washed
+wool, and a lesser quantity, by far, of unwashed.
+It has been estimated that the export duties on this
+wool and which it has not been hitherto thought
+prudent to curtail, produce a sum of close upon five
+millions for the King of Spain. Here, therefore,
+is another reason for not suppressing the &lsquo;abusive
+measure&rsquo; of which the patriotic Spaniards complain
+so loudly; since it is far from easy to do
+away with so appreciable a source of revenue
+unless one has at hand a swift and sure alternative
+measure by which it may be substituted. All the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+same, government is endeavouring to derive a
+greater fiscal profit from the exportation of these
+wools, and at the same time to bring about a
+greater use of them in the Peninsula. For a long
+time past, all kinds of common woollen fabrics,
+such as clothing for the soldiery and lower classes,
+have been made in Spain. The exportation of
+these fabrics is prohibited. As for the finer
+wools, these also are employed in several places,
+but more than anywhere else at Guadalajara,
+where I visited the factories towards the end of
+the year 1783. I was surprised to remark that
+in several respects the manufacture had reached
+a great pitch of perfection. I say <i>I was surprised</i>,
+because I had heard, times without number,
+that the Spaniards were completely ignorant of
+these processes, and did not know how to card,
+or spin, or weave, or dye, or full, or calender;
+that their stuffs grew loose and wore badly; that
+the price was exorbitant, etc. How many prejudices
+of this nature was I able to throw aside
+after fair and deliberate examination of the stuffs
+in question! I will only quote a single point to
+prove that the censures which are aimed at the
+Spaniards respecting the quality of their cloths
+are not applicable to them all, and that they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+well upon the road to being entirely undeserving
+of them. I was shown at Guadalajara a piece of
+scarlet cloth, which, both for its excellent quality
+and for its skilful dyeing, seemed to me to be quite
+comparable with the best cloths of Julienne.
+These latter cost at their place of manufacture as
+much as thirty-nine <i>livres</i> the ell. At Guadalajara,
+I noted from the tariff established in the
+factory, that the price of the finest scarlet cloth
+was only from thirty-one to thirty-two <i>livres</i> the
+ell. Comparing these and other figures on the
+tariff, I came to the conclusion that there was
+about the same difference in price between
+Spanish cloths and French cloths, in favour of
+the former. What seems more singular still is
+that the factories which work at the King's
+expense are generally administered in a thriftless
+fashion, and that the factory of Guadalajara was
+being greatly mismanaged at the time in question.
+However, subsequently to my visit, changes for
+the better have been introduced, which will
+improve the quality of, as well as cheapen, its
+products, though, even when I saw it, this
+factory was one of the most perfect to be seen
+anywhere. Within a space by no means large, it
+contained all the machines and apparatus required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+for clothmaking, except the thin, polished pasteboards
+which are placed between the folds of a
+piece of cloth as it is passed through the press.
+These were still brought from England; but
+everything else was prepared upon the spot, even
+to the large scissors used in the shearing. There
+were eighty looms for the finest cloths, whose
+proper name is <i>cloths of San Fernando</i>, from
+the town where they were first produced; a
+hundred for cloths of the second quality; and five
+hundred and six for making serges, in which, in
+course of time, hopes are entertained of excelling
+those of England.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> All these looms were contained
+in two buildings, and kept employed three thousand
+eight hundred and twenty-five persons, all of them
+paid by the King,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> without counting some forty
+thousand more dispersed all over the Castilian and
+Manchegan tableland, engaged in spinning the
+wool which is made up into stuffs at Guadalajara.
+It would be difficult, I am sure, to find a factory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+better organized. Even the town in which it is,
+presents a striking contrast with others of that
+neighbourhood. I did not see one single mendicant
+or idler among all its fifteen or sixteen
+thousand inhabitants. Such are the good results
+of its manufactures, and, above all, those of cloth,
+including many small and detailed processes which
+women, children, aged people, or even the sick
+are able to perform. Here, where Nature
+seemed to have condemned these ailing folk to a
+tedious and useless existence, art, as it were, steps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+in and finds employment and relief for them.
+Nevertheless, it must be owned that the Spaniards
+(as they themselves admit) are still a little behindhand
+in the method of dyeing and fulling their
+cloths, though when a people possess (as they)
+the raw materials needed, both for making and
+for dyeing, a few men skilled in these processes
+are all that is wanted to perfect several branches
+of this industry; especially when, as is the case
+in Spain, government spares no effort to achieve
+this end. Guadalajara is further the only
+place in Spain which produces the celebrated
+Vicu�a cloth; an admirable fabric for which the
+rest of the world has cause to envy Spanish
+America.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> As the use of this cloth has not as yet
+become general, it is not continually manufactured,
+nor is it easy to obtain a few ells of it without
+ordering them several months in advance.
+This stuff is also manufactured for the King of
+Spain, who makes presents of it to various other
+monarchs. In the year 1782, after concluding a
+treaty with the Porte, he sent twenty pieces of
+it to the Sultan of Turkey. They gave great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+satisfaction. It has been imagined from this circumstance
+that Spain would not be loth to supply
+the Turkish market with her cloths; and other of
+the manufacturing nations have felt some measure
+of alarm, perhaps unnecessarily. The Spanish
+government has too much sense to enter upon
+such a competition with other peoples as long as
+Spain does not supply the whole of the two and
+twenty million citizens who live beneath her rule.
+The same government, too, is well aware how
+remote is this degree of prosperity. The clothworks
+of Guadalajara have a kind of branch
+factory at Brihuega, four leagues distant. At
+Brihuega there are a hundred looms, all used for
+making fabrics of the finest quality.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Segovia, famous at all periods for the excellence
+of her wool, was formerly not less so for
+the number and perfection of her clothworks.
+Now, every patriotic Spaniard must lament to
+see how she has fallen. In the year 1785
+the number of her looms did not exceed two
+hundred and fifty. The most important factory
+was that of Ortiz, founded in 1779 under the title
+of <i>Real F�brica</i>: the King possessed an interest
+in it. In 1785 Ortiz was still employing three
+thousand workers in and about Segovia, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+manufactured every quality of cloth in sixty-three
+looms, from the pieces which contained the two
+thousand threads prescribed by the <i>Ordenanzas</i>, to
+those which should contain four thousand. His
+energy was only hampered by the indolent character
+of the Segovians. The privileges wherewith
+the government has sought to stimulate his first
+experiments in this craft are not at all injurious to
+the other manufacturers. They all concur to sell
+their goods, and at a reasonable price. In
+September of 1785, the most expensive cloths
+cost only ninety reals the <i>vara</i>; that is to say,
+about thirty-one <i>livres</i> and ten <i>sols</i> the ell.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_118.jpg" width="361" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_118.jpg" id="img_118.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">X<br />PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH<br />
+(<i>Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Townsend wrote, precisely at the same time as
+Bourgoing: &ldquo;Segovia was once famous for its
+cloth, made on the King's account; but other
+nations have since become rivals in this branch,
+and the manufacture in this city has been gradually
+declining. When the King gave it up to a private
+company, he left about three thousand pounds in
+trade; but now he is no longer a partner in the
+business.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>  In the year 1612 were made here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+twenty-five thousand five hundred pieces of cloth,
+which consumed forty-four thousand six hundred
+and twenty-five quintals of wool, and employed
+thirty-four thousand one hundred and eighty-nine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+persons; but at present they make only about four
+thousand pieces. The principal imperfections of
+this cloth are, that the thread is not even, and
+that much grease remains in it when it is delivered
+to the dyer; in consequence of which the colour
+is apt to fail. Yet, independently of imperfections,
+so many are the disadvantages under which the
+manufacture labours, that foreigners can afford to
+pay three pounds for the <i>arroba</i> of fine wool, for
+which the Spaniard gives no more than twenty
+shillings, and after all his charges can command
+the market even in the ports of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the year 1525, the city contained five
+thousand families, but now they do not surpass
+two thousand&mdash;a scanty population this for twenty-five
+parishes; yet, besides the twenty-five churches,
+together with the cathedral, they have one and
+twenty convents. When the canal is finished,
+and the communication opened to the Bay of
+Biscay at Santander, the trade and manufactures
+of Segovia may revive; but, previous to that event,
+there can be nothing to inspire them with hope.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Swinburne had written of the same city ten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+years earlier (1776): &ldquo;The inhabitants do not
+appear much the richer for their cloth manufactory.
+Indeed, it is not in a very flourishing
+condition; but what cloth they make is very
+fine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_120.jpg" width="500" height="370"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_120.jpg" id="img_120.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XI<br />PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH<br />
+(<i>Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Ordinances of Granada (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1532), from
+which we learn that cloth was also manufactured
+at that capital, contain the usual dispositions relative
+to the stamping of this product by the city
+officers. The stamps were in a box which was kept
+in a corner of the cathedral and closed by two keys,
+guarded severally by a councillor and an inspector
+of the trade, or <i>veedor</i>. On every day except a
+public festival, between the hours of ten and
+eleven of the morning, and three and four of the
+afternoon, it was the duty of these two authorities
+to proceed to the Alcaicer�a, and ascertain if any
+cloth required stamping. If so, the stamps were
+fetched forthwith from the cathedral, the cloth
+was marked, and the stamps were solemnly restored
+to their chest beneath the double key.</p>
+
+<p>Among the woven fabrics other than those of
+silk, and which are specified in the Ordinances of
+Granada relative to the <i>tundidores</i> or shearers,
+are cloths of Florence, Flanders, London, Valencia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+Zaragoza, Onteniente, Segovia, and Perpignan;
+<i>velarte</i> (a fine cloth manufactured at Granada),
+red <i>burel</i> (kersey) of Baeza, black kersey of
+Villanueva and La Mancha, <i>ruan</i> (Roan linen),
+fustians, friezes, and <i>cordellate</i> (grogram) of
+Granada, Valencia, Toledo, Segovia, and Cuenca.
+According to Capmany, cloths of the commoner
+kind, and which were popular about this time,
+were the <i>granas treintenas</i> and black cloths of
+Valencia, the white or yellow <i>veintiseiseno</i> cloths
+of Toledo, the white cloths of Ciudad Real, the
+green <i>palmillas</i> of Cuenca, and green <i>dieciochenos</i>
+of Segovia, the <i>contrayes</i> of Cazalla, and the
+<i>pardillos</i> of Aragon. Spanish cloth was also
+manufactured at Vergara, Cordova, Jaen, Murcia,
+Palencia, Tavira de Durango, and Medina del
+Campo.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_122.jpg" width="341" height="499"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_122.jpg" id="img_122.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XII<br />EMBROIDERED CHASUBLE<br />
+(<i>Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Laborde says: &ldquo;In the archives of the Crowns
+of Aragon and Castile there is a notice of the
+duties paid from the thirteenth to the end of the
+seventeenth century for foreign cloths sold in
+Spain, and for other articles of consumption coming
+from abroad. The principal cloths came from
+Bruges, Montpellier, and London; the velvets
+from Malines, Courtrai, Ypres, and Florence.
+This trade became so injurious to Spain, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+Ferdinand and Isabella thought themselves bound
+to limit it entirely to the stuffs required for ornaments
+of the church, which of itself was a considerable
+quantity. Their prohibition is the
+subject of the rescript of September 2nd, 1494,
+for the provinces of the Crown of Castile. Even
+so far back as the Ordinances of Barcelona in
+1271, mention is made of the taxes levied on the
+cloths of Flanders, Arras, Lannoy, Paris, Saint
+Denis, Chalons, Beziers, and Reims.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_124.jpg" width="348" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_124.jpg" id="img_124.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIII<br />EMBROIDERED <i>MANGA</i> OR CASE OF PROCESSIONAL CROSS<br />
+(<i>Early 16th Century; Toledo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1809 the same author remarked: &ldquo;The
+kingdom of Valencia produces little wool, yet
+there are five manufactories of woollens and
+coarse and fine cloths: they are at Morella,
+Enguera, Bocairente, Onteniente, and Alcoy.
+The small woollen stuffs are principally made
+at Enguera; nothing but the coarsest cloths are
+made at Morella, Bocairente, and Onteniente.
+The manufactory at Alcoy is the most considerable:
+the cloths, though finer, are generally of
+an inferior quality. The woof of them is thick,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+with little nap upon it. The finest are scarcely
+superior to the beautiful cloths of Carcassonne.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Colmenares, who wrote a history of Segovia down to the reign
+of Philip the Second, says that in his time the clothmakers of this
+town were &ldquo;true fathers of families, who within and without their
+houses sustain a multitude of persons (in many cases two and three
+hundred), producing, with the aid of other people's hands, a great
+variety of finest cloth: an employment worthy to be ranked with
+agriculture, and that is of the utmost profit to any city, or to any
+kingdom.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> An amusing passage in Fernandez Navarrete's <i>Conservaci�n de
+Monarqu�as</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1626) tells us that most of the costlier dress-materials
+used in Spain about this time proceeded from abroad, and
+that they were &ldquo;of so fine a texture that the heat of an iron scorches
+them and wears them out in a couple of days; while a great number
+of men employ themselves in the effeminate office of dressing
+collars, who, ceasing also to be men, forsake the plough or warlike
+exercises; for it is certain that when the Spaniards kept the world
+in awe, this land produced a greater number of armourers, and less
+persons who busied themselves with looking after womanish apparel&rdquo;
+(p. 232).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> This recalls the statement made, centuries before, by Alonso de
+Cartagena at the Council of B�le: &ldquo;And if the English should
+vaunt the cunning of their cloth-makers, then would I tell them
+somewhat; for if our country lack the weavers to make a cloth so
+delicate as the scarlet cloths of London, yet is that substance titled
+<i>grana</i> (the kermes, or scarlet grain), from which the scarlet cloth
+receives its pleasantness of smell and brilliancy of hue, raised in the
+kingdom of Castile, and thence conveyed to England, and even to
+Italy.&rdquo;&mdash;Larruga, <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. XIV., p. 167.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> &ldquo;The weight of an <i>arroba</i> is twenty-seven pounds. The
+average price is from twenty-three to twenty-seven <i>livres</i> the <i>arroba</i>
+of unwashed wool of the best quality, which pays five <i>livres</i> ten <i>sols</i>
+of export duty. The <i>arroba</i> of washed wool pays double.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> &ldquo;It has been calculated that Spain, about this time, paid annually
+to England two million pounds sterling per annum, solely on account
+of her woollens.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> &ldquo;His Majesty maintained this factory by a monthly payment
+from his treasury of one hundred and fifty thousand <i>livres</i>; an
+exorbitant amount, which very possibly would not be covered by the
+sales of cloth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Townsend wrote in 1787 &ldquo;Royal manufactures and monopolies
+have a baneful influence on population: for, as no private adventurers
+can stand the competition with their sovereign, where he is
+the great monopolist, trade will never prosper. The Spanish
+monarch is a manufacturer of</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+Broad cloth, at Guadalajara and Brihuega;<br />
+China, at the palace of the Buen Retiro;<br />
+Cards, at Madrid and M�laga;<br />
+Glass, at San Ildefonso;<br />
+Paper, in Segovia;<br />
+Pottery, at Talavera;<br />
+Saltpetre, at Madrid and various other places;<br />
+Stockings, at Valdemoro;<br />
+Swords, at Toledo;<br />
+Tapestry, at Madrid;<br />
+Tissue, at Talavera.<br />
+</div>
+
+<p>He has the monopoly of brandy, cards, gunpowder, lead, quicksilver,
+sealing-wax, salts, sulphur, and tobacco.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Journey through
+Spain</i>, Vol. II., p. 240.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> &ldquo;It is made from wools of Buenos Aires and Peru. The wool
+of the former of these regions is the longer, but the Peruvian is the
+more silky.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> A report presented by the Council of Commerce to the Marquis
+of la Ensenada, put forward, in 1744, the absurd pretence that
+the king of Spain maintained his factories &ldquo;not for any State
+convenience or <i>ad lucrum captandum</i>, but in order to augment
+our own products, and diminish those which are imported from
+abroad.&rdquo;&mdash;Larruga's <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. XV., pp. 70 and 247. Also
+see the conference delivered by the Count of Torre�naz in 1886,
+in the Royal Spanish Academy of Moral and Political Science;
+p. 27, note.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the Spanish Crown factories were finally taken over
+by the association&mdash;immensely wealthy at one period&mdash;known as
+the Five Chief Gremios of Madrid (<i>Los Cinco Gremios Mayores de la
+Villa de Madrid</i>), and it is clear that the investment of a large
+amount of capital, subscribed by many shareholders, would of itself
+be calculated to destroy the narrow ideals and what I may term the
+individually greedy spirit which hitherto had ruled within the craftsman's
+private family. Private interests, in short, were superseded
+by the larger interests of a powerful company. That which I have
+mentioned was composed of the five <i>gremios</i> of the capital of Spain
+which subscribed the largest sums in taxes to the national exchequer;
+namely, the drapers, haberdashers, spicers and druggists, jewellers,
+cloth-merchants, and linen-drapers. For many years this association
+administered, on government's behalf, the <i>alcabalas</i>, <i>tercias</i>,
+and <i>cientos</i> of the town and district of Madrid, and subsequently
+(<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1745) the <i>millones</i> tax, together with other important dues,
+and ultimately, as I have stated, took over, on a liberal scale of
+purchase, the royal cloth and silk factories of Talavera de la Reina
+(<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1785), San Fernando, Guadalajara, Brihuega, Ezcaray, and
+Cuenca. The decay and downfall of the company was due to gross
+mismanagement, and indeed, the idiosyncrasies of the Spanish
+character render this people, even at the present day, but little fitted
+to embark upon commercial schemes requiring competent directors,
+heavy capital, and confident assistance, moral and material, from a
+large body of investors. Spaniards, as I have insisted elsewhere,
+do not pull well together; and so, early in the nineteenth century,
+the association of the five great <i>gremios</i>, which had possessed at
+one time many millions of <i>pesetas</i>, suspended payment of all
+dividends. It is fair to add, however, that this collapse was partly
+owing to the wars between France and Spain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> In the reign of Francis the First, the importation of Catalan
+cloth into France was prohibited altogether.&mdash;Levasseur, <i>Histoire
+des classes ouvri�res en France</i>, Vol. II., p. 73.</p>
+
+<p>Among the various cloths (exclusively or chiefly of the less
+expensive kinds) which were manufactured in the capital and
+country of Catalu�a, we read of those of pure scarlet, scarlet
+tinted with light or dark purple, ash-coloured, carmine, and rose;
+of cloth of combed wool, <i>medias lanas</i> (half-woollens), serges, and
+<i>cadinas</i> or <i>banyolenchs</i>. But before the close of the fifteenth
+century the production of these fabrics had suffered a serious
+decline caused by the tactless government of Ferdinand the
+Catholic, and above all, by the introduction of the Inquisition into
+Barcelona. A privilege of Ferdinand, granted on November 4th,
+1493, to the Barcelonese clothmakers, admits that this was the
+foremost and most useful local manufacture (&ldquo;no y ha altre art ni
+offici que mes util done&rdquo;), adding, however, that it had fallen into
+a state of sad prostration &ldquo;owing to the indisposition of these
+times.&rdquo; (Capmany, <i>Memorias</i>, Vol. II., <i>Doc.</i> ccxliv).</p>
+
+<p>This was undoubtedly the case; for in a report of the city council
+drawn up in 1491, it is stated that good cloth can only be manufactured
+from good wool, but that this had now become a difficult
+matter at Barcelona, because the clothmakers were without the
+money to purchase such wool. In consequence, they appealed to
+the city (then even more resourceless than themselves) to help
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Although it has become fashionable in some quarters to deny
+that the Inquisition contributed in a sensible degree to the decline
+of Spanish arts and industries, the following passage, quoted from
+the municipal archives of Barcelona, places the fact beyond all
+argument as far as this locality is concerned. The city councillors
+declared in 1492 that &ldquo;by reason of the Inquisition established in
+this city, many evils have befallen our commerce, together with
+the depopulation of the said city, and much other and irreparable
+damage to her welfare; and as much more harm will occur in the
+future, unless a remedy be applied, wherefore the said councillors
+entreat of the king's majesty that of his wonted clemency he order
+the said Inquisition to cease; or else that he repair the matter in
+such wise that <i>the merchants who departed because of the Inquisition</i>
+may return, and continue in the service of their God, their
+king, and of the general welfare of the city aforesaid.&rdquo;</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="EMBROIDERY" id="EMBROIDERY">EMBROIDERY</a></h3>
+
+<p>The art of embroidering, and especially of embroidering
+with the aid of gold and silver thread,
+was communicated to the Spaniards by the
+Spanish Moors, who doubtless had derived it from
+the East. By about the thirteenth century, the
+needle of the Spanish embroiderer had become, in
+the picturesque phrase of one of his compatriots,
+&ldquo;a veritable painter's brush, describing facile outlines
+on luxurious fabrics, and filling in the spaces,
+sometimes with brilliant hues, or sometimes with
+harmonious, softly-graduated tones which imitate
+the entire colour-scheme of Nature.&rdquo; Nevertheless,
+it was not until the fifteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries that this art attained, in the Peninsula,
+its topmost summit of perfection.</p>
+
+<p>It is not at all surprising that embroidery should
+have made great progress among a people so devoted
+to the outward and spectacular forms of worship
+as the Spaniards; nor have the chasubles,
+copes, and other vestments of the Spanish prelacy
+and priesthood ever been surpassed for costly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+splendour<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> (Plates <a href="#img_118.jpg">x</a>., <a href="#img_120.jpg">xi</a>., <a href="#img_122.jpg">xii</a>.). But generally
+where the Spanish embroiderer excelled was in
+the mere manipulation of the needle. In fertility
+of design he was far outdistanced by the Germans
+and Italians, and was even to a large extent their
+imitator; for Spanish embroidery, as occurred with
+Spanish painting, was influenced, almost to an
+overwhelming degree, firstly by northern art, and
+subsequently by the art of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_126.jpg" width="600" height="255"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_126.jpg" id="img_126.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIV<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These tendencies or characteristics will be found
+in nearly all the masterpieces of Spanish embroidery
+that have been preserved until to-day,
+of which perhaps the most remarkable specimens
+are the <i>manga</i> or case of the great processional
+cross presented by Cardinal Cisneros to Toledo
+cathedral, and the &ldquo;<i>Tanto Monta</i>&rdquo; embroidered
+tapestry belonging to the same temple. The
+<i>manga grande</i>, known as that of the Corpus
+(Plate <a href="#img_124.jpg">xiii</a>.), is in the Gothic style, with reminiscences
+of German art, and consists of the
+following four scenes arranged in panels thirty-seven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+inches high, and hung successively about
+the handle of the cross:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The Ascension of the Virgin Mary, who is
+supported by six angels.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The Adoration of the Magi.</p>
+
+<p>(3) San Ildefonso in the act of cutting off a
+piece of the veil of Santa Leocadia, patron
+of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The Martyrdom of San Eugenio, another
+patron of the city of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>The ground of this elaborate &ldquo;sleeve&rdquo; is a
+fabric of rich silk, on which the embroidery is
+worked in gold and silver thread and coloured
+silks, principally blue and red, combined in delicate,
+harmonious tones. The figures are outlined with
+fine gold cord, which forms a kind of frame or
+fencing to confine the stretches of smooth silk.
+The careful copying of architectural detail is
+stated by Serrano Fatigati to be strongly
+characteristic of Spanish industrial art in the
+fourteenth, fifteenth, and even sixteenth centuries.
+The same writer considers that this &ldquo;sleeve&rdquo;
+was executed towards the year 1514, when
+embroiderers of great renown, such as Alonso
+Hern�ndez, Juan de Talavera, Martin Ruiz,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+Hernando de la Rica, Pedro de Burgos, and
+Marcos de Covarrubias were engaged on similar
+work in the venerable city of the Tagus. Two
+out of the four panels, says Serrano Fatigati, may
+possibly be from the hand of Covarrubias, who
+was a famous craftsman of his time, and held the
+post of master-embroiderer in Toledo cathedral.
+In any case, the four panels are evidently not all
+by the same artist, nor do they appear to have
+been executed at precisely the same period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_128.jpg" width="600" height="192"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_128.jpg" id="img_128.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XV<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT, WITH THE ARMS OF CARDINAL MENDOZA<br />
+(<i>15th Century. Toledo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gorgeous embroidered tapestry which also
+belongs to this cathedral (where it serves as a
+hanging or <i>colgadura</i> for the altar on the day of
+Corpus Christi), and which is known as the &ldquo;Tanto
+Monta&rdquo; <i>tapiz</i>, is stated by some authorities to
+have been the <i>dosel</i> or bed canopy of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, and to have been purchased,
+in the year 1517, for 900,000 <i>maravedis</i> by
+Alonso Fern�ndez de Tendilla, steward of those
+sovereigns. Ria�o gives the following account of
+the same object:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;As a fine specimen of embroidery on a large
+scale, must be mentioned the <i>dosel</i> or canopy called
+the tent of Ferdinand and Isabella, which was
+used in the reception of the English envoys,
+Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan, who were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of
+Prince Henry with the Infanta Do�a Catalina.&rdquo;
+The ambassadors describe it in the following
+manner: &ldquo;After the tilting was over, the kings
+returned to the palace, and took the ambassadors
+with them, and entered a large room; and there
+they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson
+velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Castile
+and Aragon, and covered with the device of the
+King which is a &hellip; (blank in original),<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> and
+his motto, written at length, which is &lsquo;Tanto
+Monta.&rsquo;&rdquo; (&ldquo;Memorials of King Henry the
+Seventh,&rdquo; Gairdner, London, 1858, p. 348).</p>
+
+<p>Ria�o also describes the mantle of the Virgen
+del Sagrario at Toledo. &ldquo;It is completely covered
+with pearls and jewels forming a most effective
+ornamentation. This embroidery was made in
+the beginning of the seventeenth century, during
+the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented
+it to the church.&rdquo; Se�or Parro, in his exhaustive
+work <i>Toledo en la Mano</i> (Vol. I., p. 574), gives
+the following account of it: &ldquo;It is made of twelve
+yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is
+entirely covered with gold and precious stones.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+In the centre there is a jewel of amethysts and
+diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each
+side, of enamelled gold, emeralds, and large
+rubies. A variety of other jewels are placed at
+intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part
+are the arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on
+gold and studded with sapphires and rubies. The
+centre of this mantle is covered with flowers
+and pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of
+different sizes. Round the borders are rows of
+large pearls. Besides the gems which are employed
+in this superb work of art, no less than two
+hundred and fifty-seven ounces of pearls of different
+sizes were used, three hundred ounces of gold
+thread, a hundred and sixty ounces of small pieces
+of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_130.jpg" width="500" height="297"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_130.jpg" id="img_130.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVI<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT<br />
+(<i>Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As in other countries, embroidery in Spain
+was executed in the bygone time, both by paid
+embroiderers, and as a domestic occupation by
+the ladies of the aristocracy. The work of the
+professional embroiderer consisted principally of
+paraments or altar-fronts (Plates <a href="#img_126.jpg">xiv</a>., <a href="#img_128.jpg">xv</a>., <a href="#img_130.jpg">xvi</a>.,
+<a href="#img_132.jpg">xvii</a>xvii.), and ecclesiastical vestments. Among the
+former of this class of objects, nothing is finer than
+the <i>frontal</i> of the Chapel of Saint George in the
+Audiencia of Barcelona. It is believed to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+been wrought by Antonio Sadurni, a Catalan
+embroiderer who flourished in the middle of the
+fifteenth century. The scene represented is the
+combat between Saint George (patron of Catalu�a)
+and the dragon. The saint has rescued a
+damsel from the monster's claws, and her parents
+are looking on from a <i>mirador</i> of their palace.
+This central episode is surrounded with borders
+and arabesques of extraordinary richness.</p>
+
+<p>Ria�o gives a list, compiled from Cean, Martinez,
+Suarez de Figueroa, and other authors, of forty-seven
+Spanish embroiderers of the fifteenth, sixteenth,
+seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.
+More recently, Ram�rez de Arellano has discovered,
+among the municipal archives of Cordova,
+the names of sixteen others, who resided at
+that city towards, or early in, the seventeenth
+century. The craftsmen in question were Diego
+de Aguilar, Juan Bautista, Bernardo Carrillo,
+Luis Carrillo de Quijana, Andr�s Fern�ndez de
+Montemayor, Hern�n G�mez del R�o, Diego
+Fabi�n de Herrera, Diego del Hierro, Diego
+L�pez de Herrera, Diego L�pez de Valenzuela,
+Antonio de Morales, Gonzalo de Oca�a, Mateo
+Sanguino, Manuel Torralbo, Crist�bal de Valenzuela,
+and Martin de la Vega.</p>
+
+<p>Documents in the same archive contain additional<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+particulars respecting two or three of these
+artificers. Thus, on February 10th, 1607, Hern�n
+G�mez del R�o engaged himself to embroider for
+the convent of the Trinity at Cordova, &ldquo;a
+bordering for a chasuble and four <i>faldones</i> for
+dalmatics, with their collars and <i>sabastros</i> and
+<i>bocas mangas</i>. The said <i>bocas mangas</i> to be four
+in number, and the collars two; also the <i>collaretes</i>
+which may be necessary for the two dalmatics,
+and which I am to embroider in silk and gold
+upon white satin. The <i>collaretes</i> also to be embroidered
+by me in silk and gold to match a
+bordering of white satin for a cloak in possession
+of the said convent.&rdquo; Further, the convent was to
+supply the artist with the quantity of white satin
+required, and pay him two hundred and ten ducats,
+secured by certain of the convent's revenues, for
+the gold, the silk, and the workmanship.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_132.jpg" width="500" height="311"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_132.jpg" id="img_132.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVII<br />EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONTS<br />
+(<i>Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Manuel Torralbo contracted to embroider a
+velvet altar-front and its corresponding <i>fronteleras</i>
+for the parish church of Luque, at a price of three
+hundred <i>reales</i>; and Crist�bal de Valenzuela (on
+September 25th, 1604) to embroider two frontals
+for the altar of the church of Obejo. One of them
+was to be of purple velvet worked in gold, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+the other of &ldquo;black velvet, with borders and
+<i>caidas</i> embroidered in yellow satin and white satin,
+with skulls and bones embroidered in gold.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>Turning our attention to the embroidery which
+was executed, principally as a recreation, by highborn
+Spanish ladies of some centuries ago, the
+romance of <i>El Compte Arnau</i>, quoted by Miquel y
+Bad�a and written in Catalan and Proven�al,
+contains the following lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="catalan">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">&ldquo;�</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Ahout teniu las vostras fillas&mdash;muller leal?</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">�</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Ahout teniu las vostras fillas&mdash;viudeta igual?</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">A la cambra son que <i>brodan</i>&mdash;Compte l'Arnau</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">A la cambra son que <i>brodan</i>&mdash;seda y estam.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Isabella the Catholic presented to the Chapel
+Royal of the cathedral of Granada an ecclesiastical
+robe embroidered by her own hands for the festival
+of Corpus Christi. The material was black
+satin brocade, with a fringe of white silk, and the
+letters IHS in white damask.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_134.jpg" width="413" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_134.jpg" id="img_134.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVIII<br />WIFE OF WELL-TO-DO MERCHANT<br />
+(<i>Palma, Balearic Islands. About A.D. 1810</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same usage continued in the seventeenth
+century. Countess d'Aulnoy says: &ldquo;Young ladies
+of great beauty and of noble blood engage themselves
+to wait on ladies of the aristocracy, and
+spend most of their time embroidering the collars
+and sleeves of shirts in gold, silver, and coloured
+silk, although, if they be suffered to follow their
+liking, they work but little, and gossip a great
+deal.&rdquo; The same writer refers repeatedly to the
+sumptuous embroideries in use among the upper
+classes of the Spaniards of that time. Thus, the
+bed-pillows of the Princess of Montele�n were
+embroidered with gold. The sleeves of the coat
+of Charles the Second were of white silk, very
+large, opening towards the wrist, and embroidered
+with blue silk and jet, the rest of his costume
+being embroidered in white and blue silk. In the
+palace of the same monarch, the da�s of the throne-room
+was covered with &ldquo;a wondrous carpet, and
+the throne and its canopy were embroidered with
+pearls, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and other
+precious stones.&rdquo; The cloaks of the chevaliers
+who belonged to the Military Orders of Santiago,
+Calatrava, and Alc�ntara were embroidered with
+gold. The gentlemen of Madrid covered their
+horses with silver gauze, and trappings embroidered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+with gold and pearls.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> The same gentlemen wore
+coats whose sleeves were of coloured satin, embroidered
+with silk and jet, and even their lackeys,
+when they attended their masters in a procession,
+wore uniforms of cloth embroidered with gold and
+silver. Unmarried girls and brides wore gold-embroidered
+bodices. The chairs in which the ladies of
+Madrid paid visits were made of cloth embroidered
+in gold and silver, stretched upon the wooden
+frame. In the train of the Duchess of Terranova
+went six litters covered with embroidered velvet.
+&ldquo;In the parish church of San Sebasti�n,&rdquo; wrote
+Countess d'Aulnoy, &ldquo;I have seen a hand-chair
+made by order of the queen-mother, for carrying
+the Sacrament to sick persons in bad weather. It
+is lined with crimson velvet embroidered in gold
+and covered with hide studded with gilt nails: it
+has large window-glasses, and a kind of small
+belfry full of golden bells.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>With the succession of a French line of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+sovereigns to the throne of Spain, a taste for French
+embroideries passed into the Peninsula, and these,
+in course of time, were imitated by the Spanish
+craftsmen.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> &ldquo;We find,&rdquo; says Ria�o, &ldquo;that Madrid
+was the principal centre of this industry, and that
+French designs were universally copied, as was
+the case in the whole of Europe. The splendid
+curtains and embroidered hangings for apartments
+which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the
+Escorial, and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I may mention here the embroidery, often of
+a rich and highly ornate character, which is, or
+used to be, applied to the regional costumes of
+Spain. Plate ix. is reproduced from a rare print
+in my possession, showing the gala dress, as it
+existed in the year 1777, of the <i>charra</i> of Salamanca,
+with full, white sleeves ornamented in
+black embroidery with animals and other devices.
+A similar costume is still worn in that neighbourhood.
+Plate xviii., also copied from a print in my
+collection, dating from about the year 1810, shows
+the costume worn by the women of the well-to-do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+middle class of the island of Majorca. &ldquo;Le jupon
+ou <i>guardapies</i>,&rdquo; says the manuscript description
+prefixed to this series of plates, &ldquo;en mousseline,
+complete le costume de cette insulaire: il est orn�
+au bas de riches broderies, mais assez court pour
+laisser voir un joli petit pied chauss� d'un bas de
+coton ou de soie et d'un �l�gant soulier de satin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> The cathedrals of Toledo and Palencia are particularly rich in
+sets of magnificently embroidered vestments. &ldquo;Each set,&rdquo; says
+Ria�o, &ldquo;generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, altar frontal,
+covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces. The embroideries
+on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints, are
+as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MSS.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The device of Ferdinand the Catholic was a yoke; the sheaf of
+arrows, that of Isabella. (See Vol. II., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, etc.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The skull and crossbones were a favourite design upon these
+objects. The Church of the Escorial possesses four paraments so
+decorated, which were shown, in 1878, at the Parisian Exhibition
+of Retrospective Art.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> G�mez Moreno; <i>Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del
+bordado de imagineria en Granada</i> (<i>El Liceo de Granada</i>; 6th year,
+No. 18).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> A similar usage prevailed at Valladolid. The account of this
+city as it existed in 1605, published by Gayangos in the <i>Revista de
+Espa�a</i>, describes Don Juan de Tassis, Count of Villamediana, as
+&ldquo;riding in the finest clothes imaginable; his cloak, jacket, breeches,
+shoes, and the trappings, harness, reins, etc., of his horse, being all
+embroidered with the finest twisted silver thread. Even his horse's
+blinkers were of the same material.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The use of embroidery was, however, greatly curbed by sumptuary
+pragmatics, issued early in this century (see Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_287">287</a>,
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_289">289</a>). A similar pragmatic had appeared in 1622; but it is clear from
+the passages I have quoted, that little or no attention was paid to it.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="TAPESTRY" id="TAPESTRY">TAPESTRY</a></h3>
+
+<p>There is a dim tradition, derived from or supported
+by a Latin poet (&ldquo;Tunc operosa suis
+<i>Hispana tapetia</i> villis&rdquo;) that carpets or tapestries
+of some kind were made in the Spanish Peninsula
+in the time of the Romans. Undoubtedly this
+craft was practised by the Spanish-Moors, particularly
+in the regions of Valencia, Alicante, Cuenca,
+and Granada. This statement is confirmed by two
+laconic notices which occur in the <i>Description of
+Africa and Spain</i> of Edrisi, a Mohammedan
+geographer of the twelfth century. Of the town
+of Chinchilla, in Alicante province, he wrote,&mdash;&ldquo;woollen
+carpets are made here, such as could
+not be manufactured anywhere else, owing to the
+qualities of the air and water&rdquo;; and of Cuenca,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+&ldquo;excellent woollen carpets are manufactured at
+this town.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;En Espagne,&rdquo; says M�ntz, &ldquo;l'industrie textile
+ne tarda pas � prendre �galement le plus brilliant
+essor, gr�ce � la conqu�te maure. Les �toffes
+d'Almeria acquirent rapidement une r�putation
+europ�enne; il est vrai que c'�taient des brocarts,
+des damas, et autres tissus analogues, non des
+tapisseries: l'influence qu'elles furent appel�es �
+exercer au dehors se borna donc au domaine de
+l'ornementation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_138.jpg" width="475" height="411"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_138.jpg" id="img_138.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIX<br />THE &ldquo;GENESIS TAPESTRY&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>12th Century; Gerona Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of a similar composition to the foregoing
+fabrics specified by M�ntz&mdash;that is to say, not
+genuine tapestries, although requiring for several
+reasons to be classed with these&mdash;is the celebrated
+&ldquo;Genesis&rdquo; (Plate <a href="#img_138.jpg">xix</a>.) of the cathedral of
+Gerona. This primitive yet complicated work
+of art, dating from the twelfth century, is embroidered
+in crewels upon linen, and represents
+the creation of the world. Its dimensions are
+about four yards high by four and a half yards
+wide; but the bordering has been torn away in
+places. The design is thus described by Ria�o:&mdash;&ldquo;In
+the centre is a geometrical figure formed by
+two concentric circles. In the lesser circle is a
+figure of Christ holding an open book, on which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+appear the words <i>Sanctus Deus</i>, and on each side
+<i>Rex fortis</i>, surrounded by the inscription, <i>Dixit
+quoque Deus, Fiat lux, Et facta est lux</i>. In the
+larger circle are the words, <i>In principio creavit
+Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia qu� in eis
+sunt, et vidit Deus cuncta qu� egerat et erant
+valde bona</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The space between the two circles is divided
+by radiating lines into eight portions, in which
+are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of
+light and darkness: the division of land from
+water, the creation of sun, moon, and stars, of
+birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve.
+In the angles outside the larger circle are the four
+winds, and the whole is surrounded by a border,
+imperfect in parts, containing representations of
+the months, and apparently of certain scriptural
+incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The royal palaces of Spain and many of her
+noble houses have possessed, from about the
+fifteenth century, splendid collections of the
+costliest tapestries, consisting principally of <i>pa�os
+de Ras</i>, or &ldquo;Arras cloths&rdquo; (as they were called
+among the Spaniards, and especially in Aragon).
+Until a later period all, or very nearly all, these
+objects were imported from the Flemish workshops.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
+At the palace of a nobleman in Madrid,
+Bertaut de Rouen observed &ldquo;les plus belles
+tapisseries du monde.&rdquo; The same author tells us
+that in the seventeenth century, when he visited
+Spain and wrote his entertaining <i>Journal</i>, it was
+customary for the walls of the royal palace to
+be hung with tapestry in winter, these hangings
+being removed for greater coolness in the summer
+months. In reading descriptions of Spanish life
+referring to the same period, one is struck by the
+craze which prevailed among the Spaniards for
+displaying tapestries and other gay-coloured fabrics
+in all kinds of places and on every possible occasion.
+Thus, Bertaut de Rouen relates that when he saw
+a play performed in the Alc�zar, &ldquo;le long de ces
+deux costez de la salle estoient seulement deux
+grands bancs couverts de tapis de Perse&rdquo;; that
+the boxes at the bull-fights, both at Madrid and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+in the country, were &ldquo;tapiss�es de brocatelle de
+soye&rdquo;; and that the lower part of the dome in
+one of the chapels of Seville cathedral was
+decorated with the same material. At the haunted
+castle of Quebaro, on the road from Galareta
+to Vitoria, Countess d'Aulnoy saw upon the
+walls of a large chamber, some tapestries representing
+the amours of Don Pedro the Cruel and
+of Do�a Mar�a de Padilla. &ldquo;This lady was
+depicted seated, like a queen, among various other
+ladies, while the king crowned her with a chaplet of
+flowers. Elsewhere Do�a Mar�a was reposing in
+a forest, as the king offered her a falcon. I also
+saw her dressed as a warrior while the king, in
+armour, offered her a sword. This set me thinking
+whether she had ever accompanied Don Pedro
+in one of his campaigns. All the figures in these
+tapestries were badly drawn, but Don Fernando
+assured me that all well-executed likenesses of
+Do�a Mar�a de Padilla represented her to be a
+woman of rare charm, the loveliest of her century.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Pinheiro da Veiga says that at Valladolid in
+1605, a banquet was celebrated in &ldquo;a large gallery,
+completely covered with the richest silk brocade, as
+were most of the other apartments.&rdquo; He also says
+that cloths of similar richness were employed as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+street-awnings. &ldquo;Upon the ninth was the Corpus
+procession, at which the king was to assist; and
+a proclamation was issued that none should
+promenade on horseback or in coaches. I found
+nothing remarkable in this procession, unless it
+were the hangings and the awnings to keep off
+the sun, which were of the richest damask and
+brocade.&rdquo; Of the same <i>fiesta</i> Countess d'Aulnoy
+wrote in 1679: &ldquo;The streets through which the
+procession has to pass are adorned with the finest
+tapestries in all the world, since in addition to
+those belonging to the Crown, many of the greatest
+beauty are displayed by private persons. The
+<i>celos�as</i> of all the balconies are replaced by
+elaborate canopies and hangings, and the whole
+roadway is covered with an awning to ward off the
+sun, and which, for the sake of greater freshness,
+is moistened with a little water.&rdquo; Nearly identical
+with this account is that of Alexander de Laborde,
+who wrote, a century and a quarter later than the
+Countess; &ldquo;On Corpus Christi day there is a
+grand procession composed of the regular and
+secular clergy of Madrid, followed by the king,
+his ministers, and court, each bearing in his hand
+a wax taper. Magnificent awnings of tapestry are
+raised in the streets through which the procession<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+is to pass; the balconies are decorated with
+splendid hangings; the seats are covered with
+cushions, and occasionally surmounted with a da�s;
+in some of the streets the face of day is darkened
+by canopies which stretch from one side to the
+other. Altars are placed at regular intervals; the
+balconies are thronged with ladies superbly
+dressed, who sprinkle scented water, or scatter
+fragrant flowers on the passing multitudes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Pinheiro da Veiga also describes a set of remarkable
+tapestries, evidently Flemish, which he saw
+in the Chapter-room of the Convent of C�rmen
+Calzado at Valladolid. &ldquo;It was hung with the
+richest tapestry, silk, and paintings that had
+belonged to the Duke of Lerma. I greatly
+admired some cloths of green velvet, worked all
+over with the <i>Bucolics</i> of Virgil, in <i>tarjas</i> embroidered
+in silk and gold, as though they were
+<i>sebastos</i><a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> of ecclesiastical vestments, but these
+were old, of great value, and extraordinary merit.
+Finer still were certain cloths of recent workmanship,
+such as I had never seen equalled, of a
+white material painted in tempera, with the borders,
+dresses, and faces of the personages on them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+wrought in twisted gold. I never saw anything
+so brilliant or so novel. The cloths were eight
+in number, with four embroidered <i>guardapuertas</i>.
+The persons figured upon them wore belts of
+real pearls, rings set with diamonds and rubies
+on their fingers, and gold chains and medals
+studded with precious stones, just as living people
+wear them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The fashion of collecting foreign tapestries seems
+to have reached its height at the Spanish capital
+in the first half of the seventeenth century.
+&ldquo;Nowadays,&rdquo; wrote Fernandez de Navarrete, in
+his <i>Conservacion de Monarqu�as</i>, published in
+1626, &ldquo;gentlemen are not contented with hangings
+which a few years ago were considered good
+enough to adorn a prince's palace. The Spanish
+taffetas and guadamec�es, so highly esteemed in
+other provinces, are held of no account in this one
+(Madrid). The <i>sargas</i> and <i>ar�beles</i> wherewith the
+moderation of the Spanish people was satisfied in
+former days, must now be turned into injurious
+<i>telas rizas</i> of Florence and Milan, and into costliest
+Brussels tapestry.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_144.jpg" width="335" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_144.jpg" id="img_144.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XX<br /><i>TAPIZ</i> OF CRIMSON VELVET WORKED IN GOLD TISSUE<br />
+(<i>16th Century. Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is perhaps allowable to include among the
+oldest makers of Spanish tapestry the names of
+Gonzalo de Mesa and Diego Roman, who, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+the year 1331, were paid respectively one thousand
+<i>maravedis</i> and eighteen hundred <i>maravedis</i>, for
+decorating the tents of King Sancho the Fourth.
+There also exists the following entry, dating from
+the same period; &ldquo;To Boan�ibre, master of the
+tents; XXX <i>maravedis</i> for his food, for fifteen
+days.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>Far clearer than these laconic excerpts is a
+document preserved in the library of the Academy
+of History at Madrid, in the form of a memorial
+presented to Philip the Second by a Spanish
+tapestry-maker of Salamanca, named Pedro
+Gutierrez,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> and setting forth, in pessimistic
+language, the unhappy condition of this craft in
+the Peninsula. Pedro relates of himself that in
+twenty-four days he made for the Cardinal-archduke
+no less than a hundred and twenty <i>reposteros</i>;
+and that in order to exhibit his cleverness as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+tapestry-weaver, he set up a loom in the royal
+palace (being officially the <i>tapicero</i> to the Crown),
+and worked for forty days where all might criticise
+the product of his toil. Gutierrez also states that
+the township of Madrid had provided him with
+six hundred ducats to enable him to establish
+there a tapestry-factory for the space of ten years,
+together with six hundred and fifty ducats from
+the Cortes for supporting his apprentices, and a
+thousand ducats from the king to defray the cost
+of certain voyages he had made to Lisbon,
+Monz�n, and Barcelona, and of removing his residence
+from Salamanca to the capital of Spain. He
+complains, however, that the house he dwells in
+at Madrid is not large enough to contain his loom,
+and replies to the objections of such persons as
+opposed his opening the tapestry-works at all (on
+the ground that this craft was practised better and
+more cheaply in Flanders), by asserting that
+Spanish makers of <i>reposteros</i> were now accustomed
+to receive a daily wage of no more than three
+<i>reales</i> and &ldquo;a miserable meal.&rdquo; This, he urges,
+should render Spanish tapestries at least as inexpensive
+to produce as those of Flanders; although,
+upon the other hand, he admits that the colouring
+of the former is likely to prove inferior to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+Flemish cloths in purity and durability. &ldquo;Common
+tapestry,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;seldom keeps its colour upward
+of a couple of years, so that, if such were
+used in open sunlight on the backs of beasts of
+burden, or to cover carts, exposed to sun, wind,
+dust, and mire, or else for cleaning shoes upon,
+as now is practised with the <i>reposteros</i>, their
+imperfections would become apparent all the
+sooner.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mention of these typically Spanish objects
+known as <i>reposteros</i>,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> induces me to quote an
+interesting notice relating to the visit of Philip the
+Second to Cordova, in the year 1570. The train
+of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, who journeyed
+to this city in order to receive his sovereign,
+consisted of a hundred and three mules covered
+with &ldquo;new <i>reposteros</i> of wool, and of six mules<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+covered with <i>reposteros</i> of purple velvet, embroidered
+with silver and gold, and bearing the
+duke's arms.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>If, as seems most likely, the woollen <i>reposteros</i>
+above referred to were of woven work containing
+a device, this passage would demonstrate that the
+manufacture of the cloths in question was sometimes
+the province of the tapestry-maker and
+sometimes that of the embroiderer. Ram�rez de
+Arellano, from whose instructive studies on the
+craftsmen of older Spain I quote the foregoing
+extract, says that the making of <i>reposteros</i>
+constitutes a branch of craftsmanship distinct
+from embroidery of the common class, and that
+the men who produced them deserve to be
+included among artists of real merit. He gives
+the names of two, Hern�n Gonzalez and Juan
+Ramos, who worked at Cordova in the middle of
+the sixteenth century. A document relating to the
+former of these men tells us that in those days the
+price of a <i>repostero de estambre</i> measuring sixteen
+palms square, with a coat-of-arms worked in the
+centre, and a decorative border, was ninety <i>reales</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_148.jpg" width="500" height="379"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_148.jpg" id="img_148.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXI<br />THE SPINNERS<br />
+(<i>By Velazquez. Prado Gallery</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Ria�o says: &ldquo;I do not find any information of
+a later date which suggests the existence of the
+manufacture of tapestries in Spain during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+Middle Ages.&rdquo; Davillier, however, affirms that
+in the year 1411 two master-makers of tapestry
+were living at the court of the King of Navarre,
+and that other craftsmen, holding the same title,
+were established at Barcelona in 1391 and 1433.
+This notice is accepted by M�ntz: &ldquo;A la fin du
+XIV<sup>e</sup> et au commencement du XV<sup>e</sup> si�cle, les
+Espagnols tent�rent de fonder dans leur patrie
+quelques ateliers de haute lisse. A Barcelone, en
+1391 et en 1433, plusieurs tapissiers (<i>maestros de
+tapices</i>) firent partie du grand Conseil. Mais ces
+tentaves ne semblent pas avoir eu de r�sultats
+durables. Il �tait plus commode de recourir
+aux manufactures flamandes, si merveilleusement
+organis�es. Peut-�tre m�me ce syst�me �tait-il
+plus �conomique. Ne voyons-nous pas aujourd'hui
+jusqu'� l'extr�me Orient tirer, pour raison
+d'�conomie, des fabriques de Manchester et de
+Birmingham les tissus courants dont il a besoin?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The history of tapestry-making at Madrid may
+be said to date from the establishment in this
+town of a small factory by Pedro Gutierrez, whose
+petition to Philip the Second I have already
+quoted, and who received protection both from
+that monarch and from the queen, Do�a Ana.
+In 1625 Gutierrez was succeeded by Antonio<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+Ceron, who formally styled himself &ldquo;tapicero de
+nuevo, sucesor de Pedro Gutierrez&rdquo; (&ldquo;maker of
+new tapestries, successor to Pedro Gutierrez&rdquo;),
+and petitioned the king for the grant of a meal a
+day, &ldquo;in recompense of having taught his trade
+to eight lads, and of having mounted eight looms
+in (the factory of) Santa Isabel.&rdquo; This factory of
+Santa Isabel was so called from the street in which
+it lay, and part of it is represented in the celebrated
+painting by Velazquez called <i>Las Hilanderas</i>
+(&ldquo;The Spinners,&rdquo; not, as it is translated in
+Ria�o's handbook, &ldquo;The Weavers.&rdquo; Plate xxi.).</p>
+
+<p>This factory was unsuccessful, and declined by
+degrees until it ceased completely, in spite of the
+efforts made to revive it in 1694 by a Belgian
+named Metler, and in 1707 by a Salamanquino,
+Nicholas Hern�ndez.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_150.jpg" width="500" height="367"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_150.jpg" id="img_150.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXII<br />TAPESTRY MADE AT BRUSSELS FROM GRANADA SILK<br />
+(<i>16th Century. Spanish Crown Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A new tapestry-factory&mdash;that of Santa Barbara&mdash;was
+founded shortly afterwards in a building
+known as the Casa del Abreviador. The first
+director, engaged in 1720 by order of Philip the
+Fifth, was Jacob Van der Goten, a native of
+Antwerp,<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> who died in 1724, and was succeeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+at the factory by his sons, Francisco, Jacobo,
+Cornelius, and Adrian. These craftsmen worked
+with <i>basse lisse</i> looms till 1729, in which year a
+<i>haute lisse</i> loom was mounted by a Frenchman,
+Antoine Lenger.</p>
+
+<p>In 1730, when the court removed to Seville, a
+tapestry-factory was established at this city also.
+The director was Jacob Van der Goten the
+younger, assisted by the painter Procaccini. At
+the end of three years this factory closed its
+doors, and Van der Goten and Procaccini, returning
+to Madrid, established themselves at the old
+factory of Santa Isabel, from which, in 1744, they
+again removed to the factory of Santa Barbara.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1774, when, with the exception of Cornelius,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+who was considered the most skilful of them all, the
+family of the Van der Gotens had died out, the
+direction of the Santa Barbara factory was entrusted
+to several Spanish artists, named Manuel
+Sanchez, Antonio Moreno, Tom�s del Castillo,
+and Domingo Galan. Sanchez, who acted as
+general superintendent of the works, died in 1786,
+and was succeeded in this office by his nephew,
+Livinio Stuck, whose son resumed the directorship
+in 1815, after the factory had been paralysed
+by the invasion of the Peninsula, and destroyed
+by the French in 1808. Since then it has never
+ceased working, and descendants of the Stucks
+continue to superintend it at the present day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_152.jpg" width="325" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_152.jpg" id="img_152.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIII<br />A PROMENADE IN ANDALUSIA<br />
+(<i>Cartoon for Tapestry. By Goya</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The collection of tapestry belonging to the
+Crown of Spain is probably the finest in the
+world. As far back as the reign of Ferdinand
+and Isabella the walls of the royal palace were
+hung with decorative textile cloths or <i>pa�os de
+Ras</i>, and among the officers in the household of
+their son, the youthful Prince Don Juan, we find<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+included a keeper of the tapestry and <i>reposteros</i>.
+But it was not until the reigns of Charles the
+Fifth and Philip the Second that the royal collection
+was enriched with numerous sets of celebrated
+tapestries produced in Italy and Flanders&mdash;countries
+which were then subjected to the yoke
+of Spain. Frequent additions were also made
+throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
+both from abroad and subsequently (when
+the Brussels industry declined) from the Spanish
+factories of Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the year 1600 a Spaniard wrote
+enthusiastically of &ldquo;the rich and cunning tapestries
+belonging to His Majesty, to whom it would be
+easier to win a kingdom than to get them made
+anew.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> At the present day it is impossible to
+estimate with any certainty the number of these
+tapestries, the greater part of which are locked
+away. Only on certain festivals, such as the days
+of Corpus Christi and the Candelaria (Purification),
+a few are unfolded and displayed in the upper
+galleries of the palace at Madrid. Their total
+number is believed to be not far short of one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+thousand pieces;<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> but Se�or Tormo calculates
+that were they no more than five hundred, they
+would, if placed end to end, cover more than two
+miles of ground.</p>
+
+<p>Among the sets which form this wonderful
+collection, distributed between the palaces of
+Madrid, the Prado, and the Escorial, none is of
+greater merit or magnificence than the series of
+twelve cloths depicting the <i>Conquest of Tunis</i>
+(Plate <a href="#img_150.jpg">xxii</a>.), designed for Charles the Fifth by
+his Court painter, Jan Vermay or Vermeyen,
+of Beverwyck, near Haarlem, and executed by
+William Pannemaker, of Brussels. It was agreed
+by Pannemaker in 1549 that the materials employed
+upon this tapestry should consist of the finest
+wool, Granada silk, and, for the woof, the choicest
+Lyons <i>fillet</i>&mdash;the very best that money could procure.
+The Emperor himself was to provide the
+gold and silver thread. Accordingly, Pannemaker
+was supplied with five hundred and fifty-nine
+pounds and one ounce of silk, dyed and spun in
+the city of Granada, where one of Charles' agents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+resided for two years seven months and twenty-five
+days, for the purpose of superintending its
+preparation. The cost of this silk, exclusive of
+the agent's expenses, amounted to 6,637 florins.
+Nineteen colours were employed in the dyeing,
+each colour consisting of from three to seven
+shades, and a hundred and sixty pounds of the
+finest silk were consumed in trying to obtain a
+special shade of blue.</p>
+
+<p>After receiving these materials, Pannemaker
+kept seven workmen constantly engaged upon
+each <i>pa�o</i> of this tapestry, or eighty-four workmen
+in all. As soon as any one of the pieces was concluded,
+he submitted it to experts who pointed out
+such details as they recommended for correction.
+The entire work required a little more than five
+years, and was therefore terminated in 1554. The
+price paid for it was twelve florins per ell, and
+the number of these was 1246, representing a
+total cost of 14,952 florins, while Pannemaker,
+subject to the Emperor's being satisfied with the
+work, was further promised a yearly pension of a
+hundred florins.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p>Equally remarkable are the spirited design and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+the flawless execution of this series of elaborate
+cloths, recalling, in their swarms of armed figures
+and the lofty point of view, which reduces the sky
+to a mere strip, the vivacious war and camp pictures
+of Snyders. The titles of the subjects, forming,
+as it were, a pictured epitome of the expedition
+led by Charles in person against the Barbary
+pirates, are as follows: (1) A map of the Spanish
+coast; (2) The review of the troops at Barcelona;
+(3) The landing of the forces; (4) A skirmish;
+(5) The camp; (6) Foraging; (7) The capture of
+La Goleta; (8) The battle of Los Pozos, Tunis;
+(9) A sortie of the besieged; (10) The sack of
+Tunis; (11) The victors returning to the harbour;
+(12) The forces embarking.</p>
+
+<p>According to M�ntz, this tapestry has been
+copied at least on two occasions; once in the
+eighteenth century by Josse de Vos, of Brussels,
+and also, in the same century, in Spain, partly at
+Seville, and partly at the factories of Santa Isabel
+and Santa Barbara.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_156.jpg" width="600" height="302"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_156.jpg" id="img_156.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIV<br />TAPESTRY. ARRAS WORK, FROM ITALIAN CARTOONS<br />
+(<i>First half of 15th Century. Zamora Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other most valuable and beautiful tapestries
+belonging to the Spanish Crown are the series
+titled <i>The History of the Virgin</i>, believed to be
+from cartoons by Van Eyk, <i>The Passion</i>, from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+cartoons attributed to Van der Weyden, the
+<i>History of David</i> and <i>History of Saint John the
+Baptist</i>, the <i>Mass of Saint Gregory</i>, and the
+<i>Founding of Rome</i>. All of these series date from
+the fifteenth century and early in the sixteenth.
+Belonging to a later period are the reproductions
+of rustic scenes and hunting subjects by Teniers
+and others, executed in Spain between 1721 and
+1724, the <i>Scenes from Don Quixote</i>, made at Santa
+Barbara from Procaccini's cartoons, and the eminently
+national series produced at the same factory
+from designs by Francisco Goya y Lucientes.
+This latter group amounts to several dozen pieces,
+including the well-known <i>Blind Man's Buff</i>,
+<i>A Promenade in Andalusia</i> (Plate <a href="#img_152.jpg">xxiii</a>.), <i>The
+Crockery-seller</i>, <i>The Grape-Gatherers</i> (<i>Frontispiece</i>),
+and other spirited and charming scenes
+of popular Spanish life&mdash;&ldquo;tout cela,&rdquo; as Lefort
+describes it, &ldquo;spirituel, vif, pittoresque, tr�s mouvement�,
+bien group�, s'�levant sur des fonds champ�tres
+ou baignant gaiement en pleine lumi�re.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other tapestry collections of great merit belong
+to the cathedrals of Burgos, Zamora (where they
+line the walls of the Sacristy; Plate xxiv.), Zaragoza,
+Toledo, Tarragona, and Santiago. The
+first of these temples possesses the following sets,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+which are displayed to decorate the cloisters on
+the feast of Corpus Christi:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(1) The History of Cleopatra and Mark Antony.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(2) The History of David.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(3) The Creation.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(4) An Historical Subject.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(5) The Theological and Cardinal Virtues.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">(6) A series of five Gothic tapestries, which
+represent some mystery or allegory, and
+seem to be of Flemish manufacture.
+One other <i>pa�o</i>, of a similar character,
+accompanies them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_158.jpg" width="338" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_158.jpg" id="img_158.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXV<br />FLEMISH TAPESTRY<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century. Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>All but the last of the above sets are marked
+with two B's separated by a shield, denoting
+Brussels workmanship. The <i>Theological and
+Cardinal Virtues</i> were presented to the cathedral
+about the end of the sixteenth century. They
+are evidently executed from Italian cartoons, and
+the <i>haute-lisse</i> craftsman who made them, in or
+towards the year 1571, was named Francis
+Greubels.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>The tapestries which belong to the cathedral of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+Zaragoza number some sixty or seventy pieces,
+including a series (fifteenth century) representing
+<i>The Life of Saint John the Baptist</i>, from designs
+by Lucas of Holland. Good tapestries were also
+the property of Valencia cathedral, but have been
+dispersed and sold in recent years. The convent
+of the Descalzas Reales at Madrid possesses a
+set from designs by Rubens. Ten pieces of this
+series formerly belonged to the Count-Duke of
+Olivares, who sent them to his town of Loeches;
+four passing subsequently to the Duke of Westminster's
+collection. The small though valuable
+collection formed by the late Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan (Plate <a href="#img_158.jpg">xxv</a>.), passed at this nobleman's
+death to his daughter, Se�ora de Osma, who
+has presented part of it to the Arch�ological
+Museum at Madrid. Another collector resident
+in Spain, Mons. Mersmann, of Granada, possesses
+a series of fine Brussels cloths representing scenes
+from <i>Don Quixote</i>, by Van den Hecke.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> &ldquo;A c�t� de l'Italie, il faut citer l'Espagne, tributaire comme elle
+des ateliers flamands. Les r�sidences royales regorgeaient de ces
+pr�cieux tissus, qui aujourd'hui encore, � Madrid ou � l'Escurial, se
+chiffrent par centaines. Parmi les pr�sents que le roi de Castille
+envoya � Tamerlan (&#8224; 1405), on remarquait des tapisseries dont les
+portraits �taient faits avec tant de d�licatesse, dit un chroniqueur
+persan, que si on voulait leur comparer les ouvrages merveilleux
+autrefois ex�cut�s par le peintre Mani sur la toile d'Art�ne, Mani
+serait couvert de honte et ses ouvrages para�traient difformes.&rdquo;&mdash;M�ntz,
+<i>La Tapisserie</i>, p. 172.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> A Portuguese word meaning a strip of silk upon the back of a
+chasuble.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Manuel G. Simancas, <i>Artistas Castellanos del Siglo XIII</i>
+(<i>Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones</i> for January,
+1905.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a>  At about the same time that this petition was presented by
+Gutierrez, another tapestry-maker named Pedro de Espinosa, a
+native of Iniesta, was living at Cordova. On February 2nd, 1560,
+he married Leonor de Burgos, and received as dowry from his bride
+the sum of thirty-five thousand <i>maravedis</i>. (Ram�rez de Arellano,
+<i>Artistas Exhumados</i>, published in the <i>Bolet�n de la Sociedad
+Espa�ola de Excursiones</i>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Reposteros</i>,&rdquo; says Ria�o, &ldquo;is the ancient name given to the
+hangings which are placed outside the balconies on state occasions
+in Spain. Several splendid examples of the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries may still be seen at the houses of Spanish grandees,
+of which those belonging to the Conde de O�ate and Marques de
+Alca�ices at Madrid are the most remarkable for their artistic design.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is surprising that Ria�o should insert so incomplete a definition
+of this word, whose primitive and proper meaning, according to the
+Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, is &ldquo;a square piece of cloth
+with the arms of a prince or Se�or, which serves for covering
+baggage carried by beasts of burden, and also for hanging in antechambers.&rdquo;
+See also Vol. II., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> (note) of the present work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The royal contract with the elder Van der Goten, dated July
+30th, 1720, was the result of secret negotiations, and largely brought
+about by the influence of Philip's minister, Cardinal Alberoni.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> &ldquo;On Saturday, May 27th, passing through the gate of Saint
+Barbara, I visited the tapestry manufactory, which resembles, and
+equals in beauty, the Gobelins, whence it originally came. I found
+a Frenchman at the head of it, who was civil and communicative.
+This fabric was brought into Spain, and established here under the
+direction of John de Van Dergoten, from Antwerp, in the year 1720.
+They now employ fourscore hands, and work only on the king's
+account, and for his palaces, making and repairing all the tapestry
+and carpets which are wanted at any of the <i>Sitios</i>, or royal residences.&rdquo;&mdash;Townsend,
+in 1786.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The elegant manufacture of tapestry is carried on without Saint
+Barbe's gate, at the entrance of the promenade of Los Altos, or
+Chamberi; it was established in 1720 by Philip the Fifth, at whose
+invitation John Dergoten, of Antwerp, was induced to undertake its
+superintendence, an office at present filled by his descendants.
+The productions of this manufactory are carpets and tapestry, the
+subjects of which are often drawn from fable or history; it sometimes
+copies pictures executed by superior artists, and affords daily
+employment to eighty persons, including dyers, drawers, designers,
+and all its various branches.&rdquo;&mdash;Laborde (about 1800).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los R�os, <i>Noticia general para la
+estimaci�n de las Artes y de la manera en que se conocen las liberales
+de las que son mec�nicas y serviles</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Ria�o estimates them at this number. See his <i>Report on a
+collection of photographs from tapestries of the Royal Palace of
+Madrid</i>; London, 1875; and also <i>Tapices de la Corona de Espa�a</i>,
+with 135 plates in phototype, and text by Count Valencia de Don
+Juan; Madrid, Hauser and Menet, 1903.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> M�ntz, <i>La Tapisserie</i>, pp. 217, 218. Wauters, <i>Les Tapisseries
+Bruxelloises</i>, pp. 76, 77. Houdoy, <i>Tapisseries repr�sentant la Conqueste
+du Royaulme de Thunes par l'empereur Charles-Quint</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See an article on these tapestries by Se�or Lamperez y Romea,
+published in No. 55 of the <i>Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de
+Excursiones</i>; and also Nos. 156 and 157 of the same publication,
+for an article on the Crown and other Spanish collections, by El�as
+Tormo y Monz�.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="LACE" id="LACE">LACE</a></h3>
+
+<p>Although the Spaniards have enjoyed, and still
+enjoy, a widespread fame for lace-making, their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+written records of this craft are unsubstantial.
+Originally, perhaps, they borrowed it from the
+Arabs or Venetians. Certainly, the earliest
+Spanish lace was such as is made with a needle,
+that is, point, not pillow lace. In this form, <i>� la
+aguja</i>, and in the sixteenth century, the Spaniards
+possibly conveyed the secrets of its manufacture
+to the Netherlands, receiving from the natives of
+this country, in exchange, the art of making lace
+by means of bobbins, including the characteristic
+&ldquo;Flemish net,&rdquo; or <i>red fland�s</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the sixteenth century the parts of
+Spain where lace was manufactured in the largest
+quantity were some of the Manchegan towns and
+villages, the coast of Finisterre, and nearly the
+whole of Catalu�a. In La Mancha lace was made,
+and still is so, at Manzanares, Granatula, Almagro,
+and other places. That of Almagro (the celebrated
+<i>punto de Almagro</i>, resembling the lace of
+Catalu�a), is mentioned by nearly all the older
+travellers. In <i>Don Quixote</i>, Teresa writes to
+Sancho Panza that their daughter Sanchita was
+engaged in making bobbin-lace at a daily wage of
+eight <i>sueldos</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_160.jpg" width="334" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_160.jpg" id="img_160.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVI<br />THE MARCHIONESS OF LA SOLANA<br />
+(<i>By Goya</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1877, at the Exhibition of Sumptuary Arts
+which was held in Barcelona, a magnificent lace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+<i>toca</i> was shown, which was affirmed by its possessor,
+Se�or Parcerisa, to be the work of a Spaniard of
+the later part of the fifteenth century, and to have
+belonged to Isabella the Catholic. The cathedral
+of the same city owns three thread-lace albs of
+sixteenth century workmanship, and the South
+Kensington Museum other pieces of Spanish lace
+of a comparatively early date, probably made by
+nuns and subtracted from the convents during the
+stormy scenes of 1835.</p>
+
+<p>Dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, we have a number of notices, though
+scrappy and inexplicit as a rule, relating to
+Spanish lace. One of the more complete and interesting
+is quoted by Ria�o from the <i>Microcosmia
+y Gobierno Universal del Hombre Cristiano</i>
+(Barcelona, 1592) of Father Marcos Antonio de
+Campos. &ldquo;I will not be silent,&rdquo; wrote this
+austere <i>padre</i>, &ldquo;and fail to mention the time lost
+these last years in the manufacture of <i>cadenetas</i>,
+a work of thread combined with gold and silver;
+this extravagance and excess reached such a point
+that 100 and 1000 ducats were spent in this work,
+in which, besides destroying the eyesight, wasting
+away the lives, and rendering consumptive the
+women who worked it, and preventing them from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+spending their time with more advantage to their
+souls, a few ounces of thread and years of time
+were wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I
+ask myself, after this fancy shall have passed
+away, will the lady or gentleman find that the
+chemises that cost them 50 ducats, or the <i>basqui�a</i>
+(petticoat) that cost them 300, are worth half their
+price, which certainly is the case with other objects
+in which the material itself is worth more?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_162.jpg" width="364" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_162.jpg" id="img_162.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVII<br />A SPANISH <i>MAJA</i><br />
+(<i>A.D. 1777</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several of the other notices relating to the
+lace-makers' craft are from the pen of Countess
+d'Aulnoy. Of the Countess of Lemos this writer
+says: &ldquo;Her hair was white, but she carefully
+concealed it beneath a black blonde&rdquo;; and of
+another Spanish lady, Do�a Leonor de Toledo,
+that she wore &ldquo;a green velvet skirt trimmed with
+Spanish blonde.&rdquo; In the apartments of the young
+Princess of Montele�n the countess saw &ldquo;a bed
+of green and gold damask, decorated with silver
+brocade and Spanish blonde. The sheets were
+fringed with English point-lace, extremely broad
+and handsome.&rdquo; The countess also says that the
+petticoats of the Spanish ladies were of English
+point-lace,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> and that these ladies, when they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+visited each other, wore on their heads &ldquo;a <i>toca</i>
+of the richest English black point-lace, half a yard
+broad, forming points like the antique laces,
+beautiful to look at, and very dear. This head-dress
+suits them rarely.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Balsa de la Vega, whose interesting
+articles on Spanish lace (published in the
+newspaper <i>El Liberal</i>) are worth perusal by all
+who are interested in this craft, about the middle
+of the seventeenth century the custom originated
+in Spain of making lace in broader pieces, dividing
+the pattern into a number of strips or <i>fajas</i> which
+were subsequently sewn together. In Belgium,
+on the contrary, the design was cut out, following
+the contour of the floral or other decoration.</p>
+
+<p>In former ages gold and silver lace was made
+in France, and also at Genoa. I think it possible
+that Genoese merchants, many of whom are known
+to have settled in Granada and other Spanish
+cities, may first have introduced this branch of
+lace-making among the Spaniards. The sumptuary
+laws of Aragon, Castile, Le�n, and Navarre
+would seem to show that lace of these materials,
+known as <i>punto</i> or <i>redecilla de oro</i> (or <i>plata</i>) was
+manufactured by the Spanish Jews between
+the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. During the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+seventeenth century and part of the eighteenth,
+the quantity produced in the Peninsula was very
+large. In his <i>Fenix de Catalu�a</i>, a work which
+was published at Barcelona in 1683, Feliu de la
+Pe�a says that Spanish <i>randa</i> or <i>r�seuil</i>, of gold
+and silver, silk, thread, and aloe fibre, was better
+made in Spain than in the Netherlands. The
+journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the following
+notice of this silver lace: &ldquo;Le Roy y envoya le
+Lieutenant du Maistre des Postes, avec huit
+postillons, couverts de clinquant, et quarante
+chevaux de poste, dont il y en avoit huit avec des
+selles et des brides du Roy o� il y avoit de la
+dentelle d'argent, que Monsieur le Mareschal fit
+distribuer � environ autant de gens que nous
+estions, sur une liste qu'il avoit envoy�e quelques
+jours auparavant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_164.jpg" width="284" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_164.jpg" id="img_164.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVIII<br /><i>MAJA</i><br />
+(<i>By Goya</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is impossible to mention Spanish lace without
+recalling that most graceful article of headwear,
+the <i>mantilla</i>, the use of which is gradually
+dying out. At present we understand by this
+word a black or white head-covering of lace alone
+(the white being more conspicuous and dressy),
+but about a hundred years ago the <i>mantilla</i> was
+made of a variety of fabrics. Also, it was worn
+in an easier and more <i>neglig�</i> manner than nowadays,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+retaining a closer likeness to the <i>velo</i> or
+<i>manto</i> with which the Spanish women of the
+seventeenth century were able, at their pleasure,
+to completely mask their faces (Plates <a href="#img_160.jpg">xxvi</a>. and
+<a href="#img_162.jpg">xxvii</a>.). Indeed, as late as the early part of the
+nineteenth century the <i>mantilla</i> was sometimes
+thrown over the face (Plates <a href="#img_164.jpg">xxviii</a>. and <a href="#img_166.jpg">xxix</a>.).
+The same usage is referred to by Townsend, who
+describes the <i>mantilla</i> as &ldquo;serving the double purpose
+of a cloak and veil.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> To-day it is worn, not
+hanging loose and open, but a good deal bunched
+up at the bosom. The hair, too, is dressed to an
+unusual height, with a tall comb, and over this
+the delicate lace covering should droop a little to
+one side. A flower or two (roses or carnations by
+preference) may be worn at one side of the head,
+and where the <i>mantilla</i> is caught up at the breast.</p>
+
+<p>The manuscript account of Spanish costumes
+early in the nineteenth century, and which is prefixed
+to my copy of Pigal's coloured lithographs,
+contains some excellent descriptions of the older<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+Spanish <i>mantilla</i>. We learn, for instance, that
+at Palma the women of the well-to-do middle class
+wore a <i>mantilla</i> of black taffeta, trimmed with
+blonde (Plate <a href="#img_134.jpg">xviii</a>.).<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In La Mancha, and among
+the peasants, it was of white muslin; at Cordova,
+in cold weather, &ldquo;en flanelle ou en bayette fine:
+elle est garnie de rubans � l'extr�mit� desquels il
+y a deux gros noeuds: en �t� elle est en mousseline.&rdquo;
+The small <i>mantilla</i> or &ldquo;mantellina&rdquo; of
+the wife of the smuggler of Tarifa was &ldquo;en flanelle
+blanche, ou noire, ou rose, brod�e d'un ruban:
+elle en fait tr�s souvent un usage diff�rent des
+autres femmes espagnoles, car au lieu de la mettre
+sur la t�te attach�e avec des �pingles, elle s'en
+sert de schal: quelque fois elle la met en baudrier
+laissant flotter derri�re elle les deux extr�mit�s
+qui sont orn�es d'un noeud en ruban.&rdquo; The
+servant-girl of Madrid wore a white <i>mantilla</i> in
+summer, and a black one in winter. The same
+author describes in greater detail the <i>mantillas</i> of
+the fine ladies. &ldquo;La mantille et la basquigne,&rdquo; he
+says, &ldquo;voila de quoi se compose principalement
+le costume du beau sexe en Espagne. Ce costume,
+quoique national, est susceptible de recevoir aussi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+bien que tout autre les divers degr�s de luxe que
+les femmes d'une riche classe et celles du plus
+haut rang peuvent apporter dans leur parure: la
+classe la moins ais�e porte la mantille en laine
+noire ou blanche et la basquigne en serge ou autre
+�toffe de laine noire. Pendant le jour, lorsque les
+dames espagnoles se pr�sentent en public, c'est
+toujours avec la mantille et la basquigne, mais le
+soir si elles vont au spectacle ou ailleurs, elles
+sortent tr�s souvent habill�es � la fran�aise.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_166.jpg" width="407" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_166.jpg" id="img_166.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIX<br />A LADY OF SORIA<br />
+(<i>About A.D. 1810</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Elsewhere he says: &ldquo;Nous avons d�j� dit qu'un
+simple ruban, un peigne, ou une fleur, est la
+coiffure adopt�e par les dames espagnoles, pour
+faire usage de la mantille: celle-ci est dans l'hiver
+quelquefois en serge de soie, taffetas, etc., noir,
+garnie en outre de blondes, ou d'un large ruban
+de velours noir en �chiquier (<i>cinta de terciopelo �
+tablero</i>), mais ce ruban est toujours noir. Il y
+eut un temps o� la mode, qui ne fut pas de longue
+dur�e, prescrivait que les bouts de la mantille se
+terminassent en trois pointes orn�es chacune d'une
+houppe (<i>borla</i>) noire, ou d'un lacet de ruban noir.
+Jamais les mantilles ne sont doubl�es.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author remarks of the lady of Madrid;
+&ldquo;La mantille de tulle brod� ne se porte que dans
+la belle saison &hellip; elle ne d�passe jamais la<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+ceinture&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>; and of the lady of Granada: &ldquo;si la
+mantille est blanche, elle est en tulle parsem� de
+petits bouquets et garnie de larges et riches
+dentelles. Si elle est noire, comme cela arrive
+plus ordinairement, elle est alors en blonde: il y
+a de ces mantilles qui coutent cinq cent, mille, et
+jusqu'� deux mille francs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_168.jpg" width="350" height="348"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_168.jpg" id="img_168.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXX<br />HANDKERCHIEF OF CATALAN LACE<br />
+(<i>Presented to Queen Victoria of Spain, on her marriage</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A good deal of lace, principally of the less
+elaborate and cheaper kinds, was formerly manufactured
+in the kingdom of Valencia. Cabanillas
+wrote in 1797 that at Novelda, a small town of
+this region, more than two thousand women and
+children worked at making laces, which were
+hawked about the country by others of the townspeople.
+Swinburne remarks upon the same
+industry, and Ricord tells us in his pamphlet
+(1791) that cotton lace was made in six factories
+at Torrente, Alicante, and Orihuela.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> The total
+product of these factories for the said year was
+1,636,100 yards, which sold at from nine to twelve
+<i>reales</i> the yard. Laborde wrote some years later,
+in the first volume of his book, that lace, and gold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+and silver fringes were then made at Valencia,
+and in the fourth volume; &ldquo;Gold and silver laced
+stuffs, and velvets of all colours brocaded and
+flowered with the same metals, are made at Toledo,
+Barcelona, Valencia, and Talavera de la Reina;
+and the manufacture at the last-named city
+annually consumes four thousand marks of silver,
+and seventy marks of gold.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At Barcelona, Talavera de la Reina, and
+Valencia are also manufactured gold and silver
+edgings, lace, and fringes, though not in a
+sufficient quantity to answer the demands of
+Spain; and the gold is very badly prepared,
+having too red a cast.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Lace-making was an ancient and important
+industry of every part of Catalu�a. Lace articles
+for ladies' headwear are known to have been
+made throughout this region at least as far back as
+the fifteenth century, and Capmany reminds us that
+by a <i>cedula</i> dated from the Cortes of Monz�n,
+December 16th, 1538, the Emperor Charles the
+Fifth confirmed the Ordinances of the guild,
+established long before, of the <i>tejedores de velos</i>
+of Barcelona. Technical provisions are embodied
+in this code, concerning various articles of lace employed
+as headwear, such as <i>alfardillas</i>, <i>qui�ales</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+and <i>espumilla</i>, all of which were largely exported
+to America.</p>
+
+<p>The attention of foreigners who travelled in
+Catalu�a towards the eighteenth century was
+constantly attracted by the lace-makers. Swinburne
+mentions &ldquo;Martorell, a large town, where
+much black lace is manufactured,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Espalungera
+(Esparraguera?), a long village, full of
+cloth and lace manufacturers,&rdquo; and wrote of Sarri�
+and its surroundings, close to Barcelona: &ldquo;The
+women in the little hamlets were busy with their
+bobbins making black lace, some of which, of the
+coarser kind, is spun out of the leaf of the aloe.
+It is curious, but of little use, for it grows
+mucilaginous with washing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_170.jpg" width="345" height="481"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_170.jpg" id="img_170.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXI<br />CURTAIN OF SPANISH LACE<br />
+(<i>Point and Pillow Work. Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Martorell,&rdquo; wrote Townsend in 1786, &ldquo;is one
+long, narrow street, in which poverty, industry,
+and filth, although seldom seen together, have
+agreed to take up their abode. The inhabitants
+make lace, and even the little children of three
+and four years old are engaged in this employment.&rdquo;
+Laborde wrote that at the beginning of
+the eighteenth century seventeen manufactories
+of blondes were established at Matar�, and adds
+of Barcelona province generally at that time:
+&ldquo;Laces and blondes constitute the employment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+women and children. The work is principally
+done at Pineda, Malgrat, San Celoni, Tosa,
+Canet, Arenys, Callela, San-Pol, Matar�, Esparraguera,
+Martorell, and Barcelona&hellip;. The laces
+are almost all shipped for the New World.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The most observant and most entertaining of
+all these tourists was Arthur Young, who wrote, in
+1787, of the towns upon the coast of Catalu�a:
+&ldquo;The appearance of industry is as great as it can
+be: great numbers of fishing-boats and nets, with
+rows of good white houses on the sea-side; and
+while the men are active in their fisheries, the
+women are equally busy making lace.&rdquo; Of
+Matar� he says: &ldquo;It appears exceedingly industrious;
+some stocking-frames; lace-makers at
+every door&hellip;. I am sorry to add that here also
+the industry of catching lice in each other's heads
+is well understood.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Pass Arrengs (Arenys), a large town &hellip;
+making thread lace universal here. They have
+thread from France; women earn ten to sixteen
+<i>sous</i> at it. Great industry, and in consequence a
+flourishing appearance. Canet, another large
+town, employed also in ship-building, fishing, and
+making lace&hellip;. Pass Malgrat, which is not
+so well built as the other towns, but much lace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+made in it&hellip;. Reach Figueras, whose inhabitants
+seem industrious and active. They make
+lace, cordage, and mats, and have many potteries
+of a common sort.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>Lace-making prevails to-day all through this
+region of north-eastern Spain, particularly in the
+strip or zone of it including the valley of the
+Llobregat as far as Martorell, and which extends
+from Palam�s to Barcelona. The towns which
+produce the greatest quantities of lace are Arenys
+de Mar, Malgrat, San Pol, Canet, and Arenys de
+Munt. In the last of these places an important
+Regional Exhibition of Lace was held in July of
+last year, the number of exhibitors amounting to
+one hundred and twenty-five. Due to the increasing
+production of underlinen and woven
+fabrics generally, or to other causes, lace-making
+has declined at Blanes, Pineda, Calella, and one
+or two other places. At San Celoni, Vallgorguina,
+San Vicente, San Andr�s de Llevaneras, Argentona,
+Caldeta, and San Acisclo de Vilalta, lace is
+made by women who combine this work with
+dirtier and rougher labour in the field. Most of
+the lace made in these towns is therefore black.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_172.jpg" width="500" height="338"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_172.jpg" id="img_172.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXII<br />POINT LACE FAN, OF MUDEJAR DESIGN<br />
+(<i>Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the spring of last year, an elaborate lace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+pocket-handkerchief (Plate <a href="#img_168.jpg">xxx</a>.), designed by
+Se�or Riquer, and executed in a traditional style
+of Catalu�a, denominated locally the <i>ret Catal�</i>,
+was made in the old-established lace-factory of the
+widow of Mariano Castells in the town of Arenys
+de Mar, and offered by the Agricultural Institute
+of San Isidro as a wedding-present to Princess
+Ena of Battenberg. Two <i>encajeras</i> worked at
+this handkerchief under the personal direction of
+the widow Castells, and the time employed by
+them in making it was two months.</p>
+
+<p>Plate xxxi. represents a small portion of a
+very original and beautiful lace curtain, ten feet
+high, designed by Se�or Aguado, and executed,
+partly by Se�orita Pilar Huguet (who superintended
+the work throughout), and partly by
+seventeen of this lady's pupils, at the School of
+Arts and Industries, Toledo. Although it is a
+hackneyed trope to declare that the ornamentation
+of the Spanish-Moors, whether in ivory, wood or
+metal, stone or plaster, was &ldquo;delicate enough to
+seem of lacework,&rdquo; I believe this to be the first
+occasion when such intricate and graceful
+motives have been actually reproduced in lace.
+The result of the experiment has proved surprisingly
+effective. The design is Spanish-Arabic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+in its purest form, recalling various arabesques
+upon the walls of the Alhambra, and includes
+thirty-three medallions which constitute the principal
+decorative scheme, a hundred and forty-eight
+palms or <i>alharacas</i>, and the Arabic expression
+&ldquo;God is all-powerful,&rdquo; repeated sixty-six times.
+The centre of the curtain consists in all of four
+hundred and forty-eight pieces. The broad cenefa
+or bordering, which runs right round the whole,
+contains, in Arabic, the following inscription:
+&ldquo;This curtain was begun in the <i>curso</i> (course or
+series of classes) of the year 1903&ndash;1904, and
+terminated in the <i>curso</i> following, (Art) School
+of Toledo.&rdquo; The style adopted throughout is that
+of Brussels, known erroneously as English point,
+although upon a coarser scale than is considered
+to be proper to this lace, the ground being executed
+by the needle, or in point-work, and the
+rest by bobbins.</p>
+
+<p>Plate xxxii. represents a covering for a fan,
+also executed by Se�orita Huguet, and also in
+the Brussels style. The design is a combination
+of Mudejar motives, such as conventional
+foliage and geometrical bordering, with a Spanish
+scutcheon and the double-headed eagle of the
+Emperor Charles the Fifth.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day, and largely owing to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+initiative and the skilled tuition of Se�or Salvi,
+excellent lace is manufactured at Madrid, including
+reproductions&mdash;which have been generally admired
+in Great Britain and elsewhere&mdash;of the finest
+point or bobbin work of Malines, Manchester, and
+Venice.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Upon the other hand, a notice dated 1562 says that at that time
+Spanish-made black lace was largely used at the Court of England.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> &ldquo;Pour les femmes, elles ne sortent point qu'emmantel�es d'une
+mante noire comme le de�il des dames de France, et elles ne se montrent
+qu'un &oelig;uil, et vont cherchant et aga�ant les hommes avec tant
+d'effronterie, qu'elles tiennent � affront quand on ne veut pas aller
+plus loin que la conversation.&rdquo;&mdash;Bertaut de Rouen; <i>Journal du
+Voyage d'Espagne</i>, p. 294.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Blonde, I need hardly state, is silk-lace. It can always be distinguished
+by the glossy surface.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a>  This is incorrect. It was sometimes worn longer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a>  A letter from Vargas y Ponce to Cean Bermudez, dated 1797,
+says that in this year there existed at Murcia a school for making
+blondes, owned by one Castilla. &ldquo;He does good work, teaches well,
+and has executed blondes for the Queen, which are well spoken of.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Tour in Catalonia in 1787; Vol. I., p. 644, etc.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES">Appendices</a></h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX A</h3>
+
+<p class="title">THE LEGEND OF SAN MIGUEL IN EXCELSIS</p>
+
+<p>Towards the year <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 707, when Witiza was king of
+Spain, there dwelt at the castle of Go�i, not far from the
+city of Pamplona in Navarre, a cavalier named Don
+Theodosio, whose wife, Do�a Constanza de Viandra,
+was a lady of remarkable beauty. On one occasion
+Don Theodosio found himself obliged to quit his native
+country for a time, in order to command a military
+expedition against the Berbers, and before his departure
+he begged his father and mother to cheer his wife's
+loneliness while he should be away, by taking up their
+residence at his castle. They came accordingly, and as
+a special mark of honour to the parents of her lord, Do�a
+Constanza gave up to them her own chamber, together
+with the nuptial couch. After a time, when Theodosio's
+enterprise was concluded, and the warrior, safe and sound,
+was returning to Navarre, the Devil, disguised as a
+hermit, one evening lay in wait for him at a spot called
+Errotavidea, situated at a few miles' distance from Go�i
+castle, in the wooded and romantic valley of the Ollo.
+Stepping up to the cavalier's side, Satan assured him, in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+tone of smooth hypocrisy, that during his absence the lady
+Constanza had been seduced by one of Theodosio's own
+servants. Upon the knight's demanding proof, &ldquo;proceed,&rdquo;
+replied the Devil, &ldquo;to your castle, enter your nuptial
+chamber, and there you will find your consort in the
+very arms of her paramour.&rdquo; Frantic with apprehension,
+the warrior spurred home, broke into his chamber at the
+dead of night, and, passing his hand over the bed, encountered,
+as Satan had malignantly foretold, two bodies;
+whereupon he drew his sword and, in this moment of
+fatal and irreflective haste, murdered his own father
+and mother. Then, just as he was rushing from
+the room, he met, carrying a lighted lamp, the lady
+Constanza herself, returning from the chapel in which,
+as was her custom every night, she had been praying
+for his safe return.</p>
+
+<p>Smitten with deep repentance for the crime, whose
+enormity had been discovered by the impetuous lord in
+so dramatic and dreadful a fashion, Theodosio journeyed
+to Rome, and related what had happened to the Pope,
+who sentenced him to wear a heavy iron collar round
+his neck, and chains about his body, and to wander, in
+a state of rigorous penance, through the loneliest regions
+of Navarre, without setting foot in any town, until, as a
+sign that divine justice was satisfied, the chains should
+fall from off him. Wherever this should come to pass,
+he was instructed to build a temple in honour of the
+archangel Michael.</p>
+
+<p>The sentence was patiently performed, and Theodosio
+had spent some years in solitary wandering, when on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+a day a single link dropped from his ponderous chains.
+This happened on the top of a high mountain called
+Ayedo, in the Sierra de And�a, and accordingly the
+penitent erected on the spot a simple fane in the
+archangel's honour, known by the name of San Miguel
+de Ayedo, and which, in the form of a little hermitage,
+still exists.</p>
+
+<p>This proof of heavenly grace presaged a further and a
+more complete deliverance. When Theodosio's wandering
+had lasted seven years, he reached one day the
+summit of Mount Aralar, at two leagues' distance from
+his own castle, and was there met by a ferocious dragon
+of appalling size. Being, as a penitent, unarmed, as
+well as encumbered by his massive chains, the miserable
+man fell helpless to his knees, and called to God to
+succour him. The prayer was heard. Suddenly the
+form of his patron the archangel flashed out against the
+sky, the dragon fell dead, and all of Theodosio's chains
+were shattered, and dropped from him. Here, therefore,
+he built another and a larger temple in honour of his
+guardian, and, accompanied by Do�a Constanza, passed
+the remainder of his life in peaceful and secluded piety.</p>
+
+<p>The castle of Go�i, which was also called &ldquo;Saint
+Michael's palace,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the palace of the cavalier to
+whom Saint Michael revealed himself,&rdquo; was standing as
+late as the year 1685, but, according to Padre Burgui, by
+the close of another century the walls were crumbling
+fast. Until about the year 1715 there also stood an
+ancient wooden cross to mark the spot where Satan, in
+a hermit's garb, had appeared to Don Theodosio.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX B</h3>
+
+<p class="title">JET-WORK OF SANTIAGO</p>
+
+<p>In former times the art of carving jet was largely
+practised at this town. The characteristic form was the
+<i>signaculum</i> or image of Saint James; that is, a more or
+less uncouth representation of the apostle in full pilgrim's
+dress. The height of these images, which are now
+dispersed all over Europe, varies between four and
+seven inches. They are fully described in Drury
+Fortnum's monographs, <i>On a signaculum of Saint James
+of Compostela</i>, and <i>Notes on other signacula of Saint
+James of Compostela</i>, as well as in Villa-amil y Castro's
+<i>La azabacher�a compostelana</i>. These objects were sold
+in quantities to the pilgrims visiting Santiago, who
+nevertheless were often cheated by the substitution of
+black glass for jet.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>Specimens of this work are in the British and Cluny<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+Museums, and in the Arch�ological Museum at Madrid.
+An interesting jet figure of the apostle on horseback
+belonged to the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan.
+Jet processional crosses (twelfth and thirteenth century),
+studded with enamel, and which were used at funerals,
+are preserved in the cathedrals of Oviedo and Orense.
+Rings, rosaries, and amulets were also carved from this
+material.</p>
+
+<p>As to Spanish processional crosses generally (the use
+of which was undoubtedly borrowed from the standard
+borne at the head of pagan armies), I may say that they
+are commonly fitted with a handle, called the <i>cruz baja</i>
+or &ldquo;lower cross,&rdquo; though sometimes this handle is dispensed
+with, as, for instance, at the funerals of infants.
+According to Villa-amil y Castro, the typical shape of
+the Spanish processional cross has always been that
+denominated the <i>immissa</i>, consisting of four arms
+terminating in straight edges. The same authority says
+that within this broader definition the primitive form
+was the Greek cross, that is, having four arms of equal
+length. Another early form was the &ldquo;Oviedo&rdquo; cross
+(see Vol. I., Plate <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#img_36.jpg">II</a>.), with the four arms in the shape of
+trapezia, united at the centre by a disc. Of this latter
+shape are, or were, the crosses of Guarrazar and those
+which were presented by Alfonso the Second and Alfonso
+the Third to the cathedrals of Oviedo and Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>A later form was the <i>potenzada</i> cross, which had a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+cross-piece fixed at the extremity of each arm. As time
+advanced, this T-shaped termination to the arms assumed
+such decorative and capricious forms as the trefoil and
+the fleur-de-lis. Early in the history of the Spanish
+church the processional cross consisted often of a
+wooden core, covered with more or less profusely
+ornamented silver plates, and having, between the handle
+and the upper part, an enamelled bulb or <i>n&oelig;ud</i>. The
+image of Christ, converting the cross into the crucifix,
+was not attached until a later period, because, as Villa-amil
+y Castro has remarked, the primitive Christians considered
+the essential glory of their faith, rather than, as
+yet, the perils and the pains to which they were exposed
+by clinging to that faith. The cross was thus the symbol
+of the Christian's glory; the crucifix, of his suffering.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX C</h3>
+
+<p class="title">DESCRIPTION OF THE <i>CUSTODIAS</i> OF SEVILLE AND CORDOVA</p>
+
+<p>The <i>custodia</i> of Seville cathedral is described by its
+author, Juan de Arfe, in the following terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The shape is circular, with projecting friezes and
+bases. The <i>custodia</i> is four yards high, and is divided
+into four orders of symmetrical proportions, the second
+order being smaller by two-fifths than the first, the third
+smaller by the same fraction than the second, and the
+fourth than the third. Each order rests upon four-and-twenty
+columns, twelve of which are of a larger size, and
+wrought in relief. The other and the smaller twelve are
+striated, and serve as imposts to the arches. All these
+orders are of open work, containing twelve <i>vistas</i> (prospects)
+apiece. Six are of full dimensions, and the other
+six spring from half-way up the larger ones, as is shown
+in the appended design, which I will not explain further,
+as the proportion and harmony can be judged of from
+the plan (see Vol. I., Plate <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#img_100.jpg">xvii</a>.).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="title">FIRST ORDER</p>
+
+<p>The first order is in the Ionic style. The columns and
+frieze are adorned with vines containing fruits and
+foliage, and some figures of children holding spikes of
+wheat, to signify bread and wine. In the centre of this,
+the largest order, is Faith, represented by the figure of
+a queen, seated on a throne, holding in her right hand a
+chalice with the host, and in the other a standard such
+as is seen in certain ancient medals of the emperors
+Constantine and Theodosius. Beneath her feet is a
+world, and behind her, overthrown and bound with
+chains, a monster with the face of a beautiful woman
+and the trunk or body of a dragon, to represent Heresy,
+which seems to attract by pleasantness of shape, being
+at bottom poison and deceit.</p>
+
+<p>At one side is the figure of a youth with wings, and a
+bandage over his eyes, representing Intelligence. His
+hands are shackled, and he is kneeling, as one that
+surrenders himself captive to Faith in all her mysteries,
+and particularly in this one.</p>
+
+<p>Corresponding to this figure, on the opposite side, is
+that of a beautiful woman, likewise kneeling, crossing
+her hands before her breast, and holding a book, to
+represent Human Wisdom, which acknowledges the
+majesty of the Catholic Faith, and is subservient thereto.</p>
+
+<p>On the right hand of Faith is Saint Peter, seated,
+holding his keys on high, and on her left Saint Paul,
+with naked sword, that is, the preaching of the word of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+God. High up, about the spring of the vault, is the
+figure of the Holy Spirit, assistant in the church.</p>
+
+<p>Between the six <i>asientos</i> of the base are the four
+doctors of the Church, together with Saint Thomas and
+Pope Urban the Fourth, who instituted the festival of
+the Holy Sacrament.</p>
+
+<p>All these figures are half a yard in height; that is, one
+half the height of the larger columns belonging to this
+order.</p>
+
+<p>In the six niches that are between the arches, are the
+figures of six Sacraments, in this wise:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Baptism</i>, represented by the figure of a youth
+holding in one hand a bunch of lilies, signifying purity
+and innocence, and in the other a beautiful vessel,
+showing the act of washing the soul, that is the particular
+virtue of this Sacrament. Over the arch is a scroll
+containing the word <span class="smcap">BAPTISMUS</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Confirmation</i> is a damsel of spirited mien, armed
+with a helmet. In one hand she has some vessels of
+holy oil. Her other hand is raised, while with the index
+finger she expresses firm determination to confess the
+name of Christ. Inscribed upon her is the word
+<span class="smcap">CONFIRMATIO</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Penitence</i> holds in her right hand a wand, denoting
+spiritual jurisdiction, like the wand wherewith they
+smite the excommunicated at his absolution. In her
+left hand is a Roman javelin, that was the symbol of
+liberty, to signify the free estate of the captive's soul,
+and how, through absolution, sin is made a slave;
+together with the word <span class="smcap">P&#338;NITENTIA</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Extreme Unction</i> is represented by an aged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+woman, holding a vase whence issueth an olive bough,
+and in her other hand a candle, as token that this
+Sacrament is a succour to those that be in the last
+agony. The word inscribed is <span class="smcap">UNCTIO</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Order</i> is a priest with his vestments, holding an
+incensory, together with a chalice and the host, signifying
+Oration and Sacrifice. The word inscribed is <span class="smcap">ORDO</span>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) <i>Matrimony</i> is the figure of a youth, holding in one
+hand a cross with two serpents twined about it, in
+imitation of Mercury's wand. In his other hand he bears
+a yoke, and the inscription <span class="smcap">MATRIMONIUM</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>The Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, as being most
+excellent of all, occupies a loftier place than all these
+other Sacraments.</p>
+
+<p>The basement of this order, forming, as it were, a
+boundary and bordering to this holy edifice of the
+Church, has twelve pedestals beneath the columns,
+making six and thirty sides, which are adorned with
+six and thirty scenes, eighteen whereof are taken from
+the Old Testament, and the other eighteen from the New
+Testament, or relating to the present state of the Church.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The first scene represents how God formed Eve
+from one of Adam's ribs. An inscription at the foot of
+the pedestal says, <i>Humani generis auspicia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Next to the preceding is an image of our Saviour
+with two angels supporting him by the arms, while from
+his wounded side issue seven rays of blood, signifying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+the Church and Sacraments. The inscription says,
+<i>Felicior propagatio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The tree of Life, with Adam and Eve partaking
+of its fruit, and the inscription, <i>Peritur� gaudia vit�</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(4) A cross adorned with branches and with blades of
+wheat, surmounted by a chalice and the host, and round
+about it a few prostrate figures, eating this holy fruit,
+and the inscription, <i>Vit� melioris origo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(5) The angel with the flaming sword, driving our
+fathers from Paradise, without suffering them to reach
+the tree of Life. The inscription says, <i>Procul, procul
+esse prophani</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) The parable of the banquet, from which was
+driven out the man that had no wedding garment. The
+inscription says, <i>Non licet sanctum dare canibus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(7) The stream of water that issued from the rock
+smitten by the rod of Moses, and the thirsty people,
+drinking. The inscription says, <i>Bibebant de spirituali
+petra</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(8) Beside the preceding, the figure of Christ, from
+whose side issues a stream of blood, of which some
+sheep are drinking. The inscription says, <i>Petra autem
+erat Christus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(9) The manna which fell from Heaven. The inscription
+says, <i>Manducaverunt et mortui sunt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(10) The miracle of the five loaves, with the inscription,
+<i>Qui manducat vivit in �ternum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(11) The raven bringing bread and meat to Elijah.
+The inscription says, <i>Non turpat dona minister</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(12) Next to this, an angel conveying a chalice and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+the host to the saints in the desert, with the inscription,
+<i>Sacerdos Angelus Domini est</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(13) Elisha throwing flour in the pot to sweeten the
+bitterness of the colocynth. The inscription says, <i>Vit�
+solamen acerb�</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(14) Christ turning the water into wine, with the inscription,
+<i>Vertit tristes in gaudia curas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(15) Tobias frightening away the Devil with the
+smoke from the liver of a fish. The inscription says,
+<i>Fumum fugit atra caterva</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(16) Devils flying from an altar containing a chalice
+and the host, with the inscription, <i>Fugiunt phantasmata
+lucem</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(17) Lot inebriated, sleeping with his daughters. The
+inscription says, <i>De vinea sodomorum vinum eorum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(18) A group of virgins prostrating themselves before
+the Sacrament upon the altar, with the inscription, <i>Hoc
+vinum virgines germinat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(19) Abraham harbouring the angels and washing
+their feet. The inscription says, <i>Non licet illotos
+accedere</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(20) Christ washing the feet of his disciples before a
+table. The inscription says, <i>Auferte malum cogitationum
+vestrarum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(21) The supper of the paschal lamb, with the inscription,
+<i>Antiqua novis misteria cedunt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(22) The supper of Christ, with the inscription,
+<i>Melioris fercula mens�</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(23) The throne of God, before which stands the
+prophet Isaiah, and an angel whose mouth is smitten by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+a lighted brand. The inscription says, <i>Purgavit filios
+Levi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(24) A priest before an altar, in his robes, administering
+the communion to the Christian people. The inscription
+says, <i>Probet se ipsum homo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(25) Elijah reclining in the shade of the tree, with an
+angel bringing him bread and a vessel. The inscription
+says, <i>In pace in idipsum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(26) A sick man in his bed, with a priest administering
+the Sacrament to him. The inscription says, <i>Dormiam
+et requiescam</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(27) Habbakuk borne by the angels to the den of
+lions, to carry food to Daniel. The inscription says,
+<i>Adjutor in opportunitatibus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(28) An angel with a chalice and the host, which he
+administers to the souls in Purgatory. The inscription
+says, <i>Emissit vinctos de lacu</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(29) Noah sleeping beneath the vine, holding a vessel,
+with his sons gathered about him. The inscription says,
+<i>Human� ebrietatis ludibria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(30) Christ with a chalice in his hand, and angels
+round him, holding clusters of grapes, and a cross surrounded
+with a vine. The inscription says, <i>Calix ejus
+inebrians quant pr�clarus est</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(31) A queen adorned profanely, crowned with a
+snake. She holds a vessel in her hand, and rides upon
+a dragon with seven heads, some of which are drooping,
+as though they were inebriated. The inscription says,
+<i>H�retic� impietatis ebrietas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(32) The figure of a virtuous lady wearing a royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+crown. She holds a chalice in her hand, and rides in a
+car borne by the figures of the four evangelists. The
+inscription says, <i>Ecclesi� Catholic� veritas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(33) The table with the loaves of propitiation, before
+the tabernacle, with Moses and Aaron standing beside
+it, and the inscription, <i>Umbram fugit veritas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(34) A custodia, with a chalice and the host, borne by
+angels. The inscription says, <i>Ecce panis angelorum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(35) David and his soldiers, who receive bread from
+the priest's hand. The inscription says, <i>Absit mens
+conscia culp�</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(36) A priest, administering the Sacrament to two
+persons, each of whom has an angel beside him. The
+inscription says, <i>Sancta sanctis</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>And since all Sacraments have virtue and efficacy
+from the passion of Christ our Saviour, which passion
+is perpetually commemorated by this holiest of Sacraments,
+I placed upon the summit of the twelve columns
+belonging to this order twelve child-angels, naked,
+bearing the signs and instruments of the Passion, as
+voices to announce this sacred mystery.</p>
+
+<p>On the tympanums of the arches are angels bearing
+grapes and ears of wheat, and in the middle of the six
+sides of the frieze are graven, upon some ovals, the
+following images and devices, the inscription corresponding
+to them being on the largest scroll of the architrave.</p>
+
+<p>(1) A garland of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, and
+in the midst thereof an open pomegranate, signifying, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+the number and cohesion of its grains, the Church,
+guarded within the fortress of this holiest of Sacraments.
+The inscription says, <i>Posuit fines tuos pacem</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A hand among clouds, extended over a nest of
+young ravens that have their beaks open and raised,
+with the inscription <i>Quanto magis vos</i>. This signifies,
+that the Lord who taketh care to sustain the infidels and
+pagans, taketh also especial care to sustain His Church
+with abundance of this celestial food.</p>
+
+<p>(3) A fair stalk of wheat, whence issue seven ears of
+great fatness, with the inscription, <i>Sempiterna satietas</i>;
+showing that, not as in the seven years in Egypt, but
+for ever, shall spiritual abundance abide in the Church of
+Christ, owing to this holy table of His body and His blood.</p>
+
+<p>(4) A stork upon a nest woven of wheat-ears and
+vine-tendrils, with the inscription, <i>Pietas incomparabilis</i>.
+Showing the piety and fatherly love that God affordeth
+to us in this Sacrament.</p>
+
+<p>(5) A hare smelling at a bough and some ears of
+wheat, with the inscription, <i>Vani sunt sensus hominis</i>.
+The hare signifies the senses, which are deceived by the
+appearance of the bread and wine, unless they be fortified
+by faith.</p>
+
+<p>(6) A hand bearing a wand, the end whereof is turning
+to a serpent, with this inscription, <i>Hic vita, hic mors</i>;
+because this Sacrament is the judgment and condemnation
+of all that receive it unworthily, but life for such
+as receive it with a clean spirit. The device has reference
+to the rod of Moses, that gave health to the people of
+Israel, affording them a passage through the midst of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+the sea, and making streams of sweet water to gush from
+the rock, but that was ruinous to the Egyptians, causing
+among them terrible sickness and destruction.</p>
+
+<p class="title">SECOND ORDER</p>
+
+<p>The second order is in the Corinthian style, the
+columns and frieze adorned with foliage in the upper
+and lower thirds, and the other one with fluted columns.
+This order contains the Holy Sacrament in a circular
+<i>viril</i> ornamented at its ends. Round it are the four
+evangelists with the figures of the lion, bull, eagle, and
+angel, adorning the majesty of the Lord that is within
+the Sacrament, whereof they gave true testimony, according
+to these words upon a tablet which each one holdeth
+in his hand:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Saint Matthew, <i>Hoc est corpus meum</i>.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Saint Mark, <i>Hic est sanguis meus</i>.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Saint John, <i>Caro mea vere est cibus</i>.</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Saint Luke, <i>Hic est calix novi testamenti</i>.</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>On the outside are placed these figures, in pairs:&mdash;Saint
+Justa and Saint Rufina, patron saints of Seville;
+San Isidro and San Leandro, archbishops of the same
+city; San Hermenegildo and San Sebastian; San Servando
+and San Germano, martyrs; San Laureano, archbishop
+of Seville, and San Carp�foro, priest; Saint
+Clement, pope, and Saint Florence, martyr.</p>
+
+<p>On the six running pedestals of the columns of this
+order are six scenes or figures of ancient sacrifices,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+symbolic of this holiest sacrifice of the Eucharist, as
+showing how this one is the consummation and perfection
+of all sacrifices, and that the light thereof dispersed
+the shadows of the others. And these be in the following
+wise:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The sacrifice of Abel.</p>
+
+<p>(2) That of Noah, on his leaving the ark.</p>
+
+<p>(3) That of Melchisidech.</p>
+
+<p>(4) That of Abraham, when he sought to sacrifice Isaac.</p>
+
+<p>(5) That of the lamb which was found in the thornbush
+and placed upon the altar.</p>
+
+<p>(6) Solomon's sacrifice at his dedication of the temple.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>On the tops of these columns are twelve figures
+representing the twelve gifts and fruits of this most holy
+Sacrament, as they are told of by Saint Thomas in his
+treatise on this mystery:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>The conquest of the Devil</i>, represented by a maiden
+beautified and adorned with a palm and a cross. The
+inscription on the pedestal says, <i>Fuga d�monis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Spiritual cheerfulness and delight</i>, in the form of
+another maiden, holding a wand wreathed with boughs
+and tendrils of the vine, and in her other hand some
+ears of wheat. The inscription says, <i>Hilaritas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Purity of soul</i>, represented by a heart among
+flames, suspended over a crucible. The inscription,
+<i>Puritas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Self-knowledge</i>, represented by a figure of Reason,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+holding in one hand a mirror, in which she regards herself,
+and in the other hand a leafy bough. The inscription
+says, <i>Cognitio sui</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Peace, and the appeasing of the wrath of God</i>, represented
+by a figure holding in one hand an olive bough,
+and in the other a cornucopia filled with grapes and
+wheat. The inscription, <i>Reconciliatio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) <i>Inward quiet and control of the affections</i>, represented
+by a figure holding some poppies in one hand,
+and in the other a lamp, the lower wick of which is
+being extinguished. The inscription says, <i>Animi qui est</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(7) <i>Charity, and profound love for God and for our
+neighbours</i>, represented by a figure holding in one hand
+a lighted heart that has two wings, and with the other
+pouring from a cornucopia. The inscription says,
+<i>Charitas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(8) <i>Increase of true worth</i>, represented by a figure holding
+in one hand a bough of mustard, that is wont to grow
+and multiply exceedingly from a tiny grain, and in the
+other hand a half-moon, receiving greater brightness as
+it waxes. The inscription says, <i>Meritorum multiplicatio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(9) <i>Firmness and constancy in well-doing</i>, represented
+by the figure of a woman holding an anchor in one hand,
+and in the other a palm. The inscription says, <i>Constantia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(10) <i>The hope that guides us to our celestial home</i>, represented
+by a figure holding in one hand a bunch of
+flowers (denoting the hope of the fruit that is to come),
+and in the other hand a star, as one that guideth to a
+haven. The inscription, <i>Deductio in patriam</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(11) <i>Resurrection</i>, represented by the figure of a beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+woman, holding in one hand a snake, and in the other
+an eagle; creatures that renew themselves by casting
+off the slough of their old age. The inscription says,
+<i>Resurrectio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(12) <i>Life Eternal</i>, represented by a figure holding a
+palm in one hand, and a crown in the other. The inscription
+says, <i>Vita �terna</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>The devices contained in this order, and in the middle
+of the frieze, are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) A bunch of grapes upon a wand, surrounded with
+ears of wheat. The inscription says, <i>C&oelig;lestis patri�
+specimen</i>. This signifies that, as the great bunch of
+grapes that was borne by Joshua and Caleb on their
+shoulders was a token of the fertile land of promise, so
+the greatness and the sweetness of this admirable Sacrament,
+which is afforded to us in the guise of bread and
+wine, is the living sign and earnest of the abundance
+reigning in the kingdom of the blessed.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A hand extending the index-finger, pointing to a
+chalice and the host, with the inscription, <i>Digitus Dei hic
+est</i>. This means that the miracle of this holiest of Sacraments
+is the work of the eternal wisdom, that cannot be
+attained by any wisdom of us humans.</p>
+
+<p>(3) A rainbow, and above it a chalice with the host, and
+the inscription, <i>Signum f&oelig;deris sempiterni</i>. Signifying,
+that as in the olden time God vouchsafed the rainbow to
+Noah in sign of friendship and alliance, so does He now
+vouchsafe His own flesh and blood as a true and effective
+token of His lasting association with mankind.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Two rays, crossed, and in their midst an olive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+bough, with the inscription, <i>Recordabor f&oelig;deris mei
+vobiscum</i>. These are the words that were spoken by
+God to Noah, when He made the said alliance with him,
+giving to understand the clemency wherewith God
+treateth mankind in the lesson of this divinest Sacrament,
+forgetting their errors, and establishing perpetual
+peace and amity with them.</p>
+
+<p>(5) The pelican feeding her young with the life-blood
+issuing from her breast. The inscription says, <i>Majorem
+charitatem nemo habet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(6) A dead lion, from whose mouth issueth a swarm
+of bees, with the inscription, <i>De forti dulcedo</i>. Giving
+to understand, that as from the mouth of so brave a
+creature there issued a substance so sweet as honey, so
+did the God of vengeance, the brave Lion of the tribe of
+Judah, concert such love and peace with man, that He
+offered His very body for man's food.</p>
+
+<p class="title">THIRD ORDER</p>
+
+<p>The rest of the third order, as far as the summit of
+the <i>custodia</i>, represents the Church triumphant: wherefore
+was placed in the midst of this order (which is in the
+composite style) the history of the Lamb that is upon
+the throne, and round about it the four beasts that are
+full of eyes, as the Apocalypse relateth.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the six continuous pedestals of the columns of
+this order are graved the following six scenes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The saints who wash their stoles in the blood that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+issues from the Lamb, as is told in the Apocalypse.</p>
+
+<p>(2) God the Father, with a sickle in His hand, and
+angels gathering grapes in the vat, and corn in the
+granary, after winnowing out the chaff; signifying the
+reward accorded unto men in sowing, and in the harvest
+of the vine.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The saints in joyful procession, each with his sheaf
+of wheat.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The virgins, crowned with vine-tendrils and ears of
+wheat, that follow the Lamb.</p>
+
+<p>(5) The five prudent virgins, that with their lighted
+lamps go in to the feast of the Bridegroom.</p>
+
+<p>(6) The banquet of the blessed.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p>Between the arches of this order are the six hieroglyphs
+following, with their inscriptions above, upon
+tablets.</p>
+
+<p>(1) A burning ph&oelig;nix, with the inscription, <i>Instauratio
+generis humani</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Two cornucopias crossed, with a cross in their
+midst. The cornucopias are full of vine-tendrils and ears
+of wheat. The inscription says, <i>Felicitas humani generis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) A kingfisher brooding over her young in a nest of
+vine-tendrils and blades of wheat, with the inscription,
+<i>Tranquillitas immutabilis</i>. This signifies the calm state
+of the blessed, whereof a token is the nest of the kingfisher,
+which bird, when it crosses the water, causes all
+storms to cease.</p>
+
+<p>(4) A car with flames, rising to heaven, with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+inscription, <i>Sic itur ad astra</i>. Signifying that this
+divinest Sacrament is the harbinger of those that travel
+heavenward, in that Elijah was so swept away, after God
+had sent him bread by the angel and the raven.</p>
+
+<p>(5) Two dolphins, whose tails are crossed, and in the
+middle a chalice and the host, with the inscription, <i>Deliti�
+generis humani</i>. By this device is signified the love and
+the delight bestowed by God on men by means of this
+Sacrament.</p>
+
+<p>(6) An altar adorned with festoons of vine-tendrils and
+blades of wheat, with flames upon it, and bearing the
+inscription, <i>�ternum sacrificium</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="title">FOURTH ORDER</p>
+
+<p>In this order is represented the Holy Trinity upon a
+rainbow, surrounded by many rays of splendour, and in
+the fifth order is a bell, surmounted by a simple cross.</p>
+
+<p>Thus are all the parts of the <i>custodia</i> adorned with the
+foregoing beautiful decoration, having regard to their
+proportions and their symmetry, according to the rules
+of good architecture, and to the movements and position
+of the statuary, designed after nature, as was prescribed
+by the inventor of histories. &ldquo;<i>Et in his omnibus sensum
+matris Ecclesi� sequimur, cujus etiam juditium reveremur.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such is the description, written by Arfe himself, of
+this wonderful masterpiece of silver-work. Unfortunately,
+since his time the <i>custodia</i> has been much meddled
+with by profane hands, and has been subjected to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+various impertinent &ldquo;restorations&rdquo; and &ldquo;improvements.&rdquo;
+Thus, the original statuette of Faith, seated on her throne,
+has been replaced by another of the Virgin, and the
+twelve child-angels, holding the instruments of the
+passion, by the same number of figures of a larger size
+and far inferior workmanship. Further, some simple
+pyramids which crowned the fourth order were foolishly
+replaced by badly executed statuettes of children, and
+the Egyptian obelisk, resting on four small spheres,
+which surmounted the whole <i>custodia</i>, by an unwieldy
+statue representing the Catholic Faith.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p class="title"><span class="smcap">Description of the <i>Custodia</i> of Cordova Cathedral</span><br />
+(From <i>C�rdoba</i>, by <span class="smcap">Pedro de Madrazo</span>)</p>
+
+<p>As I have stated in Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>, the author of this
+<i>custodia</i> was Enrique de Arfe, Juan de Arfe's grandfather.
+&ldquo;The base, supported on small wheels placed in the interior,
+is in the form of a regular dodecagon, each side of
+which measures a foot. On the twelve-sided plate which
+forms the base and which has well executed heads of
+seraphs at each corner, is an order consisting of three
+tiers. The first, which has projecting and receding
+angles, leaves, about six sides of the dodecagon, a free
+space for the handles by which the <i>custodia</i> is raised.
+The first tier forms a kind of socle with six buttresses,
+on the surface of which are represented allegorical
+scenes, alternated in rows with graceful designs in relief,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+grotesque and pastoral dances, and scenes from Bible
+history relative to the carriage of the Tabernacle. This
+tier is surmounted by a gilded balustrade of elegant
+design. The bas-reliefs are wrought alternately in gold
+and silver.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The second tier is formed by a small socle, crowned
+by a band of leaves and diminutive figures. Over this is
+a gilded balustrade, and finally another and a broader
+frieze containing gilded figures, together with delicate
+foliage wrought in dull silver. This second tier grows
+gradually narrower, and sustains the third, whose base
+projects, serving as cornice to the frieze of the tier
+below, and decorated with a gilded balustrade. Upon it
+rises a mass or body with twelve sides, following the
+same arrangement of projecting and receding angles
+as the lower tiers. In each of its receding spaces this
+order contains three compartments, and in each of its
+salient faces it has a small tower or buttress, which
+springs from the base and rests upon a delicate plinth
+carved with a gilded ornamental band. Thus, the order
+we are describing has six salient faces behind the six
+towers or buttresses, and six spaces containing three
+open compartments. In these compartments, separated
+one from another by diminutive buttresses with delicate
+pinnacles, there is the same number of sunken spaces,
+one inch deep, on which are represented, in high relief,
+scenes of the life and passion of our Lord. The figures,
+admirably executed, are two inches high. Above this
+order is a projecting cornice, decorated along its lower
+part with a band of dull silver. It should be noted, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+as the <i>custodia</i> narrows gradually as it rises, the receding
+spaces grow proportionally larger, thus affording
+room for the spacious inner order on which is raised
+the <i>viril</i>. This order is formed by a crystal cylinder
+(containing the host) resting on a base which is also
+cylindrical, the lower part of which is decorated with
+a broad hexagonal band, narrower at the top than at the
+bottom, and wrought with delicate foliage and figures, as
+are the bands which lie beneath it. Above the transparent
+cylinder enclosing the <i>viril</i> rises a Gothic vault,
+drooping over in the manner of a plume, and resting
+on the buttresses which fill the projecting spaces on
+the base of the principal order. These buttresses have
+a similar arrangement to, and coincide with, the other
+ones which spring from the base of the third tier of
+the first order, and are joined one to another by means
+of fine cross-buttresses surmounted by statuettes. The
+circular vault which holds the crystal cylinder containing
+the <i>viril</i>, and which resembles that of the rotunda
+dedicated as a sepulchral chapel by the emperor Constantine
+to the memory of his daughter, saint Constance,
+supports other and finer buttresses, alternated with
+those beneath; but instead of rising from the salient
+spaces of the base, these rise from the receding spaces
+and support another vault, of smooth open-work, beneath
+which is a graceful statuette of Nuestra Se�ora de la
+Asunci�n. Over this vault is a kind of open-work
+dome, consisting of an effective series of pinnacles and
+buttresses in the shape of segments of a circle, which
+bridge over the summits of the pinnacles. Upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+dome is a crown surmounted by a statuette of Christ
+triumphant, with the cross. The two vaults&mdash;that which
+encloses the <i>viril</i>, and the other one above it, enclosing
+the image of the Virgin&mdash;are masked on the outside by
+arches of elegant design, crowned by an elaborate
+balustrade. The turrets or buttresses which rise upon
+the lowest and the principal orders are decorated with
+numerous statuettes, resting on plinths of exquisite
+design, covered by open-work canopies.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This masterpiece of art is made of gold, and polished
+and unpolished silver. The weight is 532 marks&hellip;.
+Unfortunately, it lacks its original purity of style, having
+been restored in the year 1735, when it is probable that
+certain details were added which now disfigure it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX D</h3>
+
+<p class="title">THE IMPERIAL CROWN OF THE VIRGEN DEL SAGRARIO, TOLEDO</p>
+
+<p>This was the most elaborate and costly crown that had
+ever been produced in Spain for decorating an image of
+the Virgin. The following is a sketch of it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_205.jpg" width="315" height="350"
+        alt="crown"
+        title="crown" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Before it was enlarged to the imperial shape, this crown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+was executed by a silversmith named Fernando de
+Carri�n, who finished it in the year 1556, and was paid
+for his labour 760,000 <i>maravedis</i>. It then consisted of
+a gold diadem adorned with rows of pearls, emeralds,
+rubies, and enamelled devices of various colours, in the
+style of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>The superstructure, which converts it into what is
+known as an imperial crown, was added by Alejo de
+Montoya, another silversmith of Toledo, who began it
+in 1574, and completed it twelve years later. The
+addition consisted of a number of gold statuettes of
+angels, covered with enamel, measuring in height from
+two inches to two and a half, distributed in pairs, and
+supporting decorative devices attached to the body of
+the crown. From behind these angels sprang gold
+bands thickly studded with precious stones, and terminating
+towards their union at the apex of the crown in
+seated allegorical figures grouped about a globe surmounted
+by a cross. This globe consisted of a single
+emerald, clear, perfect both in colour and in shape,
+and measuring an inch and a half in diameter. The
+inside of the hoop was covered with enamels representing
+emblems of the Virgin, disposed in a series
+of medallions, and the dimensions of the entire crown
+were eleven inches high by nine across the widest
+part.</p>
+
+<p>The crown was examined and reported upon by two
+goldsmiths of Madrid, who declared it to contain the
+following precious stones:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+<table summary="stones">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Two balas rubies,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">valued at</td>
+    <td class="tdl">150,000</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><i>maravedis</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Twelve rubies,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">valued at</td>
+    <td class="tdl">403,528</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><i>maravedis</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Twelve emeralds,</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">237,500</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Fifty-seven diamonds,</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">555,396</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">One hundred and eighty-two pearls,</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">397,838</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The precious stones were thus valued at a total of
+1,744,262 <i>maravedis</i>. Besides this, the value of the gold
+and silver contained in the crown was estimated to
+amount to 405,227 <i>maravedis</i>, while 3,097,750 <i>maravedis</i>
+were allowed for the workmanship. These figures relate
+to the part which was made by Alejo de Montoya
+only. That which had previously been executed by
+Fernando de Carri�n was valued at 1,954,156 <i>maravedis</i>,
+making a grand total, for the whole jewel, of
+7,201,395 <i>maravedis</i>. At the present day the intrinsic
+value of the crown would be from nine to ten thousand
+pounds sterling.</p>
+
+<p>In 1869 this splendid specimen of Renaissance jewellery
+was stolen from a cupboard in the cathedral of Toledo,
+sharing thus the fate of many other precious objects
+which have been entrusted to the slender vigilance or
+slender probity of Spanish church authorities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX E</h3>
+
+<p class="title">GOLD INLAY ON STEEL AND IRON</p>
+
+<p>The inlaying of iron or steel with gold is often thought
+to be a craft particularly Spanish, and to have been
+inherited directly by the Spanish Christians from the
+Spanish Moors. This work, however, although we may
+assume it to have been of Eastern origin in a period of
+remote antiquity, was quite familiar to the ancient
+Romans, including, probably, such as made their home
+in Spain. The Memoirs of Benvenuto Cellini contain
+the following notice of the work in question:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I met with some little Turkish daggers, the handles
+of which were of iron as well as the blade, and even the
+scabbard was of that metal. On these were engraved
+several fine foliages in the Turkish taste, most beautifully
+filled up with gold. I found I had a strong inclination
+to cultivate this branch likewise, which was so different
+from the rest; and finding that I had great success in it,
+I produced several pieces in this way. My performances,
+indeed, were much finer and more durable than the
+Turkish, for several reasons: one was, that I made a
+much deeper incision in the steel than is generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+practised in Turkish works; the other, that their foliages
+are nothing else but chicory leaves, with some few flowers
+of echites: these have, perhaps, some grace, but they do
+not continue to please like our foliages. In Italy there
+is a variety of tastes, and we cut foliages in many
+different forms. The Lombards make the most beautiful
+wreaths, representing ivy and vine-leaves, and others
+of the same sort, with agreeable twinings highly pleasing
+to the eye. The Romans and the Tuscans have a much
+better notion in this respect, for they represent acanthus
+leaves, with all their festoons and flowers, winding in a
+variety of forms; and amongst these leaves they insert
+birds and animals of several sorts with great ingenuity
+and elegance in the arrangement. They likewise have
+recourse occasionally to wild flowers, such as those
+called Lions' Mouths, from their peculiar shape, accompanied
+by other fine inventions of the imagination,
+which are termed grotesques by the ignorant. These
+foliages have received that name from the moderns,
+because they are found in certain caverns in Rome,
+which in ancient days were chambers, baths, studies,
+halls, and other places of a like nature. The curious
+happened to discover them in these subterranean caverns,
+whose low situation is owing to the raising of the surface
+of the ground in a series of ages; and as these caverns
+in Rome are commonly called grottos, they from thence
+acquired the name of grotesque. But this is not their
+proper name; for, as the ancients delighted in the composition
+of chimerical creatures, and gave to the supposed
+promiscuous breed of animals the appellation of monsters,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+in like manner artists produced by their foliages
+monsters of this sort; and that is the proper name for
+them&mdash;not grotesques. In such a taste I made foliages
+filled up in the manner above mentioned, which were far
+more elegant and pleasing to the eye than the Turkish
+works.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;It happened about this time that certain vases were
+discovered, which appeared to be antique urns filled with
+ashes. Amongst these were iron rings inlaid with gold,
+in each of which was set a diminutive shell. Learned
+antiquarians, upon investigating the nature of these
+rings, declared their opinion that they were worn as
+charms by those who desired to behave with steadiness
+and resolution either in prosperous or adverse fortune.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I likewise took things of this nature in hand at the
+request of some gentlemen who were my particular
+friends, and wrought some of these little rings; but I
+made them of steel well tempered, and then cut and
+inlaid with gold, so that they were very beautiful to
+behold: sometimes for a single ring of this sort I was
+paid above forty crowns.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX F</h3>
+
+<p class="title">OLD SPANISH PULPITS</p>
+
+<p>The earliest pulpits of the Spaniards were similar to
+those of other Christian nations. One of them was the
+<i>tribuna</i> or <i>tribunal</i>, so called, according to Saint Isidore,
+&ldquo;because the minister delivers from it the precepts for
+a righteous life, wherefore it is a seat or place constructed
+upon high, in order that all he utters may be heard.&rdquo;
+The ambo, too, although it is not mentioned by Saint
+Isidore, was probably not unknown among the Spaniards.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>
+Then there were various desks, such as the <i>analogia</i>,
+<i>legitoria</i>, or <i>lectra</i>, on which the scriptures were deposited
+in church, or carried in procession, and from which the
+latter were read aloud by the priest. Saint Isidore remarks
+of the <i>analogium</i>; &ldquo;It is so called because the
+word is preached therefrom, and because it occupies the
+highest place.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> Ducange, quoting from old authors, remarks
+in his Glossary that these desks were often adorned
+with gold and silver plates or precious stones. Thus it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+is extremely probable that Tarik's celebrated &ldquo;table&rdquo;
+(see Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a> <i>et seq.</i>) was merely some elaborate
+and bejewelled <i>analogium</i> of the Christians; such as
+was, in fact, the predecessor of the modern lectern or
+&ldquo;hand-pulpit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Amador de los R�os, sermons in those
+early times were delivered from the <i>analogium</i> only.
+Towards the twelfth century, the Isidorian liturgy was
+abolished in Spain, and the furniture of Spanish temples
+underwent some change. In the same century and
+throughout the century following, the Spanish Peninsula
+was invaded by the Order of Preachers, while, coinciding
+with, or closely consequent upon, this movement, the
+primitive ambo was succeeded by the <i>jub�</i>, and wood, as
+the material of which the pulpit was constructed, by
+marble, iron, stone, or plaster.</p>
+
+<p>Two Mudejar pulpits of great interest are preserved at
+Toledo, in the church of Santiago del Arabal (thirteenth
+century), and in the convent, erected in the reign of
+Pedro the Cruel, of Santo Domingo el Real. The
+substance of these ancient objects is a brick and plaster
+foundation, with panels of the stucco known as <i>obra de
+yeser�a</i>, produced from wooden moulds. The pulpit of
+the church of Santiago is traditionally affirmed to be the
+one from which, in 1411, Saint Vincent Ferrer delivered
+a sermon to the Toledan Jews. Whether this be so or
+not, the date of its construction is undoubtedly the
+second half of the fourteenth century, or early in the
+fifteenth. The shape is octagonal&mdash;a very common form
+with Gothic pulpits. It is divided into four <i>cuerpos</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+orders, including the sounding-board. The decoration,
+which is chiefly floral, is a combination of the Gothic
+and the Moorish styles.</p>
+
+<p>The pulpit of Santo Domingo el Real stands in the
+refectory of that convent. It dates from the same period
+as the one belonging to the church of Santiago, but
+unlike this latter, bears no trace of former gilding, painting,
+or enamelling upon the surface of the stone or
+plaster. It has three tiers or compartments, and, as in
+the other pulpit, the decoration consists of leaves and
+flowers, blended with geometrical patterns and Moorish
+<i>lacer�a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Moorish <i>mimbar</i> or pulpit of the mosque of
+Cordova was very wonderful. According to Sentenach,
+its situation was near the archway leading to the <i>mihrab</i>,
+and on its desk rested the sacred copy of the Koran
+which had belonged to the Caliph Othman, and which
+was stated to be stained with his blood.</p>
+
+<p>This <i>mimbar</i>, sacrificed long years ago to Christian
+barbarism and neglect, was the richest piece of furniture
+in all that mighty building, seven years of unremitting
+labour being exhausted by Al-Hakem's craftsmen in
+constructing it of the richest and most aromatic woods,
+inlaid with silver, ivory, gold, and precious stones.
+Ambrosio de Morales called it &ldquo;King Almanzor's chair,&rdquo;
+describing it quaintly as a four-wheeled car of richly-wrought
+wood, mounted by means of seven steps. &ldquo;A
+few years since,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;they broke it up, I know
+not wherefore. So disappeared this relic of an olden
+time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX G</h3>
+
+<p class="title">SPANISH CUTLERS</p>
+
+<p>In former times excellent cutlery, such as knives,
+scissors, daggers, spearheads, and surgical instruments,
+was made in Spain, at Seville, Albacete, Toledo, Valencia,
+Pamplona, Ronda, Pe��scola, Guadix, Ripoll, Mora,
+Olot, and Tolosa. Rico y Sinobas has given an
+interesting description of the workshop and apparatus
+of one of these old Spanish cutlers&mdash;his graduated set
+of hammers, weighing from a few ounces to five pounds,
+his hand-saws, bench-saw, chisels, pincers, files, and
+drills, his forge, measuring from a yard square to a yard
+and a half, his two anvils of the toughest iron, the larger
+with a flat surface of three inches by ten inches, for
+ordinary work, the smaller terminated by conical points
+for making the thumb and finger holes of scissors.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>
+The method of tempering and forging practised by
+these cutlers was much the same as that of the Toledo
+swordsmiths.</p>
+
+<p>Rico y Sinobas also embodied in his essay the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+following list of cutlers and cutler-armourers, who
+manufactured knives, penknives, scissors, parts of firearms,
+or heads and blades for lances, halberds, and
+the like. The following is a summary of the list in
+question:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table id="p215" cellpadding="4" summary="cutler_list">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Name.</span></td>
+    <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Date.</span></td>
+    <td class="td2"><span class="smcap">Worked at</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Acacio</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">He made spearheads and fittings for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Aguas, Juan de</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early in 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Guadix.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Alanis</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of fittings for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Albacete</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Ambrosio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Mora. Maker of large scissors for sheep-shearing.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Arbell, Ram�n</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century (?)</td>
+    <td class="td4">Olot. Knife-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Azcoitia (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 15th century and early 16th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Guip�zcoa (?). A celebrated maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Azcoitia (Crist�bal)</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Also a maker of pieces for crossbows. He was the fourth descendant of the family who worked at this branch of the cutler's craft.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Azcoitia (Juan)</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Perhaps a member of the same family. He also made pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Beson, Manuel</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Knife-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Bis, Francisco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (see Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>). Maker of knives and arquebuses.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Blanco, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Maker of crossbows, and of pieces for the same.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Castellanos (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Castellanos (the younger)</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century and early 19th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Castillo, Gregorio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Catalu�a (?). Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Cerda, Miguel de la</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid and Segovia. He made scissors and other cutlery.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Criado, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Diaz, Pedro</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Escobar, Crist�bal</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Escobar, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Son of the preceding, and also a maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Fernandez Manso de Payba, Jos�</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Guadalajara.  A Portuguese, naturalized in Spain. He was a scissors-maker of considerable fame.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Fuente, Pedro de la</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 15th century or early 16th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of crossbows and their pieces.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Garc�a, Domingo</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Arquebus-maker and cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Garc�a de la Torre, Teodoro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Guadalix and Alcorc�n. Cutler. In company with Manuel Beson, he invented a method of converting iron into steel.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Garijo</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Garro, Mart�n</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 15th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Pamplona. Cutler and swordsmith. A letter dated October 31st, 1406, records that he was paid five <i>escudos</i> for making a sword, and one <i>escudo</i> for a dagger.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Gomez, Mateo</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Grajeras</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Grande, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of lanceheads.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Gutierrez</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Chinchilla. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Hernandez, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Herraez, Andres</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Cuenca. Arquebus-maker and cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Herrezuelo (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Baeza. Cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Herrezuelo (the younger)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Baeza. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Horbeira, Angel</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Cutler; a native of Galicia, and reputed to be one of the best craftsmen of his time. He was known as <i>El Borgo�on</i>, and passed his early life in Flanders.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Hortega<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Lallabe, Juan de</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 19th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Cutler, locksmith, and maker of surgical instruments.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Lastra, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows. He was one for crossbows. He was one of the latest and most celebrated of these craftsmen.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Leon</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Llorens, Pablo</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Olot. Cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Marcoarte, Simon</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Arquebus-maker and cutler. He was the son of another craftsman of the same name, who settled in Spain in the reign of Charles the Fifth (see Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Martinez, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of darts and lancesfor crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Mendoza, Francisco and Manuel</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Trigueros (Old Castile). Cutlers.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Moreno, Luis</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 15th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Moro, El</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century and early 19th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Cutler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Mu�oz of Getafe</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">�ipa, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3" align="center">?</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Maker of crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Perez de Villadiego, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Perez, Julian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of darts and lances for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Puebla (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid. Maker of parts of crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Ramirez, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Cutler. He emigrated to the city of Puebla de los Angeles, in Mexico, where he continued to make knives, scissors, and weapons of good quality.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Renedo (the elder)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 16th century(?)</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of darts and lances for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Renedo (the younger)</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Son of the preceding. He made the same objects as his father.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Romero</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Rosel</td>
+    <td class="td3" align="center">?</td>
+    <td class="td4">Mora. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">San Jos�, Brother Antonio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Jaen. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Santamar�a</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Selva, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Cartagena and Madrid. Cutler and iron-founder.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Segura</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century and early 19th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Mora. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Sierra, Juan</td>
+    <td class="td3">18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Soler, Isidro</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century and early 19th</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid.  Arquebus-maker,  cutler, and author of <i>An Historical Essay on making Arquebuses</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Sosa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="td3">17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid (?). Maker of weapons, especially the heads of lances.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Targarona, Francisco</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid.  Arquebus-maker to Charles the Third and Charles the Fourth, and one of the most skilful craftsmen of his day.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Tijerero, El (Domingo Sanchez)</td>
+    <td class="td3" align="center">?</td>
+    <td class="td4">Toledo. Maker of swords and  scissors.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Torres</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Ucedo</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 16th century and perhaps early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">V....</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century (?)</td>
+    <td class="td4">Toledo (?).  Scissors-maker. The rest of this craftsman's name is not known.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Valderas, Pedro de</td>
+    <td class="td3">16th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Madrid and Valladolid. Maker of pieces for crossbows.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Vicen-Perez, Pedro</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Vilarasa, Antonio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Cutler and razor-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Vilarasa, Antonio</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">? Cutler and razor-maker.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">... Emt.., Julian</td>
+    <td class="td3">Early 18th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Albacete. Scissors-maker. Only a fragment of his name has been preserved upon a blade. Rico y Sinobas suggests that the entire surname may have been <i>Vicen-Perez</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td3">Zeruantes, Francisco</td>
+    <td class="td3">Late 17th century</td>
+    <td class="td4">Toledo. Maker of blades for halberds.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="td5">Zamora (&ldquo;the deaf&rdquo;)</td>
+    <td class="td5">Late 16th century and early 17th</td>
+    <td class="td6">Castile. Cutler,</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX H</h3>
+
+<p class="title">SPANISH TRADE-GUILDS</p>
+
+<p>The <i>gremios</i> of Spain were copied from the guilds of
+France and other countries, and may be traced originally
+to the <i>corpora</i> and <i>collegia</i> of the Romans and Byzantines.
+The earliest which were formed in the Peninsula were
+those of Barcelona<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> and Soria, succeeded, not long
+after, by Valencia, Seville,<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> and Toledo. Prior, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+to the institution of these trade-guilds proper, whose
+purpose was pre-eminently mercenary,<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> there existed,
+in the case of several cities, <i>cofrad�as</i> or religious
+brotherhoods, that is, associations of a philanthropic
+character, composed of tradesmen or artificers who
+pledged themselves to assist each other in poverty or
+sickness, or to defray the burial expenses of such members
+as should die without resources.</p>
+
+<p>The formula of admission to a Spanish brotherhood
+was very quaint in its punctilious and precise severity. A
+notice of this ceremony, relating to the Cofrad�a of Saint
+Eligius, or Silversmiths' Brotherhood of Seville,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> is quoted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+by Gestoso from the venerable <i>Regla de Hermandad</i> or
+statutes of the members, preserved in a codex dating
+from the first half of the sixteenth century. It was required
+that the candidate for admission should be a
+silversmith, married in conformity with the canons of the
+church, a man well spoken of among his neighbours, and
+not a recent convert to the Christian faith. The day
+prescribed for choosing or rejecting him was that which
+was consecrated to Saint John the Baptist, coinciding
+with the festival of Saint Eligius or San Loy, &ldquo;patron
+and representative&rdquo; of silversmiths, and who in life
+had been a silversmith himself. The regulations of the
+Cofrad�a decreed the following method of election. &ldquo;In
+the chest belonging to the Brotherhood shall be kept a
+wood or metal vessel with space sufficient to contain
+some fifty beans or almonds; and the said vessel shall
+be set in our chapter-room, in a spot where no man is.
+Each of the brothers that are present shall next be given
+one of the beans or almonds, and, rising from his seat,
+arrange his cloak about him so as to conceal his hands, in
+order that none may witness whether he drops, or does
+not drop, the almond or the bean into the vessel. Then,
+with due dissimulation, he shall proceed to where the
+vessel lies, and if he deem that he who seeks to be
+admitted as our brother be an honourable man, and such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+as shall contribute to the lustre of our Brotherhood, then
+shall he drop in a bean or almond, and return to his seat,
+still covering his hands with his cloak. But if, upon the
+contrary, he deem that the said candidate be a sinner,
+and a riotous fellow and bad Christian, that should prove
+a source of evil and vexation to our chapter, or that hath
+wronged another of our brethren, then shall he not cast
+in the bean or almond, but secretly reserve the same,
+and once more seat himself. Lastly, when all shall have
+crossed over to and from the vessel, they shall bear it to
+the table where the officers sit, and void it in the sight
+of all the company, and count the beans or almonds;
+and if the number of these be full, then is it clear that
+we do receive the other for our <i>Hermano</i>. But if there
+be a bean or almond wanting, in that a brother hath
+retained it in his fingers, then shall our <i>Alcaldes</i> speak
+to this effect. &lsquo;Se�ores: here wants a bean or almond&rsquo;
+(or two, or any number, as may be). &lsquo;Within eight
+days from now let him that kept it back present himself
+to us, or to any one of us, and give account why he that
+sought admission to our Brotherhood deserves to be rejected.&rsquo;
+And if the brother that kept back the bean or
+almond should not present himself within the appointed
+time, then shall the Brotherhood admit the other: but if
+he appear, and state a lawful cause against the other's
+entry, then our <i>Alcaldes</i>, when this last presents himself
+to learn their resolution, shall urge him to have patience,
+in that not all the brothers are content with him, albeit,
+if such cause consisteth in a quarrel between a brother and
+the candidate for entry, peace may be brought about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+between the two, and afterward the <i>Cofrad�a</i> may admit
+him of their number.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Similar ceremonies and customs were observed in old
+Toledo (see the Ordinances of this city, dated June 24th,
+1423, renewed and amplified in 1524).<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> Here also the
+silversmiths agreed to meet and celebrate the festival of
+their patron saint upon one day in every year, &ldquo;for ever
+and for ever&rdquo; (<i>para siempre jam�s</i>). On these occasions
+the image of the saint was carried in procession, and a
+repast was given to the brothers themselves, as well as
+to all persons who were &ldquo;willing to receive it for the
+love of God.&rdquo; Every brother who failed to present
+himself at this solemnity was fined one pound of candle-wax;
+but if he were merely unpunctual, and arrived
+&ldquo;after the singing of the first three psalms,&rdquo; the fine was
+only half a pound. A pound of candle-wax was also
+the statutory tribute for admission to the Brotherhood,
+together with a hundred <i>maravedis</i> and other unimportant
+sums in cash.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the <i>gremios</i> of Valencia has been traced
+in an instructive essay by Luis Tramoyeres Blasco.
+Early in the fifteenth century guilds were established
+here of nearly thirty trades, including tailors, millers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+carpenters, shoemakers, silversmiths, weavers, tanners,
+dyers, swordsmiths, and bonnet-makers. These guilds
+developed greatly in the sixteenth century, expanding
+into powerful and wealthy bodies, who practically controlled
+the entire commerce and commercial products of
+their native town. Among the <i>gremios</i> instituted at a
+later date were those of the firework-makers, basket-makers,
+twisters of silk, stiffeners of dress fabrics, bell-founders,
+and painters of chests and boxes, each of these
+corporations being enrolled by law, and possessing a
+code of regulations for the government and guidance of
+its members. Sometimes, however, owing to diminution
+in its trade, a guild became extinct, as happened
+with the <i>guadamacileros</i> (see Vol. II., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i>), and
+with the clothmakers, of whom, in 1595, but three remained
+in all Valencia. Or else a <i>gremio</i> would purposely
+amalgamate with, or merge insensibly into, another. Thus
+in 1668 the tailors and the makers of trunk-hose united
+in a single corporation, just as, at other times, the glovers
+and the parchment-dressers, the clog-makers and the
+shoemakers.</p>
+
+<p>Those of the Valencian guilds which possessed the
+greatest influence and resources, and enjoyed the highest
+privileges from the city or the crown, were called <i>colegiados</i>.
+Among them were the velvet-makers, hatters,
+bronze-founders, wax-makers, confectioners, dyers, and
+makers of silk hose. The earliest to obtain this
+coveted and honourable title were the booksellers, in
+1539, followed by the wax-makers in 1634, the confectioners
+in 1644, the velvet-makers also in this year,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+and others in succession, terminating with the dyers in
+1763, the hatters in 1770, the bell-founders in 1772, and
+the makers of silk stockings in 1774.</p>
+
+<p>According to Tramoyeres, most of the Valencian trade-guilds
+owned a building in fee-simple, and often gave
+the title of their craft to the entire street in which that
+edifice was situated. Nor did the <i>gremios</i>, in their
+evolution from the simpler and less mercenary form of
+brotherhood or <i>cofrad�a</i>, wholly abandon the religious
+ceremonies of their prototype. In almost every instance
+the guild erected and maintained a chapel within its
+private <i>domicilio</i>, chose a particular saint to be its patron,
+and held, with fitting pomp and liberality, a yearly
+celebration of that patron's holy-day.</p>
+
+<p>On these occasions masses and other services were
+said or sung, and the embroidered banner of the guild,
+together with the image (which was often of silver) of its
+tutelar saint, was carried in procession through the
+streets of this bright city of the south, abounding at all
+seasons in flowers and sunshine, and famed, from the
+remotest days of Spanish history, for the splendour and
+munificence of her public festivals.</p>
+
+<p>Our earliest record of the formal attendance of the
+<i>gremios</i> of Valencia at one of her <i>fiestas</i>, goes back to
+the visit to this capital of King Pedro the Second, in 1336,
+when the guilds were marshalled in military fashion,
+company by company, each headed by its pennon &ldquo;<i>� la
+saga dels primers</i>,&rdquo; that is, next to the group or company
+immediately in front of it. In 1392, upon the visit of
+another monarch, Juan the First, who was accompanied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+by his queen, Violante, a more elaborate character was
+given to the welcome. Jongleurs and dancers were
+hired to perform, while several of the <i>gremios</i> constructed
+decorative scenes or allegorical tableaux on a platform
+or a waggon, which was wheeled along the street in slow
+procession, surrounded by the marching members of the
+guild. One of these structures represented the winged
+dragon or <i>drach-alat</i> which figures so conspicuously in
+the records of Valencia (see Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>), and was
+attacked and overcome in mimic combat by a body of
+knights armed cap-�-pie. The mariners of the port built
+two large galleys, also moved on wheels and simulating
+an attack, and the <i>freneros</i> or bit-makers presented a
+gathering of folk disguised as savages. Nor was the
+bullfight&mdash;that most characteristic of Spanish sports&mdash;omitted
+from the entertainment, judging from the
+following entry in the city archives: &ldquo;Item. Sien
+aemprats los prohomens carnicers a procurar e haver
+toros e fer per sos dies feta la dita entrada joch ab
+aquells specialment en lo mercat com sia cert quel
+Senyor Rey se agrada e pren plaer de tal joch.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A typical <i>fiesta</i> and procession of these trade-guilds
+is described by Tramoyeres. &ldquo;Formed in two long
+lines, the members of the guild advanced along the
+tortuous and narrow highways of the town, adorned
+with tapestries and altars. Each <i>gremio</i> was preceded
+by a band of cymbal-beaters, pipers, and jongleurs,
+sometimes accompanied by a <i>comparsa</i> allusive to the
+ceremony now being celebrated. Next came the
+standard of the master-craftsmen and apprentices, each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+group of whom attended its <i>divisa</i> or distinguishing
+emblem. Close after followed the banner of the craft
+in general, carried by one or two of the <i>oficiales</i>, who
+made display of their dexterity and strength by supporting
+the staff of the banner upon their shoulder, the palm
+of the hand, or the under-lip. The cords of the banner
+were held by the officers of the guild, denominated
+<i>mayorales</i>, <i>clavarios</i> and <i>prohombres</i>; behind these came
+the masters, and last of all, a triumphal car on which
+were represented scenes relating to the craft. Thus, in
+the year 1655, at the commemoration of the second
+centenary of the canonization of Saint Vincent Ferrer,
+the <i>gremios</i> showed particular ingenuity and novelty
+in these devices.&rdquo; Don Marco Antonio Ort�, who wrote
+an account of the festival in question, thus describes a
+few of them. &ldquo;The millers were preceded by a waggon
+drawn by four mules and covered with boughs and
+flowers. On it was the imitation of a windmill, wheel
+and every other part, contrived so cunningly that
+although the wheel went round at a great speed, the
+artifice which caused it to revolve was kept from view,
+and in the time that the procession lasted, it ground to
+flour a whole <i>caliz</i> of wheat.&rdquo; Another invention, says
+the same chronicler, was that of the masons. &ldquo;The
+scene devised by these was a triumphal car, handsomely
+adorned, on which was borne the great tower (of the
+cathedral),<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> imitated so skilfully that it seemed to have
+been rooted from its foundation, and replanted in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+car aforesaid; and so enormous was its size that a
+special spot required to be chosen in which to set it
+up. This was in the garden of La Punta; and when
+the tower was finished and ready to be taken forth, a
+breach for its passage had to be opened in the garden
+wall. It even contained a peal of bells, which rang by
+turning round and round, and this invention of the bells,
+besides its ingenuity, was rarely fitted to this festival,
+seeing that the clock-bell of the cathedral (that is the
+greatest of them all) was given, when it was baptized,
+the name of San Vicente's bell, as well as of Saint
+Michael the Archangel; whence the tower itself is
+called the Micalet, this, in the language of Valencia,
+being the diminutive for Michael. It were impossible to
+imagine the stir and the applause excited in all quarters
+of the city by the passage of this tower.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same writer describes the decorative car or
+waggon of the flax-weavers. &ldquo;Upon it were a woman
+seated beneath a canopy, weaving at a frame, and
+representing Santa Ana, the child Jesus making
+<i>ca�illas</i>, and an aged man, for San Antonio, dressed as
+a hermit, with a live sucking-pig at his side. Before
+these went Our Lady riding on a jennet, with a child
+in her arms, her right hand held by a man of venerable
+age representing Saint Joseph. This artifice was symbolic
+of the weavers' trade, receiving for this reason
+great applause, as well as for the lavish decoration of,
+and curious details that were in, the car.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Tramoyeres further explains that the guild which
+took first place in the procession was that which had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+been most recently created, the oldest and most
+honoured coming last. At Valencia this proud position
+was held from the remotest period by the clothmakers;
+but from time to time, when these for any cause were
+absent from the festival, their place was taken by one or
+other of two companies almost as ancient and as honourable&mdash;the
+tanners or the tailors.</p>
+
+<p>Each guild selected an official dress or livery, distinguished
+from the others by its colour or design:&mdash;the
+tailors, purple and white; the weavers, rose with black
+sleeves; the cutlers, crimson with green sleeves and
+sprinkled with golden roses; the millers, white with
+crimson-striped sleeves; the silversmiths, crimson with
+silver trimming; and so forth. Their banners, too, were
+quite in harmony with the rich apparel of the vain
+<i>agremiados</i>. According to an author of the seventeenth
+century, these flags were &ldquo;not of war, but of a different
+workmanship, and greatly larger. All are of damask,
+most being coloured crimson, and the poles sustaining
+them, and terminated by an image of the sainted patron
+of the guild, are longer than the longest pike of war.
+Truly, a splendid show these banners make, displayed
+with fringes of drawn gold, and shields embroidered with
+the same material.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The image in which the pole of the banner concluded
+was not, however, invariably that of a saint, or of a saint
+alone. In the case of the cask-makers it was a golden
+tun surmounted by a cross, with figures of Saint Helen
+and the Emperor Constantine standing on either side of
+it. That of the armourers was a bat (the <i>rat-penat</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+&ldquo;winged rat&rdquo; contained in the <i>escudo</i> of Valencia); that
+of the cloth-shearers, a pair of scissors with a golden
+crown and the image of Saint Christopher; of the fishermen,
+a boat containing Saint Peter and Saint Andrew;
+of the clothmakers, a sphere inscribed with the name of
+Jesus; of the stonemasons, a silver millwheel and a silver
+image of the Virgin. Similarly, each <i>gremio</i> displayed
+upon its coat-of-arms some kind of emblem such as the
+implement, or implements, associated with its trade:&mdash;the
+silversmiths, a square and compass; the carpenters, a
+hatchet and a saw; the lock-smiths, a pair of hammers
+and an anvil.</p>
+
+<p>Quaintly instructive are the dispositions of the guilds
+relating to apprenticeship. The <i>maestro</i> of a trade,
+described by the Count of Torre�naz as &ldquo;the principal
+worker in the workshop,&rdquo; agreed to feed, clothe, and
+instruct his apprentice or <i>disc�pulo</i>, and treat him generally
+as a member of his own family. He was permitted
+to punish his apprentice for misconduct, but not to employ
+excessive physical violence; and a law of Jayme
+the First decreed that if the apprentice lost one or both
+of his eyes from a blow inflicted by his master, the latter
+was to &ldquo;make good the injury&rdquo; (<i>sia tengut del mal que
+li haura feyt</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The number of apprentices allowed in any one
+workshop was often (and subsequently to the fifteenth
+century, nearly always) regulated by the law. The first
+disposition of this kind discovered by Tramoyeres dates
+from the year 1451, and refers to the shoemakers,
+whose apprentices might not outnumber three to each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+<i>maestro</i>.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> Similarly, by provisions issued at a later date,
+the mattress-makers and the builders were allowed no
+more than two apprentices, and the silk-weavers three,
+although sometimes the master might admit an extra
+<i>aprenent</i> or so, on payment of a certain sum per head.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>
+The term of the apprenticeship was also often fixed
+by law. In most of the trades it was four years; but
+in the case of the makers of ribbons and of boxes it
+was five years; while stocking-makers were apprenticed
+for six, and wax-makers and confectioners for eight
+years.</p>
+
+<p>Before the father or the guardian of a lad could
+sign his papers of apprenticeship, it was required
+(during and after the sixteenth century) to prove before
+the guild, by means of his certificate of baptism, or on
+the declaration of witnesses, that he was the child of
+parents who were &ldquo;old Christians,&rdquo; and not the offspring
+of Moor, Jew, slave, convert, or (in the fierce
+expression of the stocking-makers) &ldquo;any other infected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+race.&rdquo; Still more absurd and savage was an ordinance,
+dated 1597, of the shoemakers, prohibiting any master
+of this trade from admitting to apprenticeship in any
+form, &ldquo;a black boy, or one of the colour of cooked
+quince, slave or Moor &hellip; so as to avoid the harm
+which might befall our brother shoemakers from the
+ridicule that would be stirred among the populace, if
+they should see in our processions and other public acts,
+a slave, or the son of a black slave, or a lad of the
+colour of cooked quince, or a Moor; as well as the rioting
+and scandals that would be caused by the spectacle of
+creatures of this nature mixing with decent, well-dressed
+people.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These statutes are selected from the mass of local
+legislation which concerned Valencia only. Turning to
+Spanish guilds at large, the study of these institutions
+throws considerable light upon the customs of the
+Spanish nation in the past, and more especially upon the
+social and financial standing of the older Spanish craftsman.
+As in other countries, the principal and primal
+object of the <i>gremio</i> was to organize a system of defence
+against the military and nobility, or even against the
+crown. Presently, however, and long before their evolution
+is completed, errors become apparent in the statutes
+or proceedings of these bodies which denote, very instructively
+and very plainly, the typical defects or weaknesses
+of the Spanish character. Foremost of all was thriftlessness.
+Although it is a fact that several of the Spanish
+guilds owned houses or even land, none of them (except
+the silversmiths of two or three large towns) were really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+affluent;<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> and indeed, in a country racked by incessant
+foreign wars or civil strife, there was every reason why
+they should not be affluent. Yet, notwithstanding this, in
+celebrating any kind of public festival, the poor <i>agremiado</i>
+made no scruple to vie in prodigal disbursements with
+the moneyed aristocracy, clothing himself in fanciful
+and costly stuffs,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> constructing shows and spectacles on
+wheels, raising elaborate altars in the streets, contracting
+for expensive services, performances, and tableaux. More
+than once, the <i>gremios</i> were obliged to borrow funds to
+celebrate the festival of their patron saint.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> So also with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+regard to dress. The costumes of the guildsmen of
+Valencia have been already noticed. An equal recklessness
+and foppery prevailed in other Spanish towns; for
+instance, at Barcelona, where, on a visit of Ferdinand
+and Isabella in 1481, the silversmiths formed part of the
+procession &ldquo;dressed in the richest manner, with robes
+and mantles all covered with silver, and some of them
+with bonnets that were all of silver plate with jewels and
+silver foliage, while others wore silver chains about their
+necks.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Two of the most conspicuous faults among the Spanish
+race are pride and envy. Yet these defects may be
+explained without much puzzling, and, in a measure,
+pardoned. Spaniards, through all the process of their
+national development, have clung by preference to the
+calling of the soldier or the priest; that is, the only
+occupations which directly dissipate the revenue of the
+commonwealth. Since, therefore, they were thus inclined
+from earliest antiquity, as well as tutored by a crafty
+priesthood to believe that might or violence alone
+is right, the haughtiness of the Spanish people is a
+logical, and indeed inevitable, outcome of their history.
+Moreover, side by side with this erroneous theory that
+the only prowess and decorum of a people must consist
+in armed aggressiveness, as well as in a truculent and
+militant intolerance in matters of religion (or rather, of
+superstition), there arose the equally as mischievous and
+erroneous theory that the arts of peace were venal,
+despicable, and effeminate, or, in the current phrase
+of our contemporaries, &ldquo;unworthy of a gentleman.&rdquo;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+&ldquo;The Spaniards,&rdquo; wrote Fern�ndez de Navarrete, &ldquo;are
+so proud-hearted that they do not accommodate themselves
+to servile labour.&rdquo; Therefore this people chose
+their favourites and heroes in a semi-savage freebooter;
+never in a craftsman of gigantic merit, like the elder
+Berruguete, or Juan de Arfe, or Alonso Cano. Sometimes,
+as happened with the <i>reja</i> of the Chapel Royal
+of Granada, they did not even trouble to record the
+surname of her best artificers. These men, in fact,
+exceptions to her universal rule, were coldly looked
+upon, or even persecuted.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Abundant proof is yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+extant of this humiliation of her merchants, craftsmen,
+shopkeepers, as distinguished from her soldiery and
+clergy, gentry and nobility. Undoubtedly, beneath
+such scorn the former of these groups were sensitive to
+their position, and all the more acutely sensitive because
+of their inherent Spanish pride. In fact, so sensitive
+were they, that now and then the crown esteemed it
+prudent to appease their wounded vanity by certain
+declarations or emoluments. Thus, the <i>Repartimiento
+de Sevilla</i> tells us that in the year 1255 Alfonso the
+Tenth rewarded several craftsmen of his capital of Seville
+with the title of <i>Don</i>, &ldquo;a dignity,&rdquo; says Amador, &ldquo;rarely
+bestowed at that time.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> In 1556 Charles the Fifth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+resolved, in favour of the corporation of <i>artistas-plateros</i>
+or &ldquo;artist-silversmiths,&rdquo; that the masters of this craft,
+together with their wives, might dress in silk, &ldquo;in that it
+was an art they exercised, and not an office&rdquo; (Gestoso,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+<i>Diccionario de Art�fices Sevillanos</i>, Vol. I., p. lx.), while
+Philip the Fourth decreed that they should not be forced
+to contribute to the equipment of his troops, but should
+only be invited to contribute, <i>just as with the nobles</i>.
+Nevertheless, Rico y Sinobas points out (<i>Del vidrio y
+de sus art�fices en Espa�a</i>) that Philip the Fifth and
+Ferdinand the Sixth, on founding the royal glass
+factory of San Ildefonso, did not dare to ennoble the
+Castilian workmen.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I bestow the name of craftsmen in silver (<i>art�fices
+plateros</i>), not upon all who handle silver or gold, but
+only upon such as draw, and grave, and execute in relief,
+whether on a large or small scale, figures and histories
+from life, just as do the sculptors.&rdquo; These words are
+quoted from a book, the whole of which was written
+with the aim of proving that certain classes of Spain's
+older craftsmen were less abject than the rest.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> It is
+not so long ago that the expression <i>viles artesanos</i> (&ldquo;vile
+artisans&rdquo;) was banished from the legal phraseology of
+Spain. &ldquo;That prejudice,&rdquo; wrote Laborde, &ldquo;which regards
+the mechanic arts as base, is not extinguished in Spain,
+but only abated: hence it happens that they are neglected
+or abandoned to such unskilful hands that they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+wonderfully backward in these matters. The influence
+of this cause is striking: in Catalonia, laws, customs,
+and opinions are favourable to artisans, and it is in this
+province that these arts have made the greatest progress.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Townsend commented as follows on what he called
+the <i>national prejudice</i> against trade. &ldquo;Whilst the Jews
+were merchants, and the mechanic arts were left either to
+the Moors or to the vilest of the people, the grandees or
+knights were ambitious only of military fame. After the
+conquest of Granada, the Moors continued to be the
+principal manufacturers, and excelled in the cultivation
+of their lands. When these, with the Jews, were banished,
+a void was left which the high-spirited Spaniard was
+not inclined to fill. Trained for many centuries to the
+exercise of arms, and regarding such mean occupations
+with disdain, his aversion was increased by his hatred
+and contempt for those whom he had been accustomed
+to see engaged in these employments. He had been
+early taught to consider trade as dishonourable; and
+whether he frequented the theatre, or listened to the discourses
+of the pulpit orators, he could not fail to be confirmed
+in his ideas. Even in the present day, many,
+who boast their descent from noble ancestors, had rather
+starve than work, more especially at those trades by
+which, according to the laws, they would be degraded,
+and forfeit their nobility.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Journey through Spain in
+1786 and 1787</i>, pp. 240, 241.)</p>
+
+<p>Laborde endorsed these assertions by uncharitably
+remarking that &ldquo;the Spaniard had always fortitude
+enough to endure privations, but never courage enough<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+to encounter work.&rdquo; In our time judgments of a still
+severer kind have been passed upon the Spaniards by
+various of their own countrymen&mdash;among others, Unamuno,
+Ganivet, and Pompeyo Gener.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, too, that the cause of the relentless
+exclusion, by the Spanish guilds, of Moors, Moriscos,
+Jews, or converts&mdash;men who, owing to the unsubstantial
+taint of heresy, were hated and derided by
+the Spanish nation almost to a man&mdash;resided also in
+this morbid sensitiveness. Had not the Moorish
+prisoner been formerly considered as the merest chattel,
+legally equivalent to a beast of burden?<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> How, then,
+should he be ever equalled with the Christian Spaniard?
+These haughty and extravagant notions operated, in
+the seventeenth century, to bring about the general
+ruin of Spanish trades and manufactures. Bertaut de
+Rouen wrote at this time:&mdash;>&ldquo;L'aco�tumance qu'avoient
+les Espagnols de faire travailler les Morisques, qui<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+estoient libres parmi eux, et les Mores esclaves, dont
+il y a encor quelques-uns qu'ils prennent sur leurs
+costes et sur celles d'Afrique, les a entretenus dans
+la faineantise et dans l'orgueil, qui fait qu'ils d�daignent
+tous de travailler. Ce qui ach�ve de les y plonger,
+c'est le peu de soucy qu'ils prennent de l'avenir, et
+l'�galit� du menu peuple et de tous les moindres
+marchands et artisans qu'ils nomment <i>officiales</i>, avec les
+gentilshommes, qui demeurent tous dans les petites
+villes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the same century the Countess d'Aulnoy recorded
+comical instances of the pride of the tradesmen of
+Madrid. &ldquo;One morning,&rdquo; she says, &ldquo;we stopped awhile
+in the Plaza Mayor to await the return of a servant
+whom my aunt had sent with a message to some place
+not far away. Just then I saw a woman selling some
+slices of salmon, crying them aloud and proclaiming
+their freshness in tones which positively molested the
+passers-by. Presently a shoemaker came up (I knew
+him to be such, because they called him the <i>se�or
+zapatero</i>), and asked for a pound of salmon; since here
+they sell everything by the pound, even to coal and
+firewood. &lsquo;You have not been through the market,&rsquo;
+cried the woman who sold the fish, &lsquo;because you fancy
+that my salmon is cheap to-day; but let me tell you
+that it costs an <i>escudo</i> the pound.&rsquo; Furious that his
+poverty should thus be hinted at in public, the shoemaker
+exclaimed in angry tones: &lsquo;It is true that I was
+not aware of the price of fish to-day. Had it been cheap,
+I would have bought a pound of it; but since you say it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+is dear, give me three pounds.&rsquo; With these words, he
+held out his hand with the three <i>escudos</i>, jammed his hat
+upon his eyebrows (tradesmen in this town wear small
+hats, and persons of quality hats of great size), and then,
+twisting the ends of his mustachios, and clapping his
+hand to his rapier, the point of which bobbed upward,
+carrying with it a fold of his ragged cloak, caught up his
+purchase and strode home, looking at us with an arrogant
+air, as though he had performed some heroic deed and
+we had witnessed it. Yet the drollest part of it all was
+that beyond doubt the fellow had no money left at home,
+but had spent his week's wages upon the salmon, so that
+his choleric and haughty act would keep his wife and
+children famishing for all those days, after supping once
+upon abundant fish. Such is the character of this
+people; and there are gentlemen here who take the feet
+of a fowl and hang them so as to show beneath the hem
+of their cloak, to make it appear as though they really
+bore a fowl. But hunger, in truth, is all they carry with
+them.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;You never see a shopman here who does not clothe
+himself in velvet, silk, and satin, like the king; or who
+is not the owner of a mighty rapier, which dangles from
+the wall, together with his dagger and guitar. These
+fellows work as little as they may, for, as I said, they are
+by nature indolent. Only in case of extreme necessity
+do they work at all, and then they never rest, but labour
+even throughout a feast-day; though when they have
+finished what was needed to procure them money, they
+deliver the product of their toil, and with its value<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+relapse into fresh idleness. The shoemaker who has
+two apprentices, and who has only made one pair of
+shoes, hands to his lads a shoe apiece and makes them
+walk before him as though they were his pages; he that
+has three apprentices is preceded by all three; and when
+occasion rises, the master-<i>zapatero</i> will hardly condescend
+to fit upon your feet the shoes which his own hands had
+put together.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It seems that the shoemakers of Madrid were distinguished
+for their insolence and vanity above the rest
+of her tradespeople. In 1659 Bertaut de Rouen wrote
+of the two <i>corrales</i> or theatres of this town, that they
+were &ldquo;toujours pleines de tous les marchands, et de tous
+les artisans, qui quittant leur boutique s'en vont l� avec la
+cappe, l'�p�e, et le poignard, qui s'appellent tous <i>cavalleros</i>
+jusques au <i>�apateros</i>; et ce sont ceux qui d�cident si la
+comedie est bonne ou non, et � cause qu'ils la sifflent ou
+qu'ils l'applaudissent, et qu'ils sont d'un cost� et d'autre
+en rang, outre que c'est comme une esp�ce de salve, on
+les appelle <i>Mosqueteros</i>, en sorte que la bonne fortune
+des autheurs d�pend d'eux.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing narratives sound absurd, and are particularly
+prone to be considered so from being of
+foreign authorship. Their tenor, notwithstanding, is
+supported by the following declarations, gravely set
+down in writing by a Spaniard, within some half a
+dozen years of the visit to Madrid of the Countess
+d'Aulnoy. The name of this author is Alonso Nu�ez
+de Castro, and the title of his work (published towards
+the close of the reign of Philip the Fourth), <i>El</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+<i>Cortesano en Madrid</i>. &ldquo;What man,&rdquo; demands this
+<i>madrile�o</i> of a bygone century, &ldquo;eminent in any of
+the arts, has belonged to other nations, but has sought
+in Madrid the applause and gain which his native
+country would not, or could not, bestow upon him?
+Thus, either he in person, or else his master-works, visit
+with frequency this court of ours, wherein they meet a
+better fate than in their birthplace, since only at Madrid
+is properly esteemed the value of illustrious effort. Let
+London manufacture as she may her famous cloths,
+Holland her cambrics, Florence her satins, India her
+castors and vicunas, Milan her brocades, Italy and the
+Netherlands the statues and oil-paintings which seem to
+breathe the very life of the original: our Court enjoys
+these products one and all, proving hereby that other
+nations generate artists for Madrid, who is, in sooth, the
+supreme Court of Courts, seeing that she is served by
+all, yet in her turn serves none.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Yet not at slight expense does she enjoy this
+sovereignty, showering upon other hands her gold and
+silver, that they may recreate her mouth with choicest
+drinks and viands, her nostrils with delicious essences,
+her eyes with wondrous works of painting and of statuary,
+her hearing with the skill of world-renowned musicians,
+her luxury with expensive fabrics and with precious
+stones; albeit these disbursements mark her, not as
+prodigal, but as prudent in discovering the proper use
+of gold, together with the fitting aim and purpose of all
+riches. Who was possessor of more gold than Midas?&mdash;seeing
+that not he alone, but all he laid his hand upon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+was gold; or who so wretched?&mdash;seeing that he was
+powerless to keep himself alive on gold, though all he
+touched was golden. Truly that man is rich that maketh
+gold to minister to his wants, and he a miserable pauper
+that to gold himself is slave, not knowing how to turn
+its uses to his good. Therefore let other peoples
+accumulate wealth at ease, heaping up the gold wherewith
+Madrid repays their ministration to her needs.
+Whereas her courtiers prove possession of their gold, in
+that they amassed it formerly, those foreigners show the
+evil and the mischief of their own by jealously confining
+it with lock and key: nay, who shall even tell if it be
+theirs, seeing that they enjoy it not, although they seem
+to be the lords thereof?</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;You will declare that other courts enjoy the same
+conveniences with less expense, because their magistrates
+are stricter to restrain the tradesman from
+establishing his prices at caprice. Truly, it may happen
+that elsewhere the price of foods and luxuries be less
+than in Madrid; yet it is certain that Madrid makes
+fair comparison in cheapness with the other cities of
+Castile. Nay, more, without there seeming to be cause,
+her courtiers daily find that by a marvel articles are
+cheaper here than in the soil which generated them,
+or in the town where they were wrought. The fact that
+in comparison with other kingdoms Madrid is in some
+ways the dearer, proves that she hath the money for
+rewarding labour; and that in other capitals the sweat
+of the artificer is worthless, because money is worth
+more. Always have I remarked that the province or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+the realm that is awarded the name of <i>happy</i>, because all
+things are purchasable there at next to no expense, is
+wrongly titled so, since here is evidence, either that
+money lacks, or that there is no purchaser.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the eighteenth century, when better sense prevailed
+among the statesmen and economists of Spain, the
+greedy and corrupt administration of her guilds began
+to be awarded greater notice. Among the enlightened
+and progressive Spaniards who outspoke their minds
+upon this theme, were Florez Estrada and the Count
+of Campomanes. These, among others of less mark, saw
+and proclaimed that the harm inflicted by the <i>gremios</i>
+in some directions was incalculable, while the good
+they were supposed to bring about in others was rather
+nominal than real.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Apart, however, from the judgment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+uttered by these two authorities, men of acknowledged
+probity and consequence who held the public ear, as well
+as by the patriotic Jovellanos in his spirited appeal in
+favour of the <i>libre ejercicio de las artes</i>, a number of causes,
+such as the propagation of the principles of individual
+liberty by the French Revolution, contributed to give
+the <i>gremios</i> an archaic air, and finally to bring about their
+downfall. The views concerning them which gradually
+filled the popular mind, prior to their extinction as an
+act of government in the year 1834,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> are well expressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+by Townsend. &ldquo;In all the trading companies or <i>gremios</i>,&rdquo;
+wrote this traveller, &ldquo;religious fraternities are formed,
+some incorporated by royal authority and letters patent,
+others by connivance of the crown, but both in violation
+of the laws.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Every fraternity is governed by a mayor and court
+of aldermen, who make laws, sit in judgment on
+offenders, and claim in many cases exemption from the
+common tribunals of the country. None but the
+members of these communities may exercise mechanic
+arts, or be concerned in trade; and to be admitted as a
+member is both attended with a heavy fine, and entails
+upon each individual a constant annual expense.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This, however, is not the greatest evil, for the mayor
+and officers, during their year of service, not only neglect
+their own affairs, but from vanity and ostentation run
+into expenses, such as either ruin their families, or at
+least straiten them exceedingly in trade.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;These corporations, being established in the cities,
+banish, by their oppressive laws, all the mechanic arts
+from towns and villages. In the cities likewise they
+tend only to monopoly, by limiting the numbers in every
+branch of business, and fixing within unreasonable
+bounds the residence of those who are concerned in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+trade. This they do either by assigning the distance
+between shop and shop, under pretence that two shops
+vending the same commodities must not be so near
+together as to interfere, or by assembling all the
+mechanics of the same profession, such as silversmiths,
+and confining them to one street or quarter of the city,
+under the plausible pretext that thus the proper magistrate
+may with ease pay attention to their work, and see
+that the due standard be observed.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In many cases the various <i>gremios</i> bear hard upon
+each other. Thus, for instance, the carpenter must not
+employ his industry on mahogany, or any other wood
+but deal, nor must he invade the province of the turner.
+The turner must confine his ingenuity and labour to soft
+wood, and must not presume to touch either ivory or
+metals, even though he should be reduced to poverty for
+want of work. The wheeler, in similar distress, must
+not, however qualified, extend his operations beyond the
+appointed bounds, so as to encroach on the business of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+the coach-maker, who is equally restrained from either
+making or mending either cart or waggon wheels. The
+barber may shave, draw teeth, and bleed, but he must
+not fill up his leisure time with making wigs.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> As
+mechanics are obliged to keep exactly each to his
+several line, so must shopkeepers confine themselves
+to their proper articles in trade, and under no pretence
+must the manufacturer presume to open magazines, that
+he may sell by retail.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;But neither are these abuses the only evils which call
+for reformation. Many corporations have been impertinently
+meddling, and have absurdly bound the
+hands of the manufacturer by regulations with respect
+to the conduct of his business and the productions of
+his art, such as, being too rigidly observed, would preclude
+all improvements, and would be destructive to his trade,
+by giving to foreigners a manifest advantage in favour
+of their merchandise.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The incorporated fraternities in the kingdoms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+Castile and Aragon are 25,581, and their corporate expenses
+amount to 11,687,861 reals. Their revenue is
+not altogether consumed in feasting, nor in salaries to
+officers, nor in pensions to their widows, nor yet in lawsuits,
+which are said to be both numerous and expensive;
+but considerable sums are expended for religious purposes,
+in procuring masses to be said, either for departed
+spirits and the souls in Purgatory, or for the benefit of
+the fraternity in which each individual has a proportionable
+interest. For this reason, these communities enjoy
+the protection of the ecclesiastical courts, to which, in
+cases of necessity, they frequently appeal.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The chartered corporations claim their exclusive
+privileges by royal grant, and on this plea they resist a
+formation, not considering, as Count Campomanes with
+propriety remarks, the essential condition of these grants,
+<i>Sin perjuicio de tercero</i>, or that nothing therein contained
+shall be to the <i>prejudice of others</i>, or injurious to the
+citizens at large.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>APPENDIX I</h3>
+
+<p class="title">CLASSES OF POTTERY MADE AT ALCORA<br />
+(From <span class="smcap">Ria�o</span>'s <i>Industrial Arts in Spain</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Towards the middle of the eighteenth century:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Vases of different shapes.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Small pots (Chinese fashion).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Teapots and covers (Chinese fashion).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Cruets, complete sets (Chinese style).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Entr�e dishes.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Salt-cellars (Chinese style).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Escudillas</i> (bowls), of Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;"><i>Barquillos</i> (sauce bowls), Chinese style.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Bottles (in the Chinese manner).</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds, with
+good painted borders in imitation of lace-work
+(<i>puntilla</i>). Some were designed in the Chinese
+manner, and especial care was taken with fruit-stands,
+salad-bowls, and dishes.</p>
+
+<p style="text-indent: -2em;">Trays and refrigerators.</p></div>
+
+<p>A document, discovered by Ria�o, and dated 1777,
+says that in that year the following kinds of pottery
+were manufactured at Alcora:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span></p>
+
+<table summary="figures_1">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Figures of Demi-Porcelain.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Figures</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of tritons.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of soldiers (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of soldiers, one-third of a <i>palmo</i> high.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of the four seasons (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of dancers.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of tritons in the form of children.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">with brackets.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of different animals.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Dancing figures in the German style.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Figures</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of Neptune.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of shepherd and shepherdess.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of the Moorish king, Armenius.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of the four parts of the world (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of peasant and his wife.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Small figures holding musical instruments.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Figures</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing different monarchies.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing historical personages.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing the history of Alexander the Great (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing Martius Curtius (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of elephants.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of a man mounted on an elephant.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">representing Chinese figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of Heliogabalus.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of a general on horseback.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large figures representing Julius C�sar.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets. Groups of Chinese figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Snuff-boxes, sugar-basins, inkstands.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rabbits, horns, and pug-dogs for holding scent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Small scent-bottles.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Needle-cases.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large vases with foot and cover.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Brackets.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Walking-stick handles.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Knife handles.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Teaspoons.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Figures of white Biscuit China.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures representing Spanish costumes (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Groups of two figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures of the four seasons (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We find also, says Ria�o, the following figures of
+painted and glazed porcelain:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="figures_2">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Four seasons (two sizes).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Groups of two figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Figure</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of a Moorish king.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of musicians and huntsmen.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of peasants.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">of Chinese.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Small figures of a gardener and female companion.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures of soldiers in the German style.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>From 1789 to 1797, continues Ria�o, the following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+kinds of pottery were made at Alcora:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="figures_3">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Hard paste porcelain (French).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain of pipeclay (English).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Blue pipeclay porcelain.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Marbled pipeclay porcelain..</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><i>Bucaros</i>, painted and gilt.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Strasburg ware.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain painted <i>en froid</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Porcelain (Frita).</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Porcelain</td>
+    <td class="tdl">painted with gilt lines.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">painted without gold.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">(<i>frita</i>), canary colour.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Boxes</td>
+    <td class="tdl">in relief.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">plain.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain (<i>frita</i>), painted with marble wares.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plain boxes of the same kind.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Porcelain (<i>frita</i>), of blue and brown ground.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cups and saucers of a similar kind.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Biscuit Porcelain.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Vases.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pedestals.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">White</td>
+    <td class="tdl">porcelain (<i>frita</i>) cups of different kinds.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&#8222;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">porcelain, ornamented and plain.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boxes with busts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boxes with ornamentations in relief.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Large figures of the four seasons.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Flower vases with rams' heads.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plain boxes.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Boxes with ornaments in relief.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>White Porcelain.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plates, cups, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Figures of different kinds.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Painted Porcelain.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cups, saucers, plates, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Cream-pots.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Plain snuff-boxes, or in the shape of a dog.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Fruit-stands in relief.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> The following passage from Townsend's Journey through Spain (Vol.
+II., p. 56), is curious as showing where jet was formerly found in this
+Peninsula. &ldquo;When I returned to Oviedo, a gentleman gave me a collection
+of amber and of jet, of which there is great abundance in this province:
+but the two most considerable mines of it are in the territory of Beloncia,
+one in a valley called Las Guerrias, the other on the side of a high mountain
+in the village of Arenas, in the parish of Val de Soto. The former is found
+in slate, and looks like wood: but when broke, the nodules discover a white
+crust, inclosing yellow amber, bright and transparent. Jet and a species of
+kennel coal, abounding with marcasites, universally accompany the amber.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> As for the clothing of sacred images in Spain, even these are subject to
+changes in the fashion of costume. Ford makes merry over &ldquo;the Saviour in
+a court-dress, with wig and breeches.&rdquo; Swinburne wrote in 1775, from
+Alicante: &ldquo;We have been all the morning in great uneasiness about Sir
+T. G.'s valet de chambre, who, till within this hour, was not to be found in
+any of the places he usually frequents. His appearance has quieted our
+apprehensions; and it seems he has been from sunrise till dinner-time
+locked up in the sacristy of the great church, curling and frizzling the flaxen
+periwig of the statue of the Virgin, who is to-morrow to be carried in
+solemn procession through the city.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A similar passage occurs in one of the letters of Lady Mary Wortley
+Montagu. &ldquo;I was particularly diverted,&rdquo; she wrote from Nuremberg in
+1716, &ldquo;in a little Roman Catholic church which is permitted here, where
+the professors of that religion are not very rich, and consequently cannot
+adorn their images in so rich a manner as their neighbours. For, not to
+be quite destitute of all finery, they have dressed up an image of our
+Saviour over the altar in a fair, full-bottomed wig, very well powdered.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> &ldquo;Ambo, pulpitum ubi ex duabus partibus sunt gradus.&rdquo; Ugutio,
+quoted by Ducange.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Originum</i>, Book XV., Chap. iv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> <i>Noticia Hist�rica de la Cuchiller�a y de los Cuchilleros Antiguos en
+Espa�a</i> (<i>Almanaque de El Museo de la Industria</i>, Madrid, 1870).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a>  See P�rez Pujol, <i>Condici�n social de las personas � principios del siglo
+V</i>. &ldquo;The ironsmiths of Barcelona,&rdquo; says Ria�o, &ldquo;formed an extensive guild
+in the thirteenth century; in 1257, four of its members formed part of the
+chief municipal council; this guild increased in importance in the following
+centuries.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a>  The history of the Sevillian trade-guilds begins properly with the
+fifteenth century, although Gestoso states in his <i>Diccionario de Art�fices
+Sevillanos</i> that he has found a few documents which seem to point to their
+existence in the century preceding.</p>
+
+<p>When the Spanish Christians pitched their camp before this city, prior
+to their victorious assault upon its walls, the besieging army was divided
+according to the various trades of its component soldiery: the spicers in one
+part of the camp, the apothecaries in another, and so forth. It is therefore
+probable that the Sevillian trade-guilds were instituted shortly after the
+re-conquest. The wages of smiths, shoemakers, silversmiths, armourers,
+and other craftsmen were decreed by Pedro the First in his <i>Ordenamiento
+de Menestrales</i>. The ordinances of the silversmiths, in particular, are so
+old that Gestoso believes them to have been renewed and confirmed by
+Juan the Second, in the year 1416. However this may be, it is certain
+that the Seville guilds were regularly constituted in the reign of Ferdinand
+and Isabella.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Barzanallana defines the word <i>gremio</i> &ldquo;as it came to be understood in
+Spain,&rdquo; as &ldquo;any gathering of merchants, artisans, labourers, or other
+persons who practised the same profession, art, or office; and who were
+bound to comply with certain ordinances, applicable to each individual
+of their number.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is well, however, to distinguish broadly between actual manufacturers
+or producers (<i>menestrales de manos</i>) and merchants or shopkeepers
+(<i>mercaderes de tienda y de escriptorio</i>), who merely trafficked in what was
+executed by another.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> This guild, as all the others, held an annual convocation of its
+members, and possessed a chapel of its own in the convent of San
+Francisco. It exercised a strict and constant supervision upon the gold
+and silver work produced throughout the city. On April 15th, 1567, the
+inspectors appointed and salaried by the guild visited the shop of Antonio
+de Cuevas, and seized an <i>Agnus Dei</i> and a faultily executed cross, both of
+which objects were destroyed forthwith. On February 8th, 1569, they
+repeated their visit to the same silversmith, and seized an <i>apretador</i>, which
+was likewise broken up. On February 9th, 1602, they entered the shop
+of Antonio de Ahumada, and took away &ldquo;two rings, a gold <i>encomienda</i>,
+a cross of Saint John, some small cocks, a toothpick, and a San Diego of
+silver.&rdquo; Similar notices of fines, confiscations, and other punishments
+exist in great abundance, and may be studied in Gestoso's dictionary.
+See also Vol. I., p. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>, of the present work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> The foremost in importance of the <i>gremios</i> of Toledo was that of the
+silk-weavers (<i>arte mayor de la seda</i>), whose earliest ordinances date from
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1533.</p>
+
+<p>Interesting particulars of the old Toledan <i>gremios</i> generally will be found
+in the municipal archives of this city, in the <i>Ordenanzas para el buen
+r�gimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal � imperial ciudad de Toledo</i>
+(reprinted in 1858); in Mart�n Gamero's <i>History of Toledo</i>; and in the
+Count of Cedillo's scholarly monograph, <i>Toledo in the Sixteenth Century</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> That is, the ponderous structure known as the Miguelete, which stands
+unfinished to this day.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> The Count of Torre�naz quotes an earlier instance, relative to another
+city, from the shoemakers' ordinances of Burgos, confirmed by the emperor
+Alfonso in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1270. These laws decreed, obviously with the purpose of
+limiting the number of apprentices, that every master-craftsman who engaged
+an apprentice was to pay two thousand <i>maravedis</i> &ldquo;for the service of God
+and of the hospital.&rdquo; Similar legislation, lasting many centuries, was in
+force elsewhere, for Larruga says that at Valladolid, although the city
+produced fourteen thousand hats yearly, most of the master-hatters had no
+apprentices in their workshops, and only one <i>oficial</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, the silk-weavers (Statute of 1701). &ldquo;Que ningun collegial de dit
+collegi puixa matricular francament mes de tres aprenents y si volgu�s
+tenirne mes, hatja de pagar � dit collegi deu lliures, moneda real de Valencia
+per casc� dels que excedir� de dit numero.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> It is not often, for instance, that we meet with notices of Spanish craftsmen
+such as Miguel Jer�nimo Monegro, a silversmith of Seville, who at
+his death, towards the middle of the sixteenth century, was in a position to
+bequeath the following money and effects: 15,000 <i>maravedis</i> to his servant,
+Catalina Mexia, 6000 <i>maravedis</i>  to Juan Ortiz, &ldquo;a boy that was in my
+house, that he may learn a trade,&rdquo; 6000 <i>maravedis</i>  yearly to his slavewomen,
+Juana and Luisa, and a black mule to his executor, Hernando de
+Morales.&mdash;Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Art�fices Sevillanas</i>, Vol. II., p. 256.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> This did not happen only at Valencia. The Cortes assembled at Valladolid
+in 1537 complained that it was &ldquo;tolerable that costly stuffs should
+be worn by lords, gentlemen, and wealthy persons; but such is become our
+nation, that there is not an hidalgo, squire, merchant, or <i>oficial</i> of any
+trade, but wears rich clothing; wherefore many grow impoverished and lack
+the money to pay the <i>alcabalas</i> and the other taxes owing to His Majesty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Fernandez de Navarrete stated, in 1626, that &ldquo;the wives of common
+<i>mec�nicos</i> (<i>i.e.</i> craftsmen) furnish their dwellings more luxuriously than
+titled personages of the realm were wont to furnish theirs some few
+years ago,&rdquo; and that hangings of taffeta or Spanish <i>guadamec�es</i> were now
+regarded with contempt, being replaced, even in the homes of the moderately
+well-to-do, by sumptuous fabrics of Florence and Milan, and by the
+costliest Brussels tapestry.&mdash;(<i>Conservaci�n de Monarqu�as</i>, p. 246).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Larruga, in Vol. XVIII. of his <i>Memorias</i>, inserts an account of the
+heavy debts incurred by the <i>gremios</i> of Valladolid, upon the celebration of
+various of their festivals.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The treatment of distinguished craftsmen by the Spanish church was
+often sheerly villainous. A document, inserted by Zarco del Valle among
+his collection of <i>Documentos In�ditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes
+en Espa�a</i>, p. 362, and in the handwriting of &ldquo;Maestre&rdquo; Domingo (see
+Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>), states that after making the choir-<i>reja</i> for Toledo
+cathedral, &ldquo;so richly wrought, that in the elegance and rarity thereof it
+far surpasseth all that has been witnessed in our time, whether in his
+majesty's dominions or abroad,&rdquo; and expending on it &ldquo;all the money I
+had earned in my youth,&rdquo; this eminent <i>rejero</i> found himself by now
+&ldquo;owing a great quantity of <i>maravedis</i>, seeing that I am utterly without
+resources,&rdquo; concluding by an appeal to the archbishop to &ldquo;take heed how
+that I shall not perish through such poverty, and my wife and children in
+the hospital.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In another document the same artificer complains that in producing the
+aforesaid <i>reja</i>, he had sacrificed &ldquo;not only my labour, but my property
+to boot, having been compelled to sell my house and my inheritance to
+compensate me for my losses,&rdquo; adding that the cathedral authorities had
+violated their engagement with him.</p>
+
+<p>In answer to a series of petitions such as this, the archbishop tardily
+gave orders for the payment to Domingo of a lump sum of fifteen thousand
+<i>maravedis</i> and a pension for the rest of his life of two silver <i>reales</i> of
+Castilian money, &ldquo;to aid him to support himself.&rdquo; This was in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>
+1563. By 1565 death had ended the miseries of the master-craftsman,
+and again we find his widow and children knocking at the archbishop's
+door, pleading that &ldquo;extreme is our necessity,&rdquo; and declaring that
+Domingo had succumbed overburdened with debt, <i>affirming on his deathbed
+that the cathedral owed him three thousand ducats, being half the value
+of a reja he had made</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In answer to this terrible appeal, the thrifty prelate ordered that <i>since it
+was found to be true that Master Domingo had lost his maravedis in making
+the rejas of the choir</i>, his widow and children should receive a daily pension
+of one <i>real</i>, and that a suit of clothes should be given to each of his sons
+and his two daughters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> So rarely, that Salazar de Mendoza affirms in his book upon <i>Castilian
+Dignities</i> that this &ldquo;high prenomen&rdquo; (<i>alto prenombre Don</i>) might properly
+be used by none but kings, <i>infantes</i>, prelates, and the <i>ricos-homes</i> of the
+realm.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1626, Fern�ndez de Navarrete complained of the tendency prevailing
+among the Spaniards generally to usurp the title <i>Don</i>. &ldquo;Nowadays
+in Castile,&rdquo; he wrote (<i>Conservaci�n de Monarqu�as</i>, p. 71, etc.), &ldquo;exists a
+horde of turbulent and idle fellows that so style themselves, since you will
+hardly find the son of a craftsman (<i>oficial mec�nico</i>) that does not endeavour
+by this trick to filch the honour that is owed to true nobility alone; and so,
+impeded and weighed down by the false appearance of <i>caballeros</i>, they are
+unsuited to follow any occupation that is incompatible with the empty
+authority of a <i>Don</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Some of the reasons why these rogues or <i>pseudonobles</i> (as Fern�ndez de
+Navarrete called them), attempted to pass for <i>hidalgos</i> or &ldquo;sons of somebody,&rdquo;
+are disclosed by Townsend, writing a century and a half later.
+&ldquo;Numerous privileges and immunities enjoyed by the <i>hidalgos</i> or knights,
+sometimes called <i>hijos dalgo</i>, have contributed very much to confirm hereditary
+prejudices to the detriment of trade. Their depositions are taken in
+their own houses. They are seated in the courts of justice, and are placed
+near the judge. Till the year 1784, their persons, arms, and horses were
+free from arrest. They are not sent to the common jails, but are either
+confined in castles or in their own houses on their parole of honour. They
+are not hanged, but strangled, and this operation is called <i>garrotar</i>, from
+<i>garrote</i>, the little stick used by carriers to twist the cord and bind hard
+their loading. They cannot be examined on the rack. They are, moreover,
+exempted from the various taxes called <i>fechos</i>, <i>pedidos</i>, <i>monedas</i>, <i>martiniegas</i>,
+and <i>contribuciones reales</i> and <i>civiles</i>: that is, from subsidies,
+benevolence, and poll tax, or taille paid by the common people, at the
+rate of two per cent., in this province, but in others at the rate of four.
+They are free from personal service, except where the sovereign is, and
+even then they cannot be compelled to follow him. None but the royal
+family can be quartered on them. To conclude, the noble female conveys
+all these privileges to her husband and her children, just in the same
+manner as the eldest daughter of the titular nobility transmits the titles of
+her progenitors.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The proportion of <i>hidalgos</i> in the kingdom of Granada is not considerable;
+for out of six hundred and fifty-two thousand nine hundred and ninety
+inhabitants, only one thousand nine hundred and seventy-nine are noble;
+whereas, in the province of Le�n, upon little more than one-third that
+population, the knights are twenty-two thousand. In the province of
+Burgos, on four hundred and sixty thousand three hundred and ninety-five
+inhabitants, one hundred and thirty-four thousand and fifty-six are entitled
+to all the privileges of nobility; and in Asturias, of three hundred
+and forty-five thousand eight hundred and thirty-three, nearly one-third
+enjoy the same distinction.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Journey through Spain in the years 1786
+and 1787</i>: Vol. III., pp. 79, 80.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los R�os, <i>Noticia general para la
+estimaci�n de las Artes y la manera en que se conocen las liberales de las que
+son mec�nicas y serviles</i>. Madrid, 1600. I again have occasion to mention
+this curious work in my chapter on Spanish tapestries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> It is stated in the Fuero of N�jera (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1076) that the price of the
+blood of a Moorish slave was twelve <i>sueldos</i> and a half, while the Fuero
+Viejo of Castile (Book II., Tit. III., Ley IV.) contains the significantly
+contemptuous phrase, &ldquo;If a man demand of another a beast or a Moor&rdquo;
+(<i>si alg�n ome demanda � otro bestia � moro</i>). The Countess d'Aulnoy
+wrote in 1679;&mdash;&ldquo;There are here (at Madrid) a large number of Turkish
+and Moorish slaves, who are bought and sold at heavy prices, some of them
+costing four hundred and five hundred <i>escudos</i>. Until some time ago the
+owners of these slaves possessed the right to kill them at their pleasure, as
+though they had been so many dogs; but since it was remarked that this
+usage tallied but poorly with the maxims of our Christian faith, so
+scandalous a license was prohibited. Nowadays the owner of a slave
+may often break his bones without incurring censure. Not many, however,
+resort to so extreme a chastisement.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> To further show the extravagant way of thinking and behaving of the
+Spaniard of the seventeenth century, the same author sets aside the sneering
+objection justly made by foreign writers to the river Manzanares at
+Madrid&mdash;namely, that it has no water&mdash;by remarking with exquisite
+complacency, that here precisely lies the crowning merit and advantage of
+the Manzanares over rival streams; in that it amuses people without
+endangering their lives. In the reigns of Philip the Fourth and Charles
+the Second, a favourite promenade of the Madrid aristocracy was the waterless
+channel of this river, in which, according to this work, &ldquo;coaches and
+carriages do duty for a gondola, and form a pleasant imitation of the boats
+and palaces of Venice.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> The object avowedly pursued by Campomanes was not, however, the
+absolute suppression of the Spanish trade-guilds, but merely their reconstruction
+upon a sounder basis. He still believed that admission to a guild
+should be preceded by a formal period of apprenticeship, as well as that
+the title and the privileges of the master of a trade should be hereditary.
+An instance of the grossly fraudulent methods employed by the <i>gremios</i>
+in order to retain the privilege of manufacture in a certain family, is quoted
+by Larruga (<i>Memorias</i>, Vol. II., p. 201), who states that the silk-cord
+makers of Madrid conferred the title of <i>master-craftsman</i> on a babe only
+twenty-two months old.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Barzanallana says that the earliest sign of a movement in the direction
+of emancipating the Spanish people from the thraldom of the <i>gremios</i> is
+contained in the royal <i>cedula</i> of May 17th, 1790, abolishing several of the
+noxious prerogatives which had hitherto been enjoyed by the families of
+master-craftsmen. A further crown decree, dated the same month and
+year, empowered the Audiencias and Chanciller�as to authorize persons to
+pursue a craft (provided they were reasonably competent) without the
+necessity of approval from the <i>gremios</i> and their <i>veedores</i>. Three years
+later, the same monarch (Charles the Fourth) suppressed the <i>gremios</i> and
+<i>colegios</i> of the silk-twisters, and declared this craft to be open to all such
+persons, of either sex, as wished to practise it. In 1797 it was permitted
+to all foreigners who should be competent in any art or industry (except
+Jews) to establish themselves in Spain or her dominions, nor were they
+to be molested in their religious theories if they should happen not to be
+Roman Catholics.</p>
+
+<p>At a later time the Cortes annulled, or very nearly so, the <i>ordenanzas</i>
+of the <i>gremios</i>, and allowed the exercise of any lawful trade or craft to
+everybody, Spaniards and foreigners alike, without the requisite of
+special license or examination, or approval by the officers of the guilds
+(decree of June 8th, 1813). This measure was revoked in 1815, but again
+became law in 1836, and two years before this latter date was issued the
+decree of Queen Mar�a Cristina prohibiting associations which, under the
+semblance of a <i>gremio</i>, should aim at converting any craft or office into a
+monopoly.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish <i>gremios</i> still exist, but all their sting has departed. To-day
+they may be said to spring from the natural and beneficial interdependence
+of persons working together in the same groove, and seeking mutual support
+by means of peaceable association. Thus the abuses which rendered
+them so terrible and evil in the olden time are fortunately now no more.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> This custom was borrowed from the East, and explains why, in many
+of the older Spanish cities, a number of their streets have taken their title
+from the trades that formerly were plied in them, or (in some instances)
+that still are so. Especially was this the case at Valencia and Toledo. In
+the latter capital there are, or used to be, the streets, <i>plazas</i>, or <i>barrios</i>, of
+the silversmiths, armourers, bakers, old-clothes vendors, potters, esparto-weavers,
+dyers, chairmakers, and many more. Mart�n Gamero, in his
+excellent <i>History of Toledo</i> (Introduction, p. 60), says that in the centre of
+the city were located the quiet crafts, such as those of the jewellers, silversmiths,
+chandlers, and clog-makers, as well as the shops of the silk, brocade,
+and tissue-vendors. Noisy trades, such as the swordsmiths', tinsmiths',
+boiler-makers', chairmakers', and turners', were practised on the outskirts
+of the town.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Colmeiro has published <i>memoriales</i> presented by the hatters of
+Zaragoza, in which they pray to be allowed to line, by their own hands, or
+by those of their wives, the hats which they had manufactured, instead of
+being required to give up this finishing and accessorial process to the makers
+of silk cord.&mdash;<i>Historia de la Econom�a Pol�tica en Espa�a</i>, and <i>Biblioteca
+de los economistas espa�oles de los siglos XVI., XVII., y XVIII</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> This meddlesomeness almost exceeds belief. It was at its worst,
+perhaps, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who decreed that the
+wicks of candles were to be made of the same kind of tow, and horse-shoes
+and nails to be of the same weight in every part of their dominions. It was
+required that machines, which might have been to great advantage moved
+by mules or horses, should only be worked by the hand of man, however
+lengthy and exhausting this might prove. The Count of Torre�naz, who
+quotes these ridiculous dispositions from the <i>Libro de bulas y pragm�ticas</i>
+of Juan Ram�rez, further recalls that, as late as the middle of the eighteenth
+century, costly woven stuffs of Seville and Valencia used to be confiscated
+because, although the ground of the fabric was of a colour which the law
+allowed, the flowers or other devices which formed the decoration were of
+a forbidden shade. On one occasion the chief lady-in-waiting of the queen
+was prohibited from wearing a dress which she had ordered from a weaver
+of Valencia, because the flowered pattern was contrary to the <i>ordenanzas</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following is a fairly complete list of the works I have
+consulted for the preparation of these volumes.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Abd�n de Paz.</span> <i>La Espa�a de la Edad Media.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Academia de San Fernando, Real.</span> <i>Colecci�n de Antig�edades
+Arabes de Granada y C�rdoba</i>; 2 vols.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alba, Duchess of Berwick and.</span> <i>Cat�logo de las colecciones
+expuestas en las vitrinas del Palacio de Liria.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alderete.</span> <i>Antig�edades de Espa�a.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Alzola y Minondo, Pablo.</span> <i>El Arte Industrial en Espa�a.</i>
+Bilbao, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Amador de los R�os.</span> <i>El Arte Latino-Bizantino en Espa�a
+y las Coronas Visigodas de Guarrazar.</i> Madrid, 1861.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ant�n, Francisco.</span> <i>Estudio sobre el Coro de la Catedral de
+Zamora</i>; 1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Argote de Molina.</span> <i>Nuevos Paseos Hist�ricos, Art�sticos,
+Econ�mico-Pol�ticos por Granada y sus Contornos.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arphe y Villafa�e.</span> <i>Varia Conmensuraci�n para la Escultura
+y Arquitectura.</i> Seventh edition; Madrid, 1795.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arte en Espa�a, El</i>; 8 vols.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arts italiens en Espagne, Les, ou histoire des artistes italiens
+qui contribuerent � embellir les Castilles.</i> Rome, 1825.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Balsa de la Vega.</span> <i>Las Industrias Art�sticas en Madrid</i>
+(Lace, etc.). Articles published in <i>El Liberal</i>, 1907.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Barrantes.</span> <i>Barros emeritenses.</i> Madrid, 1877.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bertaut de Rouen.</span> <i>Journal du Voyage d'Espagne.</i> Paris,
+1669.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Birch, Samuel.</span> <i>History of Ancient Pottery.</i> London, 1873.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bock.</span> <i>Die Kleinodien des heil. r�mischen Reichs deutscher
+Nation, nebst den Kroninsignien B�hmens, Ungarns, und
+der Lombardei.</i> Vienna, 1864.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Geschichte der liturgischen Gew�nder des Mittelalters.</i> Bonn, 1871.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bonsor, Georges.</span> <i>Les Colonies pre-Romaines de la Vall�e du
+B�tis.</i> Paris, 1899.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bourgoing, Jean-Fran�ois de.</span> <i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne.</i>
+3 vols.; Paris, 1789.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bre�osa y Castellarnau.</span> <i>Gu�a y Descripci�n del Real Sitio
+de San Ildefonso.</i> Madrid, 1884.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Caballero Infante, Francisco.</span> <i>Aureos y barras de oro y
+plata encontrados en el pueblo de Santiponce.</i> Seville, 1898.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Campos Munilla, Manuel.</span> <i>Mosaicos del Museo Arqueol�gico
+Provincial de Sevilla.</i> 1897.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Capmany y Montpalau, Antonio.</span> <i>Memorias hist�ricas sobre
+la marina, comercio, y artes de la ciudad de Barcelona.</i>
+Madrid, 1779.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Carrasco y S�inz, Adolfo.</span> <i>Cat�logo de los recuerdos hist�ricos
+existentes en el Museo de Artiller�a.</i> Part I.; Madrid,
+1893.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cascales, Francisco.</span> <i>Discursos hist�ricos sobre Murcia.</i>
+Murcia, 1624.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cean Bermudez, Juan Agustin.</span> <i>Descripci�n Art�stica de la
+Catedral de Sevilla.</i> Seville, 1863.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Diccionario de las Bellas Artes en Espa�a.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cedillo, Count of.</span> <i>Toledo en el siglo XVI.</i> Madrid, 1901.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Clonard, Count of.</span> <i>Memorias para la historia del traje</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+<i>espa�ol</i>; published in the <i>Memorias de la Real Academia
+de la Historia</i>, Vol. IX. Madrid, 1879.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Conferencias leidas en el Ateneo Barcelon�s sobre el estado
+de la cultura espa�ola y particularmente catalana, en el siglo
+XV.</i> Barcelona, 1893.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cole, Alan S.</span> <i>Ornament in European Silks.</i> London, 1899.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Contreras, Rafael.</span> <i>Recuerdos de la Dominaci�n de los
+Arabes en Espa�a.</i> Granada, 1882.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cox.</span> <i>L'Art de d�corer les Tissus.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cruzada Villaamil.</span> <i>Los tapices de Goya.</i> Madrid, 1870.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Danvila y Collado.</span> <i>Trajes y Armas de los Espa�oles.</i>
+Madrid, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Davillier, Baron.</span> <i>Recherches sur l'orf�vrerie en Espagne.</i>
+Paris, 1879.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Les arts decoratifs en Espagne au moyen �ge et � la
+Renaissance.</i> Paris, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nota sobre los cueros de Cordoba, Guadameciles de
+Espa�a</i>, etc. (Spanish edition.) Gerona, 1879.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Diaz y Perez, Nicol�s.</span> <i>Historia de Talavera la Real.</i>
+Madrid, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dozy.</span> <i>Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne.</i> Leyden, 1881.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dupont-Auberville.</span> <i>L'Ornement des Tissus.</i> Paris, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Echeverr�a.</span> <i>Paseos por Granada y sus Contornos</i>. 2 vols.;
+Granada, 1814.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eguilaz Yanguas, Leopoldo.</span> <i>Rese�a Hist�rica de la
+Conquista del Reino de Granada por los Reyes Cat�licos.</i>
+Granada, 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Errera, Madame Isabelle.</span>  <i>Collection d'Anciennes �toffes</i>
+(Catalogue). Brussels, 1901.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fernandez y Gonzalez, Francisco.</span> <i>Estado social y pol�tico
+de los mud�jares de Castilla.</i> Madrid, 1866.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Florez.</span> <i>Espa�a Sagrada.</i> (2nd edition). Madrid, 1824.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ford, Richard.</span> <i>Handbook for Travellers in Spain.</i> 2 vols.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+London, 1845.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gayangos, Pascual de</span> (edited by). <i>History of the Mohammedan
+Dynasties in Spain.</i> London, 1843.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p>(annotated by). <i>Chronicle of Rassis the Moor.</i> Madrid,
+1850.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gayet.</span> <i>L'Art Persan.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gestoso y Perez, Jos�.</span> <i>Documentos relativos � la historia de
+la Armer�a de Sevilla.</i> Seville, 1887.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Ensayo de un Diccionario de los art�fices que florecieron
+en Sevilla desde el siglo XIII al XVIII inclusive.</i> 2 vols.;
+Seville, 1899.</p>
+
+<p><i>Historia de los barros vidriados sevillanos desde sus
+or�genes hasta nuestros d�as.</i> Seville, 1903.</p>
+
+<p><i>Curiosidades antiguas sevillanas.</i> Seville, 1885.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Goblet d'Alviella, Comte.</span> <i>La Migration des Symboles.</i>
+Paris, 1891.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">G�mez Moreno, Manuel.</span> <i>Apuntes que pueden servir de
+historia del bordado de imaginer�a en Granada</i> (published in
+the magazine <i>El Liceo de Granada</i>; 6th year, No. 18).</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Gu�a de Granada.</i> Granada, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">G�ngora.</span> <i>Antig�edades Prehist�ricas de Andaluc�a.</i> Madrid,
+1868.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Granada, Ordinances of.</span> <i>Titulo de las Ordenan�as que los
+muy Ilustres y muy magn�ficos Se�ores Granada mandaron
+que se guarden para la buena governacion de su Rep�blica.
+Las quales mandaron imprimir para que todos las sepan y
+las guarden.</i> 1552.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Ordenanzas que los Muy Ilustres y Muy Magnificos
+Se�ores Granada mandaron guardar, para la buena
+governacion de su Republica, impressas a�o de 1552. Que
+se han buelto a imprimir mandado de los Se�ores Presidente,</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+<i>y Oydores de la Real Chancilleria de esta ciudad de
+Granada, a�o de 1670. A�adiendo otras que no estauan
+impressas. Impressas en Granada. En la Imprenta
+Real de Francisco de Ochoa, en la Calle de Abenamar.
+A�o de</i> 1678.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Guillen Robles, Francisco.</span> <i>M�laga musulmana.</i> M�laga,
+1880.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gutierrez de la Hacera, Pascual Ramon.</span> <i>Descripci�n
+General y Cronol�gica de Espa�a.</i> 2 vols.; Madrid, 1771.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">H�bner.</span> <i>Inscriptiones Hispani� latin�.</i> Berlin, 1892.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Inscriptionum Hispani� latinarum supplementum.</i>
+Berlin, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Jones, Owen.</span> <i>The Alhambra.</i> London, 1842.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lane-Poole, Stanley.</span> <i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt.</i>
+London, 1888.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>The Moors in Spain.</i> London, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Larruga.</span> <i>Memorias pol�ticas y econ�micas sobre los frutos,
+comercio, y minas de Espa�a.</i> Madrid, 1788.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Le Breton, Gaston.</span> <i>C�ramique espagnole. Le salon en
+porcelaine du Palais Royal de Madrid et les porcelaines de
+Buen Retiro.</i> Paris, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lecea y Garcia.</span> <i>Recuerdos de la antigua industria Segoviana.</i>
+Segovia, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lopez de Arenas, Diego.</span> <i>Carpinter�a de lo Blanco y Tratado
+de Alarifes.</i> (3rd edition.) Madrid, 1867.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Madrazo, Pedro de.</span> <i>C�rdoba.</i> Barcelona, 1884.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Martorell y Pe�a, Juan.</span> <i>Apuntes arqueol�gicos de, ordenados
+por Salvador Samper y Miquel.</i> Barcelona, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Medina, Pedro de.</span> <i>Primera y Segunda parte de las grandezas
+y cosas notables de Espa�a.</i> Alcal� de Henares, 1595.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Menendez y Pelayo, Marcelino.</span> <i>Historia de las Ideas
+Est�ticas en Espa�a.</i> Madrid, 1886 and following years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Morales, Ambrosio de.</span> <i>La cr�nica general de Espa�a del
+Maestro Flori�n de Ocampo, continuada con el libro de las
+antig�edades de Espa�a.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Moreno de Vargas, Bernab�.</span> <i>Historia de la Ciudad de
+M�rida.</i> Merida, 1633; reprinted at Merida, 1892.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Murgu�a, Manuel.</span> <i>El Arte en Santiago durante el siglo
+XVIII., y noticia de los artistas que florecieron en dicho
+ciudad y centuria.</i> Madrid, 1884.</p>
+
+<p><i>Museo Espa�ol de Antig�edades</i> (many articles in the). Madrid,
+1872 and following years.</p>
+
+<p><i>Noticia de la F�brica de Espadas de Toledo que por tantos
+siglos existi� hasta fines del XVII en que acab�, y del
+m�todo que ten�an aquellos art�fices Armeros para forjarlas
+y templarlas, aceros de que usaban, y otras particularidades
+que las hicieron tan famosas en todo el Mundo como apetecidas
+al presente, y de la que por el Rey N.S. que Dios gue.
+se estableci� en esta Ciudad a�o de 1760; por Francisco de
+Santiago Palomares Escriuano mayor de primeros remates
+de Rentas decimales de Toledo y su Arzobispado.</i> MS. in
+the Library of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid;
+in the volume inscribed <i>Varios de Historia</i>, 8, E, 141.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ordenanzas de la muy noble � muy leal Cibdad de Sevilla �
+su tierra, assi de las tocantes al Cabildo y regimiento della,
+que se contienen en la primera parte, como de todos los
+oficios mec�nicos, de que es la segunda parte. Impressas con
+mucha diligencia en la dicha Cibdad de Sevilla por Juan
+Varela de Salamanca, vezino della. Acab�ronse de imprimir
+� catorze dias del mes de Febrero, a�o de Nuestro Redemptor
+Iesu Christo de mil quinientos � veynte y siete a�os (1527).</i>
+The second edition was published, also at Seville, in
+1632.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ordenanzas para el buen regimen y gobierno de la muy noble,</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+<i>muy leal � imperial ciudad de Toledo.</i> Reprinted by the
+Town Council. Toledo, 1858.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ortega Rubio.</span> <i>Los Visigodos en Espa�a.</i> Madrid, 1903.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Osma, Guillermo J. de.</span> <i>Azulejos sevillanos del siglo XIII.</i>
+Madrid, 1902.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Los letreros ornamentales en la cer�mica morisca del siglo
+XV.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">P�rez de Villa-amil.</span> <i>Espa�a Artistica y Monumental.</i>
+Paris, 1842&ndash;1850.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">P�rez Villaamil, Manuel.</span> <i>Artes � Industrias del Buen
+Retiro.</i> Madrid, 1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Picatoste, Felipe.</span> <i>Ultimos escritos.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Estudios sobre la grandeza y decadencia de Espa�a.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pigal.</span> <i>Collection de Costumes des diverses Provinces de
+l'Espagne.</i> Paris, about 1810.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ponz, Antonio.</span> <i>Viaje de Espa�a.</i> 18 vols.; Madrid, 1787.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ram�rez de Arellano, Rafael.</span> <i>Ciudad Real Art�stica.</i>
+Ciudad Real, 1894.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ria�o, Juan Facundo.</span> <i>The Industrial Arts in Spain</i> (South
+Kensington Museum Art Handbooks). London, 1879.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ricord, Tom�s.</span> <i>Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones
+del Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que ten�an en el
+a�o 1791.</i> Valencia, 1793.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rodr�guez Villa, Antonio</span> (edited by). <i>La Corte y
+Monarqu�a de Espa�a en los a�os de 1636 y 1637.</i> Madrid,
+1886.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sanpere y Miquel.</span> <i>La Plateria catalana en los siglos XVI y
+XV</i> (article published in the <i>Revista de Ciencias Hist�ricas</i>;
+Vol. I.).</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Las Costumbres Catalanas en tiempo de Juan I.</i> Gerona,
+1878.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sempere.</span> <i>Historia del lujo en Espa�a.</i> Madrid, 1788.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Simonet, Francisco Javier.</span> <i>Descripci�n del Reino de Granada,
+sacada de los autores ar�bigos.</i> Granada, 1872.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stirling, William.</span> <i>Annals of the Artists of Spain.</i> London,
+1848.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Strabo.</span> <i>Geography.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Street.</span> <i>Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain.</i> London,
+1865.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Swinburne, Henry.</span> <i>Travels through Spain.</i> London, 1779.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Townsend, Joseph.</span> <i>Journey through Spain.</i> 3 vols.; London,
+1792.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Valladar, F. de Paula.</span> <i>Gu�a de Granada.</i> Granada, 1890
+and 1906.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Van de Put.</span> <i>Hispano-Moresque Ware of the Fifteenth
+Century.</i> London, 1904.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vargas y Ponce.</span> <i>Correspondencia epistolar en materias de
+Arte.</i> Collected by Ces�reo Fern�ndez Duro. Madrid,
+1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Villa-amil y Castro.</span> <i>Antig�edades prehist�ricas y c�lticas de
+Galicia.</i> Lugo, 1873.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Arqueolog�a Sagrada.</i> Lugo, 1867.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vi�aza, Count of La.</span> <i>Adiciones al Diccionario de Cean
+Bermudez.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>Goya.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Viollet-le-Duc.</span> <i>Dictionnaire raisonn� du mobilier fran�ais
+de l'�poque Carlovingienne � la Renaissance.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wallis, Henry.</span> <i>The Oriental Influence on the Ceramic Art
+of the Italian Renaissance.</i> London, 1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Young, Arthur.</span> <i>Tour in Catalonia.</i> Dublin, 1793.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Zarco del Valle.</span> <i>Documentos in�ditos para la Historia de
+las Bellas Artes en Espa�a.</i> Madrid, 1870.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Abd-al-Azis, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li>Abd-er-Rhaman the First, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>; III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+<li>Abd-er-Rhaman the Third, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Aben-Said, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li>Abolais, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_226">226</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+<li>Abreviador, the Casa del, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>Abu-Said, III. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Adargas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>Addison, Lancelot, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Alberoni, Cardinal, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Albuquerque, the inventory of the Dukes of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+<li>Alcaicer�a of Granada, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Alcarrazas</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Alc�zar of Seville, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Alcora, pottery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Alcoy, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Aleman, Crist�bal, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Aleros</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Alfarge</i> ceilings, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Alfonso the Second, III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Third (&ldquo;the Great&rdquo;), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_57">57</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Sixth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>; III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Ninth, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Tenth (&ldquo;the Learned&rdquo;), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>; III. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Eleventh, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>; III. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Eleventh, the Chronicle of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Thirteenth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_42">42</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Alfonso the First of Aragon, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Algeciras, the siege of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Hakem the First, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>; III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Hakem the Second, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>Alhambra, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_64">64</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_154">154</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Aliceres</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Jattib, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Aljofar</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>; III. <a href="#Page_11">11</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></li>
+<li>Al-Khattib, III. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Almagro Cardenas, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Almagro, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Makkari, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>; III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Manzor, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Almex�a</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+<li>Almohades, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; III. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Almoravides, the, III. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Almotalefes, III. <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Altar-screens (see <a href="#RETABLOS"><i>Retablos</i></a>).</li>
+<li>Alvarez de Colmenar, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_110">110</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_199">199</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Amador de los R�os, Jos�, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_28">28</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_59">59</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Amador de los R�os, Rodrigo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>; III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li>Amphor�, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Analogia</i>, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Ancheta, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>Andino, Crist�bal de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_151">151</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Angels, the Cross of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_41">41</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li>Apocalypse, the Codex of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Arabian Nights, The</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_63">63</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Aranda, the Count of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Arca Santa</i> of Oviedo, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Arenys de Mar, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Arenys de Munt, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Arfe, Antonio de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Arfe, Enrique de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>; III. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Arfe, Juan de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_96">96</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Argote de Molina, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Armouries of Spain, private, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li>Armoury, Madrid, the Royal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_214">214</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_217">217</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_229">229</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_231">231</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_248">248</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Arnao de Flandes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Arquetas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_48">48</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&ldquo;Arras cloths&rdquo; (see <a href="#PANOS_DE_RAS"><i>Pa�os de Ras</i></a>).</li>
+<li><i>Artesonados</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Ash Shakandi, III. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+<li>Augusta, Crist�bal de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Axorcas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Azulejos</i> (see <a href="#TILES">Tiles</a>).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Baculi</i>, ivory, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Balconies, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_154">154</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Balearics, slingers of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>B�le, the Council of, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Balsa de la Vega, III. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Banyolenchs</i>, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Barcelona, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Barros Saguntinos</i> (see <a href="#SAGUNTINE_WARE">&ldquo;Saguntine ware&rdquo;</a>).</li>
+<li><i>Barros tarraconenses</i> (see <a href="#SAGUNTINE_WARE">&ldquo;Saguntine ware&rdquo;</a>).</li>
+<li>Bartholomew, Master, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Barzanallana, III. <a href="#Page_222">222</a> (note), <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Bayan Almoghreb, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Becerra, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Becerriles, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+<li>Bedclothes, Spanish medi�val, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_4">4</a> (note).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></li>
+<li>Benvenuto Cellini, III. <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Berruguete, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li>Bertaut de Rouen, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_67">67</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>; III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> (note), <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Boabdil el Chico, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_227">227</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>Bocairente, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Bonsor, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>Bourgoing, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; III. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Bowles, William, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_4">4</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_263">263</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_196">196</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Brihuega, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Brims of Wells (see <a href="#BROCALES"><i>Brocales</i></a>).</li>
+<li><i>Brinqui�os</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>British Museum, The, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Brocade, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> (note).</li>
+<li><a name="BROCALES" id="BROCALES"><i>Brocales</i></a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Bronzes, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Brun, Sigismund, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li><i>B�caros</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Buckram, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Buen Retiro, pottery of the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Buonaparte, Joseph, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Burel</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cadalso, glass of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cadinas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Campomanes, Count, III. <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Candil</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Cannon, early Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cano, Alonso, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li><i>C�ntigas de Santa Mar�a</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Capmany, III. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note), <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Carpentry, artistic, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_46">46</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Carpinter�a de lo blanco</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Carpinteros de lo blanco</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Carri�n, Fernando de, III. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Casa de los T�ros, Granada, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Casiri, III. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Catalu�a, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Catalu�a, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Catherine of Lancaster, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li>Cato, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Cean Bermudez, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_83">83</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_246">246</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Cedillo, Count of, III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a> (note), <a href="#Page_225">225</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Celos�as, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Celtiberians, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cendal</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Chair-makers of Granada, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_28">28</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Chamelot</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Charles the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_46">46</a>; III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Charles the Third, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>; III. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
+<li>Charles the Fourth, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>; III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></li>
+<li>Charles the Fifth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>; III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+<li>Chests, makers of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Ciclaton</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Cid, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+<li>Cid, the Chronicle of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Cid, the Poem of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Cisneros, Cardinal, III. <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Ciudad Real, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Clemencin, III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Clonard, Count of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_215">215</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_268">268</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_5">5</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a> (note); III. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_14">14</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Cloostermans, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_209">209</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cloth of Gold, III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Cloths, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cluny, the Museum of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Coaches, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cofrad�as</i>, III. <a href="#Page_222">222</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Commercial Company of Extremadura, the, III. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li>Compa�ia Real de Comercio y F�bricas de Granada, the, III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Contrayes</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Contreras, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Cordellate</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, embroiderers of, III. <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&ldquo;Cordova leathers,&rdquo; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, <i>rejeros</i> of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, the Council of, III. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, the mosque of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordova, the Ordinances of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Covarrubias, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>; III. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Crossbows, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_220">220</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Crosses, iron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li>Crown of Spain, tapestries of the, III. <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Cueros de C�rdoba</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cunninghame Graham, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_277">277</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_20">20</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> (note).</li>
+<li><i>Cursi</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Custodia</i> of Cordova, the, III. <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Custodia</i> of Seville, the, III. <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Custodias</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Cutlers, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Dagobert, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li>Dancart, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li>Danis, Juan, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>D'Aulnoy, Countess, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_107">107</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_25">25</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>; III. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Davillier, Baron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Diago, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Diodorus Siculus, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li>Diptyches, ivory, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_89">89</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Dolfin, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+<li>Domingo, &ldquo;Maestre,&rdquo; I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>; III. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Doncel, Guillermo, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Don Quixote</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_286">286</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Dozy, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Drach-alat</i>, the, III. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li>Drury Fortnum, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+<li>Ducange, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li>Duque y Cornejo, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Echeverr�a, Father, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></li>
+<li>Eder, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li>Edrisi, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>; III. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li>Egilona, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li>Eguilaz Yanguas, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>; III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> (note).</li>
+<li>El Nubiense, III. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+<li>Embroidery, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Ena of Battenberg, Princess, III. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Enguera, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Entalladores</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Escolano, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Escorial, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+<li>Eximenes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Ferdinand and Isabella, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_69">69</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>; III. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> (note), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the Catholic, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_253">253</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>; III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the Second, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="FERDINAND_THE_THIRD" id="FERDINAND_THE_THIRD">Ferdinand the Third</a> (San Fernando), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>; III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the Sixth, III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdinand the Second of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li>Fernandez de Navarrete, III. <a href="#Page_109">109</a> (note), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> (note), <a href="#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="#Page_237">237</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Fernandez y Gonzalez, III. <a href="#Page_17">17</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Fez, III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Florez Estrada, III. <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>Floridablanca, Count of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>; III. <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li>Fonseca, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Fonts, baptismal, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Ford, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_83">83</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_63">63</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+<li>Fortuny, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Fouquet, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>Foz, Manuel, III. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+<li>Franc�s, Juan, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_140">140</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Francis the First, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Frisleva, Crist�bal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li>Fuero Viejo of Castile, the, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a> (note).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Gamero, Martin, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Ganivet, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>Garc�a Llans�, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_202">202</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+<li>Gates, bronze, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+<li>Gayangos, Pascual de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_24">24</a>; III. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> (note), <a href="#Page_135">135</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Gelmirez, Bishop, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Gener, Pompeyo, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>George, Master, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li>Gestoso, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_73">73</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_84">84</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_114">114</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_150">150</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_187">187</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_51">51</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_142">142</a> (note) <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a> (note) <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>; III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Giralda, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_177">177</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Goblet d'Alviella, III. <a href="#Page_71">71</a> (note).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span></li>
+<li>Gomez Moreno, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_172">172</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+<li>Gonzalo de Cordova, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+<li>Goya, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Goyeneche, Juan, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+<li>Granada, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Granada, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Granada, the Alcaicer�a of, III. <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Granada, the Ordinances of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_4">4</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_248">248</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Granas treintenas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Gricci, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+<li>Guadalajara, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Guadalete, the battle of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Guadamacileros</i>, III. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Guadamacileros</i> of Cordova, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Guadameciles</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Guarrazar, the treasure of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Guise, Duke of, III. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+<li>Gutierrez, Pedro, III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Hannibal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Harness for horses, war, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li>Henry, Master, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>Henry the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Henry the Second, III. <a href="#Page_34">34</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Henry the Eighth of England, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>Hern�ndez, Gregorio, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Herranz, Francisco, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li>Hita, Archpriest of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li>Hixem, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>H�bner, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li>Hurtado de Mendoza, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Alwardi, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Batutah, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Hayyan, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Hud, III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Khaldoun, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>; III. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li>Ibn Said, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>; III. <a href="#Page_33">33</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Illiberis, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Inlay on steel and iron, gold, III. <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Inns, furniture of Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Irving, Washington, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Isabel Farnese, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Isabella the Catholic, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_244">244</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Isabella the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+<li>Isidore, Saint, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_12">12</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_166">166</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Jacquemart, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Jaeces colgantes</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Jaen, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Jayme the First of Aragon (&ldquo;the Conqueror&rdquo;), I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a> <i>et seq.</i>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (note), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>Jewellery in Spain, Roman, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+<li>Jewellery, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_73">73</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Jewellery, Morisco, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Jones, Owen, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_172">172</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Jovellanos, III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>Juana, Do�a, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Juan of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
+<li>Juan the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>; III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li>Juan the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+<li>Juni, Juan de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Kersey, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Keys of Seville, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Keys, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_124">124</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Laborde, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_116">116</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_267">267</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_34">34</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>; III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> (note), <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Lace, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>La Granja (or San Ildefonso), the glass factory of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>La Higueruela, the battle of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>Lalaing, III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Lambot, Diodonet, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li>La Milanesa, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+<li>La Moncloa, the porcelain factory of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li>Lamp�rez, Vicente, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>; III. <a href="#Page_158">158</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Lamps, Roman, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_165">165</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Lamps, ware, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li>Lane-Poole, Stanley, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>; III. <a href="#Page_9">9</a> (note), <a href="#Page_21">21</a> (note).</li>
+<li>La Payessa, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+<li>Larruga, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>; III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a> (note), <a href="#Page_111">111</a> (note), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> (note), <a href="#Page_233">233</a> (note), <a href="#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Lasteyrie, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Latticinio</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Lazo</i>-work doors, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Leather, Spanish decorative, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Lefort, III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Lenger, Antoine, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Le�n, the Synod of, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Lerma, Duke of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Libros de Pasant�a</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li>Locks and keys, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Lope de Vega, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Lopez de Arenas, Diego, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>Lugo, exhibition of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li>Luis de Le�n, Fray, III. <a href="#Page_99">99</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Luna, Alvaro de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+<li>Lustred pottery, Hispano-Moresque, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_161">161</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Machuca, Pedro, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li>Madrid, the Gremios of, III. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Madrid, the National Museum, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_94">94</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; III. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>Majolica ware, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Manillas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Mantilla</i>, the, III. <a href="#Page_164">164</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Marckwart, the brothers, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li>Mar�a Cristina, Queen, III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Mar�a de Padilla, III. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li>Marineus Siculus, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>; III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Marmol, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Martial, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li>Martinez de la Mata, III. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li>Martinez Guijarro, Fernan, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Martinez Monta�es, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Martin Hume, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_113">113</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Martin of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>; III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+<li>Mary of England, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span></li>
+<li>Maskell, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_97">97</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Medias lanas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Medina del Campo, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Medina, Pedro de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li>M�lida, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_175">175</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Mena, Alonso de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Menandro, Vicente, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Mena, Pedro de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Mendez Silva, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_284">284</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Mendoza, the <i>gui�n</i> of Cardinal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li>Micerguillo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Mimbar</i> of the Mosque of Cordova, the, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Mimbar</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Mines, gold and silver, in Spain, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_1">1</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Mines of Spain, the iron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Miquel y Bad�a, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (note), <a href="#Page_70">70</a> (note), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+<li>Moawia, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Mocarabes, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Mohammed the Third  of Granada, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li>Mondejar, the Marquis of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Monistrol, the Marquis of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, III. <a href="#Page_184">184</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Monte-Fuerte, the Marquis of, III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Montoya, Alejo de, III. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li>Montserrat, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Monz�n, the Cortes of, III. <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Morales, Ambrosio de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_7">7</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_58">58</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>; III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Morel, Bartolom�, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_183">183</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Morella, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>Moriscos, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_29">29</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li>Moriscos, the expulsion of the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_80">80</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Mosaic-work, Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_128">128</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>M�ntz, III. <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> (note), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> (note), <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Murcia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Murcia, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Muza, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Muzquiz, Miguel de, III. <a href="#Page_92">92</a> (note).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Nails, decorative, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Napoleon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_141">141</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Navagiero, III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li>Nebrija, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+<li>Ney, Marshal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+<li>Nuevo Bazt�n, the glass-factory of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_250">250</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Olivares, Damian de, III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Olivares, the Count-Duke of, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Ollery, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li>Onteniente, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>&ldquo;Opening images,&rdquo; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li>Order of Preachers, the, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Barcelona, the, III. <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Burgos, the, III. <a href="#Page_233">233</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Cordova, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Granada, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_119">119</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_126">126</a>; III. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></li>
+<li>Ordinances of Seville, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_31">31</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Ordinances of Toledo, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>; III. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>Ortiz de Z��iga, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Ortiz, Lorenzo, III. <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Osma, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_140">140</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_161">161</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_183">183</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_188">188</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Othman, the Caliph, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Pacheco, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li>Palencia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pallia aquilinata</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pallia leonata</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pallia rotata</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Palmillas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Pannemaker, William, III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="PANOS_DE_RAS" id="PANOS_DE_RAS"><i>Pa�os de Ras</i></a>, III. <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Pardillos</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Passo Honroso</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+<li>Pedro the Cruel, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_270">270</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>; III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+<li>Pedro the Second, III. <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+<li>Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_210">210</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+<li>Pelayo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Petronius, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the First, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the Second, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>; III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the Third, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>; III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the Fourth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_243">243</a>; III. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the Fifth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>; III. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Pinheiro da Veiga, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_250">250</a>; III. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Pisano, Francesco Niculoso, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_143">143</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Pizarro, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_257">257</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Plato, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>Pliny, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_223">223</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Poblet, the monastery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Poem of the Cid</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Polybius, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Ponz, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+<li>Porous pottery, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Porr�n</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+<li>Potosi, the silver mines of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li>Pottery, prehistoric Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_111">111</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Primavera</i>, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
+<li>Procaccini, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Processional crosses, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_182">182</a>; III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+<li>Procopius, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Psephosis fsefysa</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+<li>Ptolemy, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li>Puente del Arzobispo ware, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Pulgar, Hernando del, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+<li>Pulpits, iron, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_139">139</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Pulpits, old Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Punto de oro</i>, III. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>R�cimos</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Ram�rez de Arellano, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_91">91</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_46">46</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_55">55</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_56">56</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_154">154</a>; III. <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> (note), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+<li>Ram�rez, Sancho, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li>Rapiers, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_259">259</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Rassis, III. <a href="#Page_2">2</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Reboul, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Recared, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_20">20</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></li>
+<li>Recceswinth, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Red fland�s</i>, III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Rejas</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_141">141</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Relicarios</i>, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_45">45</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Renaissance, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Reposteros</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_16">16</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_146">146</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Retablo</i> of Gerona Cathedral, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="RETABLOS" id="RETABLOS"><i>Retablos</i></a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_82">82</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Ret Catal�</i>, III. <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li>Ria�o, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_61">61</a> (note) <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_126">126</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_185">185</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_93">93</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>; III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a> (note), <a href="#Page_128">128</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> (note), <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> (note), <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Ricord, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_260">260</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+<li>Rico y Sinobas, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_228">228</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_259">259</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+<li>Riotinto, the mines of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Roderick, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_30">30</a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li>Rodrigo, Maese, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_217">217</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li>Roldan, Pedro, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosmithal, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_37">37</a>; III. <a href="#Page_34">34</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Rouli�re, Jean, III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+<li>Rubens, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Sagrado, Diego de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="SAGUNTINE_WARE" id="SAGUNTINE_WARE">Saguntine ware</a>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_114">114</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Saint Ferdinand (<i>see</i> <a href="#FERDINAND_THE_THIRD">Ferdinand the Third</a>).</li>
+<li>Saint Isidore, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_223">223</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+<li>Saint Isidro, diamonds of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>Saint Vincent Ferrer, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Samit</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanchez, Martin, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancho the Fourth, III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancho the Great, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li>Sandoval, Cardinal, III. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li>San Fernando, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>San Isidro, the burial chest of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+<li>San Miguel in Excelsis, the legend of, III. <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Santa Barbara, the tapestry factory of, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Santa Isabel, the tapestry factory of, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Santiago Cathedral, the treasure of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_53">53</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Santiago, jet-work of, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Santas Creus, the monastery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Sculpture in wood, Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_68">68</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Segovia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Segovia, woollens of, III. <a href="#Page_117">117</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Sentenach, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Sep�lveda, the Fuero of, III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>Serrano Fatigati, III. <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li>Seville, the Ordinances of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Shields, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_239">239</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Ships, silver, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_66">66</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></li>
+<li>Silk, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Siller�as</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Silos, the Chronicle of the Monk of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_13">13</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Sisenand, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>Sit, Ventura, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Soria, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li>South Kensington Museum, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_53">53</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>; III. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Stalactite decoration, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Stirling, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li>Strabo, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li>Street, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_64">64</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+<li>Stuck family, the, III. <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li>Superstitions, Andalusian, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Susillo, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Swinburne, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_172">172</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_240">240</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_285">285</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_2">2</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_61">61</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_77">77</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_261">261</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_47">47</a> (note), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Swinthila, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>Swords, Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_203">203</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_244">244</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Swords, spurious Spanish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li>Symonds, John Addington, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_2">2</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Tabis</i>, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Takcht</i>, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Talavera de la Reina, pottery of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_190">190</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_198">198</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Talavera de la Reina, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+<li>Talavera de la Reina, the silk-factories of, III. <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Tapestry, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_137">137</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Tardwahsh</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_18">18</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Tarik, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li>Tarik's &ldquo;table,&rdquo; I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_31">31</a> <i>et seq.</i>; III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Tartaricas</i>, III. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+<li>Tavira de Durango, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Teniers, III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li>Testaments, the Codex of the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_3">3</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Thimbles, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+<li>Throne of Don Martin, the silver, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="TILES" id="TILES">Tiles</a>, Spanish, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_136">136</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Tinajas</i>, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_120">120</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>; III. <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Tiraz</i>, III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li>Tirso de Molina, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li>Toledo, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Toledo, the Ordinances of, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+<li>Toledo, the trade-guilds of, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>Torre�naz, the Count of, III. <a href="#Page_119">119</a> (note), <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a> (note), <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Torre del Oro, the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li>Townsend, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_235">235</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_25">25</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_176">176</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>; III. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> (note), <a href="#Page_115">115</a> (note), <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> (note), <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a> (note), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> (note), <a href="#Page_250">250</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Trade-guilds, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_221">221</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Tramoyeres Blasco, Luis, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>et seq.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></li>
+<li>Triptych reliquaries, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Turismund, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Ulloa, Martin de, III. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li>Unamuno, III. <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Valencia, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>Valencia, lace of, III. <a href="#Page_169">169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Valencia, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Valencia, the trade-guilds of, III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Valencia, woollens of, III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Valencia de Don Juan, the Count of, III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a> (note), <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Valladar, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_65">65</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Valladolid, the Council of, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Adrian, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Cornelius, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Francisco, III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Jacob, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van der Goten, Jacob (the younger), III. <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Van Eyk, III. <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li>Vargas y Ponce, III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Varg�e�os, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Vaucanson, III. <a href="#Page_86">86</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li><i>Veintiseiseno</i>, cloths, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Velarte</i>, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Velazquez, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>; III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li><i>Vel�n</i>, the, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Vergara, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Vermay, Jan, III. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Victory, the Cross of, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+<li>Vigarny, Philip, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_78">78</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Villa-amil y Castro, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_140">140</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_143">143</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_111">111</a>; III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Villalpando, Francisco de, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Villamediana, the Count of, III. <a href="#Page_135">135</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Viollet-le-Duc, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_211">211</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_3">3</a> (note).</li>
+<li>Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the, crown of the, III. <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the mantle of the, III. <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li>&ldquo;Virgin of Battles,&rdquo; the, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Visigothic jewellery, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_15">15</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Wallis, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Washington Irving, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>; II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Weathercocks, Moorish, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li>Witiza, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+<li>Woollens, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_105">105</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Xelizes, III. <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Young, Arthur, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_263">263</a>; III. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Yusuf of Granada, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_280">280</a> (note).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Zafra, Hernando de, II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+<li>Zaragoza, cloths of, III. <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li>Zaragoza, silk of, III. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Zarco del Valle, I. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_87">87</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_141">141</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_148">148</a> (note); II. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_71">71</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_245">245</a> (note), <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm#Page_247">247</a> (note); III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p class="title">PRINTED BY<br />
+NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,<br />
+EDINBURGH.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have
+been maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as a misprint.</p>
+
+<p>This book contains links to other books in the Project Gutenberg collection.
+Although we verify the correctness of these links at the time of posting, these
+links may not work, for various reasons, for various people, at various times.</p>
+
+<table summary="corrections">
+  <tr>
+    <td><b>The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.</b></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 6: Cortes of Monzon &#8594; Monz�n</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 8: <i>Almexia</i> &#8594; <i>Almex�a</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 15: edging of the same; &#8594; edging of the same;&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 33: Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib &#8594; Al-Khattib</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 37: in the form of a scarf. &#8594; in the form of a scarf.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 48: il est en indiennne. &#8594; indienne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 51: qui croist assez pr�s &#8594; pr�s</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 51: pr�s de deux cens &#8594; cent</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 51: qui est une espece &#8594; esp�ce</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 51: Ses habitans &#8594; habitants</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 108: il y avoit autresfois &#8594; autrefois</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 109: quatre heures apr�s &#8594; apr�s</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 123: Chalons, Beziers, and Rheims &#8594; Reims</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 129: it to the church. &#8594; it to the church.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 151: invitation John Vergoten &#8594; Dergoten</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 154: Madrid, the Pardo &#8594; Prado</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 165: Pour les femmes &#8594; &ldquo;Pour les femmes</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 165: Journal du Voyage d Espagne &#8594; d'Espagne</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 166: de rubans � l'extremit� &#8594; l'extr�mit�</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 166: sur la t�te attach�e &#8594; attach�s</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 167: autre les divers d�gr�s &#8594; degr�s</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 167: elle ne depasse &#8594; d�passe</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 200: inscription, <i>Aeternum</i> &#8594; �ternum</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 217: Sebastian. Early &#8594; Early.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 217: Madrid. Cutler; a native &#8594; native of</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 217: early life in Flanders &#8594; Flanders.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 220: Sosa, &#8594; Sosa</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 229: in these devices. &#8594; in these devices.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 242: maxims of our Christain &#8594; Christian</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 243: through the market, &#8594; through the market,&rsquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 245: that they were &ldquo;to�jours &#8594; toujours</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 249: in the royal <i>c�dula</i> &#8594; <i>cedula</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 262: Die Kleinodien des heil &#8594; heil.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 262: Nation, nebst den Kroninsignen &#8594; Kroninsignien</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: la buena gouernacion &#8594; governacion</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: que los Mvy Ilvstres &#8594; Muy Ilustres</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: mandaron gvardar &#8594; guardar</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: gouernacion &#8594; governacion</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: se han bvelto &#8594; buelto</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 273: III. 131, 16 &#8594; 168</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 276: Granada, cloths of, &#8594; Granada, cloths of, III.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 276: Juni, Juan de, 68, 69. &#8594; Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 280: Sepulveda &#8594; Sep�lveda</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 281: 20 <i>et seq.</i>; III. &#8594; 20 <i>et seq.</i>,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 281: 276 (note), &#8594; 276 (note); II.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 282: Veintiseseno &#8594; Veintiseiseno</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME III (OF 3)***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume
+III (of 3), by Leonard Williams
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume III (of 3)
+
+
+Author: Leonard Williams
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 10, 2013  [eBook #44393]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER
+SPAIN, VOLUME III (OF 3)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44393-h.htm or 44393-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
+      Volume I: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44391
+      Volume II: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44392
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The dagger sign has been marked as [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (XIV^e).
+
+      [=a] represents a letter (in this instance a lower case
+      "a") with a macron above it.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: "THE GRAPE-GATHERERS"
+(_Tapestry from Cartoon by Goya. El Escorial_)]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME III
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME THREE
+
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                     1-38
+
+  SPANISH SILK                                                   38-105
+
+  CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS                                           105-125
+
+  EMBROIDERY                                                    125-137
+
+  TAPESTRY                                                      137-159
+
+  LACE                                                          159-175
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+  APPENDICES                                                    177-258
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                  259-268
+
+  INDEX                                                         271-282
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                             _VOLUME THREE_
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+
+    PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+          "The Grape-Gatherers"; Tapestry from Cartoon
+          by Goya; El Escorial                          _Frontispiece_
+
+       I. The "Banner of Las Navas"; Monastery of Las Huelgas,
+          Burgos                                                    22
+
+      II. Fragment of the Burial Mantle of Ferdinand the Third;
+          Royal Armoury, Madrid                                     26
+
+     III. King Alfonso the Learned; from "The Book of Chess," MS.
+          in the Escorial Library                                   28
+
+      IV. Spanish Velvet; about A.D. 1500                           30
+
+       V. The Tunic of Boabdil el Chico; National Museum of
+          Artillery, Madrid                                         36
+
+      VI. The "Banner of Saint Ferdinand"; Seville Cathedral        40
+
+     VII. Velvet made at Granada                                    56
+
+    VIII. The Daughters of Philip the Second; Prado Gallery,
+          Madrid                                                    98
+
+      IX. A _Charra_ or Peasant Woman of Salamanca, in the
+          year 1777                                                102
+
+       X. Embroidered Priest's Robe; about A.D. 1500               118
+
+      XI. Embroidered Priest's Robe; about A.D. 1500               120
+
+     XII. Embroidered Chasuble; Palencia Cathedral                 122
+
+    XIII. Embroidered Case of Processional Cross; Toledo Cathedral 124
+
+     XIV. Embroidered Altar-Front                                  126
+
+      XV. Embroidered Altar-Front; Toledo Cathedral                128
+
+     XVI. Embroidered Altar-Front; Palencia Cathedral              130
+
+    XVII. Embroidered Altar-Fronts; Palencia Cathedral             132
+
+   XVIII. Costume of Woman of the Balearic Islands; about
+          A.D. 1810                                                134
+
+     XIX. The "Genesis Tapestry"; Gerona Cathedral                 138
+
+      XX. _Tapiz_ of Crimson Velvet worked in gold tissue;
+          Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos                         144
+
+     XXI. "The Spinners," by Velazquez; Prado Gallery, Madrid      148
+
+    XXII. Tapestry made at Brussels from Granada Silk              150
+
+   XXIII. "A Promenade in Andalusia"; Cartoon for Tapestry,
+          by Goya                                                  152
+
+    XXIV. Tapestry; Arras-Work, from Italian Cartoons; Zamora
+          Cathedral                                                156
+
+     XXV. Flemish Tapestry; Collection of the late Count of
+          Valencia de Don Juan                                     158
+
+    XXVI. The Marchioness of La Solana, by Goya                    160
+
+   XXVII. A Spanish _Maja_; A.D. 1777                              162
+
+  XXVIII. A _Maja_, by Goya                                        164
+
+    XXIX. A Lady of Soria; about A.D. 1810                         166
+
+     XXX. Handkerchief of Catalan Lace, presented to Queen
+          Victoria of Spain on her marriage                        168
+
+    XXXI. Curtain of Spanish Lace; Point and Pillow Work, modern   170
+
+   XXXII. Point Lace Fan, of Mudejar Design, modern                172
+
+
+
+
+                            TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+                              INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Our earliest intelligence respecting textile fabrics of old Spain
+derives almost exclusively from Moorish sources, and shows, together
+with the silence of Saint Isidore, that until the subjugation of the
+Visigoths, the occupants of the Peninsula attached no great importance
+to this industry. Under the Moors, the south and east of Spain grew
+rapidly famous for the manufacture of all kinds of textile stuffs, and
+in particular those of silk. The origin of these silks, or of the most
+luxurious and artistic of them, may be traced to Almeria. According to
+Al-Makkari, what made this Andalusian capital superior to all other
+cities of the world was her "various manufactures of silks and other
+dress materials, such as the _dibaj_, a silken fabric of many colours,
+surpassing, both in quality and durability, all other products made
+elsewhere, and also the _tiraz_, a costly stuff whereon are inscribed
+the names of sultans, princes, and other personages, and for making
+which there used to be no fewer than eight hundred looms. Inferior
+fabrics were the _holol_ (a kind of striped silk), and brocades woven
+upon a thousand looms, while as many more were employed continually in
+making the scarlet stuffs called _iskalaton_. Another thousand produced
+the robes called _al jorjani_ (or 'the Georgian'), and yet another
+thousand the Isbahani robes, from Isfahan, and yet another thousand the
+robes of Atabi. The making of damask for gay-coloured curtains and
+turbans for the women kept busy as many persons as the articles
+above-mentioned."
+
+Edrisi, a chronicler of the twelfth century, says of the same capital
+that she was the principal city belonging to the Moors in the time of
+the Moravides. In fact, she was then a great and prosperous industrial
+centre, possessing, together with other kinds of looms, eight hundred
+which produced the fabrics known as _holla_, _debady_, _siglaton_,
+_espahani_, and _djordjani_, curtains with a flowered decoration, cloths
+of a smaller size, and the stuffs which were denominated _attabi_ and
+_mi djar_.
+
+A similar notice is contained in the _Chronicle of Rassis the Moor_.
+Referring to the end of the tenth century, this author wrote that
+"Almeria is the key of profit and of all prosperity. Within her walls
+dwell cunning weavers who produce in quantities magnificent silken
+cloths inwoven with gold thread." Other important centres of this trade
+and craft were Malaga, Baeza, Alicante, Seville, and Granada. Rassis
+wrote of Malaga: "She has a fertile territory, wherein is made the
+finest _sirgo_ in the world. From here they trade in it with every part
+of Spain. Here too is made the finest of all linens, and that which the
+women best esteem." Of Baeza he wrote: "She manufactures excellent and
+famous silken cloths of the kind which are called _tapetes_"; and of
+Alicante, "This city lies in the Sierra de Benalcatil, which in its turn
+is situated in the midst of other ranges containing prosperous towns
+where silken cloths of finest quality were made in other days; and the
+weavers of these cloths were skilled exceedingly."
+
+Malaga is described by the Cordovese historian Ash Shakandi (thirteenth
+century) as "famous for its manufactures of silks of every colour and
+design, some of them so costly that a suit is sold for thousands; such
+are the brocades of beautiful pattern, inwoven with the names of
+caliphs, emirs and other wealthy personages.... As at Malaga and
+Almeria, there are at Murcia several manufactories of silken cloth
+called _al washiu thalathat_, or 'the variegated.' This town is also
+celebrated for the carpets called _tantili_, which are exported to all
+countries of the east and west, as well as for a sort of bright-coloured
+mat with which the Murcians cover the walls of their houses."
+
+The ancient Illiberia or Illiberis, believed to have been situated not
+far from where is nowadays Granada, is described in Rassis' chronicle as
+"a city great and flourishing by reason of the quantity of silk that she
+exports to every part of Spain. She lies at sixty thousand paces
+distance from, and on the southward side of Cordova, and six thousand
+paces from, and to the north of the Frozen Sierra" (_i.e._ the Sierra
+Nevada).
+
+Another chronicle--that of El Nubiense, who visited Spain towards the
+twelfth century--states that in the kingdom of Jaen alone were six
+hundred towns which produced and carried on a trade in silk.
+
+The foregoing extracts show that under the Spanish Moors the manufacture
+of textile fabrics attained in mediaeval times a very great importance.
+It is also certain that during the same period the textile fabrics in
+use among the Christian Spaniards were strongly and continually
+influenced, and even to a large extent produced, by Spanish Moors,
+while, as the Moorish cities fell into the power of the enemy, the
+Christian rulers encouraged their newly-sworn Mohammedan lieges to
+prosecute this industry with unabated zeal. A privilege is extant which
+was granted by Jayme the Conqueror in the year 1273, to a Moor named Ali
+and his sons Mohammed and Bocaron, empowering these artificers to
+manufacture silk and cloth of gold at Jativa, in the kingdom of
+Valencia. The fabrics produced by Mussulman weavers such as these, found
+ready purchase with the wealthier classes of the Christian Spaniards.
+The dress and other materials thus elaborated possessed a great variety
+of names, whose meaning cannot always be determined at the present day.
+Among the fabrics most in vogue were those denominated _samit_ (also
+_xamed_ or _examitum_), _ciclaton_, _tabis_ or _atabi_, _zarzahan_,
+_fustian_ or _fustan_, _cendal_ or _sendat_, _camelote_ (also
+_chamelote_ or _xamellot_), _drap imperial_, and _bougran_ (also
+_bouckram_, _buckram_), stated by Dr Bock to be derived from Bokhara,
+and which was of a quality far superior to the buckram of more modern
+times. These Saracenic or semi-Saracenic stuffs were manufactured from
+an early period, but modern experts are not agreed as to their
+character. Miquel y Badia and some other authorities believe that
+_samit_ was a costly material which was sometimes coloured green, and
+shot with gold or silver thread. Others believe it to have been a kind
+of velvet. In either case it is known to have been used for shrouding
+the bodies of the wealthy. _Ciclaton_ was a strong though flexible
+material used for robes and also for wall-hangings. _Tabis_ or _atabi_
+was a kind of taffeta, and probably consisted, as a general rule, of
+silk, though sometimes it was mixed with cotton. _Chamelot_ was an
+oriental fabric of rich silk, coloured white, black, or grey. It is
+mentioned, together with velvets, taffetas, and _cendal_ or _sendat_
+(another silken stuff) in a law passed by the Cortes of Monzon in 1375,
+and which is quoted in Capmany's _Memorias_.[1] Fustian is thought to
+have been first produced in Egypt. It was woven of thread or cotton, and
+was largely used in England from at least as early as the twelfth
+century. From about the same time buckram was also popular in northern
+countries.
+
+  [1] "Perco con los draps d'or e d'argent, e de seda axi brocats d'or e
+      d'argent con altres e velluts, xamelots, tafetanes, e sendats se
+      usen molt de vestir en lo dit Principat d'alguna generalitat ne
+      dret no y sia posat, mes solament vi liners per liura per la
+      entrada."
+
+Early in the fourteenth century a number of other costly stuffs began to
+be made in various quarters of the civilized world, including Spain.
+Among these fabrics were _zatonin_ or _zatony_ (perhaps the same as
+_zetani_, _aceituni_, or _aceytoni_--that is, satin), several kinds of
+_drap d'aur_ or cloth of gold, several kinds of velvet, _sarga_ or
+serge, and _camocas_, which is stated by Miquel y Badia to have been a
+strong material used for lining curtains, coats of mail, etc. The same
+writer observes that the stuff called by the name _zatonin_ and its
+variations is the same as the Castilian raso and the Catalan _seti_ or
+_sati_, a favourite though expensive and luxurious fabric in the
+fourteenth and succeeding centuries. Under the name _aceytoni_ it is
+mentioned in a work in the Catalan language titled _Croniques
+d'Espanya_, by Pedro Miguel Carbonell, in which we read that at the
+coronation of Don Martin of Aragon this monarch's consort, Dona Maria,
+was "dressed in white cloth of gold and a long mantle ... and rode upon
+a white horse covered with trappings of white _aceytoni_."
+
+Miquel y Badia has discovered the names of other fabrics which are known
+from documentary evidence to have been used in older Spain, and which
+were called _aducar_, _alama_, _tela de nacar_, _primavera_ or
+_primavert_, _almexia_, _picote_, and _velillo_. It is probable that
+_alama_ and _tela de nacar_ had silver interwoven with their texture.
+The _primavera_ or "spring fabric" was so named from the flowers which
+adorned it. _Almexia_ is mentioned in the _Chronicle of the Cid_. It was
+a costly and elaborate stuff, and is believed by Miquel to have taken
+its title from the city of Almeria. _Picote_ was a kind of satin
+manufactured in the island of Majorca, and _velillo_ a thin, delicate
+fabric decorated with flowers and with silver thread.
+
+The devices on all these stuffs were very varied. Prominent types among
+them were the _pallia rotata_, containing circles which are commonly
+combined with other ornament, the _pallia aquilinata_, in which the
+dominant motive was the eagle, and the _pallia leonata_, in which it was
+the lion. Other beasts, birds, and monsters were also figured with great
+frequency, such as griffins, peacocks, swans, crows, bulls, tigers, or
+dogs; but the emblem most in favour, especially throughout the tenth,
+eleventh, and twelfth centuries, was the eagle, owing to the numerous
+and illustrious qualities attributed to it, such as majesty, victory,
+valour, and good omen. These creatures, too, were frequently represented
+face to face or back to back, in pairs; nor were they so disposed in
+textile fabrics only, but on ivory, wood, or silver caskets, and on
+numerous other objects, as well as on the painted friezes of a place of
+worship.[2]
+
+  [2] "We have seen many instances of such opposed animals and birds on
+      the metal-work and carving of the thirteenth century, and there is
+      no doubt that the design is much older than Mohammedan times, and
+      goes back to the productions of the old artists of Mesopotamia and
+      Persia. We read in Quintus Curtius of robes worn by Persian satraps,
+      adorned with birds beak to beak--_aurei accipitres veluti rostri in
+      se irruerunt pallam adornabant_. Plautus mentions Alexandrian
+      carpets ornamented with beasts: _Alexandrina belluata conchyliata
+      tapetia_. There is indeed reason to believe that the notion of such
+      pairs of birds or beasts may have originated with the weavers of
+      ancient Persia, and have been borrowed from them by the engravers of
+      metal-work; for the advantage of such double figures would be
+      specially obvious to a weaver. The symmetrical repetition of the
+      figure of the bird or animal, reversed, saved both labour and
+      elaboration of the loom. The old weavers, not yet masters of
+      mechanical improvements, were obliged to work their warp up and down
+      by means of strings, and the larger the design the more numerous
+      became these strings and the more complicated the loom. Hence, to be
+      able to repeat the pattern in reverse was a considerable economy of
+      labour, and could be effected very simply on a loom constructed to
+      work _a pointe et a reverse_. Examples of such repetitions of
+      patterns, especially of symmetrical pairs of animals within circles,
+      are common in Byzantine and Sassanian woven work, and the Saracens
+      followed these models."--Stanley Lane-Poole, _The Art of the
+      Saracens in Egypt_, p. 288.
+
+The colours of these fabrics also varied very greatly. That which was
+most admired was probably red, crimson, or carmine, used by preference
+as a ground, with the pattern inwoven or super-woven in gold, silver, or
+otherwise. Velvets, too, were not invariably in monochrome, but would
+contain two or three colours such as purple, crimson, blue, or yellow,
+besides gold and silver. Miquel y Badia mentions a magnificent velvet
+pluvial in gold and three colours, belonging to a church in Cataluna.
+The following observations are by the same authority, who himself
+possesses a valuable collection of early textile fabrics, many of which
+are Spanish. "The same prevailing colours are found in the Mudejar
+textile fabrics as in those of the Spanish Moors--the same ground of red
+inclining to carmine, of dark blue, or of bluish green, with a pattern
+in yellow, green, blue, or red, according to the colour which combines
+with it. I have seen copies of Mudejar stuffs in which there is no
+white, because this was wanting in the fragments which the copying
+artist had before him. And it is a fact that from some cause, which we
+cannot now determine, white silk is that which disappears soonest from
+among the textile fabrics of the Spanish Moors and Mudejares, so that by
+far the greater part of them contain no white at all, or only traces of
+it."
+
+In Spain these handsome stuffs were used by all the wealthier classes,
+and some idea of their prevalence and popularity may be formed from the
+voluminous mass of sumptuary laws which deal with them at almost every
+stage of Spanish history. Thus, an edict of Jayme the First of Aragon
+established, in the year 1234, that neither the monarch nor any of his
+subjects were to decorate their clothes with gold and silver, or fasten
+their cloaks with gold or silver clasps. The _Ordenamiento_ of Alfonso
+the Tenth, subscribed at Seville, February 27th, 1256, provides that no
+woman is to carry _aljofar_-work, trim her dress with gold or silver, or
+wear a _toca_ decorated with those metals, but only a plain white one,
+the price of which is not to exceed three _maravedis_. It is also
+provided by this edict that on the celebration of a wedding, the cost of
+the bridal clothes must not exceed sixty _maravedis_, nor may the number
+of guests who sit down to the marriage banquet exceed five women and
+five men, besides the witnesses of the ceremony and relatives of the
+bride and bridegroom. This absurd law was so extensively neglected that
+two years later the Cortes of Valladolid took up the matter afresh, and
+even resolved that the expenses of the king's table, without the cost of
+his invited guests, were not to exceed a daily total of a hundred and
+fifty _maravedis_.
+
+In A.D. 1286 the Council of Cordova decreed that knights and squires,
+upon the celebration of their marriage, were not to present their brides
+with more than two dresses, one of these to be of scarlet, without
+trimming of ermine or grey fur, or decoration of gold, silver, or
+_aljofar_. A law of Alfonso the Eleventh, dated May 6th, 1338,
+proclaimed that the women of the upper classes were not to clothe
+themselves in any silken fabric decorated with gold thread. Similar
+restrictions were laid upon the other sex. "No man, whatever be his
+condition (excepting only Us, the King), shall wear cloth of gold, or
+silk, or any stuff adorned with gold lace, _aljofar_, or any other
+trimming, or with enamel: only his cloak may bear _aljofar_ pearl-work,
+or fillets without pearls." Other dispositions signed by the same
+monarch show that the Spaniards of his time were in the habit of wearing
+costly cloth adorned with gold and silver, pearls, gold buttons, enamel,
+and other ornament, while even the squires wore furs and gilded shoes.
+The _ricos-hombres_ loaded their saddles with gold and with
+_aljofar_-work, and their wives were licensed to bear on each of their
+dresses the same _aljofar_-work or strings of tiny pearls, to the value
+of four thousand _maravedis_.
+
+Provisions of the same tenor are contained in the prolix sumptuary
+pragmatic of Pedro the Cruel, signed in the year 1351 at Valladolid, as
+well as in that of Juan the First, A.D. 1385, which ordained, together
+with other vexatious prohibitions, that "neither man nor woman, whatever
+be their condition or estate, shall wear cloth of gold or any
+silk-stuff, gold or silver _aljofar_, or other precious stones,
+excepting the Infante and Infantas, who may wear whatever pleases them."
+
+The extravagance of Isabella the Catholic in dress and personal
+adornment generally, was illustrated in an earlier chapter of this work.
+A further instance is recorded by Clemencin. According to this
+chronicler, in 1476 and 1477, upon her reception at Alcala of two
+embassies from France, the queen was dressed in a magnificent robe,
+which drew upon her a sharp rebuke from her confessor, the virtuous and
+austere Hernando de Talavera. From this charge Isabella defended herself
+with more spirit than truthfulness. "Neither myself nor my ladies," she
+wrote in her letter of reply, "were dressed in new apparel. All that I
+wore on this occasion I had already worn in Aragon, and the French
+themselves had seen me wearing it. I only used one robe at all, and that
+of silk with three marks of gold, the plainest I could find: in this was
+all my festival. I say this much in that my clothing was not new; nor
+did we deem that error could dwell therein."[3]
+
+  [3] _Elogio de la Reina Catolica_, p. 374.
+
+Although their own extravagance is past all question, on September 30th,
+1499, Ferdinand and his consort issued a proclamation at Granada, in
+which it was commanded that "no persons shall wear clothing of brocade,
+or silk, or silk _chamelote_, or _zarzahan_, or taffeta, or carry
+linings of the same upon the trappings of their horses, or upon hoods,
+or the straps and scabbards of their swords, or bits, or saddles, or
+_alcorques_[4] ... nor shall they wear embroidered silk-stuffs
+decorated with gold plates, whether such gold be drawn or hammered, spun
+to a thread, or interwoven with the fabric."
+
+  [4] These are defined by the Count of Clonard as "a kind of clog
+      (_chapin_) with a cork sole, and which was introduced by the Moors
+      under the name _al-kork_."
+
+These prohibitions, or others of their import, were ratified by Dona
+Juana at the Cortes of Burgos, and, in 1533, by Charles the Fifth at
+Valladolid. In 1551 the Emperor again prohibited "all brocaded stuffs,
+or gold or silver cloth, whether embroidered or enriched with gold or
+silver thread, or bound with cord or edging of the same;" and a royal
+edict of January 12th, 1611, forbade the wearing of brocade and every
+other costly stuff to all except the clergy and the military.
+
+The clergy, indeed, had always been notorious for extravagance, and not
+a few of all these sumptuary laws are aimed specifically at them. In
+A.D. 1228 the Council of Valladolid prohibited the use by priests of
+sleeved robes, or gilded saddles, bits, spurs, or poitrels. In 1267 the
+Synod of Leon repeated these prohibitions, further insisting that the
+garments of the clergy, besides being sleeveless, were not to be red or
+green, and were to have a moderate length ("_non muy largas, non muy
+cortas_"), and that their cloaks were not to fasten with a clasp or
+cord; these regulations to be rigidly adhered to _en sennal de
+honestidat_--"as a sign of honesty."
+
+We also know that at this time (thirteenth century) the shirts of many
+of the wealthier Spaniards were woven of finest linen imported from the
+East, embroidered and picked out with gold and silver thread, and that
+the clergy were at least the equals of the laity in their craze for
+costly clothing. In A.D. 1273, an inventory was made of the effects
+belonging to Don Gonzalo Palomeque, on his election to the bishopric of
+Cuenca. It mentions _almadraques_ and Murcian _tapetes_, _carpitas
+viadas_ from Tlemcen, fine Murcian blankets (_alhamares_), silk
+_xamedes_, Murcian matting for covering walls and daises ("_para paret
+et para estrado_"), and stuffs from Syria. Another inventory, that of
+Don Gonzalo Gudiel, archbishop of Toledo, is dated A.D. 1280, and
+mentions, as included with his property, quantities of oriental fabrics
+which are designated by the general name _tartaricas_.[5] Among them
+were "unus pannus operatus ad aves de auro et campus de serica viridi,
+item unus alius pannus tartaricus cum campo de seta alba et vite aurea,
+item unus pannus tartaricus de seta rubea cum pinis aureis, item unus
+pannus tartaricus de seta viridi."[6]
+
+  [5] Specifically, _tartari_ was a costly fabric, heavily embroidered.
+      Ducange considers that it came, or came originally, from Tartary.
+      We read of it twice in the _Chronicle of the Cid_, and again, in
+      the _Chronicle of Ferdinand the Fourth_:--"tiraron los panos de
+      marhega que tenia vestidos por su padre e vistieronle unos panos
+      nobles de tartari."
+
+  [6] Quoted by Fernandez y Gonzalez, _Mudejares de Castilla_, p. 231,
+      from the originals in the Archiepiscopal Library of Toledo.
+
+A number of mediaeval textile fabrics, some in fragments, some intact,
+have been preserved in Spanish private collections or museums. It is,
+however, seldom easy to determine whether they were made in this
+Peninsula, or whether in Sicily, Byzantium, Venice, or the East. Among
+the most remarkable of all these interesting specimens are, a strip
+which was extracted from the mausoleum of a Spanish bishop, Don Bernardo
+Calbo, a native of Vich in Cataluna, and which is now in the museum of
+that town; other fragments in the same collection, including one of
+_holosericum_ or pure silk, which was formerly in the neighbouring
+church of San Juan de las Abadesas, and is commonly known as the
+_pallium_ or altar front "of the witches" (owing to certain beasts or
+monsters figuring in the design), a Moorish _tiraz_, now in the Academy
+of History at Madrid, the celebrated Moorish "banner of the battle of
+Las Navas," now in the Monastery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas
+at Burgos, the banner (also Moorish) of the battle of the River Salado,
+the chasubles "of the Constable" and of Chiriana, preserved respectively
+at Burgos and at Caravaca, a fragment, preserved in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid, of the shroud of Ferdinand the Third, and the Moorish clothing
+of the son of the same King Ferdinand, the Infante Don Felipe, and of
+Felipe's second wife, Dona Leonor Ruiz de Castro.
+
+The strip of woven material found in the sepulchre of Bishop Calbo, who
+is said to have accompanied Don Jayme the Conqueror in the conquest of
+Valencia (A.D. 1238), is described by Miquel y Badia as belonging to the
+class denominated _pallia rotata_--that is, with circles forming part of
+their design,--and dates most probably from the twelfth century; but it
+is impossible to say whether it was manufactured in the East, or whether
+at Valencia or some other Spanish town. The same remark applies to other
+fragments which are also, as I stated, in the Vich Museum. The one
+discovered in the tomb of Bishop Calbo contains, coloured in green,
+grey, and black upon a carmine ground, a decorative scheme of circles,
+flowers, and gryphons or other monsters in pairs, _affrontes_, and also,
+within the circles, the figure of a man grappling with two lions,
+tigers, dogs, or other beasts, and who is believed to represent Samson
+or Daniel--more probably the latter. Miquel y Badia points out that in
+this fragment the figure of the man recalls Egyptian art, suggested by
+his curious head-dress, and by the crossing of his clothes upon his
+breast.
+
+Another textile fragment in the same collection is coloured black, red,
+and grey upon a yellowish ground. It is decorated with long-tailed birds
+resembling peacocks, and with sphinxes which fill the circles or
+medallions. A third fragment, also in the Vich Museum, belongs to the
+type of _pallia cum aquilis et bestiolis_. The design consists of a
+double-headed eagle with half-extended wings, holding in the claws of
+either foot some kind of quadruped--perhaps a bull. The colour of the
+ground resembles carmine, and on it the design is wrought in greenish
+black--that may have been originally green--relieved at intervals with
+yellow.
+
+The "witches'" _pallium_ in the same collection is decorated with the
+series of extraordinary beasts or monsters that have won for it this
+title with the vulgar, depicted in yellow, white, black, and dark green
+upon a red ground. Miquel believes this fabric to proceed from
+Byzantium, and to date from not much earlier than the eleventh century.
+The devices are disposed in two rows, the lower containing peacocks
+_affrontes_, and the upper a series of fantastic monsters, each of which
+possesses a head, two bodies, and four feet--the head being semi-human,
+semi-bestial, the double body that of a bird, and the claws those of a
+lion or some other formidable quadruped.
+
+The Royal Academy of History at Madrid possesses a fragment of the
+costly fabric known as _tiraz_, an eastern word (corrupted by the
+Spaniards into _taracea_, _i.e._ embroidery on clothing), which means
+the bordering for a royal robe. Such bordering, which contained
+inscriptions, or the sultan's name, or both together, is said to have
+been first used in Spain by Abderrahman the Second, who ruled from A.D.
+825 to 852. "The caliphs of Cordova," says Riano, "had a place set apart
+in their palaces where this stuff was kept: this custom lasted until the
+eleventh century, when it disappeared, and was re-established in the
+thirteenth century with the kings of Granada." _Tiraz_, in fact, was
+both produced and stored in special departments of the Sultan's
+palaces[7]; or so we must infer from the following passage by
+Ibn-Khaldun. "The places (_almedinas_) where these stuffs were woven
+were situated within the palaces of the caliphs, and were known as the
+'pavilions of the _tiraz_.' The person at the head of these workshops
+was called the superintendent of the _tiraz_: he had charge of both the
+weavers and the looms, administered the salaries, and looked to the
+quality of the work. This post was entrusted by the princes to one of
+the foremost officers of their kingdom, or else to some freedman who
+thoroughly deserved their confidence." The same historian adds that the
+manufacture of _tiraz_ was conducted in Spain in the same manner as in
+the East under the dynasty of the Ommeyades. It is, however, certain
+that among the Spanish Moors _tiraz_ was not produced exclusively in
+royal factories. Al-Makkari states that in the time of the Somadies and
+the Almoravides there were looms at Nerja (and possibly at Almeria) for
+weaving this luxurious fabric, as well as _holas_, a fine brocade,
+heavily embroidered, and adorned with figures representing the caliphs
+and other personages. In the time of the Almoravides there were at
+Almeria as many as a thousand factories for making _holas_.
+
+  [7] "An interesting parallel to the royal silk factory, or
+      D[=a]r-et-tir[=a]z of Kay-Kub[=a]d, and to that of the F[=a]timy
+      Khalif at Tinn[=i]s, is found in the similar institution at Palermo,
+      which owed its foundation to the Kelby Am[=i]rs who ruled Sicily as
+      vassals of the F[=a]timis in the ninth and tenth centuries, though
+      it maintained its special character and excellence of work under
+      the Norman kings. The factory was in the palace, and the weavers
+      were Mohammedans, as indeed is obvious from a glance at the famous
+      silk cloth preserved at Vienna, and called the "Mantle of Nuernberg,"
+      where a long Arabic inscription testifies to the hands that made it,
+      by order of King Roger, in the year of the Hijra 528, or
+      A.D. 1133."--Stanley Lane-Poole, _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt_,
+      p. 289.
+
+The piece of _tiraz_ which belongs to the Spanish Academy of History
+measures about a yard and a half in length by eighteen inches wide.
+Riano describes it as of wool, embroidered in silks with "seated figures
+which appear to be a king, a lady, lions, birds, and quadrupeds"; but
+after carefully examining it I cannot but agree with Miquel y Badia that
+this fabric is woven throughout of pure silk, without the slightest
+trace of hand-embroidery. It has two borders containing these
+inscriptions in Cufic letters: "In the name of God, the clement, the
+merciful. (May) the blessing of God and happiness (be) for the Caliph
+Iman Abdallah Hixem, the favoured of God and prince of believers." This
+monarch, second of the name, reigned at the end of the tenth century and
+early in the eleventh, and the _tiraz_ we are noticing was found in a
+casket on the altar of a church at San Esteban de Gormaz, in the
+province of Soria. As Riano suggests, it was very probably a war trophy.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                       THE "BANNER OF LAS NAVAS"
+      (_Monastery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas, Burgos_)]
+
+Another most interesting example of Saracenic textile work is the
+so-called "banner of Las Navas" (Plate i.), which popular tradition
+affirms to have been captured (A.D. 1212) in the memorable battle of Las
+Navas de Tolosa, between the Almohades and the Spanish Christians. Most
+experts now consider that this object is not a military ensign, but a
+curtain or some other hanging for a tent or doorway. The material is
+_sirgo_ or silken serge, and both the decoration and the workmanship are
+purely Moorish. The design is rich and intricate throughout, consisting
+of scrolls, leaves, stems, and inscriptions from the Koran, disposed
+with exquisite effect about the principal and central motive, formed by
+a large eight-pointed star within a circle, and which contains, so as to
+form the angles of the star, eight repetitions of the words in Arabic,
+"_The Empire_." The dominant colour is carmine, and the fabric
+terminates in eight _farpas_ or scallops with red and yellow edges, and
+bearing a series of inscriptions in the African character.
+
+The "_pendon_ of the Rio Salado," a trophy which seems to have really
+been a war-flag, belongs to the cathedral of Toledo. It measures at this
+day about nine feet two inches by seven feet four inches, but is
+believed to have been originally of a square form, with scalloped edges.
+The dominant colours are red, green, and gold. The decorative scheme
+consists of tastefully combined circles and inscriptions in the Cufic
+character, and the lower end concludes in the following sentences, now
+rendered incomplete through the loss of nearly two feet of the
+material:--"... the wise, the victorious, the assiduous, the generous,
+the sultan, the caliph, the famous emir of the Muslims and
+representative of the Lord of the Universe, Abu-Said Otsmin, son of our
+lord and master ... the worshipper of (Allah), the modest, the warlike,
+the emir of the Mussulmans Nassir-li-Din (_defender of the law_), Abu
+Yusuf Yacub, son of Abd-il-Hac. In the Alcazar of Fez (God bless it.
+Praised be God), in the Moon of Moharran of the year twelve and seven
+hundred" (712 of the Hegira, or May 9th-June 7th, A.D. 1312).
+
+Tastefully disposed in white Cufic characters, within four rows of
+circles woven in gold, are the words which sum the Mussulman
+religion,--"There is no God but God: Mahoma is His Messenger"; and on
+other parts of the flag are inscribed these sentences:--
+
+"The prophet believes in the purpose for which he was sent by his Lord,
+and all the faithful believe in God, in His angels, in His writings, and
+in His messengers. We make no distinction between any of His messengers.
+And these declare: 'We hear and do obey. Pardon us, O Lord.'
+
+".... And unto Thee we shall return. God will not lay on any soul but
+such a weight as it can bear; for it or against it shall be the deeds it
+may have done. O Lord, chastise not our forgetfulness or errors. O Lord,
+lay not upon us the burden Thou hadst laid on those that were before us.
+
+".... O Lord, burden us not too heavily. Blot out our faults, and pardon
+them to us, and have mercy on us. Thou art our Lord. Grant us victory
+over the infidel. There came to us a glorious prophet that was born
+among us.
+
+"On him rests the weight of your faults, and full of goodness and of
+clemency he longs ardently for you to believe. If you should be
+forsaken, exclaim, 'God is sufficient for me. There is no God but He. I
+trust in Him, because He is Lord of the throne that is on high.'"
+
+Miquel y Badia considers that when it was intact this object must have
+measured eleven feet square. Attention was first drawn to its merit and
+antiquity when it was shown at the Exposicion Historico Europea of 1892.
+
+The chasubles of Chirinos (Caravaca) and of the Chapel of the Constable
+in Burgos cathedral are both considered to be of Spanish-Moorish
+workmanship. The former is woven of silk of various colours, but without
+admixture of gold thread, and bears an inscription in Arabic which
+Amador de los Rios has interpreted as, "Glory to our Sultan
+Abul-Hachach." The same authority deduces that the fabric dates from the
+fourteenth or the fifteenth century--that is, from the time of the
+Sultan Abul-Hachach (Yusuf the First) or of his immediate successors.
+
+The chasuble preserved at Burgos is also woven of variegated silk
+without gold thread, and may originally have been a _tiraz_, since it
+bears, in African letters, the inscription, "Glory to our lord the
+Sultan." The date is probably the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
+Fragments of similar material are in the collections of Senores Osma and
+Miquel y Badia.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+          FRAGMENT OF THE BURIAL MANTLE OF FERDINAND THE THIRD
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The object represented in Plate ii. is described in the Catalogue of the
+Royal Armoury at Madrid as _A fragment of the royal mantle in which was
+buried the king and saint, Ferdinand the Third of Castile_ (A.D.
+1217-1252). Gestoso, in the course of his researches into the history of
+old Seville, has found that in the year 1579 Philip the Second caused an
+examination to be made at that city of the remains, enshrined in her
+cathedral, of Saint Ferdinand. The body was found "with a ring with a
+blue stone on a finger of the right hand, and wearing sword and spurs."
+In 1677 Charles the Second sent for the ring in question, and eleven
+years later a fresh examination was made, when the mummy of the saint
+was stated to be wrapped in "clothing of a stuff the nature of which
+cannot now be recognised, but which is chequered all over with the royal
+arms of Castile, and with lions." A third examination was made in 1729,
+when the "holy body of Senor San Fernando" was reported to be "covered,
+the greater part, with a royal mantle, of a stuff which could not be
+recognised for its decay: only it was seen to be embroidered with
+castles and lions."
+
+Probably, therefore, this fragment was taken to Madrid at the same time
+as the ring--that is, in the year 1677. It has an irregular shape, and
+measures eighteen inches long by thirteen and a half in breadth. The
+material is a woven mixture of silk and gold thread, and the decoration
+consists of castles and lions in gold and red respectively, upon a
+ground of carmine and dirty white. Count Valencia de Don Juan points out
+that this strip belonged to the lower end of the mantle, since it
+includes a portion of the border, formed by a series of horizontal
+stripes, blue, yellow, red, and gold. The character of the whole
+fragment is decidedly Mohammedan, and indicates a Mudejar fabric, made
+at Seville in the thirteenth century.
+
+I find that in the _Book of Chess_ of Alfonso the Learned (an
+illuminated Spanish manuscript executed in the thirteenth century, and
+now preserved at the Escorial), Alfonso himself is represented (Plate
+iii.) as wearing a mantle with this very pattern of lions and castles
+contained in squares. Therefore it seems extremely probable, either that
+this device was not uncommon on the robes of Spanish kings, or else that
+at some time the body of San Fernando was enveloped in a mantle
+belonging to, and which perhaps had been inherited by, his son.
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                        KING ALFONSO THE LEARNED
+       (_From "The Book of Chess"; MS. in the Escorial Library_)]
+
+The clothing of the Infante Don Felipe and of Dona Leonor, his wife,
+consists of the prince's cloak, which is nearly intact, a piece of his
+_aljuba_, his cap, and a strip of silken cloth inwoven with gold. The
+latter fragment is thought to have belonged to the robe of the Infanta.
+
+These objects, discovered in 1848, in the tomb of Don Felipe and Dona
+Leonor, at Villalcazar de Sirga, near Palencia, are now in the National
+Museum. The cloak or mantle is richly wrought in silk and gold, and
+bears the word _Blessing_, woven in Cufic characters upon the ground.
+The _aljuba_ is also of silk and gold, showing a delicate combination of
+blue and yellow, and the style and workmanship of all these fragments
+are unmistakably Mohammedan.
+
+Therefore, in textile crafts, the Spanish Moors supplied the wants and
+the caprices both of themselves and of their enemies the Christians.
+
+The relationship between certain under-garments of the two peoples is
+evident from the very titles of those garments. Thus, the Spanish
+_joquejo_ or _soquejo_, a scarf for winding round a woman's body, is
+obviously derived, or merely corrupted, from the Arabic _jocob_; the
+Spanish _arrede_ or _arrelde_, a kind of cloak, from the Arabic
+_arrida_, and the Spanish shirt or tunic for ordinary wear, called the
+_casot_, _quesote_, or _quizote_ (which was sometimes white and
+sometimes coloured) from the Arabic _al-kuesnat_. The _Chronicle of Juan
+the Second_ (A.D. 1410) tells of a mountain covered with Moorish troops,
+"and all of them had red _quesotes_."
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                             SPANISH VELVET
+               (_Red upon Gold Ground. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+Among the cities of Moorish Spain, Almeria and Granada were undoubtedly
+those which produced the handsomest stuffs--Almeria from comparatively
+early in the days of Muslim domination, Granada from a somewhat later
+time.[8] Notices are extant of Christian princes who directly ordered
+these materials from Granada; _e.g._ in 1392 Don Juan the First caused
+to be purchased there, as a present to his daughter on her marriage,
+"una cambra de saya orlada ab son dozer e cobertor de color vermella,
+blaua, o vert, u otro que fuera de buena vista" (_Archives of the Crown
+of Aragon_). The manufacture of velvet was probably introduced into
+Aragon in the reign of Pedro the Fourth. Excellent silks and cloth of
+gold were also made at Malaga, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. Indeed, no
+better source exists for studying the character of this important
+industry in older Spain than the Ordinances of the cities I have just
+enumerated.[9] We learn from these municipal provisions, most of which
+were framed or ratified in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, that the
+mingling of fine with base material was forbidden in the strictest
+terms, and that the styles and classes of even the luxurious and
+elaborate stuffs, which bore an infinite variety of devices, were very
+numerous. Thus, there were satins, taffetas, _azeytunis_, double and
+single velvets (Plates iv. and vii.), brocades, and silken serges; as
+well as fabrics interwoven with gold and silver thread, including the
+_gorgoranes_, _restanos_, _sargas_, and _jergas de filigrana de plata_.
+The Ordinances of Toledo mention the following fabrics as manufactured
+in that city in the reigns of Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Charles the
+Fifth:--
+
+  "Stuffs of gold and silver made in the same manner as satin.
+
+  "Satins woven with gold.
+
+  "Satins brocaded with silk and gold, or silver flowers.
+
+  "Silver serges with double filigree.
+
+  "Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge.
+
+  "Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, or in silver
+   with silk flowers.
+
+  "Embroidered stuffs.
+
+  "Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_.
+
+  "_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with watering in silver.
+
+  "Plain silk-stuffs woven with silver or gold, and called _restano_.
+
+  "Silk-stuffs woven with gold or silver, and called _relampagos_.
+
+  "Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments.
+
+  "Plain filigree serges.
+
+  "_Velillo_ of silver.
+
+  "Satin woven with gold and silver.
+
+  "Brocades of different kinds.
+
+  "Church vestments.
+
+  "Silver _primaveras_.
+
+  "Serges for church vestments."
+
+  [8] The Alburquerque inventory mentions, in 1560, "two Almeria sheets,
+      one with green and purple edging, and the other with white and red";
+      also "two _short_ holland shirts for sleeping in at night."
+      Commenting on the word _short_, Senor de la Torre de Trassierra
+      aptly recalls the thrifty proverb of the Spaniards,--"A shirt which
+      reaches below the navel is so much linen wasted."
+
+  [9] See particularly _Las Ordenanzas de los tejedores de seda de
+      Sevilla_ (officially proclaimed on March 2nd, 1502), and also _Las
+      Ordenanzas para el buen regimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy
+      leal, e imperial cuidad de Toledo_. (_Tit._ cxxxv: "silk-weavers.")
+
+It was usual for ladies of the Christian-Spanish aristocracy to trim
+their clothes, in Moorish fashion, with strings of larger pearls or of
+_aljofar_-work--a custom which continued until the extinction of the
+House of Austria. The Alburquerque inventory includes "a _marlota_ of
+crimson satin, trimmed with pearls and with _aljofar_, as to the hem,
+the sleeves, and the hood; with twelve buttons of _aljofar_-pearls in
+the front thereof, that on a time were thirteen; but one is missing
+_which was ground up for the said Duchess when she was sick_, and six
+buttons on each sleeve, and the same where each sleeve meets the
+shoulder."
+
+Early in the seventeenth century, Pinheiro da Veiga mentions the same
+fashion at Valladolid:--"At the sale of the Marchioness of Mondejar, I
+saw twelve of her _sayas_ with long trains to them, and satin bodices,
+all of embroidered silk, and some with _aljofar_-work, besides a number
+of all kinds of _diabluras_."
+
+It is stated by Ibn-Said, Al-Makkari, Al-Khattib, and Ibn-Khaldun, that
+the Moors of Granada occasionally adopted Christian clothing, and we
+know that the Sultan Mohammed, a contemporary of Alfonso the Learned of
+Castile, was assassinated by Abrahim and Abomet, the sons of Osmin,
+because he was so clothed, and because he had further violated the
+precepts of the Koran by eating at Alfonso's table.[10] But as a rule
+the costume of the Spanish Moors was almost wholly that of orientals.
+Where they were tolerated in a city under Christian rule, a certain
+dress was sometimes forced upon them by their subjugators, as by the
+_Ordenamiento_ (A.D. 1408) of Dona Catalina, issued on behalf of her
+son, Juan the Second, and which prescribed for the Moorish men a _capuz_
+of yellow cloth with a mark upon it in the form of a blue half-moon
+measuring an inch from point to point, and which was to be worn on the
+right shoulder. The garments of the women were to be similarly marked,
+on pain of fifty lashes administered publicly, together with the
+forfeiture of all such clothes as lacked this necessary and humiliating
+token.
+
+  [10] On the other hand, Rosmithal recorded in his narrative of a tour of
+       Spain that Henry the Second of Castile affected the costume of the
+       Mohammedans.
+
+But where the Spanish Moors were in possession of the soil, their
+clothes were similar in most respects to those of eastern peoples.
+Detailed notices of these costumes are furnished us by Ibn-Said and
+other writers. Fray Pedro de Alcala explains in his _Vocabulary_ that,
+among the Granadinos, the use of one garment in particular was limited
+to royalty, or nobles of high rank. This was the _libas_ (or, in the
+Granadino dialect, _libis_), shaped like roomy breeches, and greatly
+resembling the _zaraguelles_ worn until this hour by the peasants of the
+Huerta of Valencia. Ibn-Said, quoted by Al-Makkari (see Gayangos,
+_History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain_, Vol. I., p. 116) says
+that the dress of the Moors of Andalusia was not identical with that of
+the Asiatic Mussulman. The former, he declares, would often discard the
+turban; especially those who lived towards the eastern frontier. In the
+western region the turban continued to be generally worn by the upper
+classes and by the leading State officials. Thus, at Cordova and Seville
+every _cadi_ and _alfaqui_ would wear a turban, while at Valencia and
+Murcia even the nobles went without it, and among the lower classes it
+had fallen into absolute disuse. Neither officers nor soldiers of the
+army wore the turban.
+
+We learn from Casiri (_Bibl. Arabico-Hispana_, II., p. 258) that the
+_imama_[11] was the only form of head-dress used by the _cheiks_,
+_cadis_, and _ulemas_ of Granada. At this capital red was the
+distinctive colour of the sovereigns of the Alahmar dynasty, who took
+their very title from this circumstance, the Arabic word _alahmar_
+meaning "red." The distinctive colour of the Nasrite sultans was purple,
+which was replaced by black in time of mourning. In this last fashion
+the sultans were probably influenced by the Christian usage, for
+Ibn-Khaldun remarks that black was not a colour approved of by the
+orientals, who considered it to be related with the spirits of evil.
+However this may be, the manuscript _History of the House of Cordova_
+quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas, says that when Boabdil el Chico entered that
+city as a prisoner, "the captive monarch was dressed in black velvet, in
+token of his adverse fortune and defeat. He rode a richly caparisoned
+charger, whose coat was black and glossy."
+
+  [11] This was a large form of turban. In the well-known painting in the
+       Hall of Justice of the Alhambra, the head-dress is the _aharim_ or
+       _almaizar_.
+
+The Moors regarded green or white as pleasant and well-omened colours,
+symbolic of the angels and of all good fortune. Perhaps this preference
+was suggested to them by the cool oasis in the desert. Nevertheless,
+when Ibn-Hud became ruler of Andalusia, his shields and banners were
+black, as well as his costume. Black, too, was the colour adopted by the
+Abbaside Sultans, to whom Ibn-Hud was subject. Under the Beni-Nasr and
+Beni-Alahmar, this gloomy hue was changed, as we have seen, to purple or
+to scarlet, though black continued to be used in sign of mourning.
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                     THE TUNIC OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+               (_National Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+The chronicle says that Abu-Said, "the Red," who was assassinated at
+Tablada, under the walls of Seville, by Pedro the Cruel, was clothed in
+scarlet at the time of that atrocious deed. Boabdil was also clothed in
+red at the battle of Lucena. The _History of the House of Cordova_, from
+which I have already quoted, says: "Il etait arme d'une forte cuirasse a
+clous dores, doublee de velours _cramoisi_, d'un morion teint de
+_grenat_ et dore.... Sur sa cuirasse etait passe un caban de brocart et
+de velours cramoisi" (Plate v.). Eguilaz quotes a further passage from
+Hurtado de Mendoza, to prove that red continued to be the official
+colour of the Moorish rulers of Granada; for when the Moriscos had risen
+in the Alpujarra, and met together to invest their leaders, Aben-Abu and
+Aben-Humeya, with the insignia of royalty, they clothed the former in a
+red costume and the latter in purple, "passing about his neck and
+shoulders a red token in the form of a scarf."[12]
+
+  [12] Eguilaz Yanguas, _Les Peintures de l'Alhambra_.
+
+As I remarked in speaking of the _tiraz_, the clothing of the Moorish
+kings of Spain was of the richest quality obtainable, massively wrought,
+embroidered in colours and in gold, and bearing "sometimes a prince's
+name, sometimes his device or motto, or even a portrait of himself
+embroidered on the right breast of his _caban_ or robe, thus following
+the fashion of the monarchs of Assyria and Persia."
+
+
+                              SPANISH SILK
+
+A very fair idea of the magnitude of the craft and trade of Spanish silk
+in bygone epochs may be formed by tracing chronologically the production
+and treatment of the raw material in various parts of the Peninsula.
+During the centuries of Moorish rule, Spain's principal silk-producing
+centre was the kingdom of Granada, which then embraced a large extent of
+coast, together with Malaga and other thriving ports. In proof of this,
+and in his interesting memorial on the silk factories of Seville,[13]
+Ulloa quotes old Spanish ordinances of the weavers, stating that
+quantities of this substance were exported from "tierra de Moros" for
+use by Christian craftsmen, and also the _Chronology of the Kings of
+Granada_, concluded by Al-Khattib in the year 1364. A fragment of this
+chronicle is preserved at the Escorial, and states, in the well-known
+version of Casiri, that the silk produced at Granada was both abundant
+and of excellent quality, surpassing even the Assyrian.
+
+  [13] Don Martin de Ulloa, _Discurso sobre las fabricas de seda de
+       Sevilla_.
+
+The growing of mulberry trees and rearing of silkworms was also busily
+pursued in the kingdom of Aragon, which formerly included Cataluna,
+Valencia, and the Balearic Islands. Hence, though somewhat gradually, it
+seems to have spread to Seville. In the ordinances of this town relating
+to her weavers of silks and velvets, and which are dated 1492, it is
+stated that her _oficiales de texer sedas_ were so few that, as a
+stimulus to augment their number, all who wished might join them in the
+practice of this craft without examination. Between that year and 1502
+they evidently multiplied, since subjects of examination of no easy
+character are formulated in the ordinances of this later date, examined
+and confirmed by Ferdinand and Isabella. Nevertheless, it is impossible
+to credit the assertion of some authors that by the year 1519 Seville
+possessed no less than sixteen thousand looms, affording occupation to
+one hundred and fifty thousand persons. As Ulloa suggests, it is far
+more reasonable to suppose that her silk trade grew in proportion as the
+Spaniards continued to discover, and to open up to commerce, new regions
+of America; and that it reached the maximum of its development in the
+reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second. The same writer
+attributes its decline and downfall to the "piracies and insults" of
+Spain's foreign enemies and rivals.
+
+The price of Seville silks was also raised and the trade injuriously
+affected, by the imposition, at the close of the reign of Philip the
+Second, of the onerous _millones_ tax, as well as of the minor dues
+denominated _alcavalas_ and _cientos_; while finally, when Philip the
+Third was on the throne, the expulsion of the Moriscos precipitated the
+utter ruin of this industry.
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                    THE "BANNER OF SAINT FERDINAND"
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+The Spanish government proved quite incapable of grappling with these
+wrongs and difficulties. There were, however, numerous attempts to
+legislate in the direction of reform. Measures forbidding the
+introduction of silk proceeding from abroad received the royal signature
+in 1500, 1514, 1525, 1532, and 1552. A petition to the same effect,
+framed by the procurators of the Cortes, was presented to the king in
+1618, urging that no skein or twisted silk proceeding from the
+Portuguese Indies, China, or Persia should be imported into Spain in
+view of the damage thus inflicted on the silk-producing regions of
+Granada, Murcia, and Valencia. At the same time the petitioners
+suggested that if it should be found impracticable to suppress such
+importation altogether, the foreign silk should be required to be in the
+form of stuffs already woven.
+
+Matters grew steadily worse all through the reign of Philip the Fourth.
+The principal cause of this additional decline lay in the constant
+depreciation of the national currency, which kept at an intolerable
+pitch of dearness the price of home-grown silk, and enabled foreign
+traders to undersell the Spaniard. This will be better understood if we
+consider that the composition of the copper and silver coinage was often
+tampered with by Crown and Parliament in such a way as to allow the
+foreigner to rid the country of nearly all her gold and silver, leaving
+in exchange only the baser metal. At intervals of a few years,
+proclamations were issued altering the values of the coinage in the most
+capricious and disastrous terms, and Ulloa mentions as still in
+circulation in the eighteenth century, _ochavos_ of Philip the Third
+which bore inscribed the value of twelve _maravedis_ in Roman numerals,
+and also (owing to the restamping of the coins by order of the Crown),
+the second and successive value of eight _maravedis_, marked in ordinary
+numerals. In fact, so grave were these abuses, that the arbitrary value
+imposed upon the coins in question grew to be six times that of the
+actual value of the metal.
+
+At the close of the seventeenth century, when Charles the Second was on
+the throne, a couple of well-meant and not completely ineffectual
+attempts were made to bring about a fresh revival in the growth of
+Spanish silk. On November 18th, 1683, the silk-makers of Toledo,
+Seville, Granada, and Valencia were summoned to a council at Madrid, and
+the dispositions they then agreed upon received the royal signature and
+became law on January 30th of the following year, the pragmatic which
+embodied them being issued to the public ten days later. It was
+commanded by this document that all the silk produced at the above-named
+towns should be examined and approved by the _veedores_ or _mayorales_,
+and bear the official stamp which guaranteed their quality. The effect
+of these ordinances was further strengthened by a Crown _cedula_ of July
+15th, 1692, confirming other dispositions dated 1635; and later still,
+in June of 1699, a law was passed prohibiting the exportation of all
+home-made silks to other countries.
+
+The accession of the Bourbon kings heralded a further slight
+improvement. Philip the Fifth had barely mounted the throne when the
+Junta de Comercio was revived by his command, and drafted various laws
+for bettering this and other industries. Royal decrees of June 20th and
+September 17th, 1718, renewed in June of 1728 and in April and August of
+1734, forbade the introduction of silk and certain other stuffs from
+China and the rest of Asia--a measure which was made more strict as time
+went on, the prohibition being extended to linens and cottons produced
+and printed in Africa or Asia or imitated in Europe. In the meantime
+another _cedula_, signed at the Escorial on November 10th, 1726, had
+ordered that every Spanish citizen of either sex should dress
+exclusively in silks or cloths of Spanish manufacture.
+
+These laws, though founded on mistaken principles, undoubtedly restored
+the national silk trade for a while. In 1713 the silk looms of Seville
+had increased to four hundred and five, and by 1732--in which year the
+Court resided at that capital--to a thousand; but on the return of the
+royal family to Madrid, and the declaration of war against England in
+1739, the number dropped to a hundred and forty. In 1743 an effort was
+made to remedy this by exempting Seville silks from payment of the
+_alcabalas_ and _cientos_, and further support was rendered in 1749 by
+Ferdinand the Sixth, who lowered to eighty _maravedis_ per pound weight
+the tax on Spanish silks exported from the kingdom, and issued, in 1752,
+1753, and 1756, additional decrees intended to encourage and protect
+this industry. In 1748 the same ruler established the celebrated silk
+factories of Talavera de la Reina, sparing no pains to bring their
+products to a level with the best in Europe, and choosing as director of
+the works a thoroughly proficient Frenchman named Jean Rouliere, a
+native of Nimes, who was assisted by a carefully selected staff of
+experts, also principally foreigners.
+
+About the end of the century Laborde described this enterprise as
+follows:--"The manufactures of silks, gildings, and galloons are highly
+useful and important.... There has also been raised at Cervera, a
+village two leagues from Talavera, another large edifice, in which are
+twelve mills for twisting the silk, four large windles for winding it,
+and six machines for doubling it. This complicated machinery is put in
+motion by four oxen, and the various processes of twisting, winding, and
+doubling seven thousand and seventy-two threads of silk are thus
+performed at once.
+
+"This establishment was rapidly augmented under the direction of
+Rouliere and the other French mechanics who succeeded him in its
+superintendence. So successful were their labours that, in a short time,
+stuffs were fabricated in Spain not unworthy of competition with those
+of France, the demand for which was found to diminish. In 1762, Rouliere
+being obliged to withdraw from this manufactory, the care of it was
+committed to a company to the exclusion of almost all the French who had
+previously assisted in its establishment. The consequences of this
+change were soon discovered; the manufacture declined, the stuffs
+deteriorated, and the consumption diminished; the artisans were
+discharged from the loom, and everything threatened the total subversion
+of the establishment, when the king interposed, and again extended to it
+his care and protection, It has since been yielded to the incorporated
+society of the Gremios at Madrid, but has never recovered its former
+splendour and prosperity.
+
+"Taffetas, satins, silk cloths, and serges are fabricated here, as are
+silk ribbons, plain and figured velvets, stuffs of silk and silver,
+stuffs of silk and gold, galloons, gold and silver fringes, and silk
+stockings. The factory employs three hundred and sixty-six looms, and
+affords occupation to two thousand persons. There are annually consumed
+in it about a hundred thousand pounds of silk, four thousand marks of
+silver, and seventy marks of gold.
+
+"Some of the stuffs issuing from the manufactory are beautiful and good,
+but they want the gloss and lustre of the French stuffs; and as they are
+dearer than those, with all the contingent expense of commission and
+transportation, they are far from being able to maintain a competition
+with them. The stockings are of the vilest quality, being thin, shaggy,
+and ill-dressed. The greater part of these articles are exported to the
+Spanish colonies."
+
+Further efforts to improve the quality of Spanish silk were made by
+Charles the Third, in whose reign the silk looms of Seville increased to
+four hundred and sixty-two for weaving larger pieces, sixty-two for
+silver and gold galloons, three hundred and fifty-four for finely-worked
+ribbons, twenty-three for small pieces of gold and silver stuffs, eight
+for fringes and _cintas de rizo_, sixty-three for stockings, sixty-five
+for _redecillas_, three for caps, and one thousand three hundred and
+ninety-one for ordinary ribbon. At the same time, according to Ulloa,
+one hundred thousand pounds of silk required to be annually brought to
+Seville to supply these factories.
+
+"In its fortunate days," wrote Alexander de Laborde, "Seville had many
+splendid manufactures; it wove silks of every kind, gold and silver
+tissues, linens, and cottons.[14] A memoir presented in 1601 by the
+seventeen companies of arts and trades of this city gives us an idea of
+the brilliant state of those manufactures: the amount of the silk looms
+is there stated to be 16,000, and the persons of both sexes employed at
+them, 130,000. These manufactures had greatly declined even in the last
+century. We learn from Francisco Martinez de la Mata, in his
+_Discursos_, published in 1659, according to a memoir presented to the
+king by an _alcalde_ of the silk manufactures of Seville, that there
+were no more, at that time, than sixty-five looms, that a great number
+of persons having no work had quitted the town, that the population had
+decreased a third, and that many houses were shut up, uninhabited, and
+going to ruin. The silk manufactures began to look up again in the
+eighteenth century, but they are very far below the brilliant state they
+formerly displayed: in 1779 there were 2318 silk looms in Seville,
+including those for stockings, slight stuffs, and ribbons."[15]
+
+  [14] In former times, linens and cottons painted, stencilled, or stamped
+       with decorative patterns from an iron or boxwood matrix, were
+       considered to be luxurious fabrics, and are denounced as such in
+       the sumptuary pragmatic (quoted by Miquel y Badia) issued by Jayme
+       the Conqueror in A.D. 1234: "Item statuimos quod nos nec aliquis
+       subditus noster non portet vestes _incisas_, _listatas_, vel
+       trepatas."
+
+       Latterly, these kind of stuffs were made in great quantities at
+       Barcelona, and exported to other Spanish provinces, as well as to
+       America. "Several manufactures of printed linens are established
+       here," wrote Swinburne, in 1775, "but have not yet arrived at any
+       great elegance of design or liveliness of colour." The manuscript
+       (dated about A.D. 1810) attached to my copy of Pigal's plates of
+       Spanish costume, says that the _panoleta_ or _fichu_ (neckerchief)
+       of the women of Cartagena in their gala-dress was at that time of
+       "mousseline blanche, quelquefois brode, et tres souvent n'est
+       qu'un mouchoir d'indienne des fabriques de Barcelonne, avec une
+       brodure en fleurs rouges, le fond blanc et parseme de petits
+       bouquets." The same manuscript describes the dress of a cook at
+       Granada:--"Le jupon (_refajo_), qui est toujours tres court, est
+       en hiver de laine avec une garniture au bas: en ete il est en
+       indienne. Cette _indienne_ est une sorte de percale ou toile de
+       coton peinte, dont il y a plusieurs fabriques en Catalogne. On en
+       exportait autrefois une quantite, immense que l'on portait dans
+       les Ameriques Espagnoles; c'est ce qui lui a fait donner le nom
+       d'indienne."
+
+       From the same source we learn respecting another cotton fabric,
+       which might easily be thought by the unwary reader of to-day to
+       have been of Spanish manufacture, that "l'habitant de Mahon fait
+       en ete un grand usage de l'etoffe des Indes appelee _nankin_.
+       Cette etoffe n'est connue dans plusieurs parties de l'Espagne que
+       sous le nom de _Mahon_."
+
+  [15] In 1799 the Marquis of Monte-Fuerte declared the silk of Seville
+       to be of as fine a quality as that of Valencia and Carmona.
+       (_Discurso sobre el plantio de moreras en Sevilla y sus
+       inmediaciones._)
+
+Turning our attention from Seville to Granada, we find that the fame of
+the silks produced in this latter city, or rather kingdom (for silk was
+raised in great quantities throughout the entire region) extended as far
+abroad as Constantinople, and that they were used in Greece in the reign
+of Comnenus. The Muzarabs, who petitioned Alfonso el Batallador to bring
+an expedition to their rescue and wrest Granada from her Mussulman
+lords, reported to him in enthusiastic terms the quality and abundance
+of the silk of that locality, and many a document and chronicle record
+its vogue among the Spanish Christians of the Middle Ages.
+
+The Alcaiceria or silk-market of Granada is referred to by various of
+the older writers, including Marineus Siculus, Navagiero, Lalaing,
+Bertaut de Rouen, and Alvarez de Colmenar. The name itself is stated in
+Fray Pedro de Alcala's _Vocabulario_ to be derived from the Arabic
+_al-aqqisariya_, meaning "an exchange for merchants." Buildings, or
+groups of buildings, of this kind existed both in Spain and in Morocco.
+Early in the eighteenth century a Spanish friar wrote of Fez; "The
+Moorish portion of this city is the Alcaiceria. It stands nearly in the
+centre of the level part of the town, and near the principal mosque,
+resembling a town in itself, with solid walls and doors, and chains
+across it to keep out the horses. It consists of fifteen streets of
+wealthy shops, stretching without a break, and what is sold in
+them--whether of linen, silk, or cloth--is of the richest and the
+noblest quality."
+
+Very similar are the descriptions relative to the Alcaiceria of Granada
+in the olden time. Bertaut de Rouen wrote of it, and of the adjoining
+Zacatin; "En retournant devers la porte d'Elvire est le _Zacatin_, qui
+est une rue paralelle au Canal du Darro, longue et assez estroite, qui
+vient de la place de la Chancellerie a la place de _Vivarambla_. Dans
+cette rue sont tous les orfevres, les marchands de soie, de rubans, de
+vermillon, qui croist assez pres de Grenade, dont on fait la grand
+trafic. C'est une plante semblable a celle du Safran, dont il y a
+beaucoup dans ces quartiers-la.
+
+"Dans cette mesme rue du _Zacatin_ donne d'un coste l'_Alcayzerie_, qui
+est une espece de Halle couverte a la maniere de la Foire Saint Germain,
+ou sont plusieurs boutiques remplies des Marchandises les plus
+curieuses. Ils disent que cette place, aussi bien que beaucoup d'autres
+des autres Villes d'Andalousie, se nomme ainsi a cause d'un privilege
+que donnerent les Cesars aux Arabes de travailler en Soye."
+
+Alvarez de Colmenar wrote of the same edifice, a few years later than
+Bertaut; "Vis-a-vis de la Chancellerie on voit une maison fort longue,
+nommee Alcaceria (_sic_), partagee en pres de deux cent boutiques, ou
+les Marchands etalent tout sorte de marchandises, particulierement des
+etoffes en soie." On the authority of the same writer, the makers and
+the dyers of silk-stuffs inhabited another quarter of the town. "Le
+dernier quartier de la Ville, nomme Antiqueruela, est dans une plaine,
+peuple de gens venus d'Antechera, d'ou lui vient le nom qu'il porte. Ses
+habitants sont pour la plupart ouvriers en soie, tisseurs de satin, de
+tafetas, de damas; teinturiers qui teignent en pourpre, en ecarlate, et
+autres ouvriers semblables." He adds; "Il s'y fait grand commerce
+d'etoffe de soie; et la Ville et les environs sont pour cet effet
+plantes d'un si grand nombre de meuriers, que le seul impot sur les
+feuilles de ces arbres vaut annuellement trente mille ecus au Roi."
+
+About the beginning of the nineteenth century Laborde wrote: "The
+Alcaiceria is in the Bivarambla: it is merely an immense edifice,
+without ornament, covering a considerable extent of ground. The Moors
+used it as a bazaar, and a good many tradesmen still carry on their
+business there. It contains about two hundred shops." It remained, in
+fact, in much the same condition as when the Moors possessed it, until
+the year 1843, when a fire, which broke out on the night of July 20th of
+that year, reduced it almost totally to ashes. To-day the historic silk
+trade is no more; but the Alcaiceria, consisting of a chapel and a
+street which call to mind the graceful and effective decoration of its
+predecessor, has been rebuilt with taste and accuracy from the model of
+the old.
+
+The _Ordenanzas_ of Granada city, the first edition of which was
+published in 1552, and the second in 1678, inform us very closely of the
+silk trade of that region in the times immediately succeeding the
+reconquest. Having regard to the fact that the silk was now spun in
+skeins in an imperfect manner, "with much deceit and trickery," and that
+its quality was of the worst (Ordinance of A.D. 1535), nobody was
+allowed henceforth to spin silk in or about Granada without being
+qualified through examination by the _veedores_ or inspectors appointed
+for this purpose by the corporation. The inspector might charge for this
+examination a fee of twenty-five _maravedis_, and if the candidate were
+successful he was permitted to set up his loom forthwith, and engage two
+lads or girls, not less than twelve years old, to fetch and carry at his
+wheel, "so that the work may be continued all day long."
+
+Minute instructions follow as to the method of spinning the silk, wages,
+the treatment of apprentices, and other detail. Many of these narrow
+points of city law were troublesome and senseless, and must have tended
+to destroy the trade. For instance, the earnings of a master-spinner,
+after paying the lads or girls who worked for him, were limited to a
+maximum of two _reales_ and a half per day. Women were allowed to spin
+upon the following conditions: "Also, seeing that there be some honest
+women here who have no access to a public wheel, but work within their
+dwellings only, we (_i.e._ the city councillors) command that these may
+spin per thousand of cocoons, or at a daily wage, not to exceed two
+_reales_ and a half." The silk was not to be spun with an _escobilla_ or
+brush, but with the hand, obedient to the rhyming Spanish proverb which
+says, or used to say, _con escobilla el pano, y la seda con la mano_
+("brush cloth with a brush, and silk with the hand").
+
+The laws affecting the dyers of silk contain the following provisions.
+They were not to dye with pomegranate or sumach, and if the rind of the
+former fruit were found in their houses, they were liable to a fine of
+six thousand _maravedis_ and thirty days' imprisonment. Dyeing with
+Brazil-wood was also prohibited in the case of silks of finer quality
+exposed for sale in the Alcaiceria. Elaborate directions follow as to
+the manner of applying the dye. In the case of silks dyed blue or
+purple, the dyer, before he drew the fabric from the vat, was required
+to show it to the _alamin_ or inspector of the silk, or else to one of
+the _veedores_ nominated by the city councillors. The fines imposed upon
+the dyers who were found to contravene these regulations were
+distributed in the following proportion: one-third towards repairing the
+ramparts or _adarves_ of Granada; another third between the _alamin_,
+the _veedores_, and the other officials who discovered and denounced the
+culprit; and the remaining third between the magistrates and other
+authorities who tried and sentenced him.
+
+Further, each silk-dyer was to have six _tinajas_, or large jars (see
+Vol. II., pp. 120 _et seq._), kept continually full of dye, well
+settled, and liable at any hour to be analyzed by the _veedores_. In
+dyeing fabrics black, each pound of silk was to be treated with ten
+ounces of foreign galls of fine quality, two ounces of copperas, and two
+ounces of gum-arabic.
+
+It is evident that nearly all this legislation was of a mischievous
+character, nor can it cause surprise that certain of the silk-makers of
+this locality should have been in the habit of committing many kinds of
+fraud, such as mixing salt or oil with the raw material, in order to
+increase its weight. Thus, at the same time that the laws themselves
+were made more numerous and stringent, the more elaborate and various
+were the shifts invented by the citizens as a means to violate those
+laws. The inspectors were empowered to enter a shop and examine its
+contents at any hour. Sometimes, we read, such ingress was denied them,
+and the door was kept closed, or slammed in their faces. The penalty for
+this resistance was a fine of two thousand _maravedis_ and twenty days
+imprisonment. No silk-spinner was allowed to possess more than two
+spinning-wheels (Ordinance of November 18th, 1501), or to keep these
+working after midnight, for we are told that in this way the _veedores_
+were impeded from paying their official visit in the small hours of the
+morning, and much "deceit and insult" was the consequence. This
+Ordinance was confirmed by a royal rescript of 1542.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                         VELVET MADE AT GRANADA
+                         (_Late 15th Century_)]
+
+Another group of _Ordenanzas_ concerns the weavers and the
+silk-merchants of the Alcaiceria, determining that no silk was to be
+imported from the kingdoms of Valencia or Murcia, and that no merchant
+was to buy the raw material in order to resell it at a profit, but might
+only trade in the productions of his own factory. Minute instructions
+are appended for weaving the various stuffs which had a silk foundation,
+such as several kinds of damask, scarlet velvet[16] many kinds of satin,
+velvet dyed with Brazil-wood, taffeta of four leishes, taffeta of two
+leishes, and _sargas_, or silken serge. Other fabrics mentioned in the
+Ordinances are _tocas_ called "San Juanes," _campuses moriscos_
+(elsewhere "las tocas moriscas que se llaman _campuzas_"), "las tocas
+moriscas labradas que se dizen _coninos_," _quinales_ and _alfardillas_,
+_alcaydias_, _tocas de Reyna_, and _espumillas_. Most of these names are
+of obscure meaning at the present day; but I find that _espumillas_ were
+silken crape, while _alfardillas_ are defined in the old dictionary of
+Fathers Connelly and Higgins as "an ancient kind of silken ribbon, or
+tape."
+
+  [16] Granada was especially renowned for her velvets (Plate vii.),
+       grounded or relieved, in the oriental manner, with gold or silver.
+
+No weaver was allowed to be the owner of more than four looms for making
+velvet, satin, damask, taffeta, or silken serges. The apprentice to a
+satin-maker required to be bound for a minimum term of three years, the
+apprentice to a damask-maker for five years, the apprentice to a
+taffeta-maker for three years. No weaver was to have more than three
+apprentices at one time, except in the case of the damask-makers, who
+might have four. No weaver might dismiss his apprentice without deponing
+to the cause before the city officers, nor might he accept money, or
+anything in lieu of money, from an apprentice. Master-weavers were
+required to pass their examinations in Granada; no other city would
+suffice.
+
+We further learn that many of the apprentices were "of evil character,"
+and damaged velvet stuffs "maliciously, though knowing perfectly how to
+weave the same." If any worker at this craft fell sick, the guild or
+_oficio_ was to defray the expenses of his cure, including physic "until
+he be recovered, provided his be not a venereal ailment, or a wound
+inflicted with a knife." If he succumbed, the guild was to bury him; and
+when a master-weaver died, his apprentices were compelled to serve out
+the rest of their indentures with his widow, or his sons. No slave might
+learn to weave, even though he should be made a _horro_ or freedman.
+
+Other ordinances refer to the officers known as Xelizes and Almotalefes
+of the silk, the privilege of appointing whom had been conferred upon
+the town-council by Ferdinand and Isabella. It was the business of the
+_almotalefe_ or _motalefe_ to collect silk throughout the _alcarias_ or
+villages of the surrounding districts, and convey it, on behalf of the
+owner, to a _xeliz_ or "superintendent of the market," attached to one
+or other of the three Alcaicerias of the kingdom of Granada. The
+_xeliz_, in his turn, was required to see that the parcel was put up for
+sale by public auction and disposed of to the highest bidder, after
+which he handed to the _motalefe_ a certificate of the price obtained,
+together with the corresponding cash, less certain fees deducted for
+himself and calculated on a reasonable scale. The number of _motalefes_
+throughout this region was evidently large, because in the year 1520 the
+town-council resolved to appoint as many as "one or two in every town
+and district."
+
+Ordinances to the above effect were notified to the city of Almunecar,
+and the towns of Motril, Salobrena, and the Alpujarras; from which we
+must infer that, though subordinated to the capital herself, these
+places also were silk-producing centres of no slight importance.
+
+Further laws relating to the Xelizes were passed in 1535. On August
+13th, the mayor of Granada (described as the "very magnificent" Senor
+Hernan Darias de Saavedra) summoned before him these officials in order
+to admonish them respecting certain fresh decisions that had been
+adopted by the councillors. The said Xelizes were six in all, known
+severally as Juan Ximenez, Hernando el Comarxi, Juan Infante Zaybona,
+Juan de Granada, Lorenzo el Mombatan, and Francisco Hernandez
+Almorox--names which are of interest, as showing that the Morisco
+element was still of weight among the manufacturers and merchants of
+Granada. From this time forth, and by the resolution of the town
+authorities, the Xelizes in question were called upon to lodge a deposit
+of one thousand ducats as security for the value of the silk entrusted
+them for sale. Besides this, the silk was to be sold in the
+Zaguaque--that is, by public auction "as in the time of the Moors," from
+two in the afternoon onward. The buyer was required to settle his
+account before ten in the morning of the day next following his
+purchase. Failing this, the silk was to be again put up for sale, and
+the costs of this new operation were charged to the defaulting first
+purchaser, who was further obliged to pay a daily compensation of two
+_reales_ to the _motalefe_ who had brought the silk to market. Xelizes
+were strictly forbidden to traffic on their own account, and the fines
+for infringing any of these laws were heavy. If the infraction were
+repeated once, the fine was doubled; if twice, in addition to the same
+amount in money, the transgressor was banished for all his lifetime from
+Granada.
+
+All pieces of stuff which measured ten yards long and upwards, and which
+it was desired to sell within the capital or district of Granada,
+required to be marked with the weaver's stamp. If three pieces were sold
+together, or sent abroad to other places to be sold, they required to be
+stamped with the city seal at a fee for stamping of two _maravedis_ the
+piece. This was to be performed by the _veedores_, who were also to keep
+a register of all the city looms, and pay them a visit of inspection
+once at least in every month.
+
+Finally, one of the most ridiculous and noxious of these ordinances
+forbade the planting of more mulberry-trees in or about Granada;
+notwithstanding that it was also forbidden to deal in silk imported from
+Valencia or Murcia, as the merchants were said to mingle these foreign
+silks with that of Granada herself, to the detriment of the latter.
+
+Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the silk-trade of
+this capital remained in much the same condition. In 1747 a company was
+formed at Granada titled the "Compania Real de Comercio y Fabricas de
+Granada," and the formal prospectus of this society, of which document a
+printed copy is in my possession, was embodied in a royal _cedula_ dated
+in the same year. The preliminary remarks attached to this certificate
+explain that the people of Granada were now reduced to "the most unhappy
+state of poverty, insomuch that nowhere is there memory of a greater
+horde of mendicants." The principal cause of this distress is stated to
+be the ruin of the silk-trade, in which disaster may be recognised the
+consequences of the senseless legislation I have instanced in the
+foregoing paragraphs. The fifteen thousand looms which once upon a time
+existed there had dwindled to six hundred, and the production of raw
+silk, from one million pounds a year to one hundred thousand. The new
+Company was floated with the professed ambition of restoring Granada to
+a measure of her old prosperity. The capital was half a million _pesos_,
+divided into shares of two hundred _pesos_ each; but silk and woven
+fabrics generally, whose value had been suitably appraised by the
+authorities, were admissible in payment of a share. The holder of each
+five shares enjoyed one vote, except in the case of founders, who were
+privileged, as "instruments of this important establishment," to vote
+upon possession of a single share. If a shareholder wished to sell his
+interest, the Company was to have the first refusal. It further
+possessed initially in cash a sum exceeding one hundred and twenty
+thousand _pesos_--sufficient to construct and work three thousand looms
+in all; and it engaged, in return for certain favours and exemptions
+under royal warrant, to set up twenty looms for making serges of fine
+quality, and eight more in each year, for the space of ten years, for
+making _carros de oro_, _medios carros_, _anascotes finos_,
+_christales_, "and every other kind of stuff that is not manufactured in
+this kingdom."
+
+The favours and exemptions thus solicited were of a very mischievous
+character; for the political mind of Spain was not yet shrewd enough to
+grasp the fact that where all competition is removed, quality cannot but
+decline. The products of the Company were freed from paying taxes for
+ten, or in the case of stuffs whose price amounted to six _reales_ per
+yard, for twenty years. Similarly, all of its merchandise exported to
+America "in _flotas_, _galeones_, _registros_, or other craft of those
+that are permitted," was freed from all except the royal dues on
+loading, although if shipped to other parts it was to pay a tax of fifty
+_maravedis_ for each Castilian pound of sixteen ounces. All the
+materials and ingredients required by the Company in the preparation of
+its fabrics were exempted from customs and other dues. The Company
+enjoyed a preferential right to purchase silk throughout the kingdom of
+Granada, and such as it abstained from purchasing was to be sold by
+public auction in the Alcaicerias of Granada and Malaga, that of Almeria
+being henceforth suppressed. The Company was also empowered to introduce
+silk from Murcia and Valencia, and the determination to crush all
+private enterprise is clearly expressed by the twenty-second heading of
+this document, which says; "All manufacturers and traders who do not
+associate themselves with this body shall pay the full tariff of dues at
+present established." The Company was further empowered to compel the
+inhabitants of this locality to plant new lots of mulberry-trees, "in
+view of the notorious fact that not the one-hundredth part remains of
+all that were delivered by the Royal Census to the occupants of the
+kingdom of Granada at the time of the reconquest." The Company might
+further open shops and erect warehouses wherever it chose. Its assets
+were to enjoy perpetual immunity from seizure by the city council,
+whether as a loan or otherwise, and none of its servants might be called
+upon to serve the Crown in the event of war.
+
+Very shortly after its foundation, this Company united (each bringing
+half the capital) with another powerful association titled the
+Commercial Company of Estremadura, with a view to securing a conjoint
+Crown monopoly or "exclusive privilege" for Portugal, "to the effect
+that only these two companies may traffic there in silk, and none other
+of my vassals or the inhabitants of my dominions may do business,
+whether in pure silk, or silk mixed with silver or with gold, in the
+kingdom of Portugal aforesaid."
+
+The privilege was granted in these terms, and bears the royal signature,
+attached at Aranjuez, June 17th, 1747. Its provisions were to last for
+ten years, and, in return for their concession, the two Companies
+engaged for a like term of ten years to set up fifty silk-looms annually
+at Toledo, "over and above the looms at present working in that city."
+
+I have not been able to trace, in writing or in print, the subsequent
+records of the Royal Commercial and Manufacturing Company of Granada,
+although I have been told that it existed for some time, and that on one
+occasion there was a riot among the townsfolk in opposition to its
+tyranny.[17] In 1776 Swinburne wrote of the same region: "The annual
+produce of silk in this province, before the year 1726, seldom fell
+short of two millions six hundred thousand pounds weight, whereas now it
+does not exceed one hundred thousand." Judging from this, the Company
+does not appear to have prospered. In 1775 the same author wrote of
+other and more fertile silk-producing districts: "The manufacturers of
+silk are the cause of a population (_i.e._ in Valencia) that may be
+reckoned considerable, if compared to that of other provinces of Spain.
+The produce of this article came this year to one million pounds, but
+one year with another the average quantity is about nine hundred
+thousand pounds, worth a doubloon a pound in the country. The crop of
+silk this last season was very abundant. Government has prohibited the
+exportation of Valencian raw silk, in order to lay in a stock to keep
+the artificers constantly employed in bad years; for it has happened in
+some, that half the workmen have been laid idle for want of materials.
+As they are not so strict about Murcian silk, which is of an inferior
+quality, I am told that some from Valencia is sent out of Spain under
+that denomination. The great nurseries of mulberry-plants in this plain
+(the Huerta of Valencia) are produced from seed obtained by rubbing a
+rope of _esparto_ over heaps of ripe mulberries, and then burying the
+rope two inches under ground. As the young plants come up, they are
+drawn and transplanted. The trees, which are all of the white kind, are
+afterwards set out in rows in the fields, and pruned every second year;
+in Murcia, only every third year, and in Granada never. The Granadine
+silk is esteemed the best of all; and the trees are all of the black
+sort of mulberry."
+
+  [17] Similar companies were formed at Toledo, Zaragoza, Burgos, Seville,
+       and Zarza. For the Crown _cedula_, dated February 10th, 1748,
+       authorizing the Real Compania de Comercio y Fabricas of Toledo,
+       see Larruga's _Memorias_, Vol. VII., p. 63.
+
+According to Laborde, who wrote some twenty-five years later; "The
+cultivation of silk was formerly very flourishing in Andalusia; the
+kingdoms of Granada, Seville, and Jaen produced immense quantities of
+it, but after the conquest of those countries it was burdened with heavy
+taxes: silk was made subject to ecclesiastical tithes payable in kind;
+the royal tenth it paid under the Moors was retained, estimated at three
+_reales vellon_ each pound of silk. To these were added a duty of
+_tartil_ of seventeen _maravedis_ per pound and duties of _alcabalas_
+and _cientos_, fixed at eleven _reales_ thirty-two _maravedis_. There
+accrued from it a tax of fifteen _reales_ fifteen _maravedis_ for the
+king, and six _reales_, or thereabouts, for the ecclesiastical tithe,
+making together twenty-one _reales_ fifteen _maravedis_, or about four
+shillings and sixpence the pound, which at that time sold only for
+thirty _reales_, or six shillings and three pence English. The
+speculators were consequently discouraged, most of them relinquished a
+labour from which they derived so little profit, and this branch of
+industry entirely failed in the kingdoms of Cordova and Seville, and
+afterwards in those of Granada and Jaen. For some time it has been
+looking up in the two latter kingdoms, but it is very far from what it
+was under the Moors. The mulberries of Granada and Jaen are black; they
+are suffered to grow without any care or management, are never lopped or
+dressed, and look as if they were planted by chance."
+
+Of Murcia he wrote; "This province has the raw materials of other
+manufactures no less important. In the first place, it has a prodigious
+quantity of silkworms, which are not turned to advantage; most of the
+raw silks are sold to the neighbouring provinces, and manufactured silk
+is imported from foreign looms, though the inhabitants might manufacture
+their own materials, and make it an article of considerable exportation.
+The town of Murcia is the only place where they work some small
+quantity; there they manufacture a few slight silks, chiefly taffetas
+and velvets, but of an inferior quality; and the whole is confined to a
+small number of looms. They make a much greater quantity of ribbons, in
+which twelve hundred looms are employed; but they are badly dyed, and
+have not a good gloss. The Murcians likewise prepare the raw silk, spin,
+and twist it; they have even a warden, and a great number of masters in
+this business, and, in spite of its importance, they carry it on without
+being subject to any superintendence, everyone doing as he pleases. The
+consequence is that the silk is badly prepared and spun unequally. The
+threads are collected without any method, sometimes more, sometimes
+less, and then twisted unequally. They are of course unfit to make fine
+stuffs, and the trade of Murcia is therefore declining.... Silk stuffs,
+satins, velvets, and taffetas are made here, but there is no great
+manufactory of them. They are wrought at private houses, and are but of
+a middling quality."
+
+Toledo silk, including the delicate and costly _cendal_ (see pp. 5, 6)
+which is mentioned in the sumptuary law, dated 1348, of Alfonso the
+Eleventh, was largely in demand from early in the Middle Ages till about
+the sixteenth century. The statements of the older writers as to this
+neighbourhood are contradictory. According to Damian de Olivares,
+himself a native of Toledo, this city in the sixteenth century possessed
+between five thousand five hundred and six thousand looms, consuming
+annually more than six hundred thousand pounds of raw silk. Other
+authors estimate the number of her looms at twenty, thirty, or even
+forty thousand. Writing in our own time, Count Cedillo is responsible
+for declaring that after the revolt of the Communities, the persons
+occupied in weaving silk amounted to fifty thousand, all of whom were
+natives of Toledo and the neighbouring villages; and he adds, perhaps a
+little rashly, that the velvets, damasks, satins, and taffetas of this
+locality were "unrivalled, even in comparison with the admirable
+products of Seville, Cordova, and Granada."[18] Certainly, the silk
+stockings of Toledo enjoyed a wide-spread fame, and were used, among
+other distinguished patrons, by the Duke of Guise and by Philip the
+Second. They were also exported in quantities to America. Banners,
+altar-fronts, and vestments for religious worship were also made here in
+large numbers, and of excellent quality, both in silk alone, and in this
+substance mixed with gold and silver.
+
+  [18] _Toledo en el Siglo XVI._ Miquel y Badia says that in the fifteenth
+       century Toledo, together with Genoa and Venice, manufactured superb
+       velvets, coloured crimson, blue, purple, or yellow, and figured
+       with pineapples or pomegranates (Plate iv.). The latter tree and
+       fruit are commonly related, in Spain, with the city of _Granada_;
+       but quite apart from this, the pomegranate was formerly regarded as
+       a symbol of fecundity and life. (See Goblet d'Alviella, _La
+       Migration des Symboles_, p. 184, and also Madame Errera's
+       Catalogue, No. 50.) In these velvets the gold thread is woven with
+       consummate skill, and forms, in the costliest and most elaborate
+       specimens, a groundwork of exceedingly small rings. These fabrics
+       were used as hangings for beds and walls, as well as for the
+       clothing of great lords and ladies. Touching the use of silk for
+       certain articles of dress, an amusing story is told in the MS.
+       account of Valladolid, published by Gayangos in the _Revista de
+       Espana_. "One day, Don Pedro de Medicis is reported to have paid
+       a visit to a married lady, to whom he had presented some damask
+       curtains, and he was wearing at the time some taffeta hose which
+       made a creaking as he walked. The lady came out of her room, and,
+       finding him in one of the lower apartments, exclaimed, 'Why do you
+       come here at such an hour, and with that silk on you which creaks
+       so loudly? Take care my husband does not hear it.' Whereto the
+       gentleman replied; 'Good God, madam, is it possible that the two
+       hundred yards of damask which I gave you for that curtain have
+       made no noise at all, but that a mere four yards of simple taffeta
+       about my breeches should put you in such consternation?'"
+
+Laborde wrote of all these manufactures at the time of their decline;
+"It is easy to estimate their former importance from the loss they
+sustained by the introduction of foreign merchandise. The memorial
+states that the consumption of silk was materially diminished, and
+computes the loss sustained by thirty-eight thousand artisans, from the
+interruption of their occupation, at 1,937,727 ducats. Symptoms of decay
+continued to increase till the middle of the sixteenth century, when
+every vestige of commerce was effaced.
+
+"Toledo remained in this state of listless despondence till the present
+archbishop made a noble effort to revive the love of industry, and to
+open an asylum for the tribes of mendicants, accustomed from infancy to
+subsist on precarious bounty. The measure adopted by this prelate was to
+establish in the Alcazar various branches of manufacture, such as linen,
+ribbons, cloths, serges, woollen stuffs, and silk stuffs of every
+description. He introduced also another branch of occupation,
+appropriated solely to the production of sacerdotal ornaments. In 1791
+there were a hundred and twelve manufactories in Toledo, ten for lawns
+and canvas, twelve for ribbons, fifty-five for silk, and seven for
+sacerdotal ornaments. At this period the indigent class employed in them
+amounted to six hundred people, who were instructed in various
+processes, and were led insensibly to acquire the useful habits of
+industry. They were taught to draw, to prepare the materials, and to
+perform the manufacture; and each was destined to pursue some occupation
+suitable to his age, his inclination, and his abilities."
+
+In 1786 Townsend, himself a clergyman, had written of Toledo in far less
+hopeful terms. "This city, which contained two hundred thousand souls,
+is now reduced to less than twenty-five thousand. The citizens are fled;
+the monks remain. Here we find twenty-six parish churches, thirty-eight
+convents, seventeen hospitals, four colleges, twelve chapels, and
+nineteen hermitages, the monuments of its former opulence." Townsend's
+good taste, unusual for a traveller of that time, was horrified at the
+profanation of the Alcazar, whose "magnificent apartments are now
+occupied with spinning-wheels and looms, and instead of princes they are
+filled with beggars. The good archbishop here feeds seven hundred
+persons, who are employed in the silk manufactory; but unfortunately,
+with the best intentions, he has completed the ruin of the city; for by
+his weight of capital, he has raised the price both of labour and of the
+raw material, whilst, by carrying a greater quantity of goods to the
+common market, he has sunk the price of the commodity so much, that the
+manufacturers, who employed from forty to sixty workmen, now employ only
+two or three, and many who were in affluence are now reduced to penury.
+
+"These people are so far from earning their own maintenance, that over
+and above the produce of their labour they require forty thousand ducats
+a year for their support."
+
+Alvarez de Colmenar, Ricord, Bourgoing, Laborde, and other writers,
+Spanish and non-Spanish, of the eighteenth century, inserted full
+descriptions of the silk trade of Valencia and Barcelona. "On y fait,"
+wrote Alvarez de Colmenar of the former of these towns, "de tres bonnes
+draperies, fortes, d'un bon et long usage, et propres a resister a la
+pluie, et grande quantite d'etoffes de soie; dela vient que les
+meuriers, dont les feuilles servent a nourrir les vers a soie, y font
+d'un fort gros revenu pour les habitans." Ricord, in his scarce
+pamphlet, printed at Valencia in 1793, gives valuable statistics
+relating to this industry and locality, prefacing his figures arranged
+in tabular form by the following remarks: "The silk factories of this
+province form the principal basis of her commerce. They not only consume
+all the silk which is raised in the kingdom (of Valencia), and which, in
+1791, amounted to 581,688 pounds of fine silk, 93,800 of that of
+Alducar, and 26,115 of _hiladillo_, but they also require to provide
+themselves from Aragon and other parts of Spain, or even from abroad,
+seeing that in the year aforesaid more than 37,000 pounds were imported
+from foreign countries." The tabular statement appended to these
+observations tells us that in the region of Valencia the looms for
+making fine and silken fabrics such as velvets, _anascotes_, stockings,
+handkerchiefs, scarves, garters, and ribbons, gave employment to a total
+of 9,668 workmen, and were distributed among the towns or villages of
+Valencia, Alcira, San Felipe, Alcoy, Vilanesa, Denia, Ruzafa, Alicante,
+Peniscola, Beniganim, Pego, Olivo, Liria, Asuevar, Orihuela, Gandia,
+Elche, Castellon, and Vall de Almonacid. Riano admits, however, that
+this manufacture might have prospered even more, if means had been
+adopted to suppress certain acts committed by the weavers, spinners, and
+twisters of the silk.
+
+More curious and instructive is the description of the same industry by
+Jean-Francois Bourgoing, whose observations, evidently secured at
+first-hand, are worth translating _in extenso_:--
+
+"What attracted us still more than the fine-art works were the stuffs
+produced at the silk-factories, which constitute the principal glory of
+Valencia and contribute to her prosperous condition. We followed all the
+process of this manufacture, from the cultivation of the mulberry-tree
+to the weaving of the richest fabrics. I will try, therefore, to give a
+comprehensive account of them.
+
+"Spain, and particularly the kingdom of Valencia, could well export her
+silk to foreign parts, even after setting apart a quantity sufficient
+for her factories. Government, however, does not appear to be convinced
+of this, because it offers constant hindrance to such exportation, or
+else, when it consents to it, imposes heavy dues. These dues consist of
+nine _reales_ and a _quartillo_, or nearly two _livres_ seven _francs_
+per each Valencian pound of silk, which only weighs twelve ounces, and
+is worth at least fifteen _livres_ when it is in the raw state. When the
+silk harvest has been scanty, as in the year 1784, it has been known to
+fetch eighty _reales_ or twenty _livres_. This year, too, the yield of
+silk has been so small that the manufacturers of Valencia petitioned
+Government to allow the introduction, duty-free, of two hundred thousand
+pounds of it from Italy and France.
+
+"In ordinary years, the pound of (raw) silk costs eight _reales_ for
+twisting and three _reales_ for dyeing in green, blue or other common
+colours; so that this material, ready to use, costs altogether about
+seventy-one _reales_ the pound, or seventeen to eighteen francs of our
+money.
+
+"Of course this price varies according to circumstances. One of the
+causes which exercise the greatest influence on this fluctuation is the
+harvest of the mulberry. These valuable trees are thickly planted over
+the champaign of Valencia, and all of them are of the white-leaved kind.
+This distinction, which would be superfluous in France, is by no means
+so in Spain, where, in several provinces, as, for instance, the kingdom
+of Granada, the leaves of the black mulberry are used to nourish the
+silkworms, and yield almost as handsome a silk as those of the
+white.[19]
+
+  [19] "The mulberry of Valencia is the _white_, as being most suitable to
+       a well-watered plain. In Granada they give the preference to the
+       _black_, as thriving well in elevated stations, as more durable,
+       more abundant in leaves, and yielding a much finer and more
+       valuable silk. But then it does not begin bearing till it is about
+       twenty years of age. In this province they reckon that five trees
+       should produce two pounds of silk.
+
+       "I had the curiosity to examine their method of feeding the
+       silkworms. These industrious spinners are spread upon wicker
+       shelves, which are placed one above the other, all round, and
+       likewise in the middle of each apartment, so as to leave room only
+       for the good woman to pass with their provisions. In one house I
+       saw the produce of six ounces of seed, and was informed that to
+       every ounce, during their feeding season, they allow sixty
+       _arrobas_ of leaves, valued at two pounds five. Each ounce of seed
+       is supposed to yield ten pounds of silk, at twelve ounces to the
+       pound. March 28th, the worms began to hatch, and May 22nd they went
+       up to spin. On the eleventh day, from the time that they were
+       hatched, they slept; and on the fourteenth, they awoke to eat
+       again, receiving food twice a day till the twenty-second day.
+       Having then slept a second time, without interruption, for three
+       days, they were fed thrice a day; and thus alternately they
+       continued eating eight days and sleeping three, till the
+       forty-seventh day; after which they ate voraciously for ten
+       days, and not being stinted, consumed sometimes from thirty to
+       fifty _arrobas_ in four and twenty hours. They then climbed up
+       into rosemary bushes, fixed for that purpose between the shelves,
+       and began to spin.
+
+       "Upon examination, they appear evidently to draw out two threads
+       by the same operation, and to glue these together, covering them
+       with wax. Thismay be proved by spirit of wine, which will dissolve
+       the wax, and leave the thread. Having exhausted her magazine, the
+       worm changes her form and becomes a nymph, until the seventy-first
+       day from the time that the little animal was hatched, when she
+       comes forth with plumage, and having found her mate, begins to
+       lay her eggs. At the end of six days from this period of existence,
+       having answered the end of their creation, they both lie down and
+       die. This would be the natural progress; but, to preserve the silk,
+       the animal is killed by heat, and the cones being thrown into
+       boiling water, the women and children wind off the
+       silk."--Townsend; _Journey through Spain in the years 1786 and
+       1787_; Vol. III., pp. 264-266.
+
+"The leaves to these mulberry-trees are sold by the load of ten
+_arrobas_; and the Valencian _arroba_, which is about equal to
+twenty-seven French pounds, cost, in 1783, about thirty _sols tournois_.
+
+"The mulberry leaves are gathered once, twice, or, at most, three times
+in each year; but it is not often that the two last crops are of as fine
+a quality or as abundant as the first. The greater part of the year is
+suited for harvesting the leaves, and this harvesting is carried out
+progressively as the silkworms copulate, steadily increasing in quantity
+up to the moment when they build their cocoons. As a rule only the
+leaves are plucked, the branches being spared as far as possible. Thus
+despoiled of its verdure in the middle of the finest times of year,
+although surrounded by a dazzling vegetation, the tree looks like a dry
+log floating on a green expanse of waters, while the mass of naked
+trunks which seem to be completely sterile, and which grow more numerous
+as the season advances, combine to render cheerless a prospect otherwise
+so fertile and so smiling. Still worse becomes their state when the
+trees are pruned entirely of their branches--an operation which is
+performed upon them at least once in every three years.
+
+"In the space of ten years the kingdom of Valencia has yielded six
+million pounds of silk, which makes a yearly average of six hundred
+thousand pounds; and as the whole of Spain produces a million pounds per
+annum, we see from this that Valencia alone supplies more than half of
+the entire quantity. The silks of Valencia are the finest of the whole
+Peninsula, and fit to be compared with the best of Europe generally, but
+the spinning is still imperfect, because in Spain there are not, as in
+France and elsewhere, houses where the women who spin are gathered
+together under the eye of an inspector to see that all the silk is spun
+evenly. In the kingdom of Valencia the spinning is distributed among
+several thousand hands, who introduce six, seven, eight, or even more
+ends in a thread of silk which should always have the same number; hence
+the unevennesses in the fabrics which are woven from them, while for the
+same reason we do not utilize for any delicate work the raw material
+which we import from Spain. The silk we employ for our costlier fabrics
+is of the kind which we import from Piedmont and the southern provinces
+of France. Also, for the last few years we have felt less need of the
+Valencian silk. The laws prohibiting the exportation of this Spanish
+silk have stimulated the cultivation of mulberry-trees in Languedoc,
+where the peasantry, alive to the profit which these trees could render
+them, have preferred them to other kinds for planting round their
+property. This is why, in the year 1783, French silk could be bought for
+a lower price than the Valencian silk purchased in that region, plus the
+dues levied upon its exportation. I know of a merchant who at this time
+enjoyed the privilege of exporting for six years a hundred thousand
+pounds free of all dues, but who throughout the year 1783 was unable to
+find a purchaser in France. Spain could perhaps remedy the egress of her
+raw material by further increasing (as, indeed, she daily does) the
+number of her looms, and by exporting a greater number of her products
+to her American possessions; but her silk-stuffs will never be perfected
+until she markets them in foreign countries, where the taste of her
+customers may tend to better that of her manufacturers.
+
+"The silk raised in the kingdom of Valencia is estimated, during an
+average year, to be worth six or seven millions of _piastres_ (nineteen
+to twenty-two millions of _livres_.) At the time of my visit to this
+city, she only employed one half this quantity, although her looms of
+every size amounted to four thousand. The rest, in spite of the
+prohibitions laid upon its extraction, is smuggled off to foreign
+countries, escaping, sometimes to France by way of Barcelona, and
+sometimes to Portugal by way of Seville and Extremadura. Nevertheless,
+there is probably more silk in Spain to-day than formerly, and measures
+have been earnestly adopted to encourage the industries which make use
+of it. For some time past, silk-looms have been scattered over the whole
+of Cataluna, and in the kingdoms of Granada, Cordova, Seville, etc.,
+producing handkerchiefs, ribbons, and other stuffs in sufficient
+quantity to supply, or nearly so, the national market: nevertheless this
+still left a large market for our stocking-factories of Languedoc. The
+Spanish Government, by the law of 1778, limited itself to excluding
+these stockings from forming part of the foreign cargoes to the
+Colonies, but as they continued to be imported into Spain, this law was
+readily evaded, since it sufficed to stamp the French article with the
+mark of a Spanish factory. It would have required an excessive
+vigilance, almost a positive inquisition, to guard against a fraud of
+this kind, prompted by the avarice of traders. The Spanish Government
+next sought, by the law of 1785, to put a stop to it by totally
+excluding our silk stockings, and this measure, together with the
+establishment of a number of new looms in Spain, has produced an almost
+absolute stagnation in the market which our factories of Languedoc had
+formerly enjoyed in the Peninsula. But let me return now to the
+Valencian factories.
+
+"This city has no one building in which might be performed the whole of
+the processes through which the silk must pass. Any person who wishes to
+examine them, must visit several workshops; and this was the course
+which we adopted, under the guidance of a manufacturer as intelligent as
+he is amiable, named Don Manuel Foz, a gentleman who has travelled
+extensively in order to perfect his knowledge of handling silk, and who,
+among other secrets, has brought from Constantinople the art of watering
+silken stuffs. As a reward for his activity, he has been appointed
+_Intendente_ of all the factories of Valencia.
+
+"There are hardly any merchants at Valencia who are not more or less
+concerned in silk-making: indeed, they look upon this industry as quite
+a _point d'honneur_. Some of them supply with silk no more than four or
+five looms, which work at their expense, while others have under their
+control as many as several hundred.
+
+"After the silkworm has cleverly built its cell, the first thing to be
+done is to stifle it before it can pierce the cocoon in search of a new
+existence. For this purpose the cocoons are thrown into a moderately
+heated oven; and then, when once the worm is killed, they can be kept
+without being spun for as long as may be needed.
+
+"In order to strip them of their covering of silk, they are thrown into
+hot water, after which the women workers pick up, and with surprising
+quickness, the threads of several of them, join them, and deal them out,
+thus joined, on wheels constructed for this object. On the design of the
+wheels depends the degree of thoroughness with which the silk is spun;
+but those which are employed in Spain are generally the most imperfect,
+as I shall presently explain.
+
+"I have already said that the slip of silk should be drawn from at least
+four cocoons, and even then it only serves for making slender fabrics,
+such as taffeta or ribbon. We were shown, indeed, a skein which was
+assured to contain no more than two cocoons; but so slight a slip is of
+no use at all. Most of them are made from seven or eight cocoons, and
+two of the former are joined in order to form a thread sufficient to be
+placed upon the loom.
+
+"My readers are sure to know that all woven fabrics consist of two
+distinct parts, the woof and the warp. The woof is that which is passed
+by the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other, and which is
+enchased between the two surfaces formed by the warp. As the woof is
+subjected to more wear and tear than the warp, it should be stouter. For
+this reason each of the two ends of which it is composed is twisted
+separately before the two are twisted together, while for the warp the
+latter of these processes is sufficient. The result of this difference
+is that, when looked at beneath the microscope, the thread of the woof
+has an uneven look, as though it were a small cable, while that of the
+warp looks flat and smooth, and is therefore adapted to reflect the
+light, receiving the shiny look which makes a silk-stuff so attractive.
+
+"But the beauty of these fabrics depends, above all else, upon the way
+in which the silk is divided as it is drawn from the cocoon. This first
+stage of the spinning is performed in one or other of three ways,
+according to the kind of wheel which is employed for it. The method
+which the Spaniards have adopted from an early period has the following
+drawback; that the small threads of six, seven, and eight cocoons which
+are stripped at the same time, go to form a single thread, and are
+deposited upon a small spindle without the thread rubbing against
+another one, which friction serves to lay the little hairs which bristle
+up, so that the slip of silk thus formed retains a hairy nap and is
+easily frayed. In the Piedmontese method, on the other hand, each slip
+is joined to another, and is not drawn apart until it has been twisted
+round it four or five times.
+
+"The third method, known as that of Vaucanson, is more expensive than
+the one last mentioned. In the wheel invented by Vaucanson, the two
+silk-slips are reunited after the first twisting, in order to be twisted
+once again. This operation is called the 'double _croissade_.'
+
+"If these threads, thus placed on bobbins, are intended for the woof,
+they are enchased perpendicularly in a machine consisting of several
+compartments, in which they are twisted separately. Thence they are
+transferred to another machine, in which they are twisted all together;
+after which they are ready for the loom. Those which are destined for
+the web are not twisted (as I have explained above) until the moment
+when they are united. Both at Valencia and at Talavera de la Reina these
+machines, so precious to the weaver's craft, and which economise manual
+toil, are not unknown.[20]
+
+  [20] They certainly were not unknown at Valencia. I have before me a
+       copy of the work, _Disertacion descriptiva de la Hilaza de la Seda,
+       segun el antiguo modo de hilar y el nuevo llamado de Vaucanson_,
+       written by the priest Francisco Ortells y Gombau, and published at
+       Valencia in 1783, by order of the Royal Council of Commerce and
+       Agriculture. This book, which clearly sets forth the superiority
+       of Vaucanson's method over those which had preceded it, states
+       that at first the Valencians were strongly opposed to the
+       Vaucanson wheel, believing that it caused a loss and waste of
+       silk. Probably the real reason was that it prevented the
+       manufacturers from adding spurious weight to the silk by mixing it
+       with oil. This practice, says Ortells, was then "so widespread an
+       evil in the kingdom of Valencia, that there is hardly anybody who
+       does not resort to it: notwithstanding it has been so often
+       prohibited by His Majesty, yet openly, where all the world may
+       witness, do the workers spin with much oil added to the silk."
+
+       The Vaucanson form of wheel was also more expensive. In the region
+       of Valencia its cost was about thirty _pesos_, that of the older
+       wheels being only fifteen or sixteen _pesos_. However, this
+       difficulty was not insuperable, for in the year 1779 the Royal
+       Council of Commerce presented a hundred and twenty Vaucanson
+       wheels to the peasants who had raised a minimum crop of a hundred
+       pounds of silk, requiring, in return, that the recipients of the
+       gift should spin not less than fifty pounds of silk per annum.
+
+"At the latter of these towns I had already seen a single toothed-wheel,
+which set in motion up to a thousand of these tiny bobbins on which are
+wound the twisted slips of silk. The wheels I saw at Valencia were
+smaller, because in this city there is not, as there is at Talavera, a
+royal factory self-contained within a single building. At Valencia each
+manufacturer, in order to carry out these various processes, requires to
+deal with workmen and machines distributed through several quarters of
+the town, and chooses from among them such as he best prefers.
+
+"Nothing can be simpler than the working of these silk-twisting
+machines, when once the toothed-wheel has set them going. The
+perpendicular movement of all these little bobbins is looked after by
+women, and even children.[21]
+
+  [21] At the time when Vaucanson's wheels began to be used in Spain, silk
+       was spun by men all over the Peninsula, except in the immediate
+       neighbourhood of Valencia (Orteils; _Hilaza de la Seda_, pp. 134
+       _et seq._) In every other region devoted to this industry such as
+       the valley of the Jucar and the Huertas of Orihuela and Murviedro,
+       as well as in the factories of Toledo, Seville, Granada, Cordova,
+       Jaen, Baeza, Talavera, and Priego, the spinning was performed by
+       men exclusively. Women, however, were often engaged in harvesting
+       the cocoons.
+
+"If they should happen to clog, a touch of the finger disengages them.
+If one of the slips should break, the harm is mended in a trice: the
+practised fingers of the machinist pick up the broken ends with
+marvellous despatch, tie them together by an imperceptible knot, and the
+bobbin which was thus delayed loses no time in overtaking its
+neighbours.
+
+"The slips of silk, before being twisted two by two, are put through
+another process which I ought to mention. When they are still in skeins
+they are spread upon a large tub in which is a quantity of viscous
+substances heated to boiling point, the gases from which tend to make
+them adhere to one another. This is termed _passer a la breve_.
+
+"Thence they are removed to the machine for twisting them. The silk, on
+issuing from this machine, is called organzine; and it is only when it
+is in this state that it can be exported from Piedmont, where the
+twisting process was better executed than elsewhere, until the time when
+it was rendered yet more perfect by Vaucanson.[22] This clever mechanic
+has combined all possible advantages relating to the business of the
+silk-weaver. His system, and no other, is practised in the Lyons
+factories; but these wheels _a double croissade_ are only available for
+silk produced in France; since that which is exported from abroad and
+which is principally used in these factories, requires to be reduced to
+organzine before it can again be taken out of the country.
+
+  [22] "I should here remark that the silk which is spun and twisted
+       according to the method of Vaucanson, forms a fabric a third part
+       closer and stronger than ordinary silk-stuffs."
+
+"In this respect Spain possesses a sensible advantage over other
+manufacturing nations; since she raises a greater quantity of silk than
+she is able to consume, and could easily put it through the most
+advanced and perfect processes; in spite of which she has clung for ages
+to her faulty method. The present government has attacked this method by
+the only means efficient to bring about a change; that is, the slow but
+certain influence of persuasion. In 1781 the Count of Floridablanca
+contracted with a French merchant settled in Madrid, that he should
+supply a hundred _tours_ of the Vaucanson pattern for spinning silk,
+first to the Murcian factories (of which province the Count was a
+native), next to the Valencian, and subsequently to any others that
+might wish for them; and with this object he granted to the merchant in
+question the privilege of exporting, free of duty, six hundred thousand
+pounds of silk in six years. Nevertheless, it is possible that this
+measure may yet remain fruitless for many years owing to the apathy of
+the Spanish manufacturers, who were loth to use a finer, closer quality
+of silk, because it must be woven with greater care owing to its
+containing three ends instead of two, the work being greater on this
+account without a corresponding increase in the gain. It has also been
+found necessary to employ Frenchmen in the earliest trials made in Spain
+of this new method.
+
+"The success of the Spaniards should not be counted on, if we are to
+judge of it by a factory, which was founded some years since at _La
+Milanesa_, a league's distance from Valencia, by an intelligent man
+named La Payessa.[23]
+
+  [23] This man, Joseph Lapayese or La Payessa, did not initiate
+       Vaucanson's method in this region. He succeeded a Frenchman named
+       Reboul, who, in 1769, and holding privileges from the Crown, began
+       to work with Vaucanson wheels at Vilanesa, near Valencia--the same
+       place which Bourgoing calls _La Milanesa_. Both the king and his
+       minister of finance, Don Miguel de Muzquiz, were keenly interested
+       in these experiments, and Muzquiz, who owned an estate near the
+       town of Sueca, in the same neighbourhood, imported four more of
+       the new wheels there, under Reboul's direction. This craftsman,
+       however, was not successful. Lapayese, who came after him and
+       enjoyed the same Crown privileges, made considerably better
+       progress, his efforts being seconded by the Royal Junta, the
+       archbishop, and other bodies or individuals of Valencia, who
+       awarded prizes of wheels and money to the best workers in the new
+       style.
+
+"He introduced the method of Vaucanson, but when I went to see his
+factory he had not seen his way to recover the money which this
+improvement had cost him. He employed barely two hundred persons for the
+most important work; nothing more was done than to spin the silk, divide
+it, and convert it into organzine. Thus treated, it cost from fifty to
+sixty _reales_ more per pound than that which is prepared according to
+the Spanish method, so that its success was but small.
+
+"I shall not describe in detail either the method of dyeing the silk, or
+that of weaving it. The first of these operations is readily imagined;
+the second is hard to understand, and still more so to explain, unless
+one is assisted by engravings. I will merely observe that all silk is
+dyed in skeins, just before it enters the loom. If it be required
+occasionally to dye it after it is woven, this is only when the silk is
+spotted, or when the dyeing of the skeins has proved a failure. At the
+time of my visit to Valencia, there were a hundred and seventeen
+master-dyers in that city, but not all of them were working.
+
+"The stuffs in which the factories of Valencia are most successful are
+principally of the smooth sort; they also make there handsome damask
+_broches_ with large flowers for wall-hangings; but generally all that
+is undertaken is by order of the Court, Madrid, and the provinces. The
+Valencians follow as closely as possible the rapidity with which the
+French designs are changed, and those who profess to invent new ones are
+but copying the French ones in a greater or less degree.
+Notwithstanding, the Valencian Fine-Arts Academy is taking serious steps
+to form designers, and a school has been founded which has already
+developed able pupils--amongst others, a young man called Ferrers, who
+had died a short while before our arrival at the city, and some of whose
+designs of flowers we had occasion to admire.
+
+"But the process in which the Valencians particularly excel is that of
+watering stuffs, which M. Foz has rendered absolutely perfect. He gave
+us a clear account of this process, which consists in passing a cylinder
+over the stuff to be watered, this cylinder being pressed upon by a
+heavy mass moved to and fro by a mule which draws a lever round and
+round. The stuff is folded in the manner of a closed jalousie, and these
+folds require to be often varied so as to distribute the undulations
+evenly. M. Foz admitted that the shape and the arrangement of these
+undulations are more or less a matter of chance, but he proved to us
+that it is possible to influence them to some extent by moistening the
+stuff in a certain manner and direction, and this is the particular
+secret which he alone possesses in the whole of Spain. The excellence of
+this method is demonstrated by the beauty of the watered silk which
+issues from these presses. M. Foz himself set us to judge of this by
+asking us to compare the blue ribbon of the Order of Charles the Third,
+watered by himself, with those of the Order of the Holy Spirit. The
+comparison, I must admit, was far from advantageous to these last."
+
+The subsequent vicissitudes of the Valencian silk trade are indicated by
+Laborde, who wrote, some few years later than the conscientious and
+observant author of the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_:--
+
+"The mulberry-trees are of great importance; the fields of Valencia are
+covered with them, particularly in the environs of that town, in the
+dale of Elda, in the county of Carlet, in almost all the places situated
+on the sea coast, etc. There are white mulberry-trees, which are lopped
+every two years.
+
+"The leaves of these trees serve as nourishment to silkworms, which are
+raised almost everywhere in the kingdom of Valencia. Algemesi, Alcira,
+Carcagente, Castillo of San Felipe, the county of Carlet, Undasuar,
+Gandia, Denia, Orihuela, and all the villages near the sea are places
+which produce the greatest quantity.
+
+"The silk made from them is the finest in Spain. It would be equal to
+the best and finest silks of Europe, if the Valencians, in spite of the
+vivacity of their imagination, did not obstinately persist in their old
+routine in the skeining; for in the skein they put an undetermined
+number of threads. The government has hired a man who has the most
+experience in this kind of work; but in vain does he endeavour to
+instruct them, since the manufacturers continue their bad custom just
+the same. The quantity of silk wound annually is, on an average, about
+1,500,000 pounds of twelve Valencian ounces (1,312,500 pounds of sixteen
+ounces avoirdupois). It is commonly sold raw for fifty reals of vellon a
+Valencian pound, which gives a total of 75,000,000 reals of vellon
+(L731,250)....
+
+"Silk is twisted in different places in the kingdom of Valencia, for
+which purpose machines and mills are established at Gandia, San Felipe,
+Carcagente, Orihuela, and Valencia. The most important establishment of
+this kind is at La Milanesa, near the last mentioned town. Nevertheless,
+these machines are not able to furnish as much as the manufactures of
+the country require. Part of the silk is sent to Priego and Toledo in
+Andalusia, whence it is returned into the kingdom of Valencia to be
+worked....
+
+"A great many impediments are thrown in the way of the exportation of
+silk, which is only allowed for six months after the harvest. If in that
+period the national manufacturers want it, they are at liberty to take
+it from the merchants who have bought it, on reimbursing them the
+purchase-money together with six per cent. interest. The consequence is
+that the merchants, uncertain whether they will be allowed to export the
+silk which they have purchased, no longer take any foreign commissions
+for it, and so this branch of exportation has fallen. Besides this, a
+duty has been laid upon the silk sent out of the kingdom, of nine reals
+of vellon and one quartillo (1s. 11-1/4d. sterling) on every pound of
+twelve Valencian ounces, which is almost a fifth of its value. This is
+another obstacle to the exportation of it. A very small quantity,
+twisted and dyed, is sent into Portugal.
+
+"Generally 1,500,000 pounds of silk are made annually, of which
+1,100,000 are consumed in the province, and 400,000 pounds are exported
+to Talavera de la Reina, Requena, Toledo, Granada, Seville, Priego, and
+Cataluna. From this results a product of 20,000,000 reals (L208,333,
+6s.)."
+
+Of the city of Valencia, Laborde wrote:--
+
+"The manufactories of silk are the most considerable. They employ nearly
+25,000 persons, and make taffetas, serges, silks, satins, plain damasks,
+striped, printed, of one colour and of mixed colours, full velvets,
+flowered velvets, plain and of various colours. The plain stuffs are
+those in which they succeed best. There are also fine damasks made and
+worked with large flowers."
+
+According to the same writer, the manufacture at Valencia of silk
+stockings, galloons, silk ribbon, handkerchiefs, and sashes revived to
+such an extent, that in the year 1799 the looms for producing these
+articles were 423 more than they had been in 1769. "There are 3618 silk
+looms, which work about 800,000 pounds of silk annually; the
+handkerchiefs, sashes, and other little articles of lace consume 100,000
+pounds."
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                   THE DAUGHTERS OF PHILIP THE SECOND
+                 (_By Sanchez Coello. Prado Gallery_)]
+
+Equally as instructive is Laborde's account of Barcelona.[24] After
+remarking that the decay in her manufactures lasted from the end
+of the sixteenth century till the middle of the eighteenth, he
+continues:--"They are at present in a very flourishing state, and are
+more numerous and varied than ever.... There are 524 looms of silk
+stuffs, and 2700 of ribbons and silk galloon. The silk works consist of
+taffetas, twilled and common silks, satins, and velvets of every kind
+and colour. These are mixed with gold and silver. Gold cloths and
+brocades are also made there.[25] The manufactures are not carried on by
+companies, but dispersed among the workmen themselves, by which perhaps
+the qualities may in some degree be injured. It is remarked that the
+stuffs would be better if they were closer, for their texture is
+commonly loose; they are also different in the gloss, which is seldom
+fine, and is never equal to that in the manufactures of France. Another
+fault in all these stuffs is the imperfect preparation of the silk,
+which leaves it nearly always shaggy: the cause of this is the silk
+being spun or twisted in an uneven manner. The same unpleasant effect is
+observed in the silk stockings. They cannot be fine, their stitches
+being uneven, and often large and shaggy. They do not last long, and are
+as dear as the French stockings after the duty on their entrance into
+Spain has been paid.
+
+  [24] The art of weaving silk appears to have found its way into
+       Barcelona comparatively late, for the veil-makers did not form a
+       guild of their own till A.D. 1553, the velvet-makers till 1548,
+       the silk-twisters till 1619, and the dyers of silk till 1624.
+
+  [25] Brocade (Spanish _brocado_ or _brocato_) may be generally described
+       as a silk-stuff woven with devices or raised figures in gold and
+       silver thread, or either of these metals separately (Plate viii.).
+       This costly fabric, which may be said to have superseded the
+       earlier kinds of cloth of gold, was greatly in vogue in older
+       Spain, especially throughout the fifteenth, sixteenth, and
+       seventeenth centuries. It is constantly referred to by her writers
+       ("No siendo nueva la que prohibe las telas de oro, los _brocados_,
+       y tabies."--Fernandez Navarrete; _Conservacion de Monarquias_,
+       p. 231), and denounced by her priests (Fray Luis de Leon, "Y ha de
+       venir la tela de no se donde, y _el brocado de mas altos_, y el
+       ambar que bane el guante"), or in the pragmatics of her kings
+       (_e.g._ that of September 2nd, 1494, and of 1611: "Esta prohibido
+       todo genero de colgaduras, tapicerias sillas, coches, y literas de
+       _brocados_, telas de oro o plata.... Asi mismo se prohiben
+       bordaduras en el campo de los doseles y camas; pero no en las
+       cenefas, que podran llevar alamares, y fluecos de oro, o plata,
+       o _brocado_").
+
+       Brocade was made in Spain at Toledo, Barcelona, Seville, Valencia
+       and elsewhere, but as a rule it could not be compared in quality
+       with that of Genoa or Venice. A cheaper, though showy and
+       attractive modification of brocade was brocatel, in which the silk
+       was mixed with common thread or flax. According to the Dictionary
+       of the Spanish Academy, this commoner fabric was used for hangings
+       for churches, halls, beds, etc., and a document of 1680 tells us
+       that the price of brocatel made at Granada, and containing two
+       colours, was twenty-two _reales_ the yard.
+
+"At Barcelona, laces, blonds, net-work, and tapes employ about twelve
+thousand persons. Galloons, laces, and gold and silver fringes, are
+likewise made here; but these are of no great importance. Silk, gold,
+and silver embroideries are very common, and the embroiderers are so
+numerous that they are to be found in every street.
+
+"_Silk Stuffs._--These are manufactured at Manresa, Cardona, and Mataro,
+which has forty-eight looms; but principally at Barcelona, where there
+are five hundred and twenty-four. There they make velvets, satins,
+damasks, silks, taffetas, and gold and silver stuffs. The town of
+Barcelona alone uses annually 300,000 pounds of raw silk.
+
+"_Taffetas, Handkerchiefs, and silk sashes._--They make a great quantity
+of these at Barcelona, where there are a good many little manufactories
+of this kind. There are a hundred and fifty looms at Reus, and six
+hundred at Manresa. At the last place sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs
+are made, which take about seventy thousand pounds of raw silk.
+
+"_Silk twisters._--There are some of these in several towns, and a great
+many in Barcelona. There are eighteen frames at Mataro, which twist, one
+year with another, one hundred and twenty-four quintals of silk; and
+thirty-seven at Tarragona, which twist eleven thousand quintals."
+
+Elsewhere in the course of his exhaustive tomes, Laborde sums up the
+general revival of the Spanish silk-trade in the following terms:--
+
+"Silk stockings are woven at Malaga, Zaragoza, Valencia, and at various
+other places in the kingdom of Valencia; at Valdemoro, and at Talavera
+de la Reina in New Castile; also in different parts of Cataluna, more
+especially at Mataro, Arenys del Mar, and Barcelona. The most extensive
+manufacture is carried on at the latter city, where the number of frames
+amounts to nine hundred. In the city of Mataro are fifty-two, in
+Valencia one hundred and fifty, and nearly as many in Talavera. The
+stockings made in Spain are of a loose texture; owing to the improper
+method in which silk-throwsting is conducted, they are badly dressed and
+worse glossed. The Spanish people themselves prefer French stockings,
+and most of those manufactured in the country are exported to America.
+
+"Ribbons hold a distinguished place among the manufactured articles of
+Spain. Some few are woven at Jaen, Granada, and Cordova; but more at
+Talavera. Cadiz has but twenty ribbon-looms, Manresa five hundred,
+Mataro eighty, Vich twenty-two, Requena two hundred, Valencia four
+hundred, Murcia twelve hundred, and Barcelona nearly three thousand.
+These looms are not in factories, but individually dispersed. The
+Spanish ribbons are in general thin and flimsy, have little lustre, and
+their colours are neither brilliant nor permanent. Ribbons are made of
+floss-silk at Toledo, where there are about twelve looms, and at
+Manresa, where there is a greater number.[26]
+
+  [26] Towards the nineteenth century, ribbon was a great deal worn upon,
+       or together with, the regional costumes of the Spanish women; for
+       instance, on the gala bodice or _cotilla_ of the _hortelana_ of
+       Valencia, who further used it to make fast her _alpargatas_ or
+       sandals, described in the manuscript account attached to Pigal's
+       plates as "espece de cothurnes, attaches avec des rubans en soie
+       ou fil bleu ou rouge." The same fabric served the peasant woman
+       of Carthagena for securing the sleeves of her gala camisole, for
+       lacing the bodice of the woman of Iviza, and in the other Balearic
+       Islands, for tying the _rebocillo_ or _rebocino_ beneath the chin.
+       Also it was with ribbon that the servant-girls of Granada suspended
+       a cross round their necks, that the _charra_ of Salamanca
+       (Plate ix.) trimmed her hat, that the women of Madrid, La Mancha,
+       and Andalusia bound up their knots of hair (_monos
+       con cinta_), and that, in some localities, even ladies of the
+       highest class secured their shoes about the lower leg and ankle.
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                      A _CHARRA_ OR PEASANT WOMAN
+                       (_Salamanca, A.D. 1777_)]
+
+"Silk taffetas, serges, and other articles, such as common and figured
+satins, damasks, and plain and flowered velvets, are made at Jaen,
+Granada, Murcia, Valencia, and the adjacent villages; at Malaga,
+Zaragoza, Toledo, Requena, Talavera de la Reina, Mataro, Manresa,
+Cardona, and Barcelona. The silk-trade of Jaen and Granada is at present
+in a very languishing state; the manufacture of Murcia is dwindled to a
+few individual looms. At Toledo are fifty looms, fifty at Mataro, forty
+at Malaga, six hundred at Requena, four hundred at Talavera, which
+consume annually two hundred thousand pounds of silk; five hundred at
+Barcelona, which annually manufacture, in conjunction with those of
+Cardona and Manresa, about three thousand pounds weight of silk; and in
+the city of Valencia are three thousand, whose annual demand of silk is
+eight hundred thousand pounds, while twenty-two thousand persons are
+employed in the trade. In Zaragoza are sixty looms, which consume fifty
+thousand pounds of silk; but taffetas only are manufactured there. The
+cities of Toledo and Talavera de la Reina are the only places where the
+looms are collected together in factories: in all other places they are
+separated, and are found individually at the houses of the respective
+weavers.
+
+"A great portion of the silks manufactured in Spain are stout and
+excellent, but they are destitute of the brilliancy observable in French
+silks. The damasks made at Valencia are extremely beautiful, and in that
+city they excel in the art of mixing silk and mohair, and produce mohair
+stuffs which appear to be superior to those of France and England.
+
+"Quantities of silk handkerchiefs and bands are manufactured at Reus,
+Manresa, and Barcelona. Reus had five hundred looms, Manresa six
+hundred, and annually made sixty thousand dozen handkerchiefs;
+Barcelona, a much larger quantity.
+
+"At Barcelona is a very considerable manufacture of white, coloured,
+plain, and figured gauzes.
+
+"The art of silk-throwsting tends greatly to improve the silk
+manufactures in Spain. Machines invented in other countries have been
+adopted here, and in many places profitable changes and corrections have
+taken place in the trade. Silk is principally thrown at Priego, Toledo
+in Andalusia, at Murcia in the kingdom of the same name, at Cervera near
+Talavera de la Reina in New Castile, at Valencia, at Milanesa near that
+city, at Gandia, San Felipe, and Carcagente in the kingdom of Valencia.
+The silk-throwsters, who work at their own houses, and are paid in the
+great, that is, according to the quantity of work they perform, are very
+numerous in Murcia; but they perform the business there in a very
+slovenly way. In the city of Murcia a factory is established, where silk
+is thrown in an excellent manner by means of an ingenious machine, which
+has been already described. The establishment at La Milanesa is a very
+important one, and well administered. At Cervera are a dozen silk-mills,
+each having four large dividers, and six machines for doubling and
+twisting, by which seven thousand and seventy-two threads are divided,
+doubled, and twisted at the same time."
+
+
+                          CLOTHS AND WOOLLENS
+
+Although the history of Spanish cloths and woollens is not of great
+importance, I think it well to briefly sketch their history. Sails and
+other fabrics of the coarsest kind are said to have been made, almost in
+prehistoric times, at Saetabi (the modern Jativa) and at Saguntum
+(Murviedro). From the thirteenth century cloths of good quality were
+made at Barcelona, Lerida, San Daniel, Banolas, Valls, and other towns
+of Cataluna. A privilege of Alfonso the Learned, dated May 18th, 1283,
+contains the following technical disposition relative to the cloth-looms
+of the city of Soria: "Que la trenza cuando sea ordida que haya 88
+varas, que pese una aranzada e 5 libras de estambre; e cualquier que la
+fallare menor, que peche 5 sueldos. Que todos los tejedores e tejedoras
+de la dicha cibdad e de su tierra, que pongan en las telas de lino 42
+linnuelos e en las de estopazo 32 linnuelos; e en las de marga e de
+sayal 32 linnuelos."
+
+Segovia was another ancient centre of this manufacture, which Larruga
+considers to have been transferred hither upon the extinction of the
+factories of Cameros, Burgos, and Palencia. However this may be, the
+_fuero_ of Sepulveda, signed by Alfonso the Sixth, tells us that
+clothworks existed here as early as the eleventh century. Towards the
+end of the fourteenth, when Catherine of Lancaster was married to the
+Infante Don Enrique, the English princess brought over, as part of her
+dowry, a flock of merino sheep. These are believed to have pastured near
+Segovia--a city where Catherine made her home for many years. In any
+case, Segovian cloths improved considerably from about this time, and by
+the reigns of Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second, when thirty-four
+thousand persons were employed in the manufacture and twenty-five
+thousand pieces of cloth were produced annually, were thought
+(especially the baizes and the serges) to be unsurpassed in Europe.[27]
+Sovereigns, including Charles the Second and Charles the Fifth of Spain,
+and Henry the Eighth of England, were among the patrons of these
+fabrics, while as late as the year 1700 the Franciscan friars engaged in
+redeeming captives from the Turks, reported that "at Constantinople,
+whither they had carried Segovian cloths as presents to the principal
+rulers of that country, those cloths were spoken of in terms of high
+approval."
+
+  [27] Colmenares, who wrote a history of Segovia down to the reign of
+       Philip the Second, says that in his time the clothmakers of this
+       town were "true fathers of families, who within and without their
+       houses sustain a multitude of persons (in many cases two and three
+       hundred), producing, with the aid of other people's hands, a great
+       variety of finest cloth: an employment worthy to be ranked with
+       agriculture, and that is of the utmost profit to any city, or to
+       any kingdom."
+
+Early in the seventeenth century, and owing to a series of causes such
+as impertinent or improvident legislation, heavy taxes, and the
+importation of foreign cloths, the trade showed symptoms of decay.[28]
+Bertaut de Rouen wrote in 1659, referring to the Spanish character at
+this time: "Bien souvent le pain leur manque, comme j'ay veu dans
+_Almagro_, petite ville situee dans le meilleur pays d'Andalousie, et
+dans _Segovie_, qui est une des grandes villes d'Espagne, et ou il y
+avoit autrefois des plus riches marchands a cause des draps et des
+chapeaux que l'on y faisoit, qui a este longtemps le sejour des Roys de
+Castille, et qui n'est qu'environ a douze ou quatorze lieues de Madrid,
+ou il n'y avoit point de pain dans toute la ville le jour que j'y
+arrivay, et il n'y en eut qu'a quatre heures apres midy, que l'on le
+distribua par ordre du _Corregidor_, aussi bien qu'a Almagro."
+
+  [28] An amusing passage in Fernandez Navarrete's _Conservacion de
+       Monarquias_ (A.D. 1626) tells us that most of the costlier
+       dress-materials used in Spain about this time proceeded from
+       abroad, and that they were "of so fine a texture that the heat of
+       an iron scorches them and wears them out in a couple of days;
+       while a great number of men employ themselves in the effeminate
+       office of dressing collars, who, ceasing also to be men, forsake
+       the plough or warlike exercises; for it is certain that when the
+       Spaniards kept the world in awe, this land produced a greater
+       number of armourers, and less persons who busied themselves with
+       looking after womanish apparel" (p. 232).
+
+The rise, decay, and subsequent revival of the Spanish cloth industries,
+and particularly the Segovian, are well described by Laborde, Bourgoing,
+and Townsend. According to the first of these authorities, "at so early
+a period as 1629 the merchants (of Segovia) complained that there was
+every year a reduction in the fabrication of cloth, to the amount of
+five thousand five hundred pieces; and that there resulted from this
+deficiency an annual loss of 2,424,818 ducats and 2 reals, or about
+L274,000 sterling. In the eighteenth century it appeared, from the
+observations of the Economical Society, that the fabrication of stuffs
+and cloths employed but one hundred and twenty looms, in which only four
+thousand three hundred and eighteen quintals of washed wool were
+consumed.
+
+"About forty years ago these manufactures began to revive, the looms
+were multiplied, and the consumption of wool considerably augmented. A
+single individual, Don Lorenzo Ortiz, has for some years accelerated
+their progress. In 1790 there was an addition of sixty-three looms,
+which employed eight or nine hundred quintals of wool, and afforded
+occupation to two thousand four hundred manufacturers."
+
+The same author wrote that early in the nineteenth century, "the woollen
+manufactures of New Castile are the most numerous and important. Cloths
+are made at Toledo, Chinchon, Brihuega, Guadalajara; serges, stuffs, and
+flannels at Toledo and Cuenca. The cloths of Brihuega are of an
+excellent quality, but those of Guadalajara are still superior to them;
+in particular, the cloth of Vigonia. There are twenty-eight looms at
+Toledo, forty at Guasmenia, a hundred at Brihuega, and six hundred and
+fifty-six at Guadalajara."
+
+Bourgoing wrote, a dozen years or so before the close of the eighteenth
+century: "Spanish wool is eagerly demanded by manufacturing peoples of
+the rest of Europe. Nevertheless, it is not turned to so much advantage
+as it might be. French, Dutch, and English come to Spain to purchase the
+wools of Segovia and Leon at the ports of Bilbao and Santander.[29] Not
+even so much as the commission on their sale is left in power of the
+Spaniards, for the foreigners buy up the wool straight from the
+shepherd, and wash it on their own account. Out of one million of
+_arrobas_[30] of fine wool which Spain produces annually, she exports
+more than half in washed wool, and a lesser quantity, by far, of
+unwashed. It has been estimated that the export duties on this wool and
+which it has not been hitherto thought prudent to curtail, produce a sum
+of close upon five millions for the King of Spain. Here, therefore, is
+another reason for not suppressing the 'abusive measure' of which the
+patriotic Spaniards complain so loudly; since it is far from easy to do
+away with so appreciable a source of revenue unless one has at hand a
+swift and sure alternative measure by which it may be substituted. All
+the same, government is endeavouring to derive a greater fiscal profit
+from the exportation of these wools, and at the same time to bring about
+a greater use of them in the Peninsula. For a long time past, all kinds
+of common woollen fabrics, such as clothing for the soldiery and lower
+classes, have been made in Spain. The exportation of these fabrics is
+prohibited. As for the finer wools, these also are employed in several
+places, but more than anywhere else at Guadalajara, where I visited the
+factories towards the end of the year 1783. I was surprised to remark
+that in several respects the manufacture had reached a great pitch of
+perfection. I say _I was surprised_, because I had heard, times without
+number, that the Spaniards were completely ignorant of these processes,
+and did not know how to card, or spin, or weave, or dye, or full, or
+calender; that their stuffs grew loose and wore badly; that the price
+was exorbitant, etc. How many prejudices of this nature was I able to
+throw aside after fair and deliberate examination of the stuffs in
+question! I will only quote a single point to prove that the censures
+which are aimed at the Spaniards respecting the quality of their cloths
+are not applicable to them all, and that they are well upon the road to
+being entirely undeserving of them. I was shown at Guadalajara a piece
+of scarlet cloth, which, both for its excellent quality and for its
+skilful dyeing, seemed to me to be quite comparable with the best cloths
+of Julienne. These latter cost at their place of manufacture as much as
+thirty-nine _livres_ the ell. At Guadalajara, I noted from the tariff
+established in the factory, that the price of the finest scarlet cloth
+was only from thirty-one to thirty-two _livres_ the ell. Comparing these
+and other figures on the tariff, I came to the conclusion that there was
+about the same difference in price between Spanish cloths and French
+cloths, in favour of the former. What seems more singular still is that
+the factories which work at the King's expense are generally
+administered in a thriftless fashion, and that the factory of
+Guadalajara was being greatly mismanaged at the time in question.
+However, subsequently to my visit, changes for the better have been
+introduced, which will improve the quality of, as well as cheapen, its
+products, though, even when I saw it, this factory was one of the most
+perfect to be seen anywhere. Within a space by no means large, it
+contained all the machines and apparatus required for clothmaking,
+except the thin, polished pasteboards which are placed between the
+folds of a piece of cloth as it is passed through the press. These were
+still brought from England; but everything else was prepared upon the
+spot, even to the large scissors used in the shearing. There were eighty
+looms for the finest cloths, whose proper name is _cloths of San
+Fernando_, from the town where they were first produced; a hundred for
+cloths of the second quality; and five hundred and six for making
+serges, in which, in course of time, hopes are entertained of excelling
+those of England.[31] All these looms were contained in two buildings,
+and kept employed three thousand eight hundred and twenty-five persons,
+all of them paid by the King,[32] without counting some forty thousand
+more dispersed all over the Castilian and Manchegan tableland, engaged
+in spinning the wool which is made up into stuffs at Guadalajara. It
+would be difficult, I am sure, to find a factory better organized. Even
+the town in which it is, presents a striking contrast with others of
+that neighbourhood. I did not see one single mendicant or idler among
+all its fifteen or sixteen thousand inhabitants. Such are the good
+results of its manufactures, and, above all, those of cloth, including
+many small and detailed processes which women, children, aged people, or
+even the sick are able to perform. Here, where Nature seemed to have
+condemned these ailing folk to a tedious and useless existence, art, as
+it were, steps in and finds employment and relief for them.
+Nevertheless, it must be owned that the Spaniards (as they themselves
+admit) are still a little behindhand in the method of dyeing and
+fulling their cloths, though when a people possess (as they) the raw
+materials needed, both for making and for dyeing, a few men skilled in
+these processes are all that is wanted to perfect several branches of
+this industry; especially when, as is the case in Spain, government
+spares no effort to achieve this end. Guadalajara is further the only
+place in Spain which produces the celebrated Vicuna cloth; an admirable
+fabric for which the rest of the world has cause to envy Spanish
+America.[33] As the use of this cloth has not as yet become general, it
+is not continually manufactured, nor is it easy to obtain a few ells of
+it without ordering them several months in advance. This stuff is also
+manufactured for the King of Spain, who makes presents of it to various
+other monarchs. In the year 1782, after concluding a treaty with the
+Porte, he sent twenty pieces of it to the Sultan of Turkey. They gave
+great satisfaction. It has been imagined from this circumstance that
+Spain would not be loth to supply the Turkish market with her cloths;
+and other of the manufacturing nations have felt some measure of alarm,
+perhaps unnecessarily. The Spanish government has too much sense to
+enter upon such a competition with other peoples as long as Spain does
+not supply the whole of the two and twenty million citizens who live
+beneath her rule. The same government, too, is well aware how remote is
+this degree of prosperity. The clothworks of Guadalajara have a kind of
+branch factory at Brihuega, four leagues distant. At Brihuega there are
+a hundred looms, all used for making fabrics of the finest quality.
+
+  [29] This recalls the statement made, centuries before, by Alonso de
+       Cartagena at the Council of Bale: "And if the English should vaunt
+       the cunning of their cloth-makers, then would I tell them somewhat;
+       for if our country lack the weavers to make a cloth so delicate as
+       the scarlet cloths of London, yet is that substance titled _grana_
+       (the kermes, or scarlet grain), from which the scarlet cloth
+       receives its pleasantness of smell and brilliancy of hue, raised
+       in the kingdom of Castile, and thence conveyed to England, and
+       even to Italy."--Larruga, _Memorias_, Vol. XIV., p. 167.
+
+  [30] "The weight of an _arroba_ is twenty-seven pounds. The average
+       price is from twenty-three to twenty-seven _livres_ the _arroba_
+       of unwashed wool of the best quality, which pays five _livres_ ten
+       _sols_ of export duty. The _arroba_ of washed wool pays double."
+
+  [31] "It has been calculated that Spain, about this time, paid annually
+       to England two million pounds sterling per annum, solely on account
+       of her woollens."
+
+  [32] "His Majesty maintained this factory by a monthly payment from his
+       treasury of one hundred and fifty thousand _livres_; an exorbitant
+       amount, which very possibly would not be covered by the sales of
+       cloth."
+
+       Townsend wrote in 1787 "Royal manufactures and monopolies have a
+       baneful influence on population: for, as no private adventurers
+       can stand the competition with their sovereign, where he is the
+       great monopolist, trade will never prosper. The Spanish monarch is
+       a manufacturer of
+
+            Broad cloth, at Guadalajara and Brihuega;
+            China, at the palace of the Buen Retiro;
+            Cards, at Madrid and Malaga;
+            Glass, at San Ildefonso;
+            Paper, in Segovia;
+            Pottery, at Talavera;
+            Saltpetre, at Madrid and various other places;
+            Stockings, at Valdemoro;
+            Swords, at Toledo;
+            Tapestry, at Madrid;
+            Tissue, at Talavera.
+
+       He has the monopoly of brandy, cards, gunpowder, lead, quicksilver,
+       sealing-wax, salts, sulphur, and tobacco."--(_Journey through
+       Spain_, Vol. II., p. 240.)
+
+  [33] "It is made from wools of Buenos Aires and Peru. The wool of the
+       former of these regions is the longer, but the Peruvian is the more
+       silky."
+
+"Segovia, famous at all periods for the excellence of her wool, was
+formerly not less so for the number and perfection of her clothworks.
+Now, every patriotic Spaniard must lament to see how she has fallen. In
+the year 1785 the number of her looms did not exceed two hundred and
+fifty. The most important factory was that of Ortiz, founded in 1779
+under the title of _Real Fabrica_: the King possessed an interest in it.
+In 1785 Ortiz was still employing three thousand workers in and about
+Segovia, and manufactured every quality of cloth in sixty-three looms,
+from the pieces which contained the two thousand threads prescribed by
+the _Ordenanzas_, to those which should contain four thousand. His
+energy was only hampered by the indolent character of the Segovians. The
+privileges wherewith the government has sought to stimulate his first
+experiments in this craft are not at all injurious to the other
+manufacturers. They all concur to sell their goods, and at a reasonable
+price. In September of 1785, the most expensive cloths cost only ninety
+reals the _vara_; that is to say, about thirty-one _livres_ and ten
+_sols_ the ell."
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                         PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH
+       (_Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+Townsend wrote, precisely at the same time as Bourgoing: "Segovia was
+once famous for its cloth, made on the King's account; but other nations
+have since become rivals in this branch, and the manufacture in this
+city has been gradually declining. When the King gave it up to a private
+company, he left about three thousand pounds in trade; but now he is no
+longer a partner in the business.[34] In the year 1612 were made here
+twenty-five thousand five hundred pieces of cloth, which consumed
+forty-four thousand six hundred and twenty-five quintals of wool, and
+employed thirty-four thousand one hundred and eighty-nine persons; but
+at present they make only about four thousand pieces. The principal
+imperfections of this cloth are, that the thread is not even, and that
+much grease remains in it when it is delivered to the dyer; in
+consequence of which the colour is apt to fail. Yet, independently of
+imperfections, so many are the disadvantages under which the manufacture
+labours, that foreigners can afford to pay three pounds for the _arroba_
+of fine wool, for which the Spaniard gives no more than twenty
+shillings, and after all his charges can command the market even in the
+ports of Spain.
+
+"In the year 1525, the city contained five thousand families, but now
+they do not surpass two thousand--a scanty population this for
+twenty-five parishes; yet, besides the twenty-five churches, together
+with the cathedral, they have one and twenty convents. When the canal is
+finished, and the communication opened to the Bay of Biscay at
+Santander, the trade and manufactures of Segovia may revive; but,
+previous to that event, there can be nothing to inspire them with hope."
+
+  [34] A report presented by the Council of Commerce to the Marquis of la
+       Ensenada, put forward, in 1744, the absurd pretence that the king
+       of Spain maintained his factories "not for any State convenience
+       or _ad lucrum captandum_, but in order to augment our own products,
+       and diminish those which are imported from abroad."--Larruga's
+       _Memorias_, Vol. XV., pp. 70 and 247. Also see the conference
+       delivered by the Count of Torreanaz in 1886, in the Royal Spanish
+       Academy of Moral and Political Science; p. 27, note.
+
+       Several of the Spanish Crown factories were finally taken over by
+       the association--immensely wealthy at one period--known as the Five
+       Chief Gremios of Madrid (_Los Cinco Gremios Mayores de la Villa de
+       Madrid_), and it is clear that the investment of a large amount of
+       capital, subscribed by many shareholders, would of itself be
+       calculated to destroy the narrow ideals and what I may term the
+       individually greedy spirit which hitherto had ruled within the
+       craftsman's private family. Private interests, in short, were
+       superseded by the larger interests of a powerful company. That
+       which I have mentioned was composed of the five _gremios_ of the
+       capital of Spain which subscribed the largest sums in taxes to the
+       national exchequer; namely, the drapers, haberdashers, spicers and
+       druggists, jewellers, cloth-merchants, and linen-drapers. For many
+       years this association administered, on government's behalf, the
+       _alcabalas_, _tercias_, and _cientos_ of the town and district of
+       Madrid, and subsequently (A.D. 1745) the _millones_ tax, together
+       with other important dues, and ultimately, as I have stated, took
+       over, on a liberal scale of purchase, the royal cloth and silk
+       factories of Talavera de la Reina (A.D. 1785), San Fernando,
+       Guadalajara, Brihuega, Ezcaray, and Cuenca. The decay and downfall
+       of the company was due to gross mismanagement, and indeed, the
+       idiosyncrasies of the Spanish character render this people, even
+       at the present day, but little fitted to embark upon commercial
+       schemes requiring competent directors, heavy capital, and confident
+       assistance, moral and material, from a large body of investors.
+       Spaniards, as I have insisted elsewhere, do not pull well together;
+       and so, early in the nineteenth century, the association of the
+       five great _gremios_, which had possessed at one time many millions
+       of _pesetas_, suspended payment of all dividends. It is fair to
+       add, however, that this collapse was partly owing to the wars
+       between France and Spain.
+
+Swinburne had written of the same city ten years earlier (1776): "The
+inhabitants do not appear much the richer for their cloth manufactory.
+Indeed, it is not in a very flourishing condition; but what cloth they
+make is very fine."
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                         PRIEST'S ROBE; SPANISH
+       (_Embroidered in Gold on Green Velvet. About A.D. 1500_)]
+
+The Ordinances of Granada (A.D. 1532), from which we learn that cloth
+was also manufactured at that capital, contain the usual dispositions
+relative to the stamping of this product by the city officers. The
+stamps were in a box which was kept in a corner of the cathedral and
+closed by two keys, guarded severally by a councillor and an inspector
+of the trade, or _veedor_. On every day except a public festival,
+between the hours of ten and eleven of the morning, and three and four
+of the afternoon, it was the duty of these two authorities to proceed to
+the Alcaiceria, and ascertain if any cloth required stamping. If so, the
+stamps were fetched forthwith from the cathedral, the cloth was marked,
+and the stamps were solemnly restored to their chest beneath the double
+key.
+
+Among the woven fabrics other than those of silk, and which are
+specified in the Ordinances of Granada relative to the _tundidores_ or
+shearers, are cloths of Florence, Flanders, London, Valencia, Zaragoza,
+Onteniente, Segovia, and Perpignan; _velarte_ (a fine cloth manufactured
+at Granada), red _burel_ (kersey) of Baeza, black kersey of Villanueva
+and La Mancha, _ruan_ (Roan linen), fustians, friezes, and _cordellate_
+(grogram) of Granada, Valencia, Toledo, Segovia, and Cuenca. According
+to Capmany, cloths of the commoner kind, and which were popular about
+this time, were the _granas treintenas_ and black cloths of Valencia,
+the white or yellow _veintiseiseno_ cloths of Toledo, the white cloths
+of Ciudad Real, the green _palmillas_ of Cuenca, and green
+_dieciochenos_ of Segovia, the _contrayes_ of Cazalla, and the
+_pardillos_ of Aragon. Spanish cloth was also manufactured at Vergara,
+Cordova, Jaen, Murcia, Palencia, Tavira de Durango, and Medina del
+Campo.
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                          EMBROIDERED CHASUBLE
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Laborde says: "In the archives of the Crowns of Aragon and Castile there
+is a notice of the duties paid from the thirteenth to the end of the
+seventeenth century for foreign cloths sold in Spain, and for other
+articles of consumption coming from abroad. The principal cloths came
+from Bruges, Montpellier, and London; the velvets from Malines,
+Courtrai, Ypres, and Florence. This trade became so injurious to Spain,
+that Ferdinand and Isabella thought themselves bound to limit it
+entirely to the stuffs required for ornaments of the church, which of
+itself was a considerable quantity. Their prohibition is the subject of
+the rescript of September 2nd, 1494, for the provinces of the Crown of
+Castile. Even so far back as the Ordinances of Barcelona in 1271,
+mention is made of the taxes levied on the cloths of Flanders, Arras,
+Lannoy, Paris, Saint Denis, Chalons, Beziers, and Reims."[35]
+
+  [35] In the reign of Francis the First, the importation of Catalan cloth
+       into France was prohibited altogether.--Levasseur, _Histoire des
+       classes ouvrieres en France_, Vol. II., p. 73.
+
+       Among the various cloths (exclusively or chiefly of the less
+       expensive kinds) which were manufactured in the capital and country
+       of Cataluna, we read of those of pure scarlet, scarlet tinted with
+       light or dark purple, ash-coloured, carmine, and rose; of cloth of
+       combed wool, _medias lanas_ (half-woollens), serges, and _cadinas_
+       or _banyolenchs_. But before the close of the fifteenth century
+       the production of these fabrics had suffered a serious decline
+       caused by the tactless government of Ferdinand the Catholic, and
+       above all, by the introduction of the Inquisition into Barcelona.
+       A privilege of Ferdinand, granted on November 4th, 1493, to the
+       Barcelonese clothmakers, admits that this was the foremost and
+       most useful local manufacture ("no y ha altre art ni offici que mes
+       util done"), adding, however, that it had fallen into a state of
+       sad prostration "owing to the indisposition of these times."
+       (Capmany, _Memorias_, Vol. II., _Doc._ ccxliv).
+
+       This was undoubtedly the case; for in a report of the city council
+       drawn up in 1491, it is stated that good cloth can only be
+       manufactured from good wool, but that this had now become a
+       difficult matter at Barcelona, because the clothmakers were without
+       the money to purchase such wool. In consequence, they appealed to
+       the city (then even more resourceless than themselves) to help
+       them.
+
+       Although it has become fashionable in some quarters to deny that
+       the Inquisition contributed in a sensible degree to the decline of
+       Spanish arts and industries, the following passage, quoted from the
+       municipal archives of Barcelona, places the fact beyond all
+       argument as far as this locality is concerned. The city councillors
+       declared in 1492 that "by reason of the Inquisition established in
+       this city, many evils have befallen our commerce, together with the
+       depopulation of the said city, and much other and irreparable
+       damage to her welfare; and as much more harm will occur in the
+       future, unless a remedy be applied, wherefore the said councillors
+       entreat of the king's majesty that of his wonted clemency he order
+       the said Inquisition to cease; or else that he repair the matter in
+       such wise that _the merchants who departed because of the
+       Inquisition_ may return, and continue in the service of their God,
+       their king, and of the general welfare of the city aforesaid."
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+           EMBROIDERED _MANGA_ OR CASE OF PROCESSIONAL CROSS
+               (_Early 16th Century; Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+In 1809 the same author remarked: "The kingdom of Valencia produces
+little wool, yet there are five manufactories of woollens and coarse and
+fine cloths: they are at Morella, Enguera, Bocairente, Onteniente, and
+Alcoy. The small woollen stuffs are principally made at Enguera; nothing
+but the coarsest cloths are made at Morella, Bocairente, and Onteniente.
+The manufactory at Alcoy is the most considerable: the cloths, though
+finer, are generally of an inferior quality. The woof of them is thick,
+with little nap upon it. The finest are scarcely superior to the
+beautiful cloths of Carcassonne."
+
+
+                               EMBROIDERY
+
+The art of embroidering, and especially of embroidering with the aid of
+gold and silver thread, was communicated to the Spaniards by the Spanish
+Moors, who doubtless had derived it from the East. By about the
+thirteenth century, the needle of the Spanish embroiderer had become, in
+the picturesque phrase of one of his compatriots, "a veritable painter's
+brush, describing facile outlines on luxurious fabrics, and filling in
+the spaces, sometimes with brilliant hues, or sometimes with harmonious,
+softly-graduated tones which imitate the entire colour-scheme of
+Nature." Nevertheless, it was not until the fifteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries that this art attained, in the Peninsula, its topmost summit
+of perfection.
+
+It is not at all surprising that embroidery should have made great
+progress among a people so devoted to the outward and spectacular forms
+of worship as the Spaniards; nor have the chasubles, copes, and other
+vestments of the Spanish prelacy and priesthood ever been surpassed for
+costly splendour[36] (Plates x., xi., xii.). But generally where the
+Spanish embroiderer excelled was in the mere manipulation of the needle.
+In fertility of design he was far outdistanced by the Germans and
+Italians, and was even to a large extent their imitator; for Spanish
+embroidery, as occurred with Spanish painting, was influenced, almost to
+an overwhelming degree, firstly by northern art, and subsequently by the
+art of the Renaissance.
+
+  [36] The cathedrals of Toledo and Palencia are particularly rich in
+       sets of magnificently embroidered vestments. "Each set," says
+       Riano, "generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope, altar
+       frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces.
+       The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of
+       saints, are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MSS."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT]
+
+These tendencies or characteristics will be found in nearly all the
+masterpieces of Spanish embroidery that have been preserved until
+to-day, of which perhaps the most remarkable specimens are the _manga_
+or case of the great processional cross presented by Cardinal Cisneros
+to Toledo cathedral, and the "_Tanto Monta_" embroidered tapestry
+belonging to the same temple. The _manga grande_, known as that of the
+Corpus (Plate xiii.), is in the Gothic style, with reminiscences of
+German art, and consists of the following four scenes arranged in panels
+thirty-seven inches high, and hung successively about the handle of the
+cross:--
+
+  (1) The Ascension of the Virgin Mary, who is supported by six angels.
+
+  (2) The Adoration of the Magi.
+
+  (3) San Ildefonso in the act of cutting off a piece of the veil of
+      Santa Leocadia, patron of Toledo.
+
+  (4) The Martyrdom of San Eugenio, another patron of the city of Toledo.
+
+The ground of this elaborate "sleeve" is a fabric of rich silk, on which
+the embroidery is worked in gold and silver thread and coloured silks,
+principally blue and red, combined in delicate, harmonious tones. The
+figures are outlined with fine gold cord, which forms a kind of frame or
+fencing to confine the stretches of smooth silk. The careful copying of
+architectural detail is stated by Serrano Fatigati to be strongly
+characteristic of Spanish industrial art in the fourteenth, fifteenth,
+and even sixteenth centuries. The same writer considers that this
+"sleeve" was executed towards the year 1514, when embroiderers of great
+renown, such as Alonso Hernandez, Juan de Talavera, Martin Ruiz,
+Hernando de la Rica, Pedro de Burgos, and Marcos de Covarrubias were
+engaged on similar work in the venerable city of the Tagus. Two out of
+the four panels, says Serrano Fatigati, may possibly be from the hand of
+Covarrubias, who was a famous craftsman of his time, and held the post
+of master-embroiderer in Toledo cathedral. In any case, the four panels
+are evidently not all by the same artist, nor do they appear to have
+been executed at precisely the same period.
+
+                           [Illustration: XV
+       EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT, WITH THE ARMS OF CARDINAL MENDOZA
+                  (_15th Century. Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+The gorgeous embroidered tapestry which also belongs to this cathedral
+(where it serves as a hanging or _colgadura_ for the altar on the day of
+Corpus Christi), and which is known as the "Tanto Monta" _tapiz_, is
+stated by some authorities to have been the _dosel_ or bed canopy of
+Ferdinand and Isabella, and to have been purchased, in the year 1517,
+for 900,000 _maravedis_ by Alonso Fernandez de Tendilla, steward of
+those sovereigns. Riano gives the following account of the same
+object:--
+
+"As a fine specimen of embroidery on a large scale, must be mentioned
+the _dosel_ or canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabella, which
+was used in the reception of the English envoys, Thomas Salvaige and
+Richard Nanfan, who were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage
+of Prince Henry with the Infanta Dona Catalina." The ambassadors
+describe it in the following manner: "After the tilting was over, the
+kings returned to the palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and
+entered a large room; and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of
+rich crimson velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and
+Aragon, and covered with the device of the King which is a ... (blank
+in original),[37] and his motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto
+Monta.'" ("Memorials of King Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, London, 1858,
+p. 348).
+
+  [37] The device of Ferdinand the Catholic was a yoke; the sheaf of
+       arrows, that of Isabella. (See Vol. II., p. 147, etc.).
+
+Riano also describes the mantle of the Virgen del Sagrario at Toledo.
+"It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most
+effective ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of
+the seventeenth century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who
+presented it to the church." Senor Parro, in his exhaustive work _Toledo
+en la Mano_ (Vol. I., p. 574), gives the following account of it: "It is
+made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is
+entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a
+jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side,
+of enamelled gold, emeralds, and large rubies. A variety of other jewels
+are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the
+arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires
+and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and
+pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the
+borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which are employed in
+this superb work of art, no less than two hundred and fifty-seven ounces
+of pearls of different sizes were used, three hundred ounces of gold
+thread, a hundred and sixty ounces of small pieces of enamelled gold,
+and eight ounces of emeralds."
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONT
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+As in other countries, embroidery in Spain was executed in the bygone
+time, both by paid embroiderers, and as a domestic occupation by the
+ladies of the aristocracy. The work of the professional embroiderer
+consisted principally of paraments or altar-fronts (Plates xiv., xv.,
+xvi., xvii.), and ecclesiastical vestments. Among the former of this
+class of objects, nothing is finer than the _frontal_ of the Chapel of
+Saint George in the Audiencia of Barcelona. It is believed to have been
+wrought by Antonio Sadurni, a Catalan embroiderer who flourished in the
+middle of the fifteenth century. The scene represented is the combat
+between Saint George (patron of Cataluna) and the dragon. The saint has
+rescued a damsel from the monster's claws, and her parents are looking
+on from a _mirador_ of their palace. This central episode is surrounded
+with borders and arabesques of extraordinary richness.
+
+Riano gives a list, compiled from Cean, Martinez, Suarez de Figueroa,
+and other authors, of forty-seven Spanish embroiderers of the fifteenth,
+sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. More recently, Ramirez
+de Arellano has discovered, among the municipal archives of Cordova, the
+names of sixteen others, who resided at that city towards, or early in,
+the seventeenth century. The craftsmen in question were Diego de
+Aguilar, Juan Bautista, Bernardo Carrillo, Luis Carrillo de Quijana,
+Andres Fernandez de Montemayor, Hernan Gomez del Rio, Diego Fabian de
+Herrera, Diego del Hierro, Diego Lopez de Herrera, Diego Lopez de
+Valenzuela, Antonio de Morales, Gonzalo de Ocana, Mateo Sanguino, Manuel
+Torralbo, Cristobal de Valenzuela, and Martin de la Vega.
+
+Documents in the same archive contain additional particulars respecting
+two or three of these artificers. Thus, on February 10th, 1607, Hernan
+Gomez del Rio engaged himself to embroider for the convent of the
+Trinity at Cordova, "a bordering for a chasuble and four _faldones_ for
+dalmatics, with their collars and _sabastros_ and _bocas mangas_. The
+said _bocas mangas_ to be four in number, and the collars two; also the
+_collaretes_ which may be necessary for the two dalmatics, and which I
+am to embroider in silk and gold upon white satin. The _collaretes_ also
+to be embroidered by me in silk and gold to match a bordering of white
+satin for a cloak in possession of the said convent." Further, the
+convent was to supply the artist with the quantity of white satin
+required, and pay him two hundred and ten ducats, secured by certain of
+the convent's revenues, for the gold, the silk, and the workmanship.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVII
+                        EMBROIDERED ALTAR-FRONTS
+                        (_Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Manuel Torralbo contracted to embroider a velvet altar-front and its
+corresponding _fronteleras_ for the parish church of Luque, at a price
+of three hundred _reales_; and Cristobal de Valenzuela (on September
+25th, 1604) to embroider two frontals for the altar of the church of
+Obejo. One of them was to be of purple velvet worked in gold, and the
+other of "black velvet, with borders and _caidas_ embroidered in yellow
+satin and white satin, with skulls and bones embroidered in gold."[38]
+
+  [38] The skull and crossbones were a favourite design upon these
+       objects. The Church of the Escorial possesses four paraments so
+       decorated, which were shown, in 1878, at the Parisian Exhibition
+       of Retrospective Art.
+
+Turning our attention to the embroidery which was executed, principally
+as a recreation, by highborn Spanish ladies of some centuries ago, the
+romance of _El Compte Arnau_, quoted by Miquel y Badia and written in
+Catalan and Provencal, contains the following lines:--
+
+             "? Ahout teniu las vostras fillas--muller leal?
+              ? Ahout teniu las vostras fillas--viudeta igual?
+                A la cambra son que _brodan_--Compte l'Arnau
+                A la cambra son que _brodan_--seda y estam."
+
+Isabella the Catholic presented to the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of
+Granada an ecclesiastical robe embroidered by her own hands for the
+festival of Corpus Christi. The material was black satin brocade, with a
+fringe of white silk, and the letters IHS in white damask.[39]
+
+  [39] Gomez Moreno; _Apuntes que pueden servir de historia del bordado
+       de imagineria en Granada_ (_El Liceo de Granada_; 6th year,
+       No. 18).
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+                      WIFE OF WELL-TO-DO MERCHANT
+             (_Palma, Balearic Islands. About A.D. 1810_)]
+
+The same usage continued in the seventeenth century. Countess d'Aulnoy
+says: "Young ladies of great beauty and of noble blood engage themselves
+to wait on ladies of the aristocracy, and spend most of their time
+embroidering the collars and sleeves of shirts in gold, silver, and
+coloured silk, although, if they be suffered to follow their liking,
+they work but little, and gossip a great deal." The same writer refers
+repeatedly to the sumptuous embroideries in use among the upper classes
+of the Spaniards of that time. Thus, the bed-pillows of the Princess of
+Monteleon were embroidered with gold. The sleeves of the coat of Charles
+the Second were of white silk, very large, opening towards the wrist,
+and embroidered with blue silk and jet, the rest of his costume being
+embroidered in white and blue silk. In the palace of the same monarch,
+the dais of the throne-room was covered with "a wondrous carpet, and the
+throne and its canopy were embroidered with pearls, diamonds, rubies,
+emeralds, and other precious stones." The cloaks of the chevaliers who
+belonged to the Military Orders of Santiago, Calatrava, and Alcantara
+were embroidered with gold. The gentlemen of Madrid covered their horses
+with silver gauze, and trappings embroidered with gold and pearls.[40]
+The same gentlemen wore coats whose sleeves were of coloured satin,
+embroidered with silk and jet, and even their lackeys, when they
+attended their masters in a procession, wore uniforms of cloth
+embroidered with gold and silver. Unmarried girls and brides wore
+gold-embroidered bodices. The chairs in which the ladies of Madrid paid
+visits were made of cloth embroidered in gold and silver, stretched upon
+the wooden frame. In the train of the Duchess of Terranova went six
+litters covered with embroidered velvet. "In the parish church of San
+Sebastian," wrote Countess d'Aulnoy, "I have seen a hand-chair made by
+order of the queen-mother, for carrying the Sacrament to sick persons in
+bad weather. It is lined with crimson velvet embroidered in gold and
+covered with hide studded with gilt nails: it has large window-glasses,
+and a kind of small belfry full of golden bells."
+
+  [40] A similar usage prevailed at Valladolid. The account of this city
+       as it existed in 1605, published by Gayangos in the _Revista de
+       Espana_, describes Don Juan de Tassis, Count of Villamediana, as
+       "riding in the finest clothes imaginable; his cloak, jacket,
+       breeches, shoes, and the trappings, harness, reins, etc., of his
+       horse, being all embroidered with the finest twisted silver thread.
+       Even his horse's blinkers were of the same material."
+
+With the succession of a French line of sovereigns to the throne of
+Spain, a taste for French embroideries passed into the Peninsula, and
+these, in course of time, were imitated by the Spanish craftsmen.[41]
+"We find," says Riano, "that Madrid was the principal centre of this
+industry, and that French designs were universally copied, as was the
+case in the whole of Europe. The splendid curtains and embroidered
+hangings for apartments which exist at the royal palaces of Madrid, the
+Escorial, and Aranjuez, are admirable specimens."
+
+  [41] The use of embroidery was, however, greatly curbed by sumptuary
+       pragmatics, issued early in this century (see Vol. I., pp. 287,
+       289). A similar pragmatic had appeared in 1622; but it is clear
+       from the passages I have quoted, that little or no attention was
+       paid to it.
+
+I may mention here the embroidery, often of a rich and highly ornate
+character, which is, or used to be, applied to the regional costumes of
+Spain. Plate ix. is reproduced from a rare print in my possession,
+showing the gala dress, as it existed in the year 1777, of the _charra_
+of Salamanca, with full, white sleeves ornamented in black embroidery
+with animals and other devices. A similar costume is still worn in that
+neighbourhood. Plate xviii., also copied from a print in my collection,
+dating from about the year 1810, shows the costume worn by the women of
+the well-to-do middle class of the island of Majorca. "Le jupon ou
+_guardapies_," says the manuscript description prefixed to this series
+of plates, "en mousseline, complete le costume de cette insulaire: il
+est orne au bas de riches broderies, mais assez court pour laisser voir
+un joli petit pied chausse d'un bas de coton ou de soie et d'un elegant
+soulier de satin."
+
+
+                                TAPESTRY
+
+There is a dim tradition, derived from or supported by a Latin poet
+("Tunc operosa suis _Hispana tapetia_ villis") that carpets or
+tapestries of some kind were made in the Spanish Peninsula in the time
+of the Romans. Undoubtedly this craft was practised by the
+Spanish-Moors, particularly in the regions of Valencia, Alicante,
+Cuenca, and Granada. This statement is confirmed by two laconic notices
+which occur in the _Description of Africa and Spain_ of Edrisi, a
+Mohammedan geographer of the twelfth century. Of the town of Chinchilla,
+in Alicante province, he wrote,--"woollen carpets are made here, such as
+could not be manufactured anywhere else, owing to the qualities of the
+air and water"; and of Cuenca, "excellent woollen carpets are
+manufactured at this town."
+
+"En Espagne," says Muentz, "l'industrie textile ne tarda pas a prendre
+egalement le plus brilliant essor, grace a la conquete maure. Les
+etoffes d'Almeria acquirent rapidement une reputation europeenne; il est
+vrai que c'etaient des brocarts, des damas, et autres tissus analogues,
+non des tapisseries: l'influence qu'elles furent appelees a exercer au
+dehors se borna donc au domaine de l'ornementation."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIX
+                         THE "GENESIS TAPESTRY"
+                  (_12th Century; Gerona Cathedral_)]
+
+Of a similar composition to the foregoing fabrics specified by
+Muentz--that is to say, not genuine tapestries, although requiring for
+several reasons to be classed with these--is the celebrated "Genesis"
+(Plate xix.) of the cathedral of Gerona. This primitive yet complicated
+work of art, dating from the twelfth century, is embroidered in crewels
+upon linen, and represents the creation of the world. Its dimensions are
+about four yards high by four and a half yards wide; but the bordering
+has been torn away in places. The design is thus described by
+Riano:--"In the centre is a geometrical figure formed by two concentric
+circles. In the lesser circle is a figure of Christ holding an open
+book, on which appear the words _Sanctus Deus_, and on each side _Rex
+fortis_, surrounded by the inscription, _Dixit quoque Deus, Fiat lux, Et
+facta est lux_. In the larger circle are the words, _In principio
+creavit Deus coelum et terram, mare et omnia quae in eis sunt, et vidit
+Deus cuncta quae egerat et erant valde bona_.
+
+"The space between the two circles is divided by radiating lines into
+eight portions, in which are represented the Mystic Dove, the angels of
+light and darkness: the division of land from water, the creation of
+sun, moon, and stars, of birds, fishes, and beasts, and of Adam and Eve.
+In the angles outside the larger circle are the four winds, and the
+whole is surrounded by a border, imperfect in parts, containing
+representations of the months, and apparently of certain scriptural
+incidents, too much defaced to be clearly made out."
+
+The royal palaces of Spain and many of her noble houses have possessed,
+from about the fifteenth century, splendid collections of the costliest
+tapestries, consisting principally of _panos de Ras_, or "Arras cloths"
+(as they were called among the Spaniards, and especially in Aragon).
+Until a later period all, or very nearly all, these objects were
+imported from the Flemish workshops.[42] At the palace of a nobleman in
+Madrid, Bertaut de Rouen observed "les plus belles tapisseries du
+monde." The same author tells us that in the seventeenth century, when
+he visited Spain and wrote his entertaining _Journal_, it was customary
+for the walls of the royal palace to be hung with tapestry in winter,
+these hangings being removed for greater coolness in the summer months.
+In reading descriptions of Spanish life referring to the same period,
+one is struck by the craze which prevailed among the Spaniards for
+displaying tapestries and other gay-coloured fabrics in all kinds of
+places and on every possible occasion. Thus, Bertaut de Rouen relates
+that when he saw a play performed in the Alcazar, "le long de ces deux
+costez de la salle estoient seulement deux grands bancs couverts de
+tapis de Perse"; that the boxes at the bull-fights, both at Madrid and
+in the country, were "tapissees de brocatelle de soye"; and that the
+lower part of the dome in one of the chapels of Seville cathedral was
+decorated with the same material. At the haunted castle of Quebaro, on
+the road from Galareta to Vitoria, Countess d'Aulnoy saw upon the walls
+of a large chamber, some tapestries representing the amours of Don Pedro
+the Cruel and of Dona Maria de Padilla. "This lady was depicted seated,
+like a queen, among various other ladies, while the king crowned her
+with a chaplet of flowers. Elsewhere Dona Maria was reposing in a
+forest, as the king offered her a falcon. I also saw her dressed as a
+warrior while the king, in armour, offered her a sword. This set me
+thinking whether she had ever accompanied Don Pedro in one of his
+campaigns. All the figures in these tapestries were badly drawn, but Don
+Fernando assured me that all well-executed likenesses of Dona Maria de
+Padilla represented her to be a woman of rare charm, the loveliest of
+her century."
+
+  [42] "A cote de l'Italie, il faut citer l'Espagne, tributaire comme
+       elle des ateliers flamands. Les residences royales regorgeaient
+       de ces precieux tissus, qui aujourd'hui encore, a Madrid ou a
+       l'Escurial, se chiffrent par centaines. Parmi les presents que le
+       roi de Castille envoya a Tamerlan ([dagger] 1405), on remarquait
+       des tapisseries dont les portraits etaient faits avec tant de
+       delicatesse, dit un chroniqueur persan, que si on voulait leur
+       comparer les ouvrages merveilleux autrefois executes par le
+       peintre Mani sur la toile d'Artene, Mani serait couvert de honte
+       et ses ouvrages paraitraient difformes."--Muentz, _La Tapisserie_,
+       p. 172.
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga says that at Valladolid in 1605, a banquet was
+celebrated in "a large gallery, completely covered with the richest silk
+brocade, as were most of the other apartments." He also says that cloths
+of similar richness were employed as street-awnings. "Upon the ninth was
+the Corpus procession, at which the king was to assist; and a
+proclamation was issued that none should promenade on horseback or in
+coaches. I found nothing remarkable in this procession, unless it were
+the hangings and the awnings to keep off the sun, which were of the
+richest damask and brocade." Of the same _fiesta_ Countess d'Aulnoy
+wrote in 1679: "The streets through which the procession has to pass are
+adorned with the finest tapestries in all the world, since in addition
+to those belonging to the Crown, many of the greatest beauty are
+displayed by private persons. The _celosias_ of all the balconies are
+replaced by elaborate canopies and hangings, and the whole roadway is
+covered with an awning to ward off the sun, and which, for the sake of
+greater freshness, is moistened with a little water." Nearly identical
+with this account is that of Alexander de Laborde, who wrote, a century
+and a quarter later than the Countess; "On Corpus Christi day there is a
+grand procession composed of the regular and secular clergy of Madrid,
+followed by the king, his ministers, and court, each bearing in his hand
+a wax taper. Magnificent awnings of tapestry are raised in the streets
+through which the procession is to pass; the balconies are decorated
+with splendid hangings; the seats are covered with cushions, and
+occasionally surmounted with a dais; in some of the streets the face of
+day is darkened by canopies which stretch from one side to the other.
+Altars are placed at regular intervals; the balconies are thronged with
+ladies superbly dressed, who sprinkle scented water, or scatter fragrant
+flowers on the passing multitudes."
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga also describes a set of remarkable tapestries,
+evidently Flemish, which he saw in the Chapter-room of the Convent of
+Carmen Calzado at Valladolid. "It was hung with the richest tapestry,
+silk, and paintings that had belonged to the Duke of Lerma. I greatly
+admired some cloths of green velvet, worked all over with the _Bucolics_
+of Virgil, in _tarjas_ embroidered in silk and gold, as though they were
+_sebastos_[43] of ecclesiastical vestments, but these were old, of great
+value, and extraordinary merit. Finer still were certain cloths of
+recent workmanship, such as I had never seen equalled, of a white
+material painted in tempera, with the borders, dresses, and faces of the
+personages on them wrought in twisted gold. I never saw anything so
+brilliant or so novel. The cloths were eight in number, with four
+embroidered _guardapuertas_. The persons figured upon them wore belts of
+real pearls, rings set with diamonds and rubies on their fingers, and
+gold chains and medals studded with precious stones, just as living
+people wear them."
+
+  [43] A Portuguese word meaning a strip of silk upon the back of a
+       chasuble.
+
+The fashion of collecting foreign tapestries seems to have reached its
+height at the Spanish capital in the first half of the seventeenth
+century. "Nowadays," wrote Fernandez de Navarrete, in his _Conservacion
+de Monarquias_, published in 1626, "gentlemen are not contented with
+hangings which a few years ago were considered good enough to adorn a
+prince's palace. The Spanish taffetas and guadamecies, so highly
+esteemed in other provinces, are held of no account in this one
+(Madrid). The _sargas_ and _arabeles_ wherewith the moderation of the
+Spanish people was satisfied in former days, must now be turned into
+injurious _telas rizas_ of Florence and Milan, and into costliest
+Brussels tapestry."
+
+                           [Illustration: XX
+            _TAPIZ_ OF CRIMSON VELVET WORKED IN GOLD TISSUE
+          (_16th Century. Monastery of Las Huelgas, Burgos_)]
+
+It is perhaps allowable to include among the oldest makers of Spanish
+tapestry the names of Gonzalo de Mesa and Diego Roman, who, in the year
+1331, were paid respectively one thousand _maravedis_ and eighteen
+hundred _maravedis_, for decorating the tents of King Sancho the Fourth.
+There also exists the following entry, dating from the same period; "To
+Boancibre, master of the tents; XXX _maravedis_ for his food, for
+fifteen days."[44]
+
+  [44] Manuel G. Simancas, _Artistas Castellanos del Siglo XIII_ (_Boletin
+       de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_ for January, 1905.)
+
+Far clearer than these laconic excerpts is a document preserved in the
+library of the Academy of History at Madrid, in the form of a memorial
+presented to Philip the Second by a Spanish tapestry-maker of Salamanca,
+named Pedro Gutierrez,[45] and setting forth, in pessimistic language,
+the unhappy condition of this craft in the Peninsula. Pedro relates of
+himself that in twenty-four days he made for the Cardinal-archduke no
+less than a hundred and twenty _reposteros_; and that in order to
+exhibit his cleverness as a tapestry-weaver, he set up a loom in the
+royal palace (being officially the _tapicero_ to the Crown), and worked
+for forty days where all might criticise the product of his toil.
+Gutierrez also states that the township of Madrid had provided him with
+six hundred ducats to enable him to establish there a tapestry-factory
+for the space of ten years, together with six hundred and fifty ducats
+from the Cortes for supporting his apprentices, and a thousand ducats
+from the king to defray the cost of certain voyages he had made to
+Lisbon, Monzon, and Barcelona, and of removing his residence from
+Salamanca to the capital of Spain. He complains, however, that the house
+he dwells in at Madrid is not large enough to contain his loom, and
+replies to the objections of such persons as opposed his opening the
+tapestry-works at all (on the ground that this craft was practised
+better and more cheaply in Flanders), by asserting that Spanish makers
+of _reposteros_ were now accustomed to receive a daily wage of no more
+than three _reales_ and "a miserable meal." This, he urges, should
+render Spanish tapestries at least as inexpensive to produce as those of
+Flanders; although, upon the other hand, he admits that the colouring of
+the former is likely to prove inferior to the Flemish cloths in purity
+and durability. "Common tapestry," he says, "seldom keeps its colour
+upward of a couple of years, so that, if such were used in open sunlight
+on the backs of beasts of burden, or to cover carts, exposed to sun,
+wind, dust, and mire, or else for cleaning shoes upon, as now is
+practised with the _reposteros_, their imperfections would become
+apparent all the sooner."
+
+  [45] At about the same time that this petition was presented by
+       Gutierrez, another tapestry-maker named Pedro de Espinosa, a native
+       of Iniesta, was living at Cordova. On February 2nd, 1560, he
+       married Leonor de Burgos, and received as dowry from his bride the
+       sum of thirty-five thousand _maravedis_. (Ramirez de Arellano,
+       _Artistas Exhumados_, published in the _Boletin de la Sociedad
+       Espanola de Excursiones_.)
+
+Mention of these typically Spanish objects known as _reposteros_,[46]
+induces me to quote an interesting notice relating to the visit of
+Philip the Second to Cordova, in the year 1570. The train of the Duke of
+Medina Sidonia, who journeyed to this city in order to receive his
+sovereign, consisted of a hundred and three mules covered with "new
+_reposteros_ of wool, and of six mules covered with _reposteros_ of
+purple velvet, embroidered with silver and gold, and bearing the duke's
+arms."
+
+  [46] "_Reposteros_," says Riano, "is the ancient name given to the
+       hangings which are placed outside the balconies on state occasions
+       in Spain. Several splendid examples of the sixteenth and
+       seventeenth centuries may still be seen at the houses of Spanish
+       grandees, of which those belonging to the Conde de Onate and
+       Marques de Alcanices at Madrid are the most remarkable for their
+       artistic design."
+
+       It is surprising that Riano should insert so incomplete a
+       definition of this word, whose primitive and proper meaning,
+       according to the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, is "a square
+       piece of cloth with the arms of a prince or Senor, which serves for
+       covering baggage carried by beasts of burden, and also for hanging
+       in antechambers." See also Vol. II., p. 16 (note) of the present
+       work.
+
+If, as seems most likely, the woollen _reposteros_ above referred to
+were of woven work containing a device, this passage would demonstrate
+that the manufacture of the cloths in question was sometimes the
+province of the tapestry-maker and sometimes that of the embroiderer.
+Ramirez de Arellano, from whose instructive studies on the craftsmen of
+older Spain I quote the foregoing extract, says that the making of
+_reposteros_ constitutes a branch of craftsmanship distinct from
+embroidery of the common class, and that the men who produced them
+deserve to be included among artists of real merit. He gives the names
+of two, Hernan Gonzalez and Juan Ramos, who worked at Cordova in the
+middle of the sixteenth century. A document relating to the former of
+these men tells us that in those days the price of a _repostero de
+estambre_ measuring sixteen palms square, with a coat-of-arms worked in
+the centre, and a decorative border, was ninety _reales_.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                              THE SPINNERS
+                    (_By Velazquez. Prado Gallery_)]
+
+Riano says: "I do not find any information of a later date which
+suggests the existence of the manufacture of tapestries in Spain during
+the Middle Ages." Davillier, however, affirms that in the year 1411 two
+master-makers of tapestry were living at the court of the King of
+Navarre, and that other craftsmen, holding the same title, were
+established at Barcelona in 1391 and 1433. This notice is accepted by
+Muentz: "A la fin du XIV^e et au commencement du XV^e siecle, les
+Espagnols tenterent de fonder dans leur patrie quelques ateliers de
+haute lisse. A Barcelone, en 1391 et en 1433, plusieurs tapissiers
+(_maestros de tapices_) firent partie du grand Conseil. Mais ces
+tentaves ne semblent pas avoir eu de resultats durables. Il etait plus
+commode de recourir aux manufactures flamandes, si merveilleusement
+organisees. Peut-etre meme ce systeme etait-il plus economique. Ne
+voyons-nous pas aujourd'hui jusqu'a l'extreme Orient tirer, pour raison
+d'economie, des fabriques de Manchester et de Birmingham les tissus
+courants dont il a besoin?"
+
+The history of tapestry-making at Madrid may be said to date from the
+establishment in this town of a small factory by Pedro Gutierrez, whose
+petition to Philip the Second I have already quoted, and who received
+protection both from that monarch and from the queen, Dona Ana. In 1625
+Gutierrez was succeeded by Antonio Ceron, who formally styled himself
+"tapicero de nuevo, sucesor de Pedro Gutierrez" ("maker of new
+tapestries, successor to Pedro Gutierrez"), and petitioned the king for
+the grant of a meal a day, "in recompense of having taught his trade to
+eight lads, and of having mounted eight looms in (the factory of) Santa
+Isabel." This factory of Santa Isabel was so called from the street in
+which it lay, and part of it is represented in the celebrated painting
+by Velazquez called _Las Hilanderas_ ("The Spinners," not, as it is
+translated in Riano's handbook, "The Weavers." Plate xxi.).
+
+This factory was unsuccessful, and declined by degrees until it ceased
+completely, in spite of the efforts made to revive it in 1694 by a
+Belgian named Metler, and in 1707 by a Salamanquino, Nicholas Hernandez.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXII
+              TAPESTRY MADE AT BRUSSELS FROM GRANADA SILK
+              (_16th Century. Spanish Crown Collection_)]
+
+A new tapestry-factory--that of Santa Barbara--was founded shortly
+afterwards in a building known as the Casa del Abreviador. The first
+director, engaged in 1720 by order of Philip the Fifth, was Jacob Van
+der Goten, a native of Antwerp,[47] who died in 1724, and was succeeded
+at the factory by his sons, Francisco, Jacobo, Cornelius, and Adrian.
+These craftsmen worked with _basse lisse_ looms till 1729, in which year
+a _haute lisse_ loom was mounted by a Frenchman, Antoine Lenger.
+
+  [47] The royal contract with the elder Van der Goten, dated July 30th,
+       1720, was the result of secret negotiations, and largely brought
+       about by the influence of Philip's minister, Cardinal Alberoni.
+
+In 1730, when the court removed to Seville, a tapestry-factory was
+established at this city also. The director was Jacob Van der Goten the
+younger, assisted by the painter Procaccini. At the end of three years
+this factory closed its doors, and Van der Goten and Procaccini,
+returning to Madrid, established themselves at the old factory of Santa
+Isabel, from which, in 1744, they again removed to the factory of Santa
+Barbara.[48]
+
+  [48] "On Saturday, May 27th, passing through the gate of Saint Barbara,
+       I visited the tapestry manufactory, which resembles, and equals
+       in beauty, the Gobelins, whence it originally came. I found a
+       Frenchman at the head of it, who was civil and communicative.
+       This fabric was brought into Spain, and established here under
+       the direction of John de Van Dergoten, from Antwerp, in the year
+       1720. They now employ fourscore hands, and work only on the king's
+       account, and for his palaces, making and repairing all the tapestry
+       and carpets which are wanted at any of the _Sitios_, or royal
+       residences."--Townsend, in 1786.
+
+       "The elegant manufacture of tapestry is carried on without Saint
+       Barbe's gate, at the entrance of the promenade of Los Altos, or
+       Chamberi; it was established in 1720 by Philip the Fifth, at whose
+       invitation John Dergoten, of Antwerp, was induced to undertake its
+       superintendence, an office at present filled by his descendants.
+       The productions of this manufactory are carpets and tapestry, the
+       subjects of which are often drawn from fable or history; it
+       sometimes copies pictures executed by superior artists, and affords
+       daily employment to eighty persons, including dyers, drawers,
+       designers, and all its various branches."--Laborde (about 1800).
+
+In 1774, when, with the exception of Cornelius, who was considered the
+most skilful of them all, the family of the Van der Gotens had died out,
+the direction of the Santa Barbara factory was entrusted to several
+Spanish artists, named Manuel Sanchez, Antonio Moreno, Tomas del
+Castillo, and Domingo Galan. Sanchez, who acted as general
+superintendent of the works, died in 1786, and was succeeded in this
+office by his nephew, Livinio Stuck, whose son resumed the directorship
+in 1815, after the factory had been paralysed by the invasion of the
+Peninsula, and destroyed by the French in 1808. Since then it has never
+ceased working, and descendants of the Stucks continue to superintend it
+at the present day.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                        A PROMENADE IN ANDALUSIA
+                   (_Cartoon for Tapestry. By Goya_)]
+
+The collection of tapestry belonging to the Crown of Spain is probably
+the finest in the world. As far back as the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabella the walls of the royal palace were hung with decorative textile
+cloths or _panos de Ras_, and among the officers in the household of
+their son, the youthful Prince Don Juan, we find included a keeper of
+the tapestry and _reposteros_. But it was not until the reigns of
+Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second that the royal collection was
+enriched with numerous sets of celebrated tapestries produced in Italy
+and Flanders--countries which were then subjected to the yoke of Spain.
+Frequent additions were also made throughout the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, both from abroad and subsequently (when the
+Brussels industry declined) from the Spanish factories of Santa Isabel
+and Santa Barbara.
+
+As early as the year 1600 a Spaniard wrote enthusiastically of "the rich
+and cunning tapestries belonging to His Majesty, to whom it would be
+easier to win a kingdom than to get them made anew."[49] At the present
+day it is impossible to estimate with any certainty the number of these
+tapestries, the greater part of which are locked away. Only on certain
+festivals, such as the days of Corpus Christi and the Candelaria
+(Purification), a few are unfolded and displayed in the upper galleries
+of the palace at Madrid. Their total number is believed to be not far
+short of one thousand pieces;[50] but Senor Tormo calculates that were
+they no more than five hundred, they would, if placed end to end, cover
+more than two miles of ground.
+
+  [49] Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Rios, _Noticia general para la
+       estimacion de las Artes y de la manera en que se conocen las
+       liberales de las que son mecanicas y serviles_.
+
+  [50] Riano estimates them at this number. See his _Report on a
+       collection of photographs from tapestries of the Royal Palace of
+       Madrid_; London, 1875; and also _Tapices de la Corona de Espana_,
+       with 135 plates in phototype, and text by Count Valencia de Don
+       Juan; Madrid, Hauser and Menet, 1903.
+
+Among the sets which form this wonderful collection, distributed between
+the palaces of Madrid, the Prado, and the Escorial, none is of greater
+merit or magnificence than the series of twelve cloths depicting the
+_Conquest of Tunis_ (Plate xxii.), designed for Charles the Fifth by his
+Court painter, Jan Vermay or Vermeyen, of Beverwyck, near Haarlem, and
+executed by William Pannemaker, of Brussels. It was agreed by Pannemaker
+in 1549 that the materials employed upon this tapestry should consist of
+the finest wool, Granada silk, and, for the woof, the choicest Lyons
+_fillet_--the very best that money could procure. The Emperor himself
+was to provide the gold and silver thread. Accordingly, Pannemaker was
+supplied with five hundred and fifty-nine pounds and one ounce of silk,
+dyed and spun in the city of Granada, where one of Charles' agents
+resided for two years seven months and twenty-five days, for the purpose
+of superintending its preparation. The cost of this silk, exclusive of
+the agent's expenses, amounted to 6,637 florins. Nineteen colours were
+employed in the dyeing, each colour consisting of from three to seven
+shades, and a hundred and sixty pounds of the finest silk were consumed
+in trying to obtain a special shade of blue.
+
+After receiving these materials, Pannemaker kept seven workmen
+constantly engaged upon each _pano_ of this tapestry, or eighty-four
+workmen in all. As soon as any one of the pieces was concluded, he
+submitted it to experts who pointed out such details as they recommended
+for correction. The entire work required a little more than five years,
+and was therefore terminated in 1554. The price paid for it was twelve
+florins per ell, and the number of these was 1246, representing a total
+cost of 14,952 florins, while Pannemaker, subject to the Emperor's being
+satisfied with the work, was further promised a yearly pension of a
+hundred florins.[51]
+
+  [51] Muentz, _La Tapisserie_, pp. 217, 218. Wauters, _Les Tapisseries
+       Bruxelloises_, pp. 76, 77. Houdoy, _Tapisseries representant la
+       Conqueste du Royaulme de Thunes par l'empereur Charles-Quint_.
+
+Equally remarkable are the spirited design and the flawless execution of
+this series of elaborate cloths, recalling, in their swarms of armed
+figures and the lofty point of view, which reduces the sky to a mere
+strip, the vivacious war and camp pictures of Snyders. The titles of the
+subjects, forming, as it were, a pictured epitome of the expedition led
+by Charles in person against the Barbary pirates, are as follows: (1) A
+map of the Spanish coast; (2) The review of the troops at Barcelona; (3)
+The landing of the forces; (4) A skirmish; (5) The camp; (6) Foraging;
+(7) The capture of La Goleta; (8) The battle of Los Pozos, Tunis; (9) A
+sortie of the besieged; (10) The sack of Tunis; (11) The victors
+returning to the harbour; (12) The forces embarking.
+
+According to Muentz, this tapestry has been copied at least on two
+occasions; once in the eighteenth century by Josse de Vos, of Brussels,
+and also, in the same century, in Spain, partly at Seville, and partly
+at the factories of Santa Isabel and Santa Barbara.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIV
+              TAPESTRY. ARRAS WORK, FROM ITALIAN CARTOONS
+           (_First half of 15th Century. Zamora Cathedral_)]
+
+Other most valuable and beautiful tapestries belonging to the Spanish
+Crown are the series titled _The History of the Virgin_, believed to be
+from cartoons by Van Eyk, _The Passion_, from cartoons attributed to Van
+der Weyden, the _History of David_ and _History of Saint John the
+Baptist_, the _Mass of Saint Gregory_, and the _Founding of Rome_. All
+of these series date from the fifteenth century and early in the
+sixteenth. Belonging to a later period are the reproductions of rustic
+scenes and hunting subjects by Teniers and others, executed in Spain
+between 1721 and 1724, the _Scenes from Don Quixote_, made at Santa
+Barbara from Procaccini's cartoons, and the eminently national series
+produced at the same factory from designs by Francisco Goya y Lucientes.
+This latter group amounts to several dozen pieces, including the
+well-known _Blind Man's Buff_, _A Promenade in Andalusia_ (Plate
+xxiii.), _The Crockery-seller_, _The Grape-Gatherers_ (_Frontispiece_),
+and other spirited and charming scenes of popular Spanish life--"tout
+cela," as Lefort describes it, "spirituel, vif, pittoresque, tres
+mouvemente, bien groupe, s'elevant sur des fonds champetres ou baignant
+gaiement en pleine lumiere."
+
+Other tapestry collections of great merit belong to the cathedrals of
+Burgos, Zamora (where they line the walls of the Sacristy; Plate xxiv.),
+Zaragoza, Toledo, Tarragona, and Santiago. The first of these temples
+possesses the following sets, which are displayed to decorate the
+cloisters on the feast of Corpus Christi:--
+
+
+             (1) The History of Cleopatra and Mark Antony.
+             (2) The History of David.
+             (3) The Creation.
+             (4) An Historical Subject.
+             (5) The Theological and Cardinal Virtues.
+             (6) A series of five Gothic tapestries, which represent some
+                 mystery or allegory, and seem to be of Flemish
+                 manufacture. One other _pano_, of a similar character,
+                 accompanies them.
+
+All but the last of the above sets are marked with two B's separated by
+a shield, denoting Brussels workmanship. The _Theological and Cardinal
+Virtues_ were presented to the cathedral about the end of the sixteenth
+century. They are evidently executed from Italian cartoons, and the
+_haute-lisse_ craftsman who made them, in or towards the year 1571, was
+named Francis Greubels.[52]
+
+  [52] See an article on these tapestries by Senor Lamperez y Romea,
+       published in No. 55 of the _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de
+       Excursiones_; and also Nos. 156 and 157 of the same publication,
+       for an article on the Crown and other Spanish collections, by
+       Elias Tormo y Monzo.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                            FLEMISH TAPESTRY
+  (_Late 15th Century. Collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don
+                                Juan_)]
+
+The tapestries which belong to the cathedral of Zaragoza number some
+sixty or seventy pieces, including a series (fifteenth century)
+representing _The Life of Saint John the Baptist_, from designs by Lucas
+of Holland. Good tapestries were also the property of Valencia
+cathedral, but have been dispersed and sold in recent years. The convent
+of the Descalzas Reales at Madrid possesses a set from designs by
+Rubens. Ten pieces of this series formerly belonged to the Count-Duke of
+Olivares, who sent them to his town of Loeches; four passing
+subsequently to the Duke of Westminster's collection. The small though
+valuable collection formed by the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+(Plate xxv.), passed at this nobleman's death to his daughter, Senora de
+Osma, who has presented part of it to the Archaeological Museum at
+Madrid. Another collector resident in Spain, Mons. Mersmann, of Granada,
+possesses a series of fine Brussels cloths representing scenes from _Don
+Quixote_, by Van den Hecke.
+
+
+                                  LACE
+
+Although the Spaniards have enjoyed, and still enjoy, a widespread fame
+for lace-making, their written records of this craft are unsubstantial.
+Originally, perhaps, they borrowed it from the Arabs or Venetians.
+Certainly, the earliest Spanish lace was such as is made with a needle,
+that is, point, not pillow lace. In this form, _a la aguja_, and in the
+sixteenth century, the Spaniards possibly conveyed the secrets of its
+manufacture to the Netherlands, receiving from the natives of this
+country, in exchange, the art of making lace by means of bobbins,
+including the characteristic "Flemish net," or _red flandes_.
+
+Towards the sixteenth century the parts of Spain where lace was
+manufactured in the largest quantity were some of the Manchegan towns
+and villages, the coast of Finisterre, and nearly the whole of Cataluna.
+In La Mancha lace was made, and still is so, at Manzanares, Granatula,
+Almagro, and other places. That of Almagro (the celebrated _punto de
+Almagro_, resembling the lace of Cataluna), is mentioned by nearly all
+the older travellers. In _Don Quixote_, Teresa writes to Sancho Panza
+that their daughter Sanchita was engaged in making bobbin-lace at a
+daily wage of eight _sueldos_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVI
+                      THE MARCHIONESS OF LA SOLANA
+                              (_By Goya_)]
+
+In 1877, at the Exhibition of Sumptuary Arts which was held in
+Barcelona, a magnificent lace _toca_ was shown, which was affirmed by
+its possessor, Senor Parcerisa, to be the work of a Spaniard of the
+later part of the fifteenth century, and to have belonged to Isabella
+the Catholic. The cathedral of the same city owns three thread-lace albs
+of sixteenth century workmanship, and the South Kensington Museum other
+pieces of Spanish lace of a comparatively early date, probably made by
+nuns and subtracted from the convents during the stormy scenes of 1835.
+
+Dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we have a number of
+notices, though scrappy and inexplicit as a rule, relating to Spanish
+lace. One of the more complete and interesting is quoted by Riano from
+the _Microcosmia y Gobierno Universal del Hombre Cristiano_ (Barcelona,
+1592) of Father Marcos Antonio de Campos. "I will not be silent," wrote
+this austere _padre_, "and fail to mention the time lost these last
+years in the manufacture of _cadenetas_, a work of thread combined with
+gold and silver; this extravagance and excess reached such a point that
+100 and 1000 ducats were spent in this work, in which, besides
+destroying the eyesight, wasting away the lives, and rendering
+consumptive the women who worked it, and preventing them from spending
+their time with more advantage to their souls, a few ounces of thread
+and years of time were wasted with so unsatisfactory a result. I ask
+myself, after this fancy shall have passed away, will the lady or
+gentleman find that the chemises that cost them 50 ducats, or the
+_basquina_ (petticoat) that cost them 300, are worth half their price,
+which certainly is the case with other objects in which the material
+itself is worth more?"
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                            A SPANISH _MAJA_
+                             (_A.D. 1777_)]
+
+Several of the other notices relating to the lace-makers' craft are from
+the pen of Countess d'Aulnoy. Of the Countess of Lemos this writer says:
+"Her hair was white, but she carefully concealed it beneath a black
+blonde"; and of another Spanish lady, Dona Leonor de Toledo, that she
+wore "a green velvet skirt trimmed with Spanish blonde." In the
+apartments of the young Princess of Monteleon the countess saw "a bed of
+green and gold damask, decorated with silver brocade and Spanish blonde.
+The sheets were fringed with English point-lace, extremely broad and
+handsome." The countess also says that the petticoats of the Spanish
+ladies were of English point-lace,[53] and that these ladies, when they
+visited each other, wore on their heads "a _toca_ of the richest English
+black point-lace, half a yard broad, forming points like the antique
+laces, beautiful to look at, and very dear. This head-dress suits them
+rarely."
+
+  [53] Upon the other hand, a notice dated 1562 says that at that time
+       Spanish-made black lace was largely used at the Court of England.
+
+According to Balsa de la Vega, whose interesting articles on Spanish
+lace (published in the newspaper _El Liberal_) are worth perusal by all
+who are interested in this craft, about the middle of the seventeenth
+century the custom originated in Spain of making lace in broader pieces,
+dividing the pattern into a number of strips or _fajas_ which were
+subsequently sewn together. In Belgium, on the contrary, the design was
+cut out, following the contour of the floral or other decoration.
+
+In former ages gold and silver lace was made in France, and also at
+Genoa. I think it possible that Genoese merchants, many of whom are
+known to have settled in Granada and other Spanish cities, may first
+have introduced this branch of lace-making among the Spaniards. The
+sumptuary laws of Aragon, Castile, Leon, and Navarre would seem to show
+that lace of these materials, known as _punto_ or _redecilla de oro_ (or
+_plata_) was manufactured by the Spanish Jews between the twelfth and
+fifteenth centuries. During the seventeenth century and part of the
+eighteenth, the quantity produced in the Peninsula was very large. In
+his _Fenix de Cataluna_, a work which was published at Barcelona in
+1683, Feliu de la Pena says that Spanish _randa_ or _reseuil_, of gold
+and silver, silk, thread, and aloe fibre, was better made in Spain than
+in the Netherlands. The journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the
+following notice of this silver lace: "Le Roy y envoya le Lieutenant du
+Maistre des Postes, avec huit postillons, couverts de clinquant, et
+quarante chevaux de poste, dont il y en avoit huit avec des selles et
+des brides du Roy ou il y avoit de la dentelle d'argent, que Monsieur le
+Mareschal fit distribuer a environ autant de gens que nous estions, sur
+une liste qu'il avoit envoyee quelques jours auparavant."
+
+                         [Illustration: XXVIII
+                                A _MAJA_
+                              (_By Goya_)]
+
+It is impossible to mention Spanish lace without recalling that most
+graceful article of headwear, the _mantilla_, the use of which is
+gradually dying out. At present we understand by this word a black or
+white head-covering of lace alone (the white being more conspicuous and
+dressy), but about a hundred years ago the _mantilla_ was made of a
+variety of fabrics. Also, it was worn in an easier and more _neglige_
+manner than nowadays, retaining a closer likeness to the _velo_ or
+_manto_ with which the Spanish women of the seventeenth century were
+able, at their pleasure, to completely mask their faces (Plates xxvi.
+and xxvii.). Indeed, as late as the early part of the nineteenth century
+the _mantilla_ was sometimes thrown over the face (Plates xxviii. and
+xxix.). The same usage is referred to by Townsend, who describes the
+_mantilla_ as "serving the double purpose of a cloak and veil."[54]
+To-day it is worn, not hanging loose and open, but a good deal bunched
+up at the bosom. The hair, too, is dressed to an unusual height, with a
+tall comb, and over this the delicate lace covering should droop a
+little to one side. A flower or two (roses or carnations by preference)
+may be worn at one side of the head, and where the _mantilla_ is caught
+up at the breast.
+
+  [54] "Pour les femmes, elles ne sortent point qu'emmantelees d'une mante
+       noire comme le deuil des dames de France, et elles ne se montrent
+       qu'un [oe]uil, et vont cherchant et agacant les hommes avec tant
+       d'effronterie, qu'elles tiennent a affront quand on ne veut pas
+       aller plus loin que la conversation."--Bertaut de Rouen; _Journal
+       du Voyage d'Espagne_, p. 294.
+
+The manuscript account of Spanish costumes early in the nineteenth
+century, and which is prefixed to my copy of Pigal's coloured
+lithographs, contains some excellent descriptions of the older Spanish
+_mantilla_. We learn, for instance, that at Palma the women of the
+well-to-do middle class wore a _mantilla_ of black taffeta, trimmed with
+blonde (Plate xviii.).[55] In La Mancha, and among the peasants, it was
+of white muslin; at Cordova, in cold weather, "en flanelle ou en bayette
+fine: elle est garnie de rubans a l'extremite desquels il y a deux gros
+noeuds: en ete elle est en mousseline." The small _mantilla_ or
+"mantellina" of the wife of the smuggler of Tarifa was "en flanelle
+blanche, ou noire, ou rose, brodee d'un ruban: elle en fait tres souvent
+un usage different des autres femmes espagnoles, car au lieu de la
+mettre sur la tete attaches avec des epingles, elle s'en sert de schal:
+quelque fois elle la met en baudrier laissant flotter derriere elle les
+deux extremites qui sont ornees d'un noeud en ruban." The servant-girl
+of Madrid wore a white _mantilla_ in summer, and a black one in winter.
+The same author describes in greater detail the _mantillas_ of the fine
+ladies. "La mantille et la basquigne," he says, "voila de quoi se
+compose principalement le costume du beau sexe en Espagne. Ce costume,
+quoique national, est susceptible de recevoir aussi bien que tout autre
+les divers degres de luxe que les femmes d'une riche classe et celles du
+plus haut rang peuvent apporter dans leur parure: la classe la moins
+aisee porte la mantille en laine noire ou blanche et la basquigne en
+serge ou autre etoffe de laine noire. Pendant le jour, lorsque les dames
+espagnoles se presentent en public, c'est toujours avec la mantille et
+la basquigne, mais le soir si elles vont au spectacle ou ailleurs, elles
+sortent tres souvent habillees a la francaise."
+
+  [55] Blonde, I need hardly state, is silk-lace. It can always be
+       distinguished by the glossy surface.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIX
+                            A LADY OF SORIA
+                          (_About A.D. 1810_)]
+
+Elsewhere he says: "Nous avons deja dit qu'un simple ruban, un peigne,
+ou une fleur, est la coiffure adoptee par les dames espagnoles, pour
+faire usage de la mantille: celle-ci est dans l'hiver quelquefois en
+serge de soie, taffetas, etc., noir, garnie en outre de blondes, ou d'un
+large ruban de velours noir en echiquier (_cinta de terciopelo a
+tablero_), mais ce ruban est toujours noir. Il y eut un temps ou la
+mode, qui ne fut pas de longue duree, prescrivait que les bouts de la
+mantille se terminassent en trois pointes ornees chacune d'une houppe
+(_borla_) noire, ou d'un lacet de ruban noir. Jamais les mantilles ne
+sont doublees."
+
+The same author remarks of the lady of Madrid; "La mantille de tulle
+brode ne se porte que dans la belle saison ... elle ne depasse jamais
+la ceinture"[56]; and of the lady of Granada: "si la mantille est
+blanche, elle est en tulle parseme de petits bouquets et garnie de
+larges et riches dentelles. Si elle est noire, comme cela arrive plus
+ordinairement, elle est alors en blonde: il y a de ces mantilles qui
+coutent cinq cent, mille, et jusqu'a deux mille francs."
+
+  [56] This is incorrect. It was sometimes worn longer.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                      HANDKERCHIEF OF CATALAN LACE
+       (_Presented to Queen Victoria of Spain, on her marriage_)]
+
+A good deal of lace, principally of the less elaborate and cheaper
+kinds, was formerly manufactured in the kingdom of Valencia. Cabanillas
+wrote in 1797 that at Novelda, a small town of this region, more than
+two thousand women and children worked at making laces, which were
+hawked about the country by others of the townspeople. Swinburne remarks
+upon the same industry, and Ricord tells us in his pamphlet (1791) that
+cotton lace was made in six factories at Torrente, Alicante, and
+Orihuela.[57] The total product of these factories for the said year was
+1,636,100 yards, which sold at from nine to twelve _reales_ the yard.
+Laborde wrote some years later, in the first volume of his book, that
+lace, and gold and silver fringes were then made at Valencia, and in the
+fourth volume; "Gold and silver laced stuffs, and velvets of all colours
+brocaded and flowered with the same metals, are made at Toledo,
+Barcelona, Valencia, and Talavera de la Reina; and the manufacture at
+the last-named city annually consumes four thousand marks of silver, and
+seventy marks of gold.
+
+  [57] A letter from Vargas y Ponce to Cean Bermudez, dated 1797, says
+       that in this year there existed at Murcia a school for making
+       blondes, owned by one Castilla. "He does good work, teaches well,
+       and has executed blondes for the Queen, which are well spoken of."
+
+"At Barcelona, Talavera de la Reina, and Valencia are also manufactured
+gold and silver edgings, lace, and fringes, though not in a sufficient
+quantity to answer the demands of Spain; and the gold is very badly
+prepared, having too red a cast."
+
+Lace-making was an ancient and important industry of every part of
+Cataluna. Lace articles for ladies' headwear are known to have been made
+throughout this region at least as far back as the fifteenth century,
+and Capmany reminds us that by a _cedula_ dated from the Cortes of
+Monzon, December 16th, 1538, the Emperor Charles the Fifth confirmed the
+Ordinances of the guild, established long before, of the _tejedores de
+velos_ of Barcelona. Technical provisions are embodied in this code,
+concerning various articles of lace employed as headwear, such as
+_alfardillas_, _quinales_, and _espumilla_, all of which were largely
+exported to America.
+
+The attention of foreigners who travelled in Cataluna towards the
+eighteenth century was constantly attracted by the lace-makers.
+Swinburne mentions "Martorell, a large town, where much black lace is
+manufactured," and "Espalungera (Esparraguera?), a long village, full of
+cloth and lace manufacturers," and wrote of Sarria and its surroundings,
+close to Barcelona: "The women in the little hamlets were busy with
+their bobbins making black lace, some of which, of the coarser kind, is
+spun out of the leaf of the aloe. It is curious, but of little use, for
+it grows mucilaginous with washing."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXI
+                        CURTAIN OF SPANISH LACE
+                   (_Point and Pillow Work. Modern_)]
+
+"Martorell," wrote Townsend in 1786, "is one long, narrow street, in
+which poverty, industry, and filth, although seldom seen together, have
+agreed to take up their abode. The inhabitants make lace, and even the
+little children of three and four years old are engaged in this
+employment." Laborde wrote that at the beginning of the eighteenth
+century seventeen manufactories of blondes were established at Mataro,
+and adds of Barcelona province generally at that time: "Laces and
+blondes constitute the employment of women and children. The work is
+principally done at Pineda, Malgrat, San Celoni, Tosa, Canet, Arenys,
+Callela, San-Pol, Mataro, Esparraguera, Martorell, and Barcelona.... The
+laces are almost all shipped for the New World."
+
+The most observant and most entertaining of all these tourists was
+Arthur Young, who wrote, in 1787, of the towns upon the coast of
+Cataluna: "The appearance of industry is as great as it can be: great
+numbers of fishing-boats and nets, with rows of good white houses on the
+sea-side; and while the men are active in their fisheries, the women are
+equally busy making lace." Of Mataro he says: "It appears exceedingly
+industrious; some stocking-frames; lace-makers at every door.... I am
+sorry to add that here also the industry of catching lice in each
+other's heads is well understood.
+
+"Pass Arrengs (Arenys), a large town ... making thread lace universal
+here. They have thread from France; women earn ten to sixteen _sous_ at
+it. Great industry, and in consequence a flourishing appearance. Canet,
+another large town, employed also in ship-building, fishing, and making
+lace.... Pass Malgrat, which is not so well built as the other towns,
+but much lace made in it.... Reach Figueras, whose inhabitants seem
+industrious and active. They make lace, cordage, and mats, and have many
+potteries of a common sort."[58]
+
+  [58] Tour in Catalonia in 1787; Vol. I., p. 644, etc.
+
+Lace-making prevails to-day all through this region of north-eastern
+Spain, particularly in the strip or zone of it including the valley of
+the Llobregat as far as Martorell, and which extends from Palamos to
+Barcelona. The towns which produce the greatest quantities of lace are
+Arenys de Mar, Malgrat, San Pol, Canet, and Arenys de Munt. In the last
+of these places an important Regional Exhibition of Lace was held in
+July of last year, the number of exhibitors amounting to one hundred and
+twenty-five. Due to the increasing production of underlinen and woven
+fabrics generally, or to other causes, lace-making has declined at
+Blanes, Pineda, Calella, and one or two other places. At San Celoni,
+Vallgorguina, San Vicente, San Andres de Llevaneras, Argentona, Caldeta,
+and San Acisclo de Vilalta, lace is made by women who combine this work
+with dirtier and rougher labour in the field. Most of the lace made in
+these towns is therefore black.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                   POINT LACE FAN, OF MUDEJAR DESIGN
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+In the spring of last year, an elaborate lace pocket-handkerchief (Plate
+xxx.), designed by Senor Riquer, and executed in a traditional style of
+Cataluna, denominated locally the _ret Catala_, was made in the
+old-established lace-factory of the widow of Mariano Castells in the
+town of Arenys de Mar, and offered by the Agricultural Institute of San
+Isidro as a wedding-present to Princess Ena of Battenberg. Two
+_encajeras_ worked at this handkerchief under the personal direction of
+the widow Castells, and the time employed by them in making it was two
+months.
+
+Plate xxxi. represents a small portion of a very original and beautiful
+lace curtain, ten feet high, designed by Senor Aguado, and executed,
+partly by Senorita Pilar Huguet (who superintended the work throughout),
+and partly by seventeen of this lady's pupils, at the School of Arts and
+Industries, Toledo. Although it is a hackneyed trope to declare that the
+ornamentation of the Spanish-Moors, whether in ivory, wood or metal,
+stone or plaster, was "delicate enough to seem of lacework," I believe
+this to be the first occasion when such intricate and graceful motives
+have been actually reproduced in lace. The result of the experiment has
+proved surprisingly effective. The design is Spanish-Arabic in its
+purest form, recalling various arabesques upon the walls of the
+Alhambra, and includes thirty-three medallions which constitute the
+principal decorative scheme, a hundred and forty-eight palms or
+_alharacas_, and the Arabic expression "God is all-powerful," repeated
+sixty-six times. The centre of the curtain consists in all of four
+hundred and forty-eight pieces. The broad cenefa or bordering, which
+runs right round the whole, contains, in Arabic, the following
+inscription: "This curtain was begun in the _curso_ (course or series of
+classes) of the year 1903-1904, and terminated in the _curso_ following,
+(Art) School of Toledo." The style adopted throughout is that of
+Brussels, known erroneously as English point, although upon a coarser
+scale than is considered to be proper to this lace, the ground being
+executed by the needle, or in point-work, and the rest by bobbins.
+
+Plate xxxii. represents a covering for a fan, also executed by Senorita
+Huguet, and also in the Brussels style. The design is a combination of
+Mudejar motives, such as conventional foliage and geometrical bordering,
+with a Spanish scutcheon and the double-headed eagle of the Emperor
+Charles the Fifth.
+
+At the present day, and largely owing to the initiative and the skilled
+tuition of Senor Salvi, excellent lace is manufactured at Madrid,
+including reproductions--which have been generally admired in Great
+Britain and elsewhere--of the finest point or bobbin work of Malines,
+Manchester, and Venice.
+
+
+
+
+                               Appendices
+
+                               APPENDIX A
+
+                  THE LEGEND OF SAN MIGUEL IN EXCELSIS
+
+
+Towards the year A.D. 707, when Witiza was king of Spain, there dwelt at
+the castle of Goni, not far from the city of Pamplona in Navarre, a
+cavalier named Don Theodosio, whose wife, Dona Constanza de Viandra, was
+a lady of remarkable beauty. On one occasion Don Theodosio found himself
+obliged to quit his native country for a time, in order to command a
+military expedition against the Berbers, and before his departure he
+begged his father and mother to cheer his wife's loneliness while he
+should be away, by taking up their residence at his castle. They came
+accordingly, and as a special mark of honour to the parents of her lord,
+Dona Constanza gave up to them her own chamber, together with the
+nuptial couch. After a time, when Theodosio's enterprise was concluded,
+and the warrior, safe and sound, was returning to Navarre, the Devil,
+disguised as a hermit, one evening lay in wait for him at a spot called
+Errotavidea, situated at a few miles' distance from Goni castle, in the
+wooded and romantic valley of the Ollo. Stepping up to the cavalier's
+side, Satan assured him, in a tone of smooth hypocrisy, that during his
+absence the lady Constanza had been seduced by one of Theodosio's own
+servants. Upon the knight's demanding proof, "proceed," replied the
+Devil, "to your castle, enter your nuptial chamber, and there you will
+find your consort in the very arms of her paramour." Frantic with
+apprehension, the warrior spurred home, broke into his chamber at the
+dead of night, and, passing his hand over the bed, encountered, as Satan
+had malignantly foretold, two bodies; whereupon he drew his sword and,
+in this moment of fatal and irreflective haste, murdered his own father
+and mother. Then, just as he was rushing from the room, he met, carrying
+a lighted lamp, the lady Constanza herself, returning from the chapel in
+which, as was her custom every night, she had been praying for his safe
+return.
+
+Smitten with deep repentance for the crime, whose enormity had been
+discovered by the impetuous lord in so dramatic and dreadful a fashion,
+Theodosio journeyed to Rome, and related what had happened to the Pope,
+who sentenced him to wear a heavy iron collar round his neck, and chains
+about his body, and to wander, in a state of rigorous penance, through
+the loneliest regions of Navarre, without setting foot in any town,
+until, as a sign that divine justice was satisfied, the chains should
+fall from off him. Wherever this should come to pass, he was instructed
+to build a temple in honour of the archangel Michael.
+
+The sentence was patiently performed, and Theodosio had spent some years
+in solitary wandering, when on a day a single link dropped from his
+ponderous chains. This happened on the top of a high mountain called
+Ayedo, in the Sierra de Andia, and accordingly the penitent erected on
+the spot a simple fane in the archangel's honour, known by the name of
+San Miguel de Ayedo, and which, in the form of a little hermitage, still
+exists.
+
+This proof of heavenly grace presaged a further and a more complete
+deliverance. When Theodosio's wandering had lasted seven years, he
+reached one day the summit of Mount Aralar, at two leagues' distance
+from his own castle, and was there met by a ferocious dragon of
+appalling size. Being, as a penitent, unarmed, as well as encumbered by
+his massive chains, the miserable man fell helpless to his knees, and
+called to God to succour him. The prayer was heard. Suddenly the form of
+his patron the archangel flashed out against the sky, the dragon fell
+dead, and all of Theodosio's chains were shattered, and dropped from
+him. Here, therefore, he built another and a larger temple in honour of
+his guardian, and, accompanied by Dona Constanza, passed the remainder
+of his life in peaceful and secluded piety.
+
+The castle of Goni, which was also called "Saint Michael's palace," and
+"the palace of the cavalier to whom Saint Michael revealed himself," was
+standing as late as the year 1685, but, according to Padre Burgui, by
+the close of another century the walls were crumbling fast. Until about
+the year 1715 there also stood an ancient wooden cross to mark the spot
+where Satan, in a hermit's garb, had appeared to Don Theodosio.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX B
+
+                          JET-WORK OF SANTIAGO
+
+In former times the art of carving jet was largely practised at this
+town. The characteristic form was the _signaculum_ or image of Saint
+James; that is, a more or less uncouth representation of the apostle in
+full pilgrim's dress. The height of these images, which are now
+dispersed all over Europe, varies between four and seven inches. They
+are fully described in Drury Fortnum's monographs, _On a signaculum of
+Saint James of Compostela_, and _Notes on other signacula of Saint James
+of Compostela_, as well as in Villa-amil y Castro's _La azabacheria
+compostelana_. These objects were sold in quantities to the pilgrims
+visiting Santiago, who nevertheless were often cheated by the
+substitution of black glass for jet.[59]
+
+  [59] The following passage from Townsend's Journey through Spain (Vol.
+       II., p. 56), is curious as showing where jet was formerly found in
+       this Peninsula. "When I returned to Oviedo, a gentleman gave me a
+       collection of amber and of jet, of which there is great abundance
+       in this province: but the two most considerable mines of it are in
+       the territory of Beloncia, one in a valley called Las Guerrias, the
+       other on the side of a high mountain in the village of Arenas, in
+       the parish of Val de Soto. The former is found in slate, and looks
+       like wood: but when broke, the nodules discover a white crust,
+       inclosing yellow amber, bright and transparent. Jet and a species
+       of kennel coal, abounding with marcasites, universally accompany
+       the amber."
+
+Specimens of this work are in the British and Cluny Museums, and in the
+Archaeological Museum at Madrid. An interesting jet figure of the apostle
+on horseback belonged to the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan. Jet
+processional crosses (twelfth and thirteenth century), studded with
+enamel, and which were used at funerals, are preserved in the cathedrals
+of Oviedo and Orense. Rings, rosaries, and amulets were also carved from
+this material.
+
+As to Spanish processional crosses generally (the use of which was
+undoubtedly borrowed from the standard borne at the head of pagan
+armies), I may say that they are commonly fitted with a handle, called
+the _cruz baja_ or "lower cross," though sometimes this handle is
+dispensed with, as, for instance, at the funerals of infants. According
+to Villa-amil y Castro, the typical shape of the Spanish processional
+cross has always been that denominated the _immissa_, consisting of four
+arms terminating in straight edges. The same authority says that within
+this broader definition the primitive form was the Greek cross, that is,
+having four arms of equal length. Another early form was the "Oviedo"
+cross (see Vol. I., Plate II.), with the four arms in the shape of
+trapezia, united at the centre by a disc. Of this latter shape are, or
+were, the crosses of Guarrazar and those which were presented by Alfonso
+the Second and Alfonso the Third to the cathedrals of Oviedo and
+Santiago.
+
+A later form was the _potenzada_ cross, which had a cross-piece fixed at
+the extremity of each arm. As time advanced, this T-shaped termination
+to the arms assumed such decorative and capricious forms as the trefoil
+and the fleur-de-lis. Early in the history of the Spanish church the
+processional cross consisted often of a wooden core, covered with more
+or less profusely ornamented silver plates, and having, between the
+handle and the upper part, an enamelled bulb or _n[oe]ud_. The image of
+Christ, converting the cross into the crucifix, was not attached until a
+later period, because, as Villa-amil y Castro has remarked, the
+primitive Christians considered the essential glory of their faith,
+rather than, as yet, the perils and the pains to which they were exposed
+by clinging to that faith. The cross was thus the symbol of the
+Christian's glory; the crucifix, of his suffering.[60]
+
+  [60] As for the clothing of sacred images in Spain, even these are
+       subject to changes in the fashion of costume. Ford makes merry over
+       "the Saviour in a court-dress, with wig and breeches." Swinburne
+       wrote in 1775, from Alicante: "We have been all the morning in
+       great uneasiness about Sir T. G.'s valet de chambre, who, till
+       within this hour, was not to be found in any of the places he
+       usually frequents. His appearance has quieted our apprehensions;
+       and it seems he has been from sunrise till dinner-time locked up
+       in the sacristy of the great church, curling and frizzling the
+       flaxen periwig of the statue of the Virgin, who is to-morrow to be
+       carried in solemn procession through the city."
+
+       A similar passage occurs in one of the letters of Lady Mary Wortley
+       Montagu. "I was particularly diverted," she wrote from Nuremberg in
+       1716, "in a little Roman Catholic church which is permitted here,
+       where the professors of that religion are not very rich, and
+       consequently cannot adorn their images in so rich a manner as their
+       neighbours. For, not to be quite destitute of all finery, they have
+       dressed up an image of our Saviour over the altar in a fair,
+       full-bottomed wig, very well powdered."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX C
+
+         DESCRIPTION OF THE _CUSTODIAS_ OF SEVILLE AND CORDOVA
+
+The _custodia_ of Seville cathedral is described by its author, Juan de
+Arfe, in the following terms:--
+
+The shape is circular, with projecting friezes and bases. The _custodia_
+is four yards high, and is divided into four orders of symmetrical
+proportions, the second order being smaller by two-fifths than the
+first, the third smaller by the same fraction than the second, and the
+fourth than the third. Each order rests upon four-and-twenty columns,
+twelve of which are of a larger size, and wrought in relief. The other
+and the smaller twelve are striated, and serve as imposts to the arches.
+All these orders are of open work, containing twelve _vistas_
+(prospects) apiece. Six are of full dimensions, and the other six spring
+from half-way up the larger ones, as is shown in the appended design,
+which I will not explain further, as the proportion and harmony can be
+judged of from the plan (see Vol. I., Plate xvii.).
+
+
+                              FIRST ORDER
+
+The first order is in the Ionic style. The columns and frieze are
+adorned with vines containing fruits and foliage, and some figures of
+children holding spikes of wheat, to signify bread and wine. In the
+centre of this, the largest order, is Faith, represented by the figure
+of a queen, seated on a throne, holding in her right hand a chalice with
+the host, and in the other a standard such as is seen in certain ancient
+medals of the emperors Constantine and Theodosius. Beneath her feet is a
+world, and behind her, overthrown and bound with chains, a monster with
+the face of a beautiful woman and the trunk or body of a dragon, to
+represent Heresy, which seems to attract by pleasantness of shape, being
+at bottom poison and deceit.
+
+At one side is the figure of a youth with wings, and a bandage over his
+eyes, representing Intelligence. His hands are shackled, and he is
+kneeling, as one that surrenders himself captive to Faith in all her
+mysteries, and particularly in this one.
+
+Corresponding to this figure, on the opposite side, is that of a
+beautiful woman, likewise kneeling, crossing her hands before her
+breast, and holding a book, to represent Human Wisdom, which
+acknowledges the majesty of the Catholic Faith, and is subservient
+thereto.
+
+On the right hand of Faith is Saint Peter, seated, holding his keys on
+high, and on her left Saint Paul, with naked sword, that is, the
+preaching of the word of God. High up, about the spring of the vault, is
+the figure of the Holy Spirit, assistant in the church.
+
+Between the six _asientos_ of the base are the four doctors of the
+Church, together with Saint Thomas and Pope Urban the Fourth, who
+instituted the festival of the Holy Sacrament.
+
+All these figures are half a yard in height; that is, one half the
+height of the larger columns belonging to this order.
+
+In the six niches that are between the arches, are the figures of six
+Sacraments, in this wise:--
+
+(1) _Baptism_, represented by the figure of a youth holding in one hand
+a bunch of lilies, signifying purity and innocence, and in the other a
+beautiful vessel, showing the act of washing the soul, that is the
+particular virtue of this Sacrament. Over the arch is a scroll
+containing the word BAPTISMUS.
+
+(2) _Confirmation_ is a damsel of spirited mien, armed with a helmet. In
+one hand she has some vessels of holy oil. Her other hand is raised,
+while with the index finger she expresses firm determination to confess
+the name of Christ. Inscribed upon her is the word CONFIRMATIO.
+
+(3) _Penitence_ holds in her right hand a wand, denoting spiritual
+jurisdiction, like the wand wherewith they smite the excommunicated at
+his absolution. In her left hand is a Roman javelin, that was the symbol
+of liberty, to signify the free estate of the captive's soul, and how,
+through absolution, sin is made a slave; together with the word
+P[OE]NITENTIA.
+
+(4) _Extreme Unction_ is represented by an aged woman, holding a vase
+whence issueth an olive bough, and in her other hand a candle, as token
+that this Sacrament is a succour to those that be in the last agony. The
+word inscribed is UNCTIO.
+
+(5) _Order_ is a priest with his vestments, holding an incensory,
+together with a chalice and the host, signifying Oration and Sacrifice.
+The word inscribed is ORDO.
+
+(6) _Matrimony_ is the figure of a youth, holding in one hand a cross
+with two serpents twined about it, in imitation of Mercury's wand. In
+his other hand he bears a yoke, and the inscription MATRIMONIUM.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, as being most excellent of all,
+occupies a loftier place than all these other Sacraments.
+
+The basement of this order, forming, as it were, a boundary and
+bordering to this holy edifice of the Church, has twelve pedestals
+beneath the columns, making six and thirty sides, which are adorned with
+six and thirty scenes, eighteen whereof are taken from the Old
+Testament, and the other eighteen from the New Testament, or relating to
+the present state of the Church.
+
+(1) The first scene represents how God formed Eve from one of Adam's
+ribs. An inscription at the foot of the pedestal says, _Humani generis
+auspicia_.
+
+(2) Next to the preceding is an image of our Saviour with two angels
+supporting him by the arms, while from his wounded side issue seven rays
+of blood, signifying the Church and Sacraments. The inscription says,
+_Felicior propagatio_.
+
+(3) The tree of Life, with Adam and Eve partaking of its fruit, and the
+inscription, _Periturae gaudia vitae_.
+
+(4) A cross adorned with branches and with blades of wheat, surmounted
+by a chalice and the host, and round about it a few prostrate figures,
+eating this holy fruit, and the inscription, _Vitae melioris origo_.
+
+(5) The angel with the flaming sword, driving our fathers from Paradise,
+without suffering them to reach the tree of Life. The inscription says,
+_Procul, procul esse prophani_.
+
+(6) The parable of the banquet, from which was driven out the man that
+had no wedding garment. The inscription says, _Non licet sanctum dare
+canibus_.
+
+(7) The stream of water that issued from the rock smitten by the rod of
+Moses, and the thirsty people, drinking. The inscription says, _Bibebant
+de spirituali petra_.
+
+(8) Beside the preceding, the figure of Christ, from whose side issues a
+stream of blood, of which some sheep are drinking. The inscription says,
+_Petra autem erat Christus_.
+
+(9) The manna which fell from Heaven. The inscription says,
+_Manducaverunt et mortui sunt_.
+
+(10) The miracle of the five loaves, with the inscription, _Qui manducat
+vivit in aeternum_.
+
+(11) The raven bringing bread and meat to Elijah. The inscription says,
+_Non turpat dona minister_.
+
+(12) Next to this, an angel conveying a chalice and the host to the
+saints in the desert, with the inscription, _Sacerdos Angelus Domini
+est_.
+
+(13) Elisha throwing flour in the pot to sweeten the bitterness of the
+colocynth. The inscription says, _Vitae solamen acerbae_.
+
+(14) Christ turning the water into wine, with the inscription, _Vertit
+tristes in gaudia curas_.
+
+(15) Tobias frightening away the Devil with the smoke from the liver of
+a fish. The inscription says, _Fumum fugit atra caterva_.
+
+(16) Devils flying from an altar containing a chalice and the host, with
+the inscription, _Fugiunt phantasmata lucem_.
+
+(17) Lot inebriated, sleeping with his daughters. The inscription says,
+_De vinea sodomorum vinum eorum_.
+
+(18) A group of virgins prostrating themselves before the Sacrament upon
+the altar, with the inscription, _Hoc vinum virgines germinat_.
+
+(19) Abraham harbouring the angels and washing their feet. The
+inscription says, _Non licet illotos accedere_.
+
+(20) Christ washing the feet of his disciples before a table. The
+inscription says, _Auferte malum cogitationum vestrarum_.
+
+(21) The supper of the paschal lamb, with the inscription, _Antiqua
+novis misteria cedunt_.
+
+(22) The supper of Christ, with the inscription, _Melioris fercula
+mensae_.
+
+(23) The throne of God, before which stands the prophet Isaiah, and an
+angel whose mouth is smitten by a lighted brand. The inscription says,
+_Purgavit filios Levi_.
+
+(24) A priest before an altar, in his robes, administering the communion
+to the Christian people. The inscription says, _Probet se ipsum homo_.
+
+(25) Elijah reclining in the shade of the tree, with an angel bringing
+him bread and a vessel. The inscription says, _In pace in idipsum_.
+
+(26) A sick man in his bed, with a priest administering the Sacrament to
+him. The inscription says, _Dormiam et requiescam_.
+
+(27) Habbakuk borne by the angels to the den of lions, to carry food to
+Daniel. The inscription says, _Adjutor in opportunitatibus_.
+
+(28) An angel with a chalice and the host, which he administers to the
+souls in Purgatory. The inscription says, _Emissit vinctos de lacu_.
+
+(29) Noah sleeping beneath the vine, holding a vessel, with his sons
+gathered about him. The inscription says, _Humanae ebrietatis ludibria_.
+
+(30) Christ with a chalice in his hand, and angels round him, holding
+clusters of grapes, and a cross surrounded with a vine. The inscription
+says, _Calix ejus inebrians quant praeclarus est_.
+
+(31) A queen adorned profanely, crowned with a snake. She holds a vessel
+in her hand, and rides upon a dragon with seven heads, some of which are
+drooping, as though they were inebriated. The inscription says,
+_Haereticae impietatis ebrietas_.
+
+(32) The figure of a virtuous lady wearing a royal crown. She holds a
+chalice in her hand, and rides in a car borne by the figures of the four
+evangelists. The inscription says, _Ecclesiae Catholicae veritas_.
+
+(33) The table with the loaves of propitiation, before the tabernacle,
+with Moses and Aaron standing beside it, and the inscription, _Umbram
+fugit veritas_.
+
+(34) A custodia, with a chalice and the host, borne by angels. The
+inscription says, _Ecce panis angelorum_.
+
+(35) David and his soldiers, who receive bread from the priest's hand.
+The inscription says, _Absit mens conscia culpae_.
+
+(36) A priest, administering the Sacrament to two persons, each of whom
+has an angel beside him. The inscription says, _Sancta sanctis_.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+And since all Sacraments have virtue and efficacy from the passion of
+Christ our Saviour, which passion is perpetually commemorated by this
+holiest of Sacraments, I placed upon the summit of the twelve columns
+belonging to this order twelve child-angels, naked, bearing the signs
+and instruments of the Passion, as voices to announce this sacred
+mystery.
+
+On the tympanums of the arches are angels bearing grapes and ears of
+wheat, and in the middle of the six sides of the frieze are graven, upon
+some ovals, the following images and devices, the inscription
+corresponding to them being on the largest scroll of the architrave.
+
+(1) A garland of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, and in the midst
+thereof an open pomegranate, signifying, by the number and cohesion of
+its grains, the Church, guarded within the fortress of this holiest of
+Sacraments. The inscription says, _Posuit fines tuos pacem_.
+
+(2) A hand among clouds, extended over a nest of young ravens that have
+their beaks open and raised, with the inscription _Quanto magis vos_.
+This signifies, that the Lord who taketh care to sustain the infidels
+and pagans, taketh also especial care to sustain His Church with
+abundance of this celestial food.
+
+(3) A fair stalk of wheat, whence issue seven ears of great fatness,
+with the inscription, _Sempiterna satietas_; showing that, not as in the
+seven years in Egypt, but for ever, shall spiritual abundance abide in
+the Church of Christ, owing to this holy table of His body and His
+blood.
+
+(4) A stork upon a nest woven of wheat-ears and vine-tendrils, with the
+inscription, _Pietas incomparabilis_. Showing the piety and fatherly
+love that God affordeth to us in this Sacrament.
+
+(5) A hare smelling at a bough and some ears of wheat, with the
+inscription, _Vani sunt sensus hominis_. The hare signifies the senses,
+which are deceived by the appearance of the bread and wine, unless they
+be fortified by faith.
+
+(6) A hand bearing a wand, the end whereof is turning to a serpent, with
+this inscription, _Hic vita, hic mors_; because this Sacrament is the
+judgment and condemnation of all that receive it unworthily, but life
+for such as receive it with a clean spirit. The device has reference to
+the rod of Moses, that gave health to the people of Israel, affording
+them a passage through the midst of the sea, and making streams of sweet
+water to gush from the rock, but that was ruinous to the Egyptians,
+causing among them terrible sickness and destruction.
+
+
+                              SECOND ORDER
+
+The second order is in the Corinthian style, the columns and frieze
+adorned with foliage in the upper and lower thirds, and the other one
+with fluted columns. This order contains the Holy Sacrament in a
+circular _viril_ ornamented at its ends. Round it are the four
+evangelists with the figures of the lion, bull, eagle, and angel,
+adorning the majesty of the Lord that is within the Sacrament, whereof
+they gave true testimony, according to these words upon a tablet which
+each one holdeth in his hand:--
+
+              Saint Matthew, _Hoc est corpus meum_.
+              Saint Mark, _Hic est sanguis meus_.
+              Saint John, _Caro mea vere est cibus_.
+              Saint Luke, _Hic est calix novi testamenti_.
+
+On the outside are placed these figures, in pairs:--Saint Justa and
+Saint Rufina, patron saints of Seville; San Isidro and San Leandro,
+archbishops of the same city; San Hermenegildo and San Sebastian; San
+Servando and San Germano, martyrs; San Laureano, archbishop of Seville,
+and San Carpoforo, priest; Saint Clement, pope, and Saint Florence,
+martyr.
+
+On the six running pedestals of the columns of this order are six scenes
+or figures of ancient sacrifices, symbolic of this holiest sacrifice of
+the Eucharist, as showing how this one is the consummation and
+perfection of all sacrifices, and that the light thereof dispersed the
+shadows of the others. And these be in the following wise:--
+
+(1) The sacrifice of Abel.
+
+(2) That of Noah, on his leaving the ark.
+
+(3) That of Melchisidech.
+
+(4) That of Abraham, when he sought to sacrifice Isaac.
+
+(5) That of the lamb which was found in the thornbush and placed upon
+the altar.
+
+(6) Solomon's sacrifice at his dedication of the temple.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+On the tops of these columns are twelve figures representing the twelve
+gifts and fruits of this most holy Sacrament, as they are told of by
+Saint Thomas in his treatise on this mystery:--
+
+(1) _The conquest of the Devil_, represented by a maiden beautified and
+adorned with a palm and a cross. The inscription on the pedestal says,
+_Fuga daemonis_.
+
+(2) _Spiritual cheerfulness and delight_, in the form of another maiden,
+holding a wand wreathed with boughs and tendrils of the vine, and in her
+other hand some ears of wheat. The inscription says, _Hilaritas_.
+
+(3) _Purity of soul_, represented by a heart among flames, suspended
+over a crucible. The inscription, _Puritas_.
+
+(4) _Self-knowledge_, represented by a figure of Reason, holding in one
+hand a mirror, in which she regards herself, and in the other hand a
+leafy bough. The inscription says, _Cognitio sui_.
+
+(5) _Peace, and the appeasing of the wrath of God_, represented by a
+figure holding in one hand an olive bough, and in the other a cornucopia
+filled with grapes and wheat. The inscription, _Reconciliatio_.
+
+(6) _Inward quiet and control of the affections_, represented by a
+figure holding some poppies in one hand, and in the other a lamp, the
+lower wick of which is being extinguished. The inscription says, _Animi
+qui est_.
+
+(7) _Charity, and profound love for God and for our neighbours_,
+represented by a figure holding in one hand a lighted heart that has two
+wings, and with the other pouring from a cornucopia. The inscription
+says, _Charitas_.
+
+(8) _Increase of true worth_, represented by a figure holding in one
+hand a bough of mustard, that is wont to grow and multiply exceedingly
+from a tiny grain, and in the other hand a half-moon, receiving greater
+brightness as it waxes. The inscription says, _Meritorum multiplicatio_.
+
+(9) _Firmness and constancy in well-doing_, represented by the figure of
+a woman holding an anchor in one hand, and in the other a palm. The
+inscription says, _Constantia_.
+
+(10) _The hope that guides us to our celestial home_, represented by a
+figure holding in one hand a bunch of flowers (denoting the hope of the
+fruit that is to come), and in the other hand a star, as one that
+guideth to a haven. The inscription, _Deductio in patriam_.
+
+(11) _Resurrection_, represented by the figure of a beautiful woman,
+holding in one hand a snake, and in the other an eagle; creatures that
+renew themselves by casting off the slough of their old age. The
+inscription says, _Resurrectio_.
+
+(12) _Life Eternal_, represented by a figure holding a palm in one hand,
+and a crown in the other. The inscription says, _Vita aeterna_.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+The devices contained in this order, and in the middle of the frieze,
+are as follows:--
+
+(1) A bunch of grapes upon a wand, surrounded with ears of wheat. The
+inscription says, _C[oe]lestis patriae specimen_. This signifies that, as
+the great bunch of grapes that was borne by Joshua and Caleb on their
+shoulders was a token of the fertile land of promise, so the greatness
+and the sweetness of this admirable Sacrament, which is afforded to us
+in the guise of bread and wine, is the living sign and earnest of the
+abundance reigning in the kingdom of the blessed.
+
+(2) A hand extending the index-finger, pointing to a chalice and the
+host, with the inscription, _Digitus Dei hic est_. This means that the
+miracle of this holiest of Sacraments is the work of the eternal wisdom,
+that cannot be attained by any wisdom of us humans.
+
+(3) A rainbow, and above it a chalice with the host, and the
+inscription, _Signum f[oe]deris sempiterni_. Signifying, that as in the
+olden time God vouchsafed the rainbow to Noah in sign of friendship and
+alliance, so does He now vouchsafe His own flesh and blood as a true and
+effective token of His lasting association with mankind.
+
+(4) Two rays, crossed, and in their midst an olive bough, with the
+inscription, _Recordabor f[oe]deris mei vobiscum_. These are the words
+that were spoken by God to Noah, when He made the said alliance with
+him, giving to understand the clemency wherewith God treateth mankind in
+the lesson of this divinest Sacrament, forgetting their errors, and
+establishing perpetual peace and amity with them.
+
+(5) The pelican feeding her young with the life-blood issuing from her
+breast. The inscription says, _Majorem charitatem nemo habet_.
+
+(6) A dead lion, from whose mouth issueth a swarm of bees, with the
+inscription, _De forti dulcedo_. Giving to understand, that as from the
+mouth of so brave a creature there issued a substance so sweet as honey,
+so did the God of vengeance, the brave Lion of the tribe of Judah,
+concert such love and peace with man, that He offered His very body for
+man's food.
+
+
+                              THIRD ORDER
+
+The rest of the third order, as far as the summit of the _custodia_,
+represents the Church triumphant: wherefore was placed in the midst of
+this order (which is in the composite style) the history of the Lamb
+that is upon the throne, and round about it the four beasts that are
+full of eyes, as the Apocalypse relateth.
+
+Upon the six continuous pedestals of the columns of this order are
+graved the following six scenes:--
+
+(1) The saints who wash their stoles in the blood that issues from the
+Lamb, as is told in the Apocalypse.
+
+(2) God the Father, with a sickle in His hand, and angels gathering
+grapes in the vat, and corn in the granary, after winnowing out the
+chaff; signifying the reward accorded unto men in sowing, and in the
+harvest of the vine.
+
+(3) The saints in joyful procession, each with his sheaf of wheat.
+
+(4) The virgins, crowned with vine-tendrils and ears of wheat, that
+follow the Lamb.
+
+(5) The five prudent virgins, that with their lighted lamps go in to the
+feast of the Bridegroom.
+
+(6) The banquet of the blessed.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+Between the arches of this order are the six hieroglyphs following, with
+their inscriptions above, upon tablets.
+
+(1) A burning ph[oe]nix, with the inscription, _Instauratio generis
+humani_.
+
+(2) Two cornucopias crossed, with a cross in their midst. The
+cornucopias are full of vine-tendrils and ears of wheat. The inscription
+says, _Felicitas humani generis_.
+
+(3) A kingfisher brooding over her young in a nest of vine-tendrils and
+blades of wheat, with the inscription, _Tranquillitas immutabilis_. This
+signifies the calm state of the blessed, whereof a token is the nest of
+the kingfisher, which bird, when it crosses the water, causes all storms
+to cease.
+
+(4) A car with flames, rising to heaven, with the inscription, _Sic itur
+ad astra_. Signifying that this divinest Sacrament is the harbinger of
+those that travel heavenward, in that Elijah was so swept away, after
+God had sent him bread by the angel and the raven.
+
+(5) Two dolphins, whose tails are crossed, and in the middle a chalice
+and the host, with the inscription, _Delitiae generis humani_. By this
+device is signified the love and the delight bestowed by God on men by
+means of this Sacrament.
+
+(6) An altar adorned with festoons of vine-tendrils and blades of wheat,
+with flames upon it, and bearing the inscription, _Aeternum sacrificium_.
+
+
+                              FOURTH ORDER
+
+In this order is represented the Holy Trinity upon a rainbow, surrounded
+by many rays of splendour, and in the fifth order is a bell, surmounted
+by a simple cross.
+
+Thus are all the parts of the _custodia_ adorned with the foregoing
+beautiful decoration, having regard to their proportions and their
+symmetry, according to the rules of good architecture, and to the
+movements and position of the statuary, designed after nature, as was
+prescribed by the inventor of histories. "_Et in his omnibus sensum
+matris Ecclesiae sequimur, cujus etiam juditium reveremur._"
+
+Such is the description, written by Arfe himself, of this wonderful
+masterpiece of silver-work. Unfortunately, since his time the _custodia_
+has been much meddled with by profane hands, and has been subjected to
+various impertinent "restorations" and "improvements." Thus, the
+original statuette of Faith, seated on her throne, has been replaced by
+another of the Virgin, and the twelve child-angels, holding the
+instruments of the passion, by the same number of figures of a larger
+size and far inferior workmanship. Further, some simple pyramids which
+crowned the fourth order were foolishly replaced by badly executed
+statuettes of children, and the Egyptian obelisk, resting on four small
+spheres, which surmounted the whole _custodia_, by an unwieldy statue
+representing the Catholic Faith.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+           DESCRIPTION OF THE _CUSTODIA_ OF CORDOVA CATHEDRAL
+
+                 (From _Cordoba_, by PEDRO DE MADRAZO)
+
+As I have stated in Vol. I., p. 98, the author of this _custodia_ was
+Enrique de Arfe, Juan de Arfe's grandfather. "The base, supported on
+small wheels placed in the interior, is in the form of a regular
+dodecagon, each side of which measures a foot. On the twelve-sided plate
+which forms the base and which has well executed heads of seraphs at
+each corner, is an order consisting of three tiers. The first, which has
+projecting and receding angles, leaves, about six sides of the
+dodecagon, a free space for the handles by which the _custodia_ is
+raised. The first tier forms a kind of socle with six buttresses, on the
+surface of which are represented allegorical scenes, alternated in rows
+with graceful designs in relief, grotesque and pastoral dances, and
+scenes from Bible history relative to the carriage of the Tabernacle.
+This tier is surmounted by a gilded balustrade of elegant design. The
+bas-reliefs are wrought alternately in gold and silver.
+
+"The second tier is formed by a small socle, crowned by a band of leaves
+and diminutive figures. Over this is a gilded balustrade, and finally
+another and a broader frieze containing gilded figures, together with
+delicate foliage wrought in dull silver. This second tier grows
+gradually narrower, and sustains the third, whose base projects, serving
+as cornice to the frieze of the tier below, and decorated with a gilded
+balustrade. Upon it rises a mass or body with twelve sides, following
+the same arrangement of projecting and receding angles as the lower
+tiers. In each of its receding spaces this order contains three
+compartments, and in each of its salient faces it has a small tower or
+buttress, which springs from the base and rests upon a delicate plinth
+carved with a gilded ornamental band. Thus, the order we are describing
+has six salient faces behind the six towers or buttresses, and six
+spaces containing three open compartments. In these compartments,
+separated one from another by diminutive buttresses with delicate
+pinnacles, there is the same number of sunken spaces, one inch deep, on
+which are represented, in high relief, scenes of the life and passion of
+our Lord. The figures, admirably executed, are two inches high. Above
+this order is a projecting cornice, decorated along its lower part with
+a band of dull silver. It should be noted, that as the _custodia_
+narrows gradually as it rises, the receding spaces grow proportionally
+larger, thus affording room for the spacious inner order on which is
+raised the _viril_. This order is formed by a crystal cylinder
+(containing the host) resting on a base which is also cylindrical, the
+lower part of which is decorated with a broad hexagonal band, narrower
+at the top than at the bottom, and wrought with delicate foliage and
+figures, as are the bands which lie beneath it. Above the transparent
+cylinder enclosing the _viril_ rises a Gothic vault, drooping over in
+the manner of a plume, and resting on the buttresses which fill the
+projecting spaces on the base of the principal order. These buttresses
+have a similar arrangement to, and coincide with, the other ones which
+spring from the base of the third tier of the first order, and are
+joined one to another by means of fine cross-buttresses surmounted by
+statuettes. The circular vault which holds the crystal cylinder
+containing the _viril_, and which resembles that of the rotunda
+dedicated as a sepulchral chapel by the emperor Constantine to the
+memory of his daughter, saint Constance, supports other and finer
+buttresses, alternated with those beneath; but instead of rising from
+the salient spaces of the base, these rise from the receding spaces and
+support another vault, of smooth open-work, beneath which is a graceful
+statuette of Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion. Over this vault is a kind of
+open-work dome, consisting of an effective series of pinnacles and
+buttresses in the shape of segments of a circle, which bridge over the
+summits of the pinnacles. Upon the dome is a crown surmounted by a
+statuette of Christ triumphant, with the cross. The two vaults--that
+which encloses the _viril_, and the other one above it, enclosing the
+image of the Virgin--are masked on the outside by arches of elegant
+design, crowned by an elaborate balustrade. The turrets or buttresses
+which rise upon the lowest and the principal orders are decorated with
+numerous statuettes, resting on plinths of exquisite design, covered by
+open-work canopies.
+
+"This masterpiece of art is made of gold, and polished and unpolished
+silver. The weight is 532 marks.... Unfortunately, it lacks its original
+purity of style, having been restored in the year 1735, when it is
+probable that certain details were added which now disfigure it."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX D
+
+         THE IMPERIAL CROWN OF THE VIRGEN DEL SAGRARIO, TOLEDO
+
+This was the most elaborate and costly crown that had ever been produced
+in Spain for decorating an image of the Virgin. The following is a
+sketch of it:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Before it was enlarged to the imperial shape, this crown was executed by
+a silversmith named Fernando de Carrion, who finished it in the year
+1556, and was paid for his labour 760,000 _maravedis_. It then consisted
+of a gold diadem adorned with rows of pearls, emeralds, rubies, and
+enamelled devices of various colours, in the style of the Renaissance.
+
+The superstructure, which converts it into what is known as an imperial
+crown, was added by Alejo de Montoya, another silversmith of Toledo, who
+began it in 1574, and completed it twelve years later. The addition
+consisted of a number of gold statuettes of angels, covered with enamel,
+measuring in height from two inches to two and a half, distributed in
+pairs, and supporting decorative devices attached to the body of the
+crown. From behind these angels sprang gold bands thickly studded with
+precious stones, and terminating towards their union at the apex of the
+crown in seated allegorical figures grouped about a globe surmounted by
+a cross. This globe consisted of a single emerald, clear, perfect both
+in colour and in shape, and measuring an inch and a half in diameter.
+The inside of the hoop was covered with enamels representing emblems of
+the Virgin, disposed in a series of medallions, and the dimensions of
+the entire crown were eleven inches high by nine across the widest part.
+
+The crown was examined and reported upon by two goldsmiths of Madrid,
+who declared it to contain the following precious stones:--
+
+    Two balas rubies,                valued at 150,000 _maravedis_
+    Twelve rubies,                       "     403,528      "
+    Twelve emeralds,                     "     237,500      "
+    Fifty-seven diamonds,                "     555,396      "
+    One hundred and eighty-two pearls,   "     397,838      "
+
+The precious stones were thus valued at a total of 1,744,262
+_maravedis_. Besides this, the value of the gold and silver contained in
+the crown was estimated to amount to 405,227 _maravedis_, while
+3,097,750 _maravedis_ were allowed for the workmanship. These figures
+relate to the part which was made by Alejo de Montoya only. That which
+had previously been executed by Fernando de Carrion was valued at
+1,954,156 _maravedis_, making a grand total, for the whole jewel, of
+7,201,395 _maravedis_. At the present day the intrinsic value of the
+crown would be from nine to ten thousand pounds sterling.
+
+In 1869 this splendid specimen of Renaissance jewellery was stolen from
+a cupboard in the cathedral of Toledo, sharing thus the fate of many
+other precious objects which have been entrusted to the slender
+vigilance or slender probity of Spanish church authorities.
+
+
+                               APPENDIX E
+
+                      GOLD INLAY ON STEEL AND IRON
+
+The inlaying of iron or steel with gold is often thought to be a craft
+particularly Spanish, and to have been inherited directly by the Spanish
+Christians from the Spanish Moors. This work, however, although we may
+assume it to have been of Eastern origin in a period of remote
+antiquity, was quite familiar to the ancient Romans, including,
+probably, such as made their home in Spain. The Memoirs of Benvenuto
+Cellini contain the following notice of the work in question:--
+
+"I met with some little Turkish daggers, the handles of which were of
+iron as well as the blade, and even the scabbard was of that metal. On
+these were engraved several fine foliages in the Turkish taste, most
+beautifully filled up with gold. I found I had a strong inclination to
+cultivate this branch likewise, which was so different from the rest;
+and finding that I had great success in it, I produced several pieces in
+this way. My performances, indeed, were much finer and more durable than
+the Turkish, for several reasons: one was, that I made a much deeper
+incision in the steel than is generally practised in Turkish works; the
+other, that their foliages are nothing else but chicory leaves, with
+some few flowers of echites: these have, perhaps, some grace, but they
+do not continue to please like our foliages. In Italy there is a variety
+of tastes, and we cut foliages in many different forms. The Lombards
+make the most beautiful wreaths, representing ivy and vine-leaves, and
+others of the same sort, with agreeable twinings highly pleasing to the
+eye. The Romans and the Tuscans have a much better notion in this
+respect, for they represent acanthus leaves, with all their festoons and
+flowers, winding in a variety of forms; and amongst these leaves they
+insert birds and animals of several sorts with great ingenuity and
+elegance in the arrangement. They likewise have recourse occasionally to
+wild flowers, such as those called Lions' Mouths, from their peculiar
+shape, accompanied by other fine inventions of the imagination, which
+are termed grotesques by the ignorant. These foliages have received that
+name from the moderns, because they are found in certain caverns in
+Rome, which in ancient days were chambers, baths, studies, halls, and
+other places of a like nature. The curious happened to discover them in
+these subterranean caverns, whose low situation is owing to the raising
+of the surface of the ground in a series of ages; and as these caverns
+in Rome are commonly called grottos, they from thence acquired the name
+of grotesque. But this is not their proper name; for, as the ancients
+delighted in the composition of chimerical creatures, and gave to the
+supposed promiscuous breed of animals the appellation of monsters, in
+like manner artists produced by their foliages monsters of this sort;
+and that is the proper name for them--not grotesques. In such a taste I
+made foliages filled up in the manner above mentioned, which were far
+more elegant and pleasing to the eye than the Turkish works.
+
+"It happened about this time that certain vases were discovered, which
+appeared to be antique urns filled with ashes. Amongst these were iron
+rings inlaid with gold, in each of which was set a diminutive shell.
+Learned antiquarians, upon investigating the nature of these rings,
+declared their opinion that they were worn as charms by those who
+desired to behave with steadiness and resolution either in prosperous or
+adverse fortune.
+
+"I likewise took things of this nature in hand at the request of some
+gentlemen who were my particular friends, and wrought some of these
+little rings; but I made them of steel well tempered, and then cut and
+inlaid with gold, so that they were very beautiful to behold: sometimes
+for a single ring of this sort I was paid above forty crowns."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX F
+
+                          OLD SPANISH PULPITS
+
+The earliest pulpits of the Spaniards were similar to those of other
+Christian nations. One of them was the _tribuna_ or _tribunal_, so
+called, according to Saint Isidore, "because the minister delivers from
+it the precepts for a righteous life, wherefore it is a seat or place
+constructed upon high, in order that all he utters may be heard." The
+ambo, too, although it is not mentioned by Saint Isidore, was probably
+not unknown among the Spaniards.[61] Then there were various desks, such
+as the _analogia_, _legitoria_, or _lectra_, on which the scriptures
+were deposited in church, or carried in procession, and from which the
+latter were read aloud by the priest. Saint Isidore remarks of the
+_analogium_; "It is so called because the word is preached therefrom,
+and because it occupies the highest place."[62] Ducange, quoting from
+old authors, remarks in his Glossary that these desks were often adorned
+with gold and silver plates or precious stones. Thus it is extremely
+probable that Tarik's celebrated "table" (see Vol. I., pp. 31 _et seq._)
+was merely some elaborate and bejewelled _analogium_ of the Christians;
+such as was, in fact, the predecessor of the modern lectern or
+"hand-pulpit."
+
+  [61] "Ambo, pulpitum ubi ex duabus partibus sunt gradus." Ugutio,
+       quoted by Ducange.
+
+  [62] _Originum_, Book XV., Chap. iv.
+
+According to Amador de los Rios, sermons in those early times were
+delivered from the _analogium_ only. Towards the twelfth century, the
+Isidorian liturgy was abolished in Spain, and the furniture of Spanish
+temples underwent some change. In the same century and throughout the
+century following, the Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Order of
+Preachers, while, coinciding with, or closely consequent upon, this
+movement, the primitive ambo was succeeded by the _jube_, and wood, as
+the material of which the pulpit was constructed, by marble, iron,
+stone, or plaster.
+
+Two Mudejar pulpits of great interest are preserved at Toledo, in the
+church of Santiago del Arabal (thirteenth century), and in the convent,
+erected in the reign of Pedro the Cruel, of Santo Domingo el Real. The
+substance of these ancient objects is a brick and plaster foundation,
+with panels of the stucco known as _obra de yeseria_, produced from
+wooden moulds. The pulpit of the church of Santiago is traditionally
+affirmed to be the one from which, in 1411, Saint Vincent Ferrer
+delivered a sermon to the Toledan Jews. Whether this be so or not, the
+date of its construction is undoubtedly the second half of the
+fourteenth century, or early in the fifteenth. The shape is octagonal--a
+very common form with Gothic pulpits. It is divided into four _cuerpos_
+or orders, including the sounding-board. The decoration, which is
+chiefly floral, is a combination of the Gothic and the Moorish styles.
+
+The pulpit of Santo Domingo el Real stands in the refectory of that
+convent. It dates from the same period as the one belonging to the
+church of Santiago, but unlike this latter, bears no trace of former
+gilding, painting, or enamelling upon the surface of the stone or
+plaster. It has three tiers or compartments, and, as in the other
+pulpit, the decoration consists of leaves and flowers, blended with
+geometrical patterns and Moorish _laceria_.
+
+The Moorish _mimbar_ or pulpit of the mosque of Cordova was very
+wonderful. According to Sentenach, its situation was near the archway
+leading to the _mihrab_, and on its desk rested the sacred copy of the
+Koran which had belonged to the Caliph Othman, and which was stated to
+be stained with his blood.
+
+This _mimbar_, sacrificed long years ago to Christian barbarism and
+neglect, was the richest piece of furniture in all that mighty building,
+seven years of unremitting labour being exhausted by Al-Hakem's
+craftsmen in constructing it of the richest and most aromatic woods,
+inlaid with silver, ivory, gold, and precious stones. Ambrosio de
+Morales called it "King Almanzor's chair," describing it quaintly as a
+four-wheeled car of richly-wrought wood, mounted by means of seven
+steps. "A few years since," he adds, "they broke it up, I know not
+wherefore. So disappeared this relic of an olden time."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX G
+
+                            SPANISH CUTLERS
+
+In former times excellent cutlery, such as knives, scissors, daggers,
+spearheads, and surgical instruments, was made in Spain, at Seville,
+Albacete, Toledo, Valencia, Pamplona, Ronda, Peniscola, Guadix, Ripoll,
+Mora, Olot, and Tolosa. Rico y Sinobas has given an interesting
+description of the workshop and apparatus of one of these old Spanish
+cutlers--his graduated set of hammers, weighing from a few ounces to
+five pounds, his hand-saws, bench-saw, chisels, pincers, files, and
+drills, his forge, measuring from a yard square to a yard and a half,
+his two anvils of the toughest iron, the larger with a flat surface of
+three inches by ten inches, for ordinary work, the smaller terminated by
+conical points for making the thumb and finger holes of scissors.[63]
+The method of tempering and forging practised by these cutlers was much
+the same as that of the Toledo swordsmiths.
+
+  [63] _Noticia Historica de la Cuchilleria y de los Cuchilleros Antiguos
+       en Espana_ (_Almanaque de El Museo de la Industria_, Madrid, 1870).
+
+Rico y Sinobas also embodied in his essay the following list of cutlers
+and cutler-armourers, who manufactured knives, penknives, scissors,
+parts of firearms, or heads and blades for lances, halberds, and the
+like. The following is a summary of the list in question:--
+
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+        NAME.         |    DATE.            |         WORKED AT
+  --------------------+---------------------+----------------------------
+  Acacio              |17th century         |? He made spearheads and
+                      |                     |  fittings for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Aguas, Juan de      |Early in 18th century|Guadix.
+                      |                     |
+  Alanis              |Late 16th century    |? Maker of fittings for
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Albacete            |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Ambrosio            |Late 18th century    |Mora. Maker of large
+                      |                     |scissors for
+                      |                     |sheep-shearing.
+                      |                     |
+  Arbell, Ramon       |17th century (?)     |Olot. Knife-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (the elder)|Late 15th century    |Guipuzcoa (?). A celebrated
+                      |and early 16th       |maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (Cristobal)|16th century         |? Also a maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |  crossbows. He was the
+                      |                     |  fourth descendant of the
+                      |                     |  family who worked at this
+                      |                     |  branch of the cutler's
+                      |                     |  craft.
+                      |                     |
+  Azcoitia (Juan)     |16th century         |? Perhaps a member of the
+                      |                     |  same family. He also made
+                      |                     |  pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Beson, Manuel       |18th century         |Madrid. Knife-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Bis, Francisco      |18th century         |Madrid (see Vol. I.,
+                      |                     |p. 273). Maker of knives and
+                      |                     |arquebuses.
+                      |                     |
+  Blanco, Juan        |16th century         |Maker of crossbows, and of
+                      |                     |pieces for the same.
+                      |                     |
+  Castellanos (the    |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+  elder)              |                     |
+                      |                     |
+  Castellanos (the    |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+  younger)            |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Castillo, Gregorio  |Late 16th century    |Cataluna (?).
+                      |                     |Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Cerda, Miguel de la |Late 16th century    |Madrid and Segovia. He made
+                      |                     |scissors and other
+                      |                     |cutlery.
+                      |                     |
+  Criado, Juan        |Early 17th century   |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Diaz, Pedro         |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Escobar, Cristobal  |Late 16th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |and early 17th       |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Escobar, Juan       |17th century         |Madrid (?). Son of the
+                      |                     |preceding, and also a maker
+                      |                     |of pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Fernandez Manso     |Late 18th century    |Guadalajara.  A Portuguese,
+  de Payba, Jose      |                     |naturalized in Spain.  He
+                      |                     |was a scissors-maker of
+                      |                     |considerable fame.
+                      |                     |
+  Fuente, Pedro de la |Late 15th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of
+                      |or early 16th        |crossbows and their pieces.
+                      |                     |
+  Garcia, Domingo     |Late 17th century    |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |                     |cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Garcia de la Torre, |Early 18th century   |Guadalix and Alcorcon.
+  Teodoro             |                     |Cutler. In company with
+                      |                     |Manuel Beson, he invented a
+                      |                     |method of converting iron
+                      |                     |into steel.
+                      |                     |
+  Garijo              |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Garro, Martin       |Early 15th century   |Pamplona. Cutler and
+                      |                     |swordsmith. A letter dated
+                      |                     |October 31st, 1406, records
+                      |                     |that he was paid five
+                      |                     |_escudos_ for making a
+                      |                     |sword, and one _escudo_ for
+                      |                     |a dagger.
+                      |                     |
+  Gomez, Mateo        |Late 17th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Grajeras            |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Grande, Juan        |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of
+                      |                     |lanceheads.
+                      |                     |
+  Gutierrez           |Late 17th century    |Chinchilla. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Hernandez, Juan     |16th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Herraez, Andres     |Late 16th century    |Cuenca. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |                     |cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Herrezuelo (the     |Late 16th century    |Baeza. Cutler.
+  elder)              |and early 17th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Herrezuelo (the     |Early 17th century   |Baeza.
+  younger)            |                     |Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Horbeira, Angel     |Late 17th century    |Madrid. Cutler; a native of
+                      |                     |Galicia, and reputed to be
+                      |                     |one of the best craftsmen of
+                      |                     |his time. He was known as
+                      |                     |_El Borgonon_, and passed
+                      |                     |his early life in Flanders.
+                      |                     |
+  Hortega             |Early 16th century   |? Maker of pieces for
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Lallabe, Juan de    |Early 19th century   |? Cutler, locksmith, and
+                      |                     |  maker of surgical
+                      |                     |  instruments.
+                      |                     |
+  Lastra, Juan        |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |                     |for crossbows. He was one
+                      |                     |of the latest and most
+                      |                     |celebrated of these
+                      |                     |craftsmen.
+                      |                     |
+  Leon                |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Llorens, Pablo      |Late 17th century    |Olot. Cutler.
+                      |                     |
+  Marcoarte, Simon    |Late 16th century    |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
+                      |and early 17th       |cutler. He was the son of
+                      |                     |another craftsman of the
+                      |                     |same name, who settled in
+                      |                     |Spain in the reign of
+                      |                     |Charles the Fifth
+                      |                     |(see Vol. I., p. 273).
+                      |                     |
+  Martinez, Juan      |Early 16th century   |? Maker of darts and lances
+                      |                     |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Mendoza, Francisco  |Early 18th century   |Trigueros (Old Castile).
+  and Manuel          |                     |Cutlers.
+                      |                     |
+  Moreno, Luis        |Late 15th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |or early 16th        |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Moro, El            |Late 18th century    |Madrid. Cutler.
+                      |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Munoz of Getafe     |16th century and     |? Maker of pieces for
+                      |early 17th           |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Oipa, Juan          |       ?             |Madrid. Maker of crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Perez de Villadiego,|16th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+  Juan                |                     |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Perez, Julian       |Early 17th century   |Madrid (?). Maker of darts
+                      |                     |  and lances for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Puebla (the elder)  |Early 16th century   |Madrid. Maker of parts of
+                      |                     |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Ramirez, Juan       |Late 16th century    |? Cutler. He emigrated to
+                      |                     |  the city of Puebla de los
+                      |                     |  Angeles, in Mexico, where
+                      |                     |  he continued to make
+                      |                     |  knives, scissors, and
+                      |                     |  weapons of good quality.
+                      |                     |
+  Renedo (the elder)  |Early 16th century(?)|? Maker of darts and lances
+                      |                     |  for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Renedo (the younger)| Late 16th century   |? Son of the preceding. He
+                      |                     |  and early 17th  made the
+                      |                     |  same objects as his
+                      |                     |  father.
+                      |                     |
+  Romero              |Late 18th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Rosel               |         ?           |Mora. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  San Jose, Brother   |Late 17th century    |Jaen. Scissors-maker.
+  Antonio             |                     |
+                      |                     |
+  Santamaria          |Late 16th century    |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
+                      |and early 17th       |for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Selva, Juan         |Late 18th century    |Cartagena and Madrid. Cutler
+                      |                     |and iron-founder.
+                      |                     |
+  Segura              |Late 18th century    |Mora. Scissors-maker.
+                      |and early 19th       |
+                      |                     |
+  Sierra, Juan        |18th century         |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Soler, Isidro       |Late 18th century    |Madrid.  Arquebus-maker,
+                      |                     |and early 19th  cutler, and
+                      |                     |author of _An Historical
+                      |                     |Essay on making Arquebuses_.
+                      |                     |
+  Sosa                |17th century         |Madrid (?). Maker of weapons,
+                      |                     |especially the heads of
+                      |                     |lances.
+                      |                     |
+  Targarona,          |Late 18th century    |Madrid.  Arquebus-maker to
+  Francisco           |                     |Charles the Third and
+                      |                     |Charles the Fourth, and one
+                      |                     |of the most skilful
+                      |                     |craftsmen of his day.
+                      |                     |
+  Tijerero, El        |         ?           |Toledo. Maker of swords and
+  (Domingo Sanchez)   |                     |scissors.
+                      |                     |
+  Torres              |Early 17th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Ucedo               |Late 16th century and|? Maker of pieces for
+                      |perhaps early 17th   |  crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  V....               |16th century (?)     |Toledo (?).  Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |The rest of this craftsman's
+                      |                     |name is not known.
+                      |                     |
+  Valderas, Pedro de  |16th century         |Madrid and Valladolid. Maker
+                      |                     |of pieces for crossbows.
+                      |                     |
+  Vicen-Perez, Pedro  |Late 17th century    |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  Vilarasa, Antonio   |Late 17th century    |? Cutler and razor-maker.
+                      |                     |
+  ... Emt.., Julian   |Early 18th century   |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
+                      |                     |Only a fragment of his name
+                      |                     |has been preserved upon a
+                      |                     |blade. Rico y Sinobas
+                      |                     |suggests thatthe entire
+                      |                     |surname may have been
+                      |                     |_Vicen-Perez_.
+                      |                     |
+  Zeruantes,          |Late 17th century    |Toledo. Maker of blades for
+  Francisco           |                     |halberds.
+                      |                     |
+  Zamora ("the deaf") |Late 16th century    |Castile. Cutler,
+                      |and early 17th       |
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+                               APPENDIX H
+
+                          SPANISH TRADE-GUILDS
+
+The _gremios_ of Spain were copied from the guilds of France and other
+countries, and may be traced originally to the _corpora_ and _collegia_
+of the Romans and Byzantines. The earliest which were formed in the
+Peninsula were those of Barcelona[64] and Soria, succeeded, not long
+after, by Valencia, Seville,[65] and Toledo. Prior, however, to the
+institution of these trade-guilds proper, whose purpose was
+pre-eminently mercenary,[66] there existed, in the case of several
+cities, _cofradias_ or religious brotherhoods, that is, associations of
+a philanthropic character, composed of tradesmen or artificers who
+pledged themselves to assist each other in poverty or sickness, or to
+defray the burial expenses of such members as should die without
+resources.
+
+  [64] See Perez Pujol, _Condicion social de las personas a principios del
+       siglo V_. "The ironsmiths of Barcelona," says Riano, "formed an
+       extensive guild in the thirteenth century; in 1257, four of its
+       members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild
+       increased in importance in the following centuries."
+
+  [65] The history of the Sevillian trade-guilds begins properly with the
+       fifteenth century, although Gestoso states in his _Diccionario de
+       Artifices Sevillanos_ that he has found a few documents which seem
+       to point to their existence in the century preceding.
+
+       When the Spanish Christians pitched their camp before this city,
+       prior to their victorious assault upon its walls, the besieging
+       army was divided according to the various trades of its component
+       soldiery: the spicers in one part of the camp, the apothecaries in
+       another, and so forth. It is therefore probable that the Sevillian
+       trade-guilds were instituted shortly after the re-conquest. The
+       wages of smiths, shoemakers, silversmiths, armourers, and other
+       craftsmen were decreed by Pedro the First in his _Ordenamiento de
+       Menestrales_. The ordinances of the silversmiths, in particular,
+       are so old that Gestoso believes them to have been renewed and
+       confirmed by Juan the Second, in the year 1416. However this may
+       be, it is certain that the Seville guilds were regularly
+       constituted in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+  [66] Barzanallana defines the word _gremio_ "as it came to be understood
+       in Spain," as "any gathering of merchants, artisans, labourers, or
+       other persons who practised the same profession, art, or office;
+       and who were bound to comply with certain ordinances, applicable to
+       each individual of their number."
+
+       It is well, however, to distinguish broadly between actual
+       manufacturers or producers (_menestrales de manos_) and merchants
+       or shopkeepers (_mercaderes de tienda y de escriptorio_), who
+       merely trafficked in what was executed by another.
+
+The formula of admission to a Spanish brotherhood was very quaint in its
+punctilious and precise severity. A notice of this ceremony, relating to
+the Cofradia of Saint Eligius, or Silversmiths' Brotherhood of
+Seville,[67] is quoted by Gestoso from the venerable _Regla de
+Hermandad_ or statutes of the members, preserved in a codex dating from
+the first half of the sixteenth century. It was required that the
+candidate for admission should be a silversmith, married in conformity
+with the canons of the church, a man well spoken of among his
+neighbours, and not a recent convert to the Christian faith. The day
+prescribed for choosing or rejecting him was that which was consecrated
+to Saint John the Baptist, coinciding with the festival of Saint Eligius
+or San Loy, "patron and representative" of silversmiths, and who in life
+had been a silversmith himself. The regulations of the Cofradia decreed
+the following method of election. "In the chest belonging to the
+Brotherhood shall be kept a wood or metal vessel with space sufficient
+to contain some fifty beans or almonds; and the said vessel shall be set
+in our chapter-room, in a spot where no man is. Each of the brothers
+that are present shall next be given one of the beans or almonds, and,
+rising from his seat, arrange his cloak about him so as to conceal his
+hands, in order that none may witness whether he drops, or does not
+drop, the almond or the bean into the vessel. Then, with due
+dissimulation, he shall proceed to where the vessel lies, and if he deem
+that he who seeks to be admitted as our brother be an honourable man,
+and such as shall contribute to the lustre of our Brotherhood, then
+shall he drop in a bean or almond, and return to his seat, still
+covering his hands with his cloak. But if, upon the contrary, he deem
+that the said candidate be a sinner, and a riotous fellow and bad
+Christian, that should prove a source of evil and vexation to our
+chapter, or that hath wronged another of our brethren, then shall he not
+cast in the bean or almond, but secretly reserve the same, and once more
+seat himself. Lastly, when all shall have crossed over to and from the
+vessel, they shall bear it to the table where the officers sit, and void
+it in the sight of all the company, and count the beans or almonds; and
+if the number of these be full, then is it clear that we do receive the
+other for our _Hermano_. But if there be a bean or almond wanting, in
+that a brother hath retained it in his fingers, then shall our
+_Alcaldes_ speak to this effect. 'Senores: here wants a bean or almond'
+(or two, or any number, as may be). 'Within eight days from now let him
+that kept it back present himself to us, or to any one of us, and give
+account why he that sought admission to our Brotherhood deserves to be
+rejected.' And if the brother that kept back the bean or almond should
+not present himself within the appointed time, then shall the
+Brotherhood admit the other: but if he appear, and state a lawful cause
+against the other's entry, then our _Alcaldes_, when this last presents
+himself to learn their resolution, shall urge him to have patience, in
+that not all the brothers are content with him, albeit, if such cause
+consisteth in a quarrel between a brother and the candidate for entry,
+peace may be brought about between the two, and afterward the _Cofradia_
+may admit him of their number."
+
+  [67] This guild, as all the others, held an annual convocation of its
+       members, and possessed a chapel of its own in the convent of San
+       Francisco. It exercised a strict and constant supervision upon the
+       gold and silver work produced throughout the city. On April 15th,
+       1567, the inspectors appointed and salaried by the guild visited
+       the shop of Antonio de Cuevas, and seized an _Agnus Dei_ and a
+       faultily executed cross, both of which objects were destroyed
+       forthwith. On February 8th, 1569, they repeated their visit to the
+       same silversmith, and seized an _apretador_, which was likewise
+       broken up. On February 9th, 1602, they entered the shop of Antonio
+       de Ahumada, and took away "two rings, a gold _encomienda_, a cross
+       of Saint John, some small cocks, a toothpick, and a San Diego of
+       silver." Similar notices of fines, confiscations, and other
+       punishments exist in great abundance, and may be studied in
+       Gestoso's dictionary. See also Vol. I., p. 114, of the present
+       work.
+
+Similar ceremonies and customs were observed in old Toledo (see the
+Ordinances of this city, dated June 24th, 1423, renewed and amplified in
+1524).[68] Here also the silversmiths agreed to meet and celebrate the
+festival of their patron saint upon one day in every year, "for ever and
+for ever" (_para siempre jamas_). On these occasions the image of the
+saint was carried in procession, and a repast was given to the brothers
+themselves, as well as to all persons who were "willing to receive it
+for the love of God." Every brother who failed to present himself at
+this solemnity was fined one pound of candle-wax; but if he were merely
+unpunctual, and arrived "after the singing of the first three psalms,"
+the fine was only half a pound. A pound of candle-wax was also the
+statutory tribute for admission to the Brotherhood, together with a
+hundred _maravedis_ and other unimportant sums in cash.
+
+The history of the _gremios_ of Valencia has been traced in an
+instructive essay by Luis Tramoyeres Blasco. Early in the fifteenth
+century guilds were established here of nearly thirty trades, including
+tailors, millers, carpenters, shoemakers, silversmiths, weavers,
+tanners, dyers, swordsmiths, and bonnet-makers. These guilds developed
+greatly in the sixteenth century, expanding into powerful and wealthy
+bodies, who practically controlled the entire commerce and commercial
+products of their native town. Among the _gremios_ instituted at a later
+date were those of the firework-makers, basket-makers, twisters of
+silk, stiffeners of dress fabrics, bell-founders, and painters of
+chests and boxes, each of these corporations being enrolled by law, and
+possessing a code of regulations for the government and guidance of its
+members. Sometimes, however, owing to diminution in its trade, a guild
+became extinct, as happened with the _guadamacileros_ (see Vol. II., pp.
+38 _et seq._), and with the clothmakers, of whom, in 1595, but three
+remained in all Valencia. Or else a _gremio_ would purposely amalgamate
+with, or merge insensibly into, another. Thus in 1668 the tailors and
+the makers of trunk-hose united in a single corporation, just as, at
+other times, the glovers and the parchment-dressers, the clog-makers and
+the shoemakers.
+
+  [68] The foremost in importance of the _gremios_ of Toledo was that of
+       the silk-weavers (_arte mayor de la seda_), whose earliest
+       ordinances date from A.D. 1533.
+
+       Interesting particulars of the old Toledan _gremios_ generally will
+       be found in the municipal archives of this city, in the _Ordenanzas
+       para el buen regimen y gobierno de la muy noble, muy leal e
+       imperial ciudad de Toledo_ (reprinted in 1858); in Martin Gamero's
+       _History of Toledo_; and in the Count of Cedillo's scholarly
+       monograph, _Toledo in the Sixteenth Century_.
+
+Those of the Valencian guilds which possessed the greatest influence and
+resources, and enjoyed the highest privileges from the city or the
+crown, were called _colegiados_. Among them were the velvet-makers,
+hatters, bronze-founders, wax-makers, confectioners, dyers, and makers
+of silk hose. The earliest to obtain this coveted and honourable title
+were the booksellers, in 1539, followed by the wax-makers in 1634, the
+confectioners in 1644, the velvet-makers also in this year, and others
+in succession, terminating with the dyers in 1763, the hatters in 1770,
+the bell-founders in 1772, and the makers of silk stockings in 1774.
+
+According to Tramoyeres, most of the Valencian trade-guilds owned a
+building in fee-simple, and often gave the title of their craft to the
+entire street in which that edifice was situated. Nor did the _gremios_,
+in their evolution from the simpler and less mercenary form of
+brotherhood or _cofradia_, wholly abandon the religious ceremonies of
+their prototype. In almost every instance the guild erected and
+maintained a chapel within its private _domicilio_, chose a particular
+saint to be its patron, and held, with fitting pomp and liberality, a
+yearly celebration of that patron's holy-day.
+
+On these occasions masses and other services were said or sung, and the
+embroidered banner of the guild, together with the image (which was
+often of silver) of its tutelar saint, was carried in procession through
+the streets of this bright city of the south, abounding at all seasons
+in flowers and sunshine, and famed, from the remotest days of Spanish
+history, for the splendour and munificence of her public festivals.
+
+Our earliest record of the formal attendance of the _gremios_ of
+Valencia at one of her _fiestas_, goes back to the visit to this capital
+of King Pedro the Second, in 1336, when the guilds were marshalled in
+military fashion, company by company, each headed by its pennon "_a la
+saga dels primers_," that is, next to the group or company immediately
+in front of it. In 1392, upon the visit of another monarch, Juan the
+First, who was accompanied by his queen, Violante, a more elaborate
+character was given to the welcome. Jongleurs and dancers were hired to
+perform, while several of the _gremios_ constructed decorative scenes or
+allegorical tableaux on a platform or a waggon, which was wheeled along
+the street in slow procession, surrounded by the marching members of the
+guild. One of these structures represented the winged dragon or
+_drach-alat_ which figures so conspicuously in the records of Valencia
+(see Vol. I., p. 210), and was attacked and overcome in mimic combat by
+a body of knights armed cap-a-pie. The mariners of the port built two
+large galleys, also moved on wheels and simulating an attack, and the
+_freneros_ or bit-makers presented a gathering of folk disguised as
+savages. Nor was the bullfight--that most characteristic of Spanish
+sports--omitted from the entertainment, judging from the following entry
+in the city archives: "Item. Sien aemprats los prohomens carnicers a
+procurar e haver toros e fer per sos dies feta la dita entrada joch ab
+aquells specialment en lo mercat com sia cert quel Senyor Rey se agrada
+e pren plaer de tal joch."
+
+A typical _fiesta_ and procession of these trade-guilds is described by
+Tramoyeres. "Formed in two long lines, the members of the guild advanced
+along the tortuous and narrow highways of the town, adorned with
+tapestries and altars. Each _gremio_ was preceded by a band of
+cymbal-beaters, pipers, and jongleurs, sometimes accompanied by a
+_comparsa_ allusive to the ceremony now being celebrated. Next came the
+standard of the master-craftsmen and apprentices, each group of whom
+attended its _divisa_ or distinguishing emblem. Close after followed the
+banner of the craft in general, carried by one or two of the
+_oficiales_, who made display of their dexterity and strength by
+supporting the staff of the banner upon their shoulder, the palm of the
+hand, or the under-lip. The cords of the banner were held by the
+officers of the guild, denominated _mayorales_, _clavarios_ and
+_prohombres_; behind these came the masters, and last of all, a
+triumphal car on which were represented scenes relating to the craft.
+Thus, in the year 1655, at the commemoration of the second centenary of
+the canonization of Saint Vincent Ferrer, the _gremios_ showed
+particular ingenuity and novelty in these devices." Don Marco Antonio
+Orti, who wrote an account of the festival in question, thus describes a
+few of them. "The millers were preceded by a waggon drawn by four mules
+and covered with boughs and flowers. On it was the imitation of a
+windmill, wheel and every other part, contrived so cunningly that
+although the wheel went round at a great speed, the artifice which
+caused it to revolve was kept from view, and in the time that the
+procession lasted, it ground to flour a whole _caliz_ of wheat." Another
+invention, says the same chronicler, was that of the masons. "The scene
+devised by these was a triumphal car, handsomely adorned, on which was
+borne the great tower (of the cathedral),[69] imitated so skilfully that
+it seemed to have been rooted from its foundation, and replanted in the
+car aforesaid; and so enormous was its size that a special spot required
+to be chosen in which to set it up. This was in the garden of La Punta;
+and when the tower was finished and ready to be taken forth, a breach
+for its passage had to be opened in the garden wall. It even contained a
+peal of bells, which rang by turning round and round, and this invention
+of the bells, besides its ingenuity, was rarely fitted to this festival,
+seeing that the clock-bell of the cathedral (that is the greatest of
+them all) was given, when it was baptized, the name of San Vicente's
+bell, as well as of Saint Michael the Archangel; whence the tower itself
+is called the Micalet, this, in the language of Valencia, being the
+diminutive for Michael. It were impossible to imagine the stir and the
+applause excited in all quarters of the city by the passage of this
+tower."
+
+  [69] That is, the ponderous structure known as the Miguelete, which
+       stands unfinished to this day.
+
+The same writer describes the decorative car or waggon of the
+flax-weavers. "Upon it were a woman seated beneath a canopy, weaving at
+a frame, and representing Santa Ana, the child Jesus making _canillas_,
+and an aged man, for San Antonio, dressed as a hermit, with a live
+sucking-pig at his side. Before these went Our Lady riding on a jennet,
+with a child in her arms, her right hand held by a man of venerable age
+representing Saint Joseph. This artifice was symbolic of the weavers'
+trade, receiving for this reason great applause, as well as for the
+lavish decoration of, and curious details that were in, the car."
+
+Tramoyeres further explains that the guild which took first place in the
+procession was that which had been most recently created, the oldest and
+most honoured coming last. At Valencia this proud position was held from
+the remotest period by the clothmakers; but from time to time, when
+these for any cause were absent from the festival, their place was taken
+by one or other of two companies almost as ancient and as
+honourable--the tanners or the tailors.
+
+Each guild selected an official dress or livery, distinguished from the
+others by its colour or design:--the tailors, purple and white; the
+weavers, rose with black sleeves; the cutlers, crimson with green
+sleeves and sprinkled with golden roses; the millers, white with
+crimson-striped sleeves; the silversmiths, crimson with silver trimming;
+and so forth. Their banners, too, were quite in harmony with the rich
+apparel of the vain _agremiados_. According to an author of the
+seventeenth century, these flags were "not of war, but of a different
+workmanship, and greatly larger. All are of damask, most being coloured
+crimson, and the poles sustaining them, and terminated by an image of
+the sainted patron of the guild, are longer than the longest pike of
+war. Truly, a splendid show these banners make, displayed with fringes
+of drawn gold, and shields embroidered with the same material."
+
+The image in which the pole of the banner concluded was not, however,
+invariably that of a saint, or of a saint alone. In the case of the
+cask-makers it was a golden tun surmounted by a cross, with figures of
+Saint Helen and the Emperor Constantine standing on either side of it.
+That of the armourers was a bat (the _rat-penat_ or "winged rat"
+contained in the _escudo_ of Valencia); that of the cloth-shearers, a
+pair of scissors with a golden crown and the image of Saint Christopher;
+of the fishermen, a boat containing Saint Peter and Saint Andrew; of the
+clothmakers, a sphere inscribed with the name of Jesus; of the
+stonemasons, a silver millwheel and a silver image of the Virgin.
+Similarly, each _gremio_ displayed upon its coat-of-arms some kind of
+emblem such as the implement, or implements, associated with its
+trade:--the silversmiths, a square and compass; the carpenters, a
+hatchet and a saw; the lock-smiths, a pair of hammers and an anvil.
+
+Quaintly instructive are the dispositions of the guilds relating to
+apprenticeship. The _maestro_ of a trade, described by the Count of
+Torreanaz as "the principal worker in the workshop," agreed to feed,
+clothe, and instruct his apprentice or _discipulo_, and treat him
+generally as a member of his own family. He was permitted to punish his
+apprentice for misconduct, but not to employ excessive physical
+violence; and a law of Jayme the First decreed that if the apprentice
+lost one or both of his eyes from a blow inflicted by his master, the
+latter was to "make good the injury" (_sia tengut del mal que li haura
+feyt_).
+
+The number of apprentices allowed in any one workshop was often (and
+subsequently to the fifteenth century, nearly always) regulated by the
+law. The first disposition of this kind discovered by Tramoyeres dates
+from the year 1451, and refers to the shoemakers, whose apprentices
+might not outnumber three to each _maestro_.[70] Similarly, by
+provisions issued at a later date, the mattress-makers and the builders
+were allowed no more than two apprentices, and the silk-weavers three,
+although sometimes the master might admit an extra _aprenent_ or so, on
+payment of a certain sum per head.[71] The term of the apprenticeship
+was also often fixed by law. In most of the trades it was four years;
+but in the case of the makers of ribbons and of boxes it was five years;
+while stocking-makers were apprenticed for six, and wax-makers and
+confectioners for eight years.
+
+  [70] The Count of Torreanaz quotes an earlier instance, relative to
+       another city, from the shoemakers' ordinances of Burgos, confirmed
+       by the emperor Alfonso in A.D. 1270. These laws decreed, obviously
+       with the purpose of limiting the number of apprentices, that every
+       master-craftsman who engaged an apprentice was to pay two thousand
+       _maravedis_ "for the service of God and of the hospital." Similar
+       legislation, lasting many centuries, was in force elsewhere, for
+       Larruga says that at Valladolid, although the city produced
+       fourteen thousand hats yearly, most of the master-hatters had no
+       apprentices in their workshops, and only one _oficial_.
+
+  [71] _E.g._, the silk-weavers (Statute of 1701). "Que ningun collegial
+       de dit collegi puixa matricular francament mes de tres aprenents y
+       si volgues tenirne mes, hatja de pagar a dit collegi deu lliures,
+       moneda real de Valencia per cascu dels que excedira de dit numero."
+
+Before the father or the guardian of a lad could sign his papers of
+apprenticeship, it was required (during and after the sixteenth century)
+to prove before the guild, by means of his certificate of baptism, or on
+the declaration of witnesses, that he was the child of parents who were
+"old Christians," and not the offspring of Moor, Jew, slave, convert, or
+(in the fierce expression of the stocking-makers) "any other infected
+race." Still more absurd and savage was an ordinance, dated 1597, of the
+shoemakers, prohibiting any master of this trade from admitting to
+apprenticeship in any form, "a black boy, or one of the colour of cooked
+quince, slave or Moor ... so as to avoid the harm which might befall
+our brother shoemakers from the ridicule that would be stirred among the
+populace, if they should see in our processions and other public acts, a
+slave, or the son of a black slave, or a lad of the colour of cooked
+quince, or a Moor; as well as the rioting and scandals that would be
+caused by the spectacle of creatures of this nature mixing with decent,
+well-dressed people."
+
+These statutes are selected from the mass of local legislation which
+concerned Valencia only. Turning to Spanish guilds at large, the study
+of these institutions throws considerable light upon the customs of the
+Spanish nation in the past, and more especially upon the social and
+financial standing of the older Spanish craftsman. As in other
+countries, the principal and primal object of the _gremio_ was to
+organize a system of defence against the military and nobility, or even
+against the crown. Presently, however, and long before their evolution
+is completed, errors become apparent in the statutes or proceedings of
+these bodies which denote, very instructively and very plainly, the
+typical defects or weaknesses of the Spanish character. Foremost of all
+was thriftlessness. Although it is a fact that several of the Spanish
+guilds owned houses or even land, none of them (except the silversmiths
+of two or three large towns) were really affluent;[72] and indeed, in a
+country racked by incessant foreign wars or civil strife, there was
+every reason why they should not be affluent. Yet, notwithstanding this,
+in celebrating any kind of public festival, the poor _agremiado_ made no
+scruple to vie in prodigal disbursements with the moneyed aristocracy,
+clothing himself in fanciful and costly stuffs,[73] constructing shows
+and spectacles on wheels, raising elaborate altars in the streets,
+contracting for expensive services, performances, and tableaux. More
+than once, the _gremios_ were obliged to borrow funds to celebrate the
+festival of their patron saint.[74] So also with regard to dress. The
+costumes of the guildsmen of Valencia have been already noticed. An
+equal recklessness and foppery prevailed in other Spanish towns; for
+instance, at Barcelona, where, on a visit of Ferdinand and Isabella in
+1481, the silversmiths formed part of the procession "dressed in the
+richest manner, with robes and mantles all covered with silver, and some
+of them with bonnets that were all of silver plate with jewels and
+silver foliage, while others wore silver chains about their necks."
+
+  [72] It is not often, for instance, that we meet with notices of Spanish
+       craftsmen such as Miguel Jeronimo Monegro, a silversmith of
+       Seville, who at his death, towards the middle of the sixteenth
+       century, was in a position to bequeath the following money and
+       effects: 15,000 _maravedis_ to his servant, Catalina Mexia, 6000
+       _maravedis_ to Juan Ortiz, "a boy that was in my house, that he may
+       learn a trade," 6000 _maravedis_ yearly to his slavewomen, Juana
+       and Luisa, and a black mule to his executor, Hernando de
+       Morales.--Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artifices Sevillanas_,
+       Vol. II., p. 256.
+
+  [73] This did not happen only at Valencia. The Cortes assembled at
+       Valladolid in 1537 complained that it was "tolerable that costly
+       stuffs should be worn by lords, gentlemen, and wealthy persons; but
+       such is become our nation, that there is not an hidalgo, squire,
+       merchant, or _oficial_ of any trade, but wears rich clothing;
+       wherefore many grow impoverished and lack the money to pay the
+       _alcabalas_ and the other taxes owing to His Majesty."
+
+       Fernandez de Navarrete stated, in 1626, that "the wives of common
+       _mecanicos_ (_i.e._ craftsmen) furnish their dwellings more
+       luxuriously than titled personages of the realm were wont to
+       furnish theirs some few years ago," and that hangings of taffeta
+       or Spanish _guadamecies_ were now regarded with contempt, being
+       replaced, even in the homes of the moderately well-to-do, by
+       sumptuous fabrics of Florence and Milan, and by the costliest
+       Brussels tapestry.--(_Conservacion de Monarquias_, p. 246).
+
+  [74] Larruga, in Vol. XVIII. of his _Memorias_, inserts an account of
+       the heavy debts incurred by the _gremios_ of Valladolid, upon the
+       celebration of various of their festivals.
+
+Two of the most conspicuous faults among the Spanish race are pride and
+envy. Yet these defects may be explained without much puzzling, and, in
+a measure, pardoned. Spaniards, through all the process of their
+national development, have clung by preference to the calling of the
+soldier or the priest; that is, the only occupations which directly
+dissipate the revenue of the commonwealth. Since, therefore, they were
+thus inclined from earliest antiquity, as well as tutored by a crafty
+priesthood to believe that might or violence alone is right, the
+haughtiness of the Spanish people is a logical, and indeed inevitable,
+outcome of their history. Moreover, side by side with this erroneous
+theory that the only prowess and decorum of a people must consist in
+armed aggressiveness, as well as in a truculent and militant intolerance
+in matters of religion (or rather, of superstition), there arose the
+equally as mischievous and erroneous theory that the arts of peace were
+venal, despicable, and effeminate, or, in the current phrase of our
+contemporaries, "unworthy of a gentleman." "The Spaniards," wrote
+Fernandez de Navarrete, "are so proud-hearted that they do not
+accommodate themselves to servile labour." Therefore this people chose
+their favourites and heroes in a semi-savage freebooter; never in a
+craftsman of gigantic merit, like the elder Berruguete, or Juan de Arfe,
+or Alonso Cano. Sometimes, as happened with the _reja_ of the Chapel
+Royal of Granada, they did not even trouble to record the surname of her
+best artificers. These men, in fact, exceptions to her universal rule,
+were coldly looked upon, or even persecuted.[75] Abundant proof is yet
+extant of this humiliation of her merchants, craftsmen, shopkeepers, as
+distinguished from her soldiery and clergy, gentry and nobility.
+Undoubtedly, beneath such scorn the former of these groups were
+sensitive to their position, and all the more acutely sensitive because
+of their inherent Spanish pride. In fact, so sensitive were they, that
+now and then the crown esteemed it prudent to appease their wounded
+vanity by certain declarations or emoluments. Thus, the _Repartimiento
+de Sevilla_ tells us that in the year 1255 Alfonso the Tenth rewarded
+several craftsmen of his capital of Seville with the title of _Don_, "a
+dignity," says Amador, "rarely bestowed at that time."[76] In 1556
+Charles the Fifth resolved, in favour of the corporation of
+_artistas-plateros_ or "artist-silversmiths," that the masters of this
+craft, together with their wives, might dress in silk, "in that it was
+an art they exercised, and not an office" (Gestoso, _Diccionario de
+Artifices Sevillanos_, Vol. I., p. lx.), while Philip the Fourth decreed
+that they should not be forced to contribute to the equipment of his
+troops, but should only be invited to contribute, _just as with the
+nobles_. Nevertheless, Rico y Sinobas points out (_Del vidrio y de sus
+artifices en Espana_) that Philip the Fifth and Ferdinand the Sixth, on
+founding the royal glass factory of San Ildefonso, did not dare to
+ennoble the Castilian workmen.
+
+  [75] The treatment of distinguished craftsmen by the Spanish church was
+       often sheerly villainous. A document, inserted by Zarco del Valle
+       among his collection of _Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de
+       las Bellas Artes en Espana_, p. 362, and in the handwriting of
+       "Maestre" Domingo (see Vol. I., pp. 148, 149), states that after
+       making the choir-_reja_ for Toledo cathedral, "so richly wrought,
+       that in the elegance and rarity thereof it far surpasseth all that
+       has been witnessed in our time, whether in his majesty's dominions
+       or abroad," and expending on it "all the money I had earned in my
+       youth," this eminent _rejero_ found himself by now "owing a great
+       quantity of _maravedis_, seeing that I am utterly without
+       resources," concluding by an appeal to the archbishop to "take heed
+       how that I shall not perish through such poverty, and my wife and
+       children in the hospital."
+
+       In another document the same artificer complains that in producing
+       the aforesaid _reja_, he had sacrificed "not only my labour, but my
+       property to boot, having been compelled to sell my house and my
+       inheritance to compensate me for my losses," adding that the
+       cathedral authorities had violated their engagement with him.
+
+       In answer to a series of petitions such as this, the archbishop
+       tardily gave orders for the payment to Domingo of a lump sum of
+       fifteen thousand _maravedis_ and a pension for the rest of his life
+       of two silver _reales_ of Castilian money, "to aid him to support
+       himself." This was in A.D. 1563. By 1565 death had ended the
+       miseries of the master-craftsman, and again we find his widow and
+       children knocking at the archbishop's door, pleading that "extreme
+       is our necessity," and declaring that Domingo had succumbed
+       overburdened with debt, _affirming on his deathbed that the
+       cathedral owed him three thousand ducats, being half the value of
+       a reja he had made_.
+
+       In answer to this terrible appeal, the thrifty prelate ordered that
+       _since it was found to be true that Master Domingo had lost his
+       maravedis in making the rejas of the choir_, his widow and children
+       should receive a daily pension of one _real_, and that a suit of
+       clothes should be given to each of his sons and his two daughters.
+
+  [76] So rarely, that Salazar de Mendoza affirms in his book upon
+       _Castilian Dignities_ that this "high prenomen" (_alto prenombre
+       Don_) might properly be used by none but kings, _infantes_,
+       prelates, and the _ricos-homes_ of the realm.
+
+       In A.D. 1626, Fernandez de Navarrete complained of the tendency
+       prevailing among the Spaniards generally to usurp the title _Don_.
+       "Nowadays in Castile," he wrote (_Conservacion de Monarquias_,
+       p. 71, etc.), "exists a horde of turbulent and idle fellows that so
+       style themselves, since you will hardly find the son of a craftsman
+       (_oficial mecanico_) that does not endeavour by this trick to filch
+       the honour that is owed to true nobility alone; and so, impeded and
+       weighed down by the false appearance of _caballeros_, they are
+       unsuited to follow any occupation that is incompatible with the
+       empty authority of a _Don_."
+
+       Some of the reasons why these rogues or _pseudonobles_ (as
+       Fernandez de Navarrete called them), attempted to pass for
+       _hidalgos_ or "sons of somebody," are disclosed by Townsend,
+       writing a century and a half later. "Numerous privileges and
+       immunities enjoyed by the _hidalgos_ or knights, sometimes called
+       _hijos dalgo_, have contributed very much to confirm hereditary
+       prejudices to the detriment of trade. Their depositions are taken
+       in their own houses. They are seated in the courts of justice, and
+       are placed near the judge. Till the year 1784, their persons, arms,
+       and horses were free from arrest. They are not sent to the common
+       jails, but are either confined in castles or in their own houses on
+       their parole of honour. They are not hanged, but strangled, and
+       this operation is called _garrotar_, from _garrote_, the little
+       stick used by carriers to twist the cord and bind hard their
+       loading. They cannot be examined on the rack. They are, moreover,
+       exempted from the various taxes called _fechos_, _pedidos_,
+       _monedas_, _martiniegas_, and _contribuciones reales_ and
+       _civiles_: that is, from subsidies, benevolence, and poll tax, or
+       taille paid by the common people, at the rate of two per cent., in
+       this province, but in others at the rate of four. They are free
+       from personal service, except where the sovereign is, and even then
+       they cannot be compelled to follow him. None but the royal family
+       can be quartered on them. To conclude, the noble female conveys all
+       these privileges to her husband and her children, just in the same
+       manner as the eldest daughter of the titular nobility transmits the
+       titles of her progenitors.
+
+       "The proportion of _hidalgos_ in the kingdom of Granada is not
+       considerable; for out of six hundred and fifty-two thousand nine
+       hundred and ninety inhabitants, only one thousand nine hundred and
+       seventy-nine are noble; whereas, in the province of Leon, upon
+       little more than one-third that population, the knights are
+       twenty-two thousand. In the province of Burgos, on four hundred and
+       sixty thousand three hundred and ninety-five inhabitants, one
+       hundred and thirty-four thousand and fifty-six are entitled to all
+       the privileges of nobility; and in Asturias, of three hundred and
+       forty-five thousand eight hundred and thirty-three, nearly
+       one-third enjoy the same distinction."--(_Journey through Spain in
+       the years 1786 and 1787_: Vol. III., pp. 79, 80.)
+
+"I bestow the name of craftsmen in silver (_artifices plateros_), not
+upon all who handle silver or gold, but only upon such as draw, and
+grave, and execute in relief, whether on a large or small scale, figures
+and histories from life, just as do the sculptors." These words are
+quoted from a book, the whole of which was written with the aim of
+proving that certain classes of Spain's older craftsmen were less abject
+than the rest.[77] It is not so long ago that the expression _viles
+artesanos_ ("vile artisans") was banished from the legal phraseology of
+Spain. "That prejudice," wrote Laborde, "which regards the mechanic arts
+as base, is not extinguished in Spain, but only abated: hence it happens
+that they are neglected or abandoned to such unskilful hands that they
+are wonderfully backward in these matters. The influence of this cause
+is striking: in Catalonia, laws, customs, and opinions are favourable to
+artisans, and it is in this province that these arts have made the
+greatest progress."
+
+  [77] Licentiate Gaspar Gutierrez de los Rios, _Noticia general para la
+       estimacion de las Artes y la manera en que se conocen las liberales
+       de las que son mecanicas y serviles_. Madrid, 1600. I again have
+       occasion to mention this curious work in my chapter on Spanish
+       tapestries.
+
+Townsend commented as follows on what he called the _national prejudice_
+against trade. "Whilst the Jews were merchants, and the mechanic arts
+were left either to the Moors or to the vilest of the people, the
+grandees or knights were ambitious only of military fame. After the
+conquest of Granada, the Moors continued to be the principal
+manufacturers, and excelled in the cultivation of their lands. When
+these, with the Jews, were banished, a void was left which the
+high-spirited Spaniard was not inclined to fill. Trained for many
+centuries to the exercise of arms, and regarding such mean occupations
+with disdain, his aversion was increased by his hatred and contempt for
+those whom he had been accustomed to see engaged in these employments.
+He had been early taught to consider trade as dishonourable; and whether
+he frequented the theatre, or listened to the discourses of the pulpit
+orators, he could not fail to be confirmed in his ideas. Even in the
+present day, many, who boast their descent from noble ancestors, had
+rather starve than work, more especially at those trades by which,
+according to the laws, they would be degraded, and forfeit their
+nobility."--(_Journey through Spain in 1786 and 1787_, pp. 240, 241.)
+
+Laborde endorsed these assertions by uncharitably remarking that "the
+Spaniard had always fortitude enough to endure privations, but never
+courage enough to encounter work." In our time judgments of a still
+severer kind have been passed upon the Spaniards by various of their own
+countrymen--among others, Unamuno, Ganivet, and Pompeyo Gener.
+
+It is evident, too, that the cause of the relentless exclusion, by the
+Spanish guilds, of Moors, Moriscos, Jews, or converts--men who, owing to
+the unsubstantial taint of heresy, were hated and derided by the Spanish
+nation almost to a man--resided also in this morbid sensitiveness. Had
+not the Moorish prisoner been formerly considered as the merest chattel,
+legally equivalent to a beast of burden?[78] How, then, should he be
+ever equalled with the Christian Spaniard? These haughty and extravagant
+notions operated, in the seventeenth century, to bring about the general
+ruin of Spanish trades and manufactures. Bertaut de Rouen wrote at this
+time:--"L'acoutumance qu'avoient les Espagnols de faire travailler les
+Morisques, qui estoient libres parmi eux, et les Mores esclaves, dont il
+y a encor quelques-uns qu'ils prennent sur leurs costes et sur celles
+d'Afrique, les a entretenus dans la faineantise et dans l'orgueil, qui
+fait qu'ils dedaignent tous de travailler. Ce qui acheve de les y
+plonger, c'est le peu de soucy qu'ils prennent de l'avenir, et l'egalite
+du menu peuple et de tous les moindres marchands et artisans qu'ils
+nomment _officiales_, avec les gentilshommes, qui demeurent tous dans
+les petites villes."
+
+  [78] It is stated in the Fuero of Najera (A.D. 1076) that the price of
+       the blood of a Moorish slave was twelve _sueldos_ and a half, while
+       the Fuero Viejo of Castile (Book II., Tit. III., Ley IV.) contains
+       the significantly contemptuous phrase, "If a man demand of another
+       a beast or a Moor" (_si algun ome demanda a otro bestia o moro_).
+       The Countess d'Aulnoy wrote in 1679;--"There are here (at Madrid) a
+       large number of Turkish and Moorish slaves, who are bought and sold
+       at heavy prices, some of them costing four hundred and five hundred
+       _escudos_. Until some time ago the owners of these slaves possessed
+       the right to kill them at their pleasure, as though they had been
+       so many dogs; but since it was remarked that this usage tallied but
+       poorly with the maxims of our Christian faith, so scandalous a
+       license was prohibited. Nowadays the owner of a slave may often
+       break his bones without incurring censure. Not many, however,
+       resort to so extreme a chastisement."
+
+In the same century the Countess d'Aulnoy recorded comical instances of
+the pride of the tradesmen of Madrid. "One morning," she says, "we
+stopped awhile in the Plaza Mayor to await the return of a servant whom
+my aunt had sent with a message to some place not far away. Just then I
+saw a woman selling some slices of salmon, crying them aloud and
+proclaiming their freshness in tones which positively molested the
+passers-by. Presently a shoemaker came up (I knew him to be such,
+because they called him the _senor zapatero_), and asked for a pound of
+salmon; since here they sell everything by the pound, even to coal and
+firewood. 'You have not been through the market,' cried the woman who
+sold the fish, 'because you fancy that my salmon is cheap to-day; but
+let me tell you that it costs an _escudo_ the pound.' Furious that his
+poverty should thus be hinted at in public, the shoemaker exclaimed in
+angry tones: 'It is true that I was not aware of the price of fish
+to-day. Had it been cheap, I would have bought a pound of it; but since
+you say it is dear, give me three pounds.' With these words, he held out
+his hand with the three _escudos_, jammed his hat upon his eyebrows
+(tradesmen in this town wear small hats, and persons of quality hats of
+great size), and then, twisting the ends of his mustachios, and clapping
+his hand to his rapier, the point of which bobbed upward, carrying with
+it a fold of his ragged cloak, caught up his purchase and strode home,
+looking at us with an arrogant air, as though he had performed some
+heroic deed and we had witnessed it. Yet the drollest part of it all was
+that beyond doubt the fellow had no money left at home, but had spent
+his week's wages upon the salmon, so that his choleric and haughty act
+would keep his wife and children famishing for all those days, after
+supping once upon abundant fish. Such is the character of this people;
+and there are gentlemen here who take the feet of a fowl and hang them
+so as to show beneath the hem of their cloak, to make it appear as
+though they really bore a fowl. But hunger, in truth, is all they carry
+with them.
+
+"You never see a shopman here who does not clothe himself in velvet,
+silk, and satin, like the king; or who is not the owner of a mighty
+rapier, which dangles from the wall, together with his dagger and
+guitar. These fellows work as little as they may, for, as I said, they
+are by nature indolent. Only in case of extreme necessity do they work
+at all, and then they never rest, but labour even throughout a
+feast-day; though when they have finished what was needed to procure
+them money, they deliver the product of their toil, and with its value
+relapse into fresh idleness. The shoemaker who has two apprentices, and
+who has only made one pair of shoes, hands to his lads a shoe apiece and
+makes them walk before him as though they were his pages; he that has
+three apprentices is preceded by all three; and when occasion rises, the
+master-_zapatero_ will hardly condescend to fit upon your feet the shoes
+which his own hands had put together."
+
+It seems that the shoemakers of Madrid were distinguished for their
+insolence and vanity above the rest of her tradespeople. In 1659 Bertaut
+de Rouen wrote of the two _corrales_ or theatres of this town, that they
+were "toujours pleines de tous les marchands, et de tous les artisans,
+qui quittant leur boutique s'en vont la avec la cappe, l'epee, et le
+poignard, qui s'appellent tous _cavalleros_ jusques au _capateros_; et
+ce sont ceux qui decident si la comedie est bonne ou non, et a cause
+qu'ils la sifflent ou qu'ils l'applaudissent, et qu'ils sont d'un coste
+et d'autre en rang, outre que c'est comme une espece de salve, on les
+appelle _Mosqueteros_, en sorte que la bonne fortune des autheurs depend
+d'eux."
+
+The foregoing narratives sound absurd, and are particularly prone to be
+considered so from being of foreign authorship. Their tenor,
+notwithstanding, is supported by the following declarations, gravely set
+down in writing by a Spaniard, within some half a dozen years of the
+visit to Madrid of the Countess d'Aulnoy. The name of this author is
+Alonso Nunez de Castro, and the title of his work (published towards the
+close of the reign of Philip the Fourth), _El Cortesano en Madrid_.
+"What man," demands this _madrileno_ of a bygone century, "eminent in
+any of the arts, has belonged to other nations, but has sought in Madrid
+the applause and gain which his native country would not, or could not,
+bestow upon him? Thus, either he in person, or else his master-works,
+visit with frequency this court of ours, wherein they meet a better fate
+than in their birthplace, since only at Madrid is properly esteemed the
+value of illustrious effort. Let London manufacture as she may her
+famous cloths, Holland her cambrics, Florence her satins, India her
+castors and vicunas, Milan her brocades, Italy and the Netherlands the
+statues and oil-paintings which seem to breathe the very life of the
+original: our Court enjoys these products one and all, proving hereby
+that other nations generate artists for Madrid, who is, in sooth, the
+supreme Court of Courts, seeing that she is served by all, yet in her
+turn serves none.
+
+"Yet not at slight expense does she enjoy this sovereignty, showering
+upon other hands her gold and silver, that they may recreate her mouth
+with choicest drinks and viands, her nostrils with delicious essences,
+her eyes with wondrous works of painting and of statuary, her hearing
+with the skill of world-renowned musicians, her luxury with expensive
+fabrics and with precious stones; albeit these disbursements mark her,
+not as prodigal, but as prudent in discovering the proper use of gold,
+together with the fitting aim and purpose of all riches. Who was
+possessor of more gold than Midas?--seeing that not he alone, but all he
+laid his hand upon, was gold; or who so wretched?--seeing that he was
+powerless to keep himself alive on gold, though all he touched was
+golden. Truly that man is rich that maketh gold to minister to his
+wants, and he a miserable pauper that to gold himself is slave, not
+knowing how to turn its uses to his good. Therefore let other peoples
+accumulate wealth at ease, heaping up the gold wherewith Madrid repays
+their ministration to her needs. Whereas her courtiers prove possession
+of their gold, in that they amassed it formerly, those foreigners show
+the evil and the mischief of their own by jealously confining it with
+lock and key: nay, who shall even tell if it be theirs, seeing that they
+enjoy it not, although they seem to be the lords thereof?
+
+"You will declare that other courts enjoy the same conveniences with
+less expense, because their magistrates are stricter to restrain the
+tradesman from establishing his prices at caprice. Truly, it may happen
+that elsewhere the price of foods and luxuries be less than in Madrid;
+yet it is certain that Madrid makes fair comparison in cheapness with
+the other cities of Castile. Nay, more, without there seeming to be
+cause, her courtiers daily find that by a marvel articles are cheaper
+here than in the soil which generated them, or in the town where they
+were wrought. The fact that in comparison with other kingdoms Madrid is
+in some ways the dearer, proves that she hath the money for rewarding
+labour; and that in other capitals the sweat of the artificer is
+worthless, because money is worth more. Always have I remarked that the
+province or the realm that is awarded the name of _happy_, because all
+things are purchasable there at next to no expense, is wrongly titled
+so, since here is evidence, either that money lacks, or that there is no
+purchaser."[79]
+
+  [79] To further show the extravagant way of thinking and behaving of the
+       Spaniard of the seventeenth century, the same author sets aside the
+       sneering objection justly made by foreign writers to the river
+       Manzanares at Madrid--namely, that it has no water--by remarking
+       with exquisite complacency, that here precisely lies the crowning
+       merit and advantage of the Manzanares over rival streams; in that
+       it amuses people without endangering their lives. In the reigns of
+       Philip the Fourth and Charles the Second, a favourite promenade of
+       the Madrid aristocracy was the waterless channel of this river, in
+       which, according to this work, "coaches and carriages do duty for
+       a gondola, and form a pleasant imitation of the boats and palaces
+       of Venice."
+
+In the eighteenth century, when better sense prevailed among the
+statesmen and economists of Spain, the greedy and corrupt administration
+of her guilds began to be awarded greater notice. Among the enlightened
+and progressive Spaniards who outspoke their minds upon this theme, were
+Florez Estrada and the Count of Campomanes. These, among others of less
+mark, saw and proclaimed that the harm inflicted by the _gremios_ in
+some directions was incalculable, while the good they were supposed to
+bring about in others was rather nominal than real.[80] Apart, however,
+from the judgment uttered by these two authorities, men of acknowledged
+probity and consequence who held the public ear, as well as by the
+patriotic Jovellanos in his spirited appeal in favour of the _libre
+ejercicio de las artes_, a number of causes, such as the propagation of
+the principles of individual liberty by the French Revolution,
+contributed to give the _gremios_ an archaic air, and finally to bring
+about their downfall. The views concerning them which gradually filled
+the popular mind, prior to their extinction as an act of government in
+the year 1834,[81] are well expressed by Townsend. "In all the trading
+companies or _gremios_," wrote this traveller, "religious fraternities
+are formed, some incorporated by royal authority and letters patent,
+others by connivance of the crown, but both in violation of the laws.
+
+  [80] The object avowedly pursued by Campomanes was not, however, the
+       absolute suppression of the Spanish trade-guilds, but merely their
+       reconstruction upon a sounder basis. He still believed that
+       admission to a guild should be preceded by a formal period of
+       apprenticeship, as well as that the title and the privileges of the
+       master of a trade should be hereditary. An instance of the grossly
+       fraudulent methods employed by the _gremios_ in order to retain the
+       privilege of manufacture in a certain family, is quoted by Larruga
+       (_Memorias_, Vol. II., p. 201), who states that the silk-cord
+       makers of Madrid conferred the title of _master-craftsman_ on a
+       babe only twenty-two months old.
+
+  [81] Barzanallana says that the earliest sign of a movement in the
+       direction of emancipating the Spanish people from the thraldom of
+       the _gremios_ is contained in the royal _cedula_ of May 17th, 1790,
+       abolishing several of the noxious prerogatives which had hitherto
+       been enjoyed by the families of master-craftsmen. A further crown
+       decree, dated the same month and year, empowered the Audiencias and
+       Chancillerias to authorize persons to pursue a craft (provided they
+       were reasonably competent) without the necessity of approval from
+       the _gremios_ and their _veedores_. Three years later, the same
+       monarch (Charles the Fourth) suppressed the _gremios_ and
+       _colegios_ of the silk-twisters, and declared this craft to be open
+       to all such persons, of either sex, as wished to practise it. In
+       1797 it was permitted to all foreigners who should be competent in
+       any art or industry (except Jews) to establish themselves in Spain
+       or her dominions, nor were they to be molested in their religious
+       theories if they should happen not to be Roman Catholics.
+
+       At a later time the Cortes annulled, or very nearly so, the
+       _ordenanzas_ of the _gremios_, and allowed the exercise of any
+       lawful trade or craft to everybody, Spaniards and foreigners alike,
+       without the requisite of special license or examination, or
+       approval by the officers of the guilds (decree of June 8th, 1813).
+       This measure was revoked in 1815, but again became law in 1836, and
+       two years before this latter date was issued the decree of Queen
+       Maria Cristina prohibiting associations which, under the semblance
+       of a _gremio_, should aim at converting any craft or office into a
+       monopoly.
+
+       The Spanish _gremios_ still exist, but all their sting has
+       departed. To-day they may be said to spring from the natural and
+       beneficial interdependence of persons working together in the same
+       groove, and seeking mutual support by means of peaceable
+       association. Thus the abuses which rendered them so terrible and
+       evil in the olden time are fortunately now no more.
+
+"Every fraternity is governed by a mayor and court of aldermen, who make
+laws, sit in judgment on offenders, and claim in many cases exemption
+from the common tribunals of the country. None but the members of these
+communities may exercise mechanic arts, or be concerned in trade; and to
+be admitted as a member is both attended with a heavy fine, and entails
+upon each individual a constant annual expense.
+
+"This, however, is not the greatest evil, for the mayor and officers,
+during their year of service, not only neglect their own affairs, but
+from vanity and ostentation run into expenses, such as either ruin their
+families, or at least straiten them exceedingly in trade.
+
+"These corporations, being established in the cities, banish, by their
+oppressive laws, all the mechanic arts from towns and villages. In the
+cities likewise they tend only to monopoly, by limiting the numbers in
+every branch of business, and fixing within unreasonable bounds the
+residence of those who are concerned in trade. This they do either by
+assigning the distance between shop and shop, under pretence that two
+shops vending the same commodities must not be so near together as to
+interfere, or by assembling all the mechanics of the same profession,
+such as silversmiths, and confining them to one street or quarter of the
+city, under the plausible pretext that thus the proper magistrate may
+with ease pay attention to their work, and see that the due standard be
+observed.[82]
+
+  [82] This custom was borrowed from the East, and explains why, in many
+       of the older Spanish cities, a number of their streets have taken
+       their title from the trades that formerly were plied in them, or
+       (in some instances) that still are so. Especially was this the case
+       at Valencia and Toledo. In the latter capital there are, or used to
+       be, the streets, _plazas_, or _barrios_, of the silversmiths,
+       armourers, bakers, old-clothes vendors, potters, esparto-weavers,
+       dyers, chairmakers, and many more. Martin Gamero, in his excellent
+       _History of Toledo_ (Introduction, p. 60), says that in the centre
+       of the city were located the quiet crafts, such as those of the
+       jewellers, silversmiths, chandlers, and clog-makers, as well as
+       the shops of the silk, brocade, and tissue-vendors. Noisy trades,
+       such as the swordsmiths', tinsmiths', boiler-makers', chairmakers',
+       and turners', were practised on the outskirts of the town.
+
+"In many cases the various _gremios_ bear hard upon each other. Thus,
+for instance, the carpenter must not employ his industry on mahogany, or
+any other wood but deal, nor must he invade the province of the turner.
+The turner must confine his ingenuity and labour to soft wood, and must
+not presume to touch either ivory or metals, even though he should be
+reduced to poverty for want of work. The wheeler, in similar distress,
+must not, however qualified, extend his operations beyond the appointed
+bounds, so as to encroach on the business of the coach-maker, who is
+equally restrained from either making or mending either cart or waggon
+wheels. The barber may shave, draw teeth, and bleed, but he must not
+fill up his leisure time with making wigs.[83] As mechanics are obliged
+to keep exactly each to his several line, so must shopkeepers confine
+themselves to their proper articles in trade, and under no pretence must
+the manufacturer presume to open magazines, that he may sell by retail.
+
+  [83] Colmeiro has published _memoriales_ presented by the hatters of
+       Zaragoza, in which they pray to be allowed to line, by their own
+       hands, or by those of their wives, the hats which they had
+       manufactured, instead of being required to give up this finishing
+       and accessorial process to the makers of silk cord.--_Historia de
+       la Economia Politica en Espana_, and _Biblioteca de los economistas
+       espanoles de los siglos XVI., XVII., y XVIII_.
+
+"But neither are these abuses the only evils which call for reformation.
+Many corporations have been impertinently meddling, and have absurdly
+bound the hands of the manufacturer by regulations with respect to the
+conduct of his business and the productions of his art, such as, being
+too rigidly observed, would preclude all improvements, and would be
+destructive to his trade, by giving to foreigners a manifest advantage
+in favour of their merchandise.[84]
+
+  [84] This meddlesomeness almost exceeds belief. It was at its worst,
+       perhaps, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who decreed that
+       the wicks of candles were to be made of the same kind of tow, and
+       horse-shoes and nails to be of the same weight in every part of
+       their dominions. It was required that machines, which might have
+       been to great advantage moved by mules or horses, should only be
+       worked by the hand of man, however lengthy and exhausting this
+       might prove. The Count of Torreanaz, who quotes these ridiculous
+       dispositions from the _Libro de bulas y pragmaticas_ of Juan
+       Ramirez, further recalls that, as late as the middle of the
+       eighteenth century, costly woven stuffs of Seville and Valencia
+       used to be confiscated because, although the ground of the fabric
+       was of a colour which the law allowed, the flowers or other devices
+       which formed the decoration were of a forbidden shade. On one
+       occasion the chief lady-in-waiting of the queen was prohibited from
+       wearing a dress which she had ordered from a weaver of Valencia,
+       because the flowered pattern was contrary to the _ordenanzas_.
+
+"The incorporated fraternities in the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon are
+25,581, and their corporate expenses amount to 11,687,861 reals. Their
+revenue is not altogether consumed in feasting, nor in salaries to
+officers, nor in pensions to their widows, nor yet in lawsuits, which
+are said to be both numerous and expensive; but considerable sums are
+expended for religious purposes, in procuring masses to be said, either
+for departed spirits and the souls in Purgatory, or for the benefit of
+the fraternity in which each individual has a proportionable interest.
+For this reason, these communities enjoy the protection of the
+ecclesiastical courts, to which, in cases of necessity, they frequently
+appeal.
+
+"The chartered corporations claim their exclusive privileges by royal
+grant, and on this plea they resist a formation, not considering, as
+Count Campomanes with propriety remarks, the essential condition of
+these grants, _Sin perjuicio de tercero_, or that nothing therein
+contained shall be to the _prejudice of others_, or injurious to the
+citizens at large."
+
+
+                               APPENDIX I
+
+                   CLASSES OF POTTERY MADE AT ALCORA
+
+               (From RIANO's _Industrial Arts in Spain_)
+
+Towards the middle of the eighteenth century:--
+
+  Vases of different shapes.
+
+  Small pots (Chinese fashion).
+
+  Teapots and covers (Chinese fashion).
+
+  Cruets, complete sets (Chinese style).
+
+  Entree dishes.
+
+  Salt-cellars (Chinese style).
+
+  _Escudillas_ (bowls), of Constantinople.
+
+  _Barquillos_ (sauce bowls), Chinese style.
+
+  Bottles (in the Chinese manner).
+
+  Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds, with good painted borders
+  in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_). Some were designed in the
+  Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with fruit-stands,
+  salad-bowls, and dishes.
+
+  Trays and refrigerators.
+
+A document, discovered by Riano, and dated 1777, says that in that year
+the following kinds of pottery were manufactured at Alcora:--
+
+                      _Figures of Demi-Porcelain._
+
+  Figures of tritons.
+     "    of soldiers (two sizes).
+     "    of soldiers, one-third of a _palmo_ high.
+     "    of the four seasons (two sizes).
+     "    of dancers.
+     "    of tritons in the form of children.
+     "    with brackets.
+     "    of different animals.
+     "    of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.
+  Dancing figures in the German style.
+  Figures of Neptune.
+     "    of shepherd and shepherdess.
+     "    of the Moorish king, Armenius.
+     "    of the four parts of the world (two sizes).
+     "    of peasant and his wife.
+  Small figures holding musical instruments.
+  Figures representing different monarchies.
+     "    representing historical personages.
+     "    representing the history of Alexander the Great (two sizes).
+     "    representing Martius Curtius (two sizes).
+     "    of elephants.
+     "    of a man mounted on an elephant.
+     "    representing Chinese figures.
+     "    of Heliogabalus.
+     "    of a general on horseback.
+     "    of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.
+  Large figures representing Julius Caesar.
+  Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets.
+  Groups of Chinese figures.
+  Snuff-boxes, sugar-basins, inkstands.
+  Rabbits, horns, and pug-dogs for holding scent.
+  Small scent-bottles.
+  Needle-cases.
+  Large vases with foot and cover.
+  Brackets.
+  Walking-stick handles.
+  Knife handles.
+
+                   _Figures of white Biscuit China._
+
+  Figures representing Spanish costumes (two sizes).
+  Groups of two figures.
+  Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.
+  Figures of the four seasons (two sizes).
+
+We find also, says Riano, the following figures of painted and glazed
+porcelain:--
+
+  Four seasons (two sizes).
+  Groups of two figures.
+  Figure of a Moorish king.
+     "   of musicians and huntsmen.
+     "   of peasants.
+     "   of Chinese.
+  Small figures of a gardener and female companion.
+  Figures of soldiers in the German style.
+
+From 1789 to 1797, continues Riano, the following kinds of pottery were
+made at Alcora:--
+
+  Hard paste porcelain (French).
+  Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.
+  Porcelain of pipeclay (English).
+  Blue pipeclay porcelain.
+  Marbled pipeclay porcelain.
+  _Bucaros_, painted and gilt.
+  Strasburg ware.
+  Porcelain painted _en froid_.
+  Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.
+
+                          _Porcelain (Frita)._
+
+  Porcelain painted with gilt lines.
+      "     painted without gold.
+      "     (_frita_), canary colour.
+  Boxes in relief.
+    "      plain.
+  Porcelain (_frita_), painted with marble wares.
+  Plain boxes of the same kind.
+  Porcelain (_frita_), of blue and brown ground.
+  Cups and saucers of a similar kind.
+
+                          _Biscuit Porcelain._
+
+  Figures.
+  Vases.
+  Pedestals.
+  White porcelain (_frita_) cups of different kinds.
+    "   porcelain, ornamented and plain.
+  Boxes with busts.
+  Boxes with ornamentations in relief.
+  Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.
+  Large figures of the four seasons.
+  Flower vases with rams' heads.
+  Plain boxes.
+  Boxes with ornaments in relief.
+
+                           _White Porcelain._
+
+  Plates, cups, etc.
+  Figures of different kinds.
+
+                          _Painted Porcelain._
+
+  Cups, saucers, plates, etc.
+  Cream-pots.
+  Plain snuff-boxes, or in the shape of a dog.
+  Fruit-stands in relief.
+
+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+1814.
+
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+mudejares de Castilla._ Madrid, 1866.
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+
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+
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+Spain._ London, 1843.
+
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+
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+
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+de Sevilla._ Seville, 1887.
+
+  _Ensayo de un Diccionario de los artifices que florecieron en Sevilla
+  desde el siglo XIII al XVIII inclusive._ 2 vols.; Seville, 1899.
+
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+  nuestros dias._ Seville, 1903.
+
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+
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+
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+de imagineria en Granada_ (published in the magazine _El Liceo de
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+
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+
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+
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+muy magnificos Senores Granada mandaron que se guarden para la buena
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+las sepan y las guarden._ 1552.
+
+  _Ordenanzas que los Muy Ilustres y Muy Magnificos Senores Granada
+  mandaron guardar, para la buena governacion de su Republica, impressas
+  ano de 1552. Que se han buelto a imprimir mandado de los Senores
+  Presidente, y Oydores de la Real Chancilleria de esta ciudad de Granada,
+  ano de 1670. Anadiendo otras que no estauan impressas. Impressas en
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+1897.
+
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+
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+
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+
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+notables de Espana._ Alcala de Henares, 1595.
+
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+Espana._ Madrid, 1886 and following years.
+
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+Ocampo, continuada con el libro de las antiguedades de Espana._
+
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+1633; reprinted at Merida, 1892.
+
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+de los artistas que florecieron en dicho ciudad y centuria._ Madrid, 1884.
+
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+following years.
+
+_Noticia de la Fabrica de Espadas de Toledo que por tantos siglos
+existio hasta fines del XVII en que acabo, y del metodo que tenian
+aquellos artifices Armeros para forjarlas y templarlas, aceros de que
+usaban, y otras particularidades que las hicieron tan famosas en todo el
+Mundo como apetecidas al presente, y de la que por el Rey N.S. que Dios
+gue. se establecio en esta Ciudad ano de 1760; por Francisco de Santiago
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+
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+assi de las tocantes al Cabildo y regimiento della, que se contienen en
+la primera parte, como de todos los oficios mecanicos, de que es la
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+Sevilla por Juan Varela de Salamanca, vezino della. Acabaronse de
+imprimir a catorze dias del mes de Febrero, ano de Nuestro Redemptor
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+1902.
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX
+
+  Abd-al-Azis, I. 31.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the First, II. 57.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, II. 57; III. 20.
+  Abd-er-Rhaman the Third, II. 98.
+  Aben-Said, I. 225; II. 135, 136.
+  Abolais, II. 226 _et seq._, 237.
+  Abreviador, the Casa del, III. 150.
+  Abu-Said, III. 37.
+  _Adargas_, I. 241, 242.
+  Addison, Lancelot, II. 18 _et seq._, 32, 45 (note).
+  Alberoni, Cardinal, III. 150 (note).
+  Albuquerque, the inventory of the Dukes of, I. 272, 273, 279, 283, 284;
+    II. 9, 10.
+  Alcaiceria of Granada, the, I. 78; II. 194 _et seq._
+  _Alcarrazas_, II. 194 _et seq._
+  Alcazar of Seville, the, II. 60 _et seq._, 138, 141, 143, 148, 150, 152.
+  Alcora, pottery of, II. 203 _et seq._
+  Alcoy, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Aleman, Cristobal, II. 245.
+  _Aleros_, II. 65, 66.
+  _Alfarge_ ceilings, II. 52 _et seq._
+  Alfonso the Second, III. 183.
+  Alfonso the Third ("the Great"), I. 44, 57 (note); II. 106; III. 183.
+  Alfonso the Sixth, I. 45 (note), 276; II. 15, 106; III. 106.
+  Alfonso the Ninth, II. 39.
+  Alfonso the Tenth ("the Learned"), I. 61, 62, 129, 205; II. 226, 239;
+  III. 11, 28, 33, 34, 106, 238.
+  Alfonso the Eleventh, I. 68; III. 12, 70.
+  Alfonso the Eleventh, the Chronicle of, I. 207, 209, 268, 269,
+    280 (note).
+  Alfonso the Thirteenth, I. 42 (note).
+  Alfonso the First of Aragon, II. 14.
+  Algeciras, the siege of, I. 269.
+  Al-Hakem the First, II. 135; III. 213.
+  Al-Hakem the Second, II. 57.
+  Alhambra, the, II. 54, 56, 59, 64 _et seq._, 86, 121, 154 _et seq._, 168
+    _et seq._, 183, 232, 233.
+  _Aliceres_, II. 136.
+  Al-Jattib, I. 77 (note), 226, 268.
+  _Aljofar_, I. 67; III. 11 _et seq._, 33.
+  Al-Khattib, III. 33, 39.
+  Almagro Cardenas, II. 65 (note).
+  Almagro, lace of, III. 160.
+  Al-Makkari, I. 32, 76; II. 137, 163, 231; III. 1, 2, 21, 33, 35.
+  Al-Manzor, I. 227; II. 57.
+  _Almexia_, III. 8.
+  Almohades, the, II. 136; III. 23.
+  Almoravides, the, III. 22.
+  Almotalefes, III. 58 _et seq._
+  Altar-screens (see _Retablos_).
+  Alvarez de Colmenar, I. 110 (note), 267; II. 23, 24, 31, 199 (note),
+    260; III. 50 _et seq._, 74.
+  Amador de los Rios, Jose, I. 17, 23, 28; II. 59 (note).
+  Amador de los Rios, Rodrigo, I. 36, 48, 49, 61, 62, 128, 129, 176, 179,
+    183, 185; II. 58, 101, 103, 135, 136; III. 212, 238.
+  Amphorae, II. 116, 117.
+  _Analogia_, III. 211, 212.
+  Ancheta, II. 80.
+  Andino, Cristobal de, I. 151 _et seq._
+  Angels, the Cross of, I. 41 _et seq._, 58.
+  Apocalypse, the Codex of the, I. 223.
+  _Arabian Nights, The_, II. 62, 63 (note).
+  Aranda, the Count of, II. 182, 204 _et seq._
+  _Arca Santa_ of Oviedo, the, I. 44.
+  Arenys de Mar, lace of, III. 172.
+  Arenys de Munt, lace of, III. 172.
+  Arfe, Antonio de, I. 98.
+  Arfe, Enrique de, I. 97, 101; III. 201.
+  Arfe, Juan de, I. 85, 96 _et seq._; III. 185, 201.
+  Argote de Molina, II. 23.
+  Armouries of Spain, private, I. 243, 244.
+  Armoury, Madrid, the Royal, I. 17, 210, 214 (note), 217 _et seq._,
+    229 (note), 231 (note), 235 _et seq._, 248 _et seq._, 273, 274, 276,
+    278, 282.
+  Arnao de Flandes, II. 243.
+  _Arquetas_, I. 48 _et seq._
+  "Arras cloths" (see _Panos de Ras_).
+  _Artesonados_, II. 47, 55 _et seq._
+  Ash Shakandi, III. 3, 4.
+  Augusta, Cristobal de, II. 152.
+  _Axorcas_, I. 77, 79.
+  _Azulejos_ (see Tiles).
+
+  _Baculi_, ivory, II. 105, 106.
+  Balconies, Spanish, I. 154 _et seq._
+  Balearics, slingers of the, I. 200, 201.
+  Bale, the Council of, III. 110, 111 (note).
+  Balsa de la Vega, III. 163.
+  _Banyolenchs_, III. 123 (note).
+  Barcelona, silk of, III. 98 _et seq._
+  _Barros Saguntinos_ (see "Saguntine ware").
+  _Barros tarraconenses_ (see "Saguntine ware").
+  Bartholomew, Master, I. 149 _et seq._
+  Barzanallana, III. 222 (note), 249 (note).
+  Bayan Almoghreb, I. 32.
+  Becerra, II. 68.
+  Becerriles, the, I. 94, 95.
+  Bedclothes, Spanish mediaeval, II. 4 (note).
+  Benvenuto Cellini, III. 208 _et seq._
+  Berruguete, I. 189; II. 68, 71, 79, 80.
+  Bertaut de Rouen, I. 3, 38, 82, 97, 101, 102, 109, 154, 155, 203;
+    II. 39, 59, 60, 63, 67 (note), 169, 262; III. 50, 51, 108, 109, 140,
+    141, 164, 165 (note), 242, 243, 245.
+  Boabdil el Chico, I. 75, 227 _et seq._; III. 36, 37.
+  Bocairente, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Bonsor, II. 113, 114.
+  Bourgoing, II. 159, 181, 216, 217; III. 74, 76 _et seq._
+  Bowles, William, I. 4 _et seq._, 23 (note), 56 (note), 263 _et seq._;
+    II. 58 (note), 196 _et seq._, 254, 255.
+  Brihuega, cloths of, III. 110, 115 (note).
+  Brims of Wells (see _Brocales_).
+  _Brinquinos_, II. 191, 192.
+  British Museum, The, II. 177; III. 183.
+  Brocade, III. 98, 99 (note).
+  _Brocales_, II. 123, 124.
+  Bronzes, Moorish, I. 169 _et seq._
+  Brun, Sigismund, II. 259.
+  _Bucaros_, II. 191, 193.
+  Buckram, III. 5, 7.
+  Buen Retiro, pottery of the, II. 203, 212 _et seq._
+  Buonaparte, Joseph, II. 218.
+  _Burel_, III. 122.
+
+  Cadalso, glass of, II. 232.
+  _Cadinas_, III. 123 (note).
+  Campomanes, Count, III. 248, 253.
+  _Candil_, the, I. 167, 168.
+  Cannon, early Spanish, I. 268 _et seq._
+  Cano, Alonso, II. 69, 81.
+  _Cantigas de Santa Maria_, the, I. 282.
+  Capmany, III. 6, 123 (note), 169.
+  Carpentry, artistic, II. 46 _et seq._
+  _Carpinteria de lo blanco_, II. 52, 53.
+  _Carpinteros de lo blanco_, II. 50.
+  Carrion, Fernando de, III. 206, 207.
+  Casa de los Tiros, Granada, the, II. 65, 156.
+  Casiri, III. 35, 39.
+  Cataluna, cloths of, III. 123 (note).
+  Cataluna, lace of, III. 169 _et seq._
+  Catherine of Lancaster, III. 107, 129.
+  Cato, I. 5.
+  Cean Bermudez, I. 88, 148 (note), 185; II. 62, 80, 83 _et seq._, 149,
+    246 (note); III. 131, 168 (note).
+  Cedillo, Count of, III. 70 (note), 225 (note).
+  Celosias, II. 47, 62 _et seq._
+  Celtiberians, the, I. 195, 196.
+  _Cendal_, III. 5, 6.
+  Chair-makers of Granada, the, II. 28 _et seq._
+  _Chamelot_, III. 5, 6, 14.
+  Charles the Second, I. 107, 273, 274; II. 46; III. 27, 107, 134,
+    248 (note).
+  Charles the Third, I. 115, 235 (note); II. 212, 218, 258; III. 46.
+  Charles the Fourth, II. 215; III. 249 (note).
+  Charles the Fifth, I. 129, 222, 223, 235 _et seq._, 253, 273, 283;
+    II. 40, 56, 77; III. 15, 31, 40, 107, 153, 169, 174, 238, 239.
+  Chests, makers of, II. 30.
+  _Ciclaton_, III. 5, 6.
+  Cid, the, II. 12.
+  Cid, the Chronicle of the, I. 207.
+  Cid, the Poem of the, I. 203, 207 (note); II. 45 (note).
+  Cisneros, Cardinal, III. 126.
+  Ciudad Real, II. 39.
+  Clemencin, III. 13, 14.
+  Clonard, Count of, I. 204, 206, 208, 213, 215 (note), 268; II. 2 (note),
+    5 (note), 39 (note); III. 14 (note).
+  Cloostermans, II. 209 _et seq._
+  Cloth of Gold, III. 7.
+  Cloths, Spanish, III. 105 _et seq._
+  Cluny, the Museum of, II. 40; III. 183.
+  Coaches, Spanish, I. 283.
+  _Cofradias_, III. 222 _et seq._
+  Commercial Company of Extremadura, the, III. 65.
+  Compania Real de Comercio y Fabricas de Granada, the, III. 61 _et seq._
+  _Contrayes_, III. 122.
+  Contreras, II. 173.
+  _Cordellate_, III. 122.
+  Cordova, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Cordova, embroiderers of, III. 131 _et seq._
+  "Cordova leathers," II. 38, 39.
+  Cordova, _rejeros_ of, I. 145, 146.
+  Cordova, the Council of, III. 12.
+  Cordova, the mosque of, II. 57, 58, 135.
+  Cordova, the Ordinances of, II. 43, 44.
+  Covarrubias, II. 38, 137; III. 128.
+  Crossbows, Spanish, I. 220 _et seq._
+  Crosses, iron, I. 138.
+  Crown of Spain, tapestries of the, III. 152 _et seq._
+  _Cueros de Cordoba_, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Cunninghame Graham, I. 131, 132, 235 (note), 277 (note); II. 20 (note),
+    126 (note).
+  _Cursi_, the, II. 22.
+  _Custodia_ of Cordova, the, III. 201 _et seq._
+  _Custodia_ of Seville, the, III. 185 _et seq._
+  _Custodias_, I. 95 _et seq._
+  Cutlers, Spanish, III. 214 _et seq._
+
+  Dagobert, I. 29, 30.
+  Dancart, II. 77, 83.
+  Danis, Juan, II. 247, 248.
+  D'Aulnoy, Countess, I. 107 _et seq._; II. 25 (note), 224; III. 134, 135,
+    141, 142, 162, 242 _et seq._
+  Davillier, Baron, I. 72, 87, 280 (note); II. 78, 144, 249, 162, 165,
+    166, 186 _et seq._; III. 149.
+  Diago, II. 163, 180.
+  Diodorus Siculus, I. 199.
+  Diptyches, ivory, II. 89 _et seq._
+  Dolfin, II. 240, 241.
+  Domingo, "Maestre," I. 148, 149; III. 237, 238 (note).
+  Doncel, Guillermo, II. 79, 80.
+  _Don Quixote_, I. 286 (note); III. 160.
+  Dozy, II. 135 (note), 136.
+  _Drach-alat_, the, III. 228.
+  Drury Fortnum, III. 182.
+  Ducange, III. 211.
+  Duque y Cornejo, II. 81.
+
+  Echeverria, Father, I. 82.
+  Eder, II. 259.
+  Edrisi, I. 224; II. 162; III. 137, 138.
+  Egilona, I. 30, 31.
+  Eguilaz Yanguas, II. 22; III. 36, 37 (note).
+  El Nubiense, III. 4.
+  Embroidery, Spanish, III. 125 _et seq._
+  Ena of Battenberg, Princess, III. 173.
+  Enguera, cloths of, III. 124.
+  _Entalladores_, II. 50, 76, 78.
+  Escolano, II. 163, 164.
+  Escorial, the, I. 98.
+  Eximenes, II. 163, 164, 180.
+
+  Ferdinand and Isabella, I. 65, 69 _et seq._, 252, 253; II. 74, 125, 143,
+    184 (note), 190, 234; III. 14, 31, 39, 123, 128, 129 (note), 152, 236,
+    252.
+  Ferdinand the Catholic, I. 229, 253 _et seq._; II. 236; III. 123 (note).
+  Ferdinand the First, I. 45 (note); II. 13, 39, 99, 104.
+  Ferdinand the Second, II. 107.
+  Ferdinand the Third (San Fernando), I. 128, 129, 250, 252, 276; II. 85;
+    III. 18.
+  Ferdinand the Sixth, III. 44, 240.
+  Ferdinand the Second of Aragon, I. 210.
+  Fernandez de Navarrete, III. 109 (note), 144, 199 (note), 235 (note),
+    237 _et seq._
+  Fernandez y Gonzalez, III. 17 (note).
+  Fez, III. 50.
+  Florez Estrada, III. 248.
+  Floridablanca, Count of, II. 177; III. 90, 91.
+  Fonseca, I. 80, 81.
+  Fonts, baptismal, II. 124, 125.
+  Ford, I. 40, 53, 56 (note), 59, 83 (note); II. 63 (note), 184 (note),
+    195, 196, 218, 219.
+  Fortuny, I. 171; II. 168, 174, 183.
+  Fouquet, II. 162.
+  Foz, Manuel, III. 83, 84, 93, 94.
+  Frances, Juan, I. 140 _et seq._
+  Francis the First, III. 123 (note).
+  Frisleva, Cristobal, I. 273.
+  Fuero Viejo of Castile, the, III. 242 (note).
+
+  Gamero, Martin, III. 225, 251 (note).
+  Ganivet, III. 242.
+  Garcia Llanso, II. 156 (note), 180, 198, 202 (note), 233.
+  Gates, bronze, I. 181.
+
+  Gayangos, Pascual de, I. 102, 104, 127, 155, 232; II. 24; III. 35,
+    71 (note), 135 (note).
+  Gelmirez, Bishop, I. 53, 54.
+  Gener, Pompeyo, III. 242.
+  George, Master, I. 61.
+  Gestoso, I. 72, 73 (note), 84 (note), 114 (note), 150 (note),
+    187 (note), 247 (note); II. 45 (note), 51 (note), 121 _et seq._,
+    136 _et seq._, 142 (note) _et seq._, 149 _et seq._, 152 (note)
+    _et seq._, 155, 187, 189, 198; III. 27, 221 _et seq._, 235 (note),
+    239, 240.
+  Giralda, the, I. 177 (note), 183, 186, 187; II. 77, 151.
+  Goblet d'Alviella, III. 71 (note).
+  Gomez Moreno, II. 56, 57, 65 (note), 155, 172 (note); III. 133.
+  Gonzalo de Cordova, I. 257, 258.
+  Goya, I. 113; III. 157.
+  Goyeneche, Juan, II. 250.
+  Granada, cloths of, III. 121 _et seq._
+  Granada, silk of, III. 149 _et seq._
+  Granada, the Alcaiceria of, III. 49 _et seq._
+  Granada, the Ordinances of, I. 3, 4 (note), 135, 157, 158, 247 (note),
+    248; II. 27 _et seq._, 52.
+  _Granas treintenas_, III. 122.
+  Gricci, II. 213, 214.
+  Guadalajara, cloths of, III. 110, 112 _et seq._
+  Guadalete, the battle of, I. 30.
+  _Guadamacileros_, III. 226.
+  _Guadamacileros_ of Cordova, the, II. 42, 43.
+  _Guadameciles_, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Guarrazar, the treasure of, I. 16 _et seq._
+  Guise, Duke of, III. 71.
+  Gutierrez, Pedro, III. 145 _et seq._, 149, 150.
+
+  Hannibal, I. 7.
+  Harness for horses, war, I. 219, 220.
+  Henry, Master, II. 241, 242.
+  Henry the First, I. 68.
+  Henry the Second, III. 34 (note).
+  Henry the Eighth of England, III. 107.
+  Hernandez, Gregorio, II. 68, 69.
+  Herranz, Francisco, II. 247.
+  Hita, Archpriest of, I. 67.
+  Hixem, II. 57.
+  Huebner, II. 115.
+  Hurtado de Mendoza, II. 23, 37.
+
+  Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, I. 35.
+  Ibn Alwardi, I. 31, 32.
+  Ibn Batutah, II. 162, 163.
+  Ibn Hayyan, I. 33, 34.
+  Ibn Hud, III. 36, 37.
+  Ibn Khaldoun, II. 22; III. 21, 33, 36.
+  Ibn Said, II. 163, 180; III. 33 _et seq._
+  Illiberis, I. 173, 174.
+  Inlay on steel and iron, gold, III. 208 _et seq._
+  Inns, furniture of Spanish, II. 30 _et seq._
+  Irving, Washington, I. 82; II. 170, 171.
+  Isabel Farnese, I. 274; II. 252.
+  Isabella the Catholic, I. 254; II. 16, 244 (note); III. 13, 14, 133,
+    161.
+  Isabella the Second, I. 25.
+  Isidore, Saint, I. 12 (note), 15, 27, 166 (note), 198, 201; II. 2, 7.
+
+  Jacquemart, II. 186.
+  _Jaeces colgantes_, I. 281, 282.
+  Jaen, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Jayme the First of Aragon ("the Conqueror"), I. 210 _et seq._; II. 101,
+    108; III. 5, 11, 18, 47 (note), 232.
+  Jewellery in Spain, Roman, I. 11, 12.
+  Jewellery, Moorish, I. 73 _et seq._
+  Jewellery, Morisco, I. 77 _et seq._
+  Jones, Owen, II. 171, 172 (note).
+  Jovellanos, III. 249.
+  Juana, Dona, III. 15.
+  Juan of Aragon, I. 212; II. 5.
+  Juan the First, I. 215; III. 13, 30, 227, 228.
+  Juan the Second, I. 130, 280 (note); III. 34.
+  Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.
+
+  Kersey, III. 122.
+  Keys of Seville, the, I. 126 _et seq._
+  Keys, Spanish, I. 124 _et seq._
+
+  Laborde, I. 7 _et seq._, 116 _et seq._, 133, 134, 266, 267; II. 34
+    _et seq._, 38 (note), 131 _et seq._, 182, 183, 194, 195, 200, 201,
+    203, 216, 254, 260; III. 44 _et seq._, 55, 67 _et seq._, 94 _et seq._,
+    108, 109, 122 _et seq._, 142, 143, 151, 152 (note), 168 _et seq._,
+    240 _et seq._
+  Lace, Spanish, III. 159 _et seq._
+  La Granja (or San Ildefonso), the glass factory of, II. 252 _et seq._;
+    III. 240.
+  La Higueruela, the battle of, I. 218.
+  Lalaing, III. 50.
+  Lambot, Diodonet, II. 249.
+  La Milanesa, III. 91, 105.
+  La Moncloa, the porcelain factory of, II. 219, 220.
+  Lamperez, Vicente, II. 62; III. 158 (note).
+  Lamps, Roman, I. 165 _et seq._
+  Lamps, ware, II. 116.
+  Lane-Poole, Stanley, II. 47, 48; III. 9 (note), 21 (note).
+  La Payessa, Joseph, III. 91, 92.
+  Larruga, II. 200, 213, 235, 251, 252; III. 66 (note), 111 (note), 118,
+    119 (note), 233 (note), 235 (note), 248, 249 (note).
+  Lasteyrie, I. 21.
+  _Latticinio_, II. 225, 261.
+  _Lazo_-work doors, II. 47, 58 _et seq._
+  Leather, Spanish decorative, II. 38 _et seq._
+  Lefort, III. 157.
+  Lenger, Antoine, III. 151.
+  Leon, the Synod of, III. 15.
+  Lerma, Duke of, I. 102, 103, 219, 220.
+  _Libros de Pasantia_, I. 72, 73.
+  Locks and keys, I. 135.
+  Lope de Vega, I. 86; II. 23 (note).
+  Lopez de Arenas, Diego, II. 51 _et seq._, 56.
+  Lugo, exhibition of, I. 41.
+  Luis de Leon, Fray, III. 99 (note).
+  Luna, Alvaro de, I. 189, 216.
+  Lustred pottery, Hispano-Moresque, II. 161 _et seq._
+
+  Machuca, Pedro, II. 57.
+  Madrid, the Gremios of, III. 45, 119, 120 (note).
+  Madrid, the National Museum, II. 58, 60, 79, 91, 94 _et seq._, 108;
+    III. 29.
+  Majolica ware, II. 165, 166.
+  _Manillas_, I. 78.
+  _Mantilla_, the, III. 164 _et seq._
+  Marckwart, the brothers, I. 273.
+  Maria Cristina, Queen, III. 249 (note).
+  Maria de Padilla, III. 141.
+  Marineus Siculus, I. 254; II. 180, 233, 234; III. 50.
+  Marmol, II. 169.
+  Martial, I. 199.
+  Martinez de la Mata, III. 48.
+  Martinez Guijarro, Fernan, II. 151, 152.
+  Martinez Montanes, II. 68.
+  Martin Hume, II. 113 (note).
+  Martin of Aragon, I. 212; III. 7.
+  Mary of England, II. 237.
+  Maskell, II. 97 _et seq._
+  _Medias lanas_, III. 123 (note).
+  Medina del Campo, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Medina, Pedro de, I. 55; II. 185.
+  Melida, II. 167, 175 (note).
+  Mena, Alonso de, II. 69.
+  Menandro, Vicente, II. 246.
+  Mena, Pedro de, II. 69, 81.
+  Mendez Silva, I. 147, 284; II. 234, 255.
+  Mendoza, the _guion_ of Cardinal, I. 65.
+  Micerguillo, I. 273.
+  _Mimbar_ of the Mosque of Cordova, the, III. 213.
+  _Mimbar_, the, II. 22.
+  Mines, gold and silver, in Spain, I. 1 _et seq._
+  Mines of Spain, the iron, I. 123.
+  Miquel y Badia, II. 2 (note), 7 (note); III. 7, 8, 10, 18, 19, 22, 26,
+    47 (note), 70 (note), 133.
+  Moawia, II. 22.
+  Mocarabes, II. 54.
+  Mohammed the Third of Granada, I. 74.
+  Mondejar, the Marquis of, I. 286.
+  Monistrol, the Marquis of, II. 27.
+  Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, III. 184 (note).
+  Monte-Fuerte, the Marquis of, III. 149 (note).
+  Montoya, Alejo de, III. 206, 207.
+  Montserrat, II. 156.
+  Monzon, the Cortes of, III. 169.
+  Morales, Ambrosio de, I. 54, 55, 58 (note); II. 7 (note), 14, 41, 57,
+    58 (note), 100, 107, 108; III. 213.
+  Morel, Bartolome, I. 183 _et seq._
+  Morella, cloths of, III. 124.
+  Moriscos, the, II. 29 (note); III. 40.
+  Moriscos, the expulsion of the, I. 80 _et seq._
+  Mosaic-work, Spanish, II. 128 _et seq._
+  Muentz, III. 138, 140 (note), 149, 155 (note), 156.
+  Murcia, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Murcia, silk of, III. 67 _et seq._, 103 _et seq._
+  Muza, I. 31, 34, 35.
+  Muzquiz, Miguel de, III. 92 (note).
+
+  Nails, decorative, I. 134, 135.
+  Napoleon, I. 141 (note).
+  Navagiero, III. 50.
+  Nebrija, II. 137.
+  Ney, Marshal, I. 56.
+  Nuevo Baztan, the glass-factory of, II. 250 _et seq._
+
+  Olivares, Damian de, III. 70.
+  Olivares, the Count-Duke of, III. 159.
+  Ollery, II. 205.
+  Onteniente, cloths of, III. 122, 124.
+  "Opening images," II. 107, 108.
+  Order of Preachers, the, III. 212.
+  Ordinances of Barcelona, the, III. 123.
+  Ordinances of Burgos, the, III. 233 (note).
+  Ordinances of Cordova, the, II. 43, 44.
+  Ordinances of Granada, the, I. 78, 79, 132, 133; II. 27 _et seq._, 52,
+    119 _et seq._, 125, 126; III. 39, 52 _et seq._, 121, 122.
+  Ordinances of Seville, the, II. 50 _et seq._; III. 31 (note).
+  Ordinances of Toledo, the, II. 52; III. 31, 225.
+  Ortiz de Zuniga, I. 127, 128.
+  Ortiz, Lorenzo, III. 109, 117, 118.
+  Osma, II. 140 _et seq._, 160, 161 (note), 168, 183 _et seq._,
+    188 (note), 189.
+  Othman, the Caliph, III. 213.
+
+  Pacheco, II. 68.
+  Palencia, cloths of, III. 122.
+  _Pallia aquilinata_, III. 8.
+  _Pallia leonata_, III. 8.
+  _Pallia rotata_, III. 8, 18.
+  _Palmillas_, III. 122.
+  Pannemaker, William, III. 155, 156.
+  _Panos de Ras_, III. 139, 140, 152.
+  _Pardillos_, III. 122.
+  _Passo Honroso_, the, I. 218.
+  Pedro the Cruel, I. 270; II. 60, 61; III. 13, 37, 141, 221.
+  Pedro the Second, III. 227.
+  Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, I. 210 _et seq._; III. 30.
+  Pelayo, I. 43.
+  Petronius, I. 165.
+  Philip the First, I. 237, 238.
+  Philip the Second, I. 86, 129, 265, 280 (note); II. 69, 175, 236, 237;
+    III. 27, 40, 71, 107, 145, 149, 153.
+  Philip the Third, I. 241; III. 40.
+  Philip the Fourth, I. 102, 243; III. 41, 240, 245, 248.
+  Philip the Fifth, I. 274; II. 252; III. 43, 240.
+  Pinheiro da Veiga, II. 250; III. 33, 141 _et seq._
+  Pisano, Francesco Niculoso, II. 139, 140, 143 _et seq._
+  Pizarro, I. 257 _et seq._
+  Plato, I. 165.
+  Pliny, I. 166, 195, 201; II. 223 (note), 225 (note).
+  Poblet, the monastery of, II. 156.
+  _Poem of the Cid_, the, II. 45 (note).
+  Polybius, I. 201.
+  Ponz, II. 13, 62.
+  Porous pottery, II. 190 _et seq._
+  _Porron_, the, II. 261.
+  Potosi, the silver mines of, I. 88.
+  Pottery, prehistoric Spanish, II. 111 _et seq._
+  _Primavera_, III. 8.
+  Procaccini, III. 151, 157.
+  Processional crosses, Spanish, I. 181, 182; III. 183, 184.
+  Procopius, I. 201.
+  _Psephosis fsefysa_, II. 135.
+  Ptolemy, I. 195.
+  Puente del Arzobispo ware, II. 186 _et seq._
+  Pulgar, Hernando del, II. 13, 23.
+  Pulpits, iron, I. 139 _et seq._
+  Pulpits, old Spanish, III. 211 _et seq._
+  _Punto de oro_, III. 163.
+
+  _Racimos_, II. 54.
+  Ramirez de Arellano, I. 52, 84, 91 _et seq._, 145; II. 40, 42,
+    46 (note), 55 (note), 56 (note), 154; III. 131, 145 (note), 147.
+  Ramirez, Sancho, II. 160.
+  Rapiers, I. 259 _et seq._
+  Rassis, III. 2 _et seq._
+  Reboul, III. 91, 92 (note).
+  Recared, I. 20.
+  Recceswinth, I. 17.
+  _Red flandes_, III. 160.
+  _Rejas_, I. 141 _et seq._
+  _Relicarios_, I. 45 _et seq._
+  Renaissance, the, I. 95 _et seq._
+  _Reposteros_, II. 16 (note); III. 146 _et seq._, 153.
+  _Retablo_ of Gerona Cathedral, the, I. 63, 64.
+  _Retablos_, II. 82 _et seq._
+  _Ret Catala_, III. 173.
+  Riano, I. 9, 12, 13, 17, 40, 44, 47, 61 (note) _et seq._, 72, 88, 95,
+    107, 115, 123, 126 (note), 129, 139, 174, 179, 181, 185 (note);
+    II. 93 _et seq._, 118, 121, 123, 136, 153, 173, 177, 184, 186, 190,
+    191, 198, 199, 204 _et seq._, 213, 217, 225, 231, 232; III. 20, 23,
+    75, 126 (note), 128 _et seq._, 138, 139, 147 (note), 148, 154 (note),
+    161, 221, 254 _et seq._
+  Ricord, II. 203, 260 (note); III. 74, 75, 203.
+  Rico y Sinobas, II. 225, 228 _et seq._, 238, 259 (note); III. 240.
+  Riotinto, the mines of, I. 6.
+  Roderick, I. 30, II. 89.
+  Rodrigo, Maese, I. 217; II. 76.
+  Roldan, Pedro, II. 68, 69, 81.
+  Rosmithal, I. 37; III. 34 (note).
+  Rouliere, Jean, III. 44, 45.
+  Rubens, III. 159.
+
+  Sagrado, Diego de, II. 70.
+  Saguntine ware, II. 114 _et seq._
+  Saint Ferdinand (_see_ Ferdinand the Third).
+  Saint Isidore, II. 117, 129, 134, 223 _et seq._; III. 1, 211.
+  Saint Isidro, diamonds of, II. 224, 225.
+  Saint Vincent Ferrer, III. 212, 229, 230.
+  _Samit_, III. 5, 6.
+  Sanchez, Martin, II. 73, 74, 77, 78.
+  Sancho the Fourth, III. 145.
+  Sancho the Great, I. 51.
+  Sandoval, Cardinal, III. 129, 130.
+  San Fernando, cloths of, III. 114.
+  San Isidro, the burial chest of, II. 13.
+  San Miguel in Excelsis, the legend of, III. 179 _et seq._
+  Santa Barbara, the tapestry factory of, III. 150 _et seq._, 156.
+  Santa Isabel, the tapestry factory of, III. 150 _et seq._, 156.
+  Santiago Cathedral, the treasure of, I. 53 _et seq._
+  Santiago, jet-work of, III. 182 _et seq._
+  Santas Creus, the monastery of, II. 156.
+  Sculpture in wood, Spanish, II. 68 _et seq._
+  Segovia, cloths of, III. 106 _et seq._, 122.
+  Segovia, woollens of, III. 117 _et seq._
+  Sentenach, III. 213.
+  Sepulveda, the Fuero of, III. 106.
+  Serrano Fatigati, III. 127, 128.
+  Seville, the Ordinances of, I. 247; II. 50 _et seq._
+  Shields, Spanish, I. 207, 208, 239 _et seq._
+  Ships, silver, I. 65, 66.
+  Silk, Spanish, III. 38 _et seq._
+  _Sillerias_, II. 69 _et seq._
+  Silos, the Chronicle of the Monk of, II. 13 (note).
+  Sisenand, I. 29.
+  Sit, Ventura, II. 252.
+  Soria, cloths of, III. 106.
+  South Kensington Museum, the, II. 40, 53 (note), 97, 98, 121, 123, 184;
+    III. 161.
+  Stalactite decoration, II. 54.
+  Stirling, I. 138.
+  Strabo, I. 195, 196, 198, 200.
+  Street, I. 64 (note), 139.
+  Stuck family, the, III. 152.
+  Superstitions, Andalusian, I. 168, 169.
+  Susillo, II. 69.
+  Swinburne, I. 82, 104, 105, 168 (note), 172 (note), 235 (note),
+    240 (note), 274, 285 (note); II. 2 (note), 61 (note), 77 (note), 133,
+    155, 170, 193, 194, 224, 253, 257, 258, 261 (note); III. 47 (note),
+    66, 121, 168, 170, 184 (note).
+  Swinthila, I. 22, 29.
+  Swords, Spanish, I. 203 _et seq._, 239, 244 _et seq._
+  Swords, spurious Spanish, I. 265, 266.
+  Symonds, John Addington, I. 2; II. 67.
+
+  _Tabis_, III. 5, 6.
+  _Takcht_, the, II. 22.
+  Talavera de la Reina, pottery of, II. 186, 190 _et seq._, 198 _et seq._
+  Talavera de la Reina, silk of, III. 87.
+  Talavera de la Reina, the silk-factories of, III. 44 _et seq._
+  Tapestry, Spanish, III. 137 _et seq._
+  _Tardwahsh_, II. 18 (note).
+  Tarik, I. 31, 32, 34, 35.
+  Tarik's "table," I. 31 _et seq._; III. 212.
+  _Tartaricas_, III. 16, 17.
+  Tavira de Durango, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Teniers, III. 157.
+  Testaments, the Codex of the, II. 3 (note).
+  Thimbles, Moorish, I. 178, 179.
+  Throne of Don Martin, the silver, I. 60, 64, 65.
+  Tiles, Spanish, II. 136 _et seq._
+  _Tinajas_, II. 120 _et seq._, 195, 199; III. 55.
+  _Tiraz_, III. 1, 17, 20 _et seq._, 38.
+  Tirso de Molina, I. 282.
+  Toledo, silk of, III. 70 _et seq._
+  Toledo, the Ordinances of, II. 52.
+  Toledo, the trade-guilds of, III. 225.
+  Torreanaz, the Count of, III. 119 (note), 232, 233 (note), 252,
+    253 (note).
+  Torre del Oro, the, II. 140, 141.
+  Townsend, I. 95, 235 (note), 266, 275, 276 (note); II. 17, 25 (note),
+    33, 34, 176 (note), 215, 253, 254; III. 73, 74, 79 (note), 115 (note),
+    118 _et seq._, 151 (note), 165, 170, 182, 183 (note), 239, 240 (note),
+    250 _et seq._
+  Trade-guilds, Spanish, III. 221 _et seq._
+  Tramoyeres Blasco, Luis, III. 225 _et seq._
+  Triptych reliquaries, I. 60 _et seq._
+  Turismund, I. 29.
+
+  Ulloa, Martin de, III. 38 _et seq._, 47
+  Unamuno, III. 242.
+
+  Valencia, cloths of, III. 121.
+  Valencia, lace of, III. 169 _et seq._
+  Valencia, silk of, III. 66, 74 _et seq._
+  Valencia, the trade-guilds of, III. 225 _et seq._
+  Valencia, woollens of, III. 124, 125.
+  Valencia de Don Juan, the Count of, III. 27, 154 (note), 159, 183.
+  Valladar, II. 65 (note).
+  Valladolid, the Council of, III. 15.
+  Van der Goten, Adrian, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Cornelius, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Francisco, III. 151.
+  Van der Goten, Jacob, III. 150, 151.
+  Van der Goten, Jacob (the younger), III. 151.
+  Van Eyk, III. 156.
+  Vargas y Ponce, III. 168 (note).
+  Varguenos, II. 27.
+  Vaucanson, III. 86 _et seq._
+  _Veintiseiseno_, cloths, III. 122.
+  _Velarte_, III. 122.
+  Velazquez, I. 102, 113; III. 150.
+  _Velon_, the, I. 167, 168.
+  Vergara, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Vermay, Jan, III. 154.
+  Victory, the Cross of, I. 41, 43.
+  Vigarny, Philip, II. 78 _et seq._
+  Villa-amil y Castro, I. 140 (note), 143 (note), 167; II. 111;
+    III. 182 _et seq._
+  Villalpando, Francisco de, I. 147, 148, 189.
+  Villamediana, the Count of, III. 135 (note).
+  Viollet-le-Duc, I. 211; II. 3 (note).
+  Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the, crown of the, III. 205 _et seq._
+  Virgen del Sagrario, Toledo, the mantle of the, III. 129, 130.
+  "Virgin of Battles," the, II. 104.
+  Visigothic jewellery, I. 15 _et seq._
+
+  Wallis, II. 164, 167, 168, 173, 174.
+  Washington Irving, I. 82; II. 170, 171.
+  Weathercocks, Moorish, I. 188.
+  Witiza, I. 276.
+  Woollens, Spanish, III. 105 _et seq._
+
+  Xelizes, III. 58 _et seq._
+
+  Young, Arthur, II. 262, 263; III. 171, 172.
+  Yusuf of Granada, I. 280 (note).
+
+  Zafra, Hernando de, II. 234.
+  Zaragoza, cloths of, III. 122.
+  Zaragoza, silk of, III. 103, 104.
+  Zarco del Valle, I. 87 (note), 141 (note), 148 (note); II. 71 (note),
+     245 (note), 247 (note); III. 7, 237.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+               PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as a misprint.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. 6: Cortes of Monzon -> Monzon
+  p. 8: _Almexia_ -> _Almexia_
+  p. 15: edging of the same; -> edging of the same;"
+  p. 33: Al-Makkari, Al-Kattib -> Al-Khattib
+  p. 37: in the form of a scarf. -> in the form of a scarf."
+  p. 48: il est en indiennne. -> indienne.
+  p. 51: qui croist assez pres -> pres
+  p. 51: pres de deux cens -> cent
+  p. 51: qui est une espece -> espece
+  p. 51: Ses habitans -> habitants
+  p. 108: il y avoit autresfois -> autrefois
+  p. 109: quatre heures apres -> apres
+  p. 123: Chalons, Beziers, and Rheims -> Reims
+  p. 129: it to the church. -> it to the church."
+  p. 151: invitation John Vergoten -> Dergoten
+  p. 154: Madrid, the Pardo -> Prado
+  p. 165: Journal du Voyage d Espagne -> d'Espagne
+  p. 166: de rubans a l'extremite -> l'extremite
+  p. 166: sur la tete attachee -> attaches
+  p. 167: autre les divers degres -> degres
+  p. 167: elle ne depasse -> depasse
+  p. 200: inscription, _Aeternum_ -> Aeternum
+  p. 217: Sebastian. Early -> Early.
+  p. 217: Madrid. Cutler; a native -> native of
+  p. 217: early life in Flanders -> Flanders.
+  p. 220: Sosa, -> Sosa
+  p. 242: maxims of our Christain -> Christian
+  p. 243: through the market, -> through the market,'
+  p. 245: that they were "toujours -> "toujours
+  p. 249: in the royal _cedula_ -> _cedula_
+  p. 262: Die Kleinodien des heil -> heil.
+  p. 262: Nation, nebst den Kroninsignen -> Kroninsignien
+  p. 264: la buena gouernacion -> governacion
+  p. 264: que los Mvy Ilvstres -> Muy Ilustres
+  p. 264: mandaron gvardar -> guardar
+  p. 264: gouernacion -> governacion
+  p. 264: se han bvelto -> buelto
+  p. 273: III. 131, 16 -> 168
+  p. 276: Granada, cloths of, -> Granada, cloths of, III.
+  p. 276: Juni, Juan de, 68, 69. -> Juni, Juan de, II. 68, 69.
+  p. 280: Sepulveda -> Sepulveda
+  p. 281: 20 _et seq._; III. -> 20 _et seq._,
+  p. 281: 276 (note), -> 276 (note); II.
+  p. 282: Veintiseseno -> Vientiseiseno
+
+
+
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