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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44392 ***
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44392-h.htm or 44392-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
+      Volume I: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44391
+      Volume III: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44393
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The signs cross and dagger have been marked as [cross]
+      and [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (Comp^a). Multiple superscripted characters are
+      enclosed by curly brackets (example: DELINEAV^{it}).
+
+      [=a] represents a letter (in this instance a lower case
+      "a") with a macron above it.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece_
+SAINT FRANCIS]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME II
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO
+
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  FURNITURE                                                        1-86
+
+  IVORIES                                                        89-108
+
+  POTTERY                                                       111-220
+
+  GLASS                                                         223-263
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                              _VOLUME TWO_
+
+
+                               FURNITURE
+
+     PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+           St Francis of Assisi; Toledo Cathedral        _Frontispiece_
+
+        I. Mediæval Chair                                            10
+
+       II. Gothic Chair                                              12
+
+      III. Spanish _Arcón_ or Baggage-Chest                          16
+
+       IV. _Arca_ of Cardinal Cisneros                               18
+
+        V. Armchair; Museum of Salamanca                             20
+
+       VI. Chair and Table; Salamanca Cathedral                      22
+
+      VII. Chairs upholstered with _Guadameciles_                    24
+
+     VIII. The Sala de la Barca; Alhambra, Granada                   26
+
+       IX. Door of the Hall of the Abencerrajes; Alhambra, Granada   28
+
+        X. Moorish Door; Detail of Carving; Hall of the Two
+           Sisters, Alhambra, Granada                                30
+
+       XI. Door of the Salón de Embajadores; Alcázar of Seville      32
+
+      XII. The same                                                  34
+
+     XIII. Alcázar of Seville; Façade and Principal Entrance         36
+
+      XIV. Door of the Capilla de los Vargas, Madrid                 38
+
+       XV. Mudejar Door; Palacio de las Dueñas, Seville              40
+
+      XVI. _Celosía_; Alhambra, Granada                              42
+
+     XVII. Carved _Alero_                                            44
+
+    XVIII. Carved _Zapatas_; Casa de las Salinas, Salamanca          46
+
+      XIX. Carved _Zapatas_; Museum of Zaragoza                      48
+
+       XX. _Alero_ and Cornice of Carved Wood; Cuarto de Comares,
+           Alhambra, Granada                                         50
+
+      XXI. "Elijah Sleeping"; Statue in Wood, by Alonso Cano         52
+
+     XXII. Saint Bruno, by Alonso Cano; Cartuja of Granada           54
+
+    XXIII. Saint John the Baptist; San Juan de Dios, Granada         56
+
+     XXIV. Choir-Stalls; Santo Tomás, Avila                          58
+
+      XXV. Carved Choir-Stall; Toledo Cathedral                      60
+
+     XXVI. Choir-Stalls; Burgos Cathedral                            62
+
+    XXVII. Choir-Stalls; San Marcos, León                            64
+
+   XXVIII. Detail of Choir-Stalls; León Cathedral                    66
+
+     XXIX. Choir-Stalls; Plasencia Cathedral                         68
+
+      XXX. Detail of Choir-Stalls; Convent of San Marcos, León       70
+
+     XXXI. "Samson"; Carved Choir-Stall; León Cathedral              72
+
+    XXXII. "Esau"; Carved Choir-Stall; León Cathedral                74
+
+   XXXIII. _Retablo_; Seville Cathedral                              76
+
+    XXXIV. _Retablo_ of Seville Cathedral; Detail of Carving         78
+
+     XXXV. Detail of _Retablo_; Museum of Valladolid                 80
+
+    XXXVI. Detail of _Retablo_; Chapel of Santa Ana; Burgos
+           Cathedral                                                 82
+
+
+                                IVORIES
+
+   XXXVII. Ivory Box; Madrid Museum                                  90
+
+  XXXVIII. Ivory Casket; Pamplona Cathedral                          92
+
+    XXXIX. Ivory Box; Palencia Cathedral                             94
+
+       XL. Hispano-Moresque Ivory Casket; Royal Academy of History,
+           Madrid                                                    96
+
+      XLI. Ivory Crucifix; Madrid Museum                             98
+
+     XLIA. Back View of same                                         98
+
+     XLII. Byzantine Crucifix                                       100
+
+    XLIII. "The Virgin of Battles"; Seville Cathedral               102
+
+     XLIV. Spanish Mediæval _Baculus_                               104
+
+      XLV. "A Tournament"                                           106
+
+     XLVI. Ivory Diptych; The Escorial                              108
+
+
+                                POTTERY
+
+    XLVII. Amphoraic Vases and other Pottery; Museum of Tarragona   116
+
+   XLVIII. Dish; Museum of Granada                                  118
+
+     XLIX. Hispano-Moresque _Tinaja_                                120
+
+        L. Coarse Spanish Pottery (Modern)                          126
+
+       LI. Door of the Mihrab; Cordova Cathedral                    134
+
+      LII. Mosaic of the Patio de las Doncellas; Alcázar of Seville 138
+
+     LIII. Andalusian non-lustred Ware; Osma Collection             140
+
+      LIV. _Cuenca_ Tiles; Alcázar of Seville                       142
+
+       LV. Altar of the Catholic Sovereigns; Alcázar of Seville     148
+
+      LVI. The Gate of Wine; Alhambra, Granada                      154
+
+     LVII. Tiles of the Decadent Period                             158
+
+    LVIII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Plaque                          168
+
+      LIX. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Alhambra, Granada         170
+
+       LX. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Madrid Museum             172
+
+      LXI. Lustred Tiles; Osma Collection                           174
+
+     LXII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           176
+
+    LXIII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           178
+
+     LXIV. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           180
+
+      LXV. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           182
+
+     LXVI. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           184
+
+    LXVII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware                            186
+
+   LXVIII. Dish; Osma Collection                                    190
+
+     LXIX. An _Alfarería_ or Potter's Yard; Granada                 192
+
+      LXX. Talavera Vase                                            198
+
+     LXXI. Ornament in Porcelain of the Buen Retiro                 208
+
+    LXXII. Room decorated with Porcelain of the Buen Retiro; Royal
+           Palace of Aranjuez                                       214
+
+   LXXIII. Porcelain of the Moncloa Factory                         218
+
+
+                                 GLASS
+
+    LXXIV. Vessels of Cadalso Glass                                 234
+
+     LXXV. Vessels of Catalan Glass                                 236
+
+    LXXVI. Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso                    254
+
+   LXXVII. Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso                    258
+
+
+
+
+                               FURNITURE
+
+
+Whether the primitive Iberians ate as well as slept upon
+their cave or cabin floor, or whether--as some classics call upon us to
+believe--they used a kind of folding-chair (_dureta_) and (more advanced
+and comfort-loving than the Andalusian rustics of this day) devoured
+their simple meal from benches or supports constructed in the wall, is
+not of paramount importance to the history of Spanish furniture. The
+statements of those early authors may be granted or rejected as we
+please; for not a single piece of furniture produced by prehistoric, or,
+indeed, by Roman or by Visigothic Spain, has been preserved. But if we
+look for evidence to other crafts, recovered specimens of her early gold
+and silver work and pottery show us that Roman Spain grew to be
+eminently Roman in her social and artistic life. This fact, together
+with the statements of Saint Isidore and certain other writers of his
+day, would seem to prove that all the usual articles of Roman furniture
+were commonly adopted by the subjugated tribes, and subsequently by the
+Visigoths;--the Roman eating-couch or _lectus triclinaris_, the
+state-bed or _lectus genialis_, the ordinary sleeping-bed or _lectus
+cubicularis_, made, in prosperous households, of luxurious woods inlaid
+with ivory, or even of gold and silver; lamps or candelabra of silver,
+copper, glass, and iron[1]; the _cathedra_ or chair for women, the
+_bisellium_ or seat for honoured guests, the _solium_ or chair for the
+head of the house, the simpler chairs without a back, known as the
+_scabellum_ and the _sella_, and the benches or _subsellia_ for the
+servants. Further, the walls were hung with tapestries or rendered
+cheerful by mural painting; while the fireplace[2] and the brasier
+(_foculus_) have descended to contemporary Spain.
+
+  [1] Documents, quoted by the Count of Clonard, of Alfonso the Second,
+      San Genadio, Froylan, and the Infanta Urraca.
+
+  [2] According to Miquel y Badía, the _focus_ of the Romans is the
+      present _clar de foch_ of Cataluña; "a square platform of brick or
+      stone raised somewhat from the ground, surrounded by a bench
+      (_escó_), and large enough to serve for roasting beasts entire."
+
+Swinburne wrote from Reus in 1775;--"we here for the first time saw a
+true Spanish kitchen, viz., an hearth raised above the level of the
+floor under a wide funnel, where a circle of muleteers were huddled
+together over a few cinders."
+
+Advancing to a period well within the reach of history, we find that
+early in the Middle Ages Spain's seigniorial mansions and the houses of
+the well-to-do were furnished in a style of rude magnificence. Roman
+models, derived from purely Roman and Byzantine sources through the
+Visigoths, continued to remain in vogue until the tenth or the eleventh
+century.[3] Then, as the fashion of these declined, the furniture of
+Christian Spain was modified in turn by Moorish, Gothic, and Renaissance
+art; or two of these would overlap and interact, or even all the three.
+
+During the Middle Ages the furniture of the eating, sleeping, and living
+room which formed the principal apartment in the mansion of a great
+seignior, was very much the same throughout the whole of Christian
+Europe. Viollet-le-Duc has described it in the closest detail. The
+dominant object, looming in a corner, was the ponderous bed, transformed
+into a thing of beauty by its costly canopy and hangings.[4] Throughout
+the earlier mediæval times the Spanish bedstead was of iron or bronze.
+Wood, plain at first, then richly carved, succeeded metal towards the
+fourteenth century, and with this change the bed grew even vaster than
+before. Often it rose so high above the level of the flooring that the
+lord and lady required a set of steps to clamber up to it. These steps
+were portable, and sometimes made of solid silver.[5] I quote herewith a
+full description of a mediæval Spanish bed, extracted from an inventory
+of the Princess Juana which was made upon her marriage with the Count of
+Foix, in 1392. The same bed had formerly belonged to Juana's mother, the
+Princess Martha, at her marriage with King Juan the First. It had "a
+velvet canopy with lions of gold thread, and a dove and a horse
+confronting every lion. And each of the lions and doves and horses bears
+a lettering; and the lettering of the lions is _Estre por voyr_, and
+that of the doves and horses _aay_, and the whole is lined with green
+cloth. _Item_, a counterpane of the said velvet, with a similar design
+of doves and lions, and likewise lined with green cloth. _Item_, three
+curtain-pieces of fine blue silk, with their metal rings and cords of
+blue thread. _Item_, three cushion-covers of blue velvet, two of them of
+large size, bearing two lions on either side, and four of them small,
+with a single lion on either side, embroidered with gold thread; with
+their linen coverings. _Item_, a cloth of a barred pattern, with the
+bars of blue velvet and cloth of gold upon a red ground; which cloth
+serves for a state-chair or for a window, and is lined with cloth.
+_Item_, another cloth made of the said velvet and cloth of gold, which
+serves for the small chair (_reclinatorio_) for hearing Mass, and is
+lined with the aforesaid green cloth. _Item_, two large linen sheets
+enveloping the aforesaid canopy and counterpane. A pair of linen sheets,
+of four breadths apiece, bordered on every side with a handbreadth of
+silk and gold thread decoration consisting of various kinds of birds,
+leaves, and letters; and each of the said sheets contains at the
+head-end about five handbreadths of the said decoration. _Item_, four
+cushions of the same linen, all of them adorned all round with about a
+handbreadth of the aforesaid decoration of birds, leaves, and letters.
+_Item_, two leather boxes, lined with wool, which contained all these
+objects. _Item_, five canvas-covered cushions stuffed with feather, for
+use with the said six coverings of blue velvet bearing the said devices.
+_Item_, three large pieces of wall tapestry made of blue wool with the
+same devices of lions, horses, and doves, made likewise of wool, yellow
+and of other colours. _Item_, five carpets made of the aforesaid wool,
+bearing the same devices. _Item_, three coverlets of the same wool, and
+with the same devices, for placing on the bed. _Item_, a coverlet of red
+leather bearing in its centre the arms of the King and the Infanta.
+_Item_, another coverlet made of leather bars and plain red leather.
+_Item_, a woollen coverlet with the arms of the Infanta."[6]
+
+  [3] The _Codex of the Testaments_, preserved in Oviedo Cathedral,
+      contains some valuable illustrations of Spanish furniture of the
+      tenth century. Greatly interesting, too, is the chair of San
+      Raimundo (12th century) preserved at Roda in Aragon. It is of the
+      "scissors" or folding form (_sella plicatilis_, Ducange), and the
+      arms are terminated by heads of animals.
+
+  [4] The early nomenclature of the clothes and other fittings of a
+      Spanish bed is bewildering. We find in common use the canopy
+      (_almocalla_, _almuzala_; Arabic, _al-mokalla_, i.e. "haven of
+      refuge in all winds"--not always, possibly, a judicious term in the
+      case of a _cama de matrimonio_ or "marriage-bed"); the cloth-lined
+      skins for chilly weather (_alifafe_, _alifad_; Arabic _al-lifafh_),
+      such as King Juan the First of Aragon provided for his daughter
+      ("two leathers of Morocco for the bed." _Archive of the Crown of
+      Aragon; Registro 1906, fol. 42_); the parament or _dosal_; the
+      _galnapé_ or topmost of the bedclothes proper ("_un lecho con
+      guenabe_"; Fuero of Cáceres, A.D. 1229); the counterpane (_fatel_,
+      _fatol_, _alfatel_, _facel_, _farele_, _fateye_, _fatiro_; Arabic
+      _fatla_); the linen sheets (_izares_, _lentros_, _lentos_, _lintes_,
+      _lincas_, _linteáminas_, or _lencios_); and the mattress, pillow,
+      and bolster, called, all three of them, _plumazo_, _plumario_, or
+      _plumaco_. Nearly or quite identical in meaning with these last are
+      _cúlcita_ and _almadraque_. _Cúlcita_ is corrupted into _colcedra_,
+      _cocedra_, _conzara_, _colotra_, and other more or less barbaric
+      variations; while _almohada_, _almuella_, _travesera_,
+      _almofadinha_, _faseruelo_, and _aljamar_ also signify a pillow or
+      a cushion.
+
+  [5] "E due haber encara héla entegrament, ses vestitz é ses joyes é un
+      leyt ben garnit del misllors apereylltz que sien en casa, é _una_
+      _escala d'argent_ é una cortina." Fuero of Jaca, A.D. 1331, quoted
+      by Abad y la Sierra and the Count of Clonard.
+
+  [6] Sanpere y Miquel; _Las costumbres catalanas en tiempo de Juan I._,
+      pp. 83, 84.
+
+Another corner of the room was occupied by the dining-table,[7] spread
+at meal-times with a cloth denominated by Saint Isidore the _mappa_,
+_mápula_, _mapil_, _mantella_, or _mantellia_; and laid with the
+_mandíbulas_ or "jaw-wipers" (_i.e._ napkins; see Du Cange), plates
+(_discos_), dishes (_mensorios_, _messorios_, or _misorios_), spoons
+(_cocleares_, _culiares_), though not as yet with forks,[8] cups of
+various shapes and substances, with or without a cover (_copos_,
+_vásculos_, and many other terms), the water-flagon (_kana_, _mikana_,
+_almakana_), the cruet-stand (_canatella_), and the salt-cellar
+(_salare_).
+
+  [7] Miquel y Badía believes that the Spaniards abandoned the Roman
+      usage of reclining at their meals towards the sixth century.
+
+  [8] Forks were not introduced till later. It has even been questioned
+      whether they were known in Spain as late as the sixteenth century.
+      But Ambrosio de Morales mentions one in 1591, while another is
+      recorded in 1607 as belonging to the monastery of San Jerónimo de
+      Valparaiso, near Cordova. (See vol. i., p. 84.)
+
+This table also served to write upon, while in its neighbourhood would
+stand the massive sideboard, piled with gold and silver plate, and
+vessels of glass or ivory, wood or alabaster.
+
+Besides the bed and table in their several corners, the chamber would
+contain a suitable variety of chairs and stools, mostly surrounding the
+capacious fireplace. Members of the household also sat on carpets spread
+upon the floor. The great armchair of the seignior himself was more
+ornate than any of the rest, and was provided somewhat later with a
+lofty Gothic back (Plates i. and ii.). A chair with a back of moderate
+height was destined for distinguished visitors. The back of ordinary
+chairs reached only to about the sitter's shoulder, and coverings of
+cloth or other stuffs were not made fast, but hung quite loosely from
+the wooden frame. This usage lasted till the sixteenth century, when the
+upholsterers began to nail the coverings of the larger chairs and
+benches.
+
+Owing to the oriental influence brought back from the Crusades, the
+furniture of Europe, not excluding Spain, grew ever more elaborate and
+costly, while further, in the case of this Peninsula, the native Moorish
+influence operated steadily and strongly from Toledo, Seville, Cordova,
+Valencia, and elsewhere. Tapestries of Eastern manufacture (_alcatifas_)
+were now in general use for decorating floors and walls. The bed grew
+more and more gigantic, and its clothes and curtains more extravagantly
+sumptuous, until the florid Gothic woodwork harmonized with canopies and
+curtains cut from priceless skins, or wrought in gold and silver thread
+on multicolor satin and brocade. And at the bed's head, like some jewel
+marvellously set, rested, in every noble home, the diptych or the
+triptych with its image of the Saviour or the Virgin Mary.
+
+Under the influence of the Renaissance this love of luxury continued to
+increase among the royal and the noble families of Spain. In 1574 an
+inventory of the estate of Doña Juana, sister of Philip the Second,
+mentions a silver balustrade, weighing one hundred and twenty-one
+pounds, for placing round a bed. The inventory (1560) of the Dukes of
+Alburquerque contains a great variety of entries relative to the
+furniture and chamber-fittings of the period. We find here mentioned,
+Turkey carpets and the celebrated Spanish ones of Alcaraz, linens of
+Rouen, green cloth of Cuenca, Toledo cloths, hangings of Arras and
+elsewhere, tablecovers of damask and of velvet, gold-fringed canopies
+(_doseles_) of green or crimson velvet or brocade, a "canopy for a
+sideboard, of red and yellow Toledo cloth, with the arms of the La
+Cuevas in embroidery, together with stripes and bows, and repetitions of
+the letter I (for _Isabel Giron_, the duchess), also embroidered fringes
+of the same cloth, and cords of the aforesaid colours." We also read of
+a _sitial_ or state-chair of crimson satin brocade, and "a small walnut
+table covered with silver plates, bearing the arms of my lord the duke
+and of my lady the duchess, and edged with silver stripes."[9] The
+bedstead, fitted with hangings of double taffeta and scarlet cloth, was
+no less sumptuous than the other objects.
+
+  [9] This kind of furniture was prohibited by a sumptuary pragmatic of
+      1594. "No silversmith or other craftsman, or any person whatsoever,
+      shall make, or cause to be made, or sold, or sell himself or
+      purchase, whether openly or privately, buffets, writing-desks,
+      chests, brasiers, pattens, tables, letter-cases, _rejillas_ or
+      foot-warmers, images, or any other object that has silver fittings,
+      whether the silver be beaten, stamped, wrought in relief, carved,
+      or plain." _Suma de todas las leyes_ (A.D. 1628), p. 42.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                             MEDIÆVAL CHAIR
+             (_Carved with the arms of Castile and León_)]
+
+A popular and even an indispensable piece of furniture in every mediæval
+Spanish household was the _caja de novia_ or "bride's chest." The
+use of this, as well as of a smaller kind of box, was common both
+to Moors and Christians. No matter of what size, these objects were
+essentially the same. They served innumerable purposes; were made of
+all dimensions--from the tiniest casket (_arcellina_, _capsula_, or
+_pyxide_; see vol. i., p. 45 _et seq._) to the ponderous and vast
+_arcón_,--and almost any substance--ivory or crystal, mother-of-pearl or
+glass, gold, silver, copper, silver-gilt, jasper, agate, or fine wood;
+and we find them in every part of the Peninsula, from the dawn of the
+Middle Ages till very nearly the end of the eighteenth century.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+                              GOTHIC CHAIR
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+According to the Marquis of Monistrol, the larger boxes or _arcones_
+constitute by far the commonest article of Spanish furniture all through
+the earlier portion of this lengthy period. The same authority divides
+them broadly into seven classes, thus:--
+
+  (1) Burial-chests.
+
+  (2) Chests for storing chasubles, chalices, candelabra, and other
+      objects connected with the ceremonies of the church.
+
+  (3) Archive-chests, for storing documents.
+
+  (4) Chests for storing treasure (_huches_).
+
+  (5) Brides' chests.
+
+  (6) Chests for storing arms.
+
+  (7) _Arcones-trojes_, or chests of common make, employed for storing
+      grain in country dwellings or _posadas_.
+
+The decorative richness of these quaint _arcones_ varies according to
+their date of manufacture, or the purpose they were meant to serve.
+Commonly, in the earliest of them, dating from the sixth or seventh
+century, the iron clamps or fastenings form the principal or only
+ornament. Such are reported to have been the two chests which the Cid
+Campeador loaded with sand and foisted as filled with specie on his
+"dear friends" Rachel and Vidas, the Jewish though trustful usurers of
+Burgos, in return for six hundred marks of gold and silver. Tradition
+says, moreover, that the chest now shown at Burgos as the "coffer of the
+Cid" is actually one of these. It is certain that the archives of the
+cathedral have been deposited in this chest for many centuries.
+Evidently, too, it dates from about the lifetime of the Cid, while the
+rings with which it is fitted show it to have been a kind of trunk
+intended to be carried on the backs of sumpter-mules or horses.
+
+After the Roman domination in this country, the Latin term _capsa_ was
+applied to every kind of chest; but at a later age sepulchral chests or
+coffins were denominated _urns_, in order to distinguish them from
+_arcas_ and _arcones_, which were used for storing clothes or jewellery.
+Excellent examples of Spanish mediæval burial-chests are those of Doña
+Urraca, preserved in the Sagrario of the cathedral of Palencia, and of
+San Isidro, patron of Madrid. The former, mentioned by painstaking Ponz,
+and by Pulgar in his _Secular and Ecclesiastical Annals of Palencia_, is
+of a plain design, and really constitutes a coffin. The sepulchral chest
+of San Isidro, dating from the end of the thirteenth century, or the
+early part of the fourteenth, and kept at Madrid in a niche of the
+_camarín_ of the parish church of San Andrés, is in the Romanic style,
+and measures seven feet six inches in length. It has a gable top, and is
+painted in brilliant colours on plaster-coated parchment, with miracles
+effected by the saint, and other scenes related with his life; but much
+of the painting is effaced.
+
+Another interesting sepulchral chest would probably have been the one
+presented in 1052 by Ferdinand the First, together with his royal robe
+and crown,[10] to the basilica of Saint John the Baptist at León, to
+guard the remains of Saint Isidore. This chest was covered with thick
+gold plates studded with precious stones, and bore, in enamel and
+relief, the figures of the apostles gathered round the Saviour, and
+medallions containing figures of the Virgin, saints, and martyrs.
+According to Ambrosio de Morales, the gold plates were torn off by
+Alfonso the First of Aragon, who replaced them by others of silver-gilt.
+The same monarch, regardless of the church's fierce anathema pronounced
+on all who dared to touch her property,[11] is accused by his chronicler
+of having appropriated a box of pure gold studded with gems, enshrining
+a crucifix made of the true Cross, and which was kept in some town or
+village of the kingdom of León. Doubtless as a chastisement for
+Alfonso's impiety, this precious box was captured from him by the Moors
+at the battle of Fraga.
+
+  [10] Describing how the monarch made these presents to the church when
+       lying at the point of death, the _Chronicle of the Monk of Silos_
+       says: "_exuit regalem clamydem, qua induebatur corpus et deposuit
+       gemmatam coronam, qua ambiebatur caput_."
+
+  [11] The formula is worded thus: "_Quisquis ille fuerit qui talia
+       commiserit, sit maledictus coram Deo et Angelis ejus, mendicitas
+       et lepra prosapiam teneat suam et extraneus persistat a sancta
+       communione, quatenus cum Juda, Christi proditore, ardendus
+       permaneat in æterna damnatione._"
+
+Among the reliquary chests, the oldest specimen extant in Spain is the
+_arca santa_ of Oviedo cathedral. This object, which is purely Byzantine
+in its style, is believed to have been made at Constantinople. It was
+improved by Alfonso the Sixth, who added _repoussé_ plates to it, with
+Arabic ornamentation in the form of meaningless inscriptions of a merely
+decorative character, but which are interesting as showing the kinship
+existing at this time between the Spanish Christians and the Spanish
+Moors.
+
+Equally important is the coffer which was made by order of Don Sancho el
+Mayor to enshrine the wonder-working bones of San Millan, and which is
+now at San Millan de la Cogulla, in the province of La Rioja. The author
+of this chest, which dates from A.D. 1033, is vaguely spoken of as
+"Master Aparicio." The chest itself consists of a wooden body beneath a
+covering of ivory and gold, further enriched with statuettes and studded
+with real and imitation stones. It is divided into twenty-two
+compartments carved in ivory with passages from the life and miracles of
+the saint, and figures of "princes, monks, and benefactors," who had
+contributed in one way or another to the execution of the reliquary.
+
+I have said that the "coffer of the Cid" was made for carrying baggage.
+A very interesting Spanish baggage-chest, although more modern than the
+Cid's by several centuries, is now the property of Señor Moreno
+Carbonero (Plate iii.). This very competent authority believes it to
+have belonged to Isabella the Catholic, and says that it was formerly
+the usage of the sovereigns of this country to mark their baggage-boxes
+with the first quartering of the royal arms and also with their
+monogram. Such is the decoration, consisting of repeated castles and the
+letter Y (for Ysabel), upon this trunk. The space between is painted red
+upon a surface thinly spread with wax. Strips of iron, twisted to
+imitate the girdle of Saint Francis, are carried over all the frame,
+surrounding the castles and the letters. This box was found at
+Ronda.[12]
+
+  [12] To keep the dust or rain from entering these trunks, they were
+       covered, when on the march, with stout square cloths called
+       _reposteros_, which were often richly worked and bore the owner's
+       arms or monogram. The same word subsequently came to mean the
+       tapestried or other decorative cloths displayed in Spain on gala
+       days from balconies of public edifices, or the mansions of the
+       aristocracy; but dictionaries which were printed at the close of
+       the eighteenth century still define the _repostero_ as "caparison,
+       a square cloth with the arms of a prince or lord on it, which
+       serves to cover a led-horse, or sumpter-horse."
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                                _ARCÓN_
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+A handsome _arcón_, dating from the same period as this baggage-chest of
+Isabella the Catholic, namely, the end of the fifteenth century, is
+stated by its owner, Don Manuel Lopez de Ayala, to have belonged to
+Cardinal Cisneros (Plate iv.). The material is wood, covered inside with
+dark blue cloth, and outside with red velvet, most of the nap of which
+is worn away. The dimensions are four feet six inches in length, two
+feet in height, and twenty inches in depth. The chest, which has a
+triple lock, is covered with _repoussé_ iron plates representing twisted
+columns and other architectural devices, combined with Gothic
+thistle-leaves. A coat of arms is on the front.
+
+Such is an outline of the history of these Spanish chests. Most of the
+earlier ones are cumbersome and scantily adorned. Then, as time
+proceeds, we find on them the florid Gothic carving, unsurpassed for
+purity and charm; then the Renaissance, with its characteristic ornament
+of urns, and birds, and intertwining frond and ribbon; and finally,
+towards, and lasting through the greater portion of, the eighteenth
+century, the tasteless and decadent manner of Baroque. Yet even in the
+worst and latest we descry from time to time a flickering remnant of the
+art of Moorish Spain.
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                      _ARCA_ OF CARDINAL CISNEROS]
+
+These Spanish Moors, obedient to the custom of their fellow-Mussulmans
+throughout the world, employed but little furniture. They loved,
+indeed, bright colours and ingenious craftsmanship, but rather in the
+adjuncts to their furniture than in the furniture itself; in costly
+carpets, or worked and coloured leather hung upon the wall,[13] or
+spread upon their _alhamies_ and _alhanías_; in fountains bubbling in
+the middle of their courts and halls; in doors, and ceilings, and
+_celosías_ exquisitely carved, and joined with matchless cunning; in
+flower-vases placed in niches; in bronze or silver perfume-burners
+rolling at their feet; but not (within the ordinary limit of the term)
+in furniture. Upon this theme the Reverend Lancelot Addison discourses
+very quaintly. "The host here," he wrote of "West Barbary" in 1663, "is
+one Cidi Caffian Shat, a grandee, reported to be an Andalusian, one of
+the race of the Moors bansht (_sic_) Spain.... We were called to a
+little upper Room, which we could not enter till we had put off our
+shoes at the threshold: not for Religion, but Cleanliness, and not to
+prevent our unhallowing the floor, but defiling the carpets wherewith it
+was curiously spread. At the upper end of the Room was laid a Velvit
+Cushion, as large as those we use in our Pulpits, and it denoted the
+most Honourable part of the Room. After we had reposed about an hour,
+there was brought in a little oval Table, about twenty Inches high,
+which was covered with a long piece of narrow linnen; and this served
+for Diaper.[14] For the Moors, by their law, are forbidden such
+superfluous Utensils as napkins, knives, spoons, etc. Their Religion
+laying down the general maxim, that meer necessaries are to be provided
+for; which caused a precise Moor to refuse to drink out of my dish when
+he could sup water enough out of the hollow of his hand."
+
+  [13] The wood-carving and decorative leather-work of older Spain will
+       be described a little later on. As to the use of decorated leather
+       by the Moors, in the small chamber of the Alhambra opening into
+       the Mirador of Daraxa, and known as the Sala de los Ajimeces, is a
+       bare space about nine feet in height, which runs the whole way
+       round beneath the copious ornament of the remainder of the wall.
+       Contreras says that the Moorish sultans used to hang these spaces
+       with decorated leathers, tapestry, and armour. Sometimes the
+       tapestry or leather would be worked or painted with hunting-scenes
+       (_tardwahsh_--the chase of the lion, panther, or wild boar), or
+       even with portraits of the sultans. Among these latter is the
+       celebrated painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice,
+       executed, as are its companions at each side of it, upon a leather
+       groundwork with a plaster coating.
+
+  [14] I think this shows why to this day a Spaniard who professes to be
+       an educated person will often wipe his or her mouth upon the
+       tablecloth. Not many weeks ago I saw the elegantly dressed daughter
+       of a Spanish member of Parliament perform this semi-oriental feat
+       in an hotel at Granada. Montaigne would judge this _señorita_ with
+       benevolence; not so, I fear, my compatriots. Similarly, it is
+       considered rude in Spain to stretch yourself; but not to spit upon
+       the dining-room floor, or pick your teeth at table.
+
+The same author proceeds to relate his experiences at bed-time. "Having
+supp'd and solaced ourselves with muddy beverage and Moresco music, we
+all composed ourselves to sleep: about twenty were allotted to lodge in
+this small chamber, whereof two were Christians, three Jews, and the
+rest Moors; every one made his bed of what he wore, which made our
+English constitutions to wish for the morning."
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                                ARMCHAIR
+                 (_17th Century. Museum of Salamanca_)]
+
+Among the Mussulmans all this has undergone no change. Do we not find
+their present furniture to be identical with that of distant
+centuries?--a characteristic scarcity of portable articles of wood; the
+isolated box (_arqueta_ or _arcón_) which serves the purpose of our
+clumsier chest of drawers or wardrobe;[15] carpets and decorated
+leathers; the tiny, indispensable table; the lack of knives and spoons;
+ornaments to regale the eye rather than commodities which the hand might
+seize upon and utilize? Such was, and is, and will continue to remain
+Mohammedan society throughout the world; and these descriptive passages
+of life in seventeenth-century Morocco might have been penned with equal
+truth in reference to the Spanish Muslim of a thousand years ago.
+
+  [15] Mr. Cunninghame Graham, visiting a Caid's house in present-day
+       Morocco, noted, as the only furniture, "leather-covered cushions,
+       the cover cut into intricate geometric patterns; the room contained
+       a small trunk-shaped box."
+
+The furniture of the Moorish mosques was also of the scantiest. "They
+are," to quote once more from Lancelot Addison's amusing little
+brochure, "without the too easy accommodations of seats, pews, or
+benches. The floor of the Giámma is handsomely matted, and so are the
+walls about two feet high. If the roof be large and weighty, it is
+supported with pillars, among which hang the lamps, which are kept
+burning all the night." At one point of his expedition the reason for
+such paucity of furniture was vividly expounded to our tourist. A Moor
+indignantly exclaimed to him that it was "a shame to see women, dogs,
+and dirty shoes brought into a place sacred to God's worship, and that
+men ... should have chaires there to sit in with as much lascivious ease
+as at home."[16]
+
+  [16] _West Barbary_, p. 150.
+
+Nevertheless, a pulpit in the mosque, and a seat of some kind in the
+palace or the private house, were not to be dispensed with. We learn
+from Ibn-Khaldoun and many other writers, that the throne of the
+Mussulman sultans was the _mimbar_, _takcht_, or _cursi_. Each of these
+objects was a wooden seat. The first of the sultans to use a throne was
+Moawia, son of Abu-Sofyan. The princes who came after him continued the
+same usage, but displayed a constantly increasing splendour in the
+decoration of the throne. This custom spread, in course of time, from
+east to west throughout almost the whole dominion of the Muslims. The
+Beni-Nasr princes of Granada are also known to have used a throne, but
+this is believed to have consisted simply of some cushions piled one
+upon another. This inference is drawn by Eguilaz Yanguas and other
+Arabists from the old _Vocabulary_ of Fray Pedro de Alcalá, who renders
+a "throne" or "royal seat" by _martaba_, a word equivalent to "cushion."
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                            CHAIR AND TABLE
+                 (_17th Century. Salamanca Cathedral_)]
+
+Cushions, too, became symbolic, even with the Christian Spaniards, of a
+seat of honour; both because they lent themselves to rich embroidery or
+leather-work, and because they raised their occupant above the level of
+the persons seated positively on the carpet or the floor. In the
+painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice in the Alhambra, ten men
+are congregated in Mohammedan costume, each of them seated on a
+cushion. Some writers, including Argote de Molina, Diego Hurtado de
+Mendoza, and Hernando del Pulgar, believed these figures to be actual
+portraits of the sultans; others maintain that they depict the _Mizouar_
+or royal council. In either case, however, the cushion here is clearly
+an honourable place. We have, besides, abundant evidence that the
+Spanish Christians viewed the cushion with as marked a liking as their
+rivals. Alvarez de Colmenar relates that at the very close of the
+seventeenth century the Spanish women sat at meals in Moorish fashion.
+"Un père de famille est assis seul à table, et toutes les femmes, sans
+exception, mangent par terre, assises sur un carreau avec leurs enfants,
+et leur table dressée sur un tapis étendu." The same work says elsewhere
+that "lorsque les dames se rendent visite, elles ne se donnent ni siège
+ni fauteuil, mais elles sont toutes assises par terre, les jambes en
+croix, sur des tapis ou des carreaux."[17]
+
+  [17] _Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal_, vol. iii., pp. 324, 327.
+
+Therefore, until two centuries ago, the women of Christian Spain were
+suffered to take their seat on cushions of brocade or damask. Only the
+men made use of stools or chairs, according to their rank. To "give a
+chair" (_dar silla_) to a visitor of the male sex was to pay him a
+valued courtesy;[18] and even now the wife of a grandee of Spain goes
+through the honourable though irksome ceremony, at the palace of Madrid,
+of "taking the cushion."
+
+  [18] "Hónrale el Sr Roberto, alma del Rey, y _le ha dado Silla_, y le
+       tuvo á su lado." Lope de Vega's comedy, _The Key of Honour_.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                 CHAIRS UPHOLSTERED WITH _GUADAMECILES_
+                           (_17th Century_)]
+
+Another usage with the Spaniards of the seventeenth and immediately
+preceding centuries was the "dais of honour" or _estrado de
+cumplimiento_. This was a platform very slightly raised, and separated
+by a railing from the rest of the room. The curious manuscript
+discovered by Gayangos, descriptive of court-life at Valladolid in 1605,
+contains the following account of one of the occasions when the Queen,
+following a common custom of a Sunday, dined alone, in sight of all the
+aristocracy. "The table was laid upon the dais (_estrado alto_), beneath
+a canopy of brocade that overhung the whole of it. The queen sat at the
+head of the table, and three ladies, standing, waited on her; two
+uncovering the dishes as they came,[19] and the third carving. The
+dishes were brought from the dining-room door by the _meninos_, who
+handed them to the ladies. Other ladies of the royal household, wives or
+daughters of grandees, stood leaning against the wall in company with
+gentlemen who, on such occasions, sue for leave beforehand to attend on
+Lady So and So, or So and So. Commonly there are two such cavaliers to
+every dame. If the queen asks for water, one of these ladies takes it to
+her, kneels, makes an obeisance, kisses the goblet, hands it to her
+majesty, and retires to her appointed place. Behind the queen was one of
+her chamberlains. Many of the Englishmen were witnessing the meal. They
+always put the English first on such occasions; and as they are such
+hulking fellows (God bless them!) I, who was at their back, scarce noted
+anything of what was passing, and only saw that many plates went to and
+fro."
+
+  [19] The covers would be fastened by a lock and key, as a defence, not
+       against poison, but against theft. "A little afterwards Don
+       Federico de Cardona, who had gone out to see how matters were
+       proceeding, returned, bearing a large silver vessel, the cover of
+       which was secured by a lock and key, as is the custom in
+       Spain."--Countess d'Aulnoy's _Travels_. As late as the year 1792,
+       Townsend, in his "Directions to the Itinerant in Spain," recommends
+       (vol. i., p. 2) that the vessel to boil the traveller's meat should
+       be provided with a cover and a lock.
+
+Solid and expensive furniture continued to be used in Spain throughout
+the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries; the ponderous chest, the
+ponderous brasier, ponderous stools, ponderous armchairs with massive
+nails and coverings of velvet or of decorated leather (Plates v., vi.,
+and vii.). Upon the wall, the tapestry of earlier times was often
+replaced by paintings of a sacred character, or family portraits. The
+comedy titled _La Garduña de Sevilla_, written about the middle of the
+seventeenth century by Alonso del Castillo Solorzano, describes the
+interior of a rich man's dwelling of this period. "Upstairs Rufina noted
+delicate summer hangings, new chairs of Moscovy cowhide, curiously
+carved buffets, and ebony and ivory writing-desks; for Marquina, though
+a skinflint towards others, was generous in the decoration of his own
+abode.... When dinner was over, he took her to a room embellished with
+fine paintings, and with a bed whose canopy was of some Indian
+fabric.... Paintings by famous masters were plentifully hung about the
+house, together with fine Italian hangings, various kinds of
+writing-desks, and costly beds and canopies. When they had visited
+nearly all the rooms, they opened the door of one which contained a
+beautiful altar and its oratory. Here were a great array of costly
+and elaborate Roman vessels, agnuses of silver and of wood, and flowers
+arranged in various ways. This chamber, too, was full of books
+distributed in gilded cases."
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                         THE _SALA DE LA BARCA_
+            (_Before the fire of 1890. Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+A characteristic piece of Spanish furniture was at this time the
+solid-looking cabinet known as the _vargueño_, so denominated from the
+little town of Vargas, near Toledo, formerly a well-known centre of
+their manufacture. These cabinets, whose origin, according to the
+Marquis of Monistrol, may be traced to a fifteenth-century form of
+_huche_, or chest provided with drawers for guarding articles of value,
+and which opened in the centre, are commonly made of walnut. The front
+lets down upon a massive wooden rest supported by the legs, and forms a
+folding writing-table containing at the back a number of drawers or
+compartments for storing documents, or other things of minor bulk.
+
+The woodwork of these cabinets is often without carving; but generally
+in such cases their bareness is relieved by massive and elaborately
+ornamented iron fastenings and a decorative key.
+
+The Ordinances of Granada tell us that in 1616 the making of defective
+furniture had grown to be a scandal in that town. The cause, it seems,
+was partly in the wood itself, proceeding from the Sierra de Segura,
+Pinar del Duque, and the Sierra de Gor. "Divers of our carpenters and
+joiners cut their walnut and other woods while yet the moon is crescent,
+whereby the wood decays and spoils. Others there be that make and sell
+chairs, desks, beds, and other furniture of green unseasoned wood which
+warps and loosens, insomuch that within some days the article is
+worthless. Therefore we order that all walnut wood and other woods for
+making furniture be only cut at the time of the waning moon, and be not
+used until they shall have seasoned thoroughly, so as not to warp; and
+that they be approved by the inspectors of this trade, under a penalty
+of six thousand _maravedis_ for each of the aforesaid Ordinances that be
+not complied with."
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                  DOOR OF THE HALL OF THE ABENCERRAJES
+                         (_Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+The municipal laws of the same city relative to the "chair-makers who
+make hip-chairs to sit in, and leather-covered chests," were cried, in
+1515 and 1536, "in the street of the chairmakers and carpenters."
+Fettered by irksome regulations of this kind, we cannot wonder that the
+arts and crafts of Christian Spain were fated to decline.[20] Owing
+to the "false and faulty workmanship" prevailing in Granada, it is
+provided by these statutes that the wood employed in making chairs must
+be bought by the manufacturers in public auction only, held "in the
+little square where dwell the chairmakers." It must be thoroughly dry
+and free from flaws, and of sufficient stoutness to sustain the
+decorative marquetry. The chair which lacks these requisite conditions
+must be seized and burnt. The four nails which fasten the seat of the
+chair to the legs must traverse the frame completely and be hammered
+back upon the other side, unless the surface of the chair be inlaid, in
+which case they need not pass completely through. The leather for the
+seats and backs of chairs must be good in quality and well prepared and
+dressed, besides being strongly sewn with flaxen thread. Chairs of all
+sizes must bear the official city mark, stamped by the authorities at a
+charge of one _maravedi_ for each of the large chairs and a _blanca_ for
+each of the small.
+
+  [20] The purpose of these Spanish city laws was in its essence
+       unimpeachable; namely, to guard the intensely ignorant Christian
+       populace--the same which fugitive Moriscos of the kingdom of
+       Valencia had readily prevailed upon to barter tons of brass and
+       pewter trash for sterling gold and silver coin--from being imposed
+       upon by manufacturers and merchants. But the power of
+       discriminating between a genuine or well-made object and a piece
+       of counterfeit or worthless rubbish is, among all peoples, better
+       sought for and developed by experience than by legislation; and
+       there was something noxiously prosaic in a code of city ordinances
+       which forbade the craftsman to prepare his own design, or choose
+       his own material, or establish his own prices. How violently, or at
+       least how primitively, hostile to the sense of art must not have
+       been these Christian sons of Spain to need--or think they
+       needed--so impertinent and tyrannous a system of protection!
+
+Makers of the leather-covered chests are ordered to use the hides of
+horses, mares, or mules, and not the hides of oxen, cows, or calves,
+because, if covered with this latter, "the chests grow moth-eaten and
+are destroyed much sooner." The craftsman who transgresses this command
+must lose the faulty piece of furniture, and pay four hundred
+_maravedis_, while under a further penalty of two hundred _maravedis_
+the hinges must be fixed inside the chest, and not to its exterior.
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                    MOORISH DOOR, DETAIL OF CARVING
+            (_Hall of the Two Sisters, Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+I have omitted hitherto all mention of the furnishing of humbler Spanish
+houses in the olden time. The following passage from the Ordinances of
+Granada shows us, referring to an inn, an unpretentious lodging of about
+four hundred years ago:--
+
+"_Item._ If the innkeeper have a parlour or alcove that fastens with a
+lock, and therein a bed of the better class, with hangings round about
+it, and a canopy above, and on the bed a counterpane, friezed
+blanket, and pillows; also a bench with its strip of carpet or striped
+benchcloth, a table with its service of tablecloths and all that be
+needful, besides a lamp of brass or ware, all of the best that he is
+able to provide--for such a bed and room he may demand twelve
+_maravedis_ each day; whether the room be taken by one guest, or two, or
+more."[21]
+
+  [21] _Ordenanza de Mesoneros_, titulo 54.
+
+Nor was the Spanish inn more comfortable in the seventeenth or
+eighteenth centuries than in the sixteenth. "On entre d'ordinaire dans
+les Hôtelleries par l'écurie, du moins dans de certaines Provinces; on
+vous mène dans quelque chambre, où vous trouvez les quatre parois,
+quelquefois un bois de lit; pour chandelle on allume un grand nombre de
+petites bougies, qui font assez de lumière pour voir ce que vous mangez;
+et afin que l'odeur and la fumée de tant de bougies n'incommode pas, on
+vous apporte, si vous le souhaitez, un brasier de noyaux d'olives en
+charbon. Quand on monte, on trouve au haut de l'escalier, la _Señora de
+la Casa_, qui a eu le tems de prendre ses beaux habits de dimanche pour
+vous faire honneur et s'en faire à elle-même." (Alvarez de Colmenar, in
+1715.)
+
+It is interesting to compare these passages with Lancelot Addison's
+account of a Morocco inn towards the middle of the seventeenth century;
+bearing in mind that _fonda_, the current Spanish term for _hostelry_,
+is common both to Spain and to Morocco:--
+
+"In later years, every town of traffic hath erected a sort of Inns
+called _Alfándach_, which affords nothing but House-room for man and
+beast, the market yielding provision for both. Those that farm these
+_fandáchs_ cannot exact above a Blankil a night both for man and beast,
+which is in sterling money about two pence. The horses lodging costing
+equally with his Rider's."[22]
+
+  [22] _West Barbary_, p. 129.
+
+Similarly, the keeper of the older Spanish inn was not allowed by law to
+traffic in provisions. "Nothing but house-room" was available for
+wayfarers, and the weary visitor, as soon as ever he arrived, must sally
+forth to do his marketing.
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                   DOOR OF THE _SALON DE EMBAJADORES_
+                        (_Alcázar of Seville_)]
+
+"Quand on arrive aux Hôtelleries, fut il minuit passé, l'on n'y trouve
+rien de prêt, non pas même un pot sur le feu. L'hôtel ne vous donne que
+le couvert et le lit, pour tout le reste, il le faut envoyer chercher,
+si vous ne voulez prendre la peine d'y aller vous-même. On donne
+l'argent nécessaire, et l'on va vous chercher du pain, du vin, de la
+viande, et généralement tout ce que l'on souhaite, si tant est qu'on le
+puisse trouver. Il est vrai que cette coutume a son bon côté.
+
+"Le prix de toutes ces choses est réglé, l'on sait ce qu'il faut payer,
+et un hôte ne peut pas friponner. On vous apprête votre viande, et l'on
+donne une réale et demie, ou deux réaux pour le _servicio_, comme ils
+parlent, et autant pour le lit, ce qui revient environ à quinze sous de
+France. Si l'on se trouve dans quelque grande ville, on aura une nappe
+grande comme une serviette, et une serviette grande comme un mouchoir de
+poche; dans d'autres endroits il faut s'en passer.
+
+"Les lits ne sont pas fort ragoutans; quelque matelas, ou quelque
+paillasse, ou tout au plus une couverture de coton; à la campagne il
+faut passer la nuit sur le carreau, ou bien sur quelque botte de paille,
+qu'on doit avoir soin de faire bien secouer, pour en chasser la
+vermine."
+
+The statements in this passage relative to the lack of food in Spanish
+hostelries are confirmed, nearly a century later, by Townsend, who
+records that on reaching a certain village his first proceeding was to
+turn his steps, not to the _fonda_ or _posada_ where he would engage
+his bed, but to the butcher's, wine-seller's, and so forth, "to see what
+was to be had, as I had travelled all day fasting."
+
+It is beyond the province of this work to dwell upon the foreign taste
+in furniture which invaded Spain from France upon the advent of the
+Bourbon dynasty, and so I limit my notice of the eighteenth century to
+quoting from Laborde the following comprehensive passage:--
+
+"If the Spaniards," this traveller wrote in 1809, "take many precautions
+against heat, they take scarcely any against cold; it is very uncommon
+to find doors or windows that shut close, and the rooms are very little
+and very ill-warmed. The use of chimneys even is very uncommon, and only
+prevails in the houses of such Spaniards as have travelled. Brasiers of
+copper or silver are generally employed, which are set in the middle of
+the apartment, filled with burning charcoal, and round which the family
+place themselves.
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                   DOOR OF THE _SALON DE EMBAJADORES_
+                        (_Alcázar of Seville_)]
+
+"The beds in Spain are hard. They are only made of mattresses, more or
+fewer, laid on paillasses which rest upon a boarded bottom; for neither
+sacking nor feather beds are known. No bolsters are used, but in
+their place little, short, flat pillows are heaped up, sometimes to the
+number of six or eight. The sheets are in general short and narrow; and
+napkins scarcely as big as a small pocket handkerchief.
+
+"The furniture of the houses is usually very simple. The floor is
+covered with a matting of _esparto_ in winter, and of rushes or palm
+leaves in summer. A matting of the same kind, a painted cloth, or
+painting in panels, covers the walls from the floor to the height of
+four or five feet; above, the wall is bare, painted white, and adorned
+with pictures of saints and a kind of ornamented metal chandeliers;
+these are covered with a glass, surrounded with a border of gilt
+ornaments; and a little branch of gilt copper proceeds from them forming
+zig-zags or festoons, on which the candles are placed; they are called
+cornucopias; they are from one to three feet in height, and give the
+apartment the air of a coffee room, or billiard room. Mirrors are placed
+between the windows, and a lustre of clear glass in imitation of crystal
+is suspended from the middle of the handsomest saloons. The chairs have
+straw bottoms; in some provinces, as Murcia, Andalusia, and Valencia,
+they are of different heights; those on one side of the room being of
+the common height, and the others one third lower. The latter are
+intended for the ladies. In some of the principal cities one also sees
+chairs and sofas of walnut wood, the backs of which are bare, and the
+seats covered with damask; usually crimson or yellow.
+
+"Luxury begins, however, to show itself in these objects. In the chief
+cities many hangings are of painted paper or linen; even hangings of
+brocades, of one and of three colours, and of various other kinds of
+silk; large and beautiful mirrors, and a number of sofas may be seen.
+The houses of the grandees in Madrid are magnificently furnished, but
+usually with more cost than taste. Hangings of silk, velvet, and damask,
+adorned with rich fringes and gold embroidery, are very common, and the
+seats are of corresponding magnificence. Many houses in Barcelona,
+Cadiz, Valencia, and Madrid are decorated with equal study and elegance.
+
+"The custom of painting the walls is of late introducing itself into
+Spain. They are covered with representations of men and animals, with
+trees, flowers, landscapes, houses, urns, vases, or history pieces,
+divided into compartments, adorned with pillars, pilasters, friezes,
+cornices, and arabesques; the effect of the whole is often very
+agreeable. This kind of decoration was imported from Italy."[23]
+
+  [23] Vol. v., pp. 301-304.
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+                           ALCÁZAR OF SEVILLE
+                   (_Façade and principal entrance_)]
+
+In this account we clearly trace each various and successive influence
+that had permeated older Spain, leaving her, at the close of every
+period, a nation that produced illustrious artists, but never a nation
+deeply versed in, or devoted to, the arts. The beds and brasiers of
+these modern Spaniards were derived from ancient Rome; their general
+dearth of comfortable furniture, together with the lower, and therefore
+more humiliating, seats for women, from the Spanish Moors; the typically
+ponderous hangings from mediæval Spain herself; the fresco
+wall-paintings, such as may still be seen in many a Spanish country
+home, from classic or Renaissance Italy; and the finicking gilt, rococo
+cornucopias from France; while the use of mirrors and of lustres in
+hideous combination with straw-bottomed chairs, almost reminds us of the
+days of Visigothic barbarism.
+
+
+                                LEATHER
+
+_Guadamacilería_, or the art of decorating leather with painting,
+gilding, and impressions in relief, is commonly believed to have crossed
+from Africa to Spain at some time in the Middle Ages. According to
+Duveyrier, the word _guadamecí_ or _guadamecil_ is taken from Ghadames,
+a town in Barbary where the craft was practised long ago; but
+Covarrubias gives it an origin directly Spanish, supposing that the
+title and the craft alike proceeded from a certain town of Andalusia.
+However this may be, the preparation of these leathers grew to be a most
+important industry in various parts of Spain, and spread, as time went
+on, to Italy, France, and other European countries.[24]
+
+  [24] "Spain lays claim to the invention of the art of gilding leather;
+       it is asserted that, after being discovered there, the secret was
+       carried to Naples by Peter Paul Majorano."--Laborde, vol. v.,
+       p. 231.
+
+In the Peninsula, the principal centres of this work were Cordova,
+Seville, Lerida, Barcelona, Ciudad Real, and Valladolid. Cordova,
+however, was so far ahead of all the rest that leathers decorated in
+this style were known throughout the world as _cueros de Córdoba_, or
+"Cordova leathers." Another name for them is said to have been
+_cordobanes_; but possibly the application of this latter word was less
+restricted. Bertaut de Rouen wrote in the seventeenth century of Ciudad
+Real:--"C'est une ville située dans une grande plaine, et dont
+l'enceinte est assez grande, qui estoit mesme fort peuplée autrefois,
+mais elle est quasi deserte à present. Il ne luy reste plus rien sinon
+que c'est là où l'on appreste le mieux les peaux de _Cordouan_, dont on
+fait les gans d'Espagne. C'est delà aussi d'où elles viennent pour la
+pluspart à Madrid. J'en achetay quelques-unes."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                   DOOR OF THE CAPILLA DE LOS VARGAS
+                              (_Madrid_)]
+
+In 1197 Alfonso the Ninth presented the town of Castro de los Judíos to
+León Cathedral and its bishop, confirming at the same time the tribute
+which the Jews who occupied that town were bound to render upon Saint
+Martin's day in every year, and which consisted of two hundred
+_sueldos_, a fine skin, and two _guadamecís_. This tribute had existed
+since the reign of Ferdinand the First: that is, towards the middle of
+the preceding century.[25]
+
+  [25] Count of Clonard; _Memorias para la historia del traje español_.
+
+None of these primitive leathers now exist, and consequently the details
+of their workmanship have perished with them. Ramírez de Arellano
+mentions two small coffers in the Cluny Museum, which date from about
+the fourteenth century and are decorated with the forms of animals cut
+from leather and overlaid on velvet. Other _guadamecís_, though not of
+the oldest, are in the South Kensington Museum. "The earliest
+_guadamecileros_," says Ramírez de Arellano, speaking particularly of
+this art at Cordova, "were accustomed to imitate brocade upon their
+leathers, employing beaten silver together with the colours red, green,
+blue, black, white, and carmine, applied in oils, or sometimes (although
+the law prohibited this) in tempera. Gold was not used till 1529, when
+Charles the Fifth confirmed the Ordinances of this industry. The
+leather-workers tanned the hides themselves, stamping the pattern from a
+wooden mould, and then (if we may call it so) engraving on them. The
+hides were those of rams. The spaces between the decoration were either
+coloured red or blue, or simply left the colour of the skin; or else the
+pattern would be wrought in colours on the natural hide. Gold, which at
+a later epoch almost totally replaces silver, was introduced between
+1529 and 1543, and was applied as follows. The artists smeared with
+oil the parts they wished to figure in raised or sunk relief, and laid
+the beaten gold upon the oil. They then applied a heated iron or copper
+mould; the pattern in relief was stamped; and the gold, superfluous
+shreds of which were wiped away with lint, adhered upon the leather. The
+irons required to be moderately hot, because if overheated they would
+burn the hide, or, if not hot enough, the fixing of the gold would not
+be permanent."
+
+                           [Illustration: XV
+                              MUDEJAR DOOR
+                  (_Palacio de las Dueñas, Seville_)]
+
+The importance of this industry in Spain may be judged of from the fact
+that towards the close of the Middle Ages the _guadamacileros_ of
+Seville occupied nearly the whole of an important street--the Calle
+Placentines. Similarly, at Cordova they filled the quarter of the city
+known as the Ajerquía. "So many _guadamecíes_ are made here," wrote
+Ambrosio de Morales, "that in this craft no other capital can compare
+with her; and in such quantities that they supply all Europe and the
+Indies. This industry enriches Cordova and also beautifies her; for
+since the gilded, wrought, and painted leathers are fixed upon large
+boards and placed in the sun in order to be dried, by reason of their
+splendour and variety they make her principal streets right fair to look
+upon."
+
+We owe to Rafael Ramírez de Arellano most valuable and recent
+information respecting this ancient Spanish-Moorish craft.[26] He has
+discovered the names of nearly forty _guadamacileros_ who lived and
+worked at Cordova, principally in the sixteenth century. It is not worth
+while to repeat these names alone, but one or two particulars connected
+with a few of them are interesting. In 1557 four of these artificers,
+named Benito Ruiz, Diego de San Llorente, Diego de Ayora, and Anton de
+Valdelomar, signed a contract to prepare the cut and painted
+_guadamaciles_ for decorating a palace at Rome. This contract, which is
+most precise and technical, is published in No. 101 of the _Boletín de
+la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_. The only further notice which
+Señor Ramírez de Arellano has discovered relating to any of these four
+craftsmen, tells us that nine years after the signing of the document
+just mentioned, Diego de Ayora leased some houses in the Calle de la
+Feria for a yearly rental of twenty-two ducats and three pairs of live
+hens.
+
+  [26] _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_, Nos. 101, 102;
+       Art. _Guadamacíes_.
+
+Another interesting contract is dated April 17th, 1587. By it the
+_guadamacilero_ Andrés Lopez de Valdelomar agreed, in company with
+Hernando del Olmo of Marchena, and with Francisco de Gaviria and
+Francisco Delgado, painters, of Cordova, to make a number of pieces of
+_guadamecí_ for the Duke of Arcos. The work was to be terminated by July
+of the same year. Valdelomar was to receive from the duke's agent three
+_reales_ for each piece, and the painters two _reales_ and a half; this
+money to be paid them by instalments as the work proceeded.
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                               _CELOSÍA_
+                         (_Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+On August 26th, 1567, before the mayor of Cordova and the two inspectors
+of this trade, Pedro de Blancas was officially examined and approved in
+"cutting, working, and completing a _guadamecí_ of red damask with gold
+and silver borders on a green field, and a cushion with green and
+crimson decoration and faced with silver brocade."
+
+The Ordinances of Cordova also tell us much about this industry. The
+oldest of these city laws which deal with it are dated 1529. Those of
+1543 were ratified by a Crown pragmatic early in the seventeenth
+century, and at this later date we learn that the craft had much
+declined, the leather being by now "of wretched quality, the colouring
+imperfect, and the pieces undersized." The Ordinances published in the
+sixteenth century provide that every applicant for official licence to
+pursue this craft and open business as a _guadamacilero_, must prove
+himself, in presence of the examiners, able to mix his colours and
+design with them, and to make a canopy together with its fringe, as well
+as "a cushion of any size or style that were demanded of him; nor shall
+he explain merely by word of mouth the making of the same, but make it
+with his very hands in whatsoever house or place shall be appointed by
+the mayor and the overseers of the craft aforesaid."
+
+It was also provided by these Ordinances that the pieces of leather were
+to be dyed, not with Brazil-wood, but with madder, and that their size,
+whether the hide were silvered, gilt, or painted, was to be strictly
+uniform, namely, "the size of the primitive mould," or "three-quarters
+of a yard in length by two-thirds of a yard, all but one inch, in
+width." The standard measures, made of iron and stamped with the city
+seal, were guarded under lock and key; and the Ordinances of 1567
+establish the penalty of death for every _guadamacilero_ who shall seek,
+in silvering his wares, to palm off tin for silver.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVII
+                            CARVED _ALERO_]
+
+These leathers served a great variety of purposes, public or private,
+sacred or profane. They were used upon the walls and floors of
+palaces and castles, as table-covers, counterpanes, bed-hangings,
+cushions, curtains for doors, linings for travelling-litters, coverings
+of chests and boxes,[27] and seats and backs of chairs and benches
+(Plate vii.). In churches and cathedrals, especially throughout the
+sixteenth century, we find them used as tapestry and carpets,[28]
+altar-fronts (such as one which is preserved in the chapel of San Isidro
+in Palencia cathedral), or crowns for images of the Virgin.[29] As time
+advanced, gold and a coat or so of colour was succeeded by elaborate
+painting. Thus painted, they were often cut into the forms of columns,
+pilasters, or friezes in the Plateresco or Renaissance style,[30] until
+the growing popularity of wall-pictures, together with the importation
+of French fashions at the death of Charles the Second, crippled and
+ultimately killed the decorative leather industry of Spain.
+
+  [27] The _Poem of the Cid_ tells us of the two chests, covered with red
+       _guadamecí_, which the hero filled with sand to cheat the Jewish
+       money-lenders:--
+
+          "_Con vuestro consejo bastir quiero dos archas.
+          Incamosla d'arena, cá bien serán pesadas,
+          Cubiertas de guadamecí é bien enclavadas;
+          Los guadamecís bermeios é los clavos bien dorados._"
+
+       Nevertheless, the "coffer of the Cid" at Burgos (see p. 12) does
+       not appear to have been thus fitted.
+
+  [28] The same usage obtained in Morocco. Lancelot Addison wrote in 1669
+       that on the first day of their "Little Feast" the Moors across the
+       Strait "spread the floor of their Giammas with coloured
+       leather."--_West Barbary_, p. 213.
+
+  [29] An inventory of effects belonging to the Hospital of San José at
+       Jerez de la Frontera mentions, in 1589, "clothes and trimmings for
+       the image of Our Lady. A crown of gilded _guadamecí_."--Gestoso,
+       _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. i., p. xxii, _note_.
+
+  [30] A hall, says Ramírez de Arellano, would often be embellished by
+       surrounding it with arches wrought of leather in relief and
+       superposed on leather. As a rule the arches were gilt and silvered,
+       and rested upon pilasters or columns. When pilasters were used,
+       their centres would be ornamented with Italian devices such as
+       flowers, trophies, imitated cameos, and foliage. Landscapes with a
+       far horizon and no figures, known as _boscaje_ or _pintura verde_
+       were painted on the space between the arches, so that the general
+       effect was that of a pavilion with arches on all sides, displaying
+       everywhere a wide expanse of fertile country. The arches rested on
+       a broad bordering of _guadamecíes_, and running round the lower
+       part was a _zócalo_ or socle, commonly made of tiling.
+
+Such is the kind of decoration which was most in vogue in Spain
+throughout the latter half of the sixteenth century; that which was
+exported to Rome; and that which was commissioned by the Duke of Arcos.
+
+
+                       CARPENTRY AND WOOD-CARVING
+
+The artistic carpentry of older Spain produced as its most typical and
+striking monuments, three groups of objects which may be included
+generally under Furniture. These are the _celosía_ or window-lattice,
+the door of _lazo_-work, and the _artesonado_-ceiling which adorns a
+hall or chamber, corridor or staircase.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+                            CARVED _ZAPATAS_
+                    (_Casa de Salinas, Salamanca_)]
+
+These happy and effective styles of decoration came originally from the
+East. Their passage may be traced along the coast of Africa from Egypt
+into Spain; and they flourished in Spain for the same reason which had
+caused them to flourish at Cairo. "When we remember," says Professor
+Lane-Poole, "how little wood grows in Egypt, the extensive use made of
+this material in the mosques and houses of Cairo appears very
+remarkable. In mosques, the ceilings, some of the windows, the pulpit,
+lectern or Koran desk, tribune, tomb-casing, doors, and cupboards, are
+of wood, and often there are carved wooden inscriptions and stalactites
+of the same material leading up to the circle of the dome. In the older
+houses, ceilings, doors, cupboards, and furniture are made of wood, and
+carved lattice windows, or meshrebiyas, abound. In a cold climate, such
+employment of the most easily worked of substances is natural enough;
+but in Egypt, apart from the scarcity of the material, and the
+necessity of importing it, the heat offers serious obstacles to its
+use. A plain board of wood properly seasoned may keep its shape well
+enough in England, but when exposed to the sun of Cairo it will speedily
+lose its accurate proportions; and when employed in combination with
+other pieces, to form windows or doors, boxes or pulpits, its joints
+will open, its carvings split, and the whole work will become unsightly
+and unstable. The leading characteristic of Cairo wood-work is its
+subdivision into numerous panels; and this principle is obviously the
+result of climatic considerations, rather than any doctrine of art. The
+only mode of combating the shrinking and warping effects of the sun was
+found in a skilful division of the surfaces into panels small enough,
+and sufficiently easy in their setting, to permit of slight shrinking
+without injury to the general outline. The little panels of a Cairo door
+or pulpit may expand without encountering enough resistance to cause any
+cracking or splitting in the surrounding portions, and the Egyptian
+workmen soon learned to accommodate themselves to the conditions of
+their art in a hot climate."[31]
+
+  [31] _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt_, pp. 124, 125.
+
+                           [Illustration: XIX
+                            CARVED _ZAPATAS_
+                        (_Museum of Zaragoza_)]
+
+These valuable and interesting observations apply with equal justice
+to the decorative woodwork of the Spanish Muslims. A further point of
+interest lies in the fact that window-grilles and ceilings of the kind
+referred to, grew to be extremely fashionable through the whole
+Peninsula. Carried by Moorish or Mudejar craftsmen far beyond the
+frontiers of the Mussulman sultans of this European land, we find to-day
+surviving specimens in every part of Spain--most of them, it is true, in
+sultry Andalus; but many also in the old seigniorial mansions of
+Castile, or even in the cold and humid towns and cities of Cantabria.
+
+The man who did this kind of work was not a common carpenter. Such work
+was largely practical and prosaic, but also it was largely decorative
+and poetical. Probably, both in his own and in his customer's regard,
+the decorative quality was set before the practical. Therefore, beyond
+the dry, comparatively facile details of technique, this workman
+studied, with an artist's reverence and zeal, the inner, subtler,
+sweeter mysteries of line and form; harmonies of curve and angle;
+patterns, now geometrical, now floral, now these two combined with magic
+ingenuity; steeping himself in the æsthetic sense; making, indeed, his
+work the literal fact or fitting of prosaic application that was
+indispensable; but also, and as if upon some loftier initiative of his
+own, a miracle of art for people of a later day to come and stand before
+and wonder at.
+
+                           [Illustration: XX
+                   _ALERO_ AND CORNICE OF CARVED WOOD
+               (_Cuarto de Comares, Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+Indeed, whether because Our Lord had practised it, or from some other
+motive, carpentry was always well esteemed among the Spaniards. The
+Ordinances of Seville eulogize it, in conjunction with its sister-work
+of masonry and building, as "a noble art and self-contained, that
+increaseth the nobleness of the King and of his kingdom, that pacifieth
+the people, and spreadeth love among mankind, conducing to much
+good."[32] The same Ordinances divide these honourable craftsmen into
+half a dozen classes and sub-classes; carvers or _entalladores_,
+carpenters who kept a shop (_carpinteros de tienda_), _carpinteros de lo
+prieto_, and _carpinteros de lo blanco_. The latter are the class we are
+considering here, and these, in turn, were subdivided into _lazeros_ or
+makers of _lazo_-work, _non-lazeros_ or those who did not make it, and
+_jumetricos_ or _geómetricos_. The statutory examination was severe
+in all these branches. Thus, the _lazero_-carpenters of Seville were
+required to make a chamber of octagonal _lazo_-work, including its
+pendentives at the corners; while the wood-carvers of the same city were
+required to be experienced draughtsmen and to make and carve "artistic
+altar-screens with decorated columns, pedestals for images, and
+tabernacles (_i.e._ the part of an altar where the cibory and the Host
+are kept), as well as tombs and chambranles with their covering,
+tabernacles of the utmost art (_de grande arte_), and rich
+choir-stalls."
+
+  [32] _"Es noble arte, complida en sí; è acrescienta la nobleza del rey
+       y del reyno, si en ella pararen mientes, como deuen; è pone paz en
+       el pueblo y amor entre los omes, onde es carrera para muchos
+       bienes."_--_Ordenanzas de Sevilla_, Part 1, p. 141.
+
+Nor was the making of artistic ceilings, doors, and window-gratings
+carried out exclusively by men of Moorish blood. Tutored by these, the
+Christians practised it with great success. Prominent among these last
+we find, early in the seventeenth century, the name of Diego Lopez de
+Arenas, a Christian-Spaniard and a native of Marchena, who held the
+licensed title of master-carpenter and lived for many years at
+Seville.[33] In a lucky moment it occurred to Lopez de Arenas to write
+and publish for the benefit of his fellow-craftsmen a book upon this
+decorative oriental woodwork that had passed into the Spanish national
+life. This book, _Carpintería de lo Blanco_,[34] appeared at Seville in
+1633, and fresh editions were printed at the same city in 1727, and at
+Madrid in 1867. As in the Ordinances of Granada, Seville, and Toledo,
+Arabic terms, too copious and too complicated for elucidation here, are
+constantly repeated in this book.[35] Much of the general information
+which we gather from it is, however, of great interest. Thus, we are
+told that with the Spanish artists, as in Egypt, the wood most often
+used, no doubt as being the cheapest, was pitch pine, parcelled and put
+together in the most elaborate decorative schemes. Such was the
+characteristic _alfarge_[36] ceiling of the Moorish, Morisco, and
+Spanish-Christian _carpintero de lo blanco_. Its many fragments were
+secured upon the frame by long, small-headed nails, or by these nails
+combined with glue. If we observe the ceilings from close by, as when,
+for instance, they are taken down to be restored, the workmanship
+appears to be coarse, inaccurate, and hasty; the myriad pieces to be
+clumsily and loosely joined; the nails to be driven in without method,
+or even awry. Nevertheless, this false effect betrays the calculating
+genius of the craftsman. He planned his work for contemplation by a
+certain light and at a certain elevation; and therefore, as the ceiling
+is removed again to its appointed distance, it seems to re-create itself
+in proud defiance of an error of our own, and grows at once to its
+habitual delicacy, harmony, and richness.
+
+  [33] Gestoso finds no record of him in the city archives; but from a
+       rough portrait of Arenas prefixed to his treatise, we judge that
+       he was born about the year 1580.
+
+  [34] Arenas himself defines a _carpintero de lo blanco_ as "he who
+       prepares and works upon the wood employed in building; also, he
+       who fashions tables, benches, etc., in his workshop."
+
+  [35] "His language abounds in Arabic words and phrases of uncertain
+       origin, whose meaning (since he wrote for men familiar with this
+       work) he makes no effort to explain."--Editor's introduction to
+       the third edition of _Carpintería de lo Blanco_.
+
+  [36] Arabic _al-farx_, a carpet, piece of tapestry, or anything that
+       covers and adorns.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                           "ELIJAH SLEEPING"
+                  (_Statue in wood, by Alonso Cano_)]
+
+I have said that the decoration of these ceilings is sometimes floral,
+sometimes geometrical, sometimes a combination of the two.[37] Sometimes
+the wood is plain, or sometimes silvered, gilt, or painted. Sometimes it
+is employed alone, or sometimes variegated and inlaid with plaster
+points and patches. By far the commonest motive is the _lazo_--an
+ornamental scheme composed of infinite strips that turn, and twist, and
+intersect, describing in their mazy passage many polygons. One of these
+polygons determines, in a way, the scheme of the entire ceiling, which
+is denominated as consisting of "a _lazo_ of eight," "of ten," "of
+twelve," etc., from this particular. The most attractive and most
+frequent is the scheme "of eight." Among the decorative details used to
+brighten and enhance the _lazo_ proper are _mocarabes_ or wooden lacery
+for relieving cubes and joists or surfaces, and _rácimos_ or "clusters";
+that is, hollow or solid wooden cones or prisms, disposed along the side
+and centre panels of the ceiling like (in Arenas' ingenious phrase) the
+buttons on a jacket, and contributing to the massive aspect of the
+whole. These clusters, too, were sometimes in the stalactite and
+sometimes in a simpler form, and show, both in the quantity and richness
+of their ornament, a limitless diversity.
+
+  [37] This mingled decoration is extremely common; and may be studied in
+       our country, in the carved panels at South Kensington which are
+       believed to proceed from the pulpit of the mosque of Kusun; or in
+       the thirteenth-century panels of the tomb of Es-salih Ayyub.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXII
+                              SAINT BRUNO
+                (_By Alonso Cano. Cartuja of Granada_)]
+
+Magnificent Spanish-Moorish, Spanish, and Mudejar ceilings still exist
+in Spain. Such are the marvellous domed ceiling in the Hall of Comares
+(or of Ambassadors) in the Alhambra, those of the Castle of the
+Aljafería at Zaragoza and of the archbishop's palace at Alcalá de
+Henares, the Arab _alfarge_ ceilings in the churches of San Francisco
+and Santiago of Guadix, that of the Hall of Cortes in the Audiencia of
+Valencia, that of the Sala Capitular of Toledo Cathedral, that of the
+Chapel of the Holy Spirit of the Cathedral of Cuenca (considered by many
+to be the finest _artesonado_ ceiling in all Spain), or those of the
+churches of Jesus Crucificado, El Carmen, and San Pablo at Cordova. The
+ceiling of the Sala de la Barca, in the Moorish palace of the Alhambra,
+was almost totally destroyed by fire in 1890, but a good photograph had
+previously been taken, and I reproduce it here (Plate viii.). One of the
+later _artesonado_ ceilings is at Cordova, in the parish church of
+Santiago. Covered with a _bóveda_ or vault of cane, it is in excellent
+preservation, and was made in 1635 by the master-carpenter Alonso Muñoz
+de los Ríos, who received for his labour fourteen thousand _reales_.[38]
+The _artesonado_ ceilings which Diego Lopez de Arenas tells us in his
+treatise that he made for the church, the choir, and the _sobreescalera_
+of the monastery of Santa Paula at Seville, as well as a ceiling which
+he made for the church of Mairena, are all extant to-day. Other
+remarkable examples of this craft are the ceilings of the rooms
+constructed to the order of, and which were actually occupied by,
+Charles the Fifth, within the precincts of the old Alhambra. Upon these
+half-Italian, half-Morisco ceilings and their frieze we read the words,
+"_Plus Oultre_"; and the inscription, "_Imperator Cæsar Karolus V.
+Hispaniarum rex semper augustus pius f[oe]lix invictissimus_." In one of
+the same apartments, known as the "chamber of the fruits," the ceiling
+has octagonal _artesones_ of superb effect, though even richer is that
+of what is called the Second Sala de las Frutas, conspicuously
+influenced by Italian art, and believed by Gómez Moreno to have been
+designed by Pedro Machuca and executed by Juan de Plasencia.
+
+  [38] Cordova was a famous centre of this craft for many centuries.
+       Ramírez de Arellano has found and published a notice relative to
+       Lope de Liaño and García Alonso, two artificers of this city who
+       signed, on January 7th, 1572, a contract with the prior of the
+       monastery of the Holy Martyrs to build a ceiling for one of the
+       chapels of the same. The document, which is quoted _in extenso_ in
+       the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_ for November,
+       1900, abounds in technical expressions, many of them partly or
+       entirely Moorish.
+
+The same writer publishes the names (hitherto completely unrecorded) of
+thirteen other artist-carpenters who worked at Cordova in the latter
+half of the sixteenth century and early in the seventeenth. The craft,
+in fact, died hard, and ceilings of this kind, replete with Moorish
+detail, were made in certain parts of Southern Spain until the closing
+moments of the eighteenth century.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                         SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST
+                     (_San Juan de Dios, Granada_)]
+
+Marvellous in conjunction with the thousand lighted lamps which served
+to manifest its beauties, must have been the primitive ceiling
+(_as-sicafes_) of the mosque of Cordova, of which an Arab poet sang;
+"Look at the gold on it, like the kindled flame, or like the
+lightning-stroke that darts across the heavens."[39] Our notices of this
+ceiling, barbarously hacked to pieces by Christian architects, are
+neither numerous nor clear. We are told, however, that it was nearly
+finished in the reign of Abd-er-Rhaman the First, and terminated
+altogether by his son Hixem. New ceilings were added on the enlarging of
+the mosque by Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, while fresh additions were made
+by Al-Hakem the Second and Al-Manzor. Ambrosio de Morales gives a quaint
+description of the earliest, or an early, ceiling of this temple. "The
+roof of the whole church, made of wood painted and adorned in divers
+ways, is of incredible richness, as will be seen from what I am about
+to say. It is of larch throughout, odorous, resembling pine, which is
+not found in any part but Barbary,[40] whence it is brought by sea. And
+every time that a part of this temple was thrown down for new
+constructions to be added, the wood removed was sold for many thousand
+ducats for making guitars and other delicate objects. The ceiling was
+built across the church upon the nineteen naves thereof, and over it,
+covered likewise with wood, the roofs, nineteen in number also, each
+with its ridge atop, drooping to one and other side."[41]
+
+  [39] That the Moors were proud of their mastery in woodwork is proved by
+       an inscription in the Torre de la Cautiva at Granada, saying; "In
+       the plaster and the tiles is work of extreme beauty, _but the
+       woodwork of the roof has vanquished them in elegance_."
+
+  [40] Morales was probably mistaken. "On entering Aragon one sees whole
+       forests of 'Spanish Cedar' or _alerce_, some of the trees so thick
+       that they measure four feet in diameter."--Bowles' _Natural History
+       of Spain_, p. 102.
+
+  [41] _Antigüedades de las ciudades de España_ (A.D. 1575), p. 123.
+
+Three pieces made of common pine, and which are thought to have belonged
+to the original ceiling of this mosque or to an early replica, are now
+in the National Museum at Madrid, but the carving of these fragments is
+so simple that in the opinion of Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos the
+decoration of the wood itself was purposely subordinated in this
+instance to the richness and variety of the painting.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIV
+                              CHOIR-STALLS
+                        (_Santo Tomás, Avila_)]
+
+Three types of decorative doors were made in older Spain. In the
+earliest and simplest (_lacería en talla_), the _lacería_ or _lazo_-work
+is carved directly on and from the solid plank which forms the body of
+the door. In the second type, the carver's art is delicately blended
+with the joiner's--_lazo_-work with _ensamblaje_. In the third type the
+_lazo_-work is _sobrepuesta_--that is, attached to, not elaborated from,
+the planking.[42]
+
+[42] José Amador de los Ríos mentions, as a good example of the first of
+these types, a thirteenth-century door of the _claustrilla_ in the
+monastery of Las Huelgas at Burgos. Other doors in the same monastery
+are illustrative of the second type; while all three types are
+represented by the doors, described herewith, which close the principal
+entrance to the misnamed Hall of Ambassadors in the Alcázar of Seville.
+
+As in the case of ceilings, many and excellent examples of these doors
+exist to-day in Spain. Among the most remarkable are several in the
+Moorish palace of the Alhambra, such as the two (dating from the end of
+the fourteenth century or early in the fifteenth) belonging,
+respectively, to the famous Hall of the Abencerrajes (Pl. ix.), and to
+the Hall of the Two Sisters (Pl. x.). Apparently it was the former of
+these doors which Bertaut de Rouen wrote of in the seventeenth century
+as "une porte aussi grande et aussi épaisse comme celles de nos plus
+grandes églises. Elle s'ouvre des deux costez, et est toute de pieces
+rapportées, et d'un bois de differentes couleurs, comme les beaux
+cabinets et les belles tables qui coustent si cher."[43]
+
+  [43] _Journal du Voyage en Espagne_, p. 85.
+
+An early Mudejar door proceeding from the church of San Pedro at Daroca
+in Aragon is now in the National Museum. This door, which is of larch,
+and measures nearly fourteen feet in height by nine in breadth, is of a
+simple design and represents a horse-shoe door described within the door
+itself. It was originally painted vermilion, with other decorative
+painting of a simple character in black, white, and red, and is
+fortified with massive iron braces. It is believed to date from earlier
+than the fourteenth century.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                           CARVED CHOIR-STALL
+                         (_Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+The mighty doors of the "Hall of Ambassadors," in the mediæval royal
+residence of Seville (Plates xi. and xii.), are quite the finest to be
+seen in Spain. Although a widespread superstition assigns their
+manufacture to a period close upon the Moorish conquest, it has been
+proved conclusively that they were made by Mudejar craftsmen of Toledo
+at the time when the whole Alcázar was erected more or less upon the
+ruins of the old, by Pedro the First of Castile, denominated, according
+to the prejudice with which we view his character, "the Cruel," or
+"the Just."[44]
+
+  [44] The following words record the date of the construction of this
+       place and its doors, and may be read (Plate xiii.) upon the scroll
+       of tiles or _alizares_ crowning the principal façade:--
+
+       [cross] EL ¦ MUY ¦ ALTO ¦ ET ¦ MUY ¦ NOBLE ¦ ET ¦ MUY ¦
+       PODEROSO ¦ ET ¦ MUY ¦ CONQUERIDOR ¦ DON ¦ PEDRO ¦ POR ¦
+       LA ¦ GRACIA ¦ DE ¦ DIOS ¦ REY ¦ DE ¦ CASTIELLA ¦ ET ¦
+       DE ¦ LEON ¦ MANDÓ ¦ FACER ¦ ESTOS ¦ ALCÁZARES ¦ ET ¦
+       ESTOS ¦ PALACIOS ¦ ET ¦ ESTAS ¦ PORTADAS ¦ QUE ¦ FUÉ ¦
+       FECHO ¦ EN ¦ LA ¦ ERA ¦ DE ¦ MILL ¦ ET ¦ QUATROÇIENTOS ¦
+       Y ¦ DOS ¦
+
+The observant Swinburne was not misled, like many travellers of to-day,
+into believing the Alcázar to be of purely Moorish origin. "Having read
+that the Moors built one part of this palace, I concluded I was admiring
+something as old as the Mahometan kings of Seville; but upon closer
+examination was not a little surprised to find _lions_, _castles_, and
+other armorial ensigns of Castille and Leon, interwoven with Arabesque
+foliages; and still more so, to see in large Gothic characters, an
+inscription informing me that these edifices were built in the
+fourteenth century, by the most mighty king of Castille and Leon, Don
+Pedro."
+
+These doors, which under a pretence of restoration have been mutilated
+more than once, are made of larch, and measure sixteen feet in height by
+thirteen feet (including both the leaves) in width. The upper part of
+either leaf consists of geometrical and floral ornament in exquisitely
+tasteful combination, executed in the scheme known technically, from the
+angles at the central polygon, as _lazo de á doce_--"_lazo_-work of
+twelve." The decoration of the lower part is more minute, and in the
+scheme of _lazo de á diez_--"_lazo_-work of ten." Inscriptions in Arabic
+and Latin, many of which are quoted from the Psalms, are distributed on
+both sides of the woodwork, and confirm our other evidence that the
+doors were made during the reign and in obedience to the orders, of Don
+Pedro.
+
+The Plateresco sixteenth-century doors of the Capilla de los Vargas at
+Madrid (Plate xiv.) are attributed by Cean Bermudez and by Ponz to an
+artist named Giralte, who carved them in walnut with various military
+and other scenes from Scripture, alternating with shields and floral
+ornament; the whole surrounded by an exquisitely delicate and tasteful
+border. Lampérez remarks that the errors of perspective recall the
+similar productions of Ghiberti.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVI
+                              CHOIR-STALLS
+                         (_Burgos Cathedral_)]
+
+The _celosía_ or decorative wooden window-grating, imported by the
+Mussulman conqueror from Egypt and the East, extended to all parts of
+Christian Spain, and was particularly used in convents. These gratings,
+identical in form and workmanship with those of Cairo,[45] were
+attached to projecting windows, so that the women of a household
+could look into the street without themselves being seen, a custom which
+the Spanish woman still recalls to us by peering, for hours at a time,
+between the lowered _persiana_ of her balcony.[46] By the seventeenth
+century, which may truthfully be called the age of Spanish jealousy, and
+when the "Othello-like revenge of the Moor" had eaten into the very
+entrails of society, the _celosía_ had become as indispensable to houses
+as the door or window. "La," wrote Bertaut de Rouen of a residence on
+the outskirts of Madrid, and obviously alluding to these gratings, "il y
+avoit bien des Dames dans l'appartement d'enhaut qui y demeurerent
+cachées, se contentant de nous voir promener dans le jardin par les
+fenêtres."
+
+  [45] "The windows, which are chiefly composed of curious wooden
+       lattice-work, serving to screen the inhabitants from the view of
+       persons without, as also to admit both light and air, commonly
+       project outwards, and are furnished with mattresses and
+       cushions."--Lane's _Arabian Nights_, vol. i., p. 192.
+
+  [46] It is strange that Ford should have confounded the _reja_ with the
+       _celosía_ (_Handbook_, vol. i., p. 153). However, he opportunely
+       quotes the Spanish proverb, _Muger ventanera tuercela el cuello si
+       la quieres buena_ ("The remedy for a woman who is always thrusting
+       her head from the casement is to twist her neck").
+
+We know from the stone coat of arms which is carved above the doorway of
+the "House of Castril at Granada" that in the olden time the balconies
+of the Hall of Comares in the Alhambra were fitted with projecting
+wooden _celosías_; and Contreras says that in the Torre de los Puñales
+of the same palace there used to be "a kind of wooden _mirador_ or
+_menacir_, covered with _celosías_ like those of Cairo, and many of
+which were still to be seen in Granada early in the nineteenth century."
+
+I am not aware of any Moorish _celosía_ remaining to this day outside a
+Spanish building. In such exposed positions weather and the natural
+delicacy of the woodwork seem to have destroyed them all. As an interior
+ornament, a single one (Pl. xvi.) exists in the Alhambra. Nevertheless,
+I hesitate to call this _celosía_ purely Moorish. Perhaps it is the work
+of a Morisco, or even of a Christian-Spaniard, for we know that
+decorative wooden fittings for the Alhambra were made in the sixteenth
+century by Antonio Navarro and other craftsmen. The grating, which is
+well preserved, covers a window over the archway leading from the Hall
+of the Two Sisters into the Sala de los Ajimeces and the Mirador de
+Daraxa, and consists of minute prisms and turned pieces in the typical
+Egyptian style.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                              CHOIR STALLS
+                         (_San Márcos, León_)]
+
+Other fittings for a building, wrought in wood by Moorish artists and
+by these communicated to the Christian-Spaniards, were balustrades and
+cornices, _aleros_ (decorative bands beneath the eaves of a roof, Plate
+xvii.) and _zapatas_ (gargoyle-looking figures, often in human form,
+used to support a roof or gallery). In the so-called "Patio de las Asas"
+of the convent of Santa Catalina de Zafra, at Granada, exists an
+interesting Moorish balustrade[47] that seems almost untouched by time.
+I reproduce an outline of it as the tailpiece to the present chapter,
+and am glad to append the little sketch in question, copied from a
+photograph I took upon the spot three years ago, because it is almost
+impossible to obtain admission to this convent. Beautiful or uncouth and
+quaint _zapatas_ may be seen in the Casa de los Tiros at Granada, and in
+many other places (Plates xviii. and xix.). Much of the Moorish woodwork
+of the palace of the Alhambra was destroyed by the fire of 1590, but
+there yet remain the ample cornice and carved _alero_ of the façade of
+the Cuarto de Comares (Plate xx.), which is often called in error the
+Court of the Mezquita. This _alero_ bears the following inscription,
+allusive to the Sultan Mohammed the Fifth:--"I am the place where the
+crown is guarded, and on my doors being opened the regions of the west
+believe the east to be contained within me. Algami Billah charged me to
+keep guard upon the doorway."
+
+  [47] Almagro Cardenas calls it "part of a _celosía_" (_Museo Granadino_,
+       p. 79); but as it can never have been a window-grating, this term
+       is incorrect. Gómez Moreno calls it, not too lucidly, "a wooden
+       balustrade forming squares and rectangular figures in the manner
+       of a _celosía_" (_Guía de Granada_, p. 421). Valladar (_Guía de
+       Granada_, edition of 1906, p. 117) calls it simply a balustrade,
+       and this, it seems to me, is the only term which truthfully
+       describes the object.
+
+Other remarkable _aleros_ are in the Generalife and in the Court of
+Lions of the Alhambra, while, also in this last-named mansion, genuine
+Moorish woodwork of elaborately inlaid ebony and larch is in two niches
+near the entrance to the Sala de Embajadores.
+
+
+      SACRED STATUARY, _SILLERÍAS_ OR CHOIR-STALLS, AND _RETABLOS_
+
+The genius of the wood-carvers of older Spain is manifested chiefly in
+three groups of objects--sacred statuary, choir-stalls, and _retablos_.
+Among this people, and probably by reason of its cheapness, plain, or
+gilt, or polychrome painted wood has always been a favourite material
+for the statues of their temples, whether such statues were employed
+alone, or as an accessory to a larger article of sacred furniture, such
+as a pulpit, or a _sillería_, or an altar-screen. So powerful, in fact,
+has been the vogue of this material here,[48] that even to-day the
+Spanish people, making, in Symonds' happy phrase, "representation an
+object in itself, independently of its spiritual significance," attempt
+to elevate the most remarkable of their wooden, and by preference their
+coloured wooden, statuary (typically defended by Pacheco's indigested
+tome), to rank beside the noblest and the purest monuments of bronze and
+marble; denoting, by this reckless and uneducated partiality, a
+positively national misconception of the true domain of art.
+
+  [48] My readers are no doubt aware that every Spanish hamlet has its
+       wooden image of the Virgin, badly executed as a rule, and rendered
+       doubly hideous by a gaudy gown. Most of these local images are
+       believed to hold the power of working miracles, or at least to
+       have been fashioned and conducted to their present shrine by
+       supernatural agency--on which account the populace and their
+       pastors call these latter _imagenes aparecidas_, as distinct from
+       _manufactured_ images. Such are the Virgins of Montserrat, Granada,
+       and numerous other cities, towns, or villages of this illiterate
+       and ill-starred Peninsula. The curious may refer for every kind of
+       detail to Villafañe's _Compendious History of the Wonder-working
+       Images of Spain_, which numbered in this author's day (his book was
+       published in 1740) one hundred and eighty-nine. But the most
+       extraordinary miracle of all was that which is recalled, with pious
+       gravity, by Bertaut de Rouen. Speaking of the gilt-wood image of
+       Nuestra Señora del Pilar at Zaragoza, he says:--"On y void quantité
+       de lampes d'argent et on m'en raconta un miracle qu'il me fut
+       impossible de ne pas croire. C'est d'un pauvre homme qui ayant eu
+       la jambe coupée pour une blessure, et s'estant bien recommandé à
+       _Nostra Señora del Pilar_, il se trouva un jour avec sa mesme jambe
+       qu'il avoit déja fait enterrer. Y'ay sceu l'histoire du chirurgien
+       mesme qui coupa cette jambe et de quantité de témoins de veuë. Il
+       n'y a que quinze ans que cela est arrivé, mais l'homme est mort
+       depuis peu."--_Journal du Voyage en Espagne_, p. 203.
+
+                         [Illustration: XXVIII
+                         DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS
+                          (_León Cathedral_)]
+
+It is outside the scope of such a work as this to deal at any length
+with Spanish figure-sculpture. However, it is only fair to recognize
+that Spain produced a couple of score or so of admirable carvers of
+wood-statuary. Among the greatest of these craftsmen or _imagineros_
+were Becerra, Berruguete, Juan de Juni, author of the _Mater Dolorosa_
+("Our Lady of the Knives"), of Valladolid; Gregorio Hernández the
+Galician, author of "Simon the Cyrenian," "Santa Veronica," and "the
+Baptism of our Lord"; Martínez Montañes, author of "San Jerónimo" and of
+the "Cristo del Gran Poder";[49] Solis, Gaspar de Ribas, Juan Gómez,
+author of the "Jesus" of Puerto de Santa Maria; Pedro Roldan, with whom,
+according to Tubino, "the art of Seville closed its eyes"; and Alonso
+Cano, master of Pedro and Alonso de Mena, Ruiz del Peral, José de Mora,
+and Diego de Mora, and who carved the exquisite "Elijah Sleeping" (Pl.
+xxi.) now at Toledo, and also (as it is believed) the famous statuette
+(Frontispiece to the present volume) of Saint Francis of Assisi.
+
+  [49] It is due to Martínez Montañes to mention that in many of his
+       contracts he stipulated that the painters of his statuary should
+       be chosen by himself, "so as not to corrupt the outline and the
+       sentiment of the figures."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIX
+                              CHOIR-STALLS
+                        (_Plasencia Cathedral_)]
+
+The earliest centre of this branch of wood-carving was Valladolid, where
+lived and laboured Juni and Hernández. Nevertheless, although so popular
+in every part of Spain, it had a short-lived prime, originating in the
+two Castiles towards the reign of Philip the Second, declining steadily
+(with Seville for its centre now) all through the seventeenth century,
+and flickering out, despite the perseverance and the genius of the
+Murcian Susillo, in the century succeeding.
+
+In decorative _sillerías_ or sets of choir-stalls, Spain has produced
+examples worthy to be set beside the masterpiece of Vitry in the abbey
+of Sainte-Claude, the best productions of Dürer and his followers in
+Germany, or those of Donatello, Brunelleschi, Valdambrino, Vechietta,
+and Verrochio in Italy. Nevertheless, her most distinguished
+_sillería_-makers were at almost every moment inspired and directed by
+the foreigner. Germans or Flemings were her first preceptors in this
+craft. These artists had been sent for, or proceeded of their own
+accord, to Spain, and settling in this country rapidly spread the
+technics of their art among the Spaniards. In the Peninsula the origin
+of this school or movement may be traced to Burgos. Here, just as the
+fifteenth century was drawing to its close, and just before the breath
+of the Renaissance crossed the Spanish frontier at its eastern side, was
+gathered a small though influential group of eminent workers in more
+crafts than one; painters and sculptors, architects, embroiderers,
+carvers of wood, _reja_-makers, and painters of cathedral glass.
+Prominent among them all was a foreigner named Philip Vigarny,[50] who
+is described by Diego de Sagrado as "singular above all others in the
+art of making statuary and sculpture; a man of vast experience, general
+in his mastery of the liberal and mechanic arts, and no less resolute in
+all that is related with the sciences of architecture."
+
+  [50] In Spanish he is called Felipe de Borgoña, but Martí y Monsó says
+       that the proper spelling of the surname is Biguerny.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                         DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS
+                    (_Convent of San Marcos, León_)]
+
+Burgundy is said to have been the birthplace of Felipe de Borgoña, but
+of his early history we have no tidings. In documents which bear his
+signature he styles himself "_imaginario_, resident at Burgos." Three
+such documents exist. On August 1st, 1505, he agrees, for 130,000
+_maravedis_, to make "such images as may be necessary" for the altar of
+the high chapel of Palencia cathedral, "he with his own hand to carve
+the hands and faces, out of good smooth walnut, without painting." This
+document is dated from Palencia. The other two are dated severally,
+Burgos, December 6th, 1506, and Corcos, September 6th, without the
+addition of the year.[51] We also know this craftsman to have made the
+great _retablo_ of Burgos cathedral. Such, from the fragmentary
+semblance we can trace of him, was Philip Vigarny, the pioneer of the
+wood-carvers of older Spain, and who, aided by other craftsmen from
+abroad, communicated all the secrets of his art to Spaniards such as Gil
+de Siloe, Ruy Sanchez, Diego de la Cruz, Alonso de Lima, and Berruguete.
+
+  [51] Zarco del Valle, _Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las
+       Bellas Artes en España_, pp. 161, 162.
+
+The typical _sillería_ consists of two tiers; the _sellia_ or upper
+seats, with high backs and a canopy, intended for the canons, and the
+lower seats or _subsellia_, of simpler pattern and with lower backs,
+intended for the _beneficiados_. At the head of all is placed the
+presidential throne, larger than the other stalls, and covered, in many
+cases, by a canopy surmounted by a tall spire. When the _sillería_
+belongs to a monastery, the higher stalls are for the _profesos_, and
+the lower for the novices and _legos_. Commonly the part that forms the
+actual seat is hinged and rises to a vertical position, being so
+contrived that when the occupant rises to his feet, there remains a
+narrow ledge projecting from the under surface. This ledge is called the
+"seat of pity" or "of patience," because the worshipper is able to
+incline himself on it and give his limbs some measure of repose without
+appearing to be seated. There also is commonly another piece, intended
+for him to rest his hands upon in rising, which projects from the sides
+of the stall and forms a part of the decorative carving, as well as,
+somewhat higher still, the carved support to rest his arms while he is
+on his feet.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXI
+                                "SAMSON"
+               (_Carved Choir-stall of León Cathedral_)]
+
+The earliest Spanish _sillerías_ date from the fourteenth century; but
+it is not until the century succeeding that we find them at their very
+best. Gothic or Plateresco _sillerías_ of marvellous design and
+workmanship are those of the Seo of Zaragoza (begun in 1412), the
+Cartuja de Miraflores of Burgos (1489), the monastery of Oña, Santa
+María de Nájera (1495), the church of Santa María del Campo, in the
+province of Burgos, Santo Tomás of Avila (finished in 1493), and the
+cathedrals of Oviedo, Segovia (1461-1497), Ciudad Rodrigo, Tarragona
+(1478), Tarazona, Toledo (begun in 1494), Zamora, Astorga, Barcelona
+(1453-1483), and Seville (finished in 1478).
+
+The Gothic choir-stalls of the Seo of Zaragoza have lofty backs with
+arabesque Mudejar ornamentation, small Gothic columns, and medallions
+containing figures upon the arms of every stall. The material is Flemish
+oak. The carving was begun in 1412 by the Moors Alí Arrondi, Muza, and
+Chamar, who earned a daily wage of four _sueldos_. In 1446 Juan Navarro
+and the brothers Antonio and Francisco Gomar were working at the same
+stalls, and also, in 1449, Francoy.
+
+The stalls of the Cartuja de Miraflores at Burgos were carved by Martin
+Sánchez, who received in 1486, and for the _mano de obra_ alone, the sum
+of 125,000 _maravedis_. The material, which was presented by Luis de
+Velasco, Señor of Belorado, is dark walnut.
+
+The _sillería_ of Santa María de Nájera, the work of Maestro Andrés and
+Maestro Nicolás, is Gothic merging into the Renaissance. That of Santo
+Tomás of Avila (late Gothic) consists of sixty oaken stalls, besides two
+larger ones resembling thrones (Plate xxiv.), intended to be occupied by
+Ferdinand and Isabella, founders of this monastery, and whose arms they
+bear in lace-like carving. The rest of the decoration is composed of
+thistles, vines, trefoils, and pomegranates. Owing to the fact that not
+a single cross appears on any part of the _sillería_ (although this
+circumstance is not unusual in sacred Gothic woodwork), there is a
+superstition that these stalls were wrought anonymously by some Jew,
+condemned to execute them by the Inquisition as a form of punishment.
+This fable has no value. Although the author's name is not upon the
+stalls, they are identical in nearly every detail with those of the
+Cartuja de Miraflores at Burgos, known to have been carved by Martin
+Sánchez in 1486. Hence it is extremely probable that this craftsman was
+the author of both _sillerías_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                                 "ESAU"
+               (_Carved Choir-stall of León Cathedral_)]
+
+On many Spanish _sillerías_ we find most spirited reproductions of the
+life and manners of their time; satirical allusions to contemporary
+vices, allegories and caprices as fantastic, in the phrase of Vargas
+Ponce, as "one of Bosch's nightmares," hunting-scenes or love-scenes,
+banquets, tournaments, dances, battles, sieges, and even bull-fights.
+Thus, on the stalls of the cathedrals of Zamora, Oviedo, Plasencia,
+Astorga, and León are carved such subjects as the following. A fox
+dressed as a friar, preaching to a group of hens but slyly abstracting
+their chicks (Zamora), men fighting with their fists (Zamora), a hog
+playing the bagpipes (León), the Devil in the garb of a confessor,
+tempting a penitent (León), a woman suckling an ass (León), a man armed
+with a lance, fighting a woman (Astorga), a bird of prey struggling with
+a crocodile (Astorga), card-players (Astorga), a warrior on all-fours,
+whipped by a woman (Plasencia), an _auto-de-fé_ (Plasencia), swine
+praying and spinning (Ciudad Rodrigo), a fight between a tiger and a
+bull (Ciudad Rodrigo), a monkey beating a drum (Ciudad Rodrigo), and a
+monkey wearing a mitre (Ciudad Rodrigo).
+
+The style of the lower stalls of Toledo cathedral is good Plateresque.
+They were begun in 1494 by Maese Rodrigo, one of the very best of
+Spain's _entalladores_, and portray, in each successive stall, the
+phases of the last campaign against Granada (Plate xxv.); the sieges or
+battles of Altora, Melis, Xornas, Erefran, Alminia, Baza, Málaga (two
+stalls), Salobreña, Almuñecar, Comares, Beles, Montefrío, Moclín,
+Illora, Loja, Cazarabonela, Coyn, Cartama, Marbella, Ronda, Setenil,
+Alora, Alhama, Nixar, Padux, Vera, Huéscar, Guadix, Purchena, Almería,
+Rión, Castil de Ferro, Cambril, Zagani, Castul, Gor, Canzoria, Moxacar,
+Vélez el Blanco, Gurarca, Vélez el Rubio, Soreo, and Cabrera.
+
+The upper tier of the same stalls belongs to a later period, and will,
+in consequence, be noticed subsequently.
+
+The _sillería_ of Barcelona cathedral was begun in the middle of the
+fifteenth century by Matias Bonafé, at the same time that the German
+Michael Locher and his pupil John Frederic worked at the canopies. It
+was finished thirty years later. Upon the back (which otherwise is
+plain) of every stall is a coat of arms distinct from all its
+neighbours, marking the seat of one of the princes or nobles summoned by
+Charles the Fifth to the Chapter of the Order of the Golden Fleece,
+March 5th, 1519.[52]
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXIII
+                               _RETABLO_
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+The splendid _sillería_ of Seville cathedral is a mingling of the Gothic
+with the Mudejar and Plateresque. The material is oak and fir, and the
+number of the seats one hundred and seventeen. The _sellia_ are
+surmounted by a graceful running _guardapolvo_. Each seat is carved
+distinctly from the rest, and further decorated in the Mudejar style
+with inlaid woods of various kinds and colours, imitating stone mosaic.
+Among this labyrinth of design are groups of people, angels, animals,
+and scenes from Scripture, as well as, on the lower stalls, the Giralda
+tower, which forms the arms of the cathedral. The _sillería_ is further
+embellished with two hundred and sixteen statuettes, seventy-two of
+which are ranged along the canopy or _dosel_, the remainder being
+distributed between the seats.
+
+  [52] "The stalls of the choir are neatly carved, and hung with
+       escutcheons of princes and noblemen, among which I remarked the
+       arms of our Henry the Eighth."--Swinburne.
+
+The authors of this splendid work of art (judiciously restored some
+years ago by Boutelou, Fernandez, and Mattoni) were Nufio Sanchez,
+Dancart, and several other craftsmen, concerning whom we know but very
+little. Sánchez' name is carved upon the second stall of the upper row,
+and on the side of the Evangelist, as follows:--
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+The above inscription states that "this choir was made by Nufio Sanchez,
+_entallador_ (God guard him[53]), and finished in the year one thousand
+four hundred and seventy-eight."
+
+  [53] This kind of parenthetical remark or prayer is one of the many
+       Muslim phrases that have passed into the regular service of the
+       Spanish Christian.
+
+With the dawn of the sixteenth century, the Gothic style runs rapidly
+into that of the Renaissance. At about this time, and as Baron Davillier
+pointed out, we sometimes find a triple influence, namely, the
+Burgundian, the Italian, and the native Spanish. Vigarny may be called
+the champion of the first of these, Berruguete (who studied in Italy)
+of the second, and Guillermo Doncel of the third. After this the purer
+Renaissance gives place to the decadent, as in the stalls of Santiago,
+Málaga, Cordova, and Salamanca.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIV
+                     _RETABLO_ OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL
+                         (_Detail of Carving_)]
+
+Sixteenth-century _sillerías_ of note are those of Burgos cathedral
+(Plate xxvi.), carved by Vigarny, Avila cathedral, the Pilar of
+Zaragoza, the Minor Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos, Pamplona cathedral,
+San Marcos of León, Huesca, the _alta sillería_ of Toledo, and the
+walnut stalls--carved in 1526 by Bartolomé Fernandez de Segovia, and now
+in the Madrid Museum--of the Parral of Segovia.
+
+The _sillería_ of Avila cathedral is believed to have been begun in 1527
+by Juan Rodrigo, although the greater part of it was probably executed
+between 1536 and 1547 by Cornelis de Holanda, who took for his model the
+stalls of San Benito of Valladolid. The cost of the walnut wood and of
+its workmanship amounted to 33,669 _reales_.
+
+The upper stalls of Toledo cathedral were carved by Vigarny and Alonso
+Berruguete in collaboration, so that we find in them the northern and
+Italian styles effectively and interestingly united. The
+Plateresque-Renaissance _sillería_, described as "genuinely Spanish," of
+the old convent of San Marcos of León, containing statuettes of biblical
+personages and of fathers of the Church--Saint Isidore among them,--was
+finished in 1542 by Guillermo Doncel, who added the inscription
+"_Magister Guillermus Doncel me fecit MDXLII_" (Plate xxvii.). We know,
+however, nothing more about this excellent Spanish artist, except that
+(on the unsupported testimony of Cean) he worked at the façade of this
+convent between the years 1537 and 1544.
+
+The intricate _sillería_ of the Pilar of Zaragoza, containing almost
+every kind of subject--beasts, birds and fishes, allegories, incidents
+of the chase, or scenes of popular life--was designed by Esteban de
+Obray, a Navarrese, and executed by him and his assistants, Juan Moreto
+Florentino and Nicolas de Lobato, between 1542 and 1548. That of the
+Minor Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos was carved at a cost of eight
+hundred and ten ducats by Simón de Bueras, in 1558. That of Pamplona
+cathedral dates from about the middle of the century, and is the work of
+one Ancheta, who had visited Italy and gathered inspiration from the
+masterpieces of Siena. The material is English oak. The stalls of
+Huesca, carved from oak proceeding from an older _sillería_ which had
+been removed, were begun in 1587 and finished in 1594. The craftsmen
+were Nicolás de Verástegui and Juan Verrueta de Sangüesa.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXV
+                          DETAIL OF _RETABLO_
+              (_Late 15th century. Museum of Valladolid_)]
+
+Seventeenth-century _sillerías_ are those of Santiago, carved by Juan de
+Vila in 1603; Salamanca, in 1651, by Alfonso Balbás; Orihuela, in 1692,
+by Juan Bautista Borja; and Segorbe, carved in the same year by Nicolás
+Camarón; while dating from the eighteenth century--a period of manifest
+decadence in this beautiful but short-lived craft--are the stalls of
+Lerida, by Luis Bonifar y Masó (born in 1730), and Cordova, executed
+between 1748 and 1757, at a cost of 913,889 _reales_, by Pedro Ciriaco
+Duque y Cornejo, a son of Seville and a pupil of the Sevillano Roldan.
+
+The least imperfect of these later and decadent _sillerías_ is that of
+Málaga, whose author, Pedro de Mena, was, like his master, Alonso Cano,
+a native of Granada.
+
+Mena's contract with two canons of the cathedral, nominated by the
+bishop to prepare and sign the stipulations, will be found in No. 134 of
+the _Boletín de la Sociedad de Excursiones_.
+
+The stalls of Málaga number a hundred and one, carved in walnut, larch,
+cedar, and the heavy Indian wood called _granadillo_. As happens with
+many of the _sillerías_ of this country, the costumes of the figures are
+of great historical value. Among the saints is San Roque, in pilgrim's
+garb, attended by the dog who brought him day by day a loaf of bread
+while men refused to succour him.
+
+No less magnificent than these sets of choir-stalls are the carved
+_retablos_ or altar-screens,[54] a gradual excrescence from the
+primitive and unpretentious altar of the early days of Christianity.
+Several kinds of craftsmen worked upon these altar-screens, such as
+_tallistas_, _entalladores_, _imagineros_, and even architects.
+
+  [54] Wood is the usual material for these altar-screens, though
+       sometimes marble was employed, or stone, or silver. Of Genoese
+       marble is the _retablo_ (end of the fourteenth or beginning of the
+       fifteenth century) of the Cartuja del Paular in the Lozoya valley;
+       of stone, those of the parish church of San Nicolás at Burgos (end
+       of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century), and of the
+       "chapel of the tailors" in Tarragona Cathedral; while a silver
+       _retablo_, in the Renaissance style, was that of the church, now
+       demolished, of Santa María at Madrid.
+
+The Golden Age of the _retablo_ embraces the end of the fifteenth
+century and the whole of the sixteenth. Notable examples belonging to
+this period are the screens of the monastery of Santo Tomás at Avila,
+San Martin of Segovia, the Cartuja de Miraflores, the Colegiata of
+Covarrubias in the province of Burgos, the cathedrals of Avila, Toledo,
+Tudela, and Tarazona; several in the churches of Toledo, two in the
+church of San Lesmes (Burgos), two in Burgos Cathedral (Plate xxxvi.),
+and three, including those of _Reyes_ and of _Buena Mariana_, in the
+church of San Gil in the same city. Not one of these, however, has the
+grandeur or variety of the altar-screen of Seville (Plates xxxiii. and
+xxxiv.), which is carefully described in Cean's monograph. "The style is
+Gothic; the material, undecaying larch; and the screen, which reaches
+nearly to the vaulting, is the largest in the country, although at first
+it spanned the presbytery only, not including either side. It was
+designed in 1482 by Dancat or Danchart, who began work upon it as soon
+as his sketches were approved, and worked at it till 1492, in which year
+he seems to have died.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXVI
+                          DETAIL OF _RETABLO_
+               (_Chapel of Santa Ana, Burgos Cathedral_)]
+
+"Dancat was succeeded by Master Marco and Bernardo de Ortega, whose
+carving reached, by 1505, the canopy or _viga_, and who were followed in
+their turn by Francisco, Bernardo's son, father and teacher of
+Bernardino and Nufrio de Ortega, his assistants. Some of the statues
+were carved by Micer Domingo. The rest of the _imaginería_ was finished
+in 1526; and the gilding and painting were done by Alejo Fernández, his
+brother, and Andrés de Covarrubias.
+
+"So the screen remained till 1550, when the Chapter decided to extend
+it, without altering the style of decoration, to the sides of the
+presbytery. By this time Spanish sculpture had improved, and many of our
+best-known sculptors lent their aid, of whom the earliest were Roque
+Balduc, Pedro Becerril, el Castellano, Juan de Villalva, Diego Vazquez,
+and Pedro Bernal. In 1553 the Chapter appointed, to inspect the work of
+these artists, Juan Reclid and Luis de Aguilar, both of whom lived at
+Jaen. Henceforth the master-craftsmen working at the screen were Pedro
+de Heredia, Gomez de Orozco, Diego Vazquez the younger, Juan Lopez,
+Andrés Lopez del Castillo, and his sons, Juan de Palencia, and Juan
+Bautista Vazquez. By 1564 the screen was quite concluded.
+
+"The Gothic work is of incomparable richness. Ten groups of tall and
+narrow columns, resting upon two pedestals or socles, divide the
+_retablo_ into nine spaces, crossed by horizontal bands of complicated
+carving, forming a series of thirty-six niches, in four rows. Statues a
+little less than life-size represent, in the first row, the creation and
+fall of our first parents, and the mysteries of the infancy of Christ;
+in the second, His preaching and miracles; in the third, His passion and
+death; and in the fourth, His resurrection, appearance to the disciples,
+and ascension; also the coming of the Holy Ghost. Upon the altar-table,
+and resting in its niche, is the statue, covered with silver plates, of
+Nuestra Señora de la Sede, presented to this temple by Saint Ferdinand.
+Above the _viga_, which has an _artesonado_ ceiling, rises a
+frontispiece containing thirteen canopied niches with statues of the
+apostles, and in the centre niche that of the Virgin Mary. Crowning the
+whole _retablo_ are statues larger than life-size, and a Calvary
+standing in free space."[55]
+
+  [55] _Descripción de la Catedral de Sevilla_, pp. 27, 28.
+
+Throughout these Spanish altar-screens the influence which predominates
+is that of Germany. They are essentially distinguished by a Northern art
+(Plates xxxv., xxxvi.), not sentimental but material, not tender but
+robust, not (like the art of the Italians) retrospective or prospective,
+but prosaic, realistic, actual. Curiously enough, their presence seems
+incongruous in Spain, and yet they made themselves at home here; for
+Spanish art was ever realistic, so probably on this account two widely
+different nations found, at least in this particular craft, a common
+bond of sympathy. Certainly the Renaissance, while it seemed to cherish
+and encourage, really undermined and killed this branch of Spanish
+wood-carving. A similar phenomenon attends the art of the Alhambra. In
+either case the plenitude of power and of beauty is even more ephemeral
+than the term of human life; and thus, deluded by so brilliant and
+majestic a decay, we fail to apprehend, or seek to grow oblivious of,
+the imminence of their ruin.
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                                IVORIES
+
+
+The story of Spanish ivory-work is shortly told, for probably
+no craft, excepting glass, has been so little practised in this country.
+The older Spanish writers rarely mention it, although from time to time
+this substance may have been employed for carving diptyches and boxes,
+and Roderick is stated to have entered the battle of the Guadalete in an
+ivory car, by which is meant, perhaps, a chariot of Byzantine make or
+pattern, covered with ivory plates. However, properly speaking, the
+history of this art as exercised in Spain begins in the eleventh
+century, attains its prime towards the fourteenth century, and ceases
+altogether at the time of the Renaissance.
+
+Among the ivory objects now preserved in Spain, and which were wrought
+by artists other than Mohammedan, none is more interesting or important
+than the consular diptych of Oviedo cathedral. Although this valuable
+diptych was not made in Spain, but manifests Byzantine art in all its
+purity, it well deserves to be described. It consists of two ivory
+tablets measuring sixteen inches and a half in height by twelve inches
+and a half across both leaves. Each leaf has a simple border of a triple
+form, and just inside each corner is a circular floral ornament in
+relief, with a lion's head in the centre. Another ornament, also
+circular, is in the centre of each leaf, and contains, carved within a
+graceful S-shaped border, a half-length portrait of the Consul, who is
+represented in the act of throwing down into the amphitheatre his
+_mappa_ or handkerchief[56] with his right hand, while in his left he
+holds the sceptre (_scipio imaginifer_), crowned with a small bust. His
+hair is curled in the Byzantine fashion, and his costume is a richly
+decorated toga.
+
+  [56] _I.e._ as a signal to begin the sport. The same usage (except that
+       the handkerchief is waved, and not thrown down) is followed at
+       this moment in the Spanish bull-ring.
+
+An inscription runs along the top of either tablet, between the border
+and the circular devices carved with flowers. It says:--
+
+_Flavius Strategius Apion--Strategius Apion. Vir inlustris Comes
+Devotissimorum Domesticorum et Consul ordinarius._
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXVII
+                               IVORY BOX
+                    (_9th Century. Madrid Museum_)]
+
+We gather, therefore, that this magnate was a chamberlain at court, as
+well as ordinary consul.
+
+Diptyches were used among the Romans for all kinds of purposes, such as
+to convey love-messages, as invitations to a banquet, or to notify the
+celebration of feasts and games. We find the diptych also used in
+Christian temples from the time of Constantine, serving to record church
+festivals or names of saints and martyrs, as covers for a copy of the
+gospel (_diptycha evangeliorum_), or as reliquaries (_thecae
+reliquiarum_). Sometimes these diptyches were wrought expressly for the
+church, or sometimes they were consular diptyches that had been
+preserved from former ages. This latter class, when cleansed from pagan
+usage and devoted to the ceremonies of the Christian faith, was known as
+_diptycha mixta_.
+
+Such early objects as were wrought in ivory by Spanish hands, consisting
+as a rule of circular or oblong, square or oval caskets, were
+principally carved by Moors or Mudejares. Among the Spanish-Moorish
+boxes which are still preserved are several of the greatest interest and
+beauty (Plates xxxviii., xxxix., xl.). One of them, made from pieces of
+an older casket believed to date from earlier than the Moorish conquest,
+is in the National Museum. The decoration in its present form consists
+of Arabic inscriptions in relief, together with figures of the apostles.
+This casket, which proceeds from the Colegiata of Saint Isidore at León,
+measures seven inches in length by five in depth and six in height, and
+has been used as a reliquary.
+
+Another, dating from the middle of the eleventh century and proceeding
+from the same temple as the one just noticed, is also in the National
+Museum. It was a present from the Emir Mohammed Almotamid-Aben-Abed to
+his second wife, Al-Badir ("the Moon"), and includes among the
+decoration dogs and doves, symbolic of affection and fidelity. The style
+of carving is what is known as Persian-Arabic. We do not know, however,
+whether the box was imported from the East, or whether it was made in
+Spain by somebody of Persian parentage or skilled in Persian art. The
+material is a delicate _taracea_ of sandal, aloe, and cypress woods
+inlaid on larch. The box, which was used at León as a reliquary, has
+bronze clasps, and is inscribed along the top with sentences from which
+we learn that it was made by Aben-As-Serag.
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXVIII
+                              IVORY CASKET
+             (_Moorish; 11th Century. Pamplona Cathedral_)]
+
+In the cathedral of Pamplona is a magnificent ivory box (Plate
+xxxviii.) which was originally at Sangüesa in Navarre. It measures, says
+Riaño, fifteen inches long by nine and a quarter inches wide. "It is
+completely covered with carvings in relief, within circular cusped
+medallions, with figures in the centres representing different subjects;
+men seated, hawking, or struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single
+figures of lions, stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces
+contain an ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to
+the geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box
+appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters:--'In the name of
+God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the happiness, the
+fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning the fatal
+period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the State),
+Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of the said
+Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch, Nomayr
+ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave, in the year of 395 (A.D. 1005).'
+
+"In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is
+represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions.
+He holds on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription,
+with the following religious formula: 'There is no god but God,' or a
+similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the
+centre of this shield may be read the words, 'Made by Hair,' undoubtedly
+one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's name may be read
+with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears on one of the
+medallions on the left side; it is written on the thigh of a stag, which
+is attacked by a lion: 'It was made by Obeidat.' Three other
+inscriptions of a similar character appear in other parts of this box,
+which probably give the names of other artists, but I have been unable
+to decipher them."
+
+Other interesting boxes dating from the same period are that of Santo
+Domingo de Silos at Burgos, and several which are in the National Museum
+at Madrid. The box which is preserved at Burgos is made of ivory, and
+measures thirteen inches and a quarter in length by seven inches and a
+half in width and height. The decorative work consists of hunting
+scenes, and also of an inscription in Cufic characters which says:
+"Permanent felicity for the owner (of this box). May God lengthen
+his days. It was made at Medina ...[57] in the year four hundred
+and seventeen (A.D. 1025). It is the work of his servant
+Mohammed-ibn-Zeiyan. May God glorify him."
+
+  [57] At this break in the inscription Riaño professed to discover the
+       beginning of the word _Cuenca_.
+
+There is also in the provincial museum of Burgos a handsome ivory
+diptych which was formerly at the convent of Santo Domingo de Silos. It
+bears at each extremity--that is, four times repeated--the following
+inscription:--"This was ordered to be made by the Iman, servant of God,
+Abd-er-Rhaman, prince of believers."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIX
+                               IVORY BOX
+                 (_11th Century. Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Among the rectangular boxes in the National Museum is one of carved
+ivory, with an inscription recording it to have been a gift from Prince
+Ali to one of the favourites of his harem, and another of the same
+material which was once upon a time at Carrion de los Condes, in the
+province of Palencia. This box is painted with a decorative pattern in
+carmine and dark green. The lid, which is imperfect, contains the
+following inscription in Cufic characters, standing boldly out against a
+green ground:--"In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate.
+The protection of Allah and an impending victory for the servant of
+Allah ... and his wali Maad Abu-Temim--the Iman Al-Moez ... prince of
+believers (the blessing of Allah be upon him and his sons the good).
+(This) was commanded to be made for (celebrating) the fortunate victory.
+It was made by ... Jorasani." The length of this box is eighteen inches,
+and its height nine inches.
+
+A fine Moorish box (Plate xxxix.), now in the cathedral of Palencia, is
+covered with elaborately engraved and perforated ivory plates upon a
+ground of gilt leather backed by wood, and further ornamented with
+enamel-work upon a copper surface. This box is fourteen inches long, and
+has a gable top. The decoration on the sides and lid consists of
+palm-leaves, birds, and men engaged in combating and chasing antelopes
+and lions in the characteristic manner of Assyrian art. A lengthy Cufic
+inscription tells us that the box was made at Cuenca (_Medina Cuenca_)
+by Abd-er-Rahman ben Ziyan, to the order of the Moorish princes of
+Toledo, and that it dates from the year 441 of the Hegira.[58] Vives has
+pointed out that Cuenca was evidently a principal centre of this
+industry, and that caskets executed here about this time exist in
+Perpignan cathedral and in the provincial museum of Burgos.
+
+  [58] Detailed accounts of this casket will be found in the _Boletín de
+       la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_ for June 1893, and in the
+       _Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia_, vol. xx.
+
+Riaño mentions seven ivory boxes of particular interest, which were
+probably made in Spain by Spanish Arabs, or else by Eastern craftsmen
+who had emigrated to this country. "On all their carving," he adds, "the
+names of Spanish historical persons appear, and it is hardly possible
+that they were ordered in remote countries, especially as some of these
+objects are small and comparatively unimportant."
+
+                           [Illustration: XL
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE IVORY CASKET
+          (_13th Century. Royal Academy of History, Madrid_)]
+
+Two of these boxes are in the South Kensington Museum. The one which is
+cylindrical in shape and has a domed cover is thus described by Maskell
+in his _Ivories, Ancient and Mediæval, in the South Kensington
+Museum_:--"This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of
+it, with interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which, on the
+cover, are four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well
+designed and most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the
+lid.
+
+"Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf
+ornament. The same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the
+larger quatrefoils on the cover."
+
+"The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the
+upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band
+has an Arabic inscription: 'A favour of God to the servant of God, Al
+Hakem al Mostanser Billah, commander of the faithful.' He was a Caliph
+who reigned at Cordova, A.D. 961-976."
+
+The other box is oblong and rectangular. "The cover and sides are carved
+with scroll foliated ornament; the hinges and clasp are of chased silver
+inlaid with niello. Round the sides, immediately below the lid, is the
+following Arabic inscription in Cufic characters:--'In the name of God.
+This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah, the wife of
+Abd-er-Rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and satisfied
+with him.'" This inscription, adds Riaño, "must allude to Abd-er-Rahman
+the Third, the first Caliph of Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el
+Mumenin. The formula 'God be merciful,' etc., denotes that he was dead
+when it was written. He died A.D. 961."
+
+                           [Illustration: XLI
+                             IVORY CRUCIFIX
+                    (_11th Century. Madrid Museum_)]
+
+Another Spanish-Moorish casket, also at South Kensington, and dating
+from the eleventh century, is described by Maskell as "richly
+carved in deep relief with foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing
+one another, and forming larger and smaller circles. The top and each
+side is a single plaque of ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back
+has two panels. On the two are two animals, like doves; a large bird
+stands at the back of each, attacking it with his beak. The sloping
+sides have, in the large circles, men on horseback, and animals
+fighting. The intermediate spaces are completely filled with foliage,
+and smaller beasts. Similar subjects are repeated in the circles on the
+panels forming the lower sides of the casket, and among them are two
+groups of men and women sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on
+a guitar, another holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other."
+Riaño adds: "There is no inscription on this casket, but in one of the
+medallions on the lid there is a bust, which is carried on the back of a
+horse, and which is probably a representation of the prince for whom the
+casket was made."
+
+                        [Illustration: XLI (_a_)
+                             IVORY CRUCIFIX
+              (_11th Century. Back view. Madrid Museum_)]
+
+The _Letter of Testament_ setting forth the various objects bequeathed
+by Ferdinand the First and his consort Sancha to the church of Saint
+John the Baptist (or of Saint Isidore) at León, mentions an ivory cross
+(which will be noticed presently), an ivory box fitted with gold, and
+two ivory boxes fitted with silver, one of them containing three other
+silver boxes, similarly decorated.
+
+One of these boxes is described by Ambrosio de Morales, and from his
+words we conclude it to be the one which was adorned with gold, "of
+which metal," he wrote in 1572, "it has even more than of ivory," adding
+that it measured more than half a yard in length, and enshrined the body
+of Saint Vincent of Avila. He also tells us that it bore the following
+inscription, carved upon a golden frieze:--
+
+          ARCULA SANCTORUM MICAT HAEC SUB HONORE DUORUM
+
+          BAPTISTAE SANCTI JOHANNIS SIVE PELAGII
+
+          CEU REX FERNANDUS, REGINAQUE SANTIA, FIERI JUSSIT.
+
+          ERA MILLENA SEPTENA SEU NONAGENA.[59]
+
+  [59] A.D. 1059.
+
+This _arca_ has been much mutilated, and stripped of all the precious
+metal. Morales' description is therefore of especial value, as are the
+ivory tablets (eleventh century), carved with Christian themes, which
+yet remain upon the body of the box.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLII
+                          BYZANTINE CRUCIFIX]
+
+Dating from the thirteenth century is a Moorish casket (Plate xl.),
+preserved in the Academy of History at Madrid, and proceeding from the
+Carthusian monastery of Val de Cristo at Segorbe. It measures a foot in
+length by eight inches in height and four and a half inches in depth.
+The lid is deeply bevelled, and contains on each of the bevelled sides
+shields with the bars which constitute the arms of Aragon, painted upon
+a gold ground, together with imperial eagles painted in black upon a
+carmine ground. A decorative device of leaves and stems is also painted
+on the ivory.
+
+Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos believes that this casket was captured in war
+by Jayme the First of Aragon, remaining with successive princes of his
+line until the reign of Don Martin, by whom it was presented to the
+monastery. The shields would thus be added to the primitive Moorish
+casket by some Christian-Spanish painter.
+
+The ivory crucifix (Plates xli. and xli. (_a_)), of Ferdinand the First
+and Doña Sancha, made in the first half of the eleventh century, and
+offered by these sovereigns to the church of Saint John the Baptist (or
+of Saint Isidore) at León, measures twenty-one inches in length by
+thirteen inches and a half in height. The figure of Christ recalls the
+rigidness and rudeness of Byzantine craftsmanship, such as is found in
+ancient crucifixes still preserved in Spain (Plate xlii.). The pupils of
+the enormous, expressionless eyes are made of jet. We see the wound upon
+each foot, with wavy marks to imitate the flowing blood, but no trace of
+a nail. Nails, however, transfix the hands. The arms are separate from
+the trunk, but the _suppedaneum_ on which the feet are resting is of a
+single piece with the body of the figure.
+
+The surface of the cross, especially about the borders, contains
+elaborate decoration, including animals and foliage. Above the Saviour's
+head is the inscription:--
+
+                                IHS NAZA
+
+                               RENVS REX
+
+                                IVDEORVM
+
+Above this is another figure of Christ seated, crowned with a cruciform
+nimbus and holding a Greek processional cross. Beneath the feet of the
+larger figure is Adam in an uncouth posture, turning his head to gaze
+upward, and at the lower extremity of the cross are carved the words:--
+
+                            FERDINANDVS REX
+
+                             SANCIA REGINA
+
+The lateral arms are carved with numerous devices forming an effective
+whole, including animals upon a tessellated band which seems to imitate
+a groundwork of mosaic. Other subjects represented are the Resurrection
+of the Flesh, the ascent of the blessed to Heaven, and the fall of the
+wicked to Hell.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIII
+                        "THE VIRGIN OF BATTLES"
+                  (_13th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+Upon the obverse side are pairs of quadrupeds, birds, and serpents,
+among a maze of foliage, together with the eagle, lion, lamb, and ox, as
+symbols of the evangelists. The lion and the ox have wings, and at the
+foot of the cross is an angel.
+
+The carving of the Saviour's form is clearly inferior to that of the
+decoration which surrounds it. Amador de los Ríos seeks to account for
+this by declaring that "the difficulty from the point of view of art
+increases in proportion as the size of the figure is required to be
+larger"--a statement with which I wholly disagree. I believe, in fact,
+that in this cross the figure of Christ and the surrounding
+ornamentation are not by the same hand, and that the carver of the
+decorative detail was simply the better craftsman of the two.
+
+Many of the statuettes of the Virgin which are preserved in Spain were
+probably made in France. One that is typically and unquestionably
+Spanish is the celebrated "Virgin of Battles" (Plate xliii.), now
+guarded, together with other relics of Saint Ferdinand (see Vol. I.,
+Plate xi.), in the Chapel Royal of Seville cathedral. These statuettes,
+the use of which originated with the Greek emperors, and which were
+called by the Byzantines _socia belli_, consist of a seated figure of
+the Virgin with a small door opening underneath her throne, and served
+as reliquaries, and also as a kind of talisman. Boutelou says that the
+Spanish warriors of the Middle Ages were accustomed to carry these
+images to war with them, fitted upon a pin protruding from the left side
+of the saddle-bow. The "Virgin of Battles," made in Spain in the early
+part of the thirteenth century, was thus carried by King Ferdinand the
+Saint, resting between his shield or _rodela_ and his left arm, and so
+protected, and protecting, in the brunt of war.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIV
+                      SPANISH MEDIÆVAL _BACULUS_]
+
+The image is of ivory, and measures seventeen inches in height. The
+style is primitive Gothic, not as yet emancipated from Romanic and
+Byzantine art; and the expression of the Madonna and her Babe is marked
+by an engaging sweetness. Through lapse of centuries, myriads of
+diminutive cracks have opened on the surface of the ivory, and this has
+turned, in colour, to a brightish yellow. The right arm of the Virgin
+was broken off at some time prior to the sixteenth century, and has been
+replaced by another one. Mother and Child wear crowns of silver-gilt
+which probably were added later, and the hair, lips, and eyes have been
+badly painted or repainted with discordant colouring. A four-sided hole
+bored deep into the ivory served for holding the image to the _perno_
+which projected from the monarch's saddle-bow.
+
+A few elaborate _baculi_ or pastoral staves (Plate xliv.) exist in
+Spain, including one of the fourteenth century, in ivory, which belonged
+to the late Marquis of Monistrol, and is carved with the Crucifixion and
+also with the Virgin contemplating the Holy Infant as He is offered cups
+by angels. Another interesting Spanish baculus, though not of ivory, but
+copper decorated with turquoises and bright blue enamel, belonged to
+Bishop Pelayo de Cebeyra of Mondoñedo (A.D. 1199-1218), and has been
+preserved, together with that prelate's gilded shoes. In the celebrated
+processions of Santiago, at which Alfonso the Sixth was personally
+present, magnificent ivory _baculi_ were borne, not only by the
+archbishop (_eburnea virga pontificali decoratus_), but even by the
+choristers.
+
+Between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries, Spanish craftsmen
+produced a fair quantity of ivory boxes, reliquaries, diptyches,
+triptyches, combs, and other less important objects. A fifteenth-century
+ivory spoon, ten inches long, whose handle is carved with six
+crocodiles, is in the National Museum, and may be Spanish work. In the
+same collection are one or two ivory diptyches and leaves of diptyches,
+and a wooden box (fourteenth century), with figures of carved ivory
+representing passages from the life of Saint George upon the body of the
+box, and from the Old Testament upon the lid. A carved Renaissance
+temple of the same material, with the Virgin and Child in its interior,
+is probably Italian.
+
+                           [Illustration: XLV
+                             "A TOURNAMENT"
+             (_Carved lid of box in ivory; 14th Century_)]
+
+In the fortieth volume of _España Sagrada_ it is stated that four ivory
+diptyches (_quatuor dictacos eburneos_) were offered in A.D. 897 to Lugo
+cathedral by Alfonso the Third and his queen Jimena. Other ivory
+diptyches were presented in A.D. 1063 by Ferdinand the Second to the
+church of Saint Isidore at León. José Villa-amil, in his study of an
+ivory statuette of the Virgin, belonging to the nuns of Allariz
+(_Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_; nos. 76 and 77),
+mentions a carved ivory box (_capsa eburnea_) made in the year 1122 for
+Santiago cathedral by order of Archbishop Gelmirez; another which
+existed in the sixteenth century in the church of Santa María at
+Finisterre; and a third, used as a reliquary, which in 1572 was opened
+by the monks of Samos in presence of Ambrosio de Morales.
+
+During the Middle Ages portable altars (_altares portátiles_) were
+widely used in Spain, and some were made of ivory. It was the custom to
+open them at the time of prayer, and as a rule they rested upon
+_reclinatorios_ or hung upon the wall. The _imagen abriente_ or "opening
+image" was also popular in Spain throughout the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries. As the name implies, these images opened in the manner of a
+triptych, and were very often used as reliquaries. Specimens are
+preserved in many parts of Europe, but only one or two exist in Spain
+and Portugal. That which belongs to the nuns of Allariz dates from the
+end of the thirteenth century, and was a present from Queen Violante. It
+is described fantastically by Morales, and accurately by Villa-amil, but
+the quaintest account is by the chronicler Jacobo de Castro. It
+measures, Castro tells us, "about half-a-yard in length and is one of
+the fairest ever seen, since it opens downward from the neck,
+discovering, on plates of half-relief, the principal mysteries of Christ
+and of Our Lady. The devotion towards it of the people in this
+neighbourhood exceeds description, and God has wrought a quantity of
+miracles through the intercession thereof."
+
+A fourteenth-century triptych carved in bone with scenes from Scripture
+is in the National Museum. It proceeds from Aragon, and is said to have
+belonged to Jayme the Conqueror. The Escorial possesses a handsome ivory
+diptych (Plate xlvi.) which is either Spanish or Italian--probably the
+former. It measures exactly a foot in height by nine inches across both
+leaves, and is deeply carved with passages from the life of Christ. The
+style is late Romanic merging into Gothic, and points to the second half
+of the thirteenth century.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVI
+                             IVORY DIPTYCH
+                     (_13th Century. El Escorial_)]
+
+
+
+
+                                POTTERY
+
+                                ANCIENT
+
+
+Quantities of ancient common pottery have been, and are continually
+being found in many parts of Spain. Prehistoric cups, shaped with the
+fingers and dried and hardened by the sun, are preserved in the Museum
+of History at Barcelona. They were discovered at Argar. Similar objects
+have been extracted from the caves of Segóbriga, Lóbrega in Old Castile,
+and El Tesoro in the province of Málaga. Those which were found at
+Segóbriga are divided by Capelle into six groups, one of which includes
+a vessel resembling the ordinary Spanish pitcher of to-day.
+
+Villa-amil y Castro has described in the _Museo Español de Antigüedades_
+pieces of prehistoric sun-dried ware discovered in Galicia, roughly
+decorated with patterns imprinted by the finger. In other instances a
+double spiral has been described with a pointed instrument about the
+vessel's neck. Similar fragments have been found by Góngora in
+Andalusia. Celtic pottery was found in 1862 by Captain Brome on Windmill
+Hill at Gibraltar, in 1866 by M. Lartet in the caves of Torrecilla de
+Cameros, and by Casiano de Prado in a cave near Pedraza, as well as at
+Navares de Ayuso and elsewhere. In central Spain, vessels of the
+Celtiberian era have been found in tombs at Prádena, and pieces of red
+Saguntine ware, with dark red decoration, at Otero de Herreros, close to
+vestiges of a Roman mine. Lecea y García describes in his work on _Old
+Segovian Industries_ a Celtiberian plate of reddish clay covered with
+black varnish, which was dug up some years ago in a garden at that town.
+This plate, measuring no less than four feet in diameter, and containing
+two inscriptions in characters believed to be Celtiberian, as well as
+the figure of a warrior armed with a lance and three javelins, was
+submitted to Heiss, who wrote of it in the _Gazette Archéologique_ and
+pronounced it to be genuine. I have not seen the plate in question. I
+have, however, met with cleverly executed forgeries, also varnished
+black, of primitive Spanish pottery.
+
+In 1899 quantities of Celtic ware, believed to date from the time of the
+Ph[oe]nicians, or even earlier, were unearthed by M. Bonsor from tumuli
+in the Guadalquivir valley. These objects are ornamented in relief with
+complicated patterns paler than the ground, obtained by using
+lighter-coloured clay. "As similar Celtic pottery has been found in
+Portugal, it will be understood that the Celtic influence, having
+crossed the Pyrenees, reached the south by the western seaboard. It will
+thus be seen that long before the arrival of the Romans a relatively
+high degree of civilisation had been reached at least in the south of
+Spain."[60]
+
+  [60] Martin Hume, _The Spanish People_, p. 15 (note).
+
+In the summer of 1905 two German archæologists, Messrs. Schulten and
+Könen, who had obtained permission from the Spanish Government to
+explore the site of old Numancia, filled four large cases with the
+Celtiberian pottery they extracted from the ruins. These cases were
+forwarded to the University of Göttingen. I understand, however, that
+they have been returned, or are to be returned immediately, to Spain.
+
+Long before the Christian era, Greek colonies existed on the Spanish
+coast at Rhodas, Denia, Emporium (Ampurias), Saguntum (Murviedro), and
+elsewhere. Pottery of good design and workmanship was manufactured at
+these towns, and strongly influenced native art. Bowls and other objects
+showing such an influence were discovered by M. Bonsor in his recent
+excavations. Another powerful influence was that of Rome. Roman
+potteries existed in the suburb of Seville called Triana, and in the
+provinces of Cáceres and Badajoz. Mérida was also an important centre of
+this industry, and vessels which were used in sacred rites, such as the
+_aquiminarium_, the _prefericulum_, the _simpulum_, and the _urnula_,
+were discovered here not long ago. The name "Saguntine ware" was given
+by the Romans to a kind of pottery which seems to have been made along
+the Spanish littoral extending southward from Saguntum. Fragments of
+this pottery, which closely resembles the Arezzo ware,[61] are found in
+shoals upon the sites of Roman towns, particularly Tarragona. These
+_barros saguntinos_, or (as Hübner prefers to call them) _barros
+tarraconenses_, have been divided into four classes, namely, white,
+grey, red (covered with a dark red varnish),[62] and yellow striped with
+red. This ware is commonly adorned with garlands, animals,
+hunting-scenes, divinities, games, or religious ceremonies, and also
+bears, in nearly every case, the potter's name or mark; _e.g._ ALBINVS F
+("Albinus fecit") or OF. ALBIN ("officina Albini"). More than two
+hundred marks have been discovered which were used by potters of
+Ampurias alone.
+
+  [61] "A ware exactly like that of Arezzo, called by some the red Roman
+       ware, and by others Samian, distinguished by its close grain
+       composed of a fine clay, and presenting, when broken, edges of an
+       opaque light red colour, whilst the inner and outer surfaces are
+       quite smooth, and of a brighter and darker red, is found in all
+       places of the ancient world to which the Roman arms or civilisation
+       reached. It is distinguished from the Aretine by its darker tone,
+       stronger glaze, and coarser ornamentation. Possibly, the whole
+       passage of Pliny in which he speaks of the earthenware of his day
+       refers to this red ware. Thus, for dishes he praises the Samian
+       and the Aretine ware; for cups, that of Surrentum, Asta and
+       Pollentia, Saguntum and Pergamus. Tralles and Mutina had their
+       manufactories. Cos was most esteemed; Hadria produced the hardest
+       ware. That one of these, that of Saguntum, was a red ware, is
+       clear; that of Cumæ was also of the same colour.... That the red
+       ware is found amidst the dense forests of Germany and on the
+       distant shores of Britain, is a remarkable fact in the civilisation
+       of the old world. It was apparently an importation, being exactly
+       identical wherever discovered, and is readily distinguished from
+       the local pottery."--Birch, _History of Ancient Pottery_,
+       pp. 560, 561.
+
+  [62] "It belongs to the class of tender lustrous pottery, consisting of
+       a bright red paste like sealing-wax, breaking with a close texture,
+       and covered with a siliceous, or, according to some, a metallic
+       glaze. This glaze is exceedingly thin, transparent, and equally
+       laid upon the whole surface, only slightly augmenting the colour
+       of the clay."--Birch, p. 561.
+
+There seems to be no doubt that Saguntum and Emporium were principal
+centres of this industry, and possibly, since these towns were old Greek
+settlements, the _barros saguntinos_ were of Grecian origin. Pella y
+Forgas, describing in his _History of the Ampurdan_ the fine red ware of
+this locality, says that parts of the decoration were fashioned on the
+wheel, others directly by the potter's hand, and others from a mould,
+while the ornament of dotted lines was made by the wheeled _roulette_.
+
+Among the commoner objects dating from this time are amphoræ and small
+earthen lamps (Pl. xlvii.). These lamps have been discovered in great
+numbers, and, owing to the dryness of the Spanish soil, in excellent
+preservation. They measure about the size of the hand, and have two
+holes, one in the spout or beak, to hold the wick, and the other at the
+top, for pouring in the oil. The top, which as a rule is slightly
+concave, is often ornamented with devices in relief, such as a chariot
+and its driver, or the emblem of a deity.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVII
+                   AMPHORAIC VASES AND OTHER POTTERY
+                        (_Museum of Tarragona_)]
+
+The typical amphora was a long, narrow vessel (usually of earthenware;
+less frequently of brass or glass), with an elongated handle at either
+side of the neck, and tapering nearly to a point. It served for
+storing honey, oil, or wine, and in order to keep it upright the pointed
+lower end was stuck into the soil, or rested on a perforated wooden
+stand. In the spring of 1893 some fishermen drew up in their nets, just
+off the coast of Alicante, three large intact amphoræ thickly cased with
+shells, and sold them for eight dollars each. Other fine amphoræ, now in
+the collection of the Marquis of Cerralbo, were washed upon the beach at
+Torrevieja, and many more are in museums. Vessels of this kind are known
+to have been made at Rhodas (Rosas) and Saguntum, and their use
+continued in Spain until the downfall of the second empire.
+
+
+                  HISPANO-MORESQUE NON-LUSTRED POTTERY
+
+The statements of Saint Isidore, confirmed by one or two discoveries in
+southern Spain, prove that the pottery in use among the Visigoths was
+principally Roman. Probably in this, as in so many of her arts, the
+Moorish conquest brought about a radical and rapid change. Remains of
+pottery dating from this period are extremely rare. The provincial
+museum of Granada contains some bowls and plates, all more or less
+imperfect, which are ascribed by experts to about the year 1000. These
+objects, which were dug up in 1878 on the slopes of the Sierra Elvira, a
+few miles from Granada, are coloured black and green upon a white or
+whitish ground. The most important is a dish which measures fourteen
+inches in diameter, and is decorated with a falcon on a horse's back
+(Plate xlviii.).[63] All of this pottery shows the double influence of
+Byzantium and the East. Among the designs upon the other pieces are
+hares and stags surrounded by a bordering of primitive arabesques. Riaño
+remarks that "it is almost impossible to assert whether this pottery was
+made in or imported into Spain." Nevertheless, Persians are stated to
+have settled in this region early in the days of Muslim rule, while
+these dilapidated specimens of ancient ware are greatly similar in
+colouring and substance to the common dishes and _barreños_ which are
+still produced throughout the province of Granada.
+
+  [63] The falcon is one of the commonest devices on all Persian pottery,
+       and was, in fact, the national emblem of the chase. Its importance
+       for the purpose of pursuing and securing game is well described in
+       Sir John Malcolm's _Sketches in Persia_.
+
+Moorish potteries producing lustred or non-lustred ware existed from
+an early date at Málaga, Valencia, Toledo, Calatayud, Murviedro, Murcia,
+and Barcelona. Another centre of this craft was probably Granada; for
+though she is not mentioned in this sense by any of the Moorish authors,
+the late Señor Contreras discovered here the vestiges of two ancient
+potteries, while one of the old entrances was known as Bab Alfajjarin,
+or "the potters' gate."
+
+                         [Illustration: XLVIII
+                                  DISH
+                (_About A.D. 1000. Museum of Granada_)]
+
+The Ordinances of Granada contain provisions which were evidently copied
+from the Spanish Moors, relating to the _almadraveros_ or tilemakers,
+the _tinajeros_ or makers of _tinajas_, and the _olleros_ or potters
+generally. The Ordinances which concern the tilemakers are dated between
+1528 and 1540. The restrictions imposed upon these craftsmen were
+irksome, foolish, and unnecessary. All bricks and tiles were to be
+stamped in three places with the city mark, and were only permitted to
+be made between the first of April and the thirty-first of October in
+each year, "since what is made at other seasons is not good or perfect,
+owing to the rain, and cold, and frost."
+
+Another Ordinance, illustrating the lawlessness prevailing at Granada in
+the times succeeding the reconquest, complains that "many persons,
+including labourers and hodmen, go forth into the roads and streets,
+and seize the tiles and bricks by violence from those who are conveying
+them, and bear them to their houses, or to the work which they are paid
+to do."
+
+A picturesque, though cheap and unluxurious, vessel of a thoroughly
+eastern character, and which was very largely manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors, is the terra-cotta _tinaja_ or gigantic jar for storing
+wine, or olive oil, or grain (Plate xlix.). The use of these receptacles
+extended through the whole Peninsula, and has continued undiminished to
+this day. The principal centres of _tinaja_-making were Toledo, Seville,
+and Granada. The Ordinances of the latter town embody Moorish rules
+relating to this branch of pottery. These laws, revived in 1526, provide
+that all _tinajas_ must contain two kinds of earth, one red, the other
+white, thoroughly compounded in a trough of water. Before the potter
+removes the clay from the trough, he must call the city supervisor or
+_veedor_ to look into the quality and mixing of the mass. The vessel as
+it leaves the oven must be white; otherwise, even although it have no
+flaw, the inspector is to break it. The potter is forbidden to coat his
+_tinajas_ with a glaze composed of eggs, blood, chalk, and other
+strange ingredients; nor may he fire the glaze with torches, "because
+the smell of the smoke clings to the _tinaja_, and the wine or stum
+deposited therein grows redolent of it, and it stays within the jar
+perpetually."
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIX
+                       HISPANO-MORESQUE _TINAJA_]
+
+Owing doubtless to their plain, domestic purpose and their trifling
+market cost, early _tinajas_ are not often met with. A fine example in
+excellent preservation is at South Kensington, and is described by Riaño
+as "a wine jar, amphora-shaped, and ornamented with an incised pattern
+of vine leaves, and stamped diaper of a Gothic character." Several good
+_tinajas_ have been discovered of late years at Seville. Gestoso
+mentions six, five of which are glazed. The first of these was found in
+1893, and has a bright green glaze upon a ground of reddish earth. Both
+handles and nearly all the neck are wanting. The decoration consists of
+various bands or _fajas_ round the body of the jar, a series of
+archways, another of leaves, and a central band of stars, three deep,
+strongly imprinted from a mould. In every ninth arch are stamped
+symbolic hands, such as we see upon the Gate of Justice of the Alhambra.
+
+The second _tinaja_ is similar to the one just mentioned, except that
+it has the neck. It was discovered in 1895, and is now in Seville
+museum.
+
+The third _tinaja_ is also in this museum, and was discovered in 1901.
+It is in a very poor condition, and Gestoso believes that it was
+originally covered with a honey-coloured glaze.
+
+The fourth _tinaja_ was found in a drain, in the same year as the
+preceding one, and is inscribed with words, including _Blessing_ and
+_Felicity_, in Cufic characters. Gestoso is unable to decide whether
+this vessel was made at Seville or elsewhere.
+
+The fifth _tinaja_ is in the collection of Don José Morón, and possesses
+greater interest than the others, both because it is in excellent
+condition, and also because the decoration is entirely in the
+Spanish-Christian style, without a trace of Saracenic ornament. Small
+Gothic-looking shields surround the body of this vessel, which is
+stamped with pomegranates, and with the arms and emblems of the Ponce de
+León and other families. Between each pair of shields is an oval-shaped
+medallion containing human figures.
+
+The sixth _tinaja_ is unglazed. It was found in June of 1893, and is
+adorned with repetitions of the words _Prosperity_ and _Blessing_, as
+well as with a series of deer and other animals in the act of running;
+some of them with birds upon their backs. These designs are very
+uncommon, and Gestoso has seen no other _tinaja_, proceeding from this
+region, similarly decorated.
+
+_Tinajas_ are still made in large quantities at Toboso, Lucena, Colmenar
+de Oreja, and other Spanish towns and villages.
+
+Other large objects of a thoroughly oriental character were earthenware
+glazed _brocales_ or brims of wells, which, like the _tinajas_, were
+largely manufactured at Seville and Toledo. Specimens of these
+_brocales_ exist in the museums of Toledo and Cordova. Riaño describes
+one which is at South Kensington. "It was bought at Toledo for three
+guineas at a shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green
+earthenware, with ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round,
+which appear to be of the fourteenth century. The inscription, which is
+repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words 'the
+power, the excellence, and the peace.'"
+
+Gestoso describes two _brocales_ and the fragments of a third. All these
+objects were found at Seville. The two which are intact, or nearly so,
+are cylindrical, and of a white ware. One of them has a simple leaf
+decoration, and seems to have been covered with a green glaze. The
+other, which was discovered in 1894, is surrounded by a triple band of
+inscription in African characters which are illegible.
+
+Gestoso also describes some interesting baptismal fonts, a class of
+object which he pronounces to have been the most important of all that
+were produced in the potteries of Triana, by reason both of their large
+dimensions and of their elaborate ornamentation. He states that three
+methods were employed to decorate these fonts. The first consisted in
+attaching to their surface small moulded plates which bore the likeness
+of a saint, flowers, monograms, or other devices. By the second method
+the decoration was moulded directly on the font; while the third method
+consisted in a combination of the other two.
+
+Splendid examples of these Spanish fonts exist in various churches of
+Andalusia and in private collections. One of the finest is in the parish
+church of Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, at Laguna, Tenerife. It is
+suggested by Gestoso that this _pila_ of Laguna was made at Seville and
+sent to the Canaries in the year 1479, when orders were issued by
+Ferdinand and Isabella for the completion of the monasteries in those
+islands.
+
+_Pilas_ were also manufactured at Toledo, although Gestoso says that the
+workmanship of those produced at Seville was in every way superior.
+Nevertheless, he has only found the maker's name upon a single font,
+which is inscribed with that of Juan Sanchez Vachero, and is now
+preserved in the church of San Pedro at Carmona. Another remarkable
+_pila_ is that of the hospital of San Lázaro at Seville.
+
+In course of time the Spanish Church forbade the use of _pilas_ made of
+glazed earthenware, and ordered their substitution by fonts of stone or
+marble. One of these dispositions, included among the _Constituciones
+Sinodales_ of the bishopric of Málaga, and dated 1671, is quoted by
+Gestoso. It enacts that the _pila_ be of stone and not of earthenware,
+and that if any of this latter class remain, they are to be "consumed"
+(_i.e._ destroyed) within two months.
+
+Returning to the Ordinances of Granada, those which concern the potters
+or _olleros_ generally are dated 1530, and inform us of the price of
+glazed and unglazed articles in common use, such as _ollas_ or pots
+(with and without glaze), _cazuelas_ or earthen vessels for cooking
+meat, plates of many colours and dimensions, _jarros_ (jugs), _alcuzas_
+(vials), _cantaros castellanos_ (Castilian water-pitchers), _cantaros
+moriscos_ (Moorish water-pitchers[64]), _morteros_ (mortars),
+_lebrillos_ (earthen tubs), _candiles_ (lamps with a green, white or
+yellow glaze), _orzas_ (gally pots), _botijas_ (narrow-necked jars), and
+_salseras_ (saucers).
+
+  [64] The watersellers' Ordinance of 1516 enacts that each of these
+       vendors shall carry a minimum load of six _cántaros_, and that the
+       cántaros themselves shall be "of the round shape, and not the
+       Moorish ones, as these have long spouts; each _cántaro_ to be
+       closed with a cork." The latter is the typical pitcher of Morocco.
+       "As we were talking, neighbours dropped in, in the familiar Eastern
+       way, and sat quiet and self-contained, occasionally drinking from
+       one of the two long-necked and porous water-jars, known as
+       'Baradas' or the 'coolers,' which stand, their wooden stoppers tied
+       to them with a palmetto cord, on each side the divan."--Cunninghame
+       Graham, _Mogreb-el-Acksa_, p. 88.
+
+The shape and colouring of many of these common articles have been
+continued till to-day, especially in Andalusia. I reproduce a photograph
+of some (Plate l.), in which the influence of the East is unmistakable.
+The smaller of the two unglazed jars is used for carrying and cooling
+water, and is made at Loja. The other, which is often used for storing
+honey, is from Guadalajara. The spherical vessel is a kind of bottle for
+_aguardiente_. It is glazed a brightish green, and is made in various
+parts of Andalusia, as are the gourd-shaped _calabazas_, which have a
+yellow glaze. The smallest vessel, or that which has a funnel-shaped and
+bulging mouth, is coated with a coarse metallic glaze coloured in white
+and blue, and proceeds from Granada.
+
+                            [Illustration: L
+                         COARSE SPANISH POTTERY
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+So is the influence of the Spanish Moors, linking the present intimately
+to the past, and handed down by early craftsmen to the moderns, and from
+Mussulmans to Christian Spaniards, maintained and kept alive, not only
+by the city ordinances I have quoted, but also by the more occult yet no
+less permanent and cogent force of local and unchronicled tradition. In
+the historic quarter of Granada which is called the Albaycin, survive a
+few _alfarerías_ to this hour (Plate lxix.). Here, on the potter's wheel
+or ranged about his yard, may yet be seen the red Granada earth that is
+believed to have inspired the vase of the Alhambra, applied to-day to
+common crockery that notwithstanding has a subtle, unfamiliar charm. And
+towards the time of sundown, when the master turns indoors to supper and
+his workmen have gone home, when the last of the red light is colouring
+the ancient city wall until it too looks like a mammoth monument of the
+potter's art of old Granada, it is a strange experience to wander
+through these desolate yards, among the files of ruddy Granadino ware
+kindling with vivid memories of the vanished Mussulmans of Spain, and
+bringing back to us that spirited old poet of the East who also sang of
+pottery:--
+
+               "Listen again. One Evening at the Close
+               Of Ramazan, ere the better Moon arose,
+                   In that old Potter's Shop I stood alone
+               With the clay Population round in Rows.
+
+               And strange to tell, among that Earthen Lot
+               Some could articulate, while others not:
+                   And suddenly one more impatient cried--
+               'Who _is_ the Potter, pray, and who the Pot?'
+
+               Then said another--'Surely not in vain
+               My substance from the common Earth was ta'en,
+                   That He who subtly wrought me into Shape
+               Should stamp me back to common Earth again.'"
+
+
+                         MOSAIC-WORK AND TILES
+
+The art of colouring and glazing earthenware was practised by various
+peoples of the ancient eastern world, and passed, in course of time,
+through Egypt to Ph[oe]nicia, Greece, and Rome, and, later still, to
+Mussulman peoples of north-western Africa.
+
+Glazed earthenware was possibly produced in Roman Spain, although the
+specimens of it which have been discovered are singularly and, indeed,
+significantly few. Their colour is commonly green or lightish yellow.
+Gestoso makes particular mention of a small jar now preserved in the
+museum of Seville, describing it as "of an ordinary shape, but finely
+made." He admits, however, that no trace of glaze exists in any of the
+broken Visigothic vessels (copied, as Saint Isidore tells us, from the
+Roman-Spanish pottery) that were found some years ago among the ruins of
+Italica. Thus it is not decided whether the Spanish potters learned to
+glaze, or whether this development of their craft remained familiar to
+the Spaniards of that period through imported objects merely.
+
+As with glazed earthenware, the origin of mosaic must be looked for in
+the East. Greece, who had doubtless borrowed it from Egypt, communicated
+it to Rome at least two centuries before the Christian era, and from
+this time the Romans used it freely in the decoration of their
+buildings. The Greek mosaic was composed exclusively of stone. The
+Romans modified this usage by the introduction of diminutive cubes of
+clay, painted and baked like porcelain; and later, in the reign of
+Claudius, dyed these cubes with various colours.
+
+Roman mosaic-work (commonly in the tessellated style and not the _opus
+sectile_) has been unearthed in many parts of the Peninsula. Such are
+the two "mosaics of the Muses," discovered at Italica on December 12th,
+1799, and June 12th, 1839;[65] other mosaics, to the number of some
+thirty, discovered from time to time among the same ruins; another,
+discovered at Majorca in 1833; that of the Calle Batitales at Lugo (the
+Roman _Lucus Augusti_), discovered in 1842; those of Palencia, Gerona,
+Merida, Milla del Rio (near León), Rielves (near Toledo), Duratón,
+Aguilafuente, and Paradinas (near Segovia), and Carabanchel, three miles
+from Madrid. The mosaic found at Lugo is believed to have formed part of
+a temple dedicated to Diana. The decoration is partly geometrical, and
+consists of the head of a man between two dolphins, with other fishes
+swimming along the border. Laborde describes another mosaic which
+existed, early in the nineteenth century, in a hall of the archbishop's
+palace at Valencia. "The pavement of this hall demands particular
+attention; it is formed of antique pavements, discovered in the month of
+February, 1777, three hundred paces north-east of the town of Puch,
+between Valencia and Murviedro; some were entire, others were only
+fragments. They were separated with care, and placed on the floor of
+this hall, where they are carefully preserved. They are different
+mosaics, formed by little stones of three or four lines in diameter,
+curiously enchased. They are distributed into seven squares in each of
+which medallions and divers designs have been drawn: their compartments
+are of blue on a white ground. We observe in one of these squares an
+imitation of the pavement of Bacchus, discovered at Murviedro, and of
+which there remained but very few vestiges; it was copied in a
+drawing-book which a priest of this town had preserved; it is executed
+with such art and exactness, that no difference can be observed between
+this modern work and that of the Romans. In another we see Neptune
+seated in a car, in one hand holding a whip, and in the other a trident
+and the reins of the horses by which his car is drawn: these appear to
+be galloping."
+
+  [65] The latter, which was the finer of the two, was dug out by Don Ivo
+       de la Cortina. It has subsequently been allowed to go to pieces,
+       but a coloured plate depicting it will be found in the first volume
+       of the _Museo Español de Antigüedades_.
+
+"In the same hall are also seen other pavements, of which only fragments
+could be preserved. Some serve for borders and ornaments to the
+preceding pavements. On these are represented a tiger, fishes, birds,
+houses, flowers, and garlands, well executed. There are particularly
+five stuck on wood and shut up in a closet; on these are birds, fruits,
+and flowers, figured in different colours, the execution of which is
+very curious; they are perhaps the most precious of the whole."
+
+The same author says elsewhere: "In digging to make a road from Valencia
+to Murviedro in 1755, at the entrance of the latter town a mosaic
+pavement was discovered; it was entire, and of such beauty that it was
+thought worthy of preservation. Ferdinand the Sixth caused it to be
+surrounded with walls; but the king's intentions were not properly
+fulfilled; the gates were suffered to remain open, and every one carried
+away some part of the pavement, which consequently soon became
+despoiled; it was rectangular, and measured twenty-four feet by
+fourteen. There are still some fragments of it in several houses at
+Murviedro. A priest of that town, Don Diego Puch, an antiquarian, took a
+drawing of it, which he afterwards had painted at Valencia on the tiles
+fabricated there, and paved an apartment of his house with them. It was
+likewise copied with the greatest exactness, with small stones perfectly
+similar, in an apartment of the library belonging to the archiepiscopal
+palace, as we have already stated."
+
+Swinburne also mentions a mosaic pavement which he saw at Barcelona,
+upon the site of what he believed to have been a temple of Neptune. In
+it were represented "two large green figures of tritons, holding a shell
+in each hand; between them a sea-horse, and on the sides a serpent and a
+dolphin."
+
+In October of 1901 a very important and beautiful mosaic was discovered
+at Italica. It is known as "the mosaic of Bacchus," the worship of which
+deity, says Señor Quintero, was probably general in Andalusia, owing to
+her wealth of vines. This mosaic was found at a depth of six feet six
+inches below the surface of the soil, and measures twenty-one feet
+square. It is believed to have formed the pavement of a Roman
+dining-chamber.
+
+Mosaic in the manner of the Greeks and Romans seems in Spain to have
+disappeared with the Visigoths. That it was known to these is told us by
+Saint Isidore:--"Pavimenta originem apud graecos habent elaboratae arte
+picturae, litostrata parvulis crustis ac tesselis tinctis in varios
+colores."[66]
+
+  [66] _Tessela_ and _crusta_ are defined by him as follows: "Tesselae
+       sunt e quibus domicilia sternuntur a tesseris nominata, id est
+       quadratis lapillis, per diminutionem."
+
+       "Crustae sunt tabulae marmoris. Unde et marmorari parietes et
+       constati dicuntur. Qui autem marmora secandi in crustas rationem
+       excogitaverunt non constat. Fiunt autem arena et ferro serraque in
+       praetenui linea premente arenas, tractuque ipse secante: sed
+       crassior arena plus erodet marmoris. Nam tenuis fabricis et
+       polituris accomodata est."
+
+                           [Illustration: LI
+                           DOOR OF THE MIHRAB
+              (_Showing mosaic-work. Cordova Cathedral_)]
+
+It is impossible to affirm with any confidence that glazed earthenware,
+whether in the form of tiles or other objects, was manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors during the Cordovese Caliphate, or the period of the
+kinglings of Taifa. No trace of it has been discovered among the scanty
+ruins of Medina Az-zahará[67] and Az-zahira--ancient palaces of
+Cordova--or in the marvellous mosque. We know, however, that towards the
+seventh century the Arabs borrowed from Byzantium the mosaic-work of
+tessons known as _psephosis fsefysa_, and this, or something similar,
+was used, though probably to a small extent, among the Muslims of the
+Spanish Caliphate. Although, towards the middle of the thirteenth
+century, the historian Aben-Said, a native of Granada, recorded that in
+Al-Andalus "is made a kind of _mofassass_ which is called in the East
+_alfoseifesa_," remains of this elaborate product only exist to-day at
+Cordova, where patches may yet be seen lining the dome of the _mirhab_
+in the vast _aljama_ (Plate li.). The mosaic in question is stated to
+have been a gift from the Byzantine emperor to the sultan Al-Hakem, and
+was set in place by a skilled workman, a Greek, who, like the offering
+itself, proceeded from Constantinople.
+
+  [67] Among these ruins, at five miles' distance from the city, pieces
+       of common brick have come to light; but no glazed pottery of any
+       kind, whether as _foseifesa_, _azulejos_, or mosaic.
+
+During his stay at Cordova this Greek was helped by certain of the
+Sultan's slaves, who thus acquired the secrets of the craft, and
+practised it thereafter.[68]
+
+  [68] Dozy's version of _The History of Almagreb_, by Ibn-Adzarí the
+       Moor; p. 253.
+
+Rodrigo Amador de los Rios contends, however, that this decoration is
+in no sense a true mosaic, but just a tempera painting executed on the
+wall and overlaid with cubes of glass. In any case, no other specimen of
+such work has been discovered in any part of the Peninsula.
+
+By the time of the Almohade invasion or very shortly after--that is,
+towards the twelfth century,--the Spanish Moors had grown acquainted
+with glazed earthenware. Indeed, the Almohades are believed by some
+authorities to have actually introduced it. Gestoso, on the contrary,
+suggests that Spain may have transmitted it to Africa. However this may
+be, the Almohades used it largely in the decoration of their homes and
+public buildings in Andalusia; first as _aliceres_ or bands composed of
+smallish pieces running round a room, and subsequently in the more
+effective and more useful form of _azulejos_ proper. The Spanish Moors
+employed the word _almofassass_ to designate both _aliceres_ and
+_azulejos_. Nevertheless, the two were not identical, although Riaño
+takes them to be so. He says: "The earliest tiles or _azulejos_ made in
+Spain are composed of small pieces let into the wall, forming
+geometrical patterns." These, in fact, were _aliceres_. It is not so
+easy to define an _azulejo_. We read in Aben-Said, quoted by
+Al-Makkari: "There is another kind of work employed for paving houses.
+It is called _azzulechí_ and resembles _mofassass_. It has wonderful
+colouring, and replaces the coloured marble used by the people of the
+East to decorate their chambers."
+
+This definition is not completely clear. Those of the Christian-Spanish
+writers are not more satisfactory. Covarrubias calls these objects
+"small bricks, square and of other shapes, used for lining chambers in
+the mansions of the wealthy, or in garden paths." Nebrija calls them
+_tessela pavimenticia_, adding that they bear the name of _azulejos_
+because the earliest ones were of a blue colour--a statement which Dozy
+supports by instancing the Persian-Arabic _zaward_ or "blue stone."
+
+Gestoso resolves the question sufficiently for our purpose by showing
+that the term _azulejo_ is usually applied to square tiles of a largish
+size, the length of whose sides varies between eleven centimetres and
+eighteen centimetres, _aliceres_ being properly the smaller strips or
+pieces (technically known as _cintas_ or _verduguillos_) used in a
+bordering or frieze. Other decorative pieces of small dimensions,
+invented in the fifteenth century, were called _olambres_ or
+_olambrillas_, and served to lend variety to the red or yellow brickwork
+of a pavement or a floor.
+
+The production of _azulejos_ in Spain may thus be traced to as far back
+as the twelfth century. By far the most important centre of the craft
+was Seville. Here, from the twelfth until the fourteenth century, was
+made the glazed and decorative tiling which consisted of small pieces of
+monochrome earthenware--black, white, green, blue, or yellow--cut one by
+one, and pieced together in the manner of a true mosaic. This process,
+says Gestoso, was lengthy, difficult, and dear. In the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries the same mosaic would often take the form of a
+series of narrow, white, ribbon-like strips, with coloured interspaces.
+Specimens of this "ribbon-work tiling" exist to-day in the Patio de Las
+Doncellas of the Alcázar (Plate lii.). Towards the sixteenth century the
+Sevillano potters discovered a simpler way of making effective and
+artistic _azulejos_, which they called the _cuerda seca_ process. This
+novel method consisted in pressing a wood or metal mould upon the
+unbaked tile, in such a manner that the outline of the pattern remained
+in slight relief. This outline was next brushed over with a mixture
+of manganese and grease, which turns, in baking, very nearly black. The
+body of the pattern was then filled in with the various colours, which
+the greasy line completely separated, and thus prepared, the tile was
+rendered permanent by firing.
+
+                           [Illustration: LII
+                  MOSAIC OF THE PATIO DE LAS DONCELLAS
+                        (_Alcázar of Seville_)]
+
+This process, in which the patterns are nearly always geometrical,
+remained in general use until about the year 1550, when it began to be
+superseded by two others, known respectively as the processes of
+"cuenca" and "Pisano".
+
+The _cuenca_ tile was simple and of excellent effect. The pattern,
+stamped from a metal mould, remained in bas-relief,--a characteristic
+which caused these objects to be also known as _azulejos_ "_de
+relieve_". The shelving border of each hollow stamped into the tile thus
+formed a kind of natural barrier which kept the colour there deposited
+from mingling with its neighbours. When of a larger size, and joined in
+pairs to form between each two a single motive (_ladrillo por tabla_),
+these _azulejos_ were often employed for decorating roofs and ceilings.
+
+The tiles which bear the name of their inventor, Francesco Niculoso
+Pisano the Italian, who lived and worked for many years at Seville, date
+from about the same time as the "cuenca" _azulejos_. In the case of the
+_Pisano_ tile, there is no indentation caused by the imprint of a mould,
+the surface being merely coated with a monochrome glaze, painted upon
+and fired, the decoration thus remaining flat all over. Commonly the
+ground is white or yellow, with the colour of the pattern shaded blue,
+or black, or deepish purple. This process, which lent itself to most
+elaborate and effective schemes of ornament, remained in vogue until the
+eighteenth century, and was practised, not only by Pisano himself, but
+by a long succession of his pupils, followers, and imitators.
+
+                          [Illustration: LIII
+                      ANDALUSIAN NON-LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1480-1495. Osma Collection_)]
+
+Such were the processes in use among the _azulejo_-makers of old
+Seville. Specimens of their craftsmanship which yet survive and
+illustrate the various styles and epochs may be thus enumerated:--
+
+(1) Mosaic tile-work, such as appears in Seville at the time of the
+Almohade invasion. A fragment of this kind of work forms part of the
+collection of Señor Osma, and proceeds from the church of San Andrés.
+Tiles and smaller pieces of mosaic-work, coloured in malachite green and
+white, were also found in 1899 and 1900, in the upper walls of the
+renowned Torre del Oro, or "Golden Tower," erected in the year 1220,
+and which is popularly thought to derive its venerable title from the
+sparkle of the sun upon its _azulejos_. Another piece of primitive
+mosaic, measuring rather less than a yard square, and containing
+star-shaped geometrical devices, was found in 1890 beneath the floor of
+the cathedral; while mosaics of a later age, including the more
+elaborate _lacería_ patterns that resemble ribbon, are preserved in the
+Patio de las Doncellas of the Alcázar, in the Casa de Olea, and in the
+parish churches of San Estéban, San Gil, and Omnium Sanctorum.
+
+(2) A small group of curious tiles, believed to be anterior to the reign
+of Pedro the First, has come to light some years ago, in the churches of
+San Andrés and Santa Marina, and in the Claustro del Lagarto of the
+cathedral. Those of San Andrés are of white earthenware, glazed in the
+same colour and stamped from a mould with the figures of two wolves in
+fairly bold relief (see tailpiece to this chapter). Traces of a glaze of
+malachite green are on the bodies of these wolves. The _azulejos_ of the
+church of Santa Marina, also discovered recently, are examined by Señor
+Osma in his pamphlet _Azulejos sevillanos del siglo xiii_ (Madrid,
+1902). They measure about three and a half inches square, and bear
+devices of a castle and an eagle, stamped in the diagonal direction of
+the tile, showing that this was fixed upon the wall in lozenge fashion.
+The tiles are bathed upon their surface with what is termed by Osma "the
+semi-transparent, caramel-coloured glaze peculiar to the pottery of
+Moorish Spain."[69] Upon this ground is stamped the decoration,--the
+eagles in the blackish purple of baked manganese, the castles without
+additional colour, so as to be distinguished only by their outline from
+the yellowish surface of the tile.
+
+  [69] According to Gestoso, the colours in use among the Almohades
+       consisted of green, black, caramel or honey, and deep purple.
+       These colours underwent no change until the sixteenth century.
+
+The _azulejos_ of the Claustro del Lagarto of the cathedral are three in
+number, and were found in 1888. Two of them are stamped with a castle of
+a single tower described within a shield, and the third with a Greek
+cross. These are considered by Osma to be the only tiles existing at
+this moment which date from the latter third of the thirteenth century.
+In fact, he places their manufacture between the years 1252 and 1269.
+
+                           [Illustration: LIV
+                             _CUENCA_ TILES
+                        (_Alcázar of Seville_)]
+
+(3) _Cuerda seca_ tiles. Handsome _zocalos_ or dadoes of these tiles are
+in the Casa de los Pinelos, and in the chapels of the palaces of the
+Dukes of Alba and Medinaceli. Gestoso attributes them to the end of the
+fifteenth century or the beginning of the sixteenth. Detached _cuerda
+seca_ tiles are preserved in the municipal museum of archæology, while a
+fine pair (Plate liii.) of this class of _azulejos_ belongs to Señor
+Osma, who considers they were made between 1480 and 1495. They are thus
+coeval with the no less interesting dish of the time of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, of which a reproduction is given opposite page 190.
+
+(4) _Cuenca_ tiles. Quantities of these, dating from the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, may yet be seen in many parts of Seville; for
+instance, in her churches or her convents, in her superb Alcázar, or in
+the mansions of her old nobility. Probably the most remarkable of all
+are those in the gardens of the Alcázar, and lining the walls of the
+Pavilion of Charles the Fifth. The devices on these polychrome
+_azulejos_ (16th century; Plate liv.) are very numerous, including men
+and animals, centaurs and other monsters, the Pillars of Hercules, and
+imitations of elaborate dress fabrics.
+
+(5) _Pisano_ tiles. Although some facts have been unearthed concerning
+the Italian Francesco Niculoso Pisano, we do not know precisely in what
+year he came to Seville, or in what year he died. Davillier thought it
+probable that he had studied at Faenza or at Caffagiolo. At all events,
+it was Pisano who broadly launched the art of the Sevillian potters on
+the stream of the Renaissance.[70] I have stated that the tiles which
+bear his name are painted on a white or yellow ground. Consequently
+their surface is flat, without the ridges and depressions of the
+_cuenca_ or the _cuerda seca_ methods. We find _Pisano_ tiles applied to
+various objects, such as tombs, altars, friezes, and archivolts. This
+artist, says Gestoso, further introduced the use of two new
+colours,--violet and rose. Several of his best productions are still
+intact, including the doorway of the church of the monastery of Santa
+Paula (in which he was assisted by a Spanish master, Pedro Millan), and
+the altar of the Catholic Sovereigns in the Alcázar. Both these
+masterpieces were executed in the year 1504, and bear Pisano's
+signature. The doorway of Santa Paula is described by Gestoso as
+consisting of a single body of masonry, distinct from that of the
+building itself, though resting against it, and constructed of bricks
+of uniform size, which show us, by their perfect symmetry, how skilful
+were the masons of that time, with whom the Moorish craftsmanship was
+yet a living power. The doorway is formed by a series of concentric
+Gothic arches resting on slender pillars. The space which forms the
+outer archivolt is most remarkable. Upon a ground of _azulejos_ which
+copy the colour of the brickwork, we see a number of Plateresque designs
+of exquisite beauty, painted in white and blue, with occasional touches
+of other colours. Among the devices are chimeras, war-trophies, volutes,
+chaplets, parapegms, antelopes, masks, and others which are
+characteristic of the Florentine Renaissance. Upon this ground, and
+enclosed by circular garlands in high relief, consisting of polychrome
+fruits and flowers, are seven medallions containing figures of male and
+female saints, except the one which is upon the keystone, and which
+represents the birth of Christ. In this medallion the figures are
+enamelled in white upon a cobalt-blue ground, recalling, as also do the
+garlands, the work of the celebrated della Robbia.[71] In the rest of
+the medallions the figures are glazed in brilliant colours. In the
+three medallions upon the left, beginning with the lowest one, we see,
+upon the first, Saint Helen; upon the second, two saints in monkish
+dress; and upon the third, Saint Peter and Saint Paul. On the medallions
+of the other side are another saint dressed as a monk, San Cosmé, San
+Damián, and San Roque. The spaces on either side of the archivolt are
+covered with tiles which represent a landscape. In each of the upper
+angles is an angel holding a large tablet with IHS in ornamental Gothic
+character upon a black ground. These letters, and also the angels and
+the frames of the tablets, are enamelled in gold. Beneath each tablet is
+an angel standing with extended wings upon a bracket of lustred
+earthenware, and holding an open book. The brickwork of the door is
+closed by a plain impost supporting a small battlement covered with
+_cuenca_ tiles, and crowned with a cornice of flamboyant ornaments
+alternating with the heads of cherubs glazed in white, and with a white
+marble cross in the centre. The tympanum is embellished by a superb
+shield carved in high relief upon white marble with the arms of Castile,
+León, Aragon, and Sicily, surmounted by a royal crown and the eagle with
+the nimbus. Beside this shield are two smaller ones of _azulejos_
+painted with the yoke and sheaf of arrows, and the motto T[=A]TO
+M[=O]TA. The ground on which are executed these three shields occupies
+the whole tympanum, and is covered with Plateresque devices including
+two tablets, on one of which we read the letters S.P.Q.R., and on the
+other, PISANO. Above the first of these tablets is another of an oval
+shape, bearing the word NICULOSO. Lastly, at the base of the archivolt,
+and on the left-hand side of the spectator, is a very small rectangular
+tablet with this inscription:--
+
+                                NICVLOSO
+
+                              FRANCISCO-I-
+
+                              TALIANO-MEF
+
+                           ECIT INELAGNO DEI
+
+                                · 154 ·
+
+  [70] Gestoso says that florid Gothic and Renaissance motives are found
+       occasionally in the older _cuenca_ tiles. This was, however, quite
+       exceptional.
+
+  [71] A plaque belongs to Señor Gestoso which proceeds from the
+       demolished Mudejar church of San Miguel at Seville. It measures
+       fifteen inches high by ten wide, and is decorated with a
+       representation, in bas-relief, of the Coronation of the Virgin. The
+       eyebrows, eyelids, and lips of the figures are executed in cobalt
+       upon a thick layer of white glaze, and strongly recall the method
+       of Lucca della Robbia. Gestoso considers that this plaque was made
+       in the latter part of the fourteenth century. If so, it is
+       antecedent to the work of della Robbia (whose _Resurrection_ upon
+       one of the doors of the Duomo of Florence dates from 1438) by a
+       good many years. A similar example, also by an unknown hand and
+       representing the Coronation, is in the chapel of the Sagrario of
+       Seville Cathedral.
+
+The altar in the Alcázar of the same city, and which is known as that of
+the Catholic Sovereigns (Plate lv.), is entirely covered with "Pisano"
+_azulejos_ measuring sixteen centimetres square. Imbedded in the centre
+is a picture, also of painted tiles, representing the visit of the
+Virgin to Saint Elizabeth. This picture measures five feet in height by
+three feet eight inches in breadth. Beneath it is the figure of a
+patriarch resting his head upon his hand. Boughs with large flowers
+issue from his breast, and among the flowers are half-length figures of
+the prophets, together with those of Jesus and the Virgin, the whole of
+this decoration forming a frame to the central picture. The rest of the
+altar is profusely decorated with designs in the Renaissance style,
+consisting of vases, animals, genii, and the emblems of Ferdinand and
+Isabella. In the centre of the tiling which forms the altar-front is a
+circular picture made of _azulejos_ surrounded by a garland of fruits
+and laurel leaves, and representing the Annunciation, garland and
+picture being supported by two monsters with the tails of dragons and
+the upper parts of women. Large flaming torches rest between the
+out-stretched arms of the monsters, and round about or springing from
+them are flowers, animals, cornucopias, and other decoration. The
+entire _retablo_ is painted lightish blue and white upon a yellow
+ground, except the larger picture and its decorative border, which is of
+a deeper blue. A small tablet beneath the Virgin's feet contains the
+words NICULOSO FRANCESCO ITALIANO ME FECIT, and on the pilaster
+represented on the left hand of the same picture is added the date,
+1504. As Gestoso, Davillier, and others have remarked, it is evident
+that while the rest of the altar is pure Renaissance-Plateresque, the
+pictures copied on the tiles are of a northern school. Probably they
+were designed for Niculoso by one of the various German or Flemish
+masters who at that time were resident in Seville.
+
+                           [Illustration: LV
+                    ALTAR OF THE CATHOLIC SOVEREIGNS
+                        (_Alcázar of Seville_)]
+
+Another altar which was formerly in the same palace, but which has
+disappeared, was also painted by this craftsman. It was described by
+Cean Bermudez as containing scenes from the life of the Virgin, the
+Trinity, and the two Saints John, and bore the same date as the altar
+which is yet existing, namely, 1504.
+
+Among the other works of Niculoso are the altar of the church of
+Tentudia, the tomb of Iñigo Lopez in the church of Santa Ana in the
+quarter of Triana, and a tile-picture representing, similarly to the
+one which forms the centre of the altar in the Alcázar, the Virgin's
+visit to Saint Elizabeth. This picture formerly belonged to the kings of
+Portugal, and is now in the museum of Amsterdam.[72]
+
+  [72] Certain _azulejos_, signed by Niculoso and dated 1500, were
+       formerly existing in the palace of the Counts of El Real de
+       Valencia in the city of this name. These tiles were executed in
+       relief, and proved that Niculoso did not work exclusively in the
+       Italian style.
+
+Such were the decorative _azulejos_ which made the potteries of Seville
+famous throughout Europe, and which are known to have been exported to
+Italy, Portugal, and even England.[73] The names of several hundred
+mediæval and post-mediæval makers of these Seville tiles have been
+exhumed and published by Gestoso.
+
+  [73] In Portugal, tiles which Gestoso believes to have been made at
+       Seville, exist in Coimbra cathedral, the church of San Roque at
+       Lisbon, and the two palaces of Cintra. In our own country, Seville
+       tiles are stated by Marryat and Demmin to line the walls of the
+       Mayor's Chapel at Bristol, whither they were doubtless conveyed by
+       one of the numerous English merchants who traded between Spain and
+       England, and who are known to have made their home at Seville in
+       the sixteenth century. Another tile of Seville workmanship,
+       proceeding from Haccombe Church, Devonshire, is in the British
+       Museum.
+
+The general title of the Spanish potter was _ollero_, a comprehensive
+term which reaches from the most ambitious _azulejero_ to the maker of
+the meanest kitchen-ware. The _olleros_ of older Seville produced for
+centuries, not only glazed and coloured tiling by the processes already
+indicated, but countless other objects such as brims of wells,
+apothecary's jars, baptismal fonts, and dishes of every shape and size.
+They used a general mark (the tower of the Giralda) to stamp their
+pottery; but private marks are nearly always absent. The facts that have
+appeared in recent years concerning these artificers are seldom
+interesting. The mere mention of a name is meaningless, or even
+perplexing, seeing that a Moor or Mudejar would frequently assume the
+name and surname of a Christian. Nevertheless, Gestoso has brought to
+light important notices concerning one or two, and in particular a
+document dating from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, relating to a
+celebrated potter of that period named Fernan Martinez Guijarro. This
+document, which is dated 1479, describes Martinez as "a very great
+master in the art of making _azulejos_, fonts, and all the things
+pertaining to his trade, insomuch that none other in all this kingdom is
+like unto him," and subsequently, "considering him to be so excellent a
+craftsman that persons come hither from Portugal and other parts to
+purchase and to carry off his ware." It is further stated that Martinez
+Guijarro was in wealthy circumstances ("hombre rrico e de mucha rrenta e
+fasyenda"). His _talleres_ or workshops were in the _barrio_ of Triana,
+and included (as we learn from one of the documents copied by the same
+investigator) a separate department for the manufacture or storage of
+lustred ware.
+
+Unfortunately, even Gestoso is unable to point to any piece of tiling or
+other pottery now existing, as being unquestionably executed by this
+master.
+
+Another Sevillian potter of exceptional merit was Cristóbal de Augusta,
+who worked in the latter half of the sixteenth century, and left his
+name upon the _azulejo_ dadoes of the Halls of Charles the Fifth in the
+Alcázar. The style of these most brilliant tiles is pure Renaissance,
+and forms a worthy continuation of the splendid work of Niculoso.
+Augusta, indeed, is termed in the Archives of the Alcázar "master of
+making tiles in the Pisano manner" (_del pisano_).[74] Some tilemakers
+of little note succeeded him, but even the names of these are carefully
+recorded by Gestoso.
+
+  [74] The _pisano_ process is believed by Gestoso to have succumbed
+       before the _cuenca_. He says he is aware of no _pisano_ tiling
+       which can be dated from as late as the second half of the
+       seventeenth century.
+
+Seville was thus the principal centre of the craft of decorative
+tile-making. _Azulejos_ were also made at Barcelona and other towns in
+Cataluña, at Talavera de la Reina, Burgos, Toledo, Granada, and
+Valencia, in several towns of Aragon, and probably at Cordova. Riaño
+quotes a letter written about the year 1422, from the wife of the
+Admiral of Castile to the abbess of the nunnery of Santo Domingo at
+Toledo, requesting that a number of _azulejos_ be sent to her. "She
+alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was
+expecting a master potter from Seville to place the tiles in their
+proper places. This shows us" (continues Riaño) "that it was only in the
+province of Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into
+geometrical sections and mosaic patterns."
+
+The meaning of this passage is obscure. Riaño speaks of painted tiles
+and _azulejos_ as though they were distinct objects, and yet they are
+essentially the same. Again, if only Andalusia was able to produce such
+tiles, why did the Almirante's wife order them from Toledo? Perhaps the
+faulty English of Riaño's handbook is responsible, but, as it stands,
+this passage tells us practically nothing. In any case, abundant
+evidence exists to show that large quantities of Mudejar and
+Renaissance tiles were manufactured at Toledo. In general appearance,
+they are similar to those of Seville.
+
+Ramírez de Arellano believes that decorative tiles were manufactured at
+Cordova in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and quotes, in proof
+of this, the names of "maestros de hacer vidriado" or makers of glazed
+ware, who resided at this ancient capital. One of these craftsmen was
+Alonso Rodriguez the younger, who, on June 7th, 1574, sold to a canon of
+the cathedral ten thousand white and green tiles of a common kind
+(_ladrillos_), probably employed for roofing. The price was three ducats
+the thousand. On April 10th, 1598, Juan Sanchez engaged to supply the
+same temple with the same quantity of glazed tiles (_tejas_) for
+roofing, coloured white, green, and yellow, at sixteen _maravedis_ each
+tile.
+
+_Azulejos_ were certainly made at Granada in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, and probably earlier.
+
+                           [Illustration: LVI
+                            THE GATE OF WINE
+           (_Showing polychrome tiling. Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+In a passage of the Alhambra palace leading from the Patio de la Alberca
+to the Cuarto Dorado, a space was laid bare not many years ago,
+containing the original _mostagueras_ or small tiles used for flooring,
+glazed in two colours; and in the same building, although in
+constantly diminishing quantities, are large numbers of tiles which date
+from the time of the Spanish Moors. There has been a good deal of
+discussion as to whether the roofs of the Alhambra were originally
+covered with decorative tiles. Swinburne (who must not, however, be
+taken as the safest of authorities) wrote that "in Moorish times the
+building was covered with large painted and glazed tiles, of which some
+few are yet to be seen."
+
+Indifferent Renaissance tiles, made in the reign of Philip the Fifth,
+are still preserved in parts of the Alhambra.
+
+Excellent polychrome _cuerda seca_ tiles (fourteenth century), in white,
+green, yellow, blue, and black, are over the horseshoe archway of the
+Gate of Wine of the Alhambra (Plate lvi.). According to Gómez
+Moreno,[75] they were manufactured here, as were the Moorish _azulejos_,
+yellow, black, white, violet, and sky-blue, in the Mirador de
+Daraxa.[76] The archives of the Moorish palace also state that towards
+the close of the sixteenth century Antonio Tenorio, whose pottery was
+situated in the Secano, and consequently within a stone's-throw of the
+Casa Real, made several sets of _azulejos_ for the Hall of the
+Abencerrajes. Good Morisco tiles, dating from the same period and
+wrought by craftsmen such as Gaspar Hernandez, Pedro Tenorio, and the
+members of the Robles family, are in the Sala de Comares, and in one of
+the rooms of the Casa de los Tiros.
+
+  [75] _Guía de Granada_; pp. 35, 36.
+
+  [76] Pure red is the rarest of the colours employed in Moorish
+       tile-work. It is, however, found in a single part of the Alhambra;
+       namely, among the superb tile-decoration of the Torre de la
+       Cautiva.
+
+       Gestoso says that red was practically unknown among the Seville
+       potters. Sometimes, however, in coats of arms, a space that should
+       have properly been gules was left uncoloured in the actual making
+       of the tile, and painted red with oil-colour after firing.
+
+From the thirteenth century until the eighteenth, excellent _azulejos_
+were made in Cataluña. Specimens of every period exist in the
+collections of Don Francisco Rogent and Don José Font y Gumá, of
+Barcelona, and Don Luis Santacana, of Martorell. The tiles belonging to
+these gentlemen proceed from the cathedral and other temples of
+Barcelona, and from the monasteries or castles of Poblet, Santas Creus,
+Montserrat, Marmellá, San Miguel de Ervol, Centellas, Torre Pallaresa,
+San Miguel del Fay, and Vallpellach.[77]
+
+  [77] Coloured plates of Catalan and other Spanish _azulejos_ are
+       published with García Llansó's text in the _Historia General del
+       Arte_; Vol. II.
+
+Another region which has long been celebrated for its _azulejeria_ is
+the kingdom of Valencia. Even in the eighteenth century, when this craft
+was generally in a state of great decadence, Valencian tiles were
+thoroughly well made, although the patterns on them were defective.
+Laborde pronounced them "the best executed and most elegant in Europe,"
+and further said of this locality; "the painted earthenware tiles or
+_azulejos_ are used in the country, but only a small part of them; a
+great many are sent into the interior of Spain as well as to Cadiz,
+where they are shipped for Spanish America, and to Marseilles, whence
+they are conveyed into Africa."
+
+The same writer inserts an interesting account of the manufacture of
+these _azulejos_. "It is at Valencia that the tiles of earthenware are
+made, with which they incrust walls and pave apartments: those tiles are
+of a clayey earth, which is found in the territories of Quarte near
+Valencia; they harden the earth long after soaking it in water; the
+tiles are formed in moulds, and are dried in the sun; they are then
+beaten with a piece of square wood of the dimensions of which they are
+wanted. They are then put into the oven, where they undergo a slight
+baking. As soon as they are done they are glazed, and are afterwards
+painted in water colours with whatever subject is intended to be
+represented. The tiles are then replaced in the oven so as not to touch
+one another, and that the action of the fire may penetrate them all
+equally: as the colours change by baking, the workmen apply them anew in
+proportion to the changes that take place; the red alone alters
+entirely. The varnish with which they are glazed is made with lead, tin,
+and white sand. These three substances are ground in a mill to powder,
+which is mixed with water, to form a paste, and baked in the oven; it is
+again pounded and put into the oven, where it crystallises: being once
+more reduced to powder and diluted with water, it becomes varnish. There
+are two kinds of it; one is whiter than the other, though the same
+materials are used: the mode of mixing alone makes the difference; the
+whiter, the clearer the tiles. It takes a certain number of tiles to
+form a picture: they are of different dimensions; the smallest are three
+inches nine lines, the largest seven inches nine lines. The price varies
+according to the size of the tile, the beauty of the varnish, and the
+variety of the drawings: the lowest price is eight pesos (25s.) a
+thousand, and the highest 100 pesos or £15, 12_s._ 6_d._ There is a
+considerable demand for them; they are superior both in beauty and
+strength to those used in Holland."
+
+                          [Illustration: LVII
+                     TILES OF THE DECADENT PERIOD]
+
+Bourgoing, author of the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_, described, in
+1789, the same product in the following terms: "L'industrie des
+Valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les productions de leur sol.
+Il contient une espèce de terre dont ils font ces carreaux de faïence
+colorée, connus sous le nom d'_Azulejos_, et qu'on ne fabrique qu'à
+Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en revêt leurs lambris; on y
+peint les sujets les plus compliqués, tels par exemple qu'un bal masqué,
+une fête de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la seule qui ne puisse être
+fixée sur cette espèce de faïence; elle s'altere entièrement par la
+cuisson."[78]
+
+  [78] Vol. iii., p. 56.
+
+For the amusement of my readers, I insert an illustration of common
+Spanish tiles of the decadent period (Plate lvii.), displaying
+considerable liveliness combined with reckless ignorance of
+draughtsmanship. A class of these degenerate tiles, made in large
+quantities at Seville in the eighteenth century, is known as _azulejos
+de montería_ or "hunting-tiles," since episodes of the chase form one
+of the favourite themes of their design.
+
+Although it passed through a long period of prostration, embracing the
+greater part of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, at no time has
+the manufacture of decorative Spanish tiles succumbed completely. Of
+recent years it has revived surprisingly at Seville, Barcelona, and
+Segovia; and at the first of these cities the older _azulejos_, and
+particularly those in the _cuenca_ style, are imitated to perfection.
+
+In the cheapest kinds of modern tiling, such as is used for corridors
+and kitchens, a common device is a series of repeated curves and dots
+which evidently has its source in Arabic lettering. Indeed, the
+ornamental and attractive written characters of the Spanish Moors,
+rendered familiar to their rivals through long centuries of intercourse,
+seem to have constantly found favour with the Christian Spaniards. The
+_fuero_ of Jaca, dated A.D. 1064, tells us that a Christian prince of
+Spain, Don Sancho Ramirez, was accustomed to write his signature in
+Arabic lettering. Meaningless inscriptions in the same language, and
+evidently executed by a Christian hand, are engraved on objects in the
+Royal Armoury; and Señor Osma describes in an interesting pamphlet
+(_Los letreros ornamentales en la cerámica morisca del Siglo XV._) how,
+in the pottery of older Spain, a word in Arabic such as _alafia_
+("prosperity" or "blessing") would often be corrupted by Morisco
+craftsmen into a motive of a purely ornamental character, and which
+would only in this sense be comprehended and appreciated by the
+Christian.[79]
+
+  [79] _Alafia_ is written in Neshki, [Illustration], which word, says
+       Señor Osma, by suppressing the diacritical points and prolonging
+       some of the lines, was converted by the potter into the
+       conventional and exclusively decorative device:--
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+                    HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED POTTERY
+
+Probably no pottery in the world possesses greater loveliness or
+interest than the celebrated, yet even to this day mysterious, lustred
+ware of Moorish Spain. Our knowledge of the early history of this ware
+is still imperfect. In modern times, attention was first drawn to the
+lustre process by M. Riocreux, of the Sèvres Museum. In spite, however,
+of the subsequent monographs and researches of Davillier and other
+authorities, the origin of lustred pottery is yet a problem which awaits
+solution. Until some years ago it was believed to have had its source in
+Persia, where many specimens have been discovered in the form of tiles
+and other objects; but this belief was afterwards shaken by Fouquet, who
+unearthed at Fostat in Egypt, in the year 1884, specimens of lustred
+ware which are known to date from the eleventh century. Saladin, too,
+affirms that he has seen upon the mosque of Kairuan lustred plaques with
+inscriptions recording them to have been presented, between A.D. 864 and
+875, by the emir Ibrahim Ahmed-ibn-el-Aglab.
+
+Whatever these facts may signify, it appears from a statement by the
+geographer Edrisi that lustred ware was made in Spain as early as the
+twelfth century. "Here," said the writer, speaking of Calatayud, "is
+produced the gold-coloured pottery which is exported to all countries."
+The next allusion to it is by the traveller Ibn-Batutah, who visited
+certain parts of Spain in the middle of the fourteenth century. "At
+Málaga," he wrote, "is made the beautiful golden pottery which is
+exported to the farthest countries." These passages refer respectively
+to Aragon and Andalusia. The same ware was produced in Murcia. Ibn-Said,
+quoted by Al-Makkari, mentions the "glazed and gilded porcelain" of
+Murcia, Málaga, and Almería, calling it "strange and admirable." It was
+also manufactured, probably in larger quantities than in any other part
+of Spain, in many towns and villages of the kingdom of Valencia, such as
+Carcer, Alaquaz, Moncada, Quarte, Villalonga, Traiguera, and Manises. In
+the _Excellencies of the Kingdom of Valencia_, written by Eximenes and
+published in 1499, we find it stated that "surpassing everything else is
+the ware of Manises, gilded and painted with such mastery that all the
+world is enamoured thereof, insomuch that the pope, the cardinals, and
+princes send for it, astonished that objects of such excellence can be
+made of earth."[80]
+
+  [80] "_Sobre tot es la bellessa de la obra de manizes daurada é
+       maestriuolment pintada que ja tot lo mon ha enamorat ent[=a]t que
+       lo papa, é los cardenals é lo princeps del mon per special gracia
+       la requeren é stan marauellats que d'terra se puxa fer obra axi
+       excellent é noble._"
+
+Other writers on the same locality, such as Diago and Escolano, author
+of the _Historia de la insigne y coronada ciudad y reino de Valencia_
+(Valencia, 1610, 1611), confirm this eulogy of Eximenes. According to
+Escolano, Valencian ware was "of such loveliness that in return for that
+which the Italians send us from Pisa, we send them boatloads of it from
+Manises." One of the most recent of authorities on lustred ware remarks
+that "in the fifteenth century ornamental vases in the (Spanish-Moorish)
+wares appear to have been commanded from Spain by wealthy Florentines,
+as is evident from the Medici arms and impresa in fig. 40; others
+bearing the Florentine lily (fig. 41) seem to have been ordered from the
+same city." The illustrations to which the author of this monograph[81]
+refers, depict a vase and a boccale, both in lustred ware, and which it
+is extremely probable were manufactured at Manises.
+
+  [81] Wallis, _The Oriental Influence on Italian Ceramic Art_. London;
+       1900.
+
+The same ware was also possibly made in Cataluña, where pieces of it
+have been found among the ruins of the village of Las Casas. _La
+Alhambra_, a small magazine which is published at Granada, contains, in
+the number dated September 30th, 1901, an account of these fragments by
+their finder, Joaquín Vilaplana.
+
+Some years ago the Balearic Islands were also thought to have produced
+this pottery. One of the earliest and most fervent champions of this
+theory, now definitely shown to be erroneous, was Baron Davillier. This
+gentleman, in some respects an excellent authority on Spanish ceramics,
+relied too strongly on certain assurances made him by a Señor Bover, and
+ended by declaring that in the museums of Paris and London he had
+himself seen lustred plates which bore the arms of Ynca in the
+Balearics, proving them to have been manufactured at that town.
+
+However, a Majorcan archæologist, named Alvaro Campaner, refuted one by
+one Davillier's points of argument, and showed beyond all question that
+both the plates of Ynca and the arms which decorated them were simply
+nonexistent, and that the term _Majolica_, deriving from _Majorica_,
+applies to pottery in general, and not with any preference to lustred
+ware. Campaner also suggested very ingeniously that the word _Majolica_
+was probably applied by the Italians to Catalan or Valencian pottery
+conveyed to Italy in vessels themselves belonging to the Balearics, and
+which were in the habit of completing their cargoes in the ports of
+Barcelona and Valencia, and he added that this suggestion is supported
+by the fact that specimens of lustred ware are far more often met with
+on the Balearic coast than in the towns and villages of the interior. It
+is only fair to state that Davillier frankly and fully recognized the
+value of Campaner's refutation.
+
+As to the methods of producing lustred pottery, the chemical
+investigations practised by Riocreux, Brogniart, Carand, and others,
+have shown that the metals used to produce the characteristic reflex
+which gives the ware its name were copper and silver, entering into the
+composition of an extremely thin glaze extended over the surface of the
+pottery, and employed, sometimes together, and sometimes separately. It
+is obvious that the lustre produced by copper would be deeper, redder,
+and less delicate than that produced by silver, while varying gradations
+would be obtainable by the mixture of both metals. It is also beyond
+doubt that the oldest specimens of this pottery extant to-day are those
+which contain the palest and most pearly lustre, and consequently the
+largest quantity of the costlier metal. In those of later date there is
+an evident inferiority, both in colour, lustre, and design. In fact, two
+separate, or nearly separate, epochs of this branch of Spanish pottery
+are pointed out by Señor Mélida, who gives the name of _Mudejar_ to
+lustred objects manufactured at an earlier time by Moorish artists
+working in the cities captured by the Christians, and that of _Morisco_
+to the second or inferior class produced by Morisco craftsmen after the
+reconquest, and distinguished by the coarser and degenerate lustre,
+colouring, and draughtsmanship.
+
+The rarest and most beautiful examples of this ware are naturally those
+which belong to the former class, and consist of various kinds of plates
+and other objects in which elaborate devices such as lions, antelopes,
+and shields of heraldry, often combined with foliage and inscriptions in
+Gothic lettering, are coloured in bistre or pale blue,[82] and rendered
+doubly beautiful by the delicate nacreous lustre.
+
+  [82] In lustred pottery these colours, and particularly blue, are far
+       the commonest. It has been found that other colours, such as green
+       and black, were ill adapted to the lustre process.
+
+In nearly every case it is extremely difficult to determine with any
+certainty the date of manufacture of these objects, as well as the
+locality. Wallis says he is aware of "no example of Spanish lustre
+pottery antecedent to those in the class to which the large Palermo jar
+belongs, and they are not likely to be much earlier than the end of the
+fourteenth century. Happily the celebrated plaque (Plate lviii.)
+formerly belonging to Fortuny, and now in the possession of Excmo Sr.
+Don G. J. de Osma, furnishes an early date, which, according to its
+owner, is between May 1408 and November 1417. Those who know the
+original will remember that it is no less remarkable for the quality of
+its golden lustre than for the grace and elegance of its fanciful
+Oriental design." It is also believed by Señor Osma that this plaque was
+manufactured in the kingdom of Granada; _i.e._ either at Granada or
+Málaga.
+
+                          [Illustration: LVIII
+                    HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED PLAQUE
+                (_Early 15th Century. Osma Collection_)]
+
+A specimen of Spanish lustred ware more celebrated even than Fortuny's
+plaque is the "vase of the Alhambra" (Plate lix.), which rests to-day in
+a corner of the Sala de las Dos Hermanas. The history of this mighty jar
+is interesting. Popular superstition affirms it to have been discovered,
+filled to the brim with gold, by the Marquis of Mondejar, first of the
+Christian governors of the fortress of Granada. Exposed for many years
+to every stress of weather and to every mutilation at the hands of
+passers-by, it stood, in company with other vases of enormous size,
+upon a rampart which is now the garden terrace known as the Adarves.
+Several of the older travellers have described these vessels or alluded
+to them. Marmol wrote of them as far back as the sixteenth century,
+while the journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the following
+notice;--"Sur la première terrasse par où l'on entre, et d'où l'on a de
+la peine à regarder en bas sans estre ébloüy, il y a deux fontaines
+jaillissantes, et tout du long des murs du chasteau, des espaliers
+d'orangers et de grenadiers, avec de grands vases de terre peinte, aussi
+belle que la porcelaine, où il n'y avoit pour lors, sinon quelques
+fleurs en quelques-uns: mais où l'on dit que le Marquis de Mondejar
+trouva quantité d'or que les Mores avaient caché dans la terre, quand il
+y fût estably par Ferdinand." The priest Echeverría, who forged the
+relics of the ancient Alcazaba of Granada,[83] was careful to repeat
+this fable in the twenty-sixth chapter of his _Paseos por Granada_. The
+first edition of this work was published in 1764, under the assumed name
+of Joseph Romero Yranzo. There were then two vases and part of a third,
+all "lacerated, peeled, and maltreated." The Englishman Swinburne wrote
+in 1776 that below the Towers of the Bell, "on the south-side, on a slip
+of terrace, is the governor's garden, a very pleasant walk, full of fine
+orange and cypress trees and myrtle hedges, but quite abandoned. The
+view it commands is incomparable. Two large vases enamelled with gold
+and azure foliages and characters are the only ornaments left: these
+were taken out of the vaults under the royal apartments." In the second
+edition of Echeverría's _Paseos_, which was republished in 1814, it is
+added in a footnote that only a single vase remained, "in a room that
+overlooks the Court of Myrtles." Lozano, however, in his _Antigüedades
+Arabes_, mentions two vases as existing at the same period. Argote de
+Molina (_Nuevos Paseos por Granada_, published about 1808) describes,
+together with the wretchedly executed marble statues in the Sala de las
+Ninfas, the "two or three great porcelain jars whereof some pieces only
+now remain," and reminds us that according to the old tradition these
+statues looked continually towards the vases, which were full of
+treasure. Argote, nevertheless, takes Echeverría sharply to task for his
+absurdities upon this theme; and Washington Irving, a diligent gleaner
+in Echeverría's somewhat scanty field, makes use of the same material
+for his well-known story.
+
+  [83] I have fully described these forgeries in Chapters II and III of
+       _Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies, and Impressions_.
+
+                           [Illustration: LIX
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE
+                         (_Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+In the time of Owen Jones the one surviving vase, now standing with a
+wooden rail before it in a corner of the Hall of the Two Sisters, still
+occupied the "room that looks upon the Court of Myrtles." Jones wrote of
+it in 1842:--"This beautiful vase was discovered, it is said, full of
+gold in one of the subterranean chambers of the Casa Real. It is at
+present to be seen in a small chamber of the Court of the Fish-pond, in
+which are deposited the archives of the palace. It is engraved in the
+Spanish work by Lozano, _Antigüedades Arabes de España_, with another of
+the same size, which was broken a few years ago, and the pieces sold to
+a passing traveller. The vase is executed in baked clay, with enamelled
+colours and gold similar to the mosaics."
+
+A more precise description is the following. The vase, which measures
+four feet six inches in height by eight feet two inches and a half in
+circumference, is of common earthenware painted with intricate devices
+fired after painting. This was a difficult operation in a vessel of such
+size; and here, in consequence, the colours have slightly run and
+mingled. Besides these technical flaws, the belly of the vase is broken
+clean in half, and one of the handles is missing. The shape is
+amphoraic, with a moderate downward curve. About the middle, surrounded
+by leaf and stem and geometrical devices effectively intertwined, are
+two antelopes. The vase is coloured blue and caramel upon a delicate
+yellow ground, and has a faint metallic lustre.[84] An Arabic
+inscription is repeated several times, and consists of the words
+"Felicity" and "Welcome."
+
+  [84] This lustre is faint but quite distinguishable, and Rada y Delgado
+       was clearly in error in supposing that there is none.
+
+This vase is believed to date from the fourteenth century; and if we
+judge from the colour and composition of the earth employed, it appears
+probable that it was made at Granada. Together with the other vases
+which have disappeared,[85] it was doubtless meant to serve as a
+receptacle for water, and for decorating the chambers of the palace,
+where it would rest in amphora-fashion on a perforated stand, while
+smaller vases containing flowers would fill the niches which may yet
+be seen in various inner walls of the Alhambra. The belief of Argote[86]
+and many other writers that these niches were intended to receive the
+slippers of the Moors is utterly unfounded.
+
+  [85] The lost jar mentioned by Owen Jones, of which a drawing has been
+       made, was of the same shape as the one which now remains; but in
+       its decoration were included the arms of the Nasrite dynasty of
+       Granada. It is this circumstance which has induced Gómez Moreno to
+       suppose that these vases were the work of Granadino artists.
+
+  [86] "_Los nichos para chinelas_," as he calls them, in describing the
+       Sala de Comares.
+
+Until quite recently all published illustrations of the great _jarrón de
+la Alhambra_ were inaccurate, and as a rule grotesquely so. Among the
+very worst are those inserted in the handbooks of Riaño and Contreras. I
+am glad to be able to reproduce an excellent photograph, which both
+corrects the atrocious cuts I have observed elsewhere, and relieves me
+from giving a prolix and possibly a wearisome description of the
+decoration on the vase.
+
+                           [Illustration: LX
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE
+                           (_Madrid Museum_)]
+
+Several other lustred vases of large size are still preserved in Spain
+and other countries. One, proceeding from a Sicilian church, is in the
+museum of Palermo. Wallis, who inserts an illustration, describes it as
+"amphora-shaped, with two large flat handles; pear-shaped body, long
+neck, ribbed at lower part, canellated above, moulded lip. Whitish body,
+tin glaze. Ornament painted in gold lustre on white ground, the pattern
+in parts almost obliterated. Hispano-Moresque. Height, one metre,
+seventeen centimetres."
+
+Another of these great vases belonged to the painter Fortuny, and was
+sold at his death to Prince Basilewsky, for thirty thousand francs. It
+was found by Fortuny at the village of Salar, near Granada, and
+purchased by him at a low price. "The neck and mouth resemble those of
+the Alhambra vase. The ornamentation is distributed about the body of
+the vase in four zones; one of the two central zones has tangent
+circles, and the other an inscription."
+
+                           [Illustration: LXI
+                             LUSTRED TILES
+                          (_Osma Collection_)]
+
+Another large lustred vase is in the museum of Madrid (Plate lx.). It
+was found by a labourer at Hornos in the province of Jaen, and passed
+into the hands of the village priest, who placed it in his church to
+support the font of holy water. In course of time a dealer in
+antiquities, by name Amat, happened to pass that way, observed the vase,
+and made an offer for it to the _padre_. This latter at first refused,
+but subsequently, stimulated by an ignorant though well-intentioned and
+disinterested zeal for bettering the temple, he stipulated that if the
+dealer provided a new support of marble for the font, and paid for white
+washing the church, he might bear off the coveted _jarrón_.
+Fulfilling these conditions at all speed, he mounted the precious vessel
+on an ass, and briskly strode away. When he had gone a little distance
+the villagers, missing their cherished vase, though unaware, of course,
+of its artistic worth, swarmed angrily about the purchaser, flourished
+their knives and sticks at him, and pelted him with stones. At this he
+called upon the mayor for protection; the mayor provided him with two
+armed men for bodyguard, and, thus defended, the indomitable dealer
+reached Madrid and sold his jar to government for fifteen hundred
+dollars. Its present value is estimated at not less than thirty
+thousand.[87]
+
+  [87] J. R. Mélida, _Jarrones arábigos de loza vidriada_; published in
+       the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursionistas_.
+
+One of the earliest and most interesting notices relating to the
+preparation of this lustred ware is contained in a description by one of
+the royal archers, named Henry Cock, of the progress, performed in 1585,
+of Philip the Second from the court of Spain to Zaragoza.[88] Cock wrote
+of Muel, in Aragon:--"Almost all the inhabitants of this village are
+potters, and all the earthenware sold at Zaragoza is made in the
+following manner. The vessels are first fashioned to the required shape
+from a certain substance extracted from the earth of this locality. They
+are next baked in a specially constructed oven, and when removed from
+this are varnished with white varnish and polished, after which they are
+washed with a mixture of twenty-five pounds of lead, three or four
+pounds of tin, and as many pounds of a certain sand which is found
+there. All these ingredients are mixed into a paste resembling ice,
+which is broken small, pounded like flour, and kept in powder. This
+powder is mixed with water, the dishes are passed through it, and after
+being rebaked they keep their lustre. Next, in order to gild the
+pottery, they take the strongest vinegar mixed with about two _reales_
+of powdered silver, vermilion, and red ochre, and a little wire. When
+all is thoroughly mixed they paint the patterns on the dishes with a
+feather, bake them again, and their gold colour is now quite permanent.
+I was told all this by the potters themselves."[89]
+
+  [88] _Relación del viaje hecho por Felipe II. en 1585._ Madrid, 1876.
+
+  [89] The village of Muel continued to be a centre of this craft.
+       Townsend, who travelled in Spain in 1786 and 1787, wrote of
+       it:--"There are many potters, who turn their own wheels, not by
+       hand, but with their feet, by means of a larger wheel concentric
+       with that on which they mould the clay, and nearly level with the
+       floor."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXII
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection_)]
+
+Another most interesting account of the manufacture of lustred ware
+was discovered in manuscript by Riaño in the British Museum, and,
+although it belongs to a later date (1785), is well worth quoting fully.
+It consists of a report upon the later gilded pottery of Manises, and
+was drawn up by order of the Count of Floridablanca:--
+
+"After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with white and blue, the
+only colours used besides the gold lustre; the vessels are again baked;
+if the objects are to be painted with gold colour, this can only be put
+on the white varnish, after they have gone twice through the oven. The
+vessels are then painted with the said gold colour and are baked a third
+time, with only dry rosemary for fuel.
+
+"The white varnish used is composed of lead and tin, which are melted
+together in an oven made on purpose; after these materials are
+sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and when in this state the
+mixture is removed and mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand:
+fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when cold, pounded
+into powder. The only sand which can be used is from a cave at
+Benalguacil, three leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish
+should be fine, for every _arroba_, twenty-five pounds of lead, six to
+twelve ounces of tin must be added, and half a bushel of finely-powdered
+salt: if a coarse kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very small
+quantity of tin, and three or four _cuartos_ worth of salt, which in
+this case must be added when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the
+vessel.
+
+"Five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour: copper,
+which is better the older it is; silver, as old as possible; sulphur;
+red ochre; and strong vinegar, which are mixed in the following
+proportions: of copper three ounces, of red ochre twelve ounces, of
+silver one _peseta_ (about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar a
+quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the earth or scoriæ, which is
+left after this pottery is painted with the gold colour, is added to the
+other ingredients.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXIII
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection_)]
+
+"They are mixed in the following manner: a small portion of sulphur in
+powder is put into a casserole with two small bits of copper, between
+them a coin of one silver _peseta_; the rest of the sulphur and copper
+is then added to it. When this casserole is ready, it is placed on the
+fire, and is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed, which is
+evident when no flame issues from it. The preparation is then taken
+from the fire, and when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre and
+scoriæ are then added to it; it is mixed up by hand and again pounded
+into powder. The preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with enough
+water to make a sufficient paste to stick on the sides of the basin; the
+mixture is then rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore
+indispensable that the water should be added very gradually until the
+mixture is in the proper state.
+
+"The basin ready prepared must be placed in an oven for six hours. At
+Manises it is customary to do so when the vessels of common pottery are
+baked; after this the mixture is scratched off the sides of the basin
+with some iron instrument; it is then removed from there and broken up
+into small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar with the
+quantity of vinegar already mentioned, and after having been well ground
+and pounded together for two hours the mixture is ready for decorating.
+It is well to observe that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured
+mixture which is required for every object can only be ascertained by
+practice."
+
+Nevertheless, the gilded ware of the kingdom of Valencia had by this
+time deteriorated very greatly. Formerly, from as far back as the reign
+of Jayme the Conqueror, the other towns or villages of this region which
+produced the lustred and non-lustred pottery were Játiva, Paterna,
+Quarte, Villalonga, Alaqua, Carcer, and Moncada. Early in the fourteenth
+century fourteen potteries were working in the town of Biar, and
+twenty-three at Traiguera. Manises, however, maintained the lead for
+many years. The notices of Eximenes and other writers concerning the
+pottery of this town have been already quoted. The same ware is
+mentioned in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by Diago (1613),
+Francisco Jávier Borrell, Beuter, and Martin de Viciana. Marineus
+Siculus, the chronicler of Ferdinand and Isabella, adds that similar or
+identical pottery ("_desta misma arte_") was made in Murcia, whose
+manufacture of it had been praised in earlier times by Ibn-Said. Toledo
+also manufactured gilded ware with blue or bistre colouring. García
+Llansó says that in the sixteenth century this capital produced plates
+which contain the arms of Spain in the centre, the rest of the plate
+being completely covered with minute geometrical or floral
+ornamentation.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXIV
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection_)]
+
+It is certain that during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
+large quantities of lustred pottery were produced in many parts of
+Andalusia, Castile, Aragon, and Valencia. The oldest and most valuable
+specimens of this pottery are those which have the palest and most
+purely golden lustre, combined with blue or bluish decoration in the
+form of animals, coats of arms, or foliage. The lustred ware of Manises
+began to deteriorate about the time of the expulsion of the Moriscos,
+when the leaves and fronds of a clean gold tone upon a lightish ground
+are replaced by commoner and coarser patterns, and the gold itself by
+the coppery lustre which is still employed.
+
+After the seventeenth century the further decline of this once famous
+industry may be traced from the accounts of travellers. Towards the
+middle of this century Bowles wrote that "two leagues from the capital
+(Valencia) is a fair-looking town of only four streets, whose occupants
+are nearly all potters. They make a _copper-coloured_ ware of great
+beauty, _used for common purposes and for decorating the houses of the
+working-people of the province_. They make this ware of an argillaceous
+earth resembling in its colour and composition that portion of the soil
+of Valencia which produces native mercury.... The objects they fashion
+of this earth possess a glitter and are very inexpensive, since I
+purchased half a dozen plates for a _real_. Nevertheless, _this is not
+the ware which has the highest reputation in the kingdom of Valencia_.
+The factory which the Count of Aranda has established at Alcora is not
+surpassed in Europe, and is ahead of many in fineness of substance,
+hardness of the varnish, and elegance of form. It would be perfect of
+its kind if the varnish did not crack and peel off so easily."
+
+According to Laborde, early in the nineteenth century Manises contained
+two potteries "of considerable extent, which employ seventy workmen. The
+people occupied in these possess the art of producing a gold _bronze_
+colour which they carefully keep a secret, never communicating it to any
+person." Elsewhere in the same book Laborde is more explicit. "Manises
+is a village situated a league and a quarter north of Valencia. It is
+seen on the left coming from New Castile. It is noted for its
+manufactories of earthen ware, which employ thirty kilns, and occupy a
+great part of the inhabitants. The women are employed in forming the
+designs and applying the colours. There are two large manufactories of a
+superior kind, the earthen ware of which is tolerably fine, of a
+beautiful white, and a moderate price. They also make here vases
+worked with a great degree of delicacy."
+
+                           [Illustration: LXV
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                (_Late 15th Century. Osma Collection_)]
+
+"The society of these workmen possess the secret of the composition of a
+colour which in the fire takes the tint and brightness of a beautiful
+gilt _bronze_. It has been unsuccessfully attempted to be imitated; the
+heads of the society compose the colour themselves, and distribute it to
+the masters who take care of it; it is a liquid of the colour of Spanish
+tobacco, but a little deeper."
+
+The quantity of Hispano-Moresque lustred pottery preserved in the public
+and private collections of various countries is far from small, although
+to classify it according to the place and date of its production is
+nearly always a matter of extreme difficulty.
+
+Among the earliest specimens are the vase of the Alhambra, those which
+are now in the museums of Palermo and Madrid, that which belonged to
+Fortuny, and the plaque which once was also his, and now forms part of
+the Osma collection. Lustred Spanish tiles are scarce. A few exist at
+Seville[90] and Granada, chiefly in altar-fronts, along the archivolts
+of doorways, or, with heraldic motives, on the inner walls of houses of
+the aristocracy. Invariably, says Gestoso, such tiles are coloured with
+combinations of white, blue, and gold, since in the lustre process other
+colours--black, or green, or deepish yellow--proved unsatisfactory.
+Other lustred tiles of exquisite beauty are owned by Señor Osma, (Plate
+lxi.), and seem to have even gained in brilliance by the centuries that
+have passed over them. Riaño gives a list of the specimens of this
+pottery which are at South Kensington, consisting of bowls, vases, and
+plates. One of the vases is particularly beautiful. It dates from the
+fifteenth century, and is described by Fortnum as having "a spherical
+body on a trumpet-shaped base, with a neck of elongated funnel form,
+flanked by two large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular holes.
+The surface, except the mouldings, is entirely covered with a
+diaper-pattern of ivy or briony leaves, tendrils, and small flowers in
+brownish lustre and blue on the white ground."
+
+  [90] No direct proof has been found that lustred ware was ever made at
+       Seville; but a document copied by Gestoso, and which I have already
+       mentioned (p. 152), records that the famous _ollero_ of the time of
+       Ferdinand and Isabella, named Fernan Martinez Guijarro, reserved a
+       department ("_tiendas del dorado_") of his premises for making or
+       for storing lustred pottery.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXVI
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                (_Late 15th Century. Osma Collection_)]
+
+Through the courtesy of Señor Osma I am able to give illustrations of
+a few of the finest specimens of lustred ware in his magnificent
+collection (Plates lxii.-lxvi.). The three small vessels facing pages
+176, 178, and 180 are of Valencian workmanship, and date, according to
+their owner, from between 1460 and 1480. The two plates are also
+Valencian. The one with a bull in the centre dates from between 1480 and
+1500; and that which has a greyhound from slightly earlier--say 1470 to
+1490.
+
+
+POTTERY OF SEVILLE, PUENTE DEL ARZOBISPO, TALAVERA DE LA REINA, TOLEDO,
+AND BARCELONA; POROUS WARE; PORCELAIN OF ALCORA AND THE ROYAL FACTORY OF
+                            THE BUEN RETIRO.
+
+We have seen that Seville was an early and important centre of the
+potter's craft in Spain. Her potteries were celebrated even with the
+Romans, and probably have at no moment been inactive. Fifty, established
+in the suburb of Triana, were mentioned in the sixteenth century by
+Pedro de Medina, and documents which tell of many more have recently
+been discovered by Gestoso. The excellence of the Seville tiles has been
+described in a preceding section of this chapter. Their production
+still continues upon a large scale; and the ware of the Cartuja factory,
+which reached the zenith of its fame towards the end of the eighteenth
+century, is considered by Jacquemart and other authorities to rival with
+the Italian wares of Savona.
+
+Pottery made in other parts of the Peninsula--particularly that of
+Talavera de la Reina--is known to have been imitated by the Seville
+potters with embarrassing perfection. In the case of the so-called "loza
+de Puente del Arzobispo," it is the Seville ware itself which seems to
+have been imitated. Puente del Arzobispo is a small village near Toledo.
+Mendez wrote of it in the seventeenth century:--"Fine pottery is
+manufactured in about eight kilns, which produce more than 40,000 ducats
+yearly." "In 1755," says Riaño, "thirteen pottery kilns existed at this
+place; they still worked in 1791, but their productions were very
+inferior in artistic merit."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXVII
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE]
+
+Not many years ago the name of Puente del Arzobispo was connected by
+Baron Davillier with certain polychrome non-lustred plates and other
+vessels which are greatly esteemed for their rarity, and of which a few
+specimens exist in the South Kensington and other museums, as well as in
+one or two private collections, such as that of Señor Osma.
+
+Gestoso says that the usual diameter of these plates is either
+twenty-three centimetres or forty-two centimetres. "Their decoration,
+betraying at a glance the Saracenic influence, consists of leaves and
+flowers, together with animals of a more or less fantastic character:
+lions, rabbits, and birds. In other specimens the centre is occupied by
+a heart, fleurs-de-lis, or other fancy devices, or yet, in some few
+cases, with the head of a man or woman. These central designs are
+surrounded with leaves and flowers. The draughtsmanship upon these
+plates is of the rudest, and the process of their colouring was as
+follows. The figures were drawn upon the unfired surface in manganese
+ink mixed with a greasy substance; and after this the aqueous enamel or
+glaze was allowed to drop from a hogshair brush into the spaces which
+the black had outlined."
+
+This will be recognized as the _cuerda seca_ process, so extensively
+employed in making Seville tiles. Nevertheless, judging by certain marks
+upon this pottery, Baron Davillier declared it to proceed from Puente
+del Arzobispo. The marks in question consist in one or two examples of
+what appears to be the letters A.P. or P.A.[91] Davillier, however,
+affirmed that he had seen a plate fully inscribed as follows:--
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+  [91] These, says Señor Osma, are doubtful in every case, and are only
+       found on plates which bear the figure of a lion. Two plates in this
+       gentleman's possession are thus marked [Illustration], and another
+       [Illustration].
+
+The existence of this plate is now discredited; at least, no trace of it
+can be discovered at this day. Upon the other hand, Gestoso points to
+various objects manufactured by the _cuerda seca_ method, and which
+undoubtedly proceed from Seville. Among them are three shields, one of
+which, containing the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella, is of exceptional
+interest, for it is accompanied by an inscribed slab, evidently coeval
+with the shield itself, recording it to have been made in the year 1503,
+and by Jerónimo Suarez. This shield and slab were removed from a
+courtyard of the old Alhóndiga to Seville Museum, where they now remain.
+Of the two other shields, one belongs to Señor Osma, and the second,
+which is still at Seville, adorns the tomb of Don León Enriquez in the
+church of Santa Paula; and since it is unquestionable that all these
+_cuerda seca_ shields, as well as quantities of _cuerda seca_ tiles,
+were made at Seville, Gestoso prudently suggests that we should
+designate as "_cuerda seca_ ware" that pottery which has hitherto passed
+as specially belonging to Puente del Arzobispo. In fact, towards the end
+of the fifteenth century this pottery is found extending northward from
+Seville to Toledo, and Señor Osma assures me that Toledo specimens are
+of a somewhat later manufacture than those which were produced at
+Seville. One of the rarest and most interesting _cuerda seca_ plates in
+this gentleman's collection is reproduced herewith (lxviii.). No other
+plate of similar pattern is known to exist. Its date may be placed
+between 1480 and 1495, and it gives a curious illustration of the
+masculine headdress and headwear in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+The pottery of Talavera de la Reina was at one time much esteemed. The
+earliest mention of it, says Riaño, occurs in 1560, in a manuscript
+history of this town, while another notice, dated 1576, says that here
+was produced "fine white glazed earthenware and other pottery, which
+supplied the country, part of Portugal, and India." More explicit are
+the observations of Father Alonso de Ajofrín, who wrote, in 1651, a
+history of Talavera. He says that "her pottery is as good as that of
+Pisa, while quantities of _azulejos_ are made here to adorn the front of
+altars, churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and
+small specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight
+separate kilns. Four other kilns produce the commoner kinds of ware. Red
+porous clay vessels and drinking-cups are baked in two other kilns in a
+thousand shapes to imitate birds and other creatures; also
+_brinquiños_ for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after
+drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was
+brought them."
+
+                         [Illustration: LXVIII
+                                  DISH
+       (_Andalusian non-lustred ware in the_ Cuerda seca _style.
+                   A.D. 1480-1495. Osma Collection_)]
+
+The following most interesting notice relating to this town is also
+quoted by Riaño: "The earthenware pottery made here has reached a great
+perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups, _bucaros_
+and _brinquiños_ are made of different kinds, dishes and table centres,
+and imitations of snails, owls, dogs, and every kind of fruits, olives,
+and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection, and the
+imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are most
+excellent. Everyone is surprised that in so small a town such excellent
+things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made
+with tin and sand, and is now found to be more acceptable than coloured
+earthenware; so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this
+town, although they have in their houses dinner-services of silver, buy
+earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand
+which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, and is
+now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as
+silk.
+
+"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides
+the great variety of objects, and the different medals which they place
+upon them, they have invented some small _brinquiños_ of so small and
+delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also made of
+the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture of this
+pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who eat the
+pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their confessors to
+check this custom."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXIX
+                    AN _ALFARERÍA_ OR POTTER'S YARD
+                              (_Granada_)]
+
+This porous pottery for keeping water cool had been imported from
+America, and was chiefly made in Andalusia, Portugal, and Extremadura.
+It is still produced at Andujar and elsewhere. Nearly all travellers in
+Spain describe it, and insist upon the curious circumstance that it was
+eaten by the Spanish women. "I have mentioned elsewhere," wrote Countess
+d'Aulnoy, "the longing many women feel to chew this clay, which often
+obstructs their bodies internally. Their stomachs swell, and grow as
+hard as stone, while their skin turns yellow as a quince. I also felt a
+curiosity to taste this ware, that is so highly yet so undeservedly
+esteemed; but I would devour a grindstone rather than put it in my mouth
+again. Nevertheless, if one wants to be agreeable to the Spanish ladies,
+one has to present them with some _bucaros_, which they themselves call
+_barros_, and which, as many deem, possess such numerous and admirable
+qualities, since they claim for the clay that it cures sickness, and
+that a drinking vessel made of it betrays the presence of a poison. I
+possess one which spoils the taste of wine, but greatly improves water.
+This liquid seems to boil and tremble when it is thrown into the cup in
+question; but after a little while the vessel empties--so porous is the
+clay of which it is composed--and then it has a fragrant odour."
+
+Similar accounts are given by travellers of a later time. "I wish,"
+wrote Swinburne, "I could contrive a method of carrying you some of the
+fine earthen jars, called _buxaros_, which are made in Andalusia. They
+are remarkably convenient for water-drinkers, as they are light, smooth,
+and handy; being not more than half-baked, they are very porous, and the
+outside is kept moist by the water's filtering through; though placed in
+the sun, the water in the pots remains as cold as ice. The most
+disagreeable circumstance attending them is, that they emit a smell of
+earth refreshed by a sudden shower after a long drought."[92]
+
+  [92] _Travels through Spain_; p. 305. Swinburne could have been no
+       lover of nature to speak in such terms of the smell of earth.
+
+Laborde, who wrote a few years later, seems to have copied some of his
+information from Bowles. "The Murcians," he said, "use in their houses
+little jars called _Bucaros_, the same as those which in some parts of
+Andalusia are called Alcarrazas.[93] They have handles open at the top,
+are smaller at the bottom than above, and bulge in the middle; they are
+slight, porous, smooth, and half-baked; they are made of a peculiar kind
+of clay. When water is put into them, they emit a smell like that sent
+up by the earth after a shower of rain in summer. The water makes its
+way very slowly through the pores, and keeps them constantly moist on
+the outside; they are used to cool water for drinking. The windows and
+balconies of all the houses have large iron rings, with a flat surface,
+on which they are placed at night, and the water, oozing incessantly,
+becomes very cool.[94] In Andalusia some of these jars are white, and
+others red; in Murcia they have only white ones. They appear to be in
+every respect of the same nature as the evaporating vases of Africa,
+Egypt, Syria, and India, of which so much has been said by travellers,
+and on which the learned have made so many dissertations."
+
+  [93] One of the prettiest of the popular Spanish _coplas_ has the
+       _alcarraza_ for its theme;--
+
+               "Alcarraza de tu casa
+               chiquilla, quisiera ser,
+               para besarte los labios
+               cuando fueras á beber."
+
+       "Dearest, I would be the _alcarraza_ in your house; so should I
+       kiss your lips each time you drank from me."
+
+  [94] Laborde's translator adds: "These jars are very common in Jamaica;
+       they are of different sizes, from a pint to three pints. A number
+       of them are ranged at night in the balconies, to furnish a supply
+       of cool water. Coolers of a similar kind have been lately
+       introduced in England."
+
+The same vessels are noticed by Ford in his description of a Spanish
+_posada_. "Near the staircase downstairs, and always in a visible place,
+is a gibbous jar, _tinaja_, of the ancient classical amphora shape,
+filled with fresh water; and by it is a tin or copper utensil to take
+water out with, and often a row of small pipkins, made of a red porous
+clay,[95] which are kept ready filled with water, on, or rather in, a
+shelf fixed to the wall, and called _la tallada, el taller_. These
+pots, _alcarrazas_, from the constant evaporation, keep the water
+extremely cool. They are of various shapes, many, especially in Valencia
+and Andalusia, being of the unchanged identical form of those similar
+clay drinking-vessels discovered at Pompeii. They are the precise
+_trulla_. Martial speaks both of the colour and the material of those
+made at Saguntum, where they still are prepared in great quantities;
+they are not unlike the _ckool'lehs_ of Egypt, which are made of the
+same material and for the same purposes, and represent the ancient
+Canobic [Greek: statika]. They are seldom destined to be placed on the
+table; their bottoms being pointed and conical, they could not stand
+upright. This singular form was given to the _vasa futilia_, or cups
+used at the sacrifices of Vesta, which would have been defiled had they
+touched the ground. As soon, therefore, as they are drunk off, they are
+refilled and replaced in their holes on the shelf, as is done with
+decanters in our butlers' pantries."[96]
+
+  [95] "Those of the finest quality," adds Ford, "are called _Bucaros_;
+       the best come from South America--the form is more elegant, the
+       clay finer, and often sweet-scented; many women have a trick of
+       biting, even eating bits of them."
+
+  [96] _Handbook_; Vol. I., p. 26.
+
+I am only aware of one author who derides the statement that this porous
+clay was eaten by the Spanish women. According to Bowles, who certainly
+describes and comments on it with intelligence and scholarship, the
+neighbourhood of Andujar contains "large quantities of the white argil
+of which are made the jars or _alcarrazas_ which serve in many parts of
+Spain for cooling water in the summer-time. In other parts of Andalusia
+is found a red variety of this clay, employed in making the vessels
+known as _búcaros_, which serve to freshen the water as well as for
+drinking it out of--a thing the Spanish ladies love greatly. Both the
+white _alcarrazas_ and the _búcaros_ as red as the blood of a bull are
+thin, porous, smooth, and half-baked. When filled with water they emit a
+pleasant smell like that of dry earth rained upon in summer, and as the
+water filters through the outer surface, remain continually damp." The
+same writer adds that at that time (1752) the _búcaros_ proceeding from
+the Indies were of finer workmanship, and had a more agreeable smell
+than those of Spanish manufacture. "In the Encyclopædia," he continues,
+"and in the Dictionary of Natural History, we read that Spanish ladies
+are for ever chewing _búcaro_, and that the hardest penance their
+confessors can inflict upon them is to deprive them for a single day of
+this enjoyment." Bowles, however, quotes these observations in a
+scornful tone, and deprecates the habit of "believing writers who
+without inquiring into things, concoct and publish novels to divert the
+populace and rid them of their money."
+
+Turning our attention once again to the finer kinds of Talavera ware,
+Gestoso adduces proofs that this as well as Chinese porcelain was
+faultlessly and freely imitated in the potteries of Seville. Here,
+therefore, is a source of fresh confusion; and probably a great
+proportion of the polychrome ware which goes by the name of Talaveran is
+really of Sevillian origin. It is further known that at one period,
+which seems to begin with the second half of the sixteenth century,
+potters who were natives of Talavera were hired to work in Seville.
+
+                           [Illustration: LXX
+                             TALAVERA VASE]
+
+It has not been ascertained when Talavera herself grew celebrated for
+this industry. García Llansó supposes that at first, before it felt the
+influence of Italy and France, her pottery was partly Mudejar, and
+vestiges of oriental art survive in fairly late examples. The
+characteristic colour-scheme was either blue on white, or else the
+decoration is more variegated. Riaño says:--"Although we find by the
+remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors that earthenware of
+every description was made at Talavera, the specimens which are more
+generally met with may be divided into two groups, which are painted on
+a white ground, either in blue, or in colours, in the manner of Italian
+maiolica. The most important examples which have reached us consist of
+bowls of different sizes, dishes, vases (Plate lxx.), _tinajas_,
+holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decoration. Blue oriental
+china was imitated to a vast extent: the colouring was successful, but
+the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the time, and the
+figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste so general in
+Spain in the eighteenth century. The imitations of Italian maiolica are
+effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese, orange, blue,
+and green."
+
+Talavera maintained her reputation for pottery till nearly the middle of
+the eighteenth century, supporting more than six hundred workmen
+employed in eight large potteries.[97] From then onwards the trade
+declined, and by the close of the same century was practically dead,
+owing, Larruga tells us, to the constantly increasing cost of prime
+materials. Nevertheless, the Crown made efforts to revive the craft, and
+met with some success till 1777, in which year four establishments
+(locally known as _barrerías_) for making common pottery were opened in
+the same town, and speedily crushed their rivals. "The potteries of
+Talavera," wrote Laborde soon after this, "were greatly celebrated for
+many years, and supplied a lucrative and important branch of commerce.
+They are evidently on the decline. The manufactories are reduced to
+seven or eight. These productions no longer exhibit the same delicacy of
+execution. Their designs are also lamentably defective. The material
+employed in them is a certain earth which is found near Calera, three
+leagues from Talavera."
+
+  [97] "On y fait," wrote Alvarez de Colmenar, "des ouvrages vernissés
+       d'une façon ingénieuse, avec des peintures variées de bon goût; on
+       estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes
+       Orientales, et on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce négoce rend
+       plus de cinquante mille ducats par an."--_Annales d'Espagne et de
+       Portugal_; Vol. II., p. 187. This work is dated 1740, but my copy
+       is reprinted from another edition published earlier in the century.
+
+The older Talavera ware, decorated, as a rule, with horses, birds,
+hunting-scenes, or coats of arms, is seldom met with nowadays. Although
+it is not particularly choice, the drawing is firm, and the colouring
+vigorous and agreeable.
+
+I have said that pottery continued to be made in Aragon, at Muel,
+Villafeliche, and other places. In course of time these local
+industries were also suffered to decay. Laborde says that early in the
+nineteenth century the Villafeliche factory employed thirty-eight
+workmen. "The ware is of a very inferior sort. This article might be
+carried to a greater extent. In several parts of the province, earth is
+found of an excellent quality for earthenware, particularly in Zaragoza
+and in Tauste; the latter affords the best, which is very fine, and of
+three colours, and would answer for the making of porcelain."
+
+In the eighteenth century Toledo, upon the initiative of Don Ignacio
+Velasco, produced good imitations of Genoese ware, while other kinds of
+pottery were made at Teruel, Valladolid, Jaen, Zamora, Segovia, Puente
+del Arzobispo, and in the Balearic Islands. Another region which
+continued to be a most important centre of the potter's craft was
+Cataluña, where it had always been encouraged by this thrifty and
+art-loving people. As early as the year 1257 two potters occupied a
+place upon the municipal council of Barcelona, while the potters' guild
+was strictly regulated from the beginning of the fourteenth century.[98]
+At the same time two whole streets in the centre of the town, as well
+as others in the suburbs, were occupied by potters. The ancient names of
+these streets are yet retained in the Calles Escudillers, Escudillers
+Blancs (white varnished pottery), Obradors (where many of the potteries
+were situated), and Tallers (_i.e._ the potteries for producing common
+ware).
+
+  [98] For a sketch of the origin and growth of the Spanish trade guilds,
+       see Appendix H.
+
+The pottery of Cataluña generally was largely exported to Sicily,
+Alexandria, and other parts. Among the places in this region which
+produced it were Tarragona, Tortosa, and Villafranca. In 1528 the
+municipal council of the capital herself forbade, as a protective
+measure, the introduction into Barcelona of local pottery made at
+Malgrat, La Selva, and other towns and villages of this neighbourhood.
+In 1546 the Portuguese Barreyros declared in his work _Chorografía de
+algunos lugares_ that the Barcelona ware surpassed all other classes
+made in Spain, including the Valencian. She continued to produce good
+pottery all through the sixteenth century, and excellent common ware
+until considerably later.[99]
+
+  [99] _Historia General del Arte._--Vol. II.: _Cerámica_, by García
+       Llansó.
+
+About the beginning of the eighteenth century Laborde mentioned as
+working centres of this craft "manufactories of delf-ware at Avilés,
+Gijón, Oviedo, Nava, and Cangas de Onis, in the Asturias; at Segovia in
+Old Castile; at Puente del Arzobispo and Talavera de la Reina in New
+Castile; at Seville in the kingdom of that name; at Villafeliche in
+Aragon; at Onda, Alcora, and Manises, in the kingdom of Valencia; at San
+Andero in Biscay; and at Tortosa in Cataluña.... The most important of
+these potteries is the one at Alcora, the delf of which is tolerably
+fine, though not of the first quality. No china is made, except at
+Alcora and Madrid: that of the former place is very common, and
+inconsiderable as to quantity. The china manufactured at Madrid is
+beautiful, and without exaggeration may be considered as equalling that
+of Sèvres. It is a royal pottery; but it is impossible to give any
+description of its state, because admission to the interior of the
+manufactory is strictly prohibited."
+
+Ricord states in his pamphlet relative to Valencian industries that in
+1791 factories of high-class pottery were working in the kingdom of
+Valencia, at Onda, Alcora, Ribesalves, Manises, Eslida, and Bechí; and
+of common ware at San Felipe, Morella, Manises, Murviedro, Alicante,
+Moncada, Orihuela, Segorbe, and other towns and villages of this
+locality. In all, there were throughout the province eighty-seven of
+these latter potteries, besides two hundred and twenty tileries, and
+four factories of artistic tiles or _azulejos_ established at Valencia.
+The yearly output of these _azulejerias_ was 150,000 tiles, 20,000 of
+which were exported to Andalusia and Castile.
+
+Although the pottery of Alcora only achieved distinction at a later age,
+this craft had long been practised in the neighbourhood. This
+circumstance induced the Count of Aranda to found here, in 1726, a large
+factory for producing costly and artistic ware. Riaño obtained
+permission to examine the archives of the family of Aranda, with their
+mass of documents relating to this enterprise. His notice of Alcora ware
+is therefore most complete and valuable, and has been copied, frequently
+without acknowledgment, by almost every writer on the subject.
+
+It appears from these archives that the cost of building and opening the
+factory of Alcora amounted to about £10,000. The works were placed
+beneath the supervision of Don Joaquín Joseph de Sayas, at the same time
+that a Frenchman named Ollery was engaged at a good salary and brought
+from Moustiers to act as principal draughtsman. A couple of years later
+Count Aranda paid Ollery the high compliment of saying that "the fine
+and numerous models which he has designed, have contributed to make my
+manufacture the first in Spain." He seems to have retired in 1737, when
+the Count rewarded him with a yearly pension of five hundred francs
+besides the amount of his salary, "for his especial zeal in the
+improvement of the manufactory, and his great skill in directing the
+construction of every kind of work." Riaño adds that from this date
+until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only Spanish artists worked
+at Alcora.
+
+The products of this factory continued to improve, and reached, in
+course of time, a yearly total of about three hundred thousand objects.
+The ordinances, which are dated between 1732 and 1733, tell us that "in
+these works of ours no pottery should be made except the very finest,
+similar to the Chinese, and of as fine an earth. The models and wheels
+should be perfect, the drawing first-rate, the varnish and colours
+excellent, and the pottery light and of the highest quality, for it is
+our express wish that the best pottery should only be distinguished
+from that of an inferior kind by the greater or less amount of painting
+which covers it."
+
+Not less interesting are certain communications, copied by Riaño, which
+passed in 1746 between the Spanish Tribunal of Commerce and the Count of
+Aranda, in which it is stated that "the perfection of the earthenware of
+Alcora consists in the excellent models which have been made by
+competent foreign artists, as well as in the quality of the earth and
+the recipes brought at great cost from abroad." We learn from the same
+document that "from the earliest period of the manufacture, pyramids
+with figures of children, holding garlands of flowers and baskets of
+fruits on their heads, were made with great perfection; also brackets,
+centre and three-cornered tables, large objects, some as large as five
+feet high, to be placed upon them, chandeliers, cornucopias, statues of
+different kinds, and animals of different sorts and sizes. The entire
+ornamentation of a room has also been made here; the work is so perfect
+that nothing in Spain, France, Italy, or Holland could equal it in
+merit."
+
+It is not necessary to follow in close detail all the modifications and
+vicissitudes (extending over quite a hundred years) which affected the
+Alcora factory. I therefore only take some general notices from Riaño.
+In 1750 Count Aranda transferred the works to a private company, which
+remained in possession of them until 1766. In 1741 a Frenchman named
+François Haly was engaged for ten years, and with a yearly salary of
+rather more than a thousand francs, under the following conditions:--
+
+"That the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given
+him, and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the
+Director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which
+he had undertaken to make." Haly agreed to surrender his recipes, and it
+was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter
+working by his side, and that if in one year his porcelain were
+satisfactory, the Count would make him a present of a thousand
+_tornoises_.[100]
+
+  [100] Riaño; _Handbook_; pp. 182, 183.
+
+Porcelain was first produced at Alcora towards the middle of the
+eighteenth century. A contract was drawn up on March 24th, 1764, with a
+German called John Christian Knipfer, who had already worked there in
+the pottery section. By the original agreement, which exists in the
+archives, we find he was to prepare works of "porcelain and painting
+similar to those made at Dresden, during a period of six years, under
+the following conditions:--
+
+"That the said Knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices
+the composition and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes, and
+colours, and whatever he may know at the present time, or discover
+during this period of six years; he is not to prevent the Director of
+the Works from being present at all the essays made.
+
+"The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain, and to employ
+gold and silver in its decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares;
+likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet, blues of different
+shades, yellow, greens, browns, reds, and black.
+
+"That Knipfer will give up an account of his secrets, and the management
+and manner of using them, in order that in all times the truth of what
+he has asserted may be verified."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXI
+               ORNAMENT IN PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO]
+
+In 1774 a Frenchman named François Martin was engaged to make "hard
+paste porcelain, Japanese faïence, English paste (pipeclay), and
+likewise to mould and bake it: the necessary materials to be provided
+by the Count of Aranda." Riaño says that the combined assistance of
+Knipfer and Martin went far to better the products of the factory.
+
+Martin died in 1786, and Knipfer left soon afterwards. A Frenchman was
+now engaged, whose services proved also beneficial to the works. This
+was Pierre Cloostermans, "a skilful man, well versed in the manufacture
+of porcelain pastes, as well as in painting and decorating them."
+Cloostermans, however, was much molested by the envy of the Spanish
+workmen at Alcora, as well as by their typical intolerance in matters of
+religion, although the Count, his master, behaved towards him with the
+utmost kindness. Under his supervision, the quality of Alcora ware was
+notably improved. Figures and groups of many kinds were attempted, and
+even Wedgwood jasper ware was creditably imitated. In 1789, among other
+pottery that was sent to Madrid were "two hard paste porcelain cups,
+adorned with low relief in the English style." The most important one
+was moulded by Francisco Garcés, the garlands and low reliefs by Joaquín
+Ferrer, sculptor, the flowers on the covers by an apprentice, helped by
+Cloostermans.
+
+Dated in the same year (1789), Riaño quotes an interesting letter from
+the Count of Aranda to Don Pedro Abadia, his steward. "I wish," he said,
+"to export the porcelain of my manufactory, but chiefly in common
+objects, such as cups of different kinds, tea and coffee services, etc.
+These may be varied in form and colour, the principal point being that
+the paste should bear hot liquids, for we Spaniards above everything
+wish that nothing we buy should ever break. By no means let time be
+wasted in making anything that requires much loss of time. The chief
+object is that the pastes should be of first-rate excellence and
+durability."
+
+In 1793 Cloostermans was driven from the country by political
+disturbances; but he was allowed to return in 1795, and resumed his
+duties at the factory. All through these years Alcora continued to make
+most excellent pottery. Essays were made with foreign earths, as well as
+with the best that could be found in Spain. About this time kaolin was
+discovered in Cataluña, and the Count was particularly anxious that this
+native product should be utilised at Alcora. "The kaolin of Cataluña,"
+he wrote in 1790, "may be good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be
+kaolin, and if we do not employ it I must close my works."
+
+The Count of Aranda and Pierre Cloostermans both died in 1798, and in
+1800 the Duke of Hijar became the manager and proprietor of the
+potteries. "Two hundred workmen were employed, and pottery of every
+description was made, common earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the
+English ones, and porcelain in small quantities; common wares were made
+in large quantities; the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the
+English in brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily stained.
+A large number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this
+period."--(Riaño.)
+
+In the early years of the nineteenth century Alcora ware deteriorated
+not a little. This decline was further aggravated by the French
+invasion; and although an attempt was subsequently made to revive the
+industry by bringing craftsmen from the porcelain factory of Madrid, it
+suffered fresh relapses and produced henceforward little but the
+commonest kinds of ware. "This system," says Riaño, "continued until
+1858, when the Duke of Hijar sold the manufactory to Don Ramón Girona,
+who brought over English workmen from Staffordshire in order to improve
+the wares. Many imitations of the older styles have also been made at
+Alcora of late years."
+
+Riaño appends instructive tables, which I copy in Appendix I, of every
+kind of pottery manufactured at Alcora. He also believes that a great
+deal of pottery which was formerly thought to proceed from French or
+English factories is really of Alcora make, including "a great quantity
+of objects of white pipeclay porcelain which have been found of late
+years in Spain. They have hitherto been classified by amateurs as Leeds
+pottery. We find, in papers relating to Alcora, that a decided
+distinction is made between white and straw-coloured pottery. This
+indication may be sufficient to distinguish it from English wares."
+
+The celebrated Royal Porcelain Factory of the Buen Retiro at Madrid,
+formerly situated in the public gardens of that name and popularly known
+as the "Fabrica de la China," was founded in 1759 by Charles the Third,
+who erected a vast edifice for this purpose, and filled it with a
+multitude of workmen and their families, including two hundred and
+twenty-five persons whom he brought over from his other factory of
+Capo-di-Monte in Italy. He also transferred a great part of the
+material.[101] The cost of the new works amounted to eleven and a half
+millions of _reales_, and they were terminated in 1764. The cost of
+keeping up the factory is stated by Larruga to have amounted to three
+millions of _reales_ yearly. The first directors were Juan Tomás
+Bonicelli and Domingo Bonicelli, and the first modellers-in-chief and
+superintendents, possessing the secrets of the fabrication
+(_secretistas_), were Cayetano Schepers and Carlos Gricci.
+
+  [101] On September 11th, 1759, the king wrote to his Secretary of
+        State, Richard Wall:--"The workmen and utensils of the Royal
+        Porcelain Manufactory of Capo-di-Monte must also be sent from
+        Naples to Alicante, in the vessels prepared for this purpose, in
+        order to proceed from Alicante to Madrid. The necessary
+        conveyances are to be provided, and the expenses to be charged to
+        his Majesty's account."
+
+Riaño says that every kind of porcelain was made at the Buen Retiro,
+"hard and soft paste, white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and
+modelled in the style of Capo-di-Monte." A great many objects existed
+imitating the blue jasper ware of Wedgwood, and they also made flowers,
+coloured and biscuit, groups (Pl. lxxi.), and single figures, and
+painted porcelain of different kinds. Great quantities of tiles for
+pavements were also made there, which may still be seen at the Casa del
+Labrador at Aranjuez: they are mentioned in the accounts which exist at
+the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We find in these same
+accounts interesting details of the objects made monthly. In January,
+1808, a large number of figures were made, including 151 heads for the
+table centre which was made for the king, 306 objects ornamented with
+paintings, 2506 tiles, 577 objects of less artistic importance, such as
+dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens which exist are in the
+Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the palaces of Madrid and
+Aranjuez, of which the walls are completely covered with China plaques
+and looking-glasses, modelled in the most admirable manner with figures,
+fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is covered with a bold
+ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in high relief, painted
+with colours and gold with the most exquisite details. The figures unite
+the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese decoration. The chandelier
+is in the same style (Plate lxxii.). Upon a vase on the wainscot to the
+right of the entrance door is the following inscription:--
+
+                                 JOSEPH
+
+                                 GRICCI
+
+                             DELINEAV^{it}
+
+                                   ET
+
+                               SCUL^{it}
+
+                                 1763.
+
+This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the
+roof we find,
+
+                                 "AÑO
+
+                                 1765;
+
+probably the year the work was terminated."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXII
+            ROOM DECORATED WITH PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO
+                     (_Royal Palace of Aranjuez_)]
+
+The earliest mark upon the Buen Retiro porcelain was a blue
+fleur-de-lis, to which were subsequently added the letter M and a royal
+crown. Still later, in the reign of Charles the Fourth, the mark used
+was a fleur-de-lis with two crossed C's.
+
+The object of the Buen Retiro Factory was almost wholly to supply the
+Crown with costly ware, and would-be visitors were jealously excluded.
+Townsend wrote in 1786: "I tried to obtain admission to the china
+manufacture, which is likewise administered on the king's account, but
+his Majesty's injunctions are so severe, that I could neither get
+introduced to see it, nor meet with anyone who had ever been able to
+procure that favour for himself. I was the less mortified upon this
+occasion, because from the specimens which I have seen, both in the
+palace at Madrid and in the provinces, it resembles the manufacture of
+Sèvres, which I had formerly visited in a tour through France."
+
+Laborde also complained that the factory was "wholly inaccessible: all
+entrance to it is interdicted, and its existence is only ascertained by
+the exhibition which is made of its productions in the royal palace."
+The same writer refers to another class of work which was produced here,
+namely, stone mosaic. "The process by which stone is wrought into
+pictures is as delicate as it is curious: a selection is made from
+marble fragments of various shades and dimensions, which are found, by
+judicious assimilation, to produce no bad resemblance to painting." Jean
+François de Bourgoing, French Minister at Madrid, was lucky enough, in
+1782, to penetrate into the factory and view the process. "Le Monarque
+actuel," he wrote, "a établi dans leur intérieur une fabrique de
+porcelaine, dont l'entrée est jusqu'à présent interdite à tout le monde.
+On veut sans doute que ses essais se perfectionnent dans le silence,
+avant de les exposer aux regards des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent
+encore se voir que dans les Palais du Souverain, ou dans quelques Cours
+d'Italie, auxquelles il les envoie en présens. On travaille dans le même
+édifice à certains ouvrages de marqueterie, qui sont encore peu connus
+en Europe. J'y pénétrai un jour, sous les auspices d'un étranger
+distingué en faveur duquel le Roi avoit levé la prohibition rigoureuse,
+qui en exclut tout le monde. Je suis témoin de la patience and de
+l'adresse avec lesquelles on taille and on rapproche divers petits
+morceaux de marbre coloré, pour en former des tableaux assez compliqués,
+qui en faisant à-peu-près le même effet que la peinture, ont sur elle
+l'avantage de braver par leur couleur immortelles les ravages du temps,
+qui n'épargnent pas les plus belles productions de cet art."[102]
+
+  [102] _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_; Vol. I., pp. 232, 233.
+
+This factory was not long-lived. Until 1803 it followed the styles of
+the older establishment at Capo-di-Monte, uniting neo-classic motives
+with the manner of Baroque. In that year it began to produce porcelain
+imitating that of Sèvres, and two Frenchmen, Vivien and Victor Perche,
+were brought from Paris to superintend this change. "Among the finest
+specimens of this period," says Riaño, "are a splendid clock and four
+vases, two mètres high, with porcelain flowers, which exist in one of
+the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases are placed in the
+four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with large biscuit
+figures. A large number of vases of Retiro china exist at the royal
+palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and the Escorial. They are often finely
+mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers. The blue of the
+imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the biscuit work so fine
+as the English. Gold is often added to these specimens."
+
+                         [Illustration: LXXIII
+                   PORCELAIN OF THE MONCLOA FACTORY]
+
+Nevertheless, this manufacture was by now decadent. It had suffered
+severely from the death of Charles the Third, and upon the French
+invasion in 1808 was seized by the enemy and occupied by them for
+several months. During the reign of the "_intruso_," Joseph Buonaparte,
+porcelain was still produced to some extent; but by the time of the
+Peninsular campaign the works had practically ceased. "Near this
+quarter," wrote Ford, describing the Retiro gardens, towards the middle
+of last century, "was _La China_, or the royal porcelain manufactory,
+that was destroyed by the invaders, and made by them into a
+fortification, which surrendered, with two hundred cannon, August 14th,
+1812, to the Duke. It was blown up October 30th, by Lord Hill, when the
+misconduct of Ballesteros compelled him to evacuate Madrid. Now _La
+China_ is one of the standing Spanish and _afrancesado_ calumnies
+against us, as it is stated that we, the English, destroyed this
+manufactory from commercial jealousy, because it was a rival to our
+potteries. 'What can be done (as the Duke said) with such libels but
+despise them. There is no end of the calumnies against me and the army,
+and I should have no time to do anything else if I were to begin either
+to refute or even to notice them?' (Disp., Oct. 16, 1813.) These china
+potsherds and similar inventions of the enemy shivered against his iron
+power of conscious superiority.
+
+"The real plain _truth_ is this. The French broke the _ollas_, and
+converted this Sèvres of Madrid into a Bastile, which, and not the
+pipkins, was destroyed by the English, who now, so far from dreading any
+Spanish competition, have actually introduced their system of pottery;
+and accordingly very fair china is now made at Madrid and Seville, and
+by English workmen. At the latter place a convent, also converted by
+Soult into a citadel, is now made a hardware manufactory by our
+countryman, Mr Pickman. Ferdinand the Seventh, on his restoration,
+re-created _La China_, removing the workshops and warerooms to La
+Moncloa, once a villa of the Alva family on the Manzanares."
+
+This factory of La Moncloa was founded in 1816, and it continued working
+until 1849. A specimen of the Moncloa ware is reproduced in Plate
+lxxiii.
+
+Outside the royal palaces of Spain, the Buen Retiro porcelain is scarce.
+The choicest collections which are not the property of the Crown belong,
+or have belonged till recently, to the Marquis of Arcicollar, the Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan, and Don Francisco Laiglesia.
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                                 GLASS
+
+
+Small vessels of uncoloured glass, belonging to the Celtic
+period, have been discovered in Galicia; so that the origin of this
+industry in Spain is possibly pre-Roman. After the conquest glass was
+made here by the Romans,[103] who built their ovens with a celebrated
+argil (potter's earth) extracted from the neighbourhood of Valencia or
+Tortosa. The Roman glass was doubtless imitated by the native Spaniards:
+at least we know from observations by Saint Isidore that this substance
+was quite familiar to the Visigoths. "Olim fiebat et in Italia, et per
+Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima pila mola qua terebatur."
+The same author speaks with admiration of coloured glass-work imitating
+precious stones. "Tingitur etiam multis modis, ita ut hyacinthos,
+saphirosque et virides imitetur et oniches vel aliarum gemmarum
+colores"; and again; "Fingunt enim eas ex diverso genere nigro, candido,
+minioque colore. Nam pro lapide pretiosissimo smaragdo quidam vitrum
+arte inficiunt, et fallit oculos sub dolo quadam falsa irriditas
+quoadusque non est qui probet simulatum et arguat: sic et alia alio
+atque alio modo. Neque enim est sine fraude ulla vita mortalium." We
+gather from these statements that coloured glass in imitation of the
+genuine precious stone was freely manufactured by the Visigoths. Such
+imitations, justifying by their excellence Saint Isidore's assertion
+that "vera a falsis discernere magna difficultas est," may still be seen
+upon the crowns and other ornaments discovered at Guarrazar (see Vol.
+I., pp. 15-29), as well as upon triptyches and weapons. Indeed, a taste
+for imitation jewels forms an inherent trait of Spanish character, and
+is discoverable at all moments of the national history. Travellers have
+constantly observed it, and the remarks, already quoted, of Countess
+d'Aulnoy, are confirmed by other authors. "In the broken banks south of
+the river," wrote Swinburne of the Manzanares at Madrid, "are found
+large quantities of pebbles, called Diamonds of Saint Isidro. They cut
+them like precious stones, and ladies of the first fashion wear them in
+their hair as pins, or on their fingers as rings. They have little or no
+lustre, and a very dead glassy water. The value of the best rough stone
+does not exceed a few pence."
+
+  [103] "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenæ
+        temperantur."--Pliny, Bk. xxxvi; Chap. 66.
+
+        The chief centres of glass-making were Tarragona, several towns of
+        Betica (Andalusia), and the Balearic Islands.
+
+It is chiefly in the form of imitation gems that specimens of the
+earliest Spanish glass have been preserved until our time,[104] although
+the characteristic of old Roman glass which is known in Italian as the
+_lattocinio_ or "milk-white" ornament, in the form of a thread or line
+carried all over the surface of a vessel, remains until this day a
+common feature of the glass of Spain, besides being found in
+Spanish-Moorish glass-work.
+
+  [104] The distinction which Riaño attempts to draw between glass and
+        glass paste is unsatisfactory. He remarks, too, that the
+        manufacture of glass _may_ have existed in Spain at an earlier
+        period than the last three centuries, but continues: "The earliest
+        mention of glass-works in Spain will be found in Pliny, who, while
+        explaining the proceedings which were employed in this industry,
+        says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and Spain."
+
+Rico y Sinobas says that the rules for cutting glass by means of a
+diamond or _naife_ (as it was once called) are embodied in a treatise
+titled _El Lapidario_, originally written (perhaps in the fourth, fifth,
+or sixth century) in Hebrew, and which was brought to Spain some two or
+three hundred years later. This treatise was translated into Arabic by
+one Abolais, who lived at some time previous to the thirteenth century,
+and subsequently (in the year 1248, and by command of Alfonso the
+Learned) into the Castilian language.
+
+Mixed up with a great deal of fabulous and fantastic matter, this
+treatise contains instructive and interesting notices of the composition
+and the colouring of old glass, including that of Spain. One of such
+notices is the following. "Of the eleventh degree of the sign of
+Sagittarius is the glass stone, containing a substance which is a body
+in itself (sand), and another which is added to it (salt), and when they
+clean these substances and draw them from the fire, they make between
+the two a single body. The stone thus made (glass) has many colours.
+Sometimes it is white (and this is nobler and better than the others),
+or sometimes it is red, or green, or _xade_ (a dark, burnt colour), or
+purple. It is a stone which readily melteth in the fire, but which, when
+drawn therefrom, turneth again to its former substance: and if it be
+drawn from the flame unseasonably, and without cooling it little by
+little, it snappeth asunder. And it receiveth readily whatever colour
+be placed upon it. And if an animal be hurt therewith, it openeth as
+keen a wound as though it were of iron."
+
+The treatise also describes a stone called _ecce_, which was used in
+glassmaking, saying that it was found in Spain, "in a mountain, not of
+great height, which overlooks the town of Arraca, and is called
+Secludes. And the stone is of an intense black colour, spotted with
+yellow drops. It is shiny and porous, brittle, and of light weight ...
+and if it be ground up with honey, and the glass be smeared with it and
+submitted to the fire, it dyes the glass of a beautiful gold colour, and
+makes it stronger than it was before, so that it does not melt so
+readily, or snap asunder with such ease."
+
+I have said that the power of a diamond to cut glass is referred to in
+the same work, which further tells us that this gem "breaketh all other
+kind of stones, boring holes in them or cutting them, and no other stone
+is able to bruise it; nay more, it powdereth all other stones if it be
+rubbed upon them ... and such as seek to cut or perforate those other
+stones take portions of a diamond, small and slender and sharp-pointed,
+and mount them on slips of silver or of copper, and with them make the
+holes or cuttings they require. Thus do they grave and carve intaglios."
+
+All these branches of glassmaking were therefore practised by the
+Spaniards from an early period of their history. This people were also
+familiar with the use of emery powder, of talc applied to covering
+windows, and of rock crystal. We read in the translation of Abolais that
+crystal at that time was "found in many parts, albeit the finest is that
+of Ethiopia. The substance which composes it is frozen water, petrified.
+And the proof of this is that when it is broken, small grains are
+discovered to be within, that made their entry as it was becoming stone
+(crystallizing); or again, in some of it is found what seems to be clear
+water. And it possesses two qualities in which it is distinct from every
+other stone: for when crystal is heated it receiveth any colouring that
+is applied to it, and is wrought with greater ease, besides being melted
+by fire; insomuch that it can be made into any shape desired; and if
+this shape be round, and the stone be set in the sun, it burneth
+anything inflammable that be set before it: yet does it not effect this
+by any virtue of its own, but by _the clearness of its substance_, and
+by the sunbeams which beat upon it, and by the roundness of its form."
+
+We seem to foreshadow here, clearly enough, the application of this
+substance to making glasses to assist the sight, especially when the
+author of the treatise adds that on looking through the crystal, the
+human eye discovers "details of the greatest beauty, and things that are
+secreted from the simple (_i.e._ the unaided) vision."
+
+Rico y Sinobas (who possessed a fine collection of antique glass,
+Spanish and non-Spanish) inclined to think that in the time of the
+Romans the finest and strongest glass, as well as the costliest and the
+most sought after, was that which was manufactured in Spain. In early
+times the chief centres of Spanish glass-making were situated in the
+heart of the Peninsula (where now is New Castile), in the neighbourhood
+of Tortosa, and in certain districts lying between the Pyrenees and the
+coast of Cataluña, though subsequently the practice of this craft
+extended through the kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, and the valleys of
+Ollería, Salinas, Busot, and the Rio Almanzora, forming a zone which
+reached from Cape Creus to Cape Gata. Other regions in which the craft
+was introduced, apparently at a later epoch, were those of the
+Mediterranean littoral, Cuenca, Toledo, Avila, Segovia, and other parts
+of New Castile, as far as the slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama. In the
+rest of the Peninsula there is not the slightest indication (excepting
+an obscure reference by Strabo, to vessels and receptacles of _wax_)
+that glass was made during the Roman domination of the country, either
+in Andalusia, Lusitania (Portugal), or in the northern regions of
+Cantabria.
+
+Rico y Sinobas has described a Spanish glass-oven of those primitive
+times. He says that such as were used for making objects of a fair size
+consisted of three compartments resting one upon the other; the lowest
+cylindrical, to hold the fire and ashes, the next with a domed top, for
+concentrating the heat, and the third and uppermost, which also had a
+domed top, for holding the pieces of glass that were set to cool by slow
+degrees. The wall of the oven contained a number of openings, which
+served, according to the level at which they were situated, for
+controlling the fire, adjusting the crucibles, or extracting, by means
+of metal rods, the lumps of molten glass, previously to submitting them
+to the action of the blowpipe. The dimensions of such of these
+primitive ovens as have been found in Spain or Italy, are nine feet in
+height by six feet in diameter, and the material of which they are built
+is argil, of a kind insensible to heat, and carefully freed by washing
+from all foreign, soluble, or inflammable substances. The crucibles,
+which were fitted in the oven two, four, or at most six at a time, were
+of this argil also, wrought and purified with even greater care. Ovens
+and crucibles of a smaller size were used for making diminutive objects
+such as beads and imitation precious stones.[105]
+
+  [105] Rico y Sinobas, _Del Vidrio y de sus artifices en España
+        (Almanaque del Museo de la Industria_, 1870).
+
+Almería was probably the most important centre of Spanish-Moorish
+glass-making, and is mentioned in connection with this craft by
+Al-Makkari. The oriental shape of the older vessels which were made in
+this locality is still preserved in certain objects such as jars, bowls,
+flasks, and _aguardiente_-bottles, which are still manufactured, or were
+so until quite recently, throughout a region extending from Almería to
+the slopes of the Alpujarra. "All these objects," says Riaño, "are
+decorated with a serrated ornamentation of buttons, trellis-work, and
+the lines to which I have already alluded, which were placed there
+after the object was made, in the Roman style. The paste is generally of
+a dark green colour, and when we find these same features in vessels of
+clear white glass, we may affirm that they are contemporary imitations
+made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are very seldom to be met with in
+the provinces of Almería and Granada, and are generally found at Toledo
+and other localities; it is, moreover, a common condition of oriental
+art that its general form complies with a geometrical tracery, and we
+never find, as in Italian works of art, forms and capricious
+ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the general lines,
+and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole."
+
+None of the original Moorish glass of the Alhambra has survived till
+nowadays. Most of it was destroyed by the explosion, in the year 1590,
+of a powder factory which lay immediately beneath the palace and beside
+the river Darro. In the Alhambra archives, particular mention is made of
+the circular glass windows or "eyes," only the corresponding holes of
+which remain, in the baths of the same palace. This glass, which may
+have been in colour, was also destroyed by the explosion, as were the
+windows, "painted in colour with fancy devices and Arabic lettering,"
+of the Sala de Embajadores,[106] those of the Hall of the Two Sisters,
+and certain windows, "painted with many histories and royal arms,"
+belonging to the church of the Alhambra.
+
+  [106] Oliver, _Granada y sus monumentos árabes_.
+
+Excellent glass, reported by some authors to have equalled that of
+Venice, was made at Barcelona from as early as the thirteenth century.
+An inventory of the Crown of Aragon, dated A.D. 1389 and quoted by
+García Llansó, mentions as manufactured here, glass sweetmeat-vessels,
+cups, and silver-mounted tankards blazoned with the royal arms. The
+guild of Barcelona glassmakers was founded in 1455, and later in the
+same century Jerónimo Paulo wrote that "glass vessels of varying quality
+and shape, and which may well compete with the Venetian, are exported to
+Rome and other places." Similar statements are made by Marineus Siculus
+and Gaspar Barreyros.
+
+Other centres of Spanish glass-making were Caspe in Aragon, Seville,
+Valencia,[107] Pinar de la Vidriera, Royo Molino (near Jaen,) El
+Recuenco (Guadalajara), Cebreros (Avila), Medina del Campo, Venta del
+Cojo, Venta de los Toros de Guisando, and Castiel de la Peña in Castile.
+The glass-works of Castiel de la Peña were founded by the intelligent
+and indefatigable Hernando de Zafra, secretary to the Catholic
+sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. "It has been calculated," says
+Riaño, "that about two tons of sand were used at these glass-works every
+month."
+
+  [107] The inventory (A.D. 1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque mentions "a
+        white box with four small bottles of Valencia glass containing
+        ointment for the hands." Other objects specified in this inventory
+        are "a large glass cup, with two lizards for handles, and two more
+        lizards on the cover"; "three glass cocoanuts, partly coloured and
+        with gold blown into them, together with their covers"; and "a
+        large glass cup, of Barcelona, blown with gold." The value of
+        these cups, if they existed now, would not be less than two or
+        three hundred pounds apiece.
+
+More important than the foregoing was the famous factory of a village in
+Toledo province called Cadalso, or sometimes, from the nature of its
+only industry, Cadalso (or Cadahalso) de los Vidrios. The glass made
+here is mentioned in terms of high praise by various writers of the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, such as Marineus Siculus and Mendez
+Silva. The former of these authors says in his work upon the _Memorable
+Things of Spain_: "Glass was produced in several towns of Castile, the
+most important being that of Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom."
+Ewers and bottles of Cadalso glass are mentioned in the Alburquerque
+inventory. Mendez Silva says that the number of ovens was originally
+three, and that their coloured glass was equal to Venetian (Plate
+lxxiv.). This was towards the middle of the seventeenth century. Larruga
+tells us that by the end of the eighteenth this local industry was
+languishing. One of the three ovens had been abandoned. The other two
+produced inferior glass, as well as in diminished quantities.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXIV
+                        VESSELS OF SPANISH GLASS
+                      (_South Kensington Museum_)]
+
+The glass of Cataluña maintained its ancient reputation all through the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and part of the seventeenth, and at
+this time was still compared with the Venetian by observant travellers
+(Plate lxxv.). Besides the capital, the principal glass-works in this
+province were at Almatret, Moncada, Cervelló, and Mataró. In 1489 a
+Barcelonese, by name Vicente Sala, and his sons applied to the City
+Council for leave to construct an oven at Moncada "in order to pursue
+the craft of glass-making, _lo qual a present aci se obre axi bellament
+e suptil com en part del mon_ (seeing that the glass we manufacture in
+this neighbourhood competes with any in the world for subtlety and
+beauty)."
+
+A document is extant from which we learn that the City Councillors of
+Barcelona made strenuous efforts to prevail upon Ferdinand the Catholic
+to abolish a certain monopoly or other form of exclusive privilege which
+he had conceded to a local glass-maker. The result of this appeal is not
+recorded. In 1503 Ferdinand presented his consort with two hundred and
+seventy-four glass objects made at Barcelona, and Philip the Second
+possessed a hundred and nineteen pieces proceeding from the same
+locality.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXV
+                        VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS
+                    (_From Drawings by the Author_)]
+
+An important development of this craft was the manufacture of coloured
+glass for churches and cathedrals. In the Peninsula, the earliest
+introducers of this branch of glass-making were principally natives of
+Germany, France, and Flanders, who came to Spain at the beginning of the
+fifteenth century.[108] Many of the oldest windows executed by these
+foreigners, or by the Spaniards who were taught by them, are still
+existing in the cathedrals of León, Toledo, Burgos, Barcelona, and
+the Seo of Zaragoza. León has several windows which date from as far
+back as the thirteenth century, and in which the glass is in small
+pieces, arranged as though it were mosaic. Some of the later and larger
+windows in the same cathedral are thirty-five feet high, and one, dating
+from the sixteenth century, is believed to have been presented to this
+temple by Mary of England, prior to her marriage with Philip the Second.
+
+  [108] Before this time, however, Aymerich had written, in or about the
+        year 1100, that sixty large windows in Santiago cathedral were
+        closed by glass, which probably was coloured. We also hear of
+        Francisco Socoma, who made or fitted windows of coloured glass at
+        Palma, in the island of Majorca, in 1380, and of Guillermo de
+        Collivella, who, in 1391, fitted at Lerida the glass which had
+        been coloured for the cathedral of that town by Juan de San-Amat.
+
+It was, however, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that the custom
+became general, in Spain as in other lands, of colouring the surface of
+white glass by partial fusing--a process which is mentioned in the
+treatise of Abolais, to which I have referred repeatedly. Between the
+eleventh and the thirteenth centuries the coloured windows of Spanish
+temples were still composed of pieces of glass united in the manner of
+mosaic, forming ornamental patterns of stars and similar devices; but
+subsequently to this period the decorative themes are said to be painted
+_en caballete_, and consist of figures, or the representation of scenes
+from Scripture. In Spain, and dating from the twelfth century, the
+workshops for preparing this coloured glass were commonly situated
+within the precincts of important temples, such as Toledo cathedral, or
+else, as was the case at Burgos, in separate buildings and
+_dependencias_. Here, in the square ovens characteristic of that age,
+and before it was mounted in the ponderous leaden frame, the glass was
+coloured with exquisite solicitude and patience by the hand of the
+master-craftsman, sometimes with a colour upon one of its surfaces
+alone, sometimes with the same colour upon both, or sometimes with a
+different colour upon either surface. The cartoons from which such
+windows were constructed, and which were often designed by painters of
+renown, were usually three in number. The first contained, upon a
+reduced scale, a coloured outline of the window; the second, drawn to
+the exact scale of the window as it was to be, was composed of all the
+pieces cut out and numbered according to the various colours; and the
+third, also of the projected size of the window, was kept complete, to
+serve as a pattern in case the window should suffer any accident, and
+require to be restored or mended. Not one of these cartoons is known to
+be preserved to-day, but Rico y Sinobas points out that from the strong
+and simple character of their colouring and outline, the illuminated
+illustrations of Spanish thirteenth century manuscripts, such as the
+_Cantigas_, and the _Book of Chess_ of Alfonso the Learned, may well
+have been utilized for, or else be copied from, glass windows of that
+period.
+
+As soon as the cartoon was finished, the window-painter traced it upon
+the surface of the glass. This was in square pieces, fitted conveniently
+together, with sufficient space between the pieces to allow the passage
+of the leads. Before being laid upon the glass and being submitted to
+the fixing action of fire, the colours were mixed with honey, urine,
+vinegar, and other fluids or substances which served as mediums to
+attach the colour to the glass. Thus prepared, and in the form of
+powder, the colours were allowed to dry for two or three days before the
+glass was placed in the oven. Yellow, which was the strongest colour,
+and that which penetrated deepest beneath the surface of the glass, was
+made from certain combinations of silver and nitrate of potash, while
+oxides or other forms of copper, lead, iron, tin, silver, and manganese,
+were used for making black, white, red, green, blue, purple, violet, or
+flesh-colour. These colours penetrated the glass to the depth of about
+half a millimetre; but sometimes, after the colour had been applied,
+the craftsman would submit the glass to friction by a wooden polisher or
+wheel, thus giving it an appearance of greater clearness and
+transparency at any spot he might desire.
+
+Among the artists who produced the coloured windows of León cathedral
+were Master Joan de Arge (A.D. 1424), Master Baldovín, and Rodrigo de
+Ferreras. Those of Toledo date from early in the fifteenth century, and
+were made by Albert of Holland, Vasco Troya, Luis Pedro Francés, Juan de
+Campos, and others, including the eminent Dolfín, who, according to
+Cean, began to work here in 1418, by order of the archbishop, Don Sancho
+de Rojas. The documents collected and published for the first time by
+Zarco del Valle tell us that on March 22nd, 1424, Dolfín received from
+Alfonso Martinez, treasurer and superintendent of works, two hundred
+gold florins and certain other moneys on account of his total payment of
+four hundred gold florins for "the eighth window he is making for the
+head of the cathedral." Other certificates of payment relating to
+Maestre Dolfín (as he always signed himself) are included in the same
+collection. By 1427 he was "defunct, God pardon him!" and the windows
+he had left unfinished were terminated by his assistant Lois
+(Louis).[109]
+
+  [109] _Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes en
+        España_, p. 282 _et seq._
+
+In 1458, and also at Toledo, a friar named Pablo began to repair the
+painted windows of the _crucero_. His pay was fixed by the "abbot and
+superintendent of works" at fifty _maravedis_ each day, and that of "his
+lads, Ximeno and Juanico," at one half of this amount. Other artists
+engaged in the same work were Pablo (not the friar just referred to),
+Peter, a German, and "Master Henry," who was also German. Pablo received
+authority to purchase ten and a half _quintales_ and thirteen pounds of
+coloured Flemish glass, at two thousand _maravedis_ for each _quintal_.
+By a contract dated 1485 (he died between 1487 and 1493), Master Henry
+was handed by the cathedral authorities a sum of 150,000 _maravedis_ "to
+proceed to Flanders or any other part he may desire, and where good
+glass is to be found, white, blue, green, scarlet, purple, yellow, or
+blackish (_prieto_), equal in thickness to the sample which he bears,
+and bring us thence such quantity as he has need of for the windows of
+our cathedral."
+
+It is evident from this notice that Spain was then unable to produce
+the finest quality of glass. With such as he brought with him from
+abroad, Henry engaged to fashion "every kind of figure, image, scroll,
+and other object whatsoever be commanded him, according to the place it
+is to fill; the colours of the glass to be well mingled and
+distributed." He was also to make "the leaden casings stout and deep, so
+as to embrace and hold the glass aforesaid, that it may resist the air
+and wind." In return for this, he was to be supplied with an erected
+scaffolding, with all the chalk and iron he might require, and with the
+proper number of assistants, receiving, in payment of his labour, one
+hundred and fifteen _maravedis_ for every square palm of glass the
+preparation of which should satisfy the superintendent and examiners of
+works.
+
+One of the witnesses to this document was Henry's wife, María Maldonada,
+who came forward to affix her signature "with the license and pleasure
+of the aforesaid Master Enrique, her husband."
+
+In 1433, Master Juan (perhaps the same as Joan de Arge, already
+mentioned) began to work at the windows of Burgos, where, later in this
+century, he was succeeded by Juan de Valdivieso and Diego de
+Santillana. We learn from the _Documentos Inéditos_ (pp. 159, 160) that
+Santillana lived at Burgos, and that, on May 31st, 1512, he contracted
+to make three "historical windows" for the monastery of San Francisco,
+at a price of ninety-five _maravedis_ for each palm of glass, this to be
+"of good colours and shades," and "measured by the Burgos standard." Two
+other contracts are preserved, signed by the same craftsman and both
+relating to Palencia. By one of them Santillana is to receive for six
+"storied windows," the subjects of which are specified, ninety-five
+_maravedis_ the palm, besides the scaffolding and his house and coals.
+
+Arnao de Flandes (Arnold of Flanders) was appointed master glass-painter
+to Burgos cathedral in 1512. Other glass-painters who worked here in the
+sixteenth century were Francisco de Valdivieso, Gaspar Cotin, Juan de
+Arce, his son Juan and grandson Pedro, and, in the seventeenth century,
+Valentin Ruiz, Francisco Alonso, Simon Ruiz, and Francisco Alcalde. Most
+of the windows made by all these men have been destroyed by time and
+weather, and have been replaced by barren panes of white; but a few fine
+specimens of the original work may yet be seen in the chapels of the
+Presentation, the Constable, and San Jerónimo. Perhaps the most
+remarkable of any is the rose-window, above the Puerta del
+Sarmental.[110]
+
+  [110] In the monastery of Miraflores, near this city, the queen of
+        Ferdinand the Catholic built, at her expense, a rich pantheon to
+        guard the ashes of her parents and her brother. The coloured glass
+        was made by Simon of Cologne. One day, while visiting Miraflores,
+        Isabella noticed upon the windows of this sanctuary the shield of
+        a gentleman named Martin de Soria. Furious at the liberty thus
+        taken with a fabric of her own, "afferte mihi gladium" she called
+        in Latin to one of her attendants, and, raising the sword, dashed
+        the offending window into a thousand pieces, crying that in that
+        spot she would allow no arms but those of her father.
+
+Other good cathedral windows prior to the sixteenth century are those of
+Avila, which date from about the year 1497, and were executed by Diego
+de Santillana, Juan de Valdivieso, and other artists; those of the Seo
+of Zaragoza, by the Catalans Terri and Jayme Romeu (1447); and some at
+Barcelona, painted in 1494 by Gil Fontanet.
+
+It is, however, in the sixteenth century that Spanish ecclesiastical
+window-glass attains its highest grade of excellence.[111] Dating from
+this century are windows in Toledo cathedral, painted in 1503 by Vasco
+de Troya, in 1509 by Alejo Jiménez, in 1513 by Gonzalo de Córdoba (these
+are considered by competent judges to be the finest of any), in 1515 by
+Juan de la Cuesta, in 1522 by Juan Campos, in 1525 by Albert of Holland,
+in 1534 by Juan de Ortega, and in 1542 by Nicolás Vergara the
+elder.[112] In 1537 Ortega was engaged to repair the damaged or broken
+panes at a yearly salary of 11,250 _maravedis_. Where the panes were
+wanting, he was to replace them by new ones painted by his hand,
+receiving, for each _palmo_ of new glass so painted, an extra payment of
+ninety _maravedis_.[113]
+
+  [111] Señor Lázaro, who has recently made at Madrid windows for León
+        cathedral imitating those of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+        centuries, remarks that with the sixteenth century the process
+        grew more complicated, patterns composed with pieces of a single
+        colour being replaced by glass containing a variety of tints. He
+        has also discovered the following usage of the older Spanish
+        craftsmen: "By way of furnishing a key to their arrangement, all
+        the pieces used to be marked with the point of a diamond, and
+        this mark indicates the tone the glass requires for such and such
+        a part of the design. The signs most often employed were three,
+        namely X, L, and V, for red, blue and yellow respectively,
+        intermediate tones being shown by combinations of these
+        letters--XL, LV, XV, with "lines of unities" placed before or
+        after to indicate the necessary gradation in the tone."
+
+  [112] This artist painted a series of magnificent windows representing
+        scenes from the life of San Pedro Nolasco, for the convent of La
+        Piedad, at Valencia.
+
+  [113] Zarco del Valle, _Documentos Inéditos, etc._, pp. 339 _et seq._
+
+In the same century the windows of Seville cathedral, begun some years
+previously (Cean says in 1504) by Micer Cristóbal Alemán ("Master
+Christopher the German"), were continued by Masters Jacobo, Juan Juan
+Vivan, Juan Bernai, Bernardino de Gelandia, Juan Jaques, Arnold of
+Flanders (1525), Arnao de Vergara (1525), Charles of Bruges, (1557), and
+Vicente Menandro (1557).[114] In 1562 Diego de Valdivieso, and in 1570
+Pedro de Valdivieso and Gerald of Holland, painted windows for Cuenca
+cathedral. In 1542 the same work was done at Palencia by Diego de
+Salcedo, and in 1533 George of Burgundy, "master in the art of glass,"
+then resident at Burgos, proceeded to the same town and engaged to
+renew the cathedral windows at a cost of a hundred _maravedis_ for every
+palm of coloured glass, and fifty for every palm of plain.[115]
+
+  [114] According to Cean (_La Catedral de Sevilla_), Menandro painted in
+        1560 the conversion of Saint Paul on a window in the Chapel of
+        Santiago, in 1567 another window with the scene of the
+        Annunciation, over the gate of San Miguel, and in 1569 the
+        companion to it, representing the Visitation, over the Puerta del
+        Bautismo. "In all these windows," wrote Cean, prejudiced, as was
+        customary in his day, in favour of the strictly classic style,
+        "the drawing, pose, and composition are good, _although_ in the
+        draperies and figures we observe the influence of Germany."
+
+        In Cean's own time--that is, towards the close of the eighteenth
+        century--the coloured windows of Seville Cathedral amounted to
+        ninety-three, five of which were circular, and the rest with the
+        pointed Gothic arch. The dimensions of the latter are twenty-eight
+        feet high by twelve feet broad, and the subjects painted on them
+        include the likenesses of prophets, patriarchs, martyrs,
+        confessors, and virgins, or scenes from the New Testament, such as
+        the rising of Lazarus, Christ driving the merchants from the
+        temple, the Last Supper, and the
+        anointing by Mary Magdalene.
+
+  [115] Zarco del Valle, _Documentos Inéditos_, p. 159
+
+In 1544, sixty-two windows in the nave of Segovia cathedral were filled
+with painted glass prepared chiefly at Valladolid and Medina del Campo,
+though some was brought from Flanders. The remaining windows were left
+unfilled till 1676, in which year a canon of the cathedral, named Tomás
+de la Plaza Aguirre, succeeded in rediscovering a formula for the
+practise of this craft, and the panes yet needed were made and coloured
+at Valdequemada by Juan Danis, under Plaza Aguirre's supervision.
+Thirty-three additional windows were completed from this factory.
+According to Lecea y García, the chapter of Segovia cathedral possess,
+or possessed for many years, two curious manuscripts relating severally
+to _The painting of glass windows_, by Francisco Herranz, and
+_Glass-making_, by Juan Danis--the same who owned and worked the factory
+at Valdequemada. These interesting treatises were examined by Bosarte,
+who has described them. He says that the one on glass-making consisted
+of twenty-three sheets of clear writing, and the one on glass-painting
+of eight sheets; both manuscripts being in quarto size. The latter
+contained, distributed beside the text, sketches of the various
+instruments required for this craft. The other and longer monograph
+consisted of the following chapters:--(1) How to draw upon glass. (2)
+How to cut glass. (3) How to paint and shade glass. (4) Of the
+substances and ingredients for painting glass. (5) How to give a
+flesh-colour to glass. (6) How to give a yellow or golden colour to
+white or pale blue glass, but no other. (7) How to fire glass. (8) How
+to make the glass-oven.
+
+Windows were painted in the cathedral of Palma de Mallorca by Sebastián
+Danglés in 1566 and by Juan Jordá in 1599, in that of Málaga by Octavio
+Valerio in 1579, and in those of Tarragona and Avila respectively, by
+Juan Guasch in 1571, and by Pierre de Chiberri in 1549. This craftsman
+was undoubtedly a foreigner. The following entry which concerns him is
+quoted by Rosell de Torres from the _Libro de Fábrica_ of Segovia
+cathedral: "By order of the Canon Juan Rodriguez, on the twelfth day of
+August, I paid to Pierre de Chiberri, master-maker of window-glass, the
+sum of 56,560 _maravedis_, 34,960 for the casings of seven large
+windows with their side-windows--in all twenty-one casings--besides ten
+casings for the windows of the lower chapels, containing altogether
+MMMCCCCXCVI palms, amounting at ten _maravedis_ the palm to the
+aforesaid 34,960 maravedis: also 19,125 _maravedis_ for CCCLXXII palms
+of glass for the said chapels at a _real_ and a half each palm, plus
+2476 _maravedis_ for certain glass which had yet to be measured because
+it was in the skylights. The total sum amounts to the aforesaid 56,560
+_maravedis_."[116]
+
+  [116] Isidoro Rosell de Torres, _Las Vidrieras pintadas en España_
+        (published in the _Museo Español de Antigüedades_).
+
+During the seventeenth century, glass-work of various kinds continued to
+be produced upon a large scale at Barcelona, Mataró, Gerona, Cuenca,
+Toledo, Valmaqueda, and Seville. In 1680 the Duke of Villahermosa
+established a glass factory at San Martin de Valdeiglesias, and placed
+it under the direction of a native of Namur named Diodonet Lambot, aided
+by various other artists from the Netherlands. In 1683 Lambot was
+succeeded by Santiago Vandoleto, who proved incompetent, and caused, in
+1692, the total stoppage of the factory.
+
+I have said that glass was made at Medina del Campo, in the province of
+Valladolid. Pinheiro da Veiga's _Pincigraphia_, written at the beginning
+of the seventeenth century, contains an interesting notice of this
+glassware. "Really, the glass-work of Valladolid is most beautiful, and
+worth going to see if only for the pleasure of its contemplation. There
+are objects of considerable size, such as (glass) pitchers of every form
+and colour. Others are called _penados_, and are of a syphon shape,
+pouring out water in small quantities.[117] Besides this there are all
+manner of cunningly contrived retorts such as we never see in Lisbon,
+and yet in Valladolid their cost is only moderate.... The principal
+shops for selling these and porcelain are two in number, and the prices
+are the same as in Portugal."
+
+  [117] "_Penado._ A narrow-mouthed vessel that affords the liquor with
+        scantiness and difficulty." Connelly and Higgins' Dictionary;
+        A.D. 1798.
+
+Two very important Spanish glass factories were founded in the
+eighteenth century. The first, which was under Crown protection, was
+established by Don Juan Goyeneche in the year 1720 at a place called
+Nuevo Baztán, in the province of Toledo. The royal privilege allowed
+this factory to produce "all articles of glass up to a height of twenty
+inches, working and polishing the same, embellishing, and coating them
+with metal; to make looking-glasses and similar ornaments, glass vessels
+of all descriptions, white glass for window-panes, and glass objects of
+any kind or shape, whether already known to us, or that may be invented
+in the future."
+
+The factory of Nuevo Baztán continued working for some years, and turned
+out excellent glass for exportation to America and other parts; but it
+was killed eventually by the rising price of fuel, and above all by
+competition from abroad. "When the foreigners," says Larruga in his
+_Memorias políticas y económicas_, "saw that the factory was in full
+swing, they conspired to bring about its ruin, and begged their
+ambassadors to communicate against it with the ministers; but finding
+this of no avail, and recognising the importance to themselves of
+overthrowing this manufacture, they decided to sell glassware at a price
+at which it would be impossible to sell the products of Nuevo Baztán.
+The amount of this reduction was the one-third part of the entire value.
+By this means the foreigners made it impossible for the factory to
+support itself, since the objects it produced were laid away and found
+no purchaser for years. This, and the cost of the wood required to keep
+the ovens burning day and night, not excepting feast-days (for to stop
+the fires for a moment would have meant the spoiling of the oven),
+induced the downfall of this celebrated factory, as soon as the fuel of
+all the neighbouring forests had been consumed."
+
+Nevertheless, upon the closing of these works, one of the experts who
+had been employed there, a Catalan named Ventura Sit, attracted by the
+forests of Valsain and the excellent and abundant sand obtainable in
+this locality--principally from near the villages of Espirdo and Bernuy
+de Porreros--decided to open another glass-works at La Granja. Here is
+the royal summer residence of San Ildefonso, and Sit was fortunate
+enough to secure at the outset--that is, in 1728--the firm protection of
+Philip the Fifth and of his consort, Isabel Farnese. Instructed by the
+sovereigns to make some mirrors, he produced these objects of a moderate
+size at first, increasing it, after the year 1734, to a maximum length
+of 145 inches by 85 in breadth. Larruga says that these mirrors were the
+largest produced anywhere at that time, and they continued to be made
+until very nearly the end of the century. They are often referred to in
+the narratives of travellers. Swinburne wrote in 1776: "Not far from
+Carthagena is a place called Almazaron, where they gather a fine red
+earth called Almagra, used in the manufactures of Saint Ildephonso, for
+polishing looking-glasses. In Seville, it is worked up with the tobacco,
+to give it a colour, fix its volatility, and communicate to it that
+softness which constitutes the principal merit of Spanish snuff."
+
+Describing the royal palace at Madrid, the same author says that the
+walls of the great audience-chamber "are incrustated with beautiful
+marble, and all round hung with large plates of looking-glass in rich
+frames. The manufactory of glass is at Saint Ildefonso, where they cast
+them of a very great size; but I am told they are apt to turn out much
+rougher and more full of flaws than those of France."
+
+According to Townsend (1786), "The glass manufacture is here carried to
+a degree of perfection unknown in England. The largest mirrors are made
+in a brass frame, one hundred and sixty-two inches long, ninety-three
+wide, and six deep, weighing near nine tons. These are designed wholly
+for the royal palaces, and for presents from the king. Yet even for such
+purposes the factory is ill-placed, and proves a devouring monster in a
+country where provisions are dear, fuel scarce, and carriage exceedingly
+expensive."
+
+Laborde wrote of the same factory a few years later: "There is also a
+glass-house, in which bottles are wrought of a superior quality; and
+white glasses, which are carved with much ingenuity (Plates lxxvi. and
+lxxvii.). Near this glass-house has been founded a manufactory for
+mirrors, in a large and well-arranged edifice. There are two furnaces,
+and a considerable number of stoves, in which the plates are left to
+cool after they have been precipitated. They are of all dimensions, and
+the largest that have yet been fabricated. They are sometimes from a
+hundred, a hundred and thirty, or a hundred and thirty-five inches in
+height, to fifty, sixty, or sixty-five inches in breadth: they are
+expanded in the hand. The process for polishing them is performed by a
+machine;[118] they are then transported to Madrid, for the purpose of
+being metallised. It is not uncommon to see tables of bronze, on which
+mirrors are extended, a hundred and sixty inches in length, and ninety
+in breadth."
+
+  [118] This machine was invented by a Catalan named Pedro Fronvila.
+
+These tables are described by Bowles: "The largest measures a hundred
+and forty-five inches in length by eighty-five in breadth, and weighs
+four hundred and five _arrobas_. The smallest measures a hundred and
+twenty inches in length, and seventy-five in breadth, and weighs three
+hundred and eighty _arrobas_."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXVI
+                 GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO]
+
+The best account of any is contained in the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_
+(1789) of Bourgoing. This author wrote: "A côté de cette Fabrique
+naissante de première nécessité" (_i.e._ the royal linen factory at La
+Granja) "il y en a une de luxe qui remonte au regne de Philippe V; c'est
+une Manufacture de glaces, la seule qu'il y ait en Espagne. On s'étoit
+d'abord borné à une Verrerie qui subsiste encore, et donne des
+bouteilles d'une assez bonne qualité, et des verres blancs qu'on y
+cisele avec assez d'adresse. J'en ai rapporté quelques-uns où l'on a
+gravé des chiffres, des lettres, et jusqu'à de jolis paysages. Cette
+Verrerie étoit un acheminement à une entreprise plus brillante. La
+Manufacture de glaces de Saint Ildephonse est comparable aux plus beaux
+établissements de ce genre; on en peut voir les dessins dans les
+Planches de l'Encyclopédie. L'édifice est vaste et très bien distribué;
+il contient deux fourneaux et une vingtaine de fours où l'on fait
+refroidir lentement les glaces après les avoir coulées. On y en coule
+dans toutes les dimensions depuis les carreaux de vitres jusqu'aux plus
+grands trumeaux. Elles sont moins blanches et peut-être moins bien
+polies que celles de Venise et de St-Gobin; mais nulle part on n'en a
+encore coulé d'aussi grandes. L'opération du coulage s'y fait avec
+beaucoup de précision et d'ensemble. Monseigneur Comte d'Artois eut la
+curiosité d'y assister; la glace qu'on y coula devant lui avoit, autant
+que je puis m'en souvenir, cent trente-trois pouces de long, sur
+soixante-cinq de large, et l'on m'a assuré qu'il y en avoit encore de
+plus grandes. On les dégrossit à mains d'hommes dans une longue galerie
+qui est attenante à la Fabrique, et il y a à un quart de lieue une
+machine que l'eau fait mouvoir, et où on acheve de les polir; on les
+porte ensuite à Madrid pour les étamer. Le Roi consacre les plus belles
+à la parure de ses appartements; il en fait des cadeaux aux Cours qui
+ont des relations intimes avec lui. En 1783, S.M.C. en fit joindre
+quelques-unes aux présens qu'il envoyoit à la Porte Ottomane, avec
+laquelle elle venoit de conclure un traité. C'est une idée agréable pour
+un cosmopolite tolérant, de penser qu'en dépit des préjugés de religion
+et de politique qui divisoient autrefois les Nations, la main des arts a
+établi entr'elles un échange de jouissances d'un bout de l'Europe à
+l'autre, et que les beautés du serrail se mirent dans les glaces coulées
+à Saint-Ildefonse, tandis que les tapis de Turquie sont foulés par des
+pieds François. Ce qui sort d'ailleurs de la Manufacture de
+Saint-Ildefonse est vendu, pour le compte du Roi, à Madrid et dans les
+provinces; mais on sent bien que ce profit est trop mince pour couvrir
+les frais d'un établissement aussi considérable qui, le bois excepté,
+est éloigné de toutes les matières premières qu'il employe, qui est
+situé fort avant dans l'intérieur des terres, au sein des montagnes, et
+loin de toute rivière navigable; aussi doit il être compté parmi ces
+fondations de luxe qui prosperent à l'ombre du Trône, et qui ajoutent à
+son éclat."[119]
+
+  [119] Vol. I., pp. 144-147.
+
+A few more details are added by Swinburne: "Below the town is the
+manufactory of plate-glass belonging to the crown, carried on under the
+direction of Mr Dowling; two hundred and eighty men are employed. The
+largest plate they have made is one hundred and twenty-six Spanish
+inches long; the small pieces are sold in looking-glasses all over the
+kingdom; but I am told the king makes no great profit by it; however, it
+is a very material point to be able to supply his subjects with a good
+commodity, and to keep in the country a large sum of money that
+heretofore went out annually to purchase it from strangers. They also
+make bottles and drinking-glasses (Plates lxxvi., lxxvii.); and are now
+busy erecting very spacious new furnaces to enlarge the works. To
+provide fuel for the fires, they have put the pinewoods under proper
+regulations and stated falls; twenty-seven mule-loads of fir-wood are
+consumed every day; and four loads cost the king, including all the
+expenses of cutting and bringing down from the mountains, about forty
+reals."
+
+                         [Illustration: LXXVII
+                 GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO]
+
+In 1736, the first factory which had been established at San Ildefonso
+was nearly destroyed by fire; but the damage was repaired, and the
+factory placed under state control. Its finances were at no time
+prosperous. In 1762 Charles the Third granted a privilege reserving to
+it the exclusive sale of glass within a radius of twenty leagues from
+Madrid and Segovia; but the sales did not improve. In spite of this, the
+monarch, a few years later, erected a new and costly factory from
+designs by Villanueva and Real. There were two departments in this ample
+building. One, for the manufacture of the plainest glass, was
+directed by a Hanoverian, named Sigismund Brun; and the other, devoted
+to smaller and more elaborate articles, by Eder, a Swede. "The greater
+number of the objects made at these important works were of transparent,
+colourless glass, possessing a marked French style, and were either
+richly engraved and cut, or gilded, or sometimes (though less often)
+they were made of coloured and enamelled glass. At this time, too, were
+manufactured mirrors for the royal palaces, as well as candlesticks and
+chandeliers of great beauty, following the Venetian method, and
+embellished with coloured flowers."[120]
+
+  [120] Breñosa and Castellarnau; _Guide to San Ildefonso_ (1884), p. 53.
+        Rico y Sinobas observes that in the objects produced at the
+        factory of La Granja, the glass itself is inferior to the
+        engraving or cutting with which it is adorned. This leads him to
+        infer that the foreigners brought over by the kings of Spain to
+        superintend the factory, were cutters and engravers of glass,
+        rather than skilled glass-makers. He also draws attention to the
+        fact that the Spanish monarchs chose these foreign craftsmen from
+        too limited a class, entrusting the most important posts at all
+        the royal factories to Frenchmen who were stated to descend from
+        the old nobility of their native country. In this manner the
+        progress and welfare of the craft itself was sacrificed to an
+        insane prejudice in favour of the aristocratic origin of the
+        craftsman.
+
+In spite of all these efforts, the works at the dawn of the nineteenth
+century were in a moribund condition. In 1829 they passed into the
+hands of private persons, who also failed to make them pay, and
+subsequently, owing to the ineptitude of Spanish governments and the
+severity of foreign competition, have definitely closed their doors.
+
+"In Catalonia," wrote Laborde, towards the year 1800, "are two glass
+houses; but the glass blown in them is dark, and destitute of lustre.
+Aragon has four, one at Alfamen, one at Peñalva, one at Utrillas, and
+one at Jaulin, which is the largest; but the quality of the glass is not
+superior to that of Catalonia. The glass-house at Utrillas produces both
+flint and common glass. Glass houses are also established at Pajarejo
+and at Recuenco in Castile, which manufacture the most beautifully white
+and transparent glass."
+
+In 1791 there were six glass-ovens in the kingdom of Valencia, situated
+at Valencia, Alicante, Salines, Olleria, and Alcira. They turned out
+2100 pieces in this year, some of which were exported to Castile and
+Aragon.[121]
+
+  [121] Ricord; _Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones del
+        Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que tenían en el
+        año 1791._ Valencia, 1793.
+
+Early in the eighteenth century the glass of Barcelona was praised by
+Alvarez de Colmenar ("Il s'y fait de belles verreries"), and we know
+that all through this period her _forns de vidre_ continued to produce
+good work, including holy-water vessels of uncoloured glass relieved
+with blue or with the fine white _latticinio_, the local _arruixadors_
+or _borrachas_, and the typical _porrón_. The former of these vessels is
+of small size, and has several spouts. Commonly it is filled with
+scented water for gallants to sprinkle on girls at dances in the public
+square. The _porrón_ invariably excites the curiosity of
+foreigners,[122] and is often thought to be of purely Spanish origin.
+This is not so. Upon a Roman lampstand in Naples museum is a figure of
+Bacchus riding on a tiger and "holding in his hand the horn from which
+the ancients drank, using it as, among some other peoples, do the modern
+Catalans--that is, not placing the vessel in their mouth, but holding it
+aloft and thus imbibing it; a method which requires no small amount of
+practice." In fact, there is reason to believe that the _porrón_ is
+derived from a similar vessel in use among the ancient Persians, who
+poured their liquor from it into the hollow of the hand, and thence
+imbibed it in the fashion called, in Cataluña and Valencia, _al gallet_.
+For just as a certain class of American displays his marksmanship in
+spitting, so does the Catalan who is accomplished in the art, amuse
+himself and others by causing the ruby wine to spout from his _porrón_
+on to the very apex of his nose, continuing from this point, in the form
+of a fine and undulating rivulet, over his upper lip and down his
+throat.
+
+  [122] "The mode of drinking in this country is singular; they hold a
+        broad-bottom'd glass bottle at arm's length, and let the liquor
+        spout out of a long neck upon their tongue; from what I see,
+        their expertness at this exercise arises from frequent practise;
+        for the Catalans drink often and in large quantities, but as yet
+        I have not seen any of them intoxicated."--Swinburne.
+
+Windows of Spanish houses were seldom glazed until about one hundred
+years ago. When Bertaut de Rouen travelled here in 1659, this fact
+impressed him disagreeably. Even in the royal palace at Madrid he found
+that there were chambers "qui n'ont point du tout de fenestrés, ou qui
+n'en ont qu'une petite, et d'où le jour ne vient que d'enhaut, le verre
+estant fort rare en Espagne, et la pluspart des fenestrés des maisons
+n'ayant pas de vitres." In 1787, Arthur Young was no less horrified at
+the glassless condition of the houses in Cataluña. "Reach Sculló; the
+inn so bad that our guide would not permit us to enter it, so he went to
+the house of the Curé. A scene followed so new to English eyes, that we
+could not refrain from laughing very heartily. Not a pane of glass in
+the whole town, but our reverend host had a chimney in his kitchen; he
+ran to the river to catch trout; a man brought us some chickens which
+were put to death on the spot.... This town and its inhabitants are, to
+the eye, equally wretched, the smoke-holes instead of chimneys, the
+total want of glass windows--the cheerfulness of which, to the eye, is
+known only by the want."
+
+However, as an exception to this doleful rule, the town of Poeblar had
+"some good houses with glass windows, and we saw a well-dressed young
+lady gallanted by two monks."
+
+
+
+
+                              PRINTED BY
+
+                      NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,
+
+                              EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as an misprint.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. x: LIX -> LIX.
+  p. 20: Mr Cunninghame Graham -> Mr.
+  p. 23: avec leurs enfans -> enfants
+  p. 32: feu. L'hôte -> L'hôtel
+  p. 33: choses est règlé -> réglé
+  p. 39: fort peuplée autresfois -> autrefois
+  p. 71: pp. 161, 162 -> pp. 161, 162.
+  p. 72: León Cathedral_ -> León Cathedral_)
+  p. 96: peintures variées de bon gôut -> goût
+  p. 98: on the cover. -> on the cover."
+  p. 104: (see Vol. I. Plate xi.) -> (see Vol. I., Plate xi.)
+  p. 132: appear to be galloping. -> galloping."
+  p. 139: and "Pisano." -> and "Pisano".
+  p. 139: "_de relieve_." -> "_de relieve_".
+  p. 159: les plus compliqúes -> compliqués
+  p. 159: qu'un bal masqúe -> masqué
+  p. 169: the journal of Bertant -> Bertaut
+  p. 180: Quarte, Vilallonga -> Villalonga
+  p. 183: degree of delicacy. -> delicacy."
+  p. 188: says Señor Osmo -> Osma
+  p. 188: and another [Illustration] -> [Illustration].
+  p. 213: style of Capo-di-Monte. -> Capo-di-Monte."
+  p. 225: in France and Spain. -> Spain."
+  p. 228: albeit the the -> albeit the
+  p. 236: VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS -> LXXV VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS
+  p. 254: GLASS OF THE -> LXXVI GLASS OF THE
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44392 ***
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44392 ***</div>
+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume II
+(of 3), by Leonard Williams</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm">Volume I</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm">Volume III</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm
+      <a href="">
+      </a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="339" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a>
+<p class="caption">SAINT FRANCIS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;"><br /><br />The World of Art Series</span></p>
+
+<h1>The Arts and Crafts<br />
+of Older Spain</h1>
+
+<p class="title">BY<br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 150%;">LEONARD WILLIAMS</span><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy, of<br />
+the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the<br />
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts; Author<br />
+Of &ldquo;The Land of the Dons&rdquo;; &ldquo;Toledo and<br />
+Madrid&rdquo;; &ldquo;Granada,&rdquo; etc.</span><br /><br />
+
+<i>IN THREE VOLUMES, ILLUSTRATED</i><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">VOLUME II</span><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_03.jpg" width="100" height="99"
+        alt="title-symbol"
+        title="title-symbol" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">CHICAGO<br />
+A. C. McCLURG &amp; CO.</span><br />
+EDINBURGH: T. N. FOULIS<br />
+1908<br /><br /><br />
+AMERICAN EDITION<br />
+Published October 10, 1908</p>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO</h2>
+
+<table summary="TOC" cellpadding="4">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGES</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="title"><a href="#FURNITURE"><span class="smcap">Furniture</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">1&ndash;86</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="title"><a href="#IVORIES"><span class="smcap">Ivories</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">89&ndash;108</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="title"><a href="#POTTERY"><span class="smcap">Pottery</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">111&ndash;220</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="title"><a href="#GLASS"><span class="smcap">Glass</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">223&ndash;263</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><i>VOLUME TWO</i></p>
+
+<table summary="LOI" cellpadding="2">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">FURNITURE</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">PLATE</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">St Francis of Assisi; Toledo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">I.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Mediæval Chair</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_10.jpg">10</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">II.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Gothic Chair</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_11.jpg">12</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">III.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish <i>Arcón</i> or Baggage-Chest</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_16.jpg">16</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Arca</i> of Cardinal Cisneros</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_18.jpg">18</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">V.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Armchair; Museum of Salamanca</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_20.jpg">20</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Chair and Table; Salamanca Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_22.jpg">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Chairs upholstered with <i>Guadameciles</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_24.jpg">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Sala de la Barca; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_26.jpg">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door of the Hall of the Abencerrajes; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_28.jpg">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">X.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Door; Detail of Carving; Hall of the Two Sisters, Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_30.jpg">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">X.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door of the Salón de Embajadores; Alcázar of Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_32.jpg">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The same</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_34.jpg">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Alcázar of Seville; Façade and Principal Entrance</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_36.jpg">36</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door of the Capilla de los Vargas, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_38.jpg">38</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Mudejar Door; Palacio de las Dueñas, Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_40.jpg">40</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Celosía</i>; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_42.jpg">42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved <i>Alero</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_44.jpg">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved <i>Zapatas</i>; Casa de las Salinas, Salamanca</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_46.jpg">46</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved <i>Zapatas</i>; Museum of Zaragoza</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_48.jpg">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved <i>Zapatas</i>; Museum of Zaragoza<i>Alero</i> and Cornice of Carved Wood; Cuarto de Comares, Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_50.jpg">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;Elijah Sleeping&rdquo;; Statue in Wood, by Alonso</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_52.jpg">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Saint Bruno, by Alonso Cano; Cartuja of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_54.jpg">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Saint John the Baptist; San Juan de Dios, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_56.jpg">56</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Choir-Stalls; Santo Tomás, Avila</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_58.jpg">58</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved Choir-Stall; Toledo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_60.jpg">60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Choir-Stalls; Burgos Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_62.jpg">62</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Choir-Stalls; San Marcos, León</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_64.jpg">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Detail of Choir-Stalls; León Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_66.jpg">66</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Choir-Stalls; Plasencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_68.jpg">68</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Detail of Choir-Stalls; Convent of San Marcos, León</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_70.jpg">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;Samson&rdquo;; Carved Choir-Stall; León Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_72.jpg">72</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;Esau&rdquo;; Carved Choir-Stall; León Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_74.jpg">74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Retablo</i>; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_76.jpg">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Retablo</i> of Seville Cathedral; Detail of Carving</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_79.jpg">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Detail of <i>Retablo</i>; Museum of Valladolid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_80.jpg">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Detail of <i>Retablo</i>; Chapel of Santa Ana; Burgos Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_82.jpg">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">IVORIES</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Box; Madrid Museum</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_90.jpg">90</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Casket; Pamplona Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_92.jpg">92</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Box; Palencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_94.jpg">94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XL.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Ivory Casket; Royal Academy of History, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_96.jpg">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Crucifix; Madrid Museum</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_98.jpg">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLI<span class="smcap">A</span>.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Back View of same</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_99.jpg">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Byzantine Crucifix</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_100.jpg">100</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Virgin of Battles&rdquo;; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_102.jpg">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Mediæval <i>Baculus</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_104.jpg">104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;A Tournament&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_106.jpg">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Diptych; The Escorial</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_108.jpg">108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">POTTERY</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Amphoraic Vases and other Pottery; Museum of Tarragona</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_116.jpg">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Dish; Museum of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_118.jpg">118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque <i>Tinaja</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_120.jpg">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">L.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Coarse Spanish Pottery (Modern)</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_126.jpg">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door of the Mihrab; Cordova Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_134.jpg">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Mosaic of the Patio de las Doncellas; Alcázar of Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_138.jpg">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Andalusian non-lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_140.jpg">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Cuenca</i> Tiles; Alcázar of Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_142.jpg">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Altar of the Catholic Sovereigns; Alcázar of Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_148.jpg">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Gate of Wine; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_154.jpg">154</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Tiles of the Decadent Period</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_158.jpg">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Plaque</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_168.jpg">168</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_170.jpg">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Madrid Museum</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_172.jpg">172</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Lustred Tiles; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_174.jpg">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_176.jpg">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_178.jpg">178</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_180.jpg">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_182.jpg">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_184.jpg">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_186.jpg">186</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Dish; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_190.jpg">190</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">An <i>Alfarería</i> or Potter's Yard; Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_192.jpg">192</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Talavera Vase</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_198.jpg">198</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ornament in Porcelain of the Buen Retiro</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_208.jpg">208</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Room decorated with Porcelain of the Buen Retiro; Royal Palace of Aranjuez</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_214.jpg">214</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Porcelain of the Moncloa Factory</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_218.jpg">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">GLASS</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Vessels of Cadalso Glass</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_234.jpg">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Vessels of Cadalso Glass</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_236.jpg">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_254.jpg">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_258.jpg">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="FURNITURE" id="FURNITURE">FURNITURE</a></h2>
+
+<p>Whether the primitive Iberians ate as well as
+slept upon their cave or cabin floor, or whether&mdash;as
+some classics call upon us to believe&mdash;they used
+a kind of folding-chair (<i>dureta</i>) and (more advanced
+and comfort-loving than the Andalusian rustics of
+this day) devoured their simple meal from benches
+or supports constructed in the wall, is not of
+paramount importance to the history of Spanish
+furniture. The statements of those early authors
+may be granted or rejected as we please; for not
+a single piece of furniture produced by prehistoric,
+or, indeed, by Roman or by Visigothic Spain, has
+been preserved. But if we look for evidence to
+other crafts, recovered specimens of her early gold
+and silver work and pottery show us that Roman
+Spain grew to be eminently Roman in her social
+and artistic life. This fact, together with the statements
+of Saint Isidore and certain other writers of
+his day, would seem to prove that all the usual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+articles of Roman furniture were commonly adopted
+by the subjugated tribes, and subsequently by the
+Visigoths;&mdash;the Roman eating-couch or <i>lectus
+triclinaris</i>, the state-bed or <i>lectus genialis</i>, the
+ordinary sleeping-bed or <i>lectus cubicularis</i>, made,
+in prosperous households, of luxurious woods
+inlaid with ivory, or even of gold and silver;
+lamps or candelabra of silver, copper, glass,
+and iron<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>; the <i>cathedra</i> or chair for women,
+the <i>bisellium</i> or seat for honoured guests, the
+<i>solium</i> or chair for the head of the house, the
+simpler chairs without a back, known as the
+<i>scabellum</i> and the <i>sella</i>, and the benches or
+<i>subsellia</i> for the servants. Further, the walls
+were hung with tapestries or rendered cheerful
+by mural painting; while the fireplace<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and
+the brasier (<i>foculus</i>) have descended to contemporary
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Advancing to a period well within the reach of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+history, we find that early in the Middle Ages
+Spain's seigniorial mansions and the houses of
+the well-to-do were furnished in a style of rude
+magnificence. Roman models, derived from
+purely Roman and Byzantine sources through
+the Visigoths, continued to remain in vogue
+until the tenth or the eleventh century.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Then,
+as the fashion of these declined, the furniture
+of Christian Spain was modified in turn by
+Moorish, Gothic, and Renaissance art; or two of
+these would overlap and interact, or even all the
+three.</p>
+
+<p>During the Middle Ages the furniture of the
+eating, sleeping, and living room which formed
+the principal apartment in the mansion of a great
+seignior, was very much the same throughout the
+whole of Christian Europe. Viollet-le-Duc has
+described it in the closest detail. The dominant
+object, looming in a corner, was the ponderous
+bed, transformed into a thing of beauty by its costly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+canopy and hangings.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Throughout the earlier
+mediæval times the Spanish bedstead was of iron
+or bronze. Wood, plain at first, then richly carved,
+succeeded metal towards the fourteenth century,
+and with this change the bed grew even vaster
+than before. Often it rose so high above the
+level of the flooring that the lord and lady required
+a set of steps to clamber up to it. These steps
+were portable, and sometimes made of solid silver.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+I quote herewith a full description of a mediæval<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+Spanish bed, extracted from an inventory of the
+Princess Juana which was made upon her marriage
+with the Count of Foix, in 1392. The same bed
+had formerly belonged to Juana's mother, the
+Princess Martha, at her marriage with King Juan
+the First. It had &ldquo;a velvet canopy with lions
+of gold thread, and a dove and a horse confronting
+every lion. And each of the lions and doves and
+horses bears a lettering; and the lettering of the
+lions is <i>Estre por voyr</i>, and that of the doves and
+horses <i>aay</i>, and the whole is lined with green
+cloth. <i>Item</i>, a counterpane of the said velvet,
+with a similar design of doves and lions, and
+likewise lined with green cloth. <i>Item</i>, three
+curtain-pieces of fine blue silk, with their metal
+rings and cords of blue thread. <i>Item</i>, three
+cushion-covers of blue velvet, two of them of large
+size, bearing two lions on either side, and four
+of them small, with a single lion on either side,
+embroidered with gold thread; with their linen
+coverings. <i>Item</i>, a cloth of a barred pattern, with
+the bars of blue velvet and cloth of gold upon a
+red ground; which cloth serves for a state-chair
+or for a window, and is lined with cloth. <i>Item</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+another cloth made of the said velvet and cloth of
+gold, which serves for the small chair (<i>reclinatorio</i>)
+for hearing Mass, and is lined with the aforesaid
+green cloth. <i>Item</i>, two large linen sheets enveloping
+the aforesaid canopy and counterpane. A
+pair of linen sheets, of four breadths apiece,
+bordered on every side with a handbreadth of silk
+and gold thread decoration consisting of various
+kinds of birds, leaves, and letters; and each of
+the said sheets contains at the head-end about
+five handbreadths of the said decoration. <i>Item</i>,
+four cushions of the same linen, all of them adorned
+all round with about a handbreadth of the aforesaid
+decoration of birds, leaves, and letters. <i>Item</i>,
+two leather boxes, lined with wool, which contained
+all these objects. <i>Item</i>, five canvas-covered
+cushions stuffed with feather, for use with the
+said six coverings of blue velvet bearing the said
+devices. <i>Item</i>, three large pieces of wall tapestry
+made of blue wool with the same devices of lions,
+horses, and doves, made likewise of wool, yellow
+and of other colours. <i>Item</i>, five carpets made
+of the aforesaid wool, bearing the same devices.
+<i>Item</i>, three coverlets of the same wool, and with
+the same devices, for placing on the bed. <i>Item</i>,
+a coverlet of red leather bearing in its centre the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+arms of the King and the Infanta. <i>Item</i>, another
+coverlet made of leather bars and plain red
+leather. <i>Item</i>, a woollen coverlet with the arms
+of the Infanta.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another corner of the room was occupied by
+the dining-table,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> spread at meal-times with a
+cloth denominated by Saint Isidore the <i>mappa</i>,
+<i>mápula</i>, <i>mapil</i>, <i>mantella</i>, or <i>mantellia</i>; and laid
+with the <i>mandíbulas</i> or &ldquo;jaw-wipers&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> napkins;
+see Du Cange), plates (<i>discos</i>), dishes (<i>mensorios</i>,
+<i>messorios</i>, or <i>misorios</i>), spoons (<i>cocleares</i>,
+<i>culiares</i>), though not as yet with forks,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> cups of
+various shapes and substances, with or without
+a cover (<i>copos</i>, <i>vásculos</i>, and many other terms),
+the water-flagon (<i>kana</i>, <i>mikana</i>, <i>almakana</i>),
+the cruet-stand (<i>canatella</i>), and the salt-cellar
+(<i>salare</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This table also served to write upon, while in
+its neighbourhood would stand the massive sideboard,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+piled with gold and silver plate, and vessels
+of glass or ivory, wood or alabaster.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the bed and table in their several corners,
+the chamber would contain a suitable variety of
+chairs and stools, mostly surrounding the capacious
+fireplace. Members of the household also sat on
+carpets spread upon the floor. The great armchair
+of the seignior himself was more ornate than
+any of the rest, and was provided somewhat later
+with a lofty Gothic back (Plates <a href="#img_10.jpg">i</a>. and <a href="#img_11.jpg">ii</a>.). A
+chair with a back of moderate height was destined
+for distinguished visitors. The back of
+ordinary chairs reached only to about the sitter's
+shoulder, and coverings of cloth or other stuffs
+were not made fast, but hung quite loosely from the
+wooden frame. This usage lasted till the sixteenth
+century, when the upholsterers began to nail the
+coverings of the larger chairs and benches.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the oriental influence brought back
+from the Crusades, the furniture of Europe, not
+excluding Spain, grew ever more elaborate and
+costly, while further, in the case of this Peninsula,
+the native Moorish influence operated steadily and
+strongly from Toledo, Seville, Cordova, Valencia,
+and elsewhere. Tapestries of Eastern manufacture
+(<i>alcatifas</i>) were now in general use for decorating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+floors and walls. The bed grew more and more
+gigantic, and its clothes and curtains more extravagantly
+sumptuous, until the florid Gothic woodwork
+harmonized with canopies and curtains cut
+from priceless skins, or wrought in gold and silver
+thread on multicolor satin and brocade. And at
+the bed's head, like some jewel marvellously set,
+rested, in every noble home, the diptych or the
+triptych with its image of the Saviour or the
+Virgin Mary.</p>
+
+<p>Under the influence of the Renaissance this
+love of luxury continued to increase among the
+royal and the noble families of Spain. In 1574 an
+inventory of the estate of Doña Juana, sister of
+Philip the Second, mentions a silver balustrade,
+weighing one hundred and twenty-one pounds,
+for placing round a bed. The inventory (1560)
+of the Dukes of Alburquerque contains a great
+variety of entries relative to the furniture and
+chamber-fittings of the period. We find here
+mentioned, Turkey carpets and the celebrated
+Spanish ones of Alcaraz, linens of Rouen, green
+cloth of Cuenca, Toledo cloths, hangings of Arras
+and elsewhere, tablecovers of damask and of
+velvet, gold-fringed canopies (<i>doseles</i>) of green or
+crimson velvet or brocade, a &ldquo;canopy for a sideboard,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+of red and yellow Toledo cloth, with the
+arms of the La Cuevas in embroidery, together
+with stripes and bows, and repetitions of the letter
+I (for <i>Isabel Giron</i>, the duchess), also embroidered
+fringes of the same cloth, and cords of the aforesaid
+colours.&rdquo; We also read of a <i>sitial</i> or state-chair
+of crimson satin brocade, and &ldquo;a small
+walnut table covered with silver plates, bearing
+the arms of my lord the duke and of my lady the
+duchess, and edged with silver stripes.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The
+bedstead, fitted with hangings of double taffeta
+and scarlet cloth, was no less sumptuous than the
+other objects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_10.jpg" width="380" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_10.jpg" id="img_10.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">I<br />MEDIÆVAL CHAIR<br />
+(<i>Carved with the arms of Castile and León</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A popular and even an indispensable piece of
+furniture in every mediæval Spanish household
+was the <i>caja de novia</i> or &ldquo;bride's chest.&rdquo; The use
+of this, as well as of a smaller kind of box, was
+common both to Moors and Christians. No
+matter of what size, these objects were essentially
+the same. They served innumerable purposes;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+were made of all dimensions&mdash;from the tiniest
+casket (<i>arcellina</i>, <i>capsula</i>, or <i>pyxide</i>; see vol. i.,
+p. 45 <i>et seq.</i>) to the ponderous and vast <i>arcón</i>,&mdash;and
+almost any substance&mdash;ivory or crystal,
+mother-of-pearl or glass, gold, silver, copper,
+silver-gilt, jasper, agate, or fine wood; and we
+find them in every part of the Peninsula, from
+the dawn of the Middle Ages till very nearly
+the end of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_11.jpg" width="208" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_11.jpg" id="img_11.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">II<br />GOTHIC CHAIR<br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to the Marquis of Monistrol, the
+larger boxes or <i>arcones</i> constitute by far the
+commonest article of Spanish furniture all through
+the earlier portion of this lengthy period. The
+same authority divides them broadly into seven
+classes, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>(1) Burial-chests.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Chests for storing chasubles, chalices,
+candelabra, and other objects connected
+with the ceremonies of the church.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Archive-chests, for storing documents.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Chests for storing treasure (<i>huches</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(5) Brides' chests.</p>
+
+<p>(6) Chests for storing arms.</p>
+
+<p>(7) <i>Arcones-trojes</i>, or chests of common
+make, employed for storing grain in
+country dwellings or <i>posadas</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The decorative richness of these quaint <i>arcones</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+varies according to their date of manufacture, or
+the purpose they were meant to serve. Commonly,
+in the earliest of them, dating from the sixth or
+seventh century, the iron clamps or fastenings
+form the principal or only ornament. Such are
+reported to have been the two chests which the
+Cid Campeador loaded with sand and foisted as
+filled with specie on his &ldquo;dear friends&rdquo; Rachel
+and Vidas, the Jewish though trustful usurers
+of Burgos, in return for six hundred marks of
+gold and silver. Tradition says, moreover, that
+the chest now shown at Burgos as the &ldquo;coffer
+of the Cid&rdquo; is actually one of these. It is certain
+that the archives of the cathedral have been
+deposited in this chest for many centuries.
+Evidently, too, it dates from about the lifetime
+of the Cid, while the rings with which it is fitted
+show it to have been a kind of trunk intended to
+be carried on the backs of sumpter-mules or horses.</p>
+
+<p>After the Roman domination in this country, the
+Latin term <i>capsa</i> was applied to every kind of
+chest; but at a later age sepulchral chests or coffins
+were denominated <i>urns</i>, in order to distinguish
+them from <i>arcas</i> and <i>arcones</i>, which were used for
+storing clothes or jewellery. Excellent examples<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+of Spanish mediæval burial-chests are those of
+Doña Urraca, preserved in the Sagrario of the
+cathedral of Palencia, and of San Isidro, patron
+of Madrid. The former, mentioned by painstaking
+Ponz, and by Pulgar in his <i>Secular and
+Ecclesiastical Annals of Palencia</i>, is of a plain
+design, and really constitutes a coffin. The sepulchral
+chest of San Isidro, dating from the end of
+the thirteenth century, or the early part of the
+fourteenth, and kept at Madrid in a niche of the
+<i>camarín</i> of the parish church of San Andrés, is
+in the Romanic style, and measures seven feet
+six inches in length. It has a gable top, and is
+painted in brilliant colours on plaster-coated
+parchment, with miracles effected by the saint,
+and other scenes related with his life; but much
+of the painting is effaced.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting sepulchral chest would
+probably have been the one presented in 1052
+by Ferdinand the First, together with his royal
+robe and crown,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> to the basilica of Saint John
+the Baptist at León, to guard the remains of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+Saint Isidore. This chest was covered with thick
+gold plates studded with precious stones, and
+bore, in enamel and relief, the figures of the
+apostles gathered round the Saviour, and medallions
+containing figures of the Virgin, saints, and
+martyrs. According to Ambrosio de Morales,
+the gold plates were torn off by Alfonso the
+First of Aragon, who replaced them by others
+of silver-gilt. The same monarch, regardless of
+the church's fierce anathema pronounced on all
+who dared to touch her property,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> is accused by
+his chronicler of having appropriated a box of
+pure gold studded with gems, enshrining a crucifix
+made of the true Cross, and which was kept in
+some town or village of the kingdom of León.
+Doubtless as a chastisement for Alfonso's impiety,
+this precious box was captured from him by the
+Moors at the battle of Fraga.</p>
+
+<p>Among the reliquary chests, the oldest specimen
+extant in Spain is the <i>arca santa</i> of Oviedo
+cathedral. This object, which is purely Byzantine
+in its style, is believed to have been made at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+Constantinople. It was improved by Alfonso the
+Sixth, who added <i>repoussé</i> plates to it, with Arabic
+ornamentation in the form of meaningless inscriptions
+of a merely decorative character, but which
+are interesting as showing the kinship existing at
+this time between the Spanish Christians and the
+Spanish Moors.</p>
+
+<p>Equally important is the coffer which was made
+by order of Don Sancho el Mayor to enshrine the
+wonder-working bones of San Millan, and which
+is now at San Millan de la Cogulla, in the
+province of La Rioja. The author of this chest,
+which dates from <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1033, is vaguely spoken of
+as &ldquo;Master Aparicio.&rdquo; The chest itself consists
+of a wooden body beneath a covering of ivory
+and gold, further enriched with statuettes and
+studded with real and imitation stones. It is
+divided into twenty-two compartments carved in
+ivory with passages from the life and miracles of
+the saint, and figures of &ldquo;princes, monks, and
+benefactors,&rdquo; who had contributed in one way or
+another to the execution of the reliquary.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the &ldquo;coffer of the Cid&rdquo; was
+made for carrying baggage. A very interesting
+Spanish baggage-chest, although more modern
+than the Cid's by several centuries, is now the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+property of Señor Moreno Carbonero (Plate <a href="#img_16.jpg">iii</a>.).
+This very competent authority believes it to have
+belonged to Isabella the Catholic, and says that it
+was formerly the usage of the sovereigns of this
+country to mark their baggage-boxes with the
+first quartering of the royal arms and also with
+their monogram. Such is the decoration, consisting
+of repeated castles and the letter Y (for Ysabel),
+upon this trunk. The space between is painted
+red upon a surface thinly spread with wax.
+Strips of iron, twisted to imitate the girdle of Saint
+Francis, are carried over all the frame, surrounding
+the castles and the letters. This box was found
+at Ronda.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_16.jpg" width="500" height="302"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_16.jpg" id="img_16.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">III<br /><i>ARCÓN</i><br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A handsome <i>arcón</i>, dating from the same period
+as this baggage-chest of Isabella the Catholic,
+namely, the end of the fifteenth century, is stated
+by its owner, Don Manuel Lopez de Ayala, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+have belonged to Cardinal Cisneros (Plate <a href="#img_18.jpg">iv</a>.).
+The material is wood, covered inside with dark
+blue cloth, and outside with red velvet, most of
+the nap of which is worn away. The dimensions
+are four feet six inches in length, two feet in
+height, and twenty inches in depth. The chest,
+which has a triple lock, is covered with <i>repoussé</i>
+iron plates representing twisted columns and
+other architectural devices, combined with Gothic
+thistle-leaves. A coat of arms is on the front.</p>
+
+<p>Such is an outline of the history of these
+Spanish chests. Most of the earlier ones are
+cumbersome and scantily adorned. Then, as
+time proceeds, we find on them the florid Gothic
+carving, unsurpassed for purity and charm; then
+the Renaissance, with its characteristic ornament of
+urns, and birds, and intertwining frond and ribbon;
+and finally, towards, and lasting through the
+greater portion of, the eighteenth century, the
+tasteless and decadent manner of Baroque. Yet
+even in the worst and latest we descry from time
+to time a flickering remnant of the art of Moorish
+Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_18.jpg" width="500" height="290"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_18.jpg" id="img_18.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IV<br /><i>ARCA</i> OF CARDINAL CISNEROS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These Spanish Moors, obedient to the custom
+of their fellow-Mussulmans throughout the world,
+employed but little furniture. They loved, indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+bright colours and ingenious craftsmanship, but
+rather in the adjuncts to their furniture than in the
+furniture itself; in costly carpets, or worked and
+coloured leather hung upon the wall,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> or spread
+upon their <i>alhamies</i> and <i>alhanías</i>; in fountains
+bubbling in the middle of their courts and halls;
+in doors, and ceilings, and <i>celosías</i> exquisitely
+carved, and joined with matchless cunning; in
+flower-vases placed in niches; in bronze or silver
+perfume-burners rolling at their feet; but not
+(within the ordinary limit of the term) in furniture.
+Upon this theme the Reverend Lancelot Addison
+discourses very quaintly. &ldquo;The host here,&rdquo; he
+wrote of &ldquo;West Barbary&rdquo; in 1663, &ldquo;is one Cidi
+Caffian Shat, a grandee, reported to be an Andalusian,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+one of the race of the Moors bansht (<i>sic</i>)
+Spain&hellip;. We were called to a little upper
+Room, which we could not enter till we had put
+off our shoes at the threshold: not for Religion,
+but Cleanliness, and not to prevent our unhallowing
+the floor, but defiling the carpets wherewith
+it was curiously spread. At the upper end of the
+Room was laid a Velvit Cushion, as large as
+those we use in our Pulpits, and it denoted the
+most Honourable part of the Room. After we
+had reposed about an hour, there was brought in
+a little oval Table, about twenty Inches high, which
+was covered with a long piece of narrow linnen;
+and this served for Diaper.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> For the Moors, by
+their law, are forbidden such superfluous Utensils
+as napkins, knives, spoons, etc. Their Religion
+laying down the general maxim, that meer
+necessaries are to be provided for; which caused
+a precise Moor to refuse to drink out of my dish,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+when he could sup water enough out of the hollow
+of his hand.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author proceeds to relate his experiences
+at bed-time. &ldquo;Having supp'd and solaced
+ourselves with muddy beverage and Moresco
+music, we all composed ourselves to sleep: about
+twenty were allotted to lodge in this small chamber,
+whereof two were Christians, three Jews, and the
+rest Moors; every one made his bed of what he
+wore, which made our English constitutions to
+wish for the morning.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_20.jpg" width="346" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_20.jpg" id="img_20.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">V<br />ARMCHAIR<br />
+(<i>17th Century. Museum of Salamanca</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the Mussulmans all this has undergone
+no change. Do we not find their present furniture
+to be identical with that of distant centuries?&mdash;a
+characteristic scarcity of portable articles of
+wood; the isolated box (<i>arqueta</i> or <i>arcón</i>) which
+serves the purpose of our clumsier chest of drawers
+or wardrobe;<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> carpets and decorated leathers; the
+tiny, indispensable table; the lack of knives and
+spoons; ornaments to regale the eye rather than
+commodities which the hand might seize upon
+and utilize? Such was, and is, and will continue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+to remain Mohammedan society throughout the
+world; and these descriptive passages of life in
+seventeenth-century Morocco might have been
+penned with equal truth in reference to the Spanish
+Muslim of a thousand years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The furniture of the Moorish mosques was also
+of the scantiest. &ldquo;They are,&rdquo; to quote once more
+from Lancelot Addison's amusing little brochure,
+&ldquo;without the too easy accommodations of seats,
+pews, or benches. The floor of the Giámma is
+handsomely matted, and so are the walls about
+two feet high. If the roof be large and weighty,
+it is supported with pillars, among which hang
+the lamps, which are kept burning all the night.&rdquo;
+At one point of his expedition the reason for such
+paucity of furniture was vividly expounded to our
+tourist. A Moor indignantly exclaimed to him
+that it was &ldquo;a shame to see women, dogs, and
+dirty shoes brought into a place sacred to God's
+worship, and that men &hellip;; should have chaires
+there to sit in with as much lascivious ease as at
+home.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, a pulpit in the mosque, and a seat
+of some kind in the palace or the private house,
+were not to be dispensed with. We learn from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+Ibn-Khaldoun and many other writers, that the
+throne of the Mussulman sultans was the <i>mimbar</i>,
+<i>takcht</i>, or <i>cursi</i>. Each of these objects was a
+wooden seat. The first of the sultans to use a
+throne was Moawia, son of Abu-Sofyan. The
+princes who came after him continued the same
+usage, but displayed a constantly increasing
+splendour in the decoration of the throne. This
+custom spread, in course of time, from east to west
+throughout almost the whole dominion of the
+Muslims. The Beni-Nasr princes of Granada
+are also known to have used a throne, but this
+is believed to have consisted simply of some
+cushions piled one upon another. This inference
+is drawn by Eguilaz Yanguas and other
+Arabists from the old <i>Vocabulary</i> of Fray Pedro
+de Alcalá, who renders a &ldquo;throne&rdquo; or &ldquo;royal
+seat&rdquo; by <i>martaba</i>, a word equivalent to &ldquo;cushion.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_22.jpg" width="500" height="349"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_22.jpg" id="img_22.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VI<br />CHAIR AND TABLE<br />
+(<i>17th Century. Salamanca Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cushions, too, became symbolic, even with the
+Christian Spaniards, of a seat of honour; both
+because they lent themselves to rich embroidery
+or leather-work, and because they raised their
+occupant above the level of the persons seated
+positively on the carpet or the floor. In the
+painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice in the
+Alhambra, ten men are congregated in Mohammedan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+costume, each of them seated on a cushion.
+Some writers, including Argote de Molina, Diego
+Hurtado de Mendoza, and Hernando del Pulgar,
+believed these figures to be actual portraits of the
+sultans; others maintain that they depict the
+<i>Mizouar</i> or royal council. In either case, however,
+the cushion here is clearly an honourable
+place. We have, besides, abundant evidence that
+the Spanish Christians viewed the cushion with
+as marked a liking as their rivals. Alvarez de
+Colmenar relates that at the very close of the
+seventeenth century the Spanish women sat at
+meals in Moorish fashion. &ldquo;Un père de famille
+est assis seul à table, et toutes les femmes, sans
+exception, mangent par terre, assises sur un
+carreau avec leurs enfants, et leur table dressée
+sur un tapis étendu.&rdquo; The same work says elsewhere
+that &ldquo;lorsque les dames se rendent visite,
+elles ne se donnent ni siège ni fauteuil, mais elles
+sont toutes assises par terre, les jambes en croix,
+sur des tapis ou des carreaux.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p>Therefore, until two centuries ago, the women
+of Christian Spain were suffered to take their
+seat on cushions of brocade or damask. Only
+the men made use of stools or chairs, according<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+to their rank. To &ldquo;give a chair&rdquo; (<i>dar silla</i>) to
+a visitor of the male sex was to pay him a valued
+courtesy;<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and even now the wife of a grandee
+of Spain goes through the honourable though
+irksome ceremony, at the palace of Madrid, of
+&ldquo;taking the cushion.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_24.jpg" width="500" height="352"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_24.jpg" id="img_24.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VII<br />CHAIRS UPHOLSTERED WITH <i>GUADAMECILES</i><br />
+(<i>17th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another usage with the Spaniards of the
+seventeenth and immediately preceding centuries
+was the &ldquo;dais of honour&rdquo; or <i>estrado de cumplimiento</i>.
+This was a platform very slightly
+raised, and separated by a railing from the rest
+of the room. The curious manuscript discovered
+by Gayangos, descriptive of court-life at Valladolid
+in 1605, contains the following account of one
+of the occasions when the Queen, following a
+common custom of a Sunday, dined alone, in
+sight of all the aristocracy. &ldquo;The table was laid
+upon the dais (<i>estrado alto</i>), beneath a canopy of
+brocade that overhung the whole of it. The
+queen sat at the head of the table, and three ladies,
+standing, waited on her; two uncovering the
+dishes as they came,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> and the third carving. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+dishes were brought from the dining-room door
+by the <i>meninos</i>, who handed them to the ladies.
+Other ladies of the royal household, wives or
+daughters of grandees, stood leaning against the
+wall in company with gentlemen who, on such
+occasions, sue for leave beforehand to attend on
+Lady So and So, or So and So. Commonly
+there are two such cavaliers to every dame. If
+the queen asks for water, one of these ladies takes
+it to her, kneels, makes an obeisance, kisses the
+goblet, hands it to her majesty, and retires to her
+appointed place. Behind the queen was one of
+her chamberlains. Many of the Englishmen
+were witnessing the meal. They always put the
+English first on such occasions; and as they are
+such hulking fellows (God bless them!) I, who
+was at their back, scarce noted anything of what
+was passing, and only saw that many plates went
+to and fro.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Solid and expensive furniture continued to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+used in Spain throughout the sixteenth and the
+seventeenth centuries; the ponderous chest, the
+ponderous brasier, ponderous stools, ponderous
+armchairs with massive nails and coverings of
+velvet or of decorated leather (Plates <a href="#img_20.jpg">v</a>v., <a href="#img_22.jpg">vi</a>., and
+<a href="#img_24.jpg">vii</a>.). Upon the wall, the tapestry of earlier
+times was often replaced by paintings of a sacred
+character, or family portraits. The comedy titled
+<i>La Garduña de Sevilla</i>, written about the middle
+of the seventeenth century by Alonso del Castillo
+Solorzano, describes the interior of a rich man's
+dwelling of this period. &ldquo;Upstairs Rufina noted
+delicate summer hangings, new chairs of Moscovy
+cowhide, curiously carved buffets, and ebony and
+ivory writing-desks; for Marquina, though a
+skinflint towards others, was generous in the
+decoration of his own abode&hellip;. When dinner
+was over, he took her to a room embellished with
+fine paintings, and with a bed whose canopy was
+of some Indian fabric&hellip;. Paintings by famous
+masters were plentifully hung about the house,
+together with fine Italian hangings, various kinds
+of writing-desks, and costly beds and canopies.
+When they had visited nearly all the rooms, they
+opened the door of one which contained a beautiful
+altar and its oratory. Here were a great array<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+of costly and elaborate Roman vessels, agnuses
+of silver and of wood, and flowers arranged in
+various ways. This chamber, too, was full of
+books distributed in gilded cases.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_26.jpg" width="391" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_26.jpg" id="img_26.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VIII<br />THE <i>SALA DE LA BARCA</i><br />
+(<i>Before the fire of 1890. Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A characteristic piece of Spanish furniture was
+at this time the solid-looking cabinet known as the
+<i>vargueño</i>, so denominated from the little town
+of Vargas, near Toledo, formerly a well-known
+centre of their manufacture. These cabinets,
+whose origin, according to the Marquis of Monistrol,
+may be traced to a fifteenth-century form of
+<i>huche</i>, or chest provided with drawers for guarding
+articles of value, and which opened in the centre,
+are commonly made of walnut. The front lets
+down upon a massive wooden rest supported by the
+legs, and forms a folding writing-table containing at
+the back a number of drawers or compartments for
+storing documents, or other things of minor bulk.</p>
+
+<p>The woodwork of these cabinets is often without
+carving; but generally in such cases their bareness
+is relieved by massive and elaborately ornamented
+iron fastenings and a decorative key.</p>
+
+<p>The Ordinances of Granada tell us that in
+1616 the making of defective furniture had grown
+to be a scandal in that town. The cause, it
+seems, was partly in the wood itself, proceeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+from the Sierra de Segura, Pinar del Duque, and
+the Sierra de Gor. &ldquo;Divers of our carpenters
+and joiners cut their walnut and other woods
+while yet the moon is crescent, whereby the wood
+decays and spoils. Others there be that make
+and sell chairs, desks, beds, and other furniture
+of green unseasoned wood which warps and
+loosens, insomuch that within some days the
+article is worthless. Therefore we order that
+all walnut wood and other woods for making
+furniture be only cut at the time of the waning
+moon, and be not used until they shall have
+seasoned thoroughly, so as not to warp; and that
+they be approved by the inspectors of this trade,
+under a penalty of six thousand <i>maravedis</i> for
+each of the aforesaid Ordinances that be not
+complied with.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_28.jpg" width="390" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_28.jpg" id="img_28.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IX<br />DOOR OF THE HALL OF THE ABENCERRAJES<br />
+(<i>Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The municipal laws of the same city relative
+to the &ldquo;chair-makers who make hip-chairs to sit
+in, and leather-covered chests,&rdquo; were cried, in
+1515 and 1536, &ldquo;in the street of the chairmakers
+and carpenters.&rdquo; Fettered by irksome regulations
+of this kind, we cannot wonder that the arts and
+crafts of Christian Spain were fated to decline.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Owing to the &ldquo;false and faulty workmanship&rdquo; prevailing
+in Granada, it is provided by these statutes
+that the wood employed in making chairs must
+be bought by the manufacturers in public auction
+only, held &ldquo;in the little square where dwell the
+chairmakers.&rdquo; It must be thoroughly dry and
+free from flaws, and of sufficient stoutness to
+sustain the decorative marquetry. The chair
+which lacks these requisite conditions must be
+seized and burnt. The four nails which fasten
+the seat of the chair to the legs must traverse the
+frame completely and be hammered back upon
+the other side, unless the surface of the chair
+be inlaid, in which case they need not pass
+completely through. The leather for the seats
+and backs of chairs must be good in quality and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+well prepared and dressed, besides being strongly
+sewn with flaxen thread. Chairs of all sizes
+must bear the official city mark, stamped by the
+authorities at a charge of one <i>maravedi</i> for each
+of the large chairs and a <i>blanca</i> for each of the
+small.</p>
+
+<p>Makers of the leather-covered chests are
+ordered to use the hides of horses, mares, or
+mules, and not the hides of oxen, cows, or calves,
+because, if covered with this latter, &ldquo;the chests
+grow moth-eaten and are destroyed much sooner.&rdquo;
+The craftsman who transgresses this command
+must lose the faulty piece of furniture, and pay four
+hundred <i>maravedis</i>, while under a further penalty
+of two hundred <i>maravedis</i> the hinges must be
+fixed inside the chest, and not to its exterior.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_30.jpg" width="500" height="383"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_30.jpg" id="img_30.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">X<br />MOORISH DOOR, DETAIL OF CARVING<br />
+(<i>Hall of the Two Sisters, Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have omitted hitherto all mention of the
+furnishing of humbler Spanish houses in the olden
+time. The following passage from the Ordinances
+of Granada shows us, referring to an inn, an
+unpretentious lodging of about four hundred
+years ago:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Item.</i> If the innkeeper have a parlour or
+alcove that fastens with a lock, and therein a
+bed of the better class, with hangings round
+about it, and a canopy above, and on the bed a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+counterpane, friezed blanket, and pillows; also a
+bench with its strip of carpet or striped benchcloth,
+a table with its service of tablecloths and
+all that be needful, besides a lamp of brass or
+ware, all of the best that he is able to provide&mdash;for
+such a bed and room he may demand twelve
+<i>maravedis</i> each day; whether the room be taken
+by one guest, or two, or more.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nor was the Spanish inn more comfortable in
+the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries than in
+the sixteenth. &ldquo;On entre d'ordinaire dans les
+Hôtelleries par l'écurie, du moins dans de certaines
+Provinces; on vous mène dans quelque chambre,
+où vous trouvez les quatre parois, quelquefois un
+bois de lit; pour chandelle on allume un grand
+nombre de petites bougies, qui font assez de
+lumière pour voir ce que vous mangez; et afin
+que l'odeur and la fumée de tant de bougies
+n'incommode pas, on vous apporte, si vous le
+souhaitez, un brasier de noyaux d'olives en
+charbon. Quand on monte, on trouve au haut de
+l'escalier, la <i>Señora de la Casa</i>, qui a eu le tems
+de prendre ses beaux habits de dimanche pour
+vous faire honneur et s'en faire à elle-même.&rdquo;
+(Alvarez de Colmenar, in 1715.)</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to compare these passages with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+Lancelot Addison's account of a Morocco inn
+towards the middle of the seventeenth century;
+bearing in mind that <i>fonda</i>, the current Spanish
+term for <i>hostelry</i>, is common both to Spain and to
+Morocco:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In later years, every town of traffic hath
+erected a sort of Inns called <i>Alfándach</i>, which
+affords nothing but House-room for man and
+beast, the market yielding provision for both.
+Those that farm these <i>fandáchs</i> cannot exact
+above a Blankil a night both for man and beast,
+which is in sterling money about two pence. The
+horses lodging costing equally with his Rider's.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>Similarly, the keeper of the older Spanish inn
+was not allowed by law to traffic in provisions.
+&ldquo;Nothing but house-room&rdquo; was available for wayfarers,
+and the weary visitor, as soon as ever he
+arrived, must sally forth to do his marketing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_32.jpg" width="385" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_32.jpg" id="img_32.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XI<br />DOOR OF THE <i>SALON DE EMBAJADORES</i><br />
+(<i>Alcázar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Quand on arrive aux Hôtelleries, fut il minuit
+passé, l'on n'y trouve rien de prêt, non pas même
+un pot sur le feu. L'hôtel ne vous donne que le
+couvert et le lit, pour tout le reste, il le faut envoyer
+chercher, si vous ne voulez prendre la peine
+d'y aller vous-même. On donne l'argent nécessaire,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+et l'on va vous chercher du pain, du vin,
+de la viande, et généralement tout ce que
+l'on souhaite, si tant est qu'on le puisse trouver.
+Il est vrai que cette coutume a son bon
+côté.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Le prix de toutes ces choses est réglé, l'on
+sait ce qu'il faut payer, et un hôte ne peut pas
+friponner. On vous apprête votre viande, et l'on
+donne une réale et demie, ou deux réaux pour le
+<i>servicio</i>, comme ils parlent, et autant pour le lit,
+ce qui revient environ à quinze sous de France.
+Si l'on se trouve dans quelque grande ville, on
+aura une nappe grande comme une serviette, et
+une serviette grande comme un mouchoir de
+poche; dans d'autres endroits il faut s'en passer.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Les lits ne sont pas fort ragoutans; quelque
+matelas, ou quelque paillasse, ou tout au plus une
+couverture de coton; à la campagne il faut passer
+la nuit sur le carreau, ou bien sur quelque botte
+de paille, qu'on doit avoir soin de faire bien
+secouer, pour en chasser la vermine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The statements in this passage relative to the
+lack of food in Spanish hostelries are confirmed,
+nearly a century later, by Townsend, who records
+that on reaching a certain village his first proceeding
+was to turn his steps, not to the <i>fonda</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+<i>posada</i> where he would engage his bed, but to
+the butcher's, wine-seller's, and so forth, &ldquo;to see
+what was to be had, as I had travelled all day
+fasting.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is beyond the province of this work to dwell
+upon the foreign taste in furniture which invaded
+Spain from France upon the advent of the
+Bourbon dynasty, and so I limit my notice of the
+eighteenth century to quoting from Laborde the
+following comprehensive passage:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;If the Spaniards,&rdquo; this traveller wrote in
+1809, &ldquo;take many precautions against heat, they
+take scarcely any against cold; it is very uncommon
+to find doors or windows that shut
+close, and the rooms are very little and very
+ill-warmed. The use of chimneys even is very
+uncommon, and only prevails in the houses of
+such Spaniards as have travelled. Brasiers of
+copper or silver are generally employed, which
+are set in the middle of the apartment, filled
+with burning charcoal, and round which the family
+place themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_34.jpg" width="391" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_34.jpg" id="img_34.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XII<br />DOOR OF THE <i>SALON DE EMBAJADORES</i><br />
+(<i>Alcázar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The beds in Spain are hard. They are only
+made of mattresses, more or fewer, laid on paillasses
+which rest upon a boarded bottom; for
+neither sacking nor feather beds are known. No<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+bolsters are used, but in their place little, short,
+flat pillows are heaped up, sometimes to the
+number of six or eight. The sheets are in
+general short and narrow; and napkins scarcely
+as big as a small pocket handkerchief.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The furniture of the houses is usually very
+simple. The floor is covered with a matting of
+<i>esparto</i> in winter, and of rushes or palm leaves in
+summer. A matting of the same kind, a painted
+cloth, or painting in panels, covers the walls
+from the floor to the height of four or five feet;
+above, the wall is bare, painted white, and adorned
+with pictures of saints and a kind of ornamented
+metal chandeliers; these are covered with a glass,
+surrounded with a border of gilt ornaments; and
+a little branch of gilt copper proceeds from them
+forming zig-zags or festoons, on which the candles
+are placed; they are called cornucopias; they are
+from one to three feet in height, and give the
+apartment the air of a coffee room, or billiard room.
+Mirrors are placed between the windows, and a
+lustre of clear glass in imitation of crystal is suspended
+from the middle of the handsomest
+saloons. The chairs have straw bottoms; in
+some provinces, as Murcia, Andalusia, and
+Valencia, they are of different heights; those on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+one side of the room being of the common height,
+and the others one third lower. The latter are
+intended for the ladies. In some of the principal
+cities one also sees chairs and sofas of walnut
+wood, the backs of which are bare, and the
+seats covered with damask; usually crimson or
+yellow.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Luxury begins, however, to show itself in
+these objects. In the chief cities many hangings
+are of painted paper or linen; even hangings of
+brocades, of one and of three colours, and of
+various other kinds of silk; large and beautiful
+mirrors, and a number of sofas may be seen.
+The houses of the grandees in Madrid are
+magnificently furnished, but usually with more
+cost than taste. Hangings of silk, velvet, and
+damask, adorned with rich fringes and gold embroidery,
+are very common, and the seats are of
+corresponding magnificence. Many houses in
+Barcelona, Cadiz, Valencia, and Madrid are
+decorated with equal study and elegance.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The custom of painting the walls is of late
+introducing itself into Spain. They are covered
+with representations of men and animals, with
+trees, flowers, landscapes, houses, urns, vases, or
+history pieces, divided into compartments, adorned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+with pillars, pilasters, friezes, cornices, and arabesques;
+the effect of the whole is often very
+agreeable. This kind of decoration was imported
+from Italy.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_36.jpg" width="417" height="600"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_36.jpg" id="img_36.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIII<br />ALCÁZAR OF SEVILLE<br />
+(<i>Façade and principal entrance</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this account we clearly trace each various
+and successive influence that had permeated older
+Spain, leaving her, at the close of every period, a
+nation that produced illustrious artists, but never
+a nation deeply versed in, or devoted to, the arts.
+The beds and brasiers of these modern Spaniards
+were derived from ancient Rome; their general
+dearth of comfortable furniture, together with the
+lower, and therefore more humiliating, seats for
+women, from the Spanish Moors; the typically
+ponderous hangings from mediæval Spain herself;
+the fresco wall-paintings, such as may still
+be seen in many a Spanish country home, from
+classic or Renaissance Italy; and the finicking
+gilt, rococo cornucopias from France; while the
+use of mirrors and of lustres in hideous combination
+with straw-bottomed chairs, almost reminds us
+of the days of Visigothic barbarism.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>LEATHER</h3>
+
+<p><i>Guadamacilería</i>, or the art of decorating leather
+with painting, gilding, and impressions in relief,
+is commonly believed to have crossed from Africa
+to Spain at some time in the Middle Ages.
+According to Duveyrier, the word <i>guadamecí</i> or
+<i>guadamecil</i> is taken from Ghadames, a town in
+Barbary where the craft was practised long ago;
+but Covarrubias gives it an origin directly
+Spanish, supposing that the title and the craft
+alike proceeded from a certain town of Andalusia.
+However this may be, the preparation of these
+leathers grew to be a most important industry in
+various parts of Spain, and spread, as time went
+on, to Italy, France, and other European
+countries.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_38.jpg" width="325" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_38.jpg" id="img_38.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIV<br />DOOR OF THE CAPILLA DE LOS VARGAS<br />
+(<i>Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Peninsula, the principal centres of this
+work were Cordova, Seville, Lerida, Barcelona,
+Ciudad Real, and Valladolid. Cordova, however,
+was so far ahead of all the rest that leathers
+decorated in this style were known throughout
+the world as <i>cueros de Córdoba</i>, or &ldquo;Cordova<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+leathers.&rdquo; Another name for them is said to
+have been <i>cordobanes</i>; but possibly the application
+of this latter word was less restricted.
+Bertaut de Rouen wrote in the seventeenth
+century of Ciudad Real:&mdash;&ldquo;C'est une ville située
+dans une grande plaine, et dont l'enceinte est
+assez grande, qui estoit mesme fort peuplée
+autrefois, mais elle est quasi deserte à present.
+Il ne luy reste plus rien sinon que c'est là où l'on
+appreste le mieux les peaux de <i>Cordouan</i>, dont
+on fait les gans d'Espagne. C'est delà aussi d'où
+elles viennent pour la pluspart à Madrid. J'en
+achetay quelques-unes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1197 Alfonso the Ninth presented the town
+of Castro de los Judíos to León Cathedral and
+its bishop, confirming at the same time the
+tribute which the Jews who occupied that town
+were bound to render upon Saint Martin's day
+in every year, and which consisted of two hundred
+<i>sueldos</i>, a fine skin, and two <i>guadamecís</i>. This
+tribute had existed since the reign of Ferdinand
+the First: that is, towards the middle of the
+preceding century.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>None of these primitive leathers now exist, and
+consequently the details of their workmanship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+have perished with them. Ramírez de Arellano
+mentions two small coffers in the Cluny Museum,
+which date from about the fourteenth century
+and are decorated with the forms of animals
+cut from leather and overlaid on velvet. Other
+<i>guadamecís</i>, though not of the oldest, are in
+the South Kensington Museum. &ldquo;The earliest
+<i>guadamecileros</i>,&rdquo; says Ramírez de Arellano, speaking
+particularly of this art at Cordova, &ldquo;were accustomed
+to imitate brocade upon their leathers,
+employing beaten silver together with the colours
+red, green, blue, black, white, and carmine,
+applied in oils, or sometimes (although the law
+prohibited this) in tempera. Gold was not used
+till 1529, when Charles the Fifth confirmed
+the Ordinances of this industry. The leather-workers
+tanned the hides themselves, stamping
+the pattern from a wooden mould, and then
+(if we may call it so) engraving on them.
+The hides were those of rams. The spaces
+between the decoration were either coloured
+red or blue, or simply left the colour of the
+skin; or else the pattern would be wrought in
+colours on the natural hide. Gold, which at a
+later epoch almost totally replaces silver, was
+introduced between 1529 and 1543, and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+applied as follows. The artists smeared with oil
+the parts they wished to figure in raised or sunk
+relief, and laid the beaten gold upon the oil.
+They then applied a heated iron or copper mould;
+the pattern in relief was stamped; and the gold,
+superfluous shreds of which were wiped away with
+lint, adhered upon the leather. The irons required
+to be moderately hot, because if overheated
+they would burn the hide, or, if not hot enough,
+the fixing of the gold would not be permanent.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_40.jpg" width="349" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_40.jpg" id="img_40.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XV<br />MUDEJAR DOOR<br />
+(<i>Palacio de las Dueñas, Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The importance of this industry in Spain may
+be judged of from the fact that towards the close
+of the Middle Ages the <i>guadamacileros</i> of Seville
+occupied nearly the whole of an important street&mdash;the
+Calle Placentines. Similarly, at Cordova
+they filled the quarter of the city known as the
+Ajerquía. &ldquo;So many <i>guadamecíes</i> are made here,&rdquo;
+wrote Ambrosio de Morales, &ldquo;that in this craft no
+other capital can compare with her; and in such
+quantities that they supply all Europe and the
+Indies. This industry enriches Cordova and
+also beautifies her; for since the gilded, wrought,
+and painted leathers are fixed upon large boards
+and placed in the sun in order to be dried, by
+reason of their splendour and variety they make
+her principal streets right fair to look upon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We owe to Rafael Ramírez de Arellano most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+valuable and recent information respecting this
+ancient Spanish-Moorish craft.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> He has discovered
+the names of nearly forty <i>guadamacileros</i>
+who lived and worked at Cordova, principally in
+the sixteenth century. It is not worth while to
+repeat these names alone, but one or two
+particulars connected with a few of them are
+interesting. In 1557 four of these artificers,
+named Benito Ruiz, Diego de San Llorente,
+Diego de Ayora, and Anton de Valdelomar, signed
+a contract to prepare the cut and painted <i>guadamaciles</i>
+for decorating a palace at Rome. This contract,
+which is most precise and technical, is
+published in No. 101 of the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad
+Española de Excursiones</i>. The only further notice
+which Señor Ramírez de Arellano has discovered
+relating to any of these four craftsmen, tells us
+that nine years after the signing of the document
+just mentioned, Diego de Ayora leased some
+houses in the Calle de la Feria for a yearly rental
+of twenty-two ducats and three pairs of live hens.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting contract is dated April
+17th, 1587. By it the <i>guadamacilero</i> Andrés<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+Lopez de Valdelomar agreed, in company with
+Hernando del Olmo of Marchena, and with
+Francisco de Gaviria and Francisco Delgado,
+painters, of Cordova, to make a number of pieces
+of <i>guadamecí</i> for the Duke of Arcos. The work
+was to be terminated by July of the same year.
+Valdelomar was to receive from the duke's agent
+three <i>reales</i> for each piece, and the painters two
+<i>reales</i> and a half; this money to be paid them by
+instalments as the work proceeded.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_42.jpg" width="351" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_42.jpg" id="img_42.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVI<br /><i>CELOSÍA</i><br />
+(<i>Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On August 26th, 1567, before the mayor of
+Cordova and the two inspectors of this trade, Pedro
+de Blancas was officially examined and approved
+in &ldquo;cutting, working, and completing a <i>guadamecí</i>
+of red damask with gold and silver borders on a
+green field, and a cushion with green and crimson
+decoration and faced with silver brocade.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Ordinances of Cordova also tell us much
+about this industry. The oldest of these city laws
+which deal with it are dated 1529. Those of 1543
+were ratified by a Crown pragmatic early in the
+seventeenth century, and at this later date we
+learn that the craft had much declined, the leather
+being by now &ldquo;of wretched quality, the colouring
+imperfect, and the pieces undersized.&rdquo; The
+Ordinances published in the sixteenth century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+provide that every applicant for official licence to
+pursue this craft and open business as a <i>guadamacilero</i>,
+must prove himself, in presence of the
+examiners, able to mix his colours and design with
+them, and to make a canopy together with its
+fringe, as well as &ldquo;a cushion of any size or style
+that were demanded of him; nor shall he explain
+merely by word of mouth the making of the same,
+but make it with his very hands in whatsoever
+house or place shall be appointed by the mayor
+and the overseers of the craft aforesaid.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It was also provided by these Ordinances that
+the pieces of leather were to be dyed, not with
+Brazil-wood, but with madder, and that their size,
+whether the hide were silvered, gilt, or painted,
+was to be strictly uniform, namely, &ldquo;the size of
+the primitive mould,&rdquo; or &ldquo;three-quarters of a yard
+in length by two-thirds of a yard, all but one inch,
+in width.&rdquo; The standard measures, made of iron
+and stamped with the city seal, were guarded under
+lock and key; and the Ordinances of 1567 establish
+the penalty of death for every <i>guadamacilero</i> who
+shall seek, in silvering his wares, to palm off tin
+for silver.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_44.jpg" width="500" height="343"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_44.jpg" id="img_44.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVII<br />CARVED <i>ALERO</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These leathers served a great variety of
+purposes, public or private, sacred or profane.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+They were used upon the walls and floors of
+palaces and castles, as table-covers, counterpanes,
+bed-hangings, cushions, curtains for doors, linings
+for travelling-litters, coverings of chests and
+boxes,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and seats and backs of chairs and
+benches (Plate <a href="#img_24.jpg">vii</a>.). In churches and cathedrals,
+especially throughout the sixteenth century, we
+find them used as tapestry and carpets,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> altar-fronts
+(such as one which is preserved in the
+chapel of San Isidro in Palencia cathedral), or
+crowns for images of the Virgin.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> As time
+advanced, gold and a coat or so of colour was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+succeeded by elaborate painting. Thus painted,
+they were often cut into the forms of columns,
+pilasters, or friezes in the Plateresco or Renaissance
+style,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> until the growing popularity of wall-pictures,
+together with the importation of French
+fashions at the death of Charles the Second,
+crippled and ultimately killed the decorative
+leather industry of Spain.</p>
+
+<h3>CARPENTRY AND WOOD-CARVING</h3>
+
+<p>The artistic carpentry of older Spain produced
+as its most typical and striking monuments, three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+groups of objects which may be included generally
+under Furniture. These are the <i>celosía</i> or
+window-lattice, the door of <i>lazo</i>-work, and the
+<i>artesonado</i>-ceiling which adorns a hall or chamber,
+corridor or staircase.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_46.jpg" width="500" height="350"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_46.jpg" id="img_46.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVIII<br />CARVED <i>ZAPATAS</i><br />
+(<i>Casa de Salinas, Salamanca</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These happy and effective styles of decoration
+came originally from the East. Their passage
+may be traced along the coast of Africa from
+Egypt into Spain; and they flourished in Spain
+for the same reason which had caused them to
+flourish at Cairo. &ldquo;When we remember,&rdquo; says
+Professor Lane-Poole, &ldquo;how little wood grows
+in Egypt, the extensive use made of this material
+in the mosques and houses of Cairo appears very
+remarkable. In mosques, the ceilings, some of
+the windows, the pulpit, lectern or Koran desk,
+tribune, tomb-casing, doors, and cupboards, are
+of wood, and often there are carved wooden inscriptions
+and stalactites of the same material leading
+up to the circle of the dome. In the older
+houses, ceilings, doors, cupboards, and furniture
+are made of wood, and carved lattice windows, or
+meshrebiyas, abound. In a cold climate, such
+employment of the most easily worked of substances
+is natural enough; but in Egypt, apart
+from the scarcity of the material, and the necessity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+of importing it, the heat offers serious obstacles
+to its use. A plain board of wood properly
+seasoned may keep its shape well enough in
+England, but when exposed to the sun of Cairo
+it will speedily lose its accurate proportions; and
+when employed in combination with other pieces,
+to form windows or doors, boxes or pulpits, its
+joints will open, its carvings split, and the whole
+work will become unsightly and unstable. The
+leading characteristic of Cairo wood-work is its
+subdivision into numerous panels; and this
+principle is obviously the result of climatic considerations,
+rather than any doctrine of art. The
+only mode of combating the shrinking and
+warping effects of the sun was found in a skilful
+division of the surfaces into panels small enough,
+and sufficiently easy in their setting, to permit
+of slight shrinking without injury to the general
+outline. The little panels of a Cairo door or
+pulpit may expand without encountering enough
+resistance to cause any cracking or splitting in
+the surrounding portions, and the Egyptian workmen
+soon learned to accommodate themselves to
+the conditions of their art in a hot climate.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_48.jpg" width="500" height="346"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_48.jpg" id="img_48.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIX<br />CARVED <i>ZAPATAS</i><br />
+(<i>Museum of Zaragoza</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These valuable and interesting observations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+apply with equal justice to the decorative woodwork
+of the Spanish Muslims. A further point
+of interest lies in the fact that window-grilles and
+ceilings of the kind referred to, grew to be extremely
+fashionable through the whole Peninsula.
+Carried by Moorish or Mudejar craftsmen far
+beyond the frontiers of the Mussulman sultans of
+this European land, we find to-day surviving
+specimens in every part of Spain&mdash;most of them,
+it is true, in sultry Andalus; but many also in the
+old seigniorial mansions of Castile, or even in
+the cold and humid towns and cities of Cantabria.</p>
+
+<p>The man who did this kind of work was not a
+common carpenter. Such work was largely practical
+and prosaic, but also it was largely decorative
+and poetical. Probably, both in his own and in
+his customer's regard, the decorative quality was
+set before the practical. Therefore, beyond the
+dry, comparatively facile details of technique, this
+workman studied, with an artist's reverence and
+zeal, the inner, subtler, sweeter mysteries of line
+and form; harmonies of curve and angle; patterns,
+now geometrical, now floral, now these two combined
+with magic ingenuity; steeping himself in
+the æsthetic sense; making, indeed, his work the
+literal fact or fitting of prosaic application that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+was indispensable; but also, and as if upon some
+loftier initiative of his own, a miracle of art for
+people of a later day to come and stand before
+and wonder at.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_50.jpg" width="383" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_50.jpg" id="img_50.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XX<br /><i>ALERO</i> AND CORNICE OF CARVED WOOD<br />
+(<i>Cuarto de Comares, Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Indeed, whether because Our Lord had practised
+it, or from some other motive, carpentry was
+always well esteemed among the Spaniards. The
+Ordinances of Seville eulogize it, in conjunction
+with its sister-work of masonry and building, as
+&ldquo;a noble art and self-contained, that increaseth
+the nobleness of the King and of his kingdom,
+that pacifieth the people, and spreadeth love
+among mankind, conducing to much good.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> The
+same Ordinances divide these honourable craftsmen
+into half a dozen classes and sub-classes;
+carvers or <i>entalladores</i>, carpenters who kept a shop
+(<i>carpinteros de tienda</i>), <i>carpinteros de lo prieto</i>,
+and <i>carpinteros de lo blanco</i>. The latter are the
+class we are considering here, and these, in turn,
+were subdivided into <i>lazeros</i> or makers of <i>lazo</i>-work,
+<i>non-lazeros</i> or those who did not make it,
+and <i>jumetricos</i> or <i>geómetricos</i>. The statutory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+examination was severe in all these branches.
+Thus, the <i>lazero</i>-carpenters of Seville were required
+to make a chamber of octagonal <i>lazo</i>-work,
+including its pendentives at the corners; while
+the wood-carvers of the same city were required
+to be experienced draughtsmen and to make
+and carve &ldquo;artistic altar-screens with decorated
+columns, pedestals for images, and tabernacles (<i>i.e.</i>
+the part of an altar where the cibory and the Host
+are kept), as well as tombs and chambranles
+with their covering, tabernacles of the utmost art
+(<i>de grande arte</i>), and rich choir-stalls.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nor was the making of artistic ceilings, doors,
+and window-gratings carried out exclusively by
+men of Moorish blood. Tutored by these, the
+Christians practised it with great success. Prominent
+among these last we find, early in the
+seventeenth century, the name of Diego Lopez
+de Arenas, a Christian-Spaniard and a native of
+Marchena, who held the licensed title of master-carpenter
+and lived for many years at Seville.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+In a lucky moment it occurred to Lopez de
+Arenas to write and publish for the benefit of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+fellow-craftsmen a book upon this decorative
+oriental woodwork that had passed into the
+Spanish national life. This book, <i>Carpintería
+de lo Blanco</i>,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> appeared at Seville in 1633, and
+fresh editions were printed at the same city
+in 1727, and at Madrid in 1867. As in the
+Ordinances of Granada, Seville, and Toledo,
+Arabic terms, too copious and too complicated for
+elucidation here, are constantly repeated in this
+book.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Much of the general information which
+we gather from it is, however, of great interest.
+Thus, we are told that with the Spanish artists,
+as in Egypt, the wood most often used, no doubt
+as being the cheapest, was pitch pine, parcelled
+and put together in the most elaborate decorative
+schemes. Such was the characteristic <i>alfarge</i><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+ceiling of the Moorish, Morisco, and Spanish-Christian
+<i>carpintero de lo blanco</i>. Its many fragments
+were secured upon the frame by long,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+small-headed nails, or by these nails combined
+with glue. If we observe the ceilings from
+close by, as when, for instance, they are taken
+down to be restored, the workmanship appears
+to be coarse, inaccurate, and hasty; the myriad
+pieces to be clumsily and loosely joined; the nails
+to be driven in without method, or even awry.
+Nevertheless, this false effect betrays the calculating
+genius of the craftsman. He planned his
+work for contemplation by a certain light and at
+a certain elevation; and therefore, as the ceiling
+is removed again to its appointed distance, it
+seems to re-create itself in proud defiance of an
+error of our own, and grows at once to its habitual
+delicacy, harmony, and richness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_52.jpg" width="347" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_52.jpg" id="img_52.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXI<br />&ldquo;ELIJAH SLEEPING&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Statue in wood, by Alonso Cano</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have said that the decoration of these ceilings
+is sometimes floral, sometimes geometrical, sometimes
+a combination of the two.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> Sometimes the
+wood is plain, or sometimes silvered, gilt, or
+painted. Sometimes it is employed alone, or
+sometimes variegated and inlaid with plaster
+points and patches. By far the commonest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+motive is the <i>lazo</i>&mdash;an ornamental scheme composed
+of infinite strips that turn, and twist, and
+intersect, describing in their mazy passage many
+polygons. One of these polygons determines,
+in a way, the scheme of the entire ceiling, which
+is denominated as consisting of &ldquo;a <i>lazo</i> of eight,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;of ten,&rdquo; &ldquo;of twelve,&rdquo; etc., from this particular.
+The most attractive and most frequent is the
+scheme &ldquo;of eight.&rdquo; Among the decorative details
+used to brighten and enhance the <i>lazo</i>
+proper are <i>mocarabes</i> or wooden lacery for relieving
+cubes and joists or surfaces, and <i>rácimos</i>
+or &ldquo;clusters&rdquo;; that is, hollow or solid wooden
+cones or prisms, disposed along the side and centre
+panels of the ceiling like (in Arenas' ingenious
+phrase) the buttons on a jacket, and contributing
+to the massive aspect of the whole. These
+clusters, too, were sometimes in the stalactite and
+sometimes in a simpler form, and show, both in
+the quantity and richness of their ornament, a
+limitless diversity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_54.jpg" width="324" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_54.jpg" id="img_54.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXII<br />SAINT BRUNO<br />
+(<i>By Alonso Cano. Cartuja of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Magnificent Spanish-Moorish, Spanish, and
+Mudejar ceilings still exist in Spain. Such are
+the marvellous domed ceiling in the Hall of
+Comares (or of Ambassadors) in the Alhambra,
+those of the Castle of the Aljafería at Zaragoza<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+and of the archbishop's palace at Alcalá de
+Henares, the Arab <i>alfarge</i> ceilings in the
+churches of San Francisco and Santiago of
+Guadix, that of the Hall of Cortes in the Audiencia
+of Valencia, that of the Sala Capitular of Toledo
+Cathedral, that of the Chapel of the Holy Spirit
+of the Cathedral of Cuenca (considered by many
+to be the finest <i>artesonado</i> ceiling in all Spain),
+or those of the churches of Jesus Crucificado,
+El Carmen, and San Pablo at Cordova. The
+ceiling of the Sala de la Barca, in the Moorish
+palace of the Alhambra, was almost totally destroyed
+by fire in 1890, but a good photograph
+had previously been taken, and I reproduce it
+here (Plate <a href="#img_26.jpg">viii</a>.). One of the later <i>artesonado</i>
+ceilings is at Cordova, in the parish church
+of Santiago. Covered with a <i>bóveda</i> or vault
+of cane, it is in excellent preservation, and was
+made in 1635 by the master-carpenter Alonso
+Muñoz de los Ríos, who received for his labour
+fourteen thousand <i>reales</i>.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> The <i>artesonado</i> ceilings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+which Diego Lopez de Arenas tells us in his
+treatise that he made for the church, the choir,
+and the <i>sobreescalera</i> of the monastery of Santa
+Paula at Seville, as well as a ceiling which he
+made for the church of Mairena, are all extant
+to-day. Other remarkable examples of this craft
+are the ceilings of the rooms constructed to the
+order of, and which were actually occupied by,
+Charles the Fifth, within the precincts of the old
+Alhambra. Upon these half-Italian, half-Morisco
+ceilings and their frieze we read the words, &ldquo;<i>Plus
+Oultre</i>&rdquo;; and the inscription, &ldquo;<i>Imperator Cæsar
+Karolus V. Hispaniarum rex semper augustus pius
+f&oelig;lix invictissimus</i>.&rdquo; In one of the same apartments,
+known as the &ldquo;chamber of the fruits,&rdquo; the
+ceiling has octagonal <i>artesones</i> of superb effect,
+though even richer is that of what is called
+the Second Sala de las Frutas, conspicuously
+influenced by Italian art, and believed by Gómez<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+Moreno to have been designed by Pedro Machuca
+and executed by Juan de Plasencia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_56.jpg" width="369" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_56.jpg" id="img_56.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIII<br />SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST<br />
+(<i>San Juan de Dios, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Marvellous in conjunction with the thousand
+lighted lamps which served to manifest its beauties,
+must have been the primitive ceiling (<i>as-sicafes</i>)
+of the mosque of Cordova, of which an Arab poet
+sang; &ldquo;Look at the gold on it, like the kindled
+flame, or like the lightning-stroke that darts
+across the heavens.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Our notices of this ceiling,
+barbarously hacked to pieces by Christian architects,
+are neither numerous nor clear. We are
+told, however, that it was nearly finished in the
+reign of Abd-er-Rhaman the First, and terminated
+altogether by his son Hixem. New ceilings were
+added on the enlarging of the mosque by Abd-er-Rhaman
+the Second, while fresh additions were
+made by Al-Hakem the Second and Al-Manzor.
+Ambrosio de Morales gives a quaint description
+of the earliest, or an early, ceiling of this temple.
+&ldquo;The roof of the whole church, made of wood
+painted and adorned in divers ways, is of incredible
+richness, as will be seen from what I am about to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+say. It is of larch throughout, odorous, resembling
+pine, which is not found in any part but Barbary,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+whence it is brought by sea. And every time
+that a part of this temple was thrown down for
+new constructions to be added, the wood removed
+was sold for many thousand ducats for making
+guitars and other delicate objects. The ceiling
+was built across the church upon the nineteen
+naves thereof, and over it, covered likewise
+with wood, the roofs, nineteen in number also,
+each with its ridge atop, drooping to one and
+other side.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>Three pieces made of common pine, and which
+are thought to have belonged to the original ceiling
+of this mosque or to an early replica, are
+now in the National Museum at Madrid, but the
+carving of these fragments is so simple that in
+the opinion of Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos the
+decoration of the wood itself was purposely subordinated
+in this instance to the richness and
+variety of the painting.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_58.jpg" width="398" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_58.jpg" id="img_58.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIV<br />CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>Santo Tomás, Avila</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Three types of decorative doors were made in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+older Spain. In the earliest and simplest (<i>lacería
+en talla</i>), the <i>lacería</i> or <i>lazo</i>-work is carved directly
+on and from the solid plank which forms the body
+of the door. In the second type, the carver's art
+is delicately blended with the joiner's&mdash;<i>lazo</i>-work
+with <i>ensamblaje</i>. In the third type the <i>lazo</i>-work
+is <i>sobrepuesta</i>&mdash;that is, attached to, not elaborated
+from, the planking.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<p>As in the case of ceilings, many and excellent
+examples of these doors exist to-day in Spain.
+Among the most remarkable are several in the
+Moorish palace of the Alhambra, such as the two
+(dating from the end of the fourteenth century or
+early in the fifteenth) belonging, respectively, to
+the famous Hall of the Abencerrajes (Pl. <a href="#img_28.jpg">ix</a>.), and
+to the Hall of the Two Sisters (Pl. <a href="#img_30.jpg">x</a>.). Apparently
+it was the former of these doors which Bertaut de
+Rouen wrote of in the seventeenth century as
+&ldquo;une porte aussi grande et aussi épaisse comme
+celles de nos plus grandes églises. Elle s'ouvre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+des deux costez, et est toute de pieces rapportées,
+et d'un bois de differentes couleurs, comme les
+beaux cabinets et les belles tables qui coustent si
+cher.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>An early Mudejar door proceeding from the
+church of San Pedro at Daroca in Aragon is now
+in the National Museum. This door, which is
+of larch, and measures nearly fourteen feet in
+height by nine in breadth, is of a simple design and
+represents a horse-shoe door described within the
+door itself. It was originally painted vermilion,
+with other decorative painting of a simple character
+in black, white, and red, and is fortified with
+massive iron braces. It is believed to date from
+earlier than the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_60.jpg" width="500" height="398"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_60.jpg" id="img_60.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXV<br />CARVED CHOIR-STALL<br />
+(<i>Toledo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mighty doors of the &ldquo;Hall of Ambassadors,&rdquo;
+in the mediæval royal residence of Seville (Plates
+<a href="#img_32.jpg">xi</a>. and <a href="#img_34.jpg">xii</a>.), are quite the finest to be seen in Spain.
+Although a widespread superstition assigns their
+manufacture to a period close upon the Moorish
+conquest, it has been proved conclusively that
+they were made by Mudejar craftsmen of Toledo
+at the time when the whole Alcázar was erected
+more or less upon the ruins of the old, by Pedro
+the First of Castile, denominated, according to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+the prejudice with which we view his character,
+&ldquo;the Cruel,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the Just.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>These doors, which under a pretence of restoration
+have been mutilated more than once, are
+made of larch, and measure sixteen feet in height
+by thirteen feet (including both the leaves) in
+width. The upper part of either leaf consists of
+geometrical and floral ornament in exquisitely
+tasteful combination, executed in the scheme known
+technically, from the angles at the central polygon,
+as <i>lazo de á doce</i>&mdash;&ldquo;<i>lazo</i>-work of twelve.&rdquo; The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+decoration of the lower part is more minute, and in
+the scheme of <i>lazo de á diez</i>&mdash;&ldquo;<i>lazo</i>-work of ten.&rdquo;
+Inscriptions in Arabic and Latin, many of which
+are quoted from the Psalms, are distributed on
+both sides of the woodwork, and confirm our other
+evidence that the doors were made during the
+reign and in obedience to the orders, of Don Pedro.</p>
+
+<p>The Plateresco sixteenth-century doors of the
+Capilla de los Vargas at Madrid (Plate <a href="#img_38.jpg">xiv</a>.) are
+attributed by Cean Bermudez and by Ponz to an
+artist named Giralte, who carved them in walnut
+with various military and other scenes from Scripture,
+alternating with shields and floral ornament;
+the whole surrounded by an exquisitely delicate
+and tasteful border. Lampérez remarks that the
+errors of perspective recall the similar productions
+of Ghiberti.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_62.jpg" width="500" height="369"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_62.jpg" id="img_62.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVI<br />CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>Burgos Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>celosía</i> or decorative wooden window-grating,
+imported by the Mussulman conqueror
+from Egypt and the East, extended to all parts
+of Christian Spain, and was particularly used in
+convents. These gratings, identical in form and
+workmanship with those of Cairo,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> were attached<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+to projecting windows, so that the women of a
+household could look into the street without
+themselves being seen, a custom which the Spanish
+woman still recalls to us by peering, for hours at
+a time, between the lowered <i>persiana</i> of her
+balcony.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> By the seventeenth century, which
+may truthfully be called the age of Spanish
+jealousy, and when the &ldquo;Othello-like revenge of
+the Moor&rdquo; had eaten into the very entrails of
+society, the <i>celosía</i> had become as indispensable
+to houses as the door or window. &ldquo;La,&rdquo; wrote
+Bertaut de Rouen of a residence on the outskirts
+of Madrid, and obviously alluding to these
+gratings, &ldquo;il y avoit bien des Dames dans l'appartement
+d'enhaut qui y demeurerent cachées, se
+contentant de nous voir promener dans le jardin
+par les fenêtres.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We know from the stone coat of arms which
+is carved above the doorway of the &ldquo;House of
+Castril at Granada&rdquo; that in the olden time the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+balconies of the Hall of Comares in the Alhambra
+were fitted with projecting wooden <i>celosías</i>; and
+Contreras says that in the Torre de los Puñales
+of the same palace there used to be &ldquo;a kind of
+wooden <i>mirador</i> or <i>menacir</i>, covered with <i>celosías</i>
+like those of Cairo, and many of which were still
+to be seen in Granada early in the nineteenth
+century.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I am not aware of any Moorish <i>celosía</i> remaining
+to this day outside a Spanish building. In
+such exposed positions weather and the natural
+delicacy of the woodwork seem to have destroyed
+them all. As an interior ornament, a single one
+(Pl. <a href="#img_42.jpg">xvi</a>.) exists in the Alhambra. Nevertheless,
+I hesitate to call this <i>celosía</i> purely Moorish.
+Perhaps it is the work of a Morisco, or even of
+a Christian-Spaniard, for we know that decorative
+wooden fittings for the Alhambra were made in
+the sixteenth century by Antonio Navarro and
+other craftsmen. The grating, which is well preserved,
+covers a window over the archway leading
+from the Hall of the Two Sisters into the Sala
+de los Ajimeces and the Mirador de Daraxa, and
+consists of minute prisms and turned pieces in
+the typical Egyptian style.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_64.jpg" width="500" height="348"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_64.jpg" id="img_64.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVII<br />CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>San Márcos, León</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other fittings for a building, wrought in wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+by Moorish artists and by these communicated
+to the Christian-Spaniards, were balustrades and
+cornices, <i>aleros</i> (decorative bands beneath the
+eaves of a roof, Plate <a href="#img_44.jpg">xvii</a>.) and <i>zapatas</i> (gargoyle-looking
+figures, often in human form, used to
+support a roof or gallery). In the so-called &ldquo;Patio
+de las Asas&rdquo; of the convent of Santa Catalina de
+Zafra, at Granada, exists an interesting Moorish
+balustrade<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> that seems almost untouched by time.
+I reproduce an outline of it as the tailpiece to the
+present chapter, and am glad to append the little
+sketch in question, copied from a photograph I
+took upon the spot three years ago, because it
+is almost impossible to obtain admission to this
+convent. Beautiful or uncouth and quaint <i>zapatas</i>
+may be seen in the Casa de los Tiros at Granada,
+and in many other places (Plates <a href="#img_46.jpg">xviii</a>. and <a href="#img_48.jpg">xix</a>.).
+Much of the Moorish woodwork of the palace of
+the Alhambra was destroyed by the fire of 1590,
+but there yet remain the ample cornice and carved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+<i>alero</i> of the façade of the Cuarto de Comares
+(Plate <a href="#img_50.jpg">xx</a>.), which is often called in error the
+Court of the Mezquita. This <i>alero</i> bears the
+following inscription, allusive to the Sultan Mohammed
+the Fifth:&mdash;&ldquo;I am the place where the
+crown is guarded, and on my doors being opened
+the regions of the west believe the east to be contained
+within me. Algami Billah charged me to
+keep guard upon the doorway.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_66.jpg" width="330" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_66.jpg" id="img_66.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVIII<br />DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>León Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other remarkable <i>aleros</i> are in the Generalife
+and in the Court of Lions of the Alhambra, while,
+also in this last-named mansion, genuine Moorish
+woodwork of elaborately inlaid ebony and larch
+is in two niches near the entrance to the Sala de
+Embajadores.</p>
+
+<h3>SACRED STATUARY, <i>SILLERÍAS</i> OR CHOIR-STALLS, AND <i>RETABLOS</i></h3>
+
+<p>The genius of the wood-carvers of older Spain
+is manifested chiefly in three groups of objects&mdash;sacred
+statuary, choir-stalls, and <i>retablos</i>. Among
+this people, and probably by reason of its cheapness,
+plain, or gilt, or polychrome painted wood has
+always been a favourite material for the statues
+of their temples, whether such statues were employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+alone, or as an accessory to a larger article
+of sacred furniture, such as a pulpit, or a <i>sillería</i>,
+or an altar-screen. So powerful, in fact, has been
+the vogue of this material here,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> that even to-day
+the Spanish people, making, in Symonds' happy
+phrase, &ldquo;representation an object in itself, independently
+of its spiritual significance,&rdquo; attempt to
+elevate the most remarkable of their wooden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+and by preference their coloured wooden, statuary
+(typically defended by Pacheco's indigested tome),
+to rank beside the noblest and the purest monuments
+of bronze and marble; denoting, by this
+reckless and uneducated partiality, a positively
+national misconception of the true domain of art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_68.jpg" width="386" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_68.jpg" id="img_68.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIX<br />CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>Plasencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is outside the scope of such a work as this
+to deal at any length with Spanish figure-sculpture.
+However, it is only fair to recognize that
+Spain produced a couple of score or so of admirable
+carvers of wood-statuary. Among the
+greatest of these craftsmen or <i>imagineros</i> were
+Becerra, Berruguete, Juan de Juni, author of the
+<i>Mater Dolorosa</i> (&ldquo;Our Lady of the Knives&rdquo;), of
+Valladolid; Gregorio Hernández the Galician,
+author of &ldquo;Simon the Cyrenian,&rdquo; &ldquo;Santa
+Veronica,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the Baptism of our Lord&rdquo;;
+Martínez Montañes, author of &ldquo;San Jerónimo&rdquo;
+and of the &ldquo;Cristo del Gran Poder&rdquo;;<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Solis,
+Gaspar de Ribas, Juan Gómez, author of the
+&ldquo;Jesus&rdquo; of Puerto de Santa Maria; Pedro
+Roldan, with whom, according to Tubino, &ldquo;the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+art of Seville closed its eyes&rdquo;; and Alonso Cano,
+master of Pedro and Alonso de Mena, Ruiz del
+Peral, José de Mora, and Diego de Mora, and who
+carved the exquisite &ldquo;Elijah Sleeping&rdquo; (Pl. <a href="#img_52.jpg">xxi</a>.)
+now at Toledo, and also (as it is believed) the
+famous statuette (Frontispiece to the present
+volume) of Saint Francis of Assisi.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest centre of this branch of wood-carving
+was Valladolid, where lived and laboured
+Juni and Hernández. Nevertheless, although so
+popular in every part of Spain, it had a short-lived
+prime, originating in the two Castiles towards
+the reign of Philip the Second, declining
+steadily (with Seville for its centre now) all
+through the seventeenth century, and flickering
+out, despite the perseverance and the genius of
+the Murcian Susillo, in the century succeeding.</p>
+
+<p>In decorative <i>sillerías</i> or sets of choir-stalls,
+Spain has produced examples worthy to be set
+beside the masterpiece of Vitry in the abbey of
+Sainte-Claude, the best productions of Dürer and
+his followers in Germany, or those of Donatello,
+Brunelleschi, Valdambrino, Vechietta, and Verrochio
+in Italy. Nevertheless, her most distinguished
+<i>sillería</i>-makers were at almost every
+moment inspired and directed by the foreigner.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+Germans or Flemings were her first preceptors in
+this craft. These artists had been sent for, or
+proceeded of their own accord, to Spain, and
+settling in this country rapidly spread the technics
+of their art among the Spaniards. In the
+Peninsula the origin of this school or movement
+may be traced to Burgos. Here, just as the
+fifteenth century was drawing to its close, and just
+before the breath of the Renaissance crossed the
+Spanish frontier at its eastern side, was gathered
+a small though influential group of eminent
+workers in more crafts than one; painters and
+sculptors, architects, embroiderers, carvers of
+wood, <i>reja</i>-makers, and painters of cathedral glass.
+Prominent among them all was a foreigner
+named Philip Vigarny,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> who is described by
+Diego de Sagrado as &ldquo;singular above all others
+in the art of making statuary and sculpture;
+a man of vast experience, general in his mastery
+of the liberal and mechanic arts, and no less
+resolute in all that is related with the sciences
+of architecture.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_70.jpg" width="338" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_70.jpg" id="img_70.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXX<br />DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>Convent of San Marcos, León</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Burgundy is said to have been the birthplace
+of Felipe de Borgoña, but of his early history we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+have no tidings. In documents which bear
+his signature he styles himself &ldquo;<i>imaginario</i>,
+resident at Burgos.&rdquo; Three such documents
+exist. On August 1st, 1505, he agrees, for 130,000
+<i>maravedis</i>, to make &ldquo;such images as may be
+necessary&rdquo; for the altar of the high chapel of
+Palencia cathedral, &ldquo;he with his own hand to
+carve the hands and faces, out of good smooth
+walnut, without painting.&rdquo; This document is
+dated from Palencia. The other two are dated
+severally, Burgos, December 6th, 1506, and
+Corcos, September 6th, without the addition of
+the year.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> We also know this craftsman to have
+made the great <i>retablo</i> of Burgos cathedral.
+Such, from the fragmentary semblance we can
+trace of him, was Philip Vigarny, the pioneer
+of the wood-carvers of older Spain, and who,
+aided by other craftsmen from abroad, communicated
+all the secrets of his art to Spaniards such
+as Gil de Siloe, Ruy Sanchez, Diego de la Cruz,
+Alonso de Lima, and Berruguete.</p>
+
+<p>The typical <i>sillería</i> consists of two tiers; the
+<i>sellia</i> or upper seats, with high backs and a canopy,
+intended for the canons, and the lower seats or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+<i>subsellia</i>, of simpler pattern and with lower backs,
+intended for the <i>beneficiados</i>. At the head of all
+is placed the presidential throne, larger than the
+other stalls, and covered, in many cases, by a
+canopy surmounted by a tall spire. When the
+<i>sillería</i> belongs to a monastery, the higher stalls
+are for the <i>profesos</i>, and the lower for the novices
+and <i>legos</i>. Commonly the part that forms the
+actual seat is hinged and rises to a vertical position,
+being so contrived that when the occupant rises
+to his feet, there remains a narrow ledge projecting
+from the under surface. This ledge is called the
+&ldquo;seat of pity&rdquo; or &ldquo;of patience,&rdquo; because the
+worshipper is able to incline himself on it and
+give his limbs some measure of repose without
+appearing to be seated. There also is commonly
+another piece, intended for him to rest his hands
+upon in rising, which projects from the sides
+of the stall and forms a part of the decorative
+carving, as well as, somewhat higher still, the
+carved support to rest his arms while he is on
+his feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_72.jpg" width="345" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_72.jpg" id="img_72.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXI<br />&ldquo;SAMSON&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Carved Choir-stall of León Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest Spanish <i>sillerías</i> date from the
+fourteenth century; but it is not until the century
+succeeding that we find them at their very best.
+Gothic or Plateresco <i>sillerías</i> of marvellous design<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+and workmanship are those of the Seo of Zaragoza
+(begun in 1412), the Cartuja de Miraflores of
+Burgos (1489), the monastery of Oña, Santa
+María de Nájera (1495), the church of Santa
+María del Campo, in the province of Burgos,
+Santo Tomás of Avila (finished in 1493), and the
+cathedrals of Oviedo, Segovia (1461&ndash;1497),
+Ciudad Rodrigo, Tarragona (1478), Tarazona,
+Toledo (begun in 1494), Zamora, Astorga,
+Barcelona (1453&ndash;1483), and Seville (finished
+in 1478).</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic choir-stalls of the Seo of Zaragoza
+have lofty backs with arabesque Mudejar ornamentation,
+small Gothic columns, and medallions
+containing figures upon the arms of every stall.
+The material is Flemish oak. The carving
+was begun in 1412 by the Moors Alí Arrondi,
+Muza, and Chamar, who earned a daily wage
+of four <i>sueldos</i>. In 1446 Juan Navarro and the
+brothers Antonio and Francisco Gomar were
+working at the same stalls, and also, in 1449,
+Francoy.</p>
+
+<p>The stalls of the Cartuja de Miraflores at
+Burgos were carved by Martin Sánchez, who
+received in 1486, and for the <i>mano de obra</i> alone,
+the sum of 125,000 <i>maravedis</i>. The material,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+which was presented by Luis de Velasco, Señor of
+Belorado, is dark walnut.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>sillería</i> of Santa María de Nájera, the
+work of Maestro Andrés and Maestro Nicolás,
+is Gothic merging into the Renaissance. That
+of Santo Tomás of Avila (late Gothic) consists
+of sixty oaken stalls, besides two larger ones
+resembling thrones (Plate <a href="#img_58.jpg">xxiv</a>.), intended to be
+occupied by Ferdinand and Isabella, founders
+of this monastery, and whose arms they bear in
+lace-like carving. The rest of the decoration is
+composed of thistles, vines, trefoils, and pomegranates.
+Owing to the fact that not a single
+cross appears on any part of the <i>sillería</i> (although
+this circumstance is not unusual in sacred Gothic
+woodwork), there is a superstition that these stalls
+were wrought anonymously by some Jew, condemned
+to execute them by the Inquisition as
+a form of punishment. This fable has no
+value. Although the author's name is not upon
+the stalls, they are identical in nearly every
+detail with those of the Cartuja de Miraflores
+at Burgos, known to have been carved by Martin
+Sánchez in 1486. Hence it is extremely probable
+that this craftsman was the author of both
+<i>sillerías</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_74.jpg" width="291" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_74.jpg" id="img_74.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXII<br />&ldquo;ESAU&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Carved Choir-stall of León Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On many Spanish <i>sillerías</i> we find most spirited<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+reproductions of the life and manners of their
+time; satirical allusions to contemporary vices,
+allegories and caprices as fantastic, in the phrase
+of Vargas Ponce, as &ldquo;one of Bosch's nightmares,&rdquo;
+hunting-scenes or love-scenes, banquets, tournaments,
+dances, battles, sieges, and even bull-fights.
+Thus, on the stalls of the cathedrals of Zamora,
+Oviedo, Plasencia, Astorga, and León are carved
+such subjects as the following. A fox dressed as
+a friar, preaching to a group of hens but slyly
+abstracting their chicks (Zamora), men fighting
+with their fists (Zamora), a hog playing the
+bagpipes (León), the Devil in the garb of a
+confessor, tempting a penitent (León), a woman
+suckling an ass (León), a man armed with a
+lance, fighting a woman (Astorga), a bird of prey
+struggling with a crocodile (Astorga), card-players
+(Astorga), a warrior on all-fours, whipped by a
+woman (Plasencia), an <i>auto-de-fé</i> (Plasencia),
+swine praying and spinning (Ciudad Rodrigo),
+a fight between a tiger and a bull (Ciudad
+Rodrigo), a monkey beating a drum (Ciudad
+Rodrigo), and a monkey wearing a mitre (Ciudad
+Rodrigo).</p>
+
+<p>The style of the lower stalls of Toledo cathedral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+is good Plateresque. They were begun in 1494
+by Maese Rodrigo, one of the very best of Spain's
+<i>entalladores</i>, and portray, in each successive stall,
+the phases of the last campaign against Granada
+(Plate <a href="#img_60.jpg">xxv</a>.); the sieges or battles of Altora, Melis,
+Xornas, Erefran, Alminia, Baza, Málaga (two
+stalls), Salobreña, Almuñecar, Comares, Beles,
+Montefrío, Moclín, Illora, Loja, Cazarabonela,
+Coyn, Cartama, Marbella, Ronda, Setenil, Alora,
+Alhama, Nixar, Padux, Vera, Huéscar, Guadix,
+Purchena, Almería, Rión, Castil de Ferro, Cambril,
+Zagani, Castul, Gor, Canzoria, Moxacar, Vélez el
+Blanco, Gurarca, Vélez el Rubio, Soreo, and
+Cabrera.</p>
+
+<p>The upper tier of the same stalls belongs to a
+later period, and will, in consequence, be noticed
+subsequently.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_76.jpg" width="377" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_76.jpg" id="img_76.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXIII<br /><i>RETABLO</i><br />
+(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>sillería</i> of Barcelona cathedral was begun
+in the middle of the fifteenth century by Matias
+Bonafé, at the same time that the German
+Michael Locher and his pupil John Frederic
+worked at the canopies. It was finished thirty
+years later. Upon the back (which otherwise is
+plain) of every stall is a coat of arms distinct from
+all its neighbours, marking the seat of one of
+the princes or nobles summoned by Charles the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+Fifth to the Chapter of the Order of the Golden
+Fleece, March 5th, 1519.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>The splendid <i>sillería</i> of Seville cathedral is a
+mingling of the Gothic with the Mudejar and
+Plateresque. The material is oak and fir, and
+the number of the seats one hundred and seventeen.
+The <i>sellia</i> are surmounted by a graceful
+running <i>guardapolvo</i>. Each seat is carved distinctly
+from the rest, and further decorated in the
+Mudejar style with inlaid woods of various kinds
+and colours, imitating stone mosaic. Among
+this labyrinth of design are groups of people,
+angels, animals, and scenes from Scripture, as
+well as, on the lower stalls, the Giralda tower,
+which forms the arms of the cathedral. The
+<i>sillería</i> is further embellished with two hundred
+and sixteen statuettes, seventy-two of which are
+ranged along the canopy or <i>dosel</i>, the remainder
+being distributed between the seats.</p>
+
+<p>The authors of this splendid work of art
+(judiciously restored some years ago by Boutelou,
+Fernandez, and Mattoni) were Nufio Sanchez,
+Dancart, and several other craftsmen, concerning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+whom we know but very little. Sánchez'
+name is carved upon the second stall of the
+upper row, and on the side of the Evangelist,
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_78.jpg" width="500" height="217"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_78.jpg" id="img_78.jpg"></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The above inscription states that &ldquo;this choir
+was made by Nufio Sanchez, <i>entallador</i> (God
+guard him<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>), and finished in the year one thousand
+four hundred and seventy-eight.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_79.jpg" width="311" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_79.jpg" id="img_79.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXIV<br /><i>RETABLO</i> OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL<br />
+(<i>Detail of Carving</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the dawn of the sixteenth century, the
+Gothic style runs rapidly into that of the Renaissance.
+At about this time, and as Baron Davillier
+pointed out, we sometimes find a triple influence,
+namely, the Burgundian, the Italian, and the native
+Spanish. Vigarny may be called the champion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+of the first of these, Berruguete (who studied in
+Italy) of the second, and Guillermo Doncel of the
+third. After this the purer Renaissance gives
+place to the decadent, as in the stalls of Santiago,
+Málaga, Cordova, and Salamanca.</p>
+
+<p>Sixteenth-century <i>sillerías</i> of note are those of
+Burgos cathedral (Plate <a href="#img_62.jpg">xxvi</a>.), carved by Vigarny,
+Avila cathedral, the Pilar of Zaragoza, the Minor
+Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos, Pamplona cathedral,
+San Marcos of León, Huesca, the <i>alta
+sillería</i> of Toledo, and the walnut stalls&mdash;carved
+in 1526 by Bartolomé Fernandez de Segovia,
+and now in the Madrid Museum&mdash;of the Parral
+of Segovia.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>sillería</i> of Avila cathedral is believed to
+have been begun in 1527 by Juan Rodrigo,
+although the greater part of it was probably
+executed between 1536 and 1547 by Cornelis de
+Holanda, who took for his model the stalls of
+San Benito of Valladolid. The cost of the walnut
+wood and of its workmanship amounted to 33,669
+<i>reales</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The upper stalls of Toledo cathedral were
+carved by Vigarny and Alonso Berruguete in
+collaboration, so that we find in them the northern
+and Italian styles effectively and interestingly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+united. The Plateresque-Renaissance <i>sillería</i>,
+described as &ldquo;genuinely Spanish,&rdquo; of the old convent
+of San Marcos of León, containing statuettes
+of biblical personages and of fathers of the
+Church&mdash;Saint Isidore among them,&mdash;was finished
+in 1542 by Guillermo Doncel, who added the
+inscription &ldquo;<i>Magister Guillermus Doncel me fecit
+MDXLII</i>&rdquo; (Plate <a href="#img_64.jpg">xxvii</a>.). We know, however,
+nothing more about this excellent Spanish artist,
+except that (on the unsupported testimony of
+Cean) he worked at the façade of this convent
+between the years 1537 and 1544.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_80.jpg" width="378" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_80.jpg" id="img_80.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXV<br />DETAIL OF <i>RETABLO</i><br />
+(<i>Late 15th century. Museum of Valladolid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The intricate <i>sillería</i> of the Pilar of Zaragoza,
+containing almost every kind of subject&mdash;beasts,
+birds and fishes, allegories, incidents of the chase,
+or scenes of popular life&mdash;was designed by Esteban
+de Obray, a Navarrese, and executed by him and
+his assistants, Juan Moreto Florentino and Nicolas
+de Lobato, between 1542 and 1548. That of the
+Minor Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos was carved
+at a cost of eight hundred and ten ducats by
+Simón de Bueras, in 1558. That of Pamplona
+cathedral dates from about the middle of the century,
+and is the work of one Ancheta, who had
+visited Italy and gathered inspiration from the
+masterpieces of Siena. The material is English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+oak. The stalls of Huesca, carved from oak proceeding
+from an older <i>sillería</i> which had been
+removed, were begun in 1587 and finished in
+1594. The craftsmen were Nicolás de Verástegui
+and Juan Verrueta de Sangüesa.</p>
+
+<p>Seventeenth-century <i>sillerías</i> are those of
+Santiago, carved by Juan de Vila in 1603; Salamanca,
+in 1651, by Alfonso Balbás; Orihuela, in
+1692, by Juan Bautista Borja; and Segorbe,
+carved in the same year by Nicolás Camarón;
+while dating from the eighteenth century&mdash;a
+period of manifest decadence in this beautiful but
+short-lived craft&mdash;are the stalls of Lerida, by Luis
+Bonifar y Masó (born in 1730), and Cordova,
+executed between 1748 and 1757, at a cost of
+913,889 <i>reales</i>, by Pedro Ciriaco Duque y Cornejo,
+a son of Seville and a pupil of the Sevillano
+Roldan.</p>
+
+<p>The least imperfect of these later and decadent
+<i>sillerías</i> is that of Málaga, whose author, Pedro
+de Mena, was, like his master, Alonso Cano, a
+native of Granada.</p>
+
+<p>Mena's contract with two canons of the cathedral,
+nominated by the bishop to prepare and sign
+the stipulations, will be found in No. 134 of the
+<i>Boletín de la Sociedad de Excursiones</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The stalls of Málaga number a hundred and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+one, carved in walnut, larch, cedar, and the heavy
+Indian wood called <i>granadillo</i>. As happens with
+many of the <i>sillerías</i> of this country, the costumes
+of the figures are of great historical value.
+Among the saints is San Roque, in pilgrim's
+garb, attended by the dog who brought him day
+by day a loaf of bread while men refused to
+succour him.</p>
+
+<p>No less magnificent than these sets of choir-stalls
+are the carved <i>retablos</i> or altar-screens,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> a
+gradual excrescence from the primitive and unpretentious
+altar of the early days of Christianity.
+Several kinds of craftsmen worked upon these
+altar-screens, such as <i>tallistas</i>, <i>entalladores</i>, <i>imagineros</i>,
+and even architects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_82.jpg" width="373" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_82.jpg" id="img_82.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXVI<br />DETAIL OF <i>RETABLO</i><br />
+(<i>Chapel of Santa Ana, Burgos Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Golden Age of the <i>retablo</i> embraces the
+end of the fifteenth century and the whole of the
+sixteenth. Notable examples belonging to this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+period are the screens of the monastery of Santo
+Tomás at Avila, San Martin of Segovia, the
+Cartuja de Miraflores, the Colegiata of Covarrubias
+in the province of Burgos, the cathedrals
+of Avila, Toledo, Tudela, and Tarazona; several
+in the churches of Toledo, two in the church of
+San Lesmes (Burgos), two in Burgos Cathedral
+(Plate <a href="#img_82.jpg">xxxvi</a>.), and three, including those of <i>Reyes</i>
+and of <i>Buena Mariana</i>, in the church of San Gil
+in the same city. Not one of these, however,
+has the grandeur or variety of the altar-screen
+of Seville (Plates <a href="#img_76.jpg">xxxiii</a>. and <a href="#img_79.jpg">xxxiv</a>.), which is
+carefully described in Cean's monograph. &ldquo;The
+style is Gothic; the material, undecaying larch;
+and the screen, which reaches nearly to the
+vaulting, is the largest in the country, although
+at first it spanned the presbytery only, not
+including either side. It was designed in 1482
+by Dancat or Danchart, who began work upon
+it as soon as his sketches were approved, and
+worked at it till 1492, in which year he seems to
+have died.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Dancat was succeeded by Master Marco and
+Bernardo de Ortega, whose carving reached, by
+1505, the canopy or <i>viga</i>, and who were followed
+in their turn by Francisco, Bernardo's son, father<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+and teacher of Bernardino and Nufrio de Ortega,
+his assistants. Some of the statues were carved
+by Micer Domingo. The rest of the <i>imaginería</i>
+was finished in 1526; and the gilding and painting
+were done by Alejo Fernández, his brother, and
+Andrés de Covarrubias.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;So the screen remained till 1550, when the
+Chapter decided to extend it, without altering the
+style of decoration, to the sides of the presbytery.
+By this time Spanish sculpture had improved,
+and many of our best-known sculptors lent their
+aid, of whom the earliest were Roque Balduc,
+Pedro Becerril, el Castellano, Juan de Villalva,
+Diego Vazquez, and Pedro Bernal. In 1553 the
+Chapter appointed, to inspect the work of these
+artists, Juan Reclid and Luis de Aguilar, both of
+whom lived at Jaen. Henceforth the master-craftsmen
+working at the screen were Pedro de
+Heredia, Gomez de Orozco, Diego Vazquez the
+younger, Juan Lopez, Andrés Lopez del Castillo,
+and his sons, Juan de Palencia, and Juan Bautista
+Vazquez. By 1564 the screen was quite concluded.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Gothic work is of incomparable richness.
+Ten groups of tall and narrow columns, resting
+upon two pedestals or socles, divide the <i>retablo</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+into nine spaces, crossed by horizontal bands of
+complicated carving, forming a series of thirty-six
+niches, in four rows. Statues a little less
+than life-size represent, in the first row, the creation
+and fall of our first parents, and the mysteries
+of the infancy of Christ; in the second, His preaching
+and miracles; in the third, His passion and
+death; and in the fourth, His resurrection, appearance
+to the disciples, and ascension; also the
+coming of the Holy Ghost. Upon the altar-table,
+and resting in its niche, is the statue, covered
+with silver plates, of Nuestra Señora de la Sede,
+presented to this temple by Saint Ferdinand.
+Above the <i>viga</i>, which has an <i>artesonado</i> ceiling,
+rises a frontispiece containing thirteen canopied
+niches with statues of the apostles, and in the
+centre niche that of the Virgin Mary. Crowning
+the whole <i>retablo</i> are statues larger than life-size,
+and a Calvary standing in free space.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>Throughout these Spanish altar-screens the
+influence which predominates is that of Germany.
+They are essentially distinguished by a Northern art
+(Plates <a href="#img_80.jpg">xxxv</a>., <a href="#img_82.jpg">xxxvi</a>.), not sentimental but material,
+not tender but robust, not (like the art of the
+Italians) retrospective or prospective, but prosaic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+realistic, actual. Curiously enough, their presence
+seems incongruous in Spain, and yet they made
+themselves at home here; for Spanish art was ever
+realistic, so probably on this account two widely
+different nations found, at least in this particular
+craft, a common bond of sympathy. Certainly the
+Renaissance, while it seemed to cherish and encourage,
+really undermined and killed this branch of
+Spanish wood-carving. A similar phenomenon
+attends the art of the Alhambra. In either case
+the plenitude of power and of beauty is even more
+ephemeral than the term of human life; and thus,
+deluded by so brilliant and majestic a decay, we
+fail to apprehend, or seek to grow oblivious of,
+the imminence of their ruin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_86.jpg" width="500" height="256"
+        alt="end of chapter"
+        title="end of chapter" />
+        <a name="img_86.jpg" id="img_86.jpg"></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Documents, quoted by the Count of Clonard, of Alfonso the
+Second, San Genadio, Froylan, and the Infanta Urraca.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> According to Miquel y Badía, the <i>focus</i> of the Romans is the
+present <i>clar de foch</i> of Cataluña; &ldquo;a square platform of brick or
+stone raised somewhat from the ground, surrounded by a bench
+(<i>escó</i>), and large enough to serve for roasting beasts entire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Swinburne wrote from Reus in 1775;&mdash;&ldquo;we here for the first time
+saw a true Spanish kitchen, viz., an hearth raised above the level of
+the floor under a wide funnel, where a circle of muleteers were
+huddled together over a few cinders.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The <i>Codex of the Testaments</i>, preserved in Oviedo Cathedral,
+contains some valuable illustrations of Spanish furniture of the tenth
+century. Greatly interesting, too, is the chair of San Raimundo
+(12th century) preserved at Roda in Aragon. It is of the &ldquo;scissors&rdquo;
+or folding form (<i>sella plicatilis</i>, Ducange), and the arms are
+terminated by heads of animals.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The early nomenclature of the clothes and other fittings of a
+Spanish bed is bewildering. We find in common use the canopy
+(<i>almocalla</i>, <i>almuzala</i>; Arabic, <i>al-mokalla</i>, i.e. &ldquo;haven of refuge in
+all winds&rdquo;&mdash;not always, possibly, a judicious term in the case of a
+<i>cama de matrimonio</i> or &ldquo;marriage-bed&rdquo;); the cloth-lined skins for
+chilly weather (<i>alifafe</i>, <i>alifad</i>; Arabic <i>al-lifafh</i>), such as King Juan
+the First of Aragon provided for his daughter (&ldquo;two leathers of
+Morocco for the bed.&rdquo; <i>Archive of the Crown of Aragon;
+Registro 1906, fol. 42</i>); the parament or <i>dosal</i>; the <i>galnapé</i> or
+topmost of the bedclothes proper (&ldquo;<i>un lecho con guenabe</i>&rdquo;; Fuero
+of Cáceres, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1229); the counterpane (<i>fatel</i>, <i>fatol</i>, <i>alfatel</i>, <i>facel</i>,
+<i>farele</i>, <i>fateye</i>, <i>fatiro</i>; Arabic <i>fatla</i>); the linen sheets (<i>izares</i>, <i>lentros</i>,
+<i>lentos</i>, <i>lintes</i>, <i>lincas</i>, <i>linteáminas</i>, or <i>lencios</i>); and the mattress,
+pillow, and bolster, called, all three of them, <i>plumazo</i>, <i>plumario</i>, or
+<i>plumaco</i>. Nearly or quite identical in meaning with these last are
+<i>cúlcita</i> and <i>almadraque</i>. <i>Cúlcita</i> is corrupted into <i>colcedra</i>, <i>cocedra</i>,
+<i>conzara</i>, <i>colotra</i>, and other more or less barbaric variations; while
+<i>almohada</i>, <i>almuella</i>, <i>travesera</i>, <i>almofadinha</i>, <i>faseruelo</i>, and <i>aljamar</i>
+also signify a pillow or a cushion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> &ldquo;E due haber encara héla entegrament, ses vestitz é ses joyes
+é un leyt ben garnit del misllors apereylltz que sien en casa, é <i>una</i>
+<i>escala d'argent</i> é una cortina.&rdquo; Fuero of Jaca, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1331, quoted
+by Abad y la Sierra and the Count of Clonard.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Sanpere y Miquel; <i>Las costumbres catalanas en tiempo de
+Juan I.</i>, pp. 83, 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Miquel y Badía believes that the Spaniards abandoned the
+Roman usage of reclining at their meals towards the sixth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Forks were not introduced till later. It has even been questioned
+whether they were known in Spain as late as the sixteenth
+century. But Ambrosio de Morales mentions one in 1591, while
+another is recorded in 1607 as belonging to the monastery of San
+Jerónimo de Valparaiso, near Cordova. (See vol. i., p. 84.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> This kind of furniture was prohibited by a sumptuary pragmatic
+of 1594. &ldquo;No silversmith or other craftsman, or any person
+whatsoever, shall make, or cause to be made, or sold, or sell himself
+or purchase, whether openly or privately, buffets, writing-desks,
+chests, brasiers, pattens, tables, letter-cases, <i>rejillas</i> or foot-warmers,
+images, or any other object that has silver fittings, whether the
+silver be beaten, stamped, wrought in relief, carved, or plain.&rdquo;
+<i>Suma de todas las leyes</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1628), p. 42.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Describing how the monarch made these presents to the church
+when lying at the point of death, the <i>Chronicle of the Monk of Silos</i>
+says: &ldquo;<i>exuit regalem clamydem, qua induebatur corpus et deposuit
+gemmatam coronam, qua ambiebatur caput</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The formula is worded thus: &ldquo;<i>Quisquis ille fuerit qui talia
+commiserit, sit maledictus coram Deo et Angelis ejus, mendicitas
+et lepra prosapiam teneat suam et extraneus persistat a sancta
+communione, quatenus cum Juda, Christi proditore, ardendus permaneat
+in æterna damnatione.</i>&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> To keep the dust or rain from entering these trunks, they were
+covered, when on the march, with stout square cloths called
+<i>reposteros</i>, which were often richly worked and bore the owner's
+arms or monogram. The same word subsequently came to mean
+the tapestried or other decorative cloths displayed in Spain on gala
+days from balconies of public edifices, or the mansions of the
+aristocracy; but dictionaries which were printed at the close of the
+eighteenth century still define the <i>repostero</i> as &ldquo;caparison, a square
+cloth with the arms of a prince or lord on it, which serves to cover
+a led-horse, or sumpter-horse.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The wood-carving and decorative leather-work of older Spain
+will be described a little later on. As to the use of decorated leather
+by the Moors, in the small chamber of the Alhambra opening into
+the Mirador of Daraxa, and known as the Sala de los Ajimeces, is
+a bare space about nine feet in height, which runs the whole way
+round beneath the copious ornament of the remainder of the wall.
+Contreras says that the Moorish sultans used to hang these spaces
+with decorated leathers, tapestry, and armour. Sometimes the
+tapestry or leather would be worked or painted with hunting-scenes
+(<i>tardwahsh</i>&mdash;the chase of the lion, panther, or wild boar), or even
+with portraits of the sultans. Among these latter is the celebrated
+painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice, executed, as are its
+companions at each side of it, upon a leather groundwork with a
+plaster coating.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> I think this shows why to this day a Spaniard who professes to
+be an educated person will often wipe his or her mouth upon the
+tablecloth. Not many weeks ago I saw the elegantly dressed
+daughter of a Spanish member of Parliament perform this semi-oriental
+feat in an hotel at Granada. Montaigne would judge this
+<i>señorita</i> with benevolence; not so, I fear, my compatriots. Similarly,
+it is considered rude in Spain to stretch yourself; but not to
+spit upon the dining-room floor, or pick your teeth at table.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Mr Cunninghame Graham, visiting a Caid's house in present-day
+Morocco, noted, as the only furniture, &ldquo;leather-covered cushions,
+the cover cut into intricate geometric patterns; the room contained
+a small trunk-shaped box.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>West Barbary</i>, p. 150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal</i>, vol. iii., pp. 324, 327.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> &ldquo;Hónrale el Sr Roberto, alma del Rey, y <i>le ha dado Silla</i>, y le
+tuvo á su lado.&rdquo; Lope de Vega's comedy, <i>The Key of Honour</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The covers would be fastened by a lock and key, as a defence,
+not against poison, but against theft. &ldquo;A little afterwards Don
+Federico de Cardona, who had gone out to see how matters were
+proceeding, returned, bearing a large silver vessel, the cover of
+which was secured by a lock and key, as is the custom in Spain.&rdquo;&mdash;Countess
+d'Aulnoy's <i>Travels</i>. As late as the year 1792, Townsend,
+in his &ldquo;Directions to the Itinerant in Spain,&rdquo; recommends (vol. i., p.
+2) that the vessel to boil the traveller's meat should be provided with
+a cover and a lock.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The purpose of these Spanish city laws was in its essence unimpeachable;
+namely, to guard the intensely ignorant Christian
+populace&mdash;the same which fugitive Moriscos of the kingdom of
+Valencia had readily prevailed upon to barter tons of brass and
+pewter trash for sterling gold and silver coin&mdash;from being imposed
+upon by manufacturers and merchants. But the power of discriminating
+between a genuine or well-made object and a piece of
+counterfeit or worthless rubbish is, among all peoples, better sought
+for and developed by experience than by legislation; and there was
+something noxiously prosaic in a code of city ordinances which
+forbade the craftsman to prepare his own design, or choose his
+own material, or establish his own prices. How violently, or at
+least how primitively, hostile to the sense of art must not have been
+these Christian sons of Spain to need&mdash;or think they needed&mdash;so
+impertinent and tyrannous a system of protection!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Ordenanza de Mesoneros</i>, titulo 54.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>West Barbary</i>, p. 129.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Vol. v., pp. 301&ndash;304.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> &ldquo;Spain lays claim to the invention of the art of gilding leather;
+it is asserted that, after being discovered there, the secret was carried
+to Naples by Peter Paul Majorano.&rdquo;&mdash;Laborde, vol. v., p. 231.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Count of Clonard; <i>Memorias para la historia del traje español</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>, Nos. 101,
+102; Art. <i>Guadamacíes</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The <i>Poem of the Cid</i> tells us of the two chests, covered with red
+<i>guadamecí</i>, which the hero filled with sand to cheat the Jewish
+money-lenders:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Con vuestro consejo bastir quiero dos archas.</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Incamosla d'arena, cá bien serán pesadas,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Cubiertas de guadamecí é bien enclavadas;</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Los guadamecís bermeios é los clavos bien dorados.</i>&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the &ldquo;coffer of the Cid&rdquo; at Burgos (see p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>) does
+not appear to have been thus fitted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The same usage obtained in Morocco. Lancelot Addison
+wrote in 1669 that on the first day of their &ldquo;Little Feast&rdquo; the Moors
+across the Strait &ldquo;spread the floor of their Giammas with coloured
+leather.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>West Barbary</i>, p. 213.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> An inventory of effects belonging to the Hospital of San José at
+Jerez de la Frontera mentions, in 1589, &ldquo;clothes and trimmings for
+the image of Our Lady. A crown of gilded <i>guadamecí</i>.&rdquo;&mdash;Gestoso,
+<i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. i., p. xxii, <i>note</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> A hall, says Ramírez de Arellano, would often be embellished
+by surrounding it with arches wrought of leather in relief and
+superposed on leather. As a rule the arches were gilt and silvered,
+and rested upon pilasters or columns. When pilasters were used,
+their centres would be ornamented with Italian devices such as
+flowers, trophies, imitated cameos, and foliage. Landscapes with a
+far horizon and no figures, known as <i>boscaje</i> or <i>pintura verde</i> were
+painted on the space between the arches, so that the general effect
+was that of a pavilion with arches on all sides, displaying everywhere
+a wide expanse of fertile country. The arches rested on a
+broad bordering of <i>guadamecíes</i>, and running round the lower part
+was a <i>zócalo</i> or socle, commonly made of tiling.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the kind of decoration which was most in vogue in Spain
+throughout the latter half of the sixteenth century; that which was
+exported to Rome; and that which was commissioned by the Duke
+of Arcos.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i>, pp. 124, 125.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>&ldquo;Es noble arte, complida en sí; è acrescienta la nobleza del rey
+y del reyno, si en ella pararen mientes, como deuen; è pone paz en
+el pueblo y amor entre los omes, onde es carrera para muchos
+bienes.&rdquo;</i>&mdash;<i>Ordenanzas de Sevilla</i>, Part 1, p. 141.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Gestoso finds no record of him in the city archives; but from a
+rough portrait of Arenas prefixed to his treatise, we judge that he
+was born about the year 1580.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Arenas himself defines a <i>carpintero de lo blanco</i> as &ldquo;he who
+prepares and works upon the wood employed in building; also, he
+who fashions tables, benches, etc., in his workshop.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> &ldquo;His language abounds in Arabic words and phrases of uncertain
+origin, whose meaning (since he wrote for men familiar with
+this work) he makes no effort to explain.&rdquo;&mdash;Editor's introduction to
+the third edition of <i>Carpintería de lo Blanco</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Arabic <i>al-farx</i>, a carpet, piece of tapestry, or anything that covers
+and adorns.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> This mingled decoration is extremely common; and may be
+studied in our country, in the carved panels at South Kensington
+which are believed to proceed from the pulpit of the mosque of Kusun;
+or in the thirteenth-century panels of the tomb of Es-salih Ayyub.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Cordova was a famous centre of this craft for many centuries.
+Ramírez de Arellano has found and published a notice relative to
+Lope de Liaño and García Alonso, two artificers of this city who
+signed, on January 7th, 1572, a contract with the prior of the monastery
+of the Holy Martyrs to build a ceiling for one of the chapels
+of the same. The document, which is quoted <i>in extenso</i> in the
+<i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i> for November,
+1900, abounds in technical expressions, many of them partly or
+entirely Moorish.</p>
+
+<p>The same writer publishes the names (hitherto completely unrecorded)
+of thirteen other artist-carpenters who worked at Cordova
+in the latter half of the sixteenth century and early in the seventeenth.
+The craft, in fact, died hard, and ceilings of this kind,
+replete with Moorish detail, were made in certain parts of Southern
+Spain until the closing moments of the eighteenth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> That the Moors were proud of their mastery in woodwork is
+proved by an inscription in the Torre de la Cautiva at Granada,
+saying; &ldquo;In the plaster and the tiles is work of extreme beauty,
+<i>but the woodwork of the roof has vanquished them in elegance</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Morales was probably mistaken. &ldquo;On entering Aragon one
+sees whole forests of &lsquo;Spanish Cedar&rsquo; or <i>alerce</i>, some of the trees
+so thick that they measure four feet in diameter.&rdquo;&mdash;Bowles' <i>Natural
+History of Spain</i>, p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Antigüedades de las ciudades de España</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1575), p. 123.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> José Amador de los Ríos mentions, as a good example of the first
+of these types, a thirteenth-century door of the <i>claustrilla</i> in the
+monastery of Las Huelgas at Burgos. Other doors in the same
+monastery are illustrative of the second type; while all three types
+are represented by the doors, described herewith, which close the
+principal entrance to the misnamed Hall of Ambassadors in the
+Alcázar of Seville.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>Journal du Voyage en Espagne</i>, p. 85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The following words record the date of the construction of this
+place and its doors, and may be read (Plate <a href="#img_36.jpg">xiii</a>.) upon the scroll
+of tiles or <i>alizares</i> crowning the principal façade:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">&#9769; EL &#65072; MUY &#65072; ALTO &#65072; ET &#65072; MUY &#65072; NOBLE &#65072; ET &#65072; MUY &#65072;
+PODEROSO &#65072; ET &#65072; MUY &#65072; CONQUERIDOR &#65072; DON &#65072; PEDRO &#65072;
+POR &#65072; LA &#65072; GRACIA &#65072; DE &#65072; DIOS &#65072; REY &#65072; DE &#65072;
+CASTIELLA &#65072; ET &#65072; DE &#65072; LEON &#65072; MANDÓ &#65072; FACER &#65072; ESTOS &#65072;
+ALCÁZARES &#65072; ET &#65072; ESTOS &#65072; PALACIOS &#65072; ET &#65072; ESTAS &#65072;
+PORTADAS &#65072; QUE &#65072; FUÉ &#65072; FECHO &#65072; EN &#65072; LA &#65072; ERA &#65072;
+DE &#65072; MILL &#65072; ET &#65072; QUATROÇIENTOS &#65072; Y &#65072; DOS &#65072;</div>
+
+<p>The observant Swinburne was not misled, like many travellers of
+to-day, into believing the Alcázar to be of purely Moorish origin.
+&ldquo;Having read that the Moors built one part of this palace, I
+concluded I was admiring something as old as the Mahometan kings
+of Seville; but upon closer examination was not a little surprised
+to find <i>lions</i>, <i>castles</i>, and other armorial ensigns of Castille and
+Leon, interwoven with Arabesque foliages; and still more so, to
+see in large Gothic characters, an inscription informing me that
+these edifices were built in the fourteenth century, by the most
+mighty king of Castille and Leon, Don Pedro.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> &ldquo;The windows, which are chiefly composed of curious wooden
+lattice-work, serving to screen the inhabitants from the view of
+persons without, as also to admit both light and air, commonly project
+outwards, and are furnished with mattresses and cushions.&rdquo;&mdash;Lane's
+<i>Arabian Nights</i>, vol. i., p. 192.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> It is strange that Ford should have confounded the <i>reja</i> with
+the <i>celosía</i> (<i>Handbook</i>, vol. i., p. 153). However, he opportunely
+quotes the Spanish proverb, <i>Muger ventanera tuercela el cuello si la
+quieres buena</i> (&ldquo;The remedy for a woman who is always thrusting
+her head from the casement is to twist her neck&rdquo;).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Almagro Cardenas calls it &ldquo;part of a <i>celosía</i>&rdquo; (<i>Museo Granadino</i>,
+p. 79); but as it can never have been a window-grating, this term is
+incorrect. Gómez Moreno calls it, not too lucidly, &ldquo;a wooden balustrade
+forming squares and rectangular figures in the manner of a
+<i>celosía</i>&rdquo; (<i>Guía de Granada</i>, p. 421). Valladar (<i>Guía de Granada</i>,
+edition of 1906, p. 117) calls it simply a balustrade, and this, it
+seems to me, is the only term which truthfully describes the object.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> My readers are no doubt aware that every Spanish hamlet has
+its wooden image of the Virgin, badly executed as a rule, and
+rendered doubly hideous by a gaudy gown. Most of these local
+images are believed to hold the power of working miracles, or at
+least to have been fashioned and conducted to their present shrine
+by supernatural agency&mdash;on which account the populace and their
+pastors call these latter <i>imagenes aparecidas</i>, as distinct from <i>manufactured</i>
+images. Such are the Virgins of Montserrat, Granada,
+and numerous other cities, towns, or villages of this illiterate and
+ill-starred Peninsula. The curious may refer for every kind of
+detail to Villafañe's <i>Compendious History of the Wonder-working
+Images of Spain</i>, which numbered in this author's day (his book
+was published in 1740) one hundred and eighty-nine. But the most
+extraordinary miracle of all was that which is recalled, with pious
+gravity, by Bertaut de Rouen. Speaking of the gilt-wood image of
+Nuestra Señora del Pilar at Zaragoza, he says:&mdash;&ldquo;On y void quantité
+de lampes d'argent et on m'en raconta un miracle qu'il me
+fut impossible de ne pas croire. C'est d'un pauvre homme qui
+ayant eu la jambe coupée pour une blessure, et s'estant bien recommandé
+à <i>Nostra Señora del Pilar</i>, il se trouva un jour avec sa mesme
+jambe qu'il avoit déja fait enterrer. Y'ay sceu l'histoire du chirurgien
+mesme qui coupa cette jambe et de quantité de témoins de veuë.
+Il n'y a que quinze ans que cela est arrivé, mais l'homme est mort
+depuis peu.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Journal du Voyage en Espagne</i>, p. 203.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> It is due to Martínez Montañes to mention that in many of his
+contracts he stipulated that the painters of his statuary should be
+chosen by himself, &ldquo;so as not to corrupt the outline and the
+sentiment of the figures.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> In Spanish he is called Felipe de Borgoña, but Martí y Monsó
+says that the proper spelling of the surname is Biguerny.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las
+Bellas Artes en España</i>, pp. 161, 162.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> &ldquo;The stalls of the choir are neatly carved, and hung with
+escutcheons of princes and noblemen, among which I remarked the
+arms of our Henry the Eighth.&rdquo;&mdash;Swinburne.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> This kind of parenthetical remark or prayer is one of the many
+Muslim phrases that have passed into the regular service of the
+Spanish Christian.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Wood is the usual material for these altar-screens, though sometimes
+marble was employed, or stone, or silver. Of Genoese marble
+is the <i>retablo</i> (end of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth
+century) of the Cartuja del Paular in the Lozoya valley; of stone,
+those of the parish church of San Nicolás at Burgos (end of the
+fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century), and of the &ldquo;chapel
+of the tailors&rdquo; in Tarragona Cathedral; while a silver <i>retablo</i>, in the
+Renaissance style, was that of the church, now demolished, of
+Santa María at Madrid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Descripción de la Catedral de Sevilla</i>, pp. 27, 28.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="IVORIES" id="IVORIES">IVORIES</a></h2>
+
+<p>The story of Spanish ivory-work is shortly told,
+for probably no craft, excepting glass, has been so
+little practised in this country. The older Spanish
+writers rarely mention it, although from time to
+time this substance may have been employed for
+carving diptyches and boxes, and Roderick is
+stated to have entered the battle of the Guadalete
+in an ivory car, by which is meant, perhaps, a
+chariot of Byzantine make or pattern, covered
+with ivory plates. However, properly speaking,
+the history of this art as exercised in Spain begins
+in the eleventh century, attains its prime towards
+the fourteenth century, and ceases altogether at
+the time of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>Among the ivory objects now preserved in
+Spain, and which were wrought by artists other
+than Mohammedan, none is more interesting or
+important than the consular diptych of Oviedo
+cathedral. Although this valuable diptych was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+not made in Spain, but manifests Byzantine art in
+all its purity, it well deserves to be described. It
+consists of two ivory tablets measuring sixteen
+inches and a half in height by twelve inches and a
+half across both leaves. Each leaf has a simple
+border of a triple form, and just inside each corner
+is a circular floral ornament in relief, with a lion's
+head in the centre. Another ornament, also circular,
+is in the centre of each leaf, and contains,
+carved within a graceful S-shaped border, a half-length
+portrait of the Consul, who is represented
+in the act of throwing down into the amphitheatre
+his <i>mappa</i> or handkerchief<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> with his right hand,
+while in his left he holds the sceptre (<i>scipio imaginifer</i>),
+crowned with a small bust. His hair is
+curled in the Byzantine fashion, and his costume
+is a richly decorated toga.</p>
+
+<p>An inscription runs along the top of either
+tablet, between the border and the circular devices
+carved with flowers. It says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Flavius Strategius Apion&mdash;Strategius Apion.
+Vir inlustris Comes Devotissimorum Domesticorum
+et Consul ordinarius.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_90.jpg" width="500" height="327"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_90.jpg" id="img_90.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXVII<br />IVORY BOX<br />
+(<i>9th Century. Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We gather, therefore, that this magnate was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+chamberlain at court, as well as ordinary consul.</p>
+
+<p>Diptyches were used among the Romans for all
+kinds of purposes, such as to convey love-messages,
+as invitations to a banquet, or to notify the celebration
+of feasts and games. We find the diptych
+also used in Christian temples from the time of
+Constantine, serving to record church festivals or
+names of saints and martyrs, as covers for a copy
+of the gospel (<i>diptycha evangeliorum</i>), or as reliquaries
+(<i>thecae reliquiarum</i>). Sometimes these
+diptyches were wrought expressly for the church,
+or sometimes they were consular diptyches that
+had been preserved from former ages. This latter
+class, when cleansed from pagan usage and devoted
+to the ceremonies of the Christian faith, was
+known as <i>diptycha mixta</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Such early objects as were wrought in ivory by
+Spanish hands, consisting as a rule of circular or
+oblong, square or oval caskets, were principally
+carved by Moors or Mudejares. Among the
+Spanish-Moorish boxes which are still preserved
+are several of the greatest interest and beauty
+(Plates <a href="#img_92.jpg">xxxviii</a>., <a href="#img_94.jpg">xxxix</a>., <a href="#img_96.jpg">xl</a>.). One of them, made
+from pieces of an older casket believed to date
+from earlier than the Moorish conquest, is in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+the National Museum. The decoration in its
+present form consists of Arabic inscriptions in
+relief, together with figures of the apostles. This
+casket, which proceeds from the Colegiata of Saint
+Isidore at León, measures seven inches in length
+by five in depth and six in height, and has been
+used as a reliquary.</p>
+
+<p>Another, dating from the middle of the eleventh
+century and proceeding from the same temple as
+the one just noticed, is also in the National
+Museum. It was a present from the Emir Mohammed
+Almotamid-Aben-Abed to his second
+wife, Al-Badir (&ldquo;the Moon&rdquo;), and includes among
+the decoration dogs and doves, symbolic of affection
+and fidelity. The style of carving is what is
+known as Persian-Arabic. We do not know,
+however, whether the box was imported from the
+East, or whether it was made in Spain by somebody
+of Persian parentage or skilled in Persian
+art. The material is a delicate <i>taracea</i> of sandal,
+aloe, and cypress woods inlaid on larch. The
+box, which was used at León as a reliquary, has
+bronze clasps, and is inscribed along the top with
+sentences from which we learn that it was made
+by Aben-As-Serag.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_92.jpg" width="500" height="320"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_92.jpg" id="img_92.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXVIII<br />IVORY CASKET<br />
+(<i>Moorish; 11th Century. Pamplona Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the cathedral of Pamplona is a magnificent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+ivory box (Plate <a href="#img_92.jpg">xxxviii</a>.) which was originally at
+Sangüesa in Navarre. It measures, says Riaño,
+fifteen inches long by nine and a quarter inches
+wide. &ldquo;It is completely covered with carvings
+in relief, within circular cusped medallions, with
+figures in the centres representing different
+subjects; men seated, hawking, or struggling
+with wild beasts, and numerous single figures of
+lions, stags, and other animals. The intermediate
+spaces contain an ornamentation of leaves and
+flowers which is accommodated to the geometrical
+style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of
+this box appears an Arabic inscription in fine
+Cufic characters:&mdash;&lsquo;In the name of God. The
+blessing of God, the complete felicity, the happiness,
+the fulfilment of the hope of good works,
+and the adjourning the fatal period (of death), be
+with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the State),
+Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made
+by the orders (of the said Hagib), under the inspection
+or direction of his chief eunuch, Nomayr
+ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave, in the year
+of 395 (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1005).&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the centre medallion, on the opposite side
+to the lock, is represented the standing figure of
+a man who is attacked by two lions. He holds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an
+inscription, with the following religious formula:
+&lsquo;There is no god but God,&rsquo; or a similar one,
+for the characters are very illegible and confused.
+In the centre of this shield may be read the words,
+&lsquo;Made by Hair,&rsquo; undoubtedly one of the artists
+who made the box. Another artist's name may
+be read with difficulty in a similar inscription
+which appears on one of the medallions on the
+left side; it is written on the thigh of a stag,
+which is attacked by a lion: &lsquo;It was made by
+Obeidat.&rsquo; Three other inscriptions of a similar
+character appear in other parts of this box, which
+probably give the names of other artists, but I
+have been unable to decipher them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_94.jpg" width="500" height="325"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_94.jpg" id="img_94.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXIX<br />IVORY BOX<br />
+(<i>11th Century. Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other interesting boxes dating from the same
+period are that of Santo Domingo de Silos at
+Burgos, and several which are in the National
+Museum at Madrid. The box which is preserved
+at Burgos is made of ivory, and measures thirteen
+inches and a quarter in length by seven inches
+and a half in width and height. The decorative
+work consists of hunting scenes, and also of an
+inscription in Cufic characters which says: &ldquo;Permanent
+felicity for the owner (of this box). May
+God lengthen his days. It was made at Medina &hellip;;<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+in the year four hundred and seventeen (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span>
+1025). It is the work of his servant Mohammed-ibn-Zeiyan.
+May God glorify him.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There is also in the provincial museum of
+Burgos a handsome ivory diptych which was
+formerly at the convent of Santo Domingo de
+Silos. It bears at each extremity&mdash;that is, four
+times repeated&mdash;the following inscription:&mdash;&ldquo;This
+was ordered to be made by the Iman, servant
+of God, Abd-er-Rhaman, prince of believers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Among the rectangular boxes in the National
+Museum is one of carved ivory, with an inscription
+recording it to have been a gift from Prince Ali
+to one of the favourites of his harem, and another
+of the same material which was once upon a time
+at Carrion de los Condes, in the province of
+Palencia. This box is painted with a decorative
+pattern in carmine and dark green. The lid,
+which is imperfect, contains the following inscription
+in Cufic characters, standing boldly out
+against a green ground:&mdash;&ldquo;In the name of
+Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The
+protection of Allah and an impending victory
+for the servant of Allah &hellip;; and his wali Maad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+Abu-Temim&mdash;the Iman Al-Moez &hellip;; prince of
+believers (the blessing of Allah be upon him
+and his sons the good). (This) was commanded
+to be made for (celebrating) the fortunate
+victory. It was made by &hellip;; Jorasani.&rdquo; The
+length of this box is eighteen inches, and its
+height nine inches.</p>
+
+<p>A fine Moorish box (Plate <a href="#img_94.jpg">xxxix</a>.), now in the
+cathedral of Palencia, is covered with elaborately
+engraved and perforated ivory plates upon a
+ground of gilt leather backed by wood, and
+further ornamented with enamel-work upon a
+copper surface. This box is fourteen inches
+long, and has a gable top. The decoration
+on the sides and lid consists of palm-leaves,
+birds, and men engaged in combating and
+chasing antelopes and lions in the characteristic
+manner of Assyrian art. A lengthy Cufic inscription
+tells us that the box was made at Cuenca
+(<i>Medina Cuenca</i>) by Abd-er-Rahman ben Ziyan,
+to the order of the Moorish princes of Toledo,
+and that it dates from the year 441 of the Hegira.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>
+Vives has pointed out that Cuenca was evidently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+a principal centre of this industry, and that
+caskets executed here about this time exist in
+Perpignan cathedral and in the provincial museum
+of Burgos.</p>
+
+<p>Riaño mentions seven ivory boxes of particular
+interest, which were probably made in Spain by
+Spanish Arabs, or else by Eastern craftsmen
+who had emigrated to this country. &ldquo;On all
+their carving,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;the names of Spanish
+historical persons appear, and it is hardly possible
+that they were ordered in remote countries, especially
+as some of these objects are small and comparatively
+unimportant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_96.jpg" width="500" height="312"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_96.jpg" id="img_96.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XL<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE IVORY CASKET<br />
+(<i>13th Century. Royal Academy of History, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two of these boxes are in the South Kensington
+Museum. The one which is cylindrical in shape
+and has a domed cover is thus described by
+Maskell in his <i>Ivories, Ancient and Mediæval,
+in the South Kensington Museum</i>:&mdash;&ldquo;This beautiful
+box is carved throughout, except the bottom
+of it, with interlacing narrow bands forming
+quatrefoils, in which, on the cover, are four eagles.
+These have spread wings and stand erect; well
+designed and most delicately executed. A small
+knob serves to lift the lid.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a
+star having a leaf ornament. The same decoration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+is repeated in the spaces between the larger quatrefoils
+on the cover.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The whole is carved in pierced work, except a
+band which forms the upper upright portion of the
+box, round the side of the lid. This band has an
+Arabic inscription: &lsquo;A favour of God to the
+servant of God, Al Hakem al Mostanser Billah,
+commander of the faithful.&rsquo; He was a Caliph
+who reigned at Cordova, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 961&ndash;976.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The other box is oblong and rectangular.
+&ldquo;The cover and sides are carved with scroll
+foliated ornament; the hinges and clasp are of
+chased silver inlaid with niello. Round the sides,
+immediately below the lid, is the following Arabic
+inscription in Cufic characters:&mdash;&lsquo;In the name of
+God. This (box) was ordered to be made by
+Seidat Allah, the wife of Abd-er-Rahman, prince
+of the believers. God be merciful and satisfied
+with him.&rsquo;&rdquo; This inscription, adds Riaño, &ldquo;must
+allude to Abd-er-Rahman the Third, the first
+Caliph of Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el
+Mumenin. The formula &lsquo;God be merciful,&rsquo; etc.,
+denotes that he was dead when it was written.
+He died <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 961.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_98.jpg" width="314" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_98.jpg" id="img_98.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLI<br />IVORY CRUCIFIX<br />
+(<i>11th Century. Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another Spanish-Moorish casket, also at South
+Kensington, and dating from the eleventh century,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+is described by Maskell as &ldquo;richly carved in deep
+relief with foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing
+one another, and forming larger and smaller
+circles. The top and each side is a single plaque
+of ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back has
+two panels. On the two are two animals, like
+doves; a large bird stands at the back of each,
+attacking it with his beak. The sloping sides
+have, in the large circles, men on horseback, and
+animals fighting. The intermediate spaces are
+completely filled with foliage, and smaller beasts.
+Similar subjects are repeated in the circles on the
+panels forming the lower sides of the casket, and
+among them are two groups of men and women
+sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on
+a guitar, another holding a cup in one hand and a
+flower in the other.&rdquo; Riaño adds: &ldquo;There is no
+inscription on this casket, but in one of the
+medallions on the lid there is a bust, which is
+carried on the back of a horse, and which is
+probably a representation of the prince for whom
+the casket was made.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_99.jpg" width="351" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_99.jpg" id="img_99.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLI (<i>a</i>)<br />IVORY CRUCIFIX<br />
+(<i>11th Century. Back view. Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Letter of Testament</i> setting forth the
+various objects bequeathed by Ferdinand the
+First and his consort Sancha to the church of
+Saint John the Baptist (or of Saint Isidore) at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+León, mentions an ivory cross (which will be
+noticed presently), an ivory box fitted with gold,
+and two ivory boxes fitted with silver, one of
+them containing three other silver boxes, similarly
+decorated.</p>
+
+<p>One of these boxes is described by Ambrosio
+de Morales, and from his words we conclude it
+to be the one which was adorned with gold,
+&ldquo;of which metal,&rdquo; he wrote in 1572, &ldquo;it has even
+more than of ivory,&rdquo; adding that it measured more
+than half a yard in length, and enshrined the body
+of Saint Vincent of Avila. He also tells us that
+it bore the following inscription, carved upon a
+golden frieze:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">ARCULA SANCTORUM MICAT HAEC SUB HONORE DUORUM<br />
+BAPTISTAE SANCTI JOHANNIS SIVE PELAGII<br />
+CEU REX FERNANDUS, REGINAQUE SANTIA, FIERI JUSSIT.<br />
+ERA MILLENA SEPTENA SEU NONAGENA.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></div>
+
+<p>This <i>arca</i> has been much mutilated, and stripped
+of all the precious metal. Morales' description
+is therefore of especial value, as are the ivory
+tablets (eleventh century), carved with Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+themes, which yet remain upon the body of
+the box.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_100.jpg" width="335" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_100.jpg" id="img_100.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLII<br />BYZANTINE CRUCIFIX</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Dating from the thirteenth century is a Moorish
+casket (Plate <a href="#img_96.jpg">xl</a>.), preserved in the Academy
+of History at Madrid, and proceeding from
+the Carthusian monastery of Val de Cristo at
+Segorbe. It measures a foot in length by eight
+inches in height and four and a half inches in
+depth. The lid is deeply bevelled, and contains
+on each of the bevelled sides shields with the
+bars which constitute the arms of Aragon, painted
+upon a gold ground, together with imperial eagles
+painted in black upon a carmine ground. A
+decorative device of leaves and stems is also
+painted on the ivory.</p>
+
+<p>Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos believes that this
+casket was captured in war by Jayme the First
+of Aragon, remaining with successive princes of
+his line until the reign of Don Martin, by
+whom it was presented to the monastery. The
+shields would thus be added to the primitive
+Moorish casket by some Christian-Spanish
+painter.</p>
+
+<p>The ivory crucifix (Plates <a href="#img_98.jpg">xli</a>. and <a href="#img_99.jpg">xli</a>. (<i>a</i>)), of
+Ferdinand the First and Doña Sancha, made in
+the first half of the eleventh century, and offered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+by these sovereigns to the church of Saint John
+the Baptist (or of Saint Isidore) at León, measures
+twenty-one inches in length by thirteen inches and
+a half in height. The figure of Christ recalls the
+rigidness and rudeness of Byzantine craftsmanship,
+such as is found in ancient crucifixes still
+preserved in Spain (Plate <a href="#img_100.jpg">xlii</a>.). The pupils of the
+enormous, expressionless eyes are made of jet.
+We see the wound upon each foot, with wavy
+marks to imitate the flowing blood, but no trace
+of a nail. Nails, however, transfix the hands.
+The arms are separate from the trunk, but the
+<i>suppedaneum</i> on which the feet are resting is of
+a single piece with the body of the figure.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of the cross, especially about the
+borders, contains elaborate decoration, including
+animals and foliage. Above the Saviour's head is
+the inscription:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">IHS NAZA<br />
+RENVS REX<br />
+IVDEORVM</p>
+
+<p>Above this is another figure of Christ seated,
+crowned with a cruciform nimbus and holding a
+Greek processional cross. Beneath the feet of
+the larger figure is Adam in an uncouth posture,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+turning his head to gaze upward, and at the
+lower extremity of the cross are carved the
+words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">FERDINANDVS REX<br />
+SANCIA REGINA</p>
+
+<p>The lateral arms are carved with numerous
+devices forming an effective whole, including
+animals upon a tessellated band which seems to
+imitate a groundwork of mosaic. Other subjects
+represented are the Resurrection of the Flesh,
+the ascent of the blessed to Heaven, and the fall
+of the wicked to Hell.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_102.jpg" width="373" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_102.jpg" id="img_102.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLIII<br />&ldquo;THE VIRGIN OF BATTLES&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>13th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Upon the obverse side are pairs of quadrupeds,
+birds, and serpents, among a maze of foliage,
+together with the eagle, lion, lamb, and ox, as
+symbols of the evangelists. The lion and the ox
+have wings, and at the foot of the cross is an
+angel.</p>
+
+<p>The carving of the Saviour's form is clearly
+inferior to that of the decoration which surrounds
+it. Amador de los Ríos seeks to account for this
+by declaring that &ldquo;the difficulty from the point of
+view of art increases in proportion as the size of
+the figure is required to be larger&rdquo;&mdash;a statement
+with which I wholly disagree. I believe, in
+fact, that in this cross the figure of Christ and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+the surrounding ornamentation are not by the
+same hand, and that the carver of the decorative
+detail was simply the better craftsman of the two.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the statuettes of the Virgin which
+are preserved in Spain were probably made in
+France. One that is typically and unquestionably
+Spanish is the celebrated &ldquo;Virgin of Battles&rdquo;
+(Plate <a href="#img_102.jpg">xliii</a>.), now guarded, together with other
+relics of Saint Ferdinand (see Vol. I., Plate <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#img_64.jpg">xi</a>xi.),
+in the Chapel Royal of Seville cathedral. These
+statuettes, the use of which originated with the
+Greek emperors, and which were called by the
+Byzantines <i>socia belli</i>, consist of a seated figure of
+the Virgin with a small door opening underneath
+her throne, and served as reliquaries, and also as
+a kind of talisman. Boutelou says that the Spanish
+warriors of the Middle Ages were accustomed to
+carry these images to war with them, fitted upon
+a pin protruding from the left side of the saddle-bow.
+The &ldquo;Virgin of Battles,&rdquo; made in Spain
+in the early part of the thirteenth century, was
+thus carried by King Ferdinand the Saint, resting
+between his shield or <i>rodela</i> and his left arm, and
+so protected, and protecting, in the brunt of war.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_104.jpg" width="346" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_104.jpg" id="img_104.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLIV<br />SPANISH MEDIÆVAL <i>BACULUS</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The image is of ivory, and measures seventeen
+inches in height. The style is primitive Gothic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+not as yet emancipated from Romanic and Byzantine
+art; and the expression of the Madonna and
+her Babe is marked by an engaging sweetness.
+Through lapse of centuries, myriads of diminutive
+cracks have opened on the surface of the ivory,
+and this has turned, in colour, to a brightish
+yellow. The right arm of the Virgin was broken
+off at some time prior to the sixteenth century,
+and has been replaced by another one. Mother
+and Child wear crowns of silver-gilt which probably
+were added later, and the hair, lips, and
+eyes have been badly painted or repainted with
+discordant colouring. A four-sided hole bored
+deep into the ivory served for holding the image
+to the <i>perno</i> which projected from the monarch's
+saddle-bow.</p>
+
+<p>A few elaborate <i>baculi</i> or pastoral staves
+(Plate <a href="#img_104.jpg">xliv</a>.) exist in Spain, including one of the
+fourteenth century, in ivory, which belonged to the
+late Marquis of Monistrol, and is carved with the
+Crucifixion and also with the Virgin contemplating
+the Holy Infant as He is offered cups by angels.
+Another interesting Spanish baculus, though not
+of ivory, but copper decorated with turquoises and
+bright blue enamel, belonged to Bishop Pelayo
+de Cebeyra of Mondoñedo (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1199&ndash;1218), and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+has been preserved, together with that prelate's
+gilded shoes. In the celebrated processions of
+Santiago, at which Alfonso the Sixth was personally
+present, magnificent ivory <i>baculi</i> were borne,
+not only by the archbishop (<i>eburnea virga pontificali
+decoratus</i>), but even by the choristers.</p>
+
+<p>Between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries,
+Spanish craftsmen produced a fair quantity
+of ivory boxes, reliquaries, diptyches, triptyches,
+combs, and other less important objects. A
+fifteenth-century ivory spoon, ten inches long,
+whose handle is carved with six crocodiles, is in
+the National Museum, and may be Spanish work.
+In the same collection are one or two ivory
+diptyches and leaves of diptyches, and a wooden
+box (fourteenth century), with figures of carved
+ivory representing passages from the life of Saint
+George upon the body of the box, and from the Old
+Testament upon the lid. A carved Renaissance
+temple of the same material, with the Virgin and
+Child in its interior, is probably Italian.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_106.jpg" width="600" height="368"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_106.jpg" id="img_106.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLV<br />&ldquo;A TOURNAMENT&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Carved lid of box in ivory; 14th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the fortieth volume of <i>España Sagrada</i> it is
+stated that four ivory diptyches (<i>quatuor dictacos
+eburneos</i>) were offered in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 897 to Lugo
+cathedral by Alfonso the Third and his queen
+Jimena. Other ivory diptyches were presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1063 by Ferdinand the Second to the
+church of Saint Isidore at León. José Villa-amil,
+in his study of an ivory statuette of the
+Virgin, belonging to the nuns of Allariz (<i>Boletín
+de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>; nos. 76
+and 77), mentions a carved ivory box (<i>capsa
+eburnea</i>) made in the year 1122 for Santiago
+cathedral by order of Archbishop Gelmirez;
+another which existed in the sixteenth century in
+the church of Santa María at Finisterre; and a
+third, used as a reliquary, which in 1572 was
+opened by the monks of Samos in presence of
+Ambrosio de Morales.</p>
+
+<p>During the Middle Ages portable altars (<i>altares
+portátiles</i>) were widely used in Spain, and some
+were made of ivory. It was the custom to open
+them at the time of prayer, and as a rule
+they rested upon <i>reclinatorios</i> or hung upon the
+wall. The <i>imagen abriente</i> or &ldquo;opening image&rdquo;
+was also popular in Spain throughout the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries. As the name implies,
+these images opened in the manner of a triptych,
+and were very often used as reliquaries. Specimens
+are preserved in many parts of Europe,
+but only one or two exist in Spain and Portugal.
+That which belongs to the nuns of Allariz dates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+from the end of the thirteenth century, and was a
+present from Queen Violante. It is described
+fantastically by Morales, and accurately by Villa-amil,
+but the quaintest account is by the chronicler
+Jacobo de Castro. It measures, Castro tells us,
+&ldquo;about half-a-yard in length and is one of the
+fairest ever seen, since it opens downward from
+the neck, discovering, on plates of half-relief, the
+principal mysteries of Christ and of Our Lady.
+The devotion towards it of the people in this
+neighbourhood exceeds description, and God has
+wrought a quantity of miracles through the
+intercession thereof.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A fourteenth-century triptych carved in bone
+with scenes from Scripture is in the National
+Museum. It proceeds from Aragon, and is said to
+have belonged to Jayme the Conqueror. The
+Escorial possesses a handsome ivory diptych
+(Plate <a href="#img_108.jpg">xlvi</a>.) which is either Spanish or Italian&mdash;probably
+the former. It measures exactly a foot
+in height by nine inches across both leaves, and
+is deeply carved with passages from the life of
+Christ. The style is late Romanic merging into
+Gothic, and points to the second half of the
+thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_108.jpg" width="387" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_108.jpg" id="img_108.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLVI<br />IVORY DIPTYCH<br />
+(<i>13th Century. El Escorial</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> as a signal to begin the sport. The same usage (except that
+the handkerchief is waved, and not thrown down) is followed at this
+moment in the Spanish bull-ring.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> At this break in the inscription Riaño professed to discover the
+beginning of the word <i>Cuenca</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Detailed accounts of this casket will be found in the <i>Boletín de
+la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i> for June 1893, and in the
+<i>Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia</i>, vol. xx.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1059.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="POTTERY" id="POTTERY">POTTERY</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ANCIENT</h3>
+
+<p>Quantities of ancient common pottery have been,
+and are continually being found in many parts of
+Spain. Prehistoric cups, shaped with the fingers
+and dried and hardened by the sun, are preserved
+in the Museum of History at Barcelona. They
+were discovered at Argar. Similar objects have
+been extracted from the caves of Segóbriga,
+Lóbrega in Old Castile, and El Tesoro in the
+province of Málaga. Those which were found at
+Segóbriga are divided by Capelle into six groups,
+one of which includes a vessel resembling the
+ordinary Spanish pitcher of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Villa-amil y Castro has described in the <i>Museo
+Español de Antigüedades</i> pieces of prehistoric
+sun-dried ware discovered in Galicia, roughly
+decorated with patterns imprinted by the finger.
+In other instances a double spiral has been described<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+with a pointed instrument about the
+vessel's neck. Similar fragments have been
+found by Góngora in Andalusia. Celtic pottery
+was found in 1862 by Captain Brome on Windmill
+Hill at Gibraltar, in 1866 by M. Lartet in
+the caves of Torrecilla de Cameros, and by
+Casiano de Prado in a cave near Pedraza, as well
+as at Navares de Ayuso and elsewhere. In
+central Spain, vessels of the Celtiberian era have
+been found in tombs at Prádena, and pieces of
+red Saguntine ware, with dark red decoration, at
+Otero de Herreros, close to vestiges of a Roman
+mine. Lecea y García describes in his work on
+<i>Old Segovian Industries</i> a Celtiberian plate of
+reddish clay covered with black varnish, which
+was dug up some years ago in a garden at that
+town. This plate, measuring no less than four
+feet in diameter, and containing two inscriptions
+in characters believed to be Celtiberian, as well
+as the figure of a warrior armed with a lance and
+three javelins, was submitted to Heiss, who wrote
+of it in the <i>Gazette Archéologique</i> and pronounced
+it to be genuine. I have not seen the plate in
+question. I have, however, met with cleverly
+executed forgeries, also varnished black, of
+primitive Spanish pottery.</p>
+
+<p>In 1899 quantities of Celtic ware, believed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+date from the time of the Ph&oelig;nicians, or even
+earlier, were unearthed by M. Bonsor from tumuli
+in the Guadalquivir valley. These objects are
+ornamented in relief with complicated patterns
+paler than the ground, obtained by using lighter-coloured
+clay. &ldquo;As similar Celtic pottery has
+been found in Portugal, it will be understood that
+the Celtic influence, having crossed the Pyrenees,
+reached the south by the western seaboard. It
+will thus be seen that long before the arrival of
+the Romans a relatively high degree of civilisation
+had been reached at least in the south of
+Spain.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1905 two German archæologists,
+Messrs. Schulten and Könen, who had
+obtained permission from the Spanish Government
+to explore the site of old Numancia, filled four
+large cases with the Celtiberian pottery they
+extracted from the ruins. These cases were forwarded
+to the University of Göttingen. I understand,
+however, that they have been returned,
+or are to be returned immediately, to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Long before the Christian era, Greek colonies
+existed on the Spanish coast at Rhodas, Denia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+Emporium (Ampurias), Saguntum (Murviedro),
+and elsewhere. Pottery of good design and workmanship
+was manufactured at these towns, and
+strongly influenced native art. Bowls and other
+objects showing such an influence were discovered
+by M. Bonsor in his recent excavations. Another
+powerful influence was that of Rome. Roman
+potteries existed in the suburb of Seville called
+Triana, and in the provinces of Cáceres and
+Badajoz. Mérida was also an important centre
+of this industry, and vessels which were used in
+sacred rites, such as the <i>aquiminarium</i>, the
+<i>prefericulum</i>, the <i>simpulum</i>, and the <i>urnula</i>, were
+discovered here not long ago. The name
+&ldquo;Saguntine ware&rdquo; was given by the Romans to a
+kind of pottery which seems to have been made
+along the Spanish littoral extending southward
+from Saguntum. Fragments of this pottery,
+which closely resembles the Arezzo ware,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+found in shoals upon the sites of Roman towns,
+particularly Tarragona. These <i>barros saguntinos</i>,
+or (as Hübner prefers to call them) <i>barros
+tarraconenses</i>, have been divided into four classes,
+namely, white, grey, red (covered with a dark red
+varnish),<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> and yellow striped with red. This ware
+is commonly adorned with garlands, animals,
+hunting-scenes, divinities, games, or religious
+ceremonies, and also bears, in nearly every case, the
+potter's name or mark; <i>e.g.</i> <span class="smcap">ALBINVS F</span> (&ldquo;Albinus
+fecit&rdquo;) or <span class="smcap">OF. ALBIN</span> (&ldquo;officina Albini&rdquo;). More
+than two hundred marks have been discovered
+which were used by potters of Ampurias alone.</p>
+
+<p>There seems to be no doubt that Saguntum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+and Emporium were principal centres of this
+industry, and possibly, since these towns were
+old Greek settlements, the <i>barros saguntinos</i> were
+of Grecian origin. Pella y Forgas, describing in
+his <i>History of the Ampurdan</i> the fine red ware
+of this locality, says that parts of the decoration
+were fashioned on the wheel, others directly by
+the potter's hand, and others from a mould, while
+the ornament of dotted lines was made by the
+wheeled <i>roulette</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Among the commoner objects dating from
+this time are amphoræ and small earthen lamps
+(Pl. <a href="#img_116.jpg">xlvii</a>.). These lamps have been discovered in
+great numbers, and, owing to the dryness of the
+Spanish soil, in excellent preservation. They
+measure about the size of the hand, and have two
+holes, one in the spout or beak, to hold the wick,
+and the other at the top, for pouring in the oil.
+The top, which as a rule is slightly concave, is
+often ornamented with devices in relief, such as a
+chariot and its driver, or the emblem of a deity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_116.jpg" width="600" height="393"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_116.jpg" id="img_116.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLVII<br />AMPHORAIC VASES AND OTHER POTTERY<br />
+(<i>Museum of Tarragona</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The typical amphora was a long, narrow vessel
+(usually of earthenware; less frequently of brass
+or glass), with an elongated handle at either side
+of the neck, and tapering nearly to a point. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+served for storing honey, oil, or wine, and in order
+to keep it upright the pointed lower end was
+stuck into the soil, or rested on a perforated
+wooden stand. In the spring of 1893 some fishermen
+drew up in their nets, just off the coast of
+Alicante, three large intact amphoræ thickly cased
+with shells, and sold them for eight dollars each.
+Other fine amphoræ, now in the collection of the
+Marquis of Cerralbo, were washed upon the
+beach at Torrevieja, and many more are in
+museums. Vessels of this kind are known to
+have been made at Rhodas (Rosas) and Saguntum,
+and their use continued in Spain until the downfall
+of the second empire.</p>
+
+<h3>HISPANO-MORESQUE NON-LUSTRED POTTERY</h3>
+
+<p>The statements of Saint Isidore, confirmed
+by one or two discoveries in southern Spain,
+prove that the pottery in use among the Visigoths
+was principally Roman. Probably in this, as in so
+many of her arts, the Moorish conquest brought
+about a radical and rapid change. Remains of
+pottery dating from this period are extremely
+rare. The provincial museum of Granada contains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+some bowls and plates, all more or less imperfect,
+which are ascribed by experts to about the
+year 1000. These objects, which were dug up in
+1878 on the slopes of the Sierra Elvira, a few
+miles from Granada, are coloured black and green
+upon a white or whitish ground. The most important
+is a dish which measures fourteen inches
+in diameter, and is decorated with a falcon on a
+horse's back (Plate <a href="#img_118.jpg">xlviii</a>.).<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> All of this pottery
+shows the double influence of Byzantium and the
+East. Among the designs upon the other pieces
+are hares and stags surrounded by a bordering of
+primitive arabesques. Riaño remarks that &ldquo;it is
+almost impossible to assert whether this pottery
+was made in or imported into Spain.&rdquo; Nevertheless,
+Persians are stated to have settled in this
+region early in the days of Muslim rule, while
+these dilapidated specimens of ancient ware are
+greatly similar in colouring and substance to the
+common dishes and <i>barreños</i> which are still produced
+throughout the province of Granada.</p>
+
+<p>Moorish potteries producing lustred or non-lustred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+ware existed from an early date at Málaga,
+Valencia, Toledo, Calatayud, Murviedro, Murcia,
+and Barcelona. Another centre of this craft was
+probably Granada; for though she is not mentioned
+in this sense by any of the Moorish authors, the
+late Señor Contreras discovered here the vestiges
+of two ancient potteries, while one of the old
+entrances was known as Bab Alfajjarin, or &ldquo;the
+potters' gate.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_118.jpg" width="500" height="402"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_118.jpg" id="img_118.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLVIII<br />DISH<br />
+(<i>About A.D. 1000. Museum of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Ordinances of Granada contain provisions
+which were evidently copied from the Spanish
+Moors, relating to the <i>almadraveros</i> or tilemakers,
+the <i>tinajeros</i> or makers of <i>tinajas</i>, and the <i>olleros</i>
+or potters generally. The Ordinances which
+concern the tilemakers are dated between 1528
+and 1540. The restrictions imposed upon these
+craftsmen were irksome, foolish, and unnecessary.
+All bricks and tiles were to be stamped in three
+places with the city mark, and were only permitted
+to be made between the first of April and the
+thirty-first of October in each year, &ldquo;since what
+is made at other seasons is not good or perfect,
+owing to the rain, and cold, and frost.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another Ordinance, illustrating the lawlessness
+prevailing at Granada in the times succeeding the
+reconquest, complains that &ldquo;many persons, including<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+labourers and hodmen, go forth into the
+roads and streets, and seize the tiles and bricks
+by violence from those who are conveying them,
+and bear them to their houses, or to the work
+which they are paid to do.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A picturesque, though cheap and unluxurious,
+vessel of a thoroughly eastern character, and
+which was very largely manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors, is the terra-cotta <i>tinaja</i> or
+gigantic jar for storing wine, or olive oil, or grain
+(Plate <a href="#img_120.jpg">xlix</a>.). The use of these receptacles extended
+through the whole Peninsula, and has continued
+undiminished to this day. The principal
+centres of <i>tinaja</i>-making were Toledo, Seville,
+and Granada. The Ordinances of the latter town
+embody Moorish rules relating to this branch
+of pottery. These laws, revived in 1526, provide
+that all <i>tinajas</i> must contain two kinds of earth,
+one red, the other white, thoroughly compounded
+in a trough of water. Before the potter removes
+the clay from the trough, he must call the city
+supervisor or <i>veedor</i> to look into the quality and
+mixing of the mass. The vessel as it leaves the
+oven must be white; otherwise, even although it
+have no flaw, the inspector is to break it. The
+potter is forbidden to coat his <i>tinajas</i> with a glaze<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+composed of eggs, blood, chalk, and other strange
+ingredients; nor may he fire the glaze with
+torches, &ldquo;because the smell of the smoke clings
+to the <i>tinaja</i>, and the wine or stum deposited
+therein grows redolent of it, and it stays within
+the jar perpetually.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_120.jpg" width="371" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_120.jpg" id="img_120.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLIX<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE <i>TINAJA</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Owing doubtless to their plain, domestic purpose
+and their trifling market cost, early <i>tinajas</i> are
+not often met with. A fine example in excellent
+preservation is at South Kensington, and is
+described by Riaño as &ldquo;a wine jar, amphora-shaped,
+and ornamented with an incised pattern
+of vine leaves, and stamped diaper of a Gothic
+character.&rdquo; Several good <i>tinajas</i> have been discovered
+of late years at Seville. Gestoso mentions
+six, five of which are glazed. The first of these
+was found in 1893, and has a bright green glaze
+upon a ground of reddish earth. Both handles
+and nearly all the neck are wanting. The decoration
+consists of various bands or <i>fajas</i> round the
+body of the jar, a series of archways, another of
+leaves, and a central band of stars, three deep,
+strongly imprinted from a mould. In every
+ninth arch are stamped symbolic hands, such as
+we see upon the Gate of Justice of the Alhambra.</p>
+
+<p>The second <i>tinaja</i> is similar to the one just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+mentioned, except that it has the neck. It
+was discovered in 1895, and is now in Seville
+museum.</p>
+
+<p>The third <i>tinaja</i> is also in this museum, and
+was discovered in 1901. It is in a very poor condition,
+and Gestoso believes that it was originally
+covered with a honey-coloured glaze.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth <i>tinaja</i> was found in a drain, in the
+same year as the preceding one, and is inscribed
+with words, including <i>Blessing</i> and <i>Felicity</i>, in
+Cufic characters. Gestoso is unable to decide
+whether this vessel was made at Seville or elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The fifth <i>tinaja</i> is in the collection of Don José
+Morón, and possesses greater interest than the
+others, both because it is in excellent condition,
+and also because the decoration is entirely in the
+Spanish-Christian style, without a trace of Saracenic
+ornament. Small Gothic-looking shields surround
+the body of this vessel, which is stamped
+with pomegranates, and with the arms and emblems
+of the Ponce de León and other families.
+Between each pair of shields is an oval-shaped
+medallion containing human figures.</p>
+
+<p>The sixth <i>tinaja</i> is unglazed. It was found in
+June of 1893, and is adorned with repetitions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+the words <i>Prosperity</i> and <i>Blessing</i>, as well as with
+a series of deer and other animals in the act of
+running; some of them with birds upon their
+backs. These designs are very uncommon, and
+Gestoso has seen no other <i>tinaja</i>, proceeding from
+this region, similarly decorated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tinajas</i> are still made in large quantities at
+Toboso, Lucena, Colmenar de Oreja, and other
+Spanish towns and villages.</p>
+
+<p>Other large objects of a thoroughly oriental
+character were earthenware glazed <i>brocales</i> or
+brims of wells, which, like the <i>tinajas</i>, were largely
+manufactured at Seville and Toledo. Specimens
+of these <i>brocales</i> exist in the museums of Toledo
+and Cordova. Riaño describes one which is at
+South Kensington. &ldquo;It was bought at Toledo
+for three guineas at a shoemaker's shop. It is
+made of glazed white and green earthenware,
+with ornamental Cufic characters in high relief
+all round, which appear to be of the fourteenth
+century. The inscription, which is repeated, is
+imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the
+words &lsquo;the power, the excellence, and the peace.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso describes two <i>brocales</i> and the fragments
+of a third. All these objects were found
+at Seville. The two which are intact, or nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+so, are cylindrical, and of a white ware. One of
+them has a simple leaf decoration, and seems to
+have been covered with a green glaze. The
+other, which was discovered in 1894, is surrounded
+by a triple band of inscription in African characters
+which are illegible.</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso also describes some interesting baptismal
+fonts, a class of object which he pronounces
+to have been the most important of all that were
+produced in the potteries of Triana, by reason
+both of their large dimensions and of their elaborate
+ornamentation. He states that three methods
+were employed to decorate these fonts. The first
+consisted in attaching to their surface small
+moulded plates which bore the likeness of a saint,
+flowers, monograms, or other devices. By the
+second method the decoration was moulded directly
+on the font; while the third method consisted in
+a combination of the other two.</p>
+
+<p>Splendid examples of these Spanish fonts exist
+in various churches of Andalusia and in private
+collections. One of the finest is in the parish
+church of Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, at
+Laguna, Tenerife. It is suggested by Gestoso
+that this <i>pila</i> of Laguna was made at Seville and
+sent to the Canaries in the year 1479, when orders<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+were issued by Ferdinand and Isabella for the
+completion of the monasteries in those islands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pilas</i> were also manufactured at Toledo,
+although Gestoso says that the workmanship of
+those produced at Seville was in every way
+superior. Nevertheless, he has only found the
+maker's name upon a single font, which is inscribed
+with that of Juan Sanchez Vachero, and is now
+preserved in the church of San Pedro at Carmona.
+Another remarkable <i>pila</i> is that of the hospital of
+San Lázaro at Seville.</p>
+
+<p>In course of time the Spanish Church forbade
+the use of <i>pilas</i> made of glazed earthenware, and
+ordered their substitution by fonts of stone or
+marble. One of these dispositions, included
+among the <i>Constituciones Sinodales</i> of the bishopric
+of Málaga, and dated 1671, is quoted by
+Gestoso. It enacts that the <i>pila</i> be of stone and
+not of earthenware, and that if any of this latter
+class remain, they are to be &ldquo;consumed&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+destroyed) within two months.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the Ordinances of Granada, those
+which concern the potters or <i>olleros</i> generally are
+dated 1530, and inform us of the price of glazed
+and unglazed articles in common use, such as
+<i>ollas</i> or pots (with and without glaze), <i>cazuelas</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+earthen vessels for cooking meat, plates of many
+colours and dimensions, <i>jarros</i> (jugs), <i>alcuzas</i>
+(vials), <i>cantaros castellanos</i> (Castilian water-pitchers),
+<i>cantaros moriscos</i> (Moorish water-pitchers<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>),
+<i>morteros</i> (mortars), <i>lebrillos</i> (earthen
+tubs), <i>candiles</i> (lamps with a green, white or
+yellow glaze), <i>orzas</i> (gally pots), <i>botijas</i> (narrow-necked
+jars), and <i>salseras</i> (saucers).</p>
+
+<p>The shape and colouring of many of these
+common articles have been continued till to-day,
+especially in Andalusia. I reproduce a photograph
+of some (Plate <a href="#img_126.jpg">l</a>.), in which the influence of the
+East is unmistakable. The smaller of the two
+unglazed jars is used for carrying and cooling
+water, and is made at Loja. The other, which is
+often used for storing honey, is from Guadalajara.
+The spherical vessel is a kind of bottle for <i>aguardiente</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+It is glazed a brightish green, and is made
+in various parts of Andalusia, as are the gourd-shaped
+<i>calabazas</i>, which have a yellow glaze.
+The smallest vessel, or that which has a funnel-shaped
+and bulging mouth, is coated with a coarse
+metallic glaze coloured in white and blue, and
+proceeds from Granada.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_126.jpg" width="500" height="341"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_126.jpg" id="img_126.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">L<br />COARSE SPANISH POTTERY<br />
+(<i>Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>So is the influence of the Spanish Moors, linking
+the present intimately to the past, and
+handed down by early craftsmen to the moderns,
+and from Mussulmans to Christian Spaniards,
+maintained and kept alive, not only by the city
+ordinances I have quoted, but also by the more
+occult yet no less permanent and cogent force of
+local and unchronicled tradition. In the historic
+quarter of Granada which is called the Albaycin,
+survive a few <i>alfarerías</i> to this hour (Plate <a href="#img_192.jpg">lxix</a>.).
+Here, on the potter's wheel or ranged about his
+yard, may yet be seen the red Granada earth that is
+believed to have inspired the vase of the Alhambra,
+applied to-day to common crockery that notwithstanding
+has a subtle, unfamiliar charm. And
+towards the time of sundown, when the master
+turns indoors to supper and his workmen have gone
+home, when the last of the red light is colouring the
+ancient city wall until it too looks like a mammoth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+monument of the potter's art of old Granada, it is
+a strange experience to wander through these
+desolate yards, among the files of ruddy Granadino
+ware kindling with vivid memories of the vanished
+Mussulmans of Spain, and bringing back to us
+that spirited old poet of the East who also sang of
+pottery:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Listen again. One Evening at the Close</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Of Ramazan, ere the better Moon arose,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">In that old Potter's Shop I stood alone</span><br />
+<span class="i0">With the clay Population round in Rows.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And strange to tell, among that Earthen Lot</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Some could articulate, while others not:</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And suddenly one more impatient cried&mdash;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">&lsquo;Who <i>is</i> the Potter, pray, and who the Pot?&rsquo;</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Then said another&mdash;&lsquo;Surely not in vain</span><br />
+<span class="i0">My substance from the common Earth was ta'en,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">That He who subtly wrought me into Shape</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Should stamp me back to common Earth again.&rsquo;&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<h3>MOSAIC-WORK AND TILES</h3>
+
+<p>The art of colouring and glazing earthenware
+was practised by various peoples of the ancient
+eastern world, and passed, in course of time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+through Egypt to Ph&oelig;nicia, Greece, and Rome,
+and, later still, to Mussulman peoples of north-western
+Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Glazed earthenware was possibly produced in
+Roman Spain, although the specimens of it which
+have been discovered are singularly and, indeed,
+significantly few. Their colour is commonly green
+or lightish yellow. Gestoso makes particular
+mention of a small jar now preserved in the
+museum of Seville, describing it as &ldquo;of an
+ordinary shape, but finely made.&rdquo; He admits,
+however, that no trace of glaze exists in any of
+the broken Visigothic vessels (copied, as Saint
+Isidore tells us, from the Roman-Spanish pottery)
+that were found some years ago among the ruins
+of Italica. Thus it is not decided whether the
+Spanish potters learned to glaze, or whether this
+development of their craft remained familiar to
+the Spaniards of that period through imported
+objects merely.</p>
+
+<p>As with glazed earthenware, the origin of
+mosaic must be looked for in the East. Greece,
+who had doubtless borrowed it from Egypt,
+communicated it to Rome at least two centuries
+before the Christian era, and from this time the
+Romans used it freely in the decoration of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+buildings. The Greek mosaic was composed exclusively
+of stone. The Romans modified this
+usage by the introduction of diminutive cubes of
+clay, painted and baked like porcelain; and later,
+in the reign of Claudius, dyed these cubes with
+various colours.</p>
+
+<p>Roman mosaic-work (commonly in the tessellated
+style and not the <i>opus sectile</i>) has been unearthed
+in many parts of the Peninsula. Such are the
+two &ldquo;mosaics of the Muses,&rdquo; discovered at Italica
+on December 12th, 1799, and June 12th, 1839;<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>
+other mosaics, to the number of some thirty,
+discovered from time to time among the same
+ruins; another, discovered at Majorca in 1833;
+that of the Calle Batitales at Lugo (the Roman
+<i>Lucus Augusti</i>), discovered in 1842; those of
+Palencia, Gerona, Merida, Milla del Rio (near
+León), Rielves (near Toledo), Duratón, Aguilafuente,
+and Paradinas (near Segovia), and Carabanchel,
+three miles from Madrid. The mosaic
+found at Lugo is believed to have formed part of
+a temple dedicated to Diana. The decoration is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+partly geometrical, and consists of the head of
+a man between two dolphins, with other fishes
+swimming along the border. Laborde describes
+another mosaic which existed, early in the nineteenth
+century, in a hall of the archbishop's palace
+at Valencia. &ldquo;The pavement of this hall demands
+particular attention; it is formed of antique pavements,
+discovered in the month of February,
+1777, three hundred paces north-east of the town
+of Puch, between Valencia and Murviedro; some
+were entire, others were only fragments. They
+were separated with care, and placed on the floor
+of this hall, where they are carefully preserved.
+They are different mosaics, formed by little stones
+of three or four lines in diameter, curiously enchased.
+They are distributed into seven squares
+in each of which medallions and divers designs
+have been drawn: their compartments are of blue
+on a white ground. We observe in one of these
+squares an imitation of the pavement of Bacchus,
+discovered at Murviedro, and of which there remained
+but very few vestiges; it was copied in
+a drawing-book which a priest of this town had
+preserved; it is executed with such art and exactness,
+that no difference can be observed between
+this modern work and that of the Romans. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+another we see Neptune seated in a car, in one
+hand holding a whip, and in the other a trident
+and the reins of the horses by which his car is
+drawn: these appear to be galloping.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the same hall are also seen other pavements,
+of which only fragments could be preserved.
+Some serve for borders and ornaments to the
+preceding pavements. On these are represented a
+tiger, fishes, birds, houses, flowers, and garlands,
+well executed. There are particularly five stuck
+on wood and shut up in a closet; on these are
+birds, fruits, and flowers, figured in different
+colours, the execution of which is very curious;
+they are perhaps the most precious of the
+whole.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author says elsewhere: &ldquo;In digging
+to make a road from Valencia to Murviedro in
+1755, at the entrance of the latter town a mosaic
+pavement was discovered; it was entire, and of
+such beauty that it was thought worthy of preservation.
+Ferdinand the Sixth caused it to be
+surrounded with walls; but the king's intentions
+were not properly fulfilled; the gates were suffered
+to remain open, and every one carried away some
+part of the pavement, which consequently soon became
+despoiled; it was rectangular, and measured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+twenty-four feet by fourteen. There are still
+some fragments of it in several houses at
+Murviedro. A priest of that town, Don Diego
+Puch, an antiquarian, took a drawing of it, which
+he afterwards had painted at Valencia on the tiles
+fabricated there, and paved an apartment of his
+house with them. It was likewise copied with
+the greatest exactness, with small stones perfectly
+similar, in an apartment of the library belonging
+to the archiepiscopal palace, as we have already
+stated.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Swinburne also mentions a mosaic pavement
+which he saw at Barcelona, upon the site of what
+he believed to have been a temple of Neptune.
+In it were represented &ldquo;two large green figures
+of tritons, holding a shell in each hand; between
+them a sea-horse, and on the sides a serpent and
+a dolphin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In October of 1901 a very important and
+beautiful mosaic was discovered at Italica. It is
+known as &ldquo;the mosaic of Bacchus,&rdquo; the worship
+of which deity, says Señor Quintero, was probably
+general in Andalusia, owing to her wealth of
+vines. This mosaic was found at a depth of six
+feet six inches below the surface of the soil, and
+measures twenty-one feet square. It is believed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+to have formed the pavement of a Roman dining-chamber.</p>
+
+<p>Mosaic in the manner of the Greeks and
+Romans seems in Spain to have disappeared with
+the Visigoths. That it was known to these is
+told us by Saint Isidore:&mdash;&ldquo;Pavimenta originem
+apud graecos habent elaboratae arte picturae,
+litostrata parvulis crustis ac tesselis tinctis in
+varios colores.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_134.jpg" width="389" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_134.jpg" id="img_134.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LI<br />DOOR OF THE MIHRAB<br />
+(<i>Showing mosaic-work. Cordova Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is impossible to affirm with any confidence
+that glazed earthenware, whether in the form of
+tiles or other objects, was manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors during the Cordovese Caliphate,
+or the period of the kinglings of Taifa. No trace
+of it has been discovered among the scanty ruins
+of Medina Az-zahará<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> and Az-zahira&mdash;ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+palaces of Cordova&mdash;or in the marvellous mosque.
+We know, however, that towards the seventh
+century the Arabs borrowed from Byzantium
+the mosaic-work of tessons known as <i>psephosis
+fsefysa</i>, and this, or something similar, was used,
+though probably to a small extent, among the
+Muslims of the Spanish Caliphate. Although,
+towards the middle of the thirteenth century,
+the historian Aben-Said, a native of Granada,
+recorded that in Al-Andalus &ldquo;is made a kind of
+<i>mofassass</i> which is called in the East <i>alfoseifesa</i>,&rdquo;
+remains of this elaborate product only exist to-day
+at Cordova, where patches may yet be seen lining
+the dome of the <i>mirhab</i> in the vast <i>aljama</i>
+(Plate <a href="#img_134.jpg">li</a>.). The mosaic in question is stated to
+have been a gift from the Byzantine emperor to
+the sultan Al-Hakem, and was set in place by a
+skilled workman, a Greek, who, like the offering
+itself, proceeded from Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p>During his stay at Cordova this Greek was
+helped by certain of the Sultan's slaves, who thus
+acquired the secrets of the craft, and practised it
+thereafter.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p>Rodrigo Amador de los Rios contends, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+that this decoration is in no sense a true mosaic,
+but just a tempera painting executed on the wall
+and overlaid with cubes of glass. In any case, no
+other specimen of such work has been discovered
+in any part of the Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>By the time of the Almohade invasion or very
+shortly after&mdash;that is, towards the twelfth century,&mdash;the
+Spanish Moors had grown acquainted
+with glazed earthenware. Indeed, the Almohades
+are believed by some authorities to have actually
+introduced it. Gestoso, on the contrary, suggests
+that Spain may have transmitted it to Africa.
+However this may be, the Almohades used it
+largely in the decoration of their homes and public
+buildings in Andalusia; first as <i>aliceres</i> or bands
+composed of smallish pieces running round a room,
+and subsequently in the more effective and more
+useful form of <i>azulejos</i> proper. The Spanish Moors
+employed the word <i>almofassass</i> to designate both
+<i>aliceres</i> and <i>azulejos</i>. Nevertheless, the two were
+not identical, although Riaño takes them to be so.
+He says: &ldquo;The earliest tiles or <i>azulejos</i> made in
+Spain are composed of small pieces let into the
+wall, forming geometrical patterns.&rdquo; These, in
+fact, were <i>aliceres</i>. It is not so easy to define
+an <i>azulejo</i>. We read in Aben-Said, quoted by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+Al-Makkari: &ldquo;There is another kind of work
+employed for paving houses. It is called <i>azzulechí</i>
+and resembles <i>mofassass</i>. It has wonderful
+colouring, and replaces the coloured marble
+used by the people of the East to decorate their
+chambers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This definition is not completely clear. Those
+of the Christian-Spanish writers are not more
+satisfactory. Covarrubias calls these objects
+&ldquo;small bricks, square and of other shapes, used
+for lining chambers in the mansions of the wealthy,
+or in garden paths.&rdquo; Nebrija calls them <i>tessela
+pavimenticia</i>, adding that they bear the name of
+<i>azulejos</i> because the earliest ones were of a blue
+colour&mdash;a statement which Dozy supports by
+instancing the Persian-Arabic <i>zaward</i> or &ldquo;blue
+stone.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso resolves the question sufficiently for
+our purpose by showing that the term <i>azulejo</i> is
+usually applied to square tiles of a largish size,
+the length of whose sides varies between eleven
+centimetres and eighteen centimetres, <i>aliceres</i>
+being properly the smaller strips or pieces
+(technically known as <i>cintas</i> or <i>verduguillos</i>) used
+in a bordering or frieze. Other decorative pieces
+of small dimensions, invented in the fifteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+century, were called <i>olambres</i> or <i>olambrillas</i>, and
+served to lend variety to the red or yellow brickwork
+of a pavement or a floor.</p>
+
+<p>The production of <i>azulejos</i> in Spain may thus
+be traced to as far back as the twelfth century.
+By far the most important centre of the craft
+was Seville. Here, from the twelfth until the
+fourteenth century, was made the glazed and
+decorative tiling which consisted of small pieces
+of monochrome earthenware&mdash;black, white, green,
+blue, or yellow&mdash;cut one by one, and pieced
+together in the manner of a true mosaic. This
+process, says Gestoso, was lengthy, difficult, and
+dear. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the
+same mosaic would often take the form of a series
+of narrow, white, ribbon-like strips, with coloured
+interspaces. Specimens of this &ldquo;ribbon-work
+tiling&rdquo; exist to-day in the Patio de Las Doncellas
+of the Alcázar (Plate <a href="#img_138.jpg">lii</a>.). Towards the sixteenth
+century the Sevillano potters discovered a simpler
+way of making effective and artistic <i>azulejos</i>, which
+they called the <i>cuerda seca</i> process. This novel
+method consisted in pressing a wood or metal
+mould upon the unbaked tile, in such a manner
+that the outline of the pattern remained in slight
+relief. This outline was next brushed over with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+a mixture of manganese and grease, which turns,
+in baking, very nearly black. The body of the
+pattern was then filled in with the various colours,
+which the greasy line completely separated, and
+thus prepared, the tile was rendered permanent
+by firing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_138.jpg" width="339" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_138.jpg" id="img_138.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LII<br />MOSAIC OF THE PATIO DE LAS DONCELLAS<br />
+(<i>Alcázar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This process, in which the patterns are nearly
+always geometrical, remained in general use until
+about the year 1550, when it began to be superseded
+by two others, known respectively as the
+processes of &ldquo;cuenca&rdquo; and &ldquo;Pisano&rdquo;.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>cuenca</i> tile was simple and of excellent
+effect. The pattern, stamped from a metal
+mould, remained in bas-relief,&mdash;a characteristic
+which caused these objects to be also known as
+<i>azulejos</i> &ldquo;<i>de relieve</i>&rdquo;. The shelving border of
+each hollow stamped into the tile thus formed
+a kind of natural barrier which kept the colour
+there deposited from mingling with its neighbours.
+When of a larger size, and joined in pairs to form
+between each two a single motive (<i>ladrillo por
+tabla</i>), these <i>azulejos</i> were often employed for
+decorating roofs and ceilings.</p>
+
+<p>The tiles which bear the name of their inventor,
+Francesco Niculoso Pisano the Italian, who lived
+and worked for many years at Seville, date from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+about the same time as the &ldquo;cuenca&rdquo; <i>azulejos</i>. In
+the case of the <i>Pisano</i> tile, there is no indentation
+caused by the imprint of a mould, the surface
+being merely coated with a monochrome glaze,
+painted upon and fired, the decoration thus
+remaining flat all over. Commonly the ground
+is white or yellow, with the colour of the pattern
+shaded blue, or black, or deepish purple. This
+process, which lent itself to most elaborate and
+effective schemes of ornament, remained in vogue
+until the eighteenth century, and was practised,
+not only by Pisano himself, but by a long succession
+of his pupils, followers, and imitators.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_140.jpg" width="600" height="353"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_140.jpg" id="img_140.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LIII<br />ANDALUSIAN NON-LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>A.D. 1480&ndash;1495. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such were the processes in use among the
+<i>azulejo</i>-makers of old Seville. Specimens of
+their craftsmanship which yet survive and illustrate
+the various styles and epochs may be thus
+enumerated:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) Mosaic tile-work, such as appears in Seville
+at the time of the Almohade invasion. A fragment
+of this kind of work forms part of the collection of
+Señor Osma, and proceeds from the church of
+San Andrés. Tiles and smaller pieces of mosaic-work,
+coloured in malachite green and white,
+were also found in 1899 and 1900, in the upper
+walls of the renowned Torre del Oro, or &ldquo;Golden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+Tower,&rdquo; erected in the year 1220, and which is
+popularly thought to derive its venerable title
+from the sparkle of the sun upon its <i>azulejos</i>.
+Another piece of primitive mosaic, measuring
+rather less than a yard square, and containing
+star-shaped geometrical devices, was found in 1890
+beneath the floor of the cathedral; while mosaics
+of a later age, including the more elaborate <i>lacería</i>
+patterns that resemble ribbon, are preserved in
+the Patio de las Doncellas of the Alcázar, in the
+Casa de Olea, and in the parish churches of San
+Estéban, San Gil, and Omnium Sanctorum.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A small group of curious tiles, believed to
+be anterior to the reign of Pedro the First, has
+come to light some years ago, in the churches of
+San Andrés and Santa Marina, and in the Claustro
+del Lagarto of the cathedral. Those of San
+Andrés are of white earthenware, glazed in the
+same colour and stamped from a mould with the
+figures of two wolves in fairly bold relief (see
+tailpiece to this chapter). Traces of a glaze of
+malachite green are on the bodies of these wolves.
+The <i>azulejos</i> of the church of Santa Marina, also
+discovered recently, are examined by Señor Osma
+in his pamphlet <i>Azulejos sevillanos del siglo xiii</i>
+(Madrid, 1902). They measure about three and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+a half inches square, and bear devices of a castle
+and an eagle, stamped in the diagonal direction
+of the tile, showing that this was fixed upon the
+wall in lozenge fashion. The tiles are bathed
+upon their surface with what is termed by Osma
+&ldquo;the semi-transparent, caramel-coloured glaze
+peculiar to the pottery of Moorish Spain.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Upon
+this ground is stamped the decoration,&mdash;the eagles
+in the blackish purple of baked manganese, the
+castles without additional colour, so as to be
+distinguished only by their outline from the
+yellowish surface of the tile.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>azulejos</i> of the Claustro del Lagarto of the
+cathedral are three in number, and were found in
+1888. Two of them are stamped with a castle of
+a single tower described within a shield, and the
+third with a Greek cross. These are considered
+by Osma to be the only tiles existing at this
+moment which date from the latter third of the
+thirteenth century. In fact, he places their manufacture
+between the years 1252 and 1269.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_142.jpg" width="500" height="465"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_142.jpg" id="img_142.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LIV<br /><i>CUENCA</i> TILES<br />
+(<i>Alcázar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Cuerda seca</i> tiles. Handsome <i>zocalos</i> or
+dadoes of these tiles are in the Casa de los<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+Pinelos, and in the chapels of the palaces of the
+Dukes of Alba and Medinaceli. Gestoso attributes
+them to the end of the fifteenth century
+or the beginning of the sixteenth. Detached
+<i>cuerda seca</i> tiles are preserved in the municipal
+museum of archæology, while a fine pair (Plate <a href="#img_140.jpg">liii</a>.)
+of this class of <i>azulejos</i> belongs to Señor Osma,
+who considers they were made between 1480 and
+1495. They are thus coeval with the no less interesting
+dish of the time of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+of which a reproduction is given opposite page 190.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Cuenca</i> tiles. Quantities of these, dating
+from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, may
+yet be seen in many parts of Seville; for instance,
+in her churches or her convents, in her superb
+Alcázar, or in the mansions of her old nobility.
+Probably the most remarkable of all are those in
+the gardens of the Alcázar, and lining the walls of
+the Pavilion of Charles the Fifth. The devices
+on these polychrome <i>azulejos</i> (16th century;
+Plate <a href="#img_142.jpg">liv</a>.) are very numerous, including men and
+animals, centaurs and other monsters, the Pillars of
+Hercules, and imitations of elaborate dress fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Pisano</i> tiles. Although some facts have
+been unearthed concerning the Italian Francesco
+Niculoso Pisano, we do not know precisely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+in what year he came to Seville, or in what
+year he died. Davillier thought it probable that
+he had studied at Faenza or at Caffagiolo. At
+all events, it was Pisano who broadly launched the
+art of the Sevillian potters on the stream of the
+Renaissance.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> I have stated that the tiles which
+bear his name are painted on a white or yellow
+ground. Consequently their surface is flat,
+without the ridges and depressions of the <i>cuenca</i> or
+the <i>cuerda seca</i> methods. We find <i>Pisano</i> tiles
+applied to various objects, such as tombs, altars,
+friezes, and archivolts. This artist, says Gestoso,
+further introduced the use of two new colours,&mdash;violet
+and rose. Several of his best productions
+are still intact, including the doorway of the church
+of the monastery of Santa Paula (in which he was
+assisted by a Spanish master, Pedro Millan), and
+the altar of the Catholic Sovereigns in the Alcázar.
+Both these masterpieces were executed in the
+year 1504, and bear Pisano's signature. The
+doorway of Santa Paula is described by Gestoso
+as consisting of a single body of masonry,
+distinct from that of the building itself, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+resting against it, and constructed of bricks of
+uniform size, which show us, by their perfect
+symmetry, how skilful were the masons of that
+time, with whom the Moorish craftsmanship was
+yet a living power. The doorway is formed by a
+series of concentric Gothic arches resting on
+slender pillars. The space which forms the outer
+archivolt is most remarkable. Upon a ground
+of <i>azulejos</i> which copy the colour of the brickwork,
+we see a number of Plateresque designs of exquisite
+beauty, painted in white and blue, with
+occasional touches of other colours. Among
+the devices are chimeras, war-trophies, volutes,
+chaplets, parapegms, antelopes, masks, and others
+which are characteristic of the Florentine Renaissance.
+Upon this ground, and enclosed by circular
+garlands in high relief, consisting of polychrome
+fruits and flowers, are seven medallions containing
+figures of male and female saints, except the one
+which is upon the keystone, and which represents
+the birth of Christ. In this medallion the figures
+are enamelled in white upon a cobalt-blue ground,
+recalling, as also do the garlands, the work of the
+celebrated della Robbia.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> In the rest of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+medallions the figures are glazed in brilliant
+colours. In the three medallions upon the left,
+beginning with the lowest one, we see, upon the
+first, Saint Helen; upon the second, two saints
+in monkish dress; and upon the third, Saint Peter
+and Saint Paul. On the medallions of the other
+side are another saint dressed as a monk, San
+Cosmé, San Damián, and San Roque. The
+spaces on either side of the archivolt are covered
+with tiles which represent a landscape. In each
+of the upper angles is an angel holding a large
+tablet with IHS in ornamental Gothic character
+upon a black ground. These letters, and also
+the angels and the frames of the tablets, are
+enamelled in gold. Beneath each tablet is an
+angel standing with extended wings upon a
+bracket of lustred earthenware, and holding an
+open book. The brickwork of the door is closed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+by a plain impost supporting a small battlement
+covered with <i>cuenca</i> tiles, and crowned with a
+cornice of flamboyant ornaments alternating with
+the heads of cherubs glazed in white, and with a
+white marble cross in the centre. The tympanum
+is embellished by a superb shield carved in high
+relief upon white marble with the arms of Castile,
+León, Aragon, and Sicily, surmounted by a royal
+crown and the eagle with the nimbus. Beside this
+shield are two smaller ones of <i>azulejos</i> painted with
+the yoke and sheaf of arrows, and the motto <span class="smcap">T&#256;TO
+M&#332;TA</span>. The ground on which are executed these
+three shields occupies the whole tympanum, and
+is covered with Plateresque devices including two
+tablets, on one of which we read the letters <span class="smcap">S.P.Q.R.</span>,
+and on the other, <span class="smcap">PISANO</span>. Above the first of these
+tablets is another of an oval shape, bearing the word
+<span class="smcap">NICULOSO</span>. Lastly, at the base of the archivolt,
+and on the left-hand side of the spectator, is a very
+small rectangular tablet with this inscription:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0;">NICVLOSO<br />
+FRANCISCO-I-<br />
+TALIANO-MEF<br />
+ECIT INELAGNO DEI<br />
+· 154 ·</p>
+
+<p>The altar in the Alcázar of the same city, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+which is known as that of the Catholic Sovereigns
+(Plate <a href="#img_148.jpg">lv</a>.), is entirely covered with &ldquo;Pisano&rdquo;
+<i>azulejos</i> measuring sixteen centimetres square.
+Imbedded in the centre is a picture, also of painted
+tiles, representing the visit of the Virgin to Saint
+Elizabeth. This picture measures five feet in
+height by three feet eight inches in breadth. Beneath
+it is the figure of a patriarch resting his head
+upon his hand. Boughs with large flowers issue
+from his breast, and among the flowers are half-length
+figures of the prophets, together with those
+of Jesus and the Virgin, the whole of this decoration
+forming a frame to the central picture. The rest
+of the altar is profusely decorated with designs in
+the Renaissance style, consisting of vases, animals,
+genii, and the emblems of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+In the centre of the tiling which forms the altar-front
+is a circular picture made of <i>azulejos</i> surrounded
+by a garland of fruits and laurel leaves,
+and representing the Annunciation, garland and
+picture being supported by two monsters with the
+tails of dragons and the upper parts of women.
+Large flaming torches rest between the out-stretched
+arms of the monsters, and round about
+or springing from them are flowers, animals,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+cornucopias, and other decoration. The entire
+<i>retablo</i> is painted lightish blue and white upon a
+yellow ground, except the larger picture and its
+decorative border, which is of a deeper blue. A
+small tablet beneath the Virgin's feet contains the
+words <span class="smcap">NICULOSO FRANCESCO ITALIANO ME FECIT</span>, and
+on the pilaster represented on the left hand of the
+same picture is added the date, 1504. As Gestoso,
+Davillier, and others have remarked, it is evident
+that while the rest of the altar is pure Renaissance-Plateresque,
+the pictures copied on the tiles are of
+a northern school. Probably they were designed
+for Niculoso by one of the various German or
+Flemish masters who at that time were resident
+in Seville.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_148.jpg" width="420" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_148.jpg" id="img_148.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LV<br />ALTAR OF THE CATHOLIC SOVEREIGNS<br />
+(<i>Alcázar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another altar which was formerly in the same
+palace, but which has disappeared, was also
+painted by this craftsman. It was described by
+Cean Bermudez as containing scenes from the
+life of the Virgin, the Trinity, and the two Saints
+John, and bore the same date as the altar which
+is yet existing, namely, 1504.</p>
+
+<p>Among the other works of Niculoso are the
+altar of the church of Tentudia, the tomb of
+Iñigo Lopez in the church of Santa Ana in the
+quarter of Triana, and a tile-picture representing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+similarly to the one which forms the centre of the
+altar in the Alcázar, the Virgin's visit to Saint
+Elizabeth. This picture formerly belonged to
+the kings of Portugal, and is now in the museum
+of Amsterdam.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such were the decorative <i>azulejos</i> which made
+the potteries of Seville famous throughout Europe,
+and which are known to have been exported to
+Italy, Portugal, and even England.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> The names
+of several hundred mediæval and post-mediæval
+makers of these Seville tiles have been exhumed
+and published by Gestoso.</p>
+
+<p>The general title of the Spanish potter was
+<i>ollero</i>, a comprehensive term which reaches from
+the most ambitious <i>azulejero</i> to the maker of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+meanest kitchen-ware. The <i>olleros</i> of older
+Seville produced for centuries, not only glazed
+and coloured tiling by the processes already
+indicated, but countless other objects such as
+brims of wells, apothecary's jars, baptismal fonts,
+and dishes of every shape and size. They used a
+general mark (the tower of the Giralda) to stamp
+their pottery; but private marks are nearly
+always absent. The facts that have appeared in
+recent years concerning these artificers are seldom
+interesting. The mere mention of a name is
+meaningless, or even perplexing, seeing that a
+Moor or Mudejar would frequently assume the
+name and surname of a Christian. Nevertheless,
+Gestoso has brought to light important notices
+concerning one or two, and in particular a document
+dating from the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, relating to a celebrated potter of that
+period named Fernan Martinez Guijarro. This
+document, which is dated 1479, describes Martinez
+as &ldquo;a very great master in the art of making
+<i>azulejos</i>, fonts, and all the things pertaining to
+his trade, insomuch that none other in all this
+kingdom is like unto him,&rdquo; and subsequently,
+&ldquo;considering him to be so excellent a craftsman
+that persons come hither from Portugal and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+parts to purchase and to carry off his ware.&rdquo; It
+is further stated that Martinez Guijarro was in
+wealthy circumstances (&ldquo;hombre rrico e de mucha
+rrenta e fasyenda&rdquo;). His <i>talleres</i> or workshops
+were in the <i>barrio</i> of Triana, and included (as we
+learn from one of the documents copied by the
+same investigator) a separate department for the
+manufacture or storage of lustred ware.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, even Gestoso is unable to point
+to any piece of tiling or other pottery now existing,
+as being unquestionably executed by this master.</p>
+
+<p>Another Sevillian potter of exceptional merit
+was Cristóbal de Augusta, who worked in the
+latter half of the sixteenth century, and left his
+name upon the <i>azulejo</i> dadoes of the Halls of
+Charles the Fifth in the Alcázar. The style of
+these most brilliant tiles is pure Renaissance, and
+forms a worthy continuation of the splendid work
+of Niculoso. Augusta, indeed, is termed in the
+Archives of the Alcázar &ldquo;master of making tiles
+in the Pisano manner&rdquo; (<i>del pisano</i>).<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Some tilemakers
+of little note succeeded him, but even the
+names of these are carefully recorded by Gestoso.</p>
+
+<p>Seville was thus the principal centre of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+craft of decorative tile-making. <i>Azulejos</i> were
+also made at Barcelona and other towns in Cataluña,
+at Talavera de la Reina, Burgos, Toledo,
+Granada, and Valencia, in several towns of
+Aragon, and probably at Cordova. Riaño quotes
+a letter written about the year 1422, from the wife
+of the Admiral of Castile to the abbess of the
+nunnery of Santo Domingo at Toledo, requesting
+that a number of <i>azulejos</i> be sent to her. &ldquo;She
+alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and
+says she was expecting a master potter from
+Seville to place the tiles in their proper places.
+This shows us&rdquo; (continues Riaño) &ldquo;that it was
+only in the province of Andalusia that the art was
+known of cutting these tiles into geometrical sections
+and mosaic patterns.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The meaning of this passage is obscure. Riaño
+speaks of painted tiles and <i>azulejos</i> as though they
+were distinct objects, and yet they are essentially
+the same. Again, if only Andalusia was able to
+produce such tiles, why did the Almirante's wife
+order them from Toledo? Perhaps the faulty
+English of Riaño's handbook is responsible, but,
+as it stands, this passage tells us practically nothing.
+In any case, abundant evidence exists to show<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+that large quantities of Mudejar and Renaissance
+tiles were manufactured at Toledo. In general
+appearance, they are similar to those of Seville.</p>
+
+<p>Ramírez de Arellano believes that decorative
+tiles were manufactured at Cordova in the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries, and quotes, in proof
+of this, the names of &ldquo;maestros de hacer vidriado&rdquo;
+or makers of glazed ware, who resided at this
+ancient capital. One of these craftsmen was
+Alonso Rodriguez the younger, who, on June 7th,
+1574, sold to a canon of the cathedral ten
+thousand white and green tiles of a common kind
+(<i>ladrillos</i>), probably employed for roofing. The
+price was three ducats the thousand. On April
+10th, 1598, Juan Sanchez engaged to supply the
+same temple with the same quantity of glazed
+tiles (<i>tejas</i>) for roofing, coloured white, green, and
+yellow, at sixteen <i>maravedis</i> each tile.</p>
+
+<p><i>Azulejos</i> were certainly made at Granada in the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and probably
+earlier.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_154.jpg" width="373" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_154.jpg" id="img_154.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LVI<br />THE GATE OF WINE<br />
+(<i>Showing polychrome tiling. Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In a passage of the Alhambra palace leading
+from the Patio de la Alberca to the Cuarto Dorado,
+a space was laid bare not many years ago,
+containing the original <i>mostagueras</i> or small tiles
+used for flooring, glazed in two colours; and in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+same building, although in constantly diminishing
+quantities, are large numbers of tiles which date
+from the time of the Spanish Moors. There has
+been a good deal of discussion as to whether the
+roofs of the Alhambra were originally covered with
+decorative tiles. Swinburne (who must not, however,
+be taken as the safest of authorities) wrote
+that &ldquo;in Moorish times the building was covered
+with large painted and glazed tiles, of which some
+few are yet to be seen.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Indifferent Renaissance tiles, made in the reign
+of Philip the Fifth, are still preserved in parts of
+the Alhambra.</p>
+
+<p>Excellent polychrome <i>cuerda seca</i> tiles (fourteenth
+century), in white, green, yellow, blue, and
+black, are over the horseshoe archway of the Gate
+of Wine of the Alhambra (Plate <a href="#img_154.jpg">lvi</a>.). According
+to Gómez Moreno,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> they were manufactured here,
+as were the Moorish <i>azulejos</i>, yellow, black, white,
+violet, and sky-blue, in the Mirador de Daraxa.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+The archives of the Moorish palace also state
+that towards the close of the sixteenth century
+Antonio Tenorio, whose pottery was situated
+in the Secano, and consequently within a stone's-throw
+of the Casa Real, made several sets of
+<i>azulejos</i> for the Hall of the Abencerrajes. Good
+Morisco tiles, dating from the same period and
+wrought by craftsmen such as Gaspar Hernandez,
+Pedro Tenorio, and the members of the Robles
+family, are in the Sala de Comares, and in one of
+the rooms of the Casa de los Tiros.</p>
+
+<p>From the thirteenth century until the eighteenth,
+excellent <i>azulejos</i> were made in Cataluña. Specimens
+of every period exist in the collections of
+Don Francisco Rogent and Don José Font y
+Gumá, of Barcelona, and Don Luis Santacana,
+of Martorell. The tiles belonging to these
+gentlemen proceed from the cathedral and other
+temples of Barcelona, and from the monasteries
+or castles of Poblet, Santas Creus, Montserrat,
+Marmellá, San Miguel de Ervol, Centellas, Torre
+Pallaresa, San Miguel del Fay, and Vallpellach.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another region which has long been celebrated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+for its <i>azulejeria</i> is the kingdom of Valencia.
+Even in the eighteenth century, when this craft
+was generally in a state of great decadence,
+Valencian tiles were thoroughly well made,
+although the patterns on them were defective.
+Laborde pronounced them &ldquo;the best executed
+and most elegant in Europe,&rdquo; and further said
+of this locality; &ldquo;the painted earthenware tiles
+or <i>azulejos</i> are used in the country, but only a
+small part of them; a great many are sent into
+the interior of Spain as well as to Cadiz, where
+they are shipped for Spanish America, and to
+Marseilles, whence they are conveyed into Africa.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same writer inserts an interesting account
+of the manufacture of these <i>azulejos</i>. &ldquo;It is at
+Valencia that the tiles of earthenware are made,
+with which they incrust walls and pave apartments:
+those tiles are of a clayey earth, which is
+found in the territories of Quarte near Valencia;
+they harden the earth long after soaking it in
+water; the tiles are formed in moulds, and are
+dried in the sun; they are then beaten with a
+piece of square wood of the dimensions of which
+they are wanted. They are then put into the oven,
+where they undergo a slight baking. As soon as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+they are done they are glazed, and are afterwards
+painted in water colours with whatever subject
+is intended to be represented. The tiles are
+then replaced in the oven so as not to touch one
+another, and that the action of the fire may
+penetrate them all equally: as the colours change
+by baking, the workmen apply them anew in
+proportion to the changes that take place; the
+red alone alters entirely. The varnish with
+which they are glazed is made with lead, tin, and
+white sand. These three substances are ground
+in a mill to powder, which is mixed with water,
+to form a paste, and baked in the oven; it is
+again pounded and put into the oven, where it
+crystallises: being once more reduced to powder
+and diluted with water, it becomes varnish.
+There are two kinds of it; one is whiter than
+the other, though the same materials are used:
+the mode of mixing alone makes the difference;
+the whiter, the clearer the tiles. It takes a certain
+number of tiles to form a picture: they are of
+different dimensions; the smallest are three inches
+nine lines, the largest seven inches nine lines.
+The price varies according to the size of the
+tile, the beauty of the varnish, and the variety of
+the drawings: the lowest price is eight pesos
+(25s.) a thousand, and the highest 100 pesos or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+£15, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> There is a considerable demand
+for them; they are superior both in beauty and
+strength to those used in Holland.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_158.jpg" width="232" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_158.jpg" id="img_158.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LVII<br />TILES OF THE DECADENT PERIOD</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bourgoing, author of the <i>Nouveau Voyage en
+Espagne</i>, described, in 1789, the same product in
+the following terms: &ldquo;L'industrie des Valenciens
+tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les productions de
+leur sol. Il contient une espèce de terre dont ils
+font ces carreaux de faïence colorée, connus sous
+le nom d'<i>Azulejos</i>, et qu'on ne fabrique qu'à
+Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en
+revêt leurs lambris; on y peint les sujets les plus
+compliqués, tels par exemple qu'un bal masqué,
+une fête de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la
+seule qui ne puisse être fixée sur cette espèce de
+faïence; elle s'altere entièrement par la cuisson.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p>For the amusement of my readers, I insert an
+illustration of common Spanish tiles of the decadent
+period (Plate <a href="#img_158.jpg">lvii</a>.), displaying considerable
+liveliness combined with reckless ignorance of
+draughtsmanship. A class of these degenerate
+tiles, made in large quantities at Seville in the
+eighteenth century, is known as <i>azulejos de
+montería</i> or &ldquo;hunting-tiles,&rdquo; since episodes of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+chase form one of the favourite themes of their
+design.</p>
+
+<p>Although it passed through a long period of
+prostration, embracing the greater part of the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, at no time
+has the manufacture of decorative Spanish tiles
+succumbed completely. Of recent years it has
+revived surprisingly at Seville, Barcelona, and
+Segovia; and at the first of these cities the older
+<i>azulejos</i>, and particularly those in the <i>cuenca</i> style,
+are imitated to perfection.</p>
+
+<p>In the cheapest kinds of modern tiling, such as
+is used for corridors and kitchens, a common device
+is a series of repeated curves and dots which
+evidently has its source in Arabic lettering.
+Indeed, the ornamental and attractive written
+characters of the Spanish Moors, rendered familiar
+to their rivals through long centuries of intercourse,
+seem to have constantly found favour with the
+Christian Spaniards. The <i>fuero</i> of Jaca, dated
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1064, tells us that a Christian prince of Spain,
+Don Sancho Ramirez, was accustomed to write
+his signature in Arabic lettering. Meaningless
+inscriptions in the same language, and evidently
+executed by a Christian hand, are engraved on
+objects in the Royal Armoury; and Señor Osma<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+describes in an interesting pamphlet (<i>Los letreros
+ornamentales en la cerámica morisca del Siglo XV.</i>)
+how, in the pottery of older Spain, a word in Arabic
+such as <i>alafia</i> (&ldquo;prosperity&rdquo; or &ldquo;blessing&rdquo;) would
+often be corrupted by Morisco craftsmen into a
+motive of a purely ornamental character, and
+which would only in this sense be comprehended
+and appreciated by the Christian.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<h3>HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED POTTERY</h3>
+
+<p>Probably no pottery in the world possesses
+greater loveliness or interest than the celebrated,
+yet even to this day mysterious, lustred ware of
+Moorish Spain. Our knowledge of the early
+history of this ware is still imperfect. In modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+times, attention was first drawn to the lustre
+process by M. Riocreux, of the Sèvres Museum.
+In spite, however, of the subsequent monographs
+and researches of Davillier and other authorities,
+the origin of lustred pottery is yet a problem which
+awaits solution. Until some years ago it was
+believed to have had its source in Persia, where
+many specimens have been discovered in the form
+of tiles and other objects; but this belief was
+afterwards shaken by Fouquet, who unearthed at
+Fostat in Egypt, in the year 1884, specimens of
+lustred ware which are known to date from the
+eleventh century. Saladin, too, affirms that he
+has seen upon the mosque of Kairuan lustred
+plaques with inscriptions recording them to have
+been presented, between <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 864 and 875, by the
+emir Ibrahim Ahmed-ibn-el-Aglab.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever these facts may signify, it appears
+from a statement by the geographer Edrisi that
+lustred ware was made in Spain as early as the
+twelfth century. &ldquo;Here,&rdquo; said the writer, speaking
+of Calatayud, &ldquo;is produced the gold-coloured
+pottery which is exported to all countries.&rdquo; The
+next allusion to it is by the traveller Ibn-Batutah,
+who visited certain parts of Spain in the middle
+of the fourteenth century. &ldquo;At Málaga,&rdquo; he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+wrote, &ldquo;is made the beautiful golden pottery which
+is exported to the farthest countries.&rdquo; These
+passages refer respectively to Aragon and Andalusia.
+The same ware was produced in Murcia.
+Ibn-Said, quoted by Al-Makkari, mentions the
+&ldquo;glazed and gilded porcelain&rdquo; of Murcia, Málaga,
+and Almería, calling it &ldquo;strange and admirable.&rdquo;
+It was also manufactured, probably in larger
+quantities than in any other part of Spain, in many
+towns and villages of the kingdom of Valencia,
+such as Carcer, Alaquaz, Moncada, Quarte, Villalonga,
+Traiguera, and Manises. In the <i>Excellencies
+of the Kingdom of Valencia</i>, written by Eximenes
+and published in 1499, we find it stated that
+&ldquo;surpassing everything else is the ware of Manises,
+gilded and painted with such mastery that all the
+world is enamoured thereof, insomuch that the
+pope, the cardinals, and princes send for it,
+astonished that objects of such excellence can be
+made of earth.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>Other writers on the same locality, such as Diago
+and Escolano, author of the <i>Historia de la insigne</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+<i>y coronada ciudad y reino de Valencia</i> (Valencia,
+1610, 1611), confirm this eulogy of Eximenes.
+According to Escolano, Valencian ware was &ldquo;of
+such loveliness that in return for that which the
+Italians send us from Pisa, we send them boatloads
+of it from Manises.&rdquo; One of the most recent of
+authorities on lustred ware remarks that &ldquo;in the
+fifteenth century ornamental vases in the (Spanish-Moorish)
+wares appear to have been commanded
+from Spain by wealthy Florentines, as is evident
+from the Medici arms and impresa in fig. 40;
+others bearing the Florentine lily (fig. 41) seem
+to have been ordered from the same city.&rdquo; The
+illustrations to which the author of this monograph<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>
+refers, depict a vase and a boccale, both
+in lustred ware, and which it is extremely probable
+were manufactured at Manises.</p>
+
+<p>The same ware was also possibly made in
+Cataluña, where pieces of it have been found
+among the ruins of the village of Las Casas. <i>La
+Alhambra</i>, a small magazine which is published
+at Granada, contains, in the number dated
+September 30th, 1901, an account of these fragments
+by their finder, Joaquín Vilaplana.</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago the Balearic Islands were also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+thought to have produced this pottery. One of
+the earliest and most fervent champions of this
+theory, now definitely shown to be erroneous,
+was Baron Davillier. This gentleman, in some
+respects an excellent authority on Spanish ceramics,
+relied too strongly on certain assurances
+made him by a Señor Bover, and ended by declaring
+that in the museums of Paris and London
+he had himself seen lustred plates which bore the
+arms of Ynca in the Balearics, proving them to
+have been manufactured at that town.</p>
+
+<p>However, a Majorcan archæologist, named Alvaro
+Campaner, refuted one by one Davillier's
+points of argument, and showed beyond all
+question that both the plates of Ynca and the
+arms which decorated them were simply nonexistent,
+and that the term <i>Majolica</i>, deriving
+from <i>Majorica</i>, applies to pottery in general,
+and not with any preference to lustred ware.
+Campaner also suggested very ingeniously that
+the word <i>Majolica</i> was probably applied by the
+Italians to Catalan or Valencian pottery conveyed
+to Italy in vessels themselves belonging to the
+Balearics, and which were in the habit of completing
+their cargoes in the ports of Barcelona<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+and Valencia, and he added that this suggestion
+is supported by the fact that specimens of lustred
+ware are far more often met with on the Balearic
+coast than in the towns and villages of the interior.
+It is only fair to state that Davillier frankly and
+fully recognized the value of Campaner's refutation.</p>
+
+<p>As to the methods of producing lustred pottery,
+the chemical investigations practised by Riocreux,
+Brogniart, Carand, and others, have shown that
+the metals used to produce the characteristic reflex
+which gives the ware its name were copper and
+silver, entering into the composition of an extremely
+thin glaze extended over the surface of
+the pottery, and employed, sometimes together,
+and sometimes separately. It is obvious that the
+lustre produced by copper would be deeper, redder,
+and less delicate than that produced by silver,
+while varying gradations would be obtainable by
+the mixture of both metals. It is also beyond
+doubt that the oldest specimens of this pottery
+extant to-day are those which contain the palest
+and most pearly lustre, and consequently the
+largest quantity of the costlier metal. In those
+of later date there is an evident inferiority, both
+in colour, lustre, and design. In fact, two
+separate, or nearly separate, epochs of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+branch of Spanish pottery are pointed out by
+Señor Mélida, who gives the name of <i>Mudejar</i>
+to lustred objects manufactured at an earlier time
+by Moorish artists working in the cities captured
+by the Christians, and that of <i>Morisco</i> to the
+second or inferior class produced by Morisco
+craftsmen after the reconquest, and distinguished
+by the coarser and degenerate lustre, colouring,
+and draughtsmanship.</p>
+
+<p>The rarest and most beautiful examples of this
+ware are naturally those which belong to the
+former class, and consist of various kinds of plates
+and other objects in which elaborate devices such
+as lions, antelopes, and shields of heraldry, often
+combined with foliage and inscriptions in Gothic
+lettering, are coloured in bistre or pale blue,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> and
+rendered doubly beautiful by the delicate nacreous
+lustre.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly every case it is extremely difficult to
+determine with any certainty the date of manufacture
+of these objects, as well as the locality.
+Wallis says he is aware of &ldquo;no example of Spanish
+lustre pottery antecedent to those in the class to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+which the large Palermo jar belongs, and they
+are not likely to be much earlier than the end of
+the fourteenth century. Happily the celebrated
+plaque (Plate <a href="#img_168.jpg">lviii</a>.) formerly belonging to Fortuny,
+and now in the possession of Excmo Sr. Don G. J.
+de Osma, furnishes an early date, which,
+according to its owner, is between May 1408
+and November 1417. Those who know the
+original will remember that it is no less remarkable
+for the quality of its golden lustre than for
+the grace and elegance of its fanciful Oriental
+design.&rdquo; It is also believed by Señor Osma that
+this plaque was manufactured in the kingdom of
+Granada; <i>i.e.</i> either at Granada or Málaga.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_168.jpg" width="241" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_168.jpg" id="img_168.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LVIII<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED PLAQUE<br />
+(<i>Early 15th Century. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A specimen of Spanish lustred ware more
+celebrated even than Fortuny's plaque is the
+&ldquo;vase of the Alhambra&rdquo; (Plate <a href="#img_170.jpg">lix</a>.), which rests
+to-day in a corner of the Sala de las Dos Hermanas.
+The history of this mighty jar is
+interesting. Popular superstition affirms it to
+have been discovered, filled to the brim with
+gold, by the Marquis of Mondejar, first of the
+Christian governors of the fortress of Granada.
+Exposed for many years to every stress of weather
+and to every mutilation at the hands of passers-by,
+it stood, in company with other vases of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+enormous size, upon a rampart which is now the
+garden terrace known as the Adarves. Several
+of the older travellers have described these vessels
+or alluded to them. Marmol wrote of them as
+far back as the sixteenth century, while the
+journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the following
+notice;&mdash;&ldquo;Sur la première terrasse par où l'on
+entre, et d'où l'on a de la peine à regarder en
+bas sans estre ébloüy, il y a deux fontaines jaillissantes,
+et tout du long des murs du chasteau, des
+espaliers d'orangers et de grenadiers, avec de
+grands vases de terre peinte, aussi belle que la
+porcelaine, où il n'y avoit pour lors, sinon quelques
+fleurs en quelques-uns: mais où l'on dit que le
+Marquis de Mondejar trouva quantité d'or que les
+Mores avaient caché dans la terre, quand il y fût
+estably par Ferdinand.&rdquo; The priest Echeverría,
+who forged the relics of the ancient Alcazaba of
+Granada,<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> was careful to repeat this fable in the
+twenty-sixth chapter of his <i>Paseos por Granada</i>.
+The first edition of this work was published in
+1764, under the assumed name of Joseph Romero
+Yranzo. There were then two vases and part of
+a third, all &ldquo;lacerated, peeled, and maltreated.&rdquo;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+The Englishman Swinburne wrote in 1776 that
+below the Towers of the Bell, &ldquo;on the south-side,
+on a slip of terrace, is the governor's garden, a
+very pleasant walk, full of fine orange and cypress
+trees and myrtle hedges, but quite abandoned.
+The view it commands is incomparable. Two
+large vases enamelled with gold and azure foliages
+and characters are the only ornaments left: these
+were taken out of the vaults under the royal apartments.&rdquo;
+In the second edition of Echeverría's
+<i>Paseos</i>, which was republished in 1814, it is
+added in a footnote that only a single vase
+remained, &ldquo;in a room that overlooks the Court of
+Myrtles.&rdquo; Lozano, however, in his <i>Antigüedades
+Arabes</i>, mentions two vases as existing at the
+same period. Argote de Molina (<i>Nuevos Paseos
+por Granada</i>, published about 1808) describes,
+together with the wretchedly executed marble
+statues in the Sala de las Ninfas, the &ldquo;two or
+three great porcelain jars whereof some pieces
+only now remain,&rdquo; and reminds us that according
+to the old tradition these statues looked continually
+towards the vases, which were full of treasure.
+Argote, nevertheless, takes Echeverría sharply to
+task for his absurdities upon this theme; and
+Washington Irving, a diligent gleaner in Echeverría's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+somewhat scanty field, makes use of the
+same material for his well-known story.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_170.jpg" width="388" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_170.jpg" id="img_170.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LIX<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE<br />
+(<i>Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the time of Owen Jones the one surviving
+vase, now standing with a wooden rail before it
+in a corner of the Hall of the Two Sisters, still
+occupied the &ldquo;room that looks upon the Court of
+Myrtles.&rdquo; Jones wrote of it in 1842:&mdash;&ldquo;This
+beautiful vase was discovered, it is said, full of
+gold in one of the subterranean chambers of the
+Casa Real. It is at present to be seen in a small
+chamber of the Court of the Fish-pond, in which
+are deposited the archives of the palace. It is
+engraved in the Spanish work by Lozano,
+<i>Antigüedades Arabes de España</i>, with another of
+the same size, which was broken a few years ago,
+and the pieces sold to a passing traveller. The
+vase is executed in baked clay, with enamelled
+colours and gold similar to the mosaics.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A more precise description is the following.
+The vase, which measures four feet six inches in
+height by eight feet two inches and a half in
+circumference, is of common earthenware painted
+with intricate devices fired after painting. This
+was a difficult operation in a vessel of such size;
+and here, in consequence, the colours have slightly
+run and mingled. Besides these technical flaws,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+the belly of the vase is broken clean in half, and
+one of the handles is missing. The shape is
+amphoraic, with a moderate downward curve.
+About the middle, surrounded by leaf and stem
+and geometrical devices effectively intertwined,
+are two antelopes. The vase is coloured blue
+and caramel upon a delicate yellow ground, and
+has a faint metallic lustre.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> An Arabic inscription
+is repeated several times, and consists of the
+words &ldquo;Felicity&rdquo; and &ldquo;Welcome.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This vase is believed to date from the fourteenth
+century; and if we judge from the colour
+and composition of the earth employed, it appears
+probable that it was made at Granada. Together
+with the other vases which have disappeared,<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> it
+was doubtless meant to serve as a receptacle for
+water, and for decorating the chambers of the
+palace, where it would rest in amphora-fashion
+on a perforated stand, while smaller vases containing
+flowers would fill the niches which may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+yet be seen in various inner walls of the Alhambra.
+The belief of Argote<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> and many other writers
+that these niches were intended to receive the
+slippers of the Moors is utterly unfounded.</p>
+
+<p>Until quite recently all published illustrations
+of the great <i>jarrón de la Alhambra</i> were inaccurate,
+and as a rule grotesquely so. Among
+the very worst are those inserted in the handbooks
+of Riaño and Contreras. I am glad to be
+able to reproduce an excellent photograph, which
+both corrects the atrocious cuts I have observed
+elsewhere, and relieves me from giving a prolix
+and possibly a wearisome description of the
+decoration on the vase.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_172.jpg" width="346" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_172.jpg" id="img_172.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LX<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE<br />
+(<i>Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several other lustred vases of large size are
+still preserved in Spain and other countries. One,
+proceeding from a Sicilian church, is in the
+museum of Palermo. Wallis, who inserts an
+illustration, describes it as &ldquo;amphora-shaped, with
+two large flat handles; pear-shaped body, long
+neck, ribbed at lower part, canellated above,
+moulded lip. Whitish body, tin glaze. Ornament
+painted in gold lustre on white ground,
+the pattern in parts almost obliterated. Hispano-Moresque.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+Height, one metre, seventeen centimetres.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another of these great vases belonged to the
+painter Fortuny, and was sold at his death to
+Prince Basilewsky, for thirty thousand francs. It
+was found by Fortuny at the village of Salar,
+near Granada, and purchased by him at a low
+price. &ldquo;The neck and mouth resemble those of
+the Alhambra vase. The ornamentation is distributed
+about the body of the vase in four zones;
+one of the two central zones has tangent circles,
+and the other an inscription.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_174.jpg" width="318" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_174.jpg" id="img_174.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXI<br />LUSTRED TILES<br />
+(<i>Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another large lustred vase is in the museum of
+Madrid (Plate <a href="#img_172.jpg">lx</a>.). It was found by a labourer
+at Hornos in the province of Jaen, and passed
+into the hands of the village priest, who placed it
+in his church to support the font of holy water.
+In course of time a dealer in antiquities, by name
+Amat, happened to pass that way, observed the
+vase, and made an offer for it to the <i>padre</i>. This
+latter at first refused, but subsequently, stimulated
+by an ignorant though well-intentioned and disinterested
+zeal for bettering the temple, he stipulated
+that if the dealer provided a new support
+of marble for the font, and paid for white washing
+the church, he might bear off the coveted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+<i>jarrón</i>. Fulfilling these conditions at all speed, he
+mounted the precious vessel on an ass, and briskly
+strode away. When he had gone a little distance
+the villagers, missing their cherished vase, though
+unaware, of course, of its artistic worth, swarmed
+angrily about the purchaser, flourished their knives
+and sticks at him, and pelted him with stones. At
+this he called upon the mayor for protection; the
+mayor provided him with two armed men for bodyguard,
+and, thus defended, the indomitable dealer
+reached Madrid and sold his jar to government
+for fifteen hundred dollars. Its present value is
+estimated at not less than thirty thousand.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest and most interesting notices
+relating to the preparation of this lustred ware is
+contained in a description by one of the royal
+archers, named Henry Cock, of the progress,
+performed in 1585, of Philip the Second from the
+court of Spain to Zaragoza.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> Cock wrote of Muel,
+in Aragon:&mdash;&ldquo;Almost all the inhabitants of this
+village are potters, and all the earthenware sold
+at Zaragoza is made in the following manner.
+The vessels are first fashioned to the required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+shape from a certain substance extracted from the
+earth of this locality. They are next baked in a
+specially constructed oven, and when removed
+from this are varnished with white varnish and
+polished, after which they are washed with a
+mixture of twenty-five pounds of lead, three or
+four pounds of tin, and as many pounds of a
+certain sand which is found there. All these
+ingredients are mixed into a paste resembling ice,
+which is broken small, pounded like flour, and
+kept in powder. This powder is mixed with
+water, the dishes are passed through it, and after
+being rebaked they keep their lustre. Next, in
+order to gild the pottery, they take the strongest
+vinegar mixed with about two <i>reales</i> of powdered
+silver, vermilion, and red ochre, and a little wire.
+When all is thoroughly mixed they paint the
+patterns on the dishes with a feather, bake them
+again, and their gold colour is now quite permanent.
+I was told all this by the potters
+themselves.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_176.jpg" width="500" height="378"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_176.jpg" id="img_176.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXII<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>A.D. 1460&ndash;1480. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another most interesting account of the manufacture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+of lustred ware was discovered in manuscript
+by Riaño in the British Museum, and,
+although it belongs to a later date (1785), is well
+worth quoting fully. It consists of a report upon
+the later gilded pottery of Manises, and was drawn
+up by order of the Count of Floridablanca:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with
+white and blue, the only colours used besides the
+gold lustre; the vessels are again baked; if the
+objects are to be painted with gold colour, this
+can only be put on the white varnish, after they
+have gone twice through the oven. The vessels
+are then painted with the said gold colour and
+are baked a third time, with only dry rosemary
+for fuel.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The white varnish used is composed of lead
+and tin, which are melted together in an oven
+made on purpose; after these materials are
+sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and
+when in this state the mixture is removed and
+mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand:
+fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when
+cold, pounded into powder. The only sand which
+can be used is from a cave at Benalguacil, three
+leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish
+should be fine, for every <i>arroba</i>, twenty-five pounds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+of lead, six to twelve ounces of tin must be added,
+and half a bushel of finely-powdered salt: if a
+coarse kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very
+small quantity of tin, and three or four <i>cuartos</i>
+worth of salt, which in this case must be added
+when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the
+vessel.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Five ingredients enter into the composition of
+the gold colour: copper, which is better the older
+it is; silver, as old as possible; sulphur; red
+ochre; and strong vinegar, which are mixed in
+the following proportions: of copper three ounces,
+of red ochre twelve ounces, of silver one <i>peseta</i>
+(about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar
+a quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the
+earth or scoriæ, which is left after this pottery is
+painted with the gold colour, is added to the
+other ingredients.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_178.jpg" width="500" height="381"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_178.jpg" id="img_178.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXIII<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;They are mixed in the following manner: a
+small portion of sulphur in powder is put into a
+casserole with two small bits of copper, between
+them a coin of one silver <i>peseta</i>; the rest of the
+sulphur and copper is then added to it. When
+this casserole is ready, it is placed on the fire, and
+is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed,
+which is evident when no flame issues from it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+The preparation is then taken from the fire, and
+when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre
+and scoriæ are then added to it; it is mixed up
+by hand and again pounded into powder. The
+preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with
+enough water to make a sufficient paste to stick
+on the sides of the basin; the mixture is then
+rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore
+indispensable that the water should be added very
+gradually until the mixture is in the proper state.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The basin ready prepared must be placed in
+an oven for six hours. At Manises it is customary
+to do so when the vessels of common pottery are
+baked; after this the mixture is scratched off
+the sides of the basin with some iron instrument;
+it is then removed from there and broken up into
+small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar
+with the quantity of vinegar already
+mentioned, and after having been well ground
+and pounded together for two hours the mixture
+is ready for decorating. It is well to observe
+that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured
+mixture which is required for every object can
+only be ascertained by practice.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the gilded ware of the kingdom
+of Valencia had by this time deteriorated very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+greatly. Formerly, from as far back as the reign
+of Jayme the Conqueror, the other towns or
+villages of this region which produced the lustred
+and non-lustred pottery were Játiva, Paterna,
+Quarte, Villalonga, Alaqua, Carcer, and Moncada.
+Early in the fourteenth century fourteen potteries
+were working in the town of Biar, and twenty-three
+at Traiguera. Manises, however, maintained
+the lead for many years. The notices of
+Eximenes and other writers concerning the pottery
+of this town have been already quoted. The
+same ware is mentioned in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries by Diago (1613), Francisco
+Jávier Borrell, Beuter, and Martin de Viciana.
+Marineus Siculus, the chronicler of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, adds that similar or identical pottery
+(&ldquo;<i>desta misma arte</i>&rdquo;) was made in Murcia, whose
+manufacture of it had been praised in earlier
+times by Ibn-Said. Toledo also manufactured
+gilded ware with blue or bistre colouring. García
+Llansó says that in the sixteenth century this
+capital produced plates which contain the arms of
+Spain in the centre, the rest of the plate being
+completely covered with minute geometrical or
+floral ornamentation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_180.jpg" width="500" height="488"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_180.jpg" id="img_180.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXIV<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is certain that during the fourteenth and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+fifteenth centuries large quantities of lustred
+pottery were produced in many parts of Andalusia,
+Castile, Aragon, and Valencia. The oldest and
+most valuable specimens of this pottery are those
+which have the palest and most purely golden
+lustre, combined with blue or bluish decoration in
+the form of animals, coats of arms, or foliage.
+The lustred ware of Manises began to deteriorate
+about the time of the expulsion of the Moriscos,
+when the leaves and fronds of a clean gold tone
+upon a lightish ground are replaced by commoner
+and coarser patterns, and the gold itself by the
+coppery lustre which is still employed.</p>
+
+<p>After the seventeenth century the further decline
+of this once famous industry may be traced
+from the accounts of travellers. Towards the
+middle of this century Bowles wrote that &ldquo;two
+leagues from the capital (Valencia) is a fair-looking
+town of only four streets, whose occupants are
+nearly all potters. They make a <i>copper-coloured</i>
+ware of great beauty, <i>used for common purposes and
+for decorating the houses of the working-people
+of the province</i>. They make this ware of an
+argillaceous earth resembling in its colour and
+composition that portion of the soil of Valencia
+which produces native mercury&hellip;. The objects<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+they fashion of this earth possess a glitter and are
+very inexpensive, since I purchased half a dozen
+plates for a <i>real</i>. Nevertheless, <i>this is not the
+ware which has the highest reputation in the kingdom
+of Valencia</i>. The factory which the Count of
+Aranda has established at Alcora is not surpassed
+in Europe, and is ahead of many in fineness of
+substance, hardness of the varnish, and elegance
+of form. It would be perfect of its kind if the
+varnish did not crack and peel off so easily.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Laborde, early in the nineteenth
+century Manises contained two potteries &ldquo;of considerable
+extent, which employ seventy workmen.
+The people occupied in these possess the art of
+producing a gold <i>bronze</i> colour which they carefully
+keep a secret, never communicating it to any
+person.&rdquo; Elsewhere in the same book Laborde
+is more explicit. &ldquo;Manises is a village situated a
+league and a quarter north of Valencia. It is
+seen on the left coming from New Castile. It is
+noted for its manufactories of earthen ware, which
+employ thirty kilns, and occupy a great part of the
+inhabitants. The women are employed in forming
+the designs and applying the colours. There are
+two large manufactories of a superior kind, the
+earthen ware of which is tolerably fine, of a beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+white, and a moderate price. They also make
+here vases worked with a great degree of delicacy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_182.jpg" width="362" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_182.jpg" id="img_182.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXV<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The society of these workmen possess the
+secret of the composition of a colour which in the
+fire takes the tint and brightness of a beautiful
+gilt <i>bronze</i>. It has been unsuccessfully attempted
+to be imitated; the heads of the society compose
+the colour themselves, and distribute it to the
+masters who take care of it; it is a liquid of the
+colour of Spanish tobacco, but a little deeper.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of Hispano-Moresque lustred
+pottery preserved in the public and private collections
+of various countries is far from small, although
+to classify it according to the place and date of its
+production is nearly always a matter of extreme
+difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest specimens are the vase
+of the Alhambra, those which are now in the
+museums of Palermo and Madrid, that which
+belonged to Fortuny, and the plaque which once
+was also his, and now forms part of the Osma
+collection. Lustred Spanish tiles are scarce. A
+few exist at Seville<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and Granada, chiefly in altar-fronts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+along the archivolts of doorways, or, with
+heraldic motives, on the inner walls of houses
+of the aristocracy. Invariably, says Gestoso,
+such tiles are coloured with combinations of white,
+blue, and gold, since in the lustre process other
+colours&mdash;black, or green, or deepish yellow&mdash;proved
+unsatisfactory. Other lustred tiles of
+exquisite beauty are owned by Señor Osma,
+(Plate <a href="#img_174.jpg">lxi</a>.), and seem to have even gained in
+brilliance by the centuries that have passed over
+them. Riaño gives a list of the specimens of this
+pottery which are at South Kensington, consisting
+of bowls, vases, and plates. One of the vases is
+particularly beautiful. It dates from the fifteenth
+century, and is described by Fortnum as having
+&ldquo;a spherical body on a trumpet-shaped base, with
+a neck of elongated funnel form, flanked by two
+large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular
+holes. The surface, except the mouldings,
+is entirely covered with a diaper-pattern of ivy
+or briony leaves, tendrils, and small flowers in
+brownish lustre and blue on the white ground.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_184.jpg" width="361" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_184.jpg" id="img_184.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXVI<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Through the courtesy of Señor Osma I am<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+able to give illustrations of a few of the finest
+specimens of lustred ware in his magnificent
+collection (Plates <a href="#img_176.jpg">lxii</a>.&ndash;<a href="#img_184.jpg">lxvi</a>.). The three small
+vessels facing pages 176, 178, and 180 are of
+Valencian workmanship, and date, according to
+their owner, from between 1460 and 1480. The
+two plates are also Valencian. The one with a
+bull in the centre dates from between 1480 and
+1500; and that which has a greyhound from
+slightly earlier&mdash;say 1470 to 1490.</p>
+
+<h3>POTTERY OF SEVILLE, PUENTE DEL ARZOBISPO,
+TALAVERA DE LA REINA, TOLEDO, AND BARCELONA;
+POROUS WARE; PORCELAIN OF ALCORA
+AND THE ROYAL FACTORY OF THE BUEN RETIRO.</h3>
+
+<p>We have seen that Seville was an early and
+important centre of the potter's craft in Spain.
+Her potteries were celebrated even with the
+Romans, and probably have at no moment been
+inactive. Fifty, established in the suburb of
+Triana, were mentioned in the sixteenth century
+by Pedro de Medina, and documents which tell
+of many more have recently been discovered by
+Gestoso. The excellence of the Seville tiles has
+been described in a preceding section of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+chapter. Their production still continues upon
+a large scale; and the ware of the Cartuja factory,
+which reached the zenith of its fame towards the
+end of the eighteenth century, is considered by
+Jacquemart and other authorities to rival with the
+Italian wares of Savona.</p>
+
+<p>Pottery made in other parts of the Peninsula&mdash;particularly
+that of Talavera de la Reina&mdash;is
+known to have been imitated by the Seville potters
+with embarrassing perfection. In the case of the
+so-called &ldquo;loza de Puente del Arzobispo,&rdquo; it is
+the Seville ware itself which seems to have been
+imitated. Puente del Arzobispo is a small village
+near Toledo. Mendez wrote of it in the seventeenth
+century:&mdash;&ldquo;Fine pottery is manufactured in
+about eight kilns, which produce more than 40,000
+ducats yearly.&rdquo; &ldquo;In 1755,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;thirteen
+pottery kilns existed at this place; they still
+worked in 1791, but their productions were very
+inferior in artistic merit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_186.jpg" width="235" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_186.jpg" id="img_186.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXVII<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not many years ago the name of Puente del
+Arzobispo was connected by Baron Davillier with
+certain polychrome non-lustred plates and other
+vessels which are greatly esteemed for their rarity,
+and of which a few specimens exist in the South
+Kensington and other museums, as well as in one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+or two private collections, such as that of Señor
+Osma.</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso says that the usual diameter of these
+plates is either twenty-three centimetres or forty-two
+centimetres. &ldquo;Their decoration, betraying
+at a glance the Saracenic influence, consists of
+leaves and flowers, together with animals of a
+more or less fantastic character: lions, rabbits,
+and birds. In other specimens the centre is
+occupied by a heart, fleurs-de-lis, or other fancy
+devices, or yet, in some few cases, with the head
+of a man or woman. These central designs are
+surrounded with leaves and flowers. The draughtsmanship
+upon these plates is of the rudest, and
+the process of their colouring was as follows.
+The figures were drawn upon the unfired surface
+in manganese ink mixed with a greasy substance;
+and after this the aqueous enamel or glaze was
+allowed to drop from a hogshair brush into the
+spaces which the black had outlined.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This will be recognized as the <i>cuerda seca</i> process,
+so extensively employed in making Seville
+tiles. Nevertheless, judging by certain marks upon
+this pottery, Baron Davillier declared it to proceed
+from Puente del Arzobispo. The marks in
+question consist in one or two examples of what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+appears to be the letters A.P. or P.A.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> Davillier,
+however, affirmed that he had seen a plate fully
+inscribed as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_188a.jpg" width="347" height="350"
+        alt="inscription"
+        title="inscription" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The existence of this plate is now discredited; at
+least, no trace of it can be discovered at this day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+Upon the other hand, Gestoso points to various
+objects manufactured by the <i>cuerda seca</i> method,
+and which undoubtedly proceed from Seville.
+Among them are three shields, one of which,
+containing the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+is of exceptional interest, for it is accompanied by
+an inscribed slab, evidently coeval with the shield
+itself, recording it to have been made in the year
+1503, and by Jerónimo Suarez. This shield and
+slab were removed from a courtyard of the old
+Alhóndiga to Seville Museum, where they now
+remain. Of the two other shields, one belongs
+to Señor Osma, and the second, which is still at
+Seville, adorns the tomb of Don León Enriquez
+in the church of Santa Paula; and since it is unquestionable
+that all these <i>cuerda seca</i> shields,
+as well as quantities of <i>cuerda seca</i> tiles, were
+made at Seville, Gestoso prudently suggests that
+we should designate as &ldquo;<i>cuerda seca</i> ware&rdquo; that
+pottery which has hitherto passed as specially
+belonging to Puente del Arzobispo. In fact,
+towards the end of the fifteenth century this
+pottery is found extending northward from Seville
+to Toledo, and Señor Osma assures me that Toledo
+specimens are of a somewhat later manufacture
+than those which were produced at Seville. One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+of the rarest and most interesting <i>cuerda seca</i>
+plates in this gentleman's collection is reproduced
+herewith (lxviii.). No other plate of similar
+pattern is known to exist. Its date may be
+placed between 1480 and 1495, and it gives a
+curious illustration of the masculine headdress and
+headwear in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.</p>
+
+<p>The pottery of Talavera de la Reina was at
+one time much esteemed. The earliest mention
+of it, says Riaño, occurs in 1560, in a manuscript
+history of this town, while another notice, dated
+1576, says that here was produced &ldquo;fine white
+glazed earthenware and other pottery, which
+supplied the country, part of Portugal, and India.&rdquo;
+More explicit are the observations of Father
+Alonso de Ajofrín, who wrote, in 1651, a history
+of Talavera. He says that &ldquo;her pottery is as
+good as that of Pisa, while quantities of <i>azulejos</i>
+are made here to adorn the front of altars,
+churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers,
+and large and small specimens of every kind.
+Two hundred workmen work at eight separate
+kilns. Four other kilns produce the commoner
+kinds of ware. Red porous clay vessels and
+drinking-cups are baked in two other kilns in
+a thousand shapes to imitate birds and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+creatures; also <i>brinquiños</i> for the use of ladies, so
+deliciously flavoured that after drinking the water
+they contained, they eat the cup in which it was
+brought them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_190.jpg" width="500" height="445"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_190.jpg" id="img_190.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXVIII<br />DISH<br />
+(<i>Andalusian non-lustred ware in the</i> Cuerda seca <i>style.
+A.D. 1480-1495. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following most interesting notice relating
+to this town is also quoted by Riaño: &ldquo;The
+earthenware pottery made here has reached a
+great perfection; it is formed of white and red
+clay. Vases, cups, <i>bucaros</i> and <i>brinquiños</i> are
+made of different kinds, dishes and table centres,
+and imitations of snails, owls, dogs, and every
+kind of fruits, olives, and almonds. These objects
+are painted with great perfection, and the imitations
+of porcelain brought from the Portuguese
+Indies are most excellent. Everyone is surprised
+that in so small a town such excellent things
+should be made. The varnish used for the
+white pottery is made with tin and sand, and
+is now found to be more acceptable than coloured
+earthenware; so much so, that persons of importance
+who pass by this town, although they
+have in their houses dinner-services of silver,
+buy earthenware made at Talavera, on account
+of its excellence. The sand which was used
+to make the white varnish was brought from
+Hita, and is now found at Mejorada, near<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as
+silk.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The red pottery made at Talavera is much
+to be commended, for besides the great variety of
+objects, and the different medals which they place
+upon them, they have invented some small
+<i>brinquiños</i> of so small and delicate a kind, that
+the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also made of
+the same material. A certain scent is added in
+the manufacture of this pottery which excites the
+appetite and taste of the women, who eat the
+pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to
+their confessors to check this custom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_192.jpg" width="500" height="371"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_192.jpg" id="img_192.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXIX<br />AN <i>ALFARERÍA</i> OR POTTER'S YARD<br />
+(<i>Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This porous pottery for keeping water cool
+had been imported from America, and was chiefly
+made in Andalusia, Portugal, and Extremadura.
+It is still produced at Andujar and elsewhere.
+Nearly all travellers in Spain describe it, and insist
+upon the curious circumstance that it was eaten
+by the Spanish women. &ldquo;I have mentioned elsewhere,&rdquo;
+wrote Countess d'Aulnoy, &ldquo;the longing
+many women feel to chew this clay, which often
+obstructs their bodies internally. Their stomachs
+swell, and grow as hard as stone, while their
+skin turns yellow as a quince. I also felt a
+curiosity to taste this ware, that is so highly yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+so undeservedly esteemed; but I would devour a
+grindstone rather than put it in my mouth again.
+Nevertheless, if one wants to be agreeable to the
+Spanish ladies, one has to present them with some
+<i>bucaros</i>, which they themselves call <i>barros</i>, and
+which, as many deem, possess such numerous and
+admirable qualities, since they claim for the clay
+that it cures sickness, and that a drinking vessel
+made of it betrays the presence of a poison. I
+possess one which spoils the taste of wine, but
+greatly improves water. This liquid seems to
+boil and tremble when it is thrown into the cup in
+question; but after a little while the vessel
+empties&mdash;so porous is the clay of which it is
+composed&mdash;and then it has a fragrant odour.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Similar accounts are given by travellers of a
+later time. &ldquo;I wish,&rdquo; wrote Swinburne, &ldquo;I could
+contrive a method of carrying you some of the
+fine earthen jars, called <i>buxaros</i>, which are made
+in Andalusia. They are remarkably convenient
+for water-drinkers, as they are light, smooth, and
+handy; being not more than half-baked, they are
+very porous, and the outside is kept moist by the
+water's filtering through; though placed in the sun,
+the water in the pots remains as cold as ice. The
+most disagreeable circumstance attending them is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+that they emit a smell of earth refreshed by a
+sudden shower after a long drought.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<p>Laborde, who wrote a few years later, seems to
+have copied some of his information from Bowles.
+&ldquo;The Murcians,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;use in their houses
+little jars called <i>Bucaros</i>, the same as those which
+in some parts of Andalusia are called Alcarrazas.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>
+They have handles open at the top, are smaller at
+the bottom than above, and bulge in the middle;
+they are slight, porous, smooth, and half-baked;
+they are made of a peculiar kind of clay. When
+water is put into them, they emit a smell like that
+sent up by the earth after a shower of rain in
+summer. The water makes its way very slowly
+through the pores, and keeps them constantly
+moist on the outside; they are used to cool water
+for drinking. The windows and balconies of all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+the houses have large iron rings, with a flat surface,
+on which they are placed at night, and the water,
+oozing incessantly, becomes very cool.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> In Andalusia
+some of these jars are white, and others red;
+in Murcia they have only white ones. They appear
+to be in every respect of the same nature as
+the evaporating vases of Africa, Egypt, Syria,
+and India, of which so much has been said by
+travellers, and on which the learned have made so
+many dissertations.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same vessels are noticed by Ford in his
+description of a Spanish <i>posada</i>. &ldquo;Near the staircase
+downstairs, and always in a visible place, is
+a gibbous jar, <i>tinaja</i>, of the ancient classical
+amphora shape, filled with fresh water; and by
+it is a tin or copper utensil to take water out with,
+and often a row of small pipkins, made of a red
+porous clay,<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> which are kept ready filled with
+water, on, or rather in, a shelf fixed to the wall,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+and called <i>la tallada, el taller</i>. These pots,
+<i>alcarrazas</i>, from the constant evaporation, keep
+the water extremely cool. They are of various
+shapes, many, especially in Valencia and Andalusia,
+being of the unchanged identical form of
+those similar clay drinking-vessels discovered at
+Pompeii. They are the precise <i>trulla</i>. Martial
+speaks both of the colour and the material of
+those made at Saguntum, where they still are
+prepared in great quantities; they are not unlike
+the <i>ckool'lehs</i> of Egypt, which are made of the
+same material and for the same purposes, and
+represent the ancient Canobic &#954;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#945;. They are
+seldom destined to be placed on the table; their
+bottoms being pointed and conical, they could not
+stand upright. This singular form was given to
+the <i>vasa futilia</i>, or cups used at the sacrifices of
+Vesta, which would have been defiled had they
+touched the ground. As soon, therefore, as they
+are drunk off, they are refilled and replaced in
+their holes on the shelf, as is done with decanters
+in our butlers' pantries.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+<p>I am only aware of one author who derides the
+statement that this porous clay was eaten by the
+Spanish women. According to Bowles, who certainly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+describes and comments on it with intelligence
+and scholarship, the neighbourhood of
+Andujar contains &ldquo;large quantities of the white
+argil of which are made the jars or <i>alcarrazas</i>
+which serve in many parts of Spain for cooling
+water in the summer-time. In other parts of
+Andalusia is found a red variety of this clay, employed
+in making the vessels known as <i>búcaros</i>,
+which serve to freshen the water as well as for
+drinking it out of&mdash;a thing the Spanish ladies
+love greatly. Both the white <i>alcarrazas</i> and
+the <i>búcaros</i> as red as the blood of a bull are
+thin, porous, smooth, and half-baked. When
+filled with water they emit a pleasant smell like
+that of dry earth rained upon in summer, and as
+the water filters through the outer surface, remain
+continually damp.&rdquo; The same writer adds that
+at that time (1752) the <i>búcaros</i> proceeding from
+the Indies were of finer workmanship, and had
+a more agreeable smell than those of Spanish
+manufacture. &ldquo;In the Encyclopædia,&rdquo; he continues,
+&ldquo;and in the Dictionary of Natural History,
+we read that Spanish ladies are for ever chewing
+<i>búcaro</i>, and that the hardest penance their confessors
+can inflict upon them is to deprive them
+for a single day of this enjoyment.&rdquo; Bowles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+however, quotes these observations in a scornful
+tone, and deprecates the habit of &ldquo;believing writers
+who without inquiring into things, concoct and
+publish novels to divert the populace and rid them
+of their money.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Turning our attention once again to the finer
+kinds of Talavera ware, Gestoso adduces proofs
+that this as well as Chinese porcelain was faultlessly
+and freely imitated in the potteries of Seville.
+Here, therefore, is a source of fresh confusion; and
+probably a great proportion of the polychrome
+ware which goes by the name of Talaveran is
+really of Sevillian origin. It is further known that
+at one period, which seems to begin with the second
+half of the sixteenth century, potters who were
+natives of Talavera were hired to work in Seville.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_198.jpg" width="420" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_198.jpg" id="img_198.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXX<br />TALAVERA VASE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has not been ascertained when Talavera herself
+grew celebrated for this industry. García
+Llansó supposes that at first, before it felt the
+influence of Italy and France, her pottery was
+partly Mudejar, and vestiges of oriental art survive
+in fairly late examples. The characteristic colour-scheme
+was either blue on white, or else the
+decoration is more variegated. Riaño says:&mdash;&ldquo;Although
+we find by the remarks we have quoted
+from contemporary authors that earthenware of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+every description was made at Talavera, the
+specimens which are more generally met with may
+be divided into two groups, which are painted on
+a white ground, either in blue, or in colours, in the
+manner of Italian maiolica. The most important
+examples which have reached us consist of bowls
+of different sizes, dishes, vases (Plate <a href="#img_198.jpg">lxx</a>.), <i>tinajas</i>,
+holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decoration.
+Blue oriental china was imitated to a vast
+extent: the colouring was successful, but the design
+was an imitation of the baroque school of the time,
+and the figures, landscapes, and decoration follow
+the bad taste so general in Spain in the eighteenth
+century. The imitations of Italian maiolica are
+effective. The colours most commonly used are
+manganese, orange, blue, and green.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Talavera maintained her reputation for pottery
+till nearly the middle of the eighteenth century,
+supporting more than six hundred workmen
+employed in eight large potteries.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> From then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+onwards the trade declined, and by the close of the
+same century was practically dead, owing, Larruga
+tells us, to the constantly increasing cost of prime
+materials. Nevertheless, the Crown made efforts
+to revive the craft, and met with some success till
+1777, in which year four establishments (locally
+known as <i>barrerías</i>) for making common pottery
+were opened in the same town, and speedily
+crushed their rivals. &ldquo;The potteries of Talavera,&rdquo;
+wrote Laborde soon after this, &ldquo;were greatly
+celebrated for many years, and supplied a lucrative
+and important branch of commerce. They are
+evidently on the decline. The manufactories are
+reduced to seven or eight. These productions no
+longer exhibit the same delicacy of execution.
+Their designs are also lamentably defective. The
+material employed in them is a certain earth
+which is found near Calera, three leagues from
+Talavera.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The older Talavera ware, decorated, as a rule,
+with horses, birds, hunting-scenes, or coats of
+arms, is seldom met with nowadays. Although
+it is not particularly choice, the drawing is firm,
+and the colouring vigorous and agreeable.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that pottery continued to be made
+in Aragon, at Muel, Villafeliche, and other places.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+In course of time these local industries were also
+suffered to decay. Laborde says that early in the
+nineteenth century the Villafeliche factory employed
+thirty-eight workmen. &ldquo;The ware is of a
+very inferior sort. This article might be carried
+to a greater extent. In several parts of the
+province, earth is found of an excellent quality
+for earthenware, particularly in Zaragoza and in
+Tauste; the latter affords the best, which is very
+fine, and of three colours, and would answer for
+the making of porcelain.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the eighteenth century Toledo, upon the
+initiative of Don Ignacio Velasco, produced good
+imitations of Genoese ware, while other kinds of
+pottery were made at Teruel, Valladolid, Jaen,
+Zamora, Segovia, Puente del Arzobispo, and in
+the Balearic Islands. Another region which continued
+to be a most important centre of the potter's
+craft was Cataluña, where it had always been
+encouraged by this thrifty and art-loving people.
+As early as the year 1257 two potters occupied
+a place upon the municipal council of Barcelona,
+while the potters' guild was strictly regulated from
+the beginning of the fourteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> At the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+same time two whole streets in the centre of the
+town, as well as others in the suburbs, were
+occupied by potters. The ancient names of these
+streets are yet retained in the Calles Escudillers,
+Escudillers Blancs (white varnished pottery),
+Obradors (where many of the potteries were
+situated), and Tallers (<i>i.e.</i> the potteries for producing
+common ware).</p>
+
+<p>The pottery of Cataluña generally was largely
+exported to Sicily, Alexandria, and other parts.
+Among the places in this region which produced
+it were Tarragona, Tortosa, and Villafranca. In
+1528 the municipal council of the capital herself
+forbade, as a protective measure, the introduction
+into Barcelona of local pottery made at Malgrat,
+La Selva, and other towns and villages of this
+neighbourhood. In 1546 the Portuguese Barreyros
+declared in his work <i>Chorografía de algunos
+lugares</i> that the Barcelona ware surpassed all
+other classes made in Spain, including the Valencian.
+She continued to produce good pottery all
+through the sixteenth century, and excellent common
+ware until considerably later.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<p>About the beginning of the eighteenth century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+Laborde mentioned as working centres of this
+craft &ldquo;manufactories of delf-ware at Avilés, Gijón,
+Oviedo, Nava, and Cangas de Onis, in the Asturias;
+at Segovia in Old Castile; at Puente del Arzobispo
+and Talavera de la Reina in New Castile; at
+Seville in the kingdom of that name; at Villafeliche
+in Aragon; at Onda, Alcora, and Manises, in the
+kingdom of Valencia; at San Andero in Biscay;
+and at Tortosa in Cataluña&hellip;. The most
+important of these potteries is the one at Alcora,
+the delf of which is tolerably fine, though not of
+the first quality. No china is made, except at
+Alcora and Madrid: that of the former place is
+very common, and inconsiderable as to quantity.
+The china manufactured at Madrid is beautiful,
+and without exaggeration may be considered as
+equalling that of Sèvres. It is a royal pottery;
+but it is impossible to give any description of its
+state, because admission to the interior of the
+manufactory is strictly prohibited.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ricord states in his pamphlet relative to
+Valencian industries that in 1791 factories of
+high-class pottery were working in the kingdom
+of Valencia, at Onda, Alcora, Ribesalves, Manises,
+Eslida, and Bechí; and of common ware at San
+Felipe, Morella, Manises, Murviedro, Alicante,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+Moncada, Orihuela, Segorbe, and other towns
+and villages of this locality. In all, there were
+throughout the province eighty-seven of these
+latter potteries, besides two hundred and twenty
+tileries, and four factories of artistic tiles or
+<i>azulejos</i> established at Valencia. The yearly
+output of these <i>azulejerias</i> was 150,000 tiles,
+20,000 of which were exported to Andalusia and
+Castile.</p>
+
+<p>Although the pottery of Alcora only achieved
+distinction at a later age, this craft had long been
+practised in the neighbourhood. This circumstance
+induced the Count of Aranda to found
+here, in 1726, a large factory for producing costly
+and artistic ware. Riaño obtained permission
+to examine the archives of the family of Aranda,
+with their mass of documents relating to this
+enterprise. His notice of Alcora ware is therefore
+most complete and valuable, and has been
+copied, frequently without acknowledgment, by
+almost every writer on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>It appears from these archives that the cost
+of building and opening the factory of Alcora
+amounted to about £10,000. The works were
+placed beneath the supervision of Don Joaquín
+Joseph de Sayas, at the same time that a Frenchman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+named Ollery was engaged at a good salary
+and brought from Moustiers to act as principal
+draughtsman. A couple of years later Count
+Aranda paid Ollery the high compliment of saying
+that &ldquo;the fine and numerous models which he
+has designed, have contributed to make my manufacture
+the first in Spain.&rdquo; He seems to have
+retired in 1737, when the Count rewarded him
+with a yearly pension of five hundred francs
+besides the amount of his salary, &ldquo;for his especial
+zeal in the improvement of the manufactory, and
+his great skill in directing the construction of every
+kind of work.&rdquo; Riaño adds that from this date
+until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only
+Spanish artists worked at Alcora.</p>
+
+<p>The products of this factory continued to
+improve, and reached, in course of time, a yearly
+total of about three hundred thousand objects.
+The ordinances, which are dated between 1732
+and 1733, tell us that &ldquo;in these works of ours no
+pottery should be made except the very finest,
+similar to the Chinese, and of as fine an earth.
+The models and wheels should be perfect, the
+drawing first-rate, the varnish and colours excellent,
+and the pottery light and of the highest
+quality, for it is our express wish that the best<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+pottery should only be distinguished from that of
+an inferior kind by the greater or less amount of
+painting which covers it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Not less interesting are certain communications,
+copied by Riaño, which passed in 1746 between
+the Spanish Tribunal of Commerce and
+the Count of Aranda, in which it is stated that
+&ldquo;the perfection of the earthenware of Alcora
+consists in the excellent models which have been
+made by competent foreign artists, as well as in
+the quality of the earth and the recipes brought
+at great cost from abroad.&rdquo; We learn from the
+same document that &ldquo;from the earliest period of
+the manufacture, pyramids with figures of children,
+holding garlands of flowers and baskets of fruits
+on their heads, were made with great perfection;
+also brackets, centre and three-cornered tables,
+large objects, some as large as five feet high, to
+be placed upon them, chandeliers, cornucopias,
+statues of different kinds, and animals of different
+sorts and sizes. The entire ornamentation of a
+room has also been made here; the work is so
+perfect that nothing in Spain, France, Italy, or
+Holland could equal it in merit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary to follow in close detail
+all the modifications and vicissitudes (extending<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+over quite a hundred years) which affected the
+Alcora factory. I therefore only take some
+general notices from Riaño. In 1750 Count
+Aranda transferred the works to a private company,
+which remained in possession of them until
+1766. In 1741 a Frenchman named François
+Haly was engaged for ten years, and with a
+yearly salary of rather more than a thousand
+francs, under the following conditions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;That the travelling expenses of his wife and
+children should be given him, and that his salary
+should be paid as soon as he made before the
+Director and two competent judges the different
+kinds of porcelain which he had undertaken to
+make.&rdquo; Haly agreed to surrender his recipes,
+and it was promised him that he should have two
+modellers and one painter working by his side,
+and that if in one year his porcelain were satisfactory,
+the Count would make him a present of a
+thousand <i>tornoises</i>.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>Porcelain was first produced at Alcora towards
+the middle of the eighteenth century. A contract
+was drawn up on March 24th, 1764, with
+a German called John Christian Knipfer, who
+had already worked there in the pottery section.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+By the original agreement, which exists in the
+archives, we find he was to prepare works of
+&ldquo;porcelain and painting similar to those made at
+Dresden, during a period of six years, under the
+following conditions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;That the said Knipfer obliges himself to
+make and teach the apprentices the composition
+and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes,
+and colours, and whatever he may know at the
+present time, or discover during this period of six
+years; he is not to prevent the Director of the
+Works from being present at all the essays made.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish
+porcelain, and to employ gold and silver in its
+decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares;
+likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet,
+blues of different shades, yellow, greens, browns,
+reds, and black.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;That Knipfer will give up an account of his
+secrets, and the management and manner of using
+them, in order that in all times the truth of what
+he has asserted may be verified.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_208.jpg" width="364" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_208.jpg" id="img_208.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXI<br />ORNAMENT IN PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1774 a Frenchman named François Martin
+was engaged to make &ldquo;hard paste porcelain,
+Japanese faïence, English paste (pipeclay), and likewise
+to mould and bake it: the necessary materials<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+to be provided by the Count of Aranda.&rdquo; Riaño
+says that the combined assistance of Knipfer and
+Martin went far to better the products of the factory.</p>
+
+<p>Martin died in 1786, and Knipfer left soon afterwards.
+A Frenchman was now engaged, whose
+services proved also beneficial to the works.
+This was Pierre Cloostermans, &ldquo;a skilful man,
+well versed in the manufacture of porcelain pastes,
+as well as in painting and decorating them.&rdquo;
+Cloostermans, however, was much molested by
+the envy of the Spanish workmen at Alcora, as
+well as by their typical intolerance in matters of
+religion, although the Count, his master, behaved
+towards him with the utmost kindness. Under
+his supervision, the quality of Alcora ware was
+notably improved. Figures and groups of many
+kinds were attempted, and even Wedgwood jasper
+ware was creditably imitated. In 1789, among
+other pottery that was sent to Madrid were &ldquo;two
+hard paste porcelain cups, adorned with low relief
+in the English style.&rdquo; The most important one
+was moulded by Francisco Garcés, the garlands
+and low reliefs by Joaquín Ferrer, sculptor, the
+flowers on the covers by an apprentice, helped
+by Cloostermans.</p>
+
+<p>Dated in the same year (1789), Riaño quotes an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+interesting letter from the Count of Aranda to Don
+Pedro Abadia, his steward. &ldquo;I wish,&rdquo; he said,
+&ldquo;to export the porcelain of my manufactory, but
+chiefly in common objects, such as cups of different
+kinds, tea and coffee services, etc. These may be
+varied in form and colour, the principal point being
+that the paste should bear hot liquids, for we
+Spaniards above everything wish that nothing we
+buy should ever break. By no means let time be
+wasted in making anything that requires much
+loss of time. The chief object is that the pastes
+should be of first-rate excellence and durability.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1793 Cloostermans was driven from the
+country by political disturbances; but he was
+allowed to return in 1795, and resumed his duties
+at the factory. All through these years Alcora
+continued to make most excellent pottery. Essays
+were made with foreign earths, as well as with the
+best that could be found in Spain. About this
+time kaolin was discovered in Cataluña, and the
+Count was particularly anxious that this native
+product should be utilised at Alcora. &ldquo;The
+kaolin of Cataluña,&rdquo; he wrote in 1790, &ldquo;may be
+good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be kaolin,
+and if we do not employ it I must close my works.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Count of Aranda and Pierre Cloostermans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+both died in 1798, and in 1800 the Duke of Hijar
+became the manager and proprietor of the potteries.
+&ldquo;Two hundred workmen were employed, and
+pottery of every description was made, common
+earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the English
+ones, and porcelain in small quantities; common
+wares were made in large quantities; the pipeclays
+were pronounced superior to the English in
+brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily
+stained. A large number of snuff-boxes and other
+small objects belong to this period.&rdquo;&mdash;(Riaño.)</p>
+
+<p>In the early years of the nineteenth century
+Alcora ware deteriorated not a little. This decline
+was further aggravated by the French invasion;
+and although an attempt was subsequently made
+to revive the industry by bringing craftsmen from
+the porcelain factory of Madrid, it suffered fresh
+relapses and produced henceforward little but the
+commonest kinds of ware. &ldquo;This system,&rdquo; says
+Riaño, &ldquo;continued until 1858, when the Duke
+of Hijar sold the manufactory to Don Ramón
+Girona, who brought over English workmen from
+Staffordshire in order to improve the wares.
+Many imitations of the older styles have also been
+made at Alcora of late years.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Riaño appends instructive tables, which I copy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+in Appendix I, of every kind of pottery manufactured
+at Alcora. He also believes that a great
+deal of pottery which was formerly thought to
+proceed from French or English factories is really
+of Alcora make, including &ldquo;a great quantity of
+objects of white pipeclay porcelain which have
+been found of late years in Spain. They have
+hitherto been classified by amateurs as Leeds
+pottery. We find, in papers relating to Alcora,
+that a decided distinction is made between white
+and straw-coloured pottery. This indication may
+be sufficient to distinguish it from English wares.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated Royal Porcelain Factory of the
+Buen Retiro at Madrid, formerly situated in the
+public gardens of that name and popularly known
+as the &ldquo;Fabrica de la China,&rdquo; was founded in
+1759 by Charles the Third, who erected a vast
+edifice for this purpose, and filled it with a multitude
+of workmen and their families, including two
+hundred and twenty-five persons whom he brought
+over from his other factory of Capo-di-Monte in
+Italy. He also transferred a great part of the
+material.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> The cost of the new works amounted
+to eleven and a half millions of <i>reales</i>, and they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+were terminated in 1764. The cost of keeping
+up the factory is stated by Larruga to have
+amounted to three millions of <i>reales</i> yearly. The
+first directors were Juan Tomás Bonicelli and
+Domingo Bonicelli, and the first modellers-in-chief
+and superintendents, possessing the secrets
+of the fabrication (<i>secretistas</i>), were Cayetano
+Schepers and Carlos Gricci.</p>
+
+<p>Riaño says that every kind of porcelain was made
+at the Buen Retiro, &ldquo;hard and soft paste, white
+china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and modelled
+in the style of Capo-di-Monte.&rdquo; A great many
+objects existed imitating the blue jasper ware of
+Wedgwood, and they also made flowers, coloured
+and biscuit, groups (Pl. <a href="#img_208.jpg">lxxi</a>.), and single figures,
+and painted porcelain of different kinds. Great
+quantities of tiles for pavements were also made
+there, which may still be seen at the Casa del
+Labrador at Aranjuez: they are mentioned in the
+accounts which exist at the Ministry of Finance for
+1807 and 1808. We find in these same accounts
+interesting details of the objects made monthly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+In January, 1808, a large number of figures were
+made, including 151 heads for the table centre
+which was made for the king, 306 objects ornamented
+with paintings, 2506 tiles, 577 objects of
+less artistic importance, such as dishes, plates,
+etc. The finest specimens which exist are in the
+Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the palaces
+of Madrid and Aranjuez, of which the walls are
+completely covered with China plaques and looking-glasses,
+modelled in the most admirable manner
+with figures, fruits, and flowers. The room at
+Aranjuez is covered with a bold ornamentation of
+figures in the Japanese style, in high relief, painted
+with colours and gold with the most exquisite
+details. The figures unite the fine Italian modelling
+with the Japanese decoration. The chandelier
+is in the same style (Plate <a href="#img_214.jpg">lxxii</a>.). Upon a vase
+on the wainscot to the right of the entrance door
+is the following inscription:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0;">JOSEPH<br />
+GRICCI<br />
+DELINEAV<sup>it</sup><br />
+ET<br />
+SCUL<sup>it</sup><br />
+1763.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This same date is repeated in the angles, and in
+some shields near the roof we find,</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0;">&ldquo;AÑO<br />
+1765;</p>
+
+<p>probably the year the work was terminated.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_214.jpg" width="500" height="350"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_214.jpg" id="img_214.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXII<br />ROOM DECORATED WITH PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO<br />
+(<i>Royal Palace of Aranjuez</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest mark upon the Buen Retiro porcelain
+was a blue fleur-de-lis, to which were subsequently
+added the letter M and a royal crown. Still later,
+in the reign of Charles the Fourth, the mark used
+was a fleur-de-lis with two crossed C's.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the Buen Retiro Factory was
+almost wholly to supply the Crown with costly
+ware, and would-be visitors were jealously excluded.
+Townsend wrote in 1786: <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>&ldquo;I tried to
+obtain admission to the china manufacture, which
+is likewise administered on the king's account, but
+his Majesty's injunctions are so severe, that I
+could neither get introduced to see it, nor meet
+with anyone who had ever been able to procure
+that favour for himself. I was the less mortified
+upon this occasion, because from the specimens
+which I have seen, both in the palace at Madrid
+and in the provinces, it resembles the manufacture
+of Sèvres, which I had formerly visited in a tour
+through France.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Laborde also complained that the factory was
+&ldquo;wholly inaccessible: all entrance to it is interdicted,
+and its existence is only ascertained by
+the exhibition which is made of its productions
+in the royal palace.&rdquo; The same writer refers to
+another class of work which was produced here,
+namely, stone mosaic. &ldquo;The process by which
+stone is wrought into pictures is as delicate
+as it is curious: a selection is made from marble
+fragments of various shades and dimensions,
+which are found, by judicious assimilation, to
+produce no bad resemblance to painting.&rdquo; Jean
+François de Bourgoing, French Minister at
+Madrid, was lucky enough, in 1782, to penetrate
+into the factory and view the process. &ldquo;Le
+Monarque actuel,&rdquo; he wrote, &ldquo;a établi dans leur
+intérieur une fabrique de porcelaine, dont l'entrée
+est jusqu'à présent interdite à tout le monde.
+On veut sans doute que ses essais se perfectionnent
+dans le silence, avant de les exposer aux
+regards des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent
+encore se voir que dans les Palais du Souverain,
+ou dans quelques Cours d'Italie, auxquelles il
+les envoie en présens. On travaille dans le même
+édifice à certains ouvrages de marqueterie, qui
+sont encore peu connus en Europe. J'y pénétrai<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+un jour, sous les auspices d'un étranger distingué
+en faveur duquel le Roi avoit levé la prohibition
+rigoureuse, qui en exclut tout le monde. Je suis
+témoin de la patience and de l'adresse avec
+lesquelles on taille and on rapproche divers petits
+morceaux de marbre coloré, pour en former des
+tableaux assez compliqués, qui en faisant à-peu-près
+le même effet que la peinture, ont sur elle
+l'avantage de braver par leur couleur immortelles
+les ravages du temps, qui n'épargnent pas les
+plus belles productions de cet art.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>This factory was not long-lived. Until 1803
+it followed the styles of the older establishment at
+Capo-di-Monte, uniting neo-classic motives with
+the manner of Baroque. In that year it began
+to produce porcelain imitating that of Sèvres,
+and two Frenchmen, Vivien and Victor Perche,
+were brought from Paris to superintend this
+change. &ldquo;Among the finest specimens of this
+period,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;are a splendid clock and
+four vases, two mètres high, with porcelain flowers,
+which exist in one of the state rooms of the Palace
+of Madrid. The vases are placed in the four
+corners of the room. The clock is ornamented
+with large biscuit figures. A large number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+vases of Retiro china exist at the royal palaces of
+Madrid, Aranjuez, and the Escorial. They are
+often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or
+porcelain flowers. The blue of the imitations of
+Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the biscuit work
+so fine as the English. Gold is often added to
+these specimens.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_218.jpg" width="500" height="368"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_218.jpg" id="img_218.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXIII<br />PORCELAIN OF THE MONCLOA FACTORY</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, this manufacture was by now
+decadent. It had suffered severely from the death
+of Charles the Third, and upon the French invasion
+in 1808 was seized by the enemy and occupied
+by them for several months. During the
+reign of the &ldquo;<i>intruso</i>,&rdquo; Joseph Buonaparte, porcelain
+was still produced to some extent; but by the
+time of the Peninsular campaign the works had
+practically ceased. &ldquo;Near this quarter,&rdquo; wrote
+Ford, describing the Retiro gardens, towards the
+middle of last century, &ldquo;was <i>La China</i>, or the royal
+porcelain manufactory, that was destroyed by the
+invaders, and made by them into a fortification,
+which surrendered, with two hundred cannon,
+August 14th, 1812, to the Duke. It was blown
+up October 30th, by Lord Hill, when the misconduct
+of Ballesteros compelled him to evacuate
+Madrid. Now <i>La China</i> is one of the standing
+Spanish and <i>afrancesado</i> calumnies against us, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+it is stated that we, the English, destroyed this
+manufactory from commercial jealousy, because it
+was a rival to our potteries. &lsquo;What can be done
+(as the Duke said) with such libels but despise
+them. There is no end of the calumnies against
+me and the army, and I should have no time to do
+anything else if I were to begin either to refute
+or even to notice them?&rsquo; (Disp., Oct. 16, 1813.)
+These china potsherds and similar inventions of
+the enemy shivered against his iron power of
+conscious superiority.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The real plain <i>truth</i> is this. The French
+broke the <i>ollas</i>, and converted this Sèvres of
+Madrid into a Bastile, which, and not the pipkins,
+was destroyed by the English, who now, so far
+from dreading any Spanish competition, have
+actually introduced their system of pottery; and
+accordingly very fair china is now made at Madrid
+and Seville, and by English workmen. At the
+latter place a convent, also converted by Soult
+into a citadel, is now made a hardware manufactory
+by our countryman, Mr Pickman. Ferdinand
+the Seventh, on his restoration, re-created
+<i>La China</i>, removing the workshops and warerooms
+to La Moncloa, once a villa of the Alva family
+on the Manzanares.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This factory of La Moncloa was founded in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+1816, and it continued working until 1849. A
+specimen of the Moncloa ware is reproduced in
+Plate <a href="#img_218.jpg">lxxiii</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Outside the royal palaces of Spain, the Buen
+Retiro porcelain is scarce. The choicest collections
+which are not the property of the Crown
+belong, or have belonged till recently, to the
+Marquis of Arcicollar, the Count of Valencia de
+Don Juan, and Don Francisco Laiglesia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_220.jpg" width="202" height="250"
+        alt="end of chapter"
+        title="end of chapter" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Martin Hume, <i>The Spanish People</i>, p. 15 (note).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> &ldquo;A ware exactly like that of Arezzo, called by some the red
+Roman ware, and by others Samian, distinguished by its close grain
+composed of a fine clay, and presenting, when broken, edges of an
+opaque light red colour, whilst the inner and outer surfaces are quite
+smooth, and of a brighter and darker red, is found in all places of
+the ancient world to which the Roman arms or civilisation reached.
+It is distinguished from the Aretine by its darker tone, stronger
+glaze, and coarser ornamentation. Possibly, the whole passage of
+Pliny in which he speaks of the earthenware of his day refers to this
+red ware. Thus, for dishes he praises the Samian and the Aretine
+ware; for cups, that of Surrentum, Asta and Pollentia, Saguntum and
+Pergamus. Tralles and Mutina had their manufactories. Cos was
+most esteemed; Hadria produced the hardest ware. That one of
+these, that of Saguntum, was a red ware, is clear; that of Cumæ
+was also of the same colour&hellip;. That the red ware is found
+amidst the dense forests of Germany and on the distant shores of
+Britain, is a remarkable fact in the civilisation of the old world.
+It was apparently an importation, being exactly identical wherever
+discovered, and is readily distinguished from the local pottery.&rdquo;&mdash;Birch,
+<i>History of Ancient Pottery</i>, pp. 560, 561.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> &ldquo;It belongs to the class of tender lustrous pottery, consisting of a
+bright red paste like sealing-wax, breaking with a close texture, and
+covered with a siliceous, or, according to some, a metallic glaze.
+This glaze is exceedingly thin, transparent, and equally laid upon
+the whole surface, only slightly augmenting the colour of the clay.&rdquo;&mdash;Birch,
+p. 561.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> The falcon is one of the commonest devices on all Persian
+pottery, and was, in fact, the national emblem of the chase. Its
+importance for the purpose of pursuing and securing game is well
+described in Sir John Malcolm's <i>Sketches in Persia</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> The watersellers' Ordinance of 1516 enacts that each of these
+vendors shall carry a minimum load of six <i>cántaros</i>, and that the
+cántaros themselves shall be &ldquo;of the round shape, and not the
+Moorish ones, as these have long spouts; each <i>cántaro</i> to be closed
+with a cork.&rdquo; The latter is the typical pitcher of Morocco. &ldquo;As
+we were talking, neighbours dropped in, in the familiar Eastern
+way, and sat quiet and self-contained, occasionally drinking from
+one of the two long-necked and porous water-jars, known as
+&lsquo;Baradas&rsquo; or the &lsquo;coolers,&rsquo; which stand, their wooden stoppers
+tied to them with a palmetto cord, on each side the divan.&rdquo;&mdash;Cunninghame
+Graham, <i>Mogreb-el-Acksa</i>, p. 88.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> The latter, which was the finer of the two, was dug out by Don
+Ivo de la Cortina. It has subsequently been allowed to go to pieces,
+but a coloured plate depicting it will be found in the first volume of
+the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> <i>Tessela</i> and <i>crusta</i> are defined by him as follows: &ldquo;Tesselae
+sunt e quibus domicilia sternuntur a tesseris nominata, id est quadratis
+lapillis, per diminutionem.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Crustae sunt tabulae marmoris. Unde et marmorari parietes et
+constati dicuntur. Qui autem marmora secandi in crustas rationem
+excogitaverunt non constat. Fiunt autem arena et ferro serraque
+in praetenui linea premente arenas, tractuque ipse secante: sed
+crassior arena plus erodet marmoris. Nam tenuis fabricis et
+polituris accomodata est.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Among these ruins, at five miles' distance from the city, pieces
+of common brick have come to light; but no glazed pottery of any
+kind, whether as <i>foseifesa</i>, <i>azulejos</i>, or mosaic.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Dozy's version of <i>The History of Almagreb</i>, by Ibn-Adzarí the
+Moor; p. 253.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> According to Gestoso, the colours in use among the Almohades
+consisted of green, black, caramel or honey, and deep purple. These
+colours underwent no change until the sixteenth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Gestoso says that florid Gothic and Renaissance motives are
+found occasionally in the older <i>cuenca</i> tiles. This was, however,
+quite exceptional.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> A plaque belongs to Señor Gestoso which proceeds from the
+demolished Mudejar church of San Miguel at Seville. It measures
+fifteen inches high by ten wide, and is decorated with a representation,
+in bas-relief, of the Coronation of the Virgin. The eyebrows,
+eyelids, and lips of the figures are executed in cobalt upon a thick
+layer of white glaze, and strongly recall the method of Lucca della
+Robbia. Gestoso considers that this plaque was made in the latter
+part of the fourteenth century. If so, it is antecedent to the work
+of della Robbia (whose <i>Resurrection</i> upon one of the doors of the
+Duomo of Florence dates from 1438) by a good many years. A
+similar example, also by an unknown hand and representing the
+Coronation, is in the chapel of the Sagrario of Seville Cathedral.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Certain <i>azulejos</i>, signed by Niculoso and dated 1500, were
+formerly existing in the palace of the Counts of El Real de Valencia
+in the city of this name. These tiles were executed in relief, and
+proved that Niculoso did not work exclusively in the Italian style.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> In Portugal, tiles which Gestoso believes to have been made at
+Seville, exist in Coimbra cathedral, the church of San Roque at
+Lisbon, and the two palaces of Cintra. In our own country, Seville
+tiles are stated by Marryat and Demmin to line the walls of the
+Mayor's Chapel at Bristol, whither they were doubtless conveyed by
+one of the numerous English merchants who traded between Spain
+and England, and who are known to have made their home at
+Seville in the sixteenth century. Another tile of Seville workmanship,
+proceeding from Haccombe Church, Devonshire, is in the
+British Museum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> The <i>pisano</i> process is believed by Gestoso to have succumbed
+before the <i>cuenca</i>. He says he is aware of no <i>pisano</i> tiling which
+can be dated from as late as the second half of the seventeenth
+century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> <i>Guía de Granada</i>; pp. 35, 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Pure red is the rarest of the colours employed in Moorish tile-work.
+It is, however, found in a single part of the Alhambra;
+namely, among the superb tile-decoration of the Torre de la
+Cautiva.</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso says that red was practically unknown among the
+Seville potters. Sometimes, however, in coats of arms, a space that
+should have properly been gules was left uncoloured in the actual
+making of the tile, and painted red with oil-colour after firing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Coloured plates of Catalan and other Spanish <i>azulejos</i> are
+published with García Llansó's text in the <i>Historia General del
+Arte</i>; Vol. II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Vol. iii., p. 56.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> <i>Alafia</i> is written in Neshki, <img src="images/img_161a.jpg" width="100" height="50" alt="text" />, which word, says
+Señor Osma, by suppressing the diacritical points and prolonging
+some of the lines, was converted by the potter into the conventional
+and exclusively decorative device:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img_161b.jpg" width="150" height="54" alt="text" /></div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Sobre tot es la bellessa de la obra de manizes daurada é
+maestriuolment pintada que ja tot lo mon ha enamorat ent&#257;t que lo
+papa, é los cardenals é lo princeps del mon per special gracia la
+requeren é stan marauellats que d'terra se puxa fer obra axi
+excellent é noble.</i>&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Wallis, <i>The Oriental Influence on Italian Ceramic Art</i>.
+London; 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> In lustred pottery these colours, and particularly blue, are far
+the commonest. It has been found that other colours, such as
+green and black, were ill adapted to the lustre process.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> I have fully described these forgeries in Chapters II and III of
+<i>Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies, and Impressions</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> This lustre is faint but quite distinguishable, and Rada y
+Delgado was clearly in error in supposing that there is none.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> The lost jar mentioned by Owen Jones, of which a drawing has
+been made, was of the same shape as the one which now remains;
+but in its decoration were included the arms of the Nasrite dynasty
+of Granada. It is this circumstance which has induced Gómez
+Moreno to suppose that these vases were the work of Granadino
+artists.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Los nichos para chinelas</i>,&rdquo; as he calls them, in describing the
+Sala de Comares.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> J. R. Mélida, <i>Jarrones arábigos de loza vidriada</i>; published in
+the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursionistas</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>Relación del viaje hecho por Felipe II. en 1585.</i> Madrid, 1876.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> The village of Muel continued to be a centre of this craft.
+Townsend, who travelled in Spain in 1786 and 1787, wrote of it:&mdash;&ldquo;There
+are many potters, who turn their own wheels, not by hand,
+but with their feet, by means of a larger wheel concentric with that
+on which they mould the clay, and nearly level with the floor.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> No direct proof has been found that lustred ware was ever
+made at Seville; but a document copied by Gestoso, and which
+I have already mentioned (p. 152), records that the famous <i>ollero</i>
+of the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, named Fernan Martinez
+Guijarro, reserved a department (&ldquo;<i>tiendas del dorado</i>&rdquo;) of his
+premises for making or for storing lustred pottery.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> These, says Señor Osma, are doubtful in every case, and are
+only found on plates which bear the figure of a lion. Two plates
+in this gentleman's possession are thus marked <img src="images/img_188b.jpg" width="50" height="49" alt="symbol" />, and
+another <img src="images/img_188c.jpg" width="47" height="50" alt="symbol" />.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> <i>Travels through Spain</i>; p. 305. Swinburne could have been
+no lover of nature to speak in such terms of the smell of earth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> One of the prettiest of the popular Spanish <i>coplas</i> has the
+<i>alcarraza</i> for its theme;&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Alcarraza de tu casa</span><br />
+<span class="i0">chiquilla, quisiera ser,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">para besarte los labios</span><br />
+<span class="i0">cuando fueras á beber.&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Dearest, I would be the <i>alcarraza</i> in your house; so should I
+kiss your lips each time you drank from me.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Laborde's translator adds: &ldquo;These jars are very common in
+Jamaica; they are of different sizes, from a pint to three pints. A
+number of them are ranged at night in the balconies, to furnish a
+supply of cool water. Coolers of a similar kind have been lately
+introduced in England.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> &ldquo;Those of the finest quality,&rdquo; adds Ford, &ldquo;are called <i>Bucaros</i>;
+the best come from South America&mdash;the form is more elegant, the
+clay finer, and often sweet-scented; many women have a trick of
+biting, even eating bits of them.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> <i>Handbook</i>; Vol. I., p. 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> &ldquo;On y fait,&rdquo; wrote Alvarez de Colmenar, &ldquo;des ouvrages
+vernissés d'une façon ingénieuse, avec des peintures variées de bon
+goût; on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes
+Orientales, et on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce négoce rend
+plus de cinquante mille ducats par an.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Annales d'Espagne et de
+Portugal</i>; Vol. II., p. 187. This work is dated 1740, but my copy is
+reprinted from another edition published earlier in the century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> For a sketch of the origin and growth of the Spanish trade guilds,
+see Appendix H.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte.</i>&mdash;Vol. II.: <i>Cerámica</i>, by García
+Llansó.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Riaño; <i>Handbook</i>; pp. 182, 183.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> On September 11th, 1759, the king wrote to his Secretary of
+State, Richard Wall:&mdash;&ldquo;The workmen and utensils of the Royal
+Porcelain Manufactory of Capo-di-Monte must also be sent from
+Naples to Alicante, in the vessels prepared for this purpose, in
+order to proceed from Alicante to Madrid. The necessary
+conveyances are to be provided, and the expenses to be charged
+to his Majesty's account.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> <i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne</i>; Vol. I., pp. 232, 233.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="GLASS" id="GLASS">GLASS</a></h2>
+
+<p>Small vessels of uncoloured glass, belonging to
+the Celtic period, have been discovered in Galicia;
+so that the origin of this industry in Spain is
+possibly pre-Roman. After the conquest glass
+was made here by the Romans,<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> who built their
+ovens with a celebrated argil (potter's earth) extracted
+from the neighbourhood of Valencia or
+Tortosa. The Roman glass was doubtless imitated
+by the native Spaniards: at least we know
+from observations by Saint Isidore that this substance
+was quite familiar to the Visigoths. &ldquo;Olim
+fiebat et in Italia, et per Gallias, et Hispaniam
+arena alba mollissima pila mola qua terebatur.&rdquo;
+The same author speaks with admiration of coloured
+glass-work imitating precious stones. &ldquo;Tingitur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+etiam multis modis, ita ut hyacinthos, saphirosque
+et virides imitetur et oniches vel aliarum gemmarum
+colores&rdquo;; and again; &ldquo;Fingunt enim eas
+ex diverso genere nigro, candido, minioque colore.
+Nam pro lapide pretiosissimo smaragdo quidam
+vitrum arte inficiunt, et fallit oculos sub dolo quadam
+falsa irriditas quoadusque non est qui probet simulatum
+et arguat: sic et alia alio atque alio modo.
+Neque enim est sine fraude ulla vita mortalium.&rdquo;
+We gather from these statements that coloured
+glass in imitation of the genuine precious stone
+was freely manufactured by the Visigoths. Such
+imitations, justifying by their excellence Saint
+Isidore's assertion that &ldquo;vera a falsis discernere
+magna difficultas est,&rdquo; may still be seen upon
+the crowns and other ornaments discovered at
+Guarrazar (see Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_15">15&ndash;29</a>), as well as upon
+triptyches and weapons. Indeed, a taste for imitation
+jewels forms an inherent trait of Spanish
+character, and is discoverable at all moments of
+the national history. Travellers have constantly
+observed it, and the remarks, already quoted, of
+Countess d'Aulnoy, are confirmed by other authors.
+&ldquo;In the broken banks south of the river,&rdquo; wrote
+Swinburne of the Manzanares at Madrid, &ldquo;are
+found large quantities of pebbles, called Diamonds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+of Saint Isidro. They cut them like precious
+stones, and ladies of the first fashion wear them
+in their hair as pins, or on their fingers as rings.
+They have little or no lustre, and a very dead
+glassy water. The value of the best rough stone
+does not exceed a few pence.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is chiefly in the form of imitation gems that
+specimens of the earliest Spanish glass have been
+preserved until our time,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> although the characteristic
+of old Roman glass which is known in
+Italian as the <i>lattocinio</i> or &ldquo;milk-white&rdquo; ornament,
+in the form of a thread or line carried all over
+the surface of a vessel, remains until this day
+a common feature of the glass of Spain, besides
+being found in Spanish-Moorish glass-work.</p>
+
+<p>Rico y Sinobas says that the rules for cutting
+glass by means of a diamond or <i>naife</i> (as it was
+once called) are embodied in a treatise titled
+<i>El Lapidario</i>, originally written (perhaps in the
+fourth, fifth, or sixth century) in Hebrew, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+which was brought to Spain some two or three
+hundred years later. This treatise was translated
+into Arabic by one Abolais, who lived at some
+time previous to the thirteenth century, and subsequently
+(in the year 1248, and by command of
+Alfonso the Learned) into the Castilian language.</p>
+
+<p>Mixed up with a great deal of fabulous and
+fantastic matter, this treatise contains instructive
+and interesting notices of the composition and the
+colouring of old glass, including that of Spain.
+One of such notices is the following. &ldquo;Of the
+eleventh degree of the sign of Sagittarius is the
+glass stone, containing a substance which is a
+body in itself (sand), and another which is added
+to it (salt), and when they clean these substances
+and draw them from the fire, they make between
+the two a single body. The stone thus made
+(glass) has many colours. Sometimes it is white
+(and this is nobler and better than the others), or
+sometimes it is red, or green, or <i>xade</i> (a dark,
+burnt colour), or purple. It is a stone which
+readily melteth in the fire, but which, when drawn
+therefrom, turneth again to its former substance:
+and if it be drawn from the flame unseasonably,
+and without cooling it little by little, it snappeth
+asunder. And it receiveth readily whatever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+colour be placed upon it. And if an animal be
+hurt therewith, it openeth as keen a wound as
+though it were of iron.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The treatise also describes a stone called <i>ecce</i>,
+which was used in glassmaking, saying that it was
+found in Spain, &ldquo;in a mountain, not of great
+height, which overlooks the town of Arraca, and
+is called Secludes. And the stone is of an intense
+black colour, spotted with yellow drops.
+It is shiny and porous, brittle, and of light
+weight &hellip;; and if it be ground up with honey,
+and the glass be smeared with it and submitted
+to the fire, it dyes the glass of a beautiful gold
+colour, and makes it stronger than it was before,
+so that it does not melt so readily, or snap
+asunder with such ease.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the power of a diamond to cut
+glass is referred to in the same work, which
+further tells us that this gem &ldquo;breaketh all other
+kind of stones, boring holes in them or cutting
+them, and no other stone is able to bruise it; nay
+more, it powdereth all other stones if it be rubbed
+upon them &hellip;; and such as seek to cut or
+perforate those other stones take portions of a
+diamond, small and slender and sharp-pointed,
+and mount them on slips of silver or of copper,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+and with them make the holes or cuttings they
+require. Thus do they grave and carve
+intaglios.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>All these branches of glassmaking were therefore
+practised by the Spaniards from an early
+period of their history. This people were also
+familiar with the use of emery powder, of talc
+applied to covering windows, and of rock crystal.
+We read in the translation of Abolais that crystal
+at that time was &ldquo;found in many parts, albeit the
+finest is that of Ethiopia. The substance
+which composes it is frozen water, petrified.
+And the proof of this is that when it is broken,
+small grains are discovered to be within, that
+made their entry as it was becoming stone
+(crystallizing); or again, in some of it is found
+what seems to be clear water. And it possesses
+two qualities in which it is distinct from every
+other stone: for when crystal is heated it receiveth
+any colouring that is applied to it, and is wrought
+with greater ease, besides being melted by fire;
+insomuch that it can be made into any shape
+desired; and if this shape be round, and the stone
+be set in the sun, it burneth anything inflammable
+that be set before it: yet does it not effect this by
+any virtue of its own, but by <i>the clearness of its</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+<i>substance</i>, and by the sunbeams which beat upon
+it, and by the roundness of its form.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We seem to foreshadow here, clearly enough,
+the application of this substance to making glasses
+to assist the sight, especially when the author of
+the treatise adds that on looking through the
+crystal, the human eye discovers &ldquo;details of the
+greatest beauty, and things that are secreted from
+the simple (<i>i.e.</i> the unaided) vision.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Rico y Sinobas (who possessed a fine collection
+of antique glass, Spanish and non-Spanish) inclined
+to think that in the time of the Romans the
+finest and strongest glass, as well as the costliest
+and the most sought after, was that which was
+manufactured in Spain. In early times the chief
+centres of Spanish glass-making were situated in
+the heart of the Peninsula (where now is New
+Castile), in the neighbourhood of Tortosa, and in
+certain districts lying between the Pyrenees and
+the coast of Cataluña, though subsequently the
+practice of this craft extended through the
+kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, and the
+valleys of Ollería, Salinas, Busot, and the Rio
+Almanzora, forming a zone which reached from
+Cape Creus to Cape Gata. Other regions in
+which the craft was introduced, apparently at a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+later epoch, were those of the Mediterranean
+littoral, Cuenca, Toledo, Avila, Segovia, and
+other parts of New Castile, as far as the slopes
+of the Sierra de Guadarrama. In the rest of the
+Peninsula there is not the slightest indication
+(excepting an obscure reference by Strabo, to
+vessels and receptacles of <i>wax</i>) that glass was
+made during the Roman domination of the country,
+either in Andalusia, Lusitania (Portugal), or in
+the northern regions of Cantabria.</p>
+
+<p>Rico y Sinobas has described a Spanish glass-oven
+of those primitive times. He says that such
+as were used for making objects of a fair size
+consisted of three compartments resting one upon
+the other; the lowest cylindrical, to hold the fire
+and ashes, the next with a domed top, for concentrating
+the heat, and the third and uppermost,
+which also had a domed top, for holding the
+pieces of glass that were set to cool by slow
+degrees. The wall of the oven contained a
+number of openings, which served, according to
+the level at which they were situated, for
+controlling the fire, adjusting the crucibles, or
+extracting, by means of metal rods, the lumps of
+molten glass, previously to submitting them to
+the action of the blowpipe. The dimensions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+such of these primitive ovens as have been found
+in Spain or Italy, are nine feet in height by six
+feet in diameter, and the material of which they
+are built is argil, of a kind insensible to heat, and
+carefully freed by washing from all foreign, soluble,
+or inflammable substances. The crucibles, which
+were fitted in the oven two, four, or at most six at
+a time, were of this argil also, wrought and purified
+with even greater care. Ovens and crucibles of
+a smaller size were used for making diminutive
+objects such as beads and imitation precious
+stones.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p>Almería was probably the most important centre
+of Spanish-Moorish glass-making, and is mentioned
+in connection with this craft by Al-Makkari.
+The oriental shape of the older vessels which
+were made in this locality is still preserved in
+certain objects such as jars, bowls, flasks, and
+<i>aguardiente</i>-bottles, which are still manufactured,
+or were so until quite recently, throughout a region
+extending from Almería to the slopes of the
+Alpujarra. &ldquo;All these objects,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;are
+decorated with a serrated ornamentation of buttons,
+trellis-work, and the lines to which I have already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+alluded, which were placed there after the object
+was made, in the Roman style. The paste is
+generally of a dark green colour, and when we
+find these same features in vessels of clear white
+glass, we may affirm that they are contemporary
+imitations made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they
+are very seldom to be met with in the provinces
+of Almería and Granada, and are generally
+found at Toledo and other localities; it is, moreover,
+a common condition of oriental art that
+its general form complies with a geometrical
+tracery, and we never find, as in Italian works
+of art, forms and capricious ornamentations which
+interfere with the symmetry of the general lines,
+and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>None of the original Moorish glass of the
+Alhambra has survived till nowadays. Most of it
+was destroyed by the explosion, in the year 1590,
+of a powder factory which lay immediately beneath
+the palace and beside the river Darro. In the
+Alhambra archives, particular mention is made
+of the circular glass windows or &ldquo;eyes,&rdquo; only
+the corresponding holes of which remain, in the
+baths of the same palace. This glass, which may
+have been in colour, was also destroyed by the explosion,
+as were the windows, &ldquo;painted in colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+with fancy devices and Arabic lettering,&rdquo; of the
+Sala de Embajadores,<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> those of the Hall of the
+Two Sisters, and certain windows, &ldquo;painted with
+many histories and royal arms,&rdquo; belonging to the
+church of the Alhambra.</p>
+
+<p>Excellent glass, reported by some authors to
+have equalled that of Venice, was made at
+Barcelona from as early as the thirteenth century.
+An inventory of the Crown of Aragon, dated A.D.
+1389 and quoted by García Llansó, mentions as
+manufactured here, glass sweetmeat-vessels, cups,
+and silver-mounted tankards blazoned with the
+royal arms. The guild of Barcelona glassmakers
+was founded in 1455, and later in the same
+century Jerónimo Paulo wrote that &ldquo;glass vessels
+of varying quality and shape, and which may well
+compete with the Venetian, are exported to Rome
+and other places.&rdquo; Similar statements are made
+by Marineus Siculus and Gaspar Barreyros.</p>
+
+<p>Other centres of Spanish glass-making were
+Caspe in Aragon, Seville, Valencia,<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> Pinar de la<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+Vidriera, Royo Molino (near Jaen,) El Recuenco
+(Guadalajara), Cebreros (Avila), Medina del
+Campo, Venta del Cojo, Venta de los Toros de
+Guisando, and Castiel de la Peña in Castile. The
+glass-works of Castiel de la Peña were founded by
+the intelligent and indefatigable Hernando de
+Zafra, secretary to the Catholic sovereigns,
+Ferdinand and Isabella. &ldquo;It has been calculated,&rdquo;
+says Riaño, &ldquo;that about two tons of sand
+were used at these glass-works every month.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>More important than the foregoing was the
+famous factory of a village in Toledo province
+called Cadalso, or sometimes, from the nature
+of its only industry, Cadalso (or Cadahalso) de
+los Vidrios. The glass made here is mentioned
+in terms of high praise by various writers of the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, such as
+Marineus Siculus and Mendez Silva. The former
+of these authors says in his work upon the
+<i>Memorable Things of Spain</i>: &ldquo;Glass was produced
+in several towns of Castile, the most important
+being that of Cadalso, which supplied the whole
+kingdom.&rdquo; Ewers and bottles of Cadalso glass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+are mentioned in the Alburquerque inventory.
+Mendez Silva says that the number of ovens was
+originally three, and that their coloured glass
+was equal to Venetian (Plate <a href="#img_234.jpg">lxxiv</a>.). This was
+towards the middle of the seventeenth century.
+Larruga tells us that by the end of the eighteenth
+this local industry was languishing. One of the
+three ovens had been abandoned. The other two
+produced inferior glass, as well as in diminished
+quantities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_234.jpg" width="349" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_234.jpg" id="img_234.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXIV<br />VESSELS OF SPANISH GLASS<br />
+(<i>South Kensington Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The glass of Cataluña maintained its ancient
+reputation all through the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries and part of the seventeenth, and at
+this time was still compared with the Venetian by
+observant travellers (Plate <a href="#img_236.jpg">lxxv</a>.). Besides the
+capital, the principal glass-works in this province
+were at Almatret, Moncada, Cervelló, and Mataró.
+In 1489 a Barcelonese, by name Vicente Sala, and
+his sons applied to the City Council for leave to
+construct an oven at Moncada &ldquo;in order to pursue
+the craft of glass-making, <i>lo qual a present aci se
+obre axi bellament e suptil com en part del mon</i>
+(seeing that the glass we manufacture in this
+neighbourhood competes with any in the world
+for subtlety and beauty).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A document is extant from which we learn that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+the City Councillors of Barcelona made strenuous
+efforts to prevail upon Ferdinand the Catholic to
+abolish a certain monopoly or other form of
+exclusive privilege which he had conceded to a
+local glass-maker. The result of this appeal is
+not recorded. In 1503 Ferdinand presented his
+consort with two hundred and seventy-four glass
+objects made at Barcelona, and Philip the Second
+possessed a hundred and nineteen pieces proceeding
+from the same locality.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_236.jpg" width="500" height="308"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_236.jpg" id="img_236.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXV<br />VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS<br />
+(<i>From Drawings by the Author</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An important development of this craft was the
+manufacture of coloured glass for churches and
+cathedrals. In the Peninsula, the earliest introducers
+of this branch of glass-making were principally
+natives of Germany, France, and Flanders,
+who came to Spain at the beginning of the
+fifteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Many of the oldest windows
+executed by these foreigners, or by the Spaniards
+who were taught by them, are still existing in the
+cathedrals of León, Toledo, Burgos, Barcelona,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+and the Seo of Zaragoza. León has several
+windows which date from as far back as the thirteenth
+century, and in which the glass is in small
+pieces, arranged as though it were mosaic. Some
+of the later and larger windows in the same
+cathedral are thirty-five feet high, and one, dating
+from the sixteenth century, is believed to have
+been presented to this temple by Mary of
+England, prior to her marriage with Philip the
+Second.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, in the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries that the custom became general, in
+Spain as in other lands, of colouring the surface
+of white glass by partial fusing&mdash;a process which
+is mentioned in the treatise of Abolais, to which I
+have referred repeatedly. Between the eleventh
+and the thirteenth centuries the coloured windows
+of Spanish temples were still composed of pieces
+of glass united in the manner of mosaic, forming
+ornamental patterns of stars and similar devices;
+but subsequently to this period the decorative
+themes are said to be painted <i>en caballete</i>, and
+consist of figures, or the representation of scenes
+from Scripture. In Spain, and dating from the
+twelfth century, the workshops for preparing this
+coloured glass were commonly situated within the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+precincts of important temples, such as Toledo
+cathedral, or else, as was the case at Burgos, in
+separate buildings and <i>dependencias</i>. Here, in
+the square ovens characteristic of that age, and
+before it was mounted in the ponderous leaden
+frame, the glass was coloured with exquisite
+solicitude and patience by the hand of the master-craftsman,
+sometimes with a colour upon one of
+its surfaces alone, sometimes with the same colour
+upon both, or sometimes with a different colour
+upon either surface. The cartoons from which
+such windows were constructed, and which were
+often designed by painters of renown, were
+usually three in number. The first contained,
+upon a reduced scale, a coloured outline of the
+window; the second, drawn to the exact scale of
+the window as it was to be, was composed of all
+the pieces cut out and numbered according to the
+various colours; and the third, also of the projected
+size of the window, was kept complete, to
+serve as a pattern in case the window should
+suffer any accident, and require to be restored or
+mended. Not one of these cartoons is known to
+be preserved to-day, but Rico y Sinobas points out
+that from the strong and simple character of their
+colouring and outline, the illuminated illustrations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+of Spanish thirteenth century manuscripts, such
+as the <i>Cantigas</i>, and the <i>Book of Chess</i> of Alfonso
+the Learned, may well have been utilized for, or
+else be copied from, glass windows of that period.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the cartoon was finished, the
+window-painter traced it upon the surface of the
+glass. This was in square pieces, fitted conveniently
+together, with sufficient space between
+the pieces to allow the passage of the leads.
+Before being laid upon the glass and being submitted
+to the fixing action of fire, the colours were
+mixed with honey, urine, vinegar, and other fluids
+or substances which served as mediums to attach
+the colour to the glass. Thus prepared, and in
+the form of powder, the colours were allowed to
+dry for two or three days before the glass was
+placed in the oven. Yellow, which was the
+strongest colour, and that which penetrated
+deepest beneath the surface of the glass, was
+made from certain combinations of silver and
+nitrate of potash, while oxides or other forms of
+copper, lead, iron, tin, silver, and manganese, were
+used for making black, white, red, green, blue,
+purple, violet, or flesh-colour. These colours
+penetrated the glass to the depth of about half a
+millimetre; but sometimes, after the colour had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+been applied, the craftsman would submit the
+glass to friction by a wooden polisher or wheel,
+thus giving it an appearance of greater clearness
+and transparency at any spot he might
+desire.</p>
+
+<p>Among the artists who produced the coloured
+windows of León cathedral were Master Joan de
+Arge (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1424), Master Baldovín, and Rodrigo
+de Ferreras. Those of Toledo date from early
+in the fifteenth century, and were made by Albert
+of Holland, Vasco Troya, Luis Pedro Francés,
+Juan de Campos, and others, including the
+eminent Dolfín, who, according to Cean, began to
+work here in 1418, by order of the archbishop,
+Don Sancho de Rojas. The documents collected
+and published for the first time by Zarco del Valle
+tell us that on March 22nd, 1424, Dolfín received
+from Alfonso Martinez, treasurer and superintendent
+of works, two hundred gold florins and
+certain other moneys on account of his total
+payment of four hundred gold florins for &ldquo;the
+eighth window he is making for the head of the
+cathedral.&rdquo; Other certificates of payment relating
+to Maestre Dolfín (as he always signed himself)
+are included in the same collection. By 1427
+he was &ldquo;defunct, God pardon him!&rdquo; and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+windows he had left unfinished were terminated
+by his assistant Lois (Louis).<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1458, and also at Toledo, a friar named
+Pablo began to repair the painted windows of the
+<i>crucero</i>. His pay was fixed by the &ldquo;abbot and
+superintendent of works&rdquo; at fifty <i>maravedis</i> each
+day, and that of &ldquo;his lads, Ximeno and Juanico,&rdquo;
+at one half of this amount. Other artists engaged
+in the same work were Pablo (not the friar just
+referred to), Peter, a German, and &ldquo;Master
+Henry,&rdquo; who was also German. Pablo received
+authority to purchase ten and a half <i>quintales</i> and
+thirteen pounds of coloured Flemish glass, at two
+thousand <i>maravedis</i> for each <i>quintal</i>. By a contract
+dated 1485 (he died between 1487 and 1493),
+Master Henry was handed by the cathedral
+authorities a sum of 150,000 <i>maravedis</i> &ldquo;to
+proceed to Flanders or any other part he may
+desire, and where good glass is to be found,
+white, blue, green, scarlet, purple, yellow, or
+blackish (<i>prieto</i>), equal in thickness to the sample
+which he bears, and bring us thence such quantity
+as he has need of for the windows of our cathedral.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is evident from this notice that Spain was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+then unable to produce the finest quality of
+glass. With such as he brought with him from
+abroad, Henry engaged to fashion &ldquo;every kind
+of figure, image, scroll, and other object whatsoever
+be commanded him, according to the place
+it is to fill; the colours of the glass to be well
+mingled and distributed.&rdquo; He was also to make
+&ldquo;the leaden casings stout and deep, so as to
+embrace and hold the glass aforesaid, that it may
+resist the air and wind.&rdquo; In return for this, he
+was to be supplied with an erected scaffolding,
+with all the chalk and iron he might require, and
+with the proper number of assistants, receiving,
+in payment of his labour, one hundred and fifteen
+<i>maravedis</i> for every square palm of glass the
+preparation of which should satisfy the superintendent
+and examiners of works.</p>
+
+<p>One of the witnesses to this document was
+Henry's wife, María Maldonada, who came forward
+to affix her signature &ldquo;with the license and
+pleasure of the aforesaid Master Enrique, her
+husband.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1433, Master Juan (perhaps the same as
+Joan de Arge, already mentioned) began to work
+at the windows of Burgos, where, later in this
+century, he was succeeded by Juan de Valdivieso<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+and Diego de Santillana. We learn from the
+<i>Documentos Inéditos</i> (pp. 159, 160) that Santillana
+lived at Burgos, and that, on May 31st, 1512, he
+contracted to make three &ldquo;historical windows&rdquo;
+for the monastery of San Francisco, at a price of
+ninety-five <i>maravedis</i> for each palm of glass,
+this to be &ldquo;of good colours and shades,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;measured by the Burgos standard.&rdquo; Two other
+contracts are preserved, signed by the same
+craftsman and both relating to Palencia. By one
+of them Santillana is to receive for six &ldquo;storied
+windows,&rdquo; the subjects of which are specified,
+ninety-five <i>maravedis</i> the palm, besides the
+scaffolding and his house and coals.</p>
+
+<p>Arnao de Flandes (Arnold of Flanders) was
+appointed master glass-painter to Burgos cathedral
+in 1512. Other glass-painters who worked here
+in the sixteenth century were Francisco de Valdivieso,
+Gaspar Cotin, Juan de Arce, his son Juan
+and grandson Pedro, and, in the seventeenth
+century, Valentin Ruiz, Francisco Alonso, Simon
+Ruiz, and Francisco Alcalde. Most of the
+windows made by all these men have been destroyed
+by time and weather, and have been
+replaced by barren panes of white; but a few fine
+specimens of the original work may yet be seen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+in the chapels of the Presentation, the Constable,
+and San Jerónimo. Perhaps the most remarkable
+of any is the rose-window, above the Puerta del
+Sarmental.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+
+<p>Other good cathedral windows prior to the sixteenth
+century are those of Avila, which date
+from about the year 1497, and were executed by
+Diego de Santillana, Juan de Valdivieso, and other
+artists; those of the Seo of Zaragoza, by the Catalans
+Terri and Jayme Romeu (1447); and some
+at Barcelona, painted in 1494 by Gil Fontanet.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in the sixteenth century that
+Spanish ecclesiastical window-glass attains its
+highest grade of excellence.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> Dating from this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+century are windows in Toledo cathedral, painted
+in 1503 by Vasco de Troya, in 1509 by Alejo
+Jiménez, in 1513 by Gonzalo de Córdoba (these
+are considered by competent judges to be the
+finest of any), in 1515 by Juan de la Cuesta, in
+1522 by Juan Campos, in 1525 by Albert of
+Holland, in 1534 by Juan de Ortega, and in 1542
+by Nicolás Vergara the elder.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> In 1537 Ortega
+was engaged to repair the damaged or broken
+panes at a yearly salary of 11,250 <i>maravedis</i>.
+Where the panes were wanting, he was to replace
+them by new ones painted by his hand, receiving,
+for each <i>palmo</i> of new glass so painted, an extra
+payment of ninety <i>maravedis</i>.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the same century the windows of Seville
+cathedral, begun some years previously (Cean says
+in 1504) by Micer Cristóbal Alemán (&ldquo;Master<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+Christopher the German&rdquo;), were continued by
+Masters Jacobo, Juan Juan Vivan, Juan Bernai,
+Bernardino de Gelandia, Juan Jaques, Arnold of
+Flanders (1525), Arnao de Vergara (1525), Charles
+of Bruges, (1557), and Vicente Menandro (1557).<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>
+In 1562 Diego de Valdivieso, and in 1570 Pedro
+de Valdivieso and Gerald of Holland, painted
+windows for Cuenca cathedral. In 1542 the
+same work was done at Palencia by Diego de
+Salcedo, and in 1533 George of Burgundy,
+&ldquo;master in the art of glass,&rdquo; then resident at
+Burgos, proceeded to the same town and engaged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+to renew the cathedral windows at a cost of a
+hundred <i>maravedis</i> for every palm of coloured
+glass, and fifty for every palm of plain.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1544, sixty-two windows in the nave of
+Segovia cathedral were filled with painted glass
+prepared chiefly at Valladolid and Medina del
+Campo, though some was brought from Flanders.
+The remaining windows were left unfilled till
+1676, in which year a canon of the cathedral,
+named Tomás de la Plaza Aguirre, succeeded in
+rediscovering a formula for the practise of this
+craft, and the panes yet needed were made and
+coloured at Valdequemada by Juan Danis, under
+Plaza Aguirre's supervision. Thirty-three additional
+windows were completed from this factory.
+According to Lecea y García, the chapter of
+Segovia cathedral possess, or possessed for many
+years, two curious manuscripts relating severally
+to <i>The painting of glass windows</i>, by Francisco
+Herranz, and <i>Glass-making</i>, by Juan Danis&mdash;the
+same who owned and worked the factory at
+Valdequemada. These interesting treatises were
+examined by Bosarte, who has described them.
+He says that the one on glass-making consisted
+of twenty-three sheets of clear writing, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+one on glass-painting of eight sheets; both manuscripts
+being in quarto size. The latter contained,
+distributed beside the text, sketches of
+the various instruments required for this craft.
+The other and longer monograph consisted of the
+following chapters:&mdash;(1) How to draw upon
+glass. (2) How to cut glass. (3) How to paint
+and shade glass. (4) Of the substances and
+ingredients for painting glass. (5) How to give
+a flesh-colour to glass. (6) How to give a yellow
+or golden colour to white or pale blue glass,
+but no other. (7) How to fire glass. (8) How
+to make the glass-oven.</p>
+
+<p>Windows were painted in the cathedral of
+Palma de Mallorca by Sebastián Danglés in 1566
+and by Juan Jordá in 1599, in that of Málaga by
+Octavio Valerio in 1579, and in those of Tarragona
+and Avila respectively, by Juan Guasch in
+1571, and by Pierre de Chiberri in 1549. This
+craftsman was undoubtedly a foreigner. The
+following entry which concerns him is quoted by
+Rosell de Torres from the <i>Libro de Fábrica</i> of
+Segovia cathedral: &ldquo;By order of the Canon Juan
+Rodriguez, on the twelfth day of August, I paid
+to Pierre de Chiberri, master-maker of window-glass,
+the sum of 56,560 <i>maravedis</i>, 34,960 for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+the casings of seven large windows with their
+side-windows&mdash;in all twenty-one casings&mdash;besides
+ten casings for the windows of the lower chapels,
+containing altogether <span class="smcap">MMMCCCCXCVI</span> palms, amounting
+at ten <i>maravedis</i> the palm to the aforesaid
+34,960 maravedis: also 19,125 <i>maravedis</i> for
+<span class="smcap">CCCLXXII</span> palms of glass for the said chapels at a
+<i>real</i> and a half each palm, plus 2476 <i>maravedis</i>
+for certain glass which had yet to be measured
+because it was in the skylights. The total sum
+amounts to the aforesaid 56,560 <i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>During the seventeenth century, glass-work of
+various kinds continued to be produced upon a
+large scale at Barcelona, Mataró, Gerona, Cuenca,
+Toledo, Valmaqueda, and Seville. In 1680 the
+Duke of Villahermosa established a glass factory
+at San Martin de Valdeiglesias, and placed it
+under the direction of a native of Namur named
+Diodonet Lambot, aided by various other artists
+from the Netherlands. In 1683 Lambot was
+succeeded by Santiago Vandoleto, who proved
+incompetent, and caused, in 1692, the total stoppage
+of the factory.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that glass was made at Medina del<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+Campo, in the province of Valladolid. Pinheiro
+da Veiga's <i>Pincigraphia</i>, written at the beginning
+of the seventeenth century, contains an interesting
+notice of this glassware. &ldquo;Really, the glass-work
+of Valladolid is most beautiful, and worth going
+to see if only for the pleasure of its contemplation.
+There are objects of considerable size, such as
+(glass) pitchers of every form and colour. Others
+are called <i>penados</i>, and are of a syphon shape,
+pouring out water in small quantities.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> Besides
+this there are all manner of cunningly contrived
+retorts such as we never see in Lisbon, and yet
+in Valladolid their cost is only moderate&hellip;.
+The principal shops for selling these and porcelain
+are two in number, and the prices are the same as
+in Portugal.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Two very important Spanish glass factories
+were founded in the eighteenth century. The
+first, which was under Crown protection, was
+established by Don Juan Goyeneche in the
+year 1720 at a place called Nuevo Baztán, in the
+province of Toledo. The royal privilege allowed
+this factory to produce &ldquo;all articles of glass up to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+a height of twenty inches, working and polishing
+the same, embellishing, and coating them with
+metal; to make looking-glasses and similar ornaments,
+glass vessels of all descriptions, white
+glass for window-panes, and glass objects of any
+kind or shape, whether already known to us, or
+that may be invented in the future.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The factory of Nuevo Baztán continued working
+for some years, and turned out excellent glass
+for exportation to America and other parts; but
+it was killed eventually by the rising price of
+fuel, and above all by competition from abroad.
+&ldquo;When the foreigners,&rdquo; says Larruga in his
+<i>Memorias políticas y económicas</i>, &ldquo;saw that the
+factory was in full swing, they conspired to bring
+about its ruin, and begged their ambassadors to
+communicate against it with the ministers; but
+finding this of no avail, and recognising the
+importance to themselves of overthrowing this
+manufacture, they decided to sell glassware at
+a price at which it would be impossible to sell
+the products of Nuevo Baztán. The amount of
+this reduction was the one-third part of the entire
+value. By this means the foreigners made it
+impossible for the factory to support itself, since
+the objects it produced were laid away and found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+no purchaser for years. This, and the cost of
+the wood required to keep the ovens burning day
+and night, not excepting feast-days (for to stop
+the fires for a moment would have meant the
+spoiling of the oven), induced the downfall of this
+celebrated factory, as soon as the fuel of all the
+neighbouring forests had been consumed.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, upon the closing of these works,
+one of the experts who had been employed there,
+a Catalan named Ventura Sit, attracted by the
+forests of Valsain and the excellent and abundant
+sand obtainable in this locality&mdash;principally from
+near the villages of Espirdo and Bernuy de
+Porreros&mdash;decided to open another glass-works at
+La Granja. Here is the royal summer residence
+of San Ildefonso, and Sit was fortunate enough to
+secure at the outset&mdash;that is, in 1728&mdash;the firm
+protection of Philip the Fifth and of his consort,
+Isabel Farnese. Instructed by the sovereigns to
+make some mirrors, he produced these objects of
+a moderate size at first, increasing it, after the
+year 1734, to a maximum length of 145 inches by
+85 in breadth. Larruga says that these mirrors
+were the largest produced anywhere at that time,
+and they continued to be made until very nearly
+the end of the century. They are often referred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+to in the narratives of travellers. Swinburne
+wrote in 1776: &ldquo;Not far from Carthagena is a
+place called Almazaron, where they gather a fine
+red earth called Almagra, used in the manufactures
+of Saint Ildephonso, for polishing looking-glasses.
+In Seville, it is worked up with the tobacco, to
+give it a colour, fix its volatility, and communicate
+to it that softness which constitutes the
+principal merit of Spanish snuff.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Describing the royal palace at Madrid, the same
+author says that the walls of the great audience-chamber
+&ldquo;are incrustated with beautiful marble,
+and all round hung with large plates of looking-glass
+in rich frames. The manufactory of glass is
+at Saint Ildefonso, where they cast them of a very
+great size; but I am told they are apt to turn out
+much rougher and more full of flaws than those
+of France.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Townsend (1786), &ldquo;The glass
+manufacture is here carried to a degree of perfection
+unknown in England. The largest mirrors
+are made in a brass frame, one hundred and sixty-two
+inches long, ninety-three wide, and six deep,
+weighing near nine tons. These are designed
+wholly for the royal palaces, and for presents from
+the king. Yet even for such purposes the factory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+is ill-placed, and proves a devouring monster in
+a country where provisions are dear, fuel scarce,
+and carriage exceedingly expensive.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Laborde wrote of the same factory a few years
+later: &ldquo;There is also a glass-house, in which
+bottles are wrought of a superior quality; and white
+glasses, which are carved with much ingenuity
+(Plates <a href="#img_254.jpg">lxxvi</a>. and <a href="#img_258.jpg">lxxvii</a>.). Near this glass-house
+has been founded a manufactory for mirrors, in a
+large and well-arranged edifice. There are two
+furnaces, and a considerable number of stoves, in
+which the plates are left to cool after they have been
+precipitated. They are of all dimensions, and the
+largest that have yet been fabricated. They are
+sometimes from a hundred, a hundred and thirty,
+or a hundred and thirty-five inches in height, to
+fifty, sixty, or sixty-five inches in breadth: they are
+expanded in the hand. The process for polishing
+them is performed by a machine;<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> they are then
+transported to Madrid, for the purpose of being
+metallised. It is not uncommon to see tables of
+bronze, on which mirrors are extended, a hundred
+and sixty inches in length, and ninety in breadth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These tables are described by Bowles: &ldquo;The
+largest measures a hundred and forty-five inches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+in length by eighty-five in breadth, and weighs
+four hundred and five <i>arrobas</i>. The smallest
+measures a hundred and twenty inches in length,
+and seventy-five in breadth, and weighs three
+hundred and eighty <i>arrobas</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_254.jpg" width="500" height="351"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_254.jpg" id="img_254.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXVI<br />GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The best account of any is contained in the
+<i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne</i> (1789) of Bourgoing.
+This author wrote: &ldquo;A côté de cette
+Fabrique naissante de première nécessité&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+the royal linen factory at La Granja) &ldquo;il y en a
+une de luxe qui remonte au regne de Philippe V;
+c'est une Manufacture de glaces, la seule qu'il
+y ait en Espagne. On s'étoit d'abord borné à
+une Verrerie qui subsiste encore, et donne des
+bouteilles d'une assez bonne qualité, et des verres
+blancs qu'on y cisele avec assez d'adresse. J'en
+ai rapporté quelques-uns où l'on a gravé des chiffres,
+des lettres, et jusqu'à de jolis paysages. Cette
+Verrerie étoit un acheminement à une entreprise
+plus brillante. La Manufacture de glaces de
+Saint Ildephonse est comparable aux plus beaux
+établissements de ce genre; on en peut voir les
+dessins dans les Planches de l'Encyclopédie.
+L'édifice est vaste et très bien distribué; il contient
+deux fourneaux et une vingtaine de fours où l'on
+fait refroidir lentement les glaces après les avoir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+coulées. On y en coule dans toutes les dimensions
+depuis les carreaux de vitres jusqu'aux plus
+grands trumeaux. Elles sont moins blanches
+et peut-être moins bien polies que celles de Venise
+et de St-Gobin; mais nulle part on n'en a encore
+coulé d'aussi grandes. L'opération du coulage s'y
+fait avec beaucoup de précision et d'ensemble.
+Monseigneur Comte d'Artois eut la curiosité d'y
+assister; la glace qu'on y coula devant lui avoit,
+autant que je puis m'en souvenir, cent trente-trois
+pouces de long, sur soixante-cinq de large, et l'on
+m'a assuré qu'il y en avoit encore de plus grandes.
+On les dégrossit à mains d'hommes dans une longue
+galerie qui est attenante à la Fabrique, et il y a à
+un quart de lieue une machine que l'eau fait mouvoir,
+et où on acheve de les polir; on les porte
+ensuite à Madrid pour les étamer. Le Roi consacre
+les plus belles à la parure de ses appartements;
+il en fait des cadeaux aux Cours qui ont
+des relations intimes avec lui. En 1783, S.M.C. en
+fit joindre quelques-unes aux présens qu'il envoyoit
+à la Porte Ottomane, avec laquelle elle venoit de
+conclure un traité. C'est une idée agréable pour un
+cosmopolite tolérant, de penser qu'en dépit des
+préjugés de religion et de politique qui divisoient
+autrefois les Nations, la main des arts a établi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+entr'elles un échange de jouissances d'un bout de
+l'Europe à l'autre, et que les beautés du serrail se
+mirent dans les glaces coulées à Saint-Ildefonse,
+tandis que les tapis de Turquie sont foulés par des
+pieds François. Ce qui sort d'ailleurs de la Manufacture
+de Saint-Ildefonse est vendu, pour le
+compte du Roi, à Madrid et dans les provinces;
+mais on sent bien que ce profit est trop mince
+pour couvrir les frais d'un établissement aussi
+considérable qui, le bois excepté, est éloigné de
+toutes les matières premières qu'il employe, qui est
+situé fort avant dans l'intérieur des terres, au sein
+des montagnes, et loin de toute rivière navigable;
+aussi doit il être compté parmi ces fondations de
+luxe qui prosperent à l'ombre du Trône, et qui
+ajoutent à son éclat.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p>A few more details are added by Swinburne:
+&ldquo;Below the town is the manufactory of plate-glass
+belonging to the crown, carried on under
+the direction of Mr Dowling; two hundred and
+eighty men are employed. The largest plate they
+have made is one hundred and twenty-six Spanish
+inches long; the small pieces are sold in looking-glasses
+all over the kingdom; but I am told the
+king makes no great profit by it; however, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+a very material point to be able to supply his
+subjects with a good commodity, and to keep in
+the country a large sum of money that heretofore
+went out annually to purchase it from strangers.
+They also make bottles and drinking-glasses
+(Plates <a href="#img_254.jpg">lxxvi</a>., <a href="#img_258.jpg">lxxvii</a>.); and are now busy erecting
+very spacious new furnaces to enlarge the works.
+To provide fuel for the fires, they have put the
+pinewoods under proper regulations and stated
+falls; twenty-seven mule-loads of fir-wood are
+consumed every day; and four loads cost the king,
+including all the expenses of cutting and bringing
+down from the mountains, about forty reals.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_258.jpg" width="500" height="331"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_258.jpg" id="img_258.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXVII<br />GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1736, the first factory which had been
+established at San Ildefonso was nearly destroyed
+by fire; but the damage was repaired, and the
+factory placed under state control. Its finances
+were at no time prosperous. In 1762 Charles the
+Third granted a privilege reserving to it the
+exclusive sale of glass within a radius of twenty
+leagues from Madrid and Segovia; but the sales
+did not improve. In spite of this, the monarch,
+a few years later, erected a new and costly
+factory from designs by Villanueva and Real.
+There were two departments in this ample
+building. One, for the manufacture of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+plainest glass, was directed by a Hanoverian,
+named Sigismund Brun; and the other, devoted
+to smaller and more elaborate articles, by Eder, a
+Swede. &ldquo;The greater number of the objects
+made at these important works were of transparent,
+colourless glass, possessing a marked
+French style, and were either richly engraved and
+cut, or gilded, or sometimes (though less often) they
+were made of coloured and enamelled glass. At
+this time, too, were manufactured mirrors for the
+royal palaces, as well as candlesticks and chandeliers
+of great beauty, following the Venetian
+method, and embellished with coloured flowers.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p>
+
+<p>In spite of all these efforts, the works at the dawn
+of the nineteenth century were in a moribund
+condition. In 1829 they passed into the hands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+of private persons, who also failed to make them
+pay, and subsequently, owing to the ineptitude of
+Spanish governments and the severity of foreign
+competition, have definitely closed their doors.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In Catalonia,&rdquo; wrote Laborde, towards the
+year 1800, &ldquo;are two glass houses; but the glass
+blown in them is dark, and destitute of lustre.
+Aragon has four, one at Alfamen, one at Peñalva,
+one at Utrillas, and one at Jaulin, which is the
+largest; but the quality of the glass is not superior
+to that of Catalonia. The glass-house at Utrillas
+produces both flint and common glass. Glass
+houses are also established at Pajarejo and at
+Recuenco in Castile, which manufacture the most
+beautifully white and transparent glass.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1791 there were six glass-ovens in the
+kingdom of Valencia, situated at Valencia, Alicante,
+Salines, Olleria, and Alcira. They turned
+out 2100 pieces in this year, some of which were
+exported to Castile and Aragon.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
+
+<p>Early in the eighteenth century the glass of
+Barcelona was praised by Alvarez de Colmenar
+(&ldquo;Il s'y fait de belles verreries&rdquo;), and we know<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+that all through this period her <i>forns de vidre</i>
+continued to produce good work, including holy-water
+vessels of uncoloured glass relieved with
+blue or with the fine white <i>latticinio</i>, the local
+<i>arruixadors</i> or <i>borrachas</i>, and the typical <i>porrón</i>.
+The former of these vessels is of small size, and
+has several spouts. Commonly it is filled with
+scented water for gallants to sprinkle on girls at
+dances in the public square. The <i>porrón</i> invariably
+excites the curiosity of foreigners,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> and is often
+thought to be of purely Spanish origin. This is
+not so. Upon a Roman lampstand in Naples
+museum is a figure of Bacchus riding on a tiger
+and &ldquo;holding in his hand the horn from which
+the ancients drank, using it as, among some other
+peoples, do the modern Catalans&mdash;that is, not
+placing the vessel in their mouth, but holding it
+aloft and thus imbibing it; a method which
+requires no small amount of practice.&rdquo; In fact,
+there is reason to believe that the <i>porrón</i> is derived
+from a similar vessel in use among the ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+Persians, who poured their liquor from it into the
+hollow of the hand, and thence imbibed it in the
+fashion called, in Cataluña and Valencia, <i>al gallet</i>.
+For just as a certain class of American displays his
+marksmanship in spitting, so does the Catalan
+who is accomplished in the art, amuse himself
+and others by causing the ruby wine to spout from
+his <i>porrón</i> on to the very apex of his nose, continuing
+from this point, in the form of a fine and
+undulating rivulet, over his upper lip and down his
+throat.</p>
+
+<p>Windows of Spanish houses were seldom glazed
+until about one hundred years ago. When Bertaut
+de Rouen travelled here in 1659, this fact impressed
+him disagreeably. Even in the royal palace at
+Madrid he found that there were chambers &ldquo;qui
+n'ont point du tout de fenestrés, ou qui n'en ont
+qu'une petite, et d'où le jour ne vient que d'enhaut,
+le verre estant fort rare en Espagne, et la pluspart
+des fenestrés des maisons n'ayant pas de vitres.&rdquo;
+In 1787, Arthur Young was no less horrified at
+the glassless condition of the houses in Cataluña.
+&ldquo;Reach Sculló; the inn so bad that our guide
+would not permit us to enter it, so he went to the
+house of the Curé. A scene followed so new to
+English eyes, that we could not refrain from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+laughing very heartily. Not a pane of glass in
+the whole town, but our reverend host had a
+chimney in his kitchen; he ran to the river to
+catch trout; a man brought us some chickens
+which were put to death on the spot&hellip;. This
+town and its inhabitants are, to the eye, equally
+wretched, the smoke-holes instead of chimneys,
+the total want of glass windows&mdash;the cheerfulness
+of which, to the eye, is known only by the want.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>However, as an exception to this doleful rule,
+the town of Poeblar had &ldquo;some good houses with
+glass windows, and we saw a well-dressed young
+lady gallanted by two monks.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> &ldquo;Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenæ
+temperantur.&rdquo;&mdash;Pliny, Bk. xxxvi; Chap. 66.</p>
+
+<p>The chief centres of glass-making were Tarragona, several towns
+of Betica (Andalusia), and the Balearic Islands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> The distinction which Riaño attempts to draw between glass
+and glass paste is unsatisfactory. He remarks, too, that the manufacture
+of glass <i>may</i> have existed in Spain at an earlier period
+than the last three centuries, but continues: &ldquo;The earliest mention
+of glass-works in Spain will be found in Pliny, who, while explaining
+the proceedings which were employed in this industry, says
+that glass was made in a similar manner in France and Spain.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Rico y Sinobas, <i>Del Vidrio y de sus artifices en España
+(Almanaque del Museo de la Industria</i>, 1870).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Oliver, <i>Granada y sus monumentos árabes</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> The inventory (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque mentions
+&ldquo;a white box with four small bottles of Valencia glass containing
+ointment for the hands.&rdquo; Other objects specified in this inventory
+are &ldquo;a large glass cup, with two lizards for handles, and two more
+lizards on the cover&rdquo;; &ldquo;three glass cocoanuts, partly coloured
+and with gold blown into them, together with their covers&rdquo;; and &ldquo;a
+large glass cup, of Barcelona, blown with gold.&rdquo; The value of these
+cups, if they existed now, would not be less than two or three
+hundred pounds apiece.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Before this time, however, Aymerich had written, in or about
+the year 1100, that sixty large windows in Santiago cathedral were
+closed by glass, which probably was coloured. We also hear of
+Francisco Socoma, who made or fitted windows of coloured glass at
+Palma, in the island of Majorca, in 1380, and of Guillermo de
+Collivella, who, in 1391, fitted at Lerida the glass which had been
+coloured for the cathedral of that town by Juan de San-Amat.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> <i>Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes en
+España</i>, p. 282 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> In the monastery of Miraflores, near this city, the queen of
+Ferdinand the Catholic built, at her expense, a rich pantheon to
+guard the ashes of her parents and her brother. The coloured glass
+was made by Simon of Cologne. One day, while visiting Miraflores,
+Isabella noticed upon the windows of this sanctuary the shield
+of a gentleman named Martin de Soria. Furious at the liberty
+thus taken with a fabric of her own, &ldquo;afferte mihi gladium&rdquo; she
+called in Latin to one of her attendants, and, raising the sword,
+dashed the offending window into a thousand pieces, crying that in
+that spot she would allow no arms but those of her father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Señor Lázaro, who has recently made at Madrid windows for
+León cathedral imitating those of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries, remarks that with the sixteenth century the process grew
+more complicated, patterns composed with pieces of a single colour
+being replaced by glass containing a variety of tints. He has also
+discovered the following usage of the older Spanish craftsmen:
+&ldquo;By way of furnishing a key to their arrangement, all the pieces
+used to be marked with the point of a diamond, and this mark
+indicates the tone the glass requires for such and such a part of the
+design. The signs most often employed were three, namely X, L,
+and V, for red, blue and yellow respectively, intermediate tones being
+shown by combinations of these letters&mdash;XL, LV, XV, with &ldquo;lines
+of unities&rdquo; placed before or after to indicate the necessary gradation
+in the tone.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> This artist painted a series of magnificent windows representing
+scenes from the life of San Pedro Nolasco, for the convent of
+La Piedad, at Valencia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos Inéditos, etc.</i>, pp. 339 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> According to Cean (<i>La Catedral de Sevilla</i>), Menandro painted
+in 1560 the conversion of Saint Paul on a window in the Chapel of
+Santiago, in 1567 another window with the scene of the Annunciation,
+over the gate of San Miguel, and in 1569 the companion to it,
+representing the Visitation, over the Puerta del Bautismo. &ldquo;In all
+these windows,&rdquo; wrote Cean, prejudiced, as was customary in his day,
+in favour of the strictly classic style, &ldquo;the drawing, pose, and composition
+are good, <i>although</i> in the draperies and figures we observe
+the influence of Germany.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In Cean's own time&mdash;that is, towards the close of the eighteenth
+century&mdash;the coloured windows of Seville Cathedral amounted to
+ninety-three, five of which were circular, and the rest with the
+pointed Gothic arch. The dimensions of the latter are twenty-eight
+feet high by twelve feet broad, and the subjects painted on them
+include the likenesses of prophets, patriarchs, martyrs, confessors,
+and virgins, or scenes from the New Testament, such as the rising
+of Lazarus, Christ driving the merchants from the temple, the Last
+Supper, and the anointing by Mary Magdalene.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos Inéditos</i>, p. 159</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Isidoro Rosell de Torres, <i>Las Vidrieras pintadas en España</i>
+(published in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Penado.</i> A narrow-mouthed vessel that affords the liquor
+with scantiness and difficulty.&rdquo; Connelly and Higgins' Dictionary;
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1798.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> This machine was invented by a Catalan named Pedro Fronvila.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_144">144&ndash;147</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Breñosa and Castellarnau; <i>Guide to San Ildefonso</i> (1884),
+p. 53. Rico y Sinobas observes that in the objects produced at the
+factory of La Granja, the glass itself is inferior to the engraving or
+cutting with which it is adorned. This leads him to infer that the
+foreigners brought over by the kings of Spain to superintend the
+factory, were cutters and engravers of glass, rather than skilled
+glass-makers. He also draws attention to the fact that the Spanish
+monarchs chose these foreign craftsmen from too limited a class,
+entrusting the most important posts at all the royal factories to
+Frenchmen who were stated to descend from the old nobility of
+their native country. In this manner the progress and welfare of
+the craft itself was sacrificed to an insane prejudice in favour of the
+aristocratic origin of the craftsman.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Ricord; <i>Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones del
+Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que tenían en el año 1791.</i>
+Valencia, 1793.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> &ldquo;The mode of drinking in this country is singular; they hold
+a broad-bottom'd glass bottle at arm's length, and let the liquor
+spout out of a long neck upon their tongue; from what I see, their
+expertness at this exercise arises from frequent practise; for the
+Catalans drink often and in large quantities, but as yet I have not
+seen any of them intoxicated.&rdquo;&mdash;Swinburne.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p class="title">PRINTED BY<br />
+NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,<br />
+EDINBURGH.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have
+been maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as a misprint.</p>
+
+<table summary="corrections">
+  <tr>
+    <td><b>The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.</b></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. x: LIX &#8594; LIX.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 23: avec leurs enfans &#8594; enfants</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 32: feu. L'hôte &#8594; L'hôtel</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 33: choses est règlé &#8594; réglé</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 39: fort peuplée autresfois &#8594; autrefois</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 71: pp. 161, 162 &#8594; pp. 161, 162.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 72: <i>León Cathedral</i> &#8594; <i>León Cathedral</i>)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 96: peintures variées de bon gôut &#8594; goût</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 98: on the cover. &#8594; on the cover.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 104: (see Vol. I. Plate xi.) &#8594; (see Vol. I., Plate xi.)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 132: appear to be galloping. &#8594; galloping.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 139: and &ldquo;Pisano.&rdquo; &#8594; and &ldquo;Pisano&rdquo;.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 139: &ldquo;<i>de relieve</i>.&rdquo; &#8594; &ldquo;<i>de relieve</i>&rdquo;.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 159: les plus compliqúes &#8594; compliqués</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 159: qu'un bal masqúe &#8594; masqué</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 169: the journal of Bertant &#8594; Bertaut</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 180: Quarte, Vilallonga &#8594; Villalonga</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 183: degree of delicacy. &#8594; delicacy.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 188: says Señor Osmo &#8594; Osma</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 188: and another <img src="images/img_188c.jpg" width="47" height="50" alt="symbol" /> &#8594; <img src="images/img_188c.jpg" width="47" height="50" alt="symbol" />.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 213: style of Capo-di-Monte. &#8594; Capo-di-Monte.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 225: in France and Spain. &#8594; Spain.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 228: albeit the the &#8594; albeit the</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 236: VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS &#8594; LXXV VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 254: GLASS OF THE &#8594; LXXVI GLASS OF THE</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44392 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #44392 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44392)
diff --git a/old/44392-8.txt b/old/44392-8.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume II
+(of 3), by Leonard Williams
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume II (of 3)
+
+
+Author: Leonard Williams
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 10, 2013  [eBook #44392]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER
+SPAIN, VOLUME II (OF 3)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44392-h.htm or 44392-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
+      Volume I: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44391
+      Volume III: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44393
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The signs cross and dagger have been marked as [cross]
+      and [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (Comp^a). Multiple superscripted characters are
+      enclosed by curly brackets (example: DELINEAV^{it}).
+
+      [=a] represents a letter (in this instance a lower case
+      "a") with a macron above it.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece_
+SAINT FRANCIS]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME II
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO
+
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  FURNITURE                                                        1-86
+
+  IVORIES                                                        89-108
+
+  POTTERY                                                       111-220
+
+  GLASS                                                         223-263
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                              _VOLUME TWO_
+
+
+                               FURNITURE
+
+     PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+           St Francis of Assisi; Toledo Cathedral        _Frontispiece_
+
+        I. Medi�val Chair                                            10
+
+       II. Gothic Chair                                              12
+
+      III. Spanish _Arc�n_ or Baggage-Chest                          16
+
+       IV. _Arca_ of Cardinal Cisneros                               18
+
+        V. Armchair; Museum of Salamanca                             20
+
+       VI. Chair and Table; Salamanca Cathedral                      22
+
+      VII. Chairs upholstered with _Guadameciles_                    24
+
+     VIII. The Sala de la Barca; Alhambra, Granada                   26
+
+       IX. Door of the Hall of the Abencerrajes; Alhambra, Granada   28
+
+        X. Moorish Door; Detail of Carving; Hall of the Two
+           Sisters, Alhambra, Granada                                30
+
+       XI. Door of the Sal�n de Embajadores; Alc�zar of Seville      32
+
+      XII. The same                                                  34
+
+     XIII. Alc�zar of Seville; Fa�ade and Principal Entrance         36
+
+      XIV. Door of the Capilla de los Vargas, Madrid                 38
+
+       XV. Mudejar Door; Palacio de las Due�as, Seville              40
+
+      XVI. _Celos�a_; Alhambra, Granada                              42
+
+     XVII. Carved _Alero_                                            44
+
+    XVIII. Carved _Zapatas_; Casa de las Salinas, Salamanca          46
+
+      XIX. Carved _Zapatas_; Museum of Zaragoza                      48
+
+       XX. _Alero_ and Cornice of Carved Wood; Cuarto de Comares,
+           Alhambra, Granada                                         50
+
+      XXI. "Elijah Sleeping"; Statue in Wood, by Alonso Cano         52
+
+     XXII. Saint Bruno, by Alonso Cano; Cartuja of Granada           54
+
+    XXIII. Saint John the Baptist; San Juan de Dios, Granada         56
+
+     XXIV. Choir-Stalls; Santo Tom�s, Avila                          58
+
+      XXV. Carved Choir-Stall; Toledo Cathedral                      60
+
+     XXVI. Choir-Stalls; Burgos Cathedral                            62
+
+    XXVII. Choir-Stalls; San Marcos, Le�n                            64
+
+   XXVIII. Detail of Choir-Stalls; Le�n Cathedral                    66
+
+     XXIX. Choir-Stalls; Plasencia Cathedral                         68
+
+      XXX. Detail of Choir-Stalls; Convent of San Marcos, Le�n       70
+
+     XXXI. "Samson"; Carved Choir-Stall; Le�n Cathedral              72
+
+    XXXII. "Esau"; Carved Choir-Stall; Le�n Cathedral                74
+
+   XXXIII. _Retablo_; Seville Cathedral                              76
+
+    XXXIV. _Retablo_ of Seville Cathedral; Detail of Carving         78
+
+     XXXV. Detail of _Retablo_; Museum of Valladolid                 80
+
+    XXXVI. Detail of _Retablo_; Chapel of Santa Ana; Burgos
+           Cathedral                                                 82
+
+
+                                IVORIES
+
+   XXXVII. Ivory Box; Madrid Museum                                  90
+
+  XXXVIII. Ivory Casket; Pamplona Cathedral                          92
+
+    XXXIX. Ivory Box; Palencia Cathedral                             94
+
+       XL. Hispano-Moresque Ivory Casket; Royal Academy of History,
+           Madrid                                                    96
+
+      XLI. Ivory Crucifix; Madrid Museum                             98
+
+     XLIA. Back View of same                                         98
+
+     XLII. Byzantine Crucifix                                       100
+
+    XLIII. "The Virgin of Battles"; Seville Cathedral               102
+
+     XLIV. Spanish Medi�val _Baculus_                               104
+
+      XLV. "A Tournament"                                           106
+
+     XLVI. Ivory Diptych; The Escorial                              108
+
+
+                                POTTERY
+
+    XLVII. Amphoraic Vases and other Pottery; Museum of Tarragona   116
+
+   XLVIII. Dish; Museum of Granada                                  118
+
+     XLIX. Hispano-Moresque _Tinaja_                                120
+
+        L. Coarse Spanish Pottery (Modern)                          126
+
+       LI. Door of the Mihrab; Cordova Cathedral                    134
+
+      LII. Mosaic of the Patio de las Doncellas; Alc�zar of Seville 138
+
+     LIII. Andalusian non-lustred Ware; Osma Collection             140
+
+      LIV. _Cuenca_ Tiles; Alc�zar of Seville                       142
+
+       LV. Altar of the Catholic Sovereigns; Alc�zar of Seville     148
+
+      LVI. The Gate of Wine; Alhambra, Granada                      154
+
+     LVII. Tiles of the Decadent Period                             158
+
+    LVIII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Plaque                          168
+
+      LIX. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Alhambra, Granada         170
+
+       LX. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Madrid Museum             172
+
+      LXI. Lustred Tiles; Osma Collection                           174
+
+     LXII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           176
+
+    LXIII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           178
+
+     LXIV. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           180
+
+      LXV. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           182
+
+     LXVI. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           184
+
+    LXVII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware                            186
+
+   LXVIII. Dish; Osma Collection                                    190
+
+     LXIX. An _Alfarer�a_ or Potter's Yard; Granada                 192
+
+      LXX. Talavera Vase                                            198
+
+     LXXI. Ornament in Porcelain of the Buen Retiro                 208
+
+    LXXII. Room decorated with Porcelain of the Buen Retiro; Royal
+           Palace of Aranjuez                                       214
+
+   LXXIII. Porcelain of the Moncloa Factory                         218
+
+
+                                 GLASS
+
+    LXXIV. Vessels of Cadalso Glass                                 234
+
+     LXXV. Vessels of Catalan Glass                                 236
+
+    LXXVI. Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso                    254
+
+   LXXVII. Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso                    258
+
+
+
+
+                               FURNITURE
+
+
+Whether the primitive Iberians ate as well as slept upon
+their cave or cabin floor, or whether--as some classics call upon us to
+believe--they used a kind of folding-chair (_dureta_) and (more advanced
+and comfort-loving than the Andalusian rustics of this day) devoured
+their simple meal from benches or supports constructed in the wall, is
+not of paramount importance to the history of Spanish furniture. The
+statements of those early authors may be granted or rejected as we
+please; for not a single piece of furniture produced by prehistoric, or,
+indeed, by Roman or by Visigothic Spain, has been preserved. But if we
+look for evidence to other crafts, recovered specimens of her early gold
+and silver work and pottery show us that Roman Spain grew to be
+eminently Roman in her social and artistic life. This fact, together
+with the statements of Saint Isidore and certain other writers of his
+day, would seem to prove that all the usual articles of Roman furniture
+were commonly adopted by the subjugated tribes, and subsequently by the
+Visigoths;--the Roman eating-couch or _lectus triclinaris_, the
+state-bed or _lectus genialis_, the ordinary sleeping-bed or _lectus
+cubicularis_, made, in prosperous households, of luxurious woods inlaid
+with ivory, or even of gold and silver; lamps or candelabra of silver,
+copper, glass, and iron[1]; the _cathedra_ or chair for women, the
+_bisellium_ or seat for honoured guests, the _solium_ or chair for the
+head of the house, the simpler chairs without a back, known as the
+_scabellum_ and the _sella_, and the benches or _subsellia_ for the
+servants. Further, the walls were hung with tapestries or rendered
+cheerful by mural painting; while the fireplace[2] and the brasier
+(_foculus_) have descended to contemporary Spain.
+
+  [1] Documents, quoted by the Count of Clonard, of Alfonso the Second,
+      San Genadio, Froylan, and the Infanta Urraca.
+
+  [2] According to Miquel y Bad�a, the _focus_ of the Romans is the
+      present _clar de foch_ of Catalu�a; "a square platform of brick or
+      stone raised somewhat from the ground, surrounded by a bench
+      (_esc�_), and large enough to serve for roasting beasts entire."
+
+Swinburne wrote from Reus in 1775;--"we here for the first time saw a
+true Spanish kitchen, viz., an hearth raised above the level of the
+floor under a wide funnel, where a circle of muleteers were huddled
+together over a few cinders."
+
+Advancing to a period well within the reach of history, we find that
+early in the Middle Ages Spain's seigniorial mansions and the houses of
+the well-to-do were furnished in a style of rude magnificence. Roman
+models, derived from purely Roman and Byzantine sources through the
+Visigoths, continued to remain in vogue until the tenth or the eleventh
+century.[3] Then, as the fashion of these declined, the furniture of
+Christian Spain was modified in turn by Moorish, Gothic, and Renaissance
+art; or two of these would overlap and interact, or even all the three.
+
+During the Middle Ages the furniture of the eating, sleeping, and living
+room which formed the principal apartment in the mansion of a great
+seignior, was very much the same throughout the whole of Christian
+Europe. Viollet-le-Duc has described it in the closest detail. The
+dominant object, looming in a corner, was the ponderous bed, transformed
+into a thing of beauty by its costly canopy and hangings.[4] Throughout
+the earlier medi�val times the Spanish bedstead was of iron or bronze.
+Wood, plain at first, then richly carved, succeeded metal towards the
+fourteenth century, and with this change the bed grew even vaster than
+before. Often it rose so high above the level of the flooring that the
+lord and lady required a set of steps to clamber up to it. These steps
+were portable, and sometimes made of solid silver.[5] I quote herewith a
+full description of a medi�val Spanish bed, extracted from an inventory
+of the Princess Juana which was made upon her marriage with the Count of
+Foix, in 1392. The same bed had formerly belonged to Juana's mother, the
+Princess Martha, at her marriage with King Juan the First. It had "a
+velvet canopy with lions of gold thread, and a dove and a horse
+confronting every lion. And each of the lions and doves and horses bears
+a lettering; and the lettering of the lions is _Estre por voyr_, and
+that of the doves and horses _aay_, and the whole is lined with green
+cloth. _Item_, a counterpane of the said velvet, with a similar design
+of doves and lions, and likewise lined with green cloth. _Item_, three
+curtain-pieces of fine blue silk, with their metal rings and cords of
+blue thread. _Item_, three cushion-covers of blue velvet, two of them of
+large size, bearing two lions on either side, and four of them small,
+with a single lion on either side, embroidered with gold thread; with
+their linen coverings. _Item_, a cloth of a barred pattern, with the
+bars of blue velvet and cloth of gold upon a red ground; which cloth
+serves for a state-chair or for a window, and is lined with cloth.
+_Item_, another cloth made of the said velvet and cloth of gold, which
+serves for the small chair (_reclinatorio_) for hearing Mass, and is
+lined with the aforesaid green cloth. _Item_, two large linen sheets
+enveloping the aforesaid canopy and counterpane. A pair of linen sheets,
+of four breadths apiece, bordered on every side with a handbreadth of
+silk and gold thread decoration consisting of various kinds of birds,
+leaves, and letters; and each of the said sheets contains at the
+head-end about five handbreadths of the said decoration. _Item_, four
+cushions of the same linen, all of them adorned all round with about a
+handbreadth of the aforesaid decoration of birds, leaves, and letters.
+_Item_, two leather boxes, lined with wool, which contained all these
+objects. _Item_, five canvas-covered cushions stuffed with feather, for
+use with the said six coverings of blue velvet bearing the said devices.
+_Item_, three large pieces of wall tapestry made of blue wool with the
+same devices of lions, horses, and doves, made likewise of wool, yellow
+and of other colours. _Item_, five carpets made of the aforesaid wool,
+bearing the same devices. _Item_, three coverlets of the same wool, and
+with the same devices, for placing on the bed. _Item_, a coverlet of red
+leather bearing in its centre the arms of the King and the Infanta.
+_Item_, another coverlet made of leather bars and plain red leather.
+_Item_, a woollen coverlet with the arms of the Infanta."[6]
+
+  [3] The _Codex of the Testaments_, preserved in Oviedo Cathedral,
+      contains some valuable illustrations of Spanish furniture of the
+      tenth century. Greatly interesting, too, is the chair of San
+      Raimundo (12th century) preserved at Roda in Aragon. It is of the
+      "scissors" or folding form (_sella plicatilis_, Ducange), and the
+      arms are terminated by heads of animals.
+
+  [4] The early nomenclature of the clothes and other fittings of a
+      Spanish bed is bewildering. We find in common use the canopy
+      (_almocalla_, _almuzala_; Arabic, _al-mokalla_, i.e. "haven of
+      refuge in all winds"--not always, possibly, a judicious term in the
+      case of a _cama de matrimonio_ or "marriage-bed"); the cloth-lined
+      skins for chilly weather (_alifafe_, _alifad_; Arabic _al-lifafh_),
+      such as King Juan the First of Aragon provided for his daughter
+      ("two leathers of Morocco for the bed." _Archive of the Crown of
+      Aragon; Registro 1906, fol. 42_); the parament or _dosal_; the
+      _galnap�_ or topmost of the bedclothes proper ("_un lecho con
+      guenabe_"; Fuero of C�ceres, A.D. 1229); the counterpane (_fatel_,
+      _fatol_, _alfatel_, _facel_, _farele_, _fateye_, _fatiro_; Arabic
+      _fatla_); the linen sheets (_izares_, _lentros_, _lentos_, _lintes_,
+      _lincas_, _linte�minas_, or _lencios_); and the mattress, pillow,
+      and bolster, called, all three of them, _plumazo_, _plumario_, or
+      _plumaco_. Nearly or quite identical in meaning with these last are
+      _c�lcita_ and _almadraque_. _C�lcita_ is corrupted into _colcedra_,
+      _cocedra_, _conzara_, _colotra_, and other more or less barbaric
+      variations; while _almohada_, _almuella_, _travesera_,
+      _almofadinha_, _faseruelo_, and _aljamar_ also signify a pillow or
+      a cushion.
+
+  [5] "E due haber encara h�la entegrament, ses vestitz � ses joyes � un
+      leyt ben garnit del misllors apereylltz que sien en casa, � _una_
+      _escala d'argent_ � una cortina." Fuero of Jaca, A.D. 1331, quoted
+      by Abad y la Sierra and the Count of Clonard.
+
+  [6] Sanpere y Miquel; _Las costumbres catalanas en tiempo de Juan I._,
+      pp. 83, 84.
+
+Another corner of the room was occupied by the dining-table,[7] spread
+at meal-times with a cloth denominated by Saint Isidore the _mappa_,
+_m�pula_, _mapil_, _mantella_, or _mantellia_; and laid with the
+_mand�bulas_ or "jaw-wipers" (_i.e._ napkins; see Du Cange), plates
+(_discos_), dishes (_mensorios_, _messorios_, or _misorios_), spoons
+(_cocleares_, _culiares_), though not as yet with forks,[8] cups of
+various shapes and substances, with or without a cover (_copos_,
+_v�sculos_, and many other terms), the water-flagon (_kana_, _mikana_,
+_almakana_), the cruet-stand (_canatella_), and the salt-cellar
+(_salare_).
+
+  [7] Miquel y Bad�a believes that the Spaniards abandoned the Roman
+      usage of reclining at their meals towards the sixth century.
+
+  [8] Forks were not introduced till later. It has even been questioned
+      whether they were known in Spain as late as the sixteenth century.
+      But Ambrosio de Morales mentions one in 1591, while another is
+      recorded in 1607 as belonging to the monastery of San Jer�nimo de
+      Valparaiso, near Cordova. (See vol. i., p. 84.)
+
+This table also served to write upon, while in its neighbourhood would
+stand the massive sideboard, piled with gold and silver plate, and
+vessels of glass or ivory, wood or alabaster.
+
+Besides the bed and table in their several corners, the chamber would
+contain a suitable variety of chairs and stools, mostly surrounding the
+capacious fireplace. Members of the household also sat on carpets spread
+upon the floor. The great armchair of the seignior himself was more
+ornate than any of the rest, and was provided somewhat later with a
+lofty Gothic back (Plates i. and ii.). A chair with a back of moderate
+height was destined for distinguished visitors. The back of ordinary
+chairs reached only to about the sitter's shoulder, and coverings of
+cloth or other stuffs were not made fast, but hung quite loosely from
+the wooden frame. This usage lasted till the sixteenth century, when the
+upholsterers began to nail the coverings of the larger chairs and
+benches.
+
+Owing to the oriental influence brought back from the Crusades, the
+furniture of Europe, not excluding Spain, grew ever more elaborate and
+costly, while further, in the case of this Peninsula, the native Moorish
+influence operated steadily and strongly from Toledo, Seville, Cordova,
+Valencia, and elsewhere. Tapestries of Eastern manufacture (_alcatifas_)
+were now in general use for decorating floors and walls. The bed grew
+more and more gigantic, and its clothes and curtains more extravagantly
+sumptuous, until the florid Gothic woodwork harmonized with canopies and
+curtains cut from priceless skins, or wrought in gold and silver thread
+on multicolor satin and brocade. And at the bed's head, like some jewel
+marvellously set, rested, in every noble home, the diptych or the
+triptych with its image of the Saviour or the Virgin Mary.
+
+Under the influence of the Renaissance this love of luxury continued to
+increase among the royal and the noble families of Spain. In 1574 an
+inventory of the estate of Do�a Juana, sister of Philip the Second,
+mentions a silver balustrade, weighing one hundred and twenty-one
+pounds, for placing round a bed. The inventory (1560) of the Dukes of
+Alburquerque contains a great variety of entries relative to the
+furniture and chamber-fittings of the period. We find here mentioned,
+Turkey carpets and the celebrated Spanish ones of Alcaraz, linens of
+Rouen, green cloth of Cuenca, Toledo cloths, hangings of Arras and
+elsewhere, tablecovers of damask and of velvet, gold-fringed canopies
+(_doseles_) of green or crimson velvet or brocade, a "canopy for a
+sideboard, of red and yellow Toledo cloth, with the arms of the La
+Cuevas in embroidery, together with stripes and bows, and repetitions of
+the letter I (for _Isabel Giron_, the duchess), also embroidered fringes
+of the same cloth, and cords of the aforesaid colours." We also read of
+a _sitial_ or state-chair of crimson satin brocade, and "a small walnut
+table covered with silver plates, bearing the arms of my lord the duke
+and of my lady the duchess, and edged with silver stripes."[9] The
+bedstead, fitted with hangings of double taffeta and scarlet cloth, was
+no less sumptuous than the other objects.
+
+  [9] This kind of furniture was prohibited by a sumptuary pragmatic of
+      1594. "No silversmith or other craftsman, or any person whatsoever,
+      shall make, or cause to be made, or sold, or sell himself or
+      purchase, whether openly or privately, buffets, writing-desks,
+      chests, brasiers, pattens, tables, letter-cases, _rejillas_ or
+      foot-warmers, images, or any other object that has silver fittings,
+      whether the silver be beaten, stamped, wrought in relief, carved,
+      or plain." _Suma de todas las leyes_ (A.D. 1628), p. 42.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                             MEDI�VAL CHAIR
+             (_Carved with the arms of Castile and Le�n_)]
+
+A popular and even an indispensable piece of furniture in every medi�val
+Spanish household was the _caja de novia_ or "bride's chest." The
+use of this, as well as of a smaller kind of box, was common both
+to Moors and Christians. No matter of what size, these objects were
+essentially the same. They served innumerable purposes; were made of
+all dimensions--from the tiniest casket (_arcellina_, _capsula_, or
+_pyxide_; see vol. i., p. 45 _et seq._) to the ponderous and vast
+_arc�n_,--and almost any substance--ivory or crystal, mother-of-pearl or
+glass, gold, silver, copper, silver-gilt, jasper, agate, or fine wood;
+and we find them in every part of the Peninsula, from the dawn of the
+Middle Ages till very nearly the end of the eighteenth century.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+                              GOTHIC CHAIR
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+According to the Marquis of Monistrol, the larger boxes or _arcones_
+constitute by far the commonest article of Spanish furniture all through
+the earlier portion of this lengthy period. The same authority divides
+them broadly into seven classes, thus:--
+
+  (1) Burial-chests.
+
+  (2) Chests for storing chasubles, chalices, candelabra, and other
+      objects connected with the ceremonies of the church.
+
+  (3) Archive-chests, for storing documents.
+
+  (4) Chests for storing treasure (_huches_).
+
+  (5) Brides' chests.
+
+  (6) Chests for storing arms.
+
+  (7) _Arcones-trojes_, or chests of common make, employed for storing
+      grain in country dwellings or _posadas_.
+
+The decorative richness of these quaint _arcones_ varies according to
+their date of manufacture, or the purpose they were meant to serve.
+Commonly, in the earliest of them, dating from the sixth or seventh
+century, the iron clamps or fastenings form the principal or only
+ornament. Such are reported to have been the two chests which the Cid
+Campeador loaded with sand and foisted as filled with specie on his
+"dear friends" Rachel and Vidas, the Jewish though trustful usurers of
+Burgos, in return for six hundred marks of gold and silver. Tradition
+says, moreover, that the chest now shown at Burgos as the "coffer of the
+Cid" is actually one of these. It is certain that the archives of the
+cathedral have been deposited in this chest for many centuries.
+Evidently, too, it dates from about the lifetime of the Cid, while the
+rings with which it is fitted show it to have been a kind of trunk
+intended to be carried on the backs of sumpter-mules or horses.
+
+After the Roman domination in this country, the Latin term _capsa_ was
+applied to every kind of chest; but at a later age sepulchral chests or
+coffins were denominated _urns_, in order to distinguish them from
+_arcas_ and _arcones_, which were used for storing clothes or jewellery.
+Excellent examples of Spanish medi�val burial-chests are those of Do�a
+Urraca, preserved in the Sagrario of the cathedral of Palencia, and of
+San Isidro, patron of Madrid. The former, mentioned by painstaking Ponz,
+and by Pulgar in his _Secular and Ecclesiastical Annals of Palencia_, is
+of a plain design, and really constitutes a coffin. The sepulchral chest
+of San Isidro, dating from the end of the thirteenth century, or the
+early part of the fourteenth, and kept at Madrid in a niche of the
+_camar�n_ of the parish church of San Andr�s, is in the Romanic style,
+and measures seven feet six inches in length. It has a gable top, and is
+painted in brilliant colours on plaster-coated parchment, with miracles
+effected by the saint, and other scenes related with his life; but much
+of the painting is effaced.
+
+Another interesting sepulchral chest would probably have been the one
+presented in 1052 by Ferdinand the First, together with his royal robe
+and crown,[10] to the basilica of Saint John the Baptist at Le�n, to
+guard the remains of Saint Isidore. This chest was covered with thick
+gold plates studded with precious stones, and bore, in enamel and
+relief, the figures of the apostles gathered round the Saviour, and
+medallions containing figures of the Virgin, saints, and martyrs.
+According to Ambrosio de Morales, the gold plates were torn off by
+Alfonso the First of Aragon, who replaced them by others of silver-gilt.
+The same monarch, regardless of the church's fierce anathema pronounced
+on all who dared to touch her property,[11] is accused by his chronicler
+of having appropriated a box of pure gold studded with gems, enshrining
+a crucifix made of the true Cross, and which was kept in some town or
+village of the kingdom of Le�n. Doubtless as a chastisement for
+Alfonso's impiety, this precious box was captured from him by the Moors
+at the battle of Fraga.
+
+  [10] Describing how the monarch made these presents to the church when
+       lying at the point of death, the _Chronicle of the Monk of Silos_
+       says: "_exuit regalem clamydem, qua induebatur corpus et deposuit
+       gemmatam coronam, qua ambiebatur caput_."
+
+  [11] The formula is worded thus: "_Quisquis ille fuerit qui talia
+       commiserit, sit maledictus coram Deo et Angelis ejus, mendicitas
+       et lepra prosapiam teneat suam et extraneus persistat a sancta
+       communione, quatenus cum Juda, Christi proditore, ardendus
+       permaneat in �terna damnatione._"
+
+Among the reliquary chests, the oldest specimen extant in Spain is the
+_arca santa_ of Oviedo cathedral. This object, which is purely Byzantine
+in its style, is believed to have been made at Constantinople. It was
+improved by Alfonso the Sixth, who added _repouss�_ plates to it, with
+Arabic ornamentation in the form of meaningless inscriptions of a merely
+decorative character, but which are interesting as showing the kinship
+existing at this time between the Spanish Christians and the Spanish
+Moors.
+
+Equally important is the coffer which was made by order of Don Sancho el
+Mayor to enshrine the wonder-working bones of San Millan, and which is
+now at San Millan de la Cogulla, in the province of La Rioja. The author
+of this chest, which dates from A.D. 1033, is vaguely spoken of as
+"Master Aparicio." The chest itself consists of a wooden body beneath a
+covering of ivory and gold, further enriched with statuettes and studded
+with real and imitation stones. It is divided into twenty-two
+compartments carved in ivory with passages from the life and miracles of
+the saint, and figures of "princes, monks, and benefactors," who had
+contributed in one way or another to the execution of the reliquary.
+
+I have said that the "coffer of the Cid" was made for carrying baggage.
+A very interesting Spanish baggage-chest, although more modern than the
+Cid's by several centuries, is now the property of Se�or Moreno
+Carbonero (Plate iii.). This very competent authority believes it to
+have belonged to Isabella the Catholic, and says that it was formerly
+the usage of the sovereigns of this country to mark their baggage-boxes
+with the first quartering of the royal arms and also with their
+monogram. Such is the decoration, consisting of repeated castles and the
+letter Y (for Ysabel), upon this trunk. The space between is painted red
+upon a surface thinly spread with wax. Strips of iron, twisted to
+imitate the girdle of Saint Francis, are carried over all the frame,
+surrounding the castles and the letters. This box was found at
+Ronda.[12]
+
+  [12] To keep the dust or rain from entering these trunks, they were
+       covered, when on the march, with stout square cloths called
+       _reposteros_, which were often richly worked and bore the owner's
+       arms or monogram. The same word subsequently came to mean the
+       tapestried or other decorative cloths displayed in Spain on gala
+       days from balconies of public edifices, or the mansions of the
+       aristocracy; but dictionaries which were printed at the close of
+       the eighteenth century still define the _repostero_ as "caparison,
+       a square cloth with the arms of a prince or lord on it, which
+       serves to cover a led-horse, or sumpter-horse."
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                                _ARC�N_
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+A handsome _arc�n_, dating from the same period as this baggage-chest of
+Isabella the Catholic, namely, the end of the fifteenth century, is
+stated by its owner, Don Manuel Lopez de Ayala, to have belonged to
+Cardinal Cisneros (Plate iv.). The material is wood, covered inside with
+dark blue cloth, and outside with red velvet, most of the nap of which
+is worn away. The dimensions are four feet six inches in length, two
+feet in height, and twenty inches in depth. The chest, which has a
+triple lock, is covered with _repouss�_ iron plates representing twisted
+columns and other architectural devices, combined with Gothic
+thistle-leaves. A coat of arms is on the front.
+
+Such is an outline of the history of these Spanish chests. Most of the
+earlier ones are cumbersome and scantily adorned. Then, as time
+proceeds, we find on them the florid Gothic carving, unsurpassed for
+purity and charm; then the Renaissance, with its characteristic ornament
+of urns, and birds, and intertwining frond and ribbon; and finally,
+towards, and lasting through the greater portion of, the eighteenth
+century, the tasteless and decadent manner of Baroque. Yet even in the
+worst and latest we descry from time to time a flickering remnant of the
+art of Moorish Spain.
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                      _ARCA_ OF CARDINAL CISNEROS]
+
+These Spanish Moors, obedient to the custom of their fellow-Mussulmans
+throughout the world, employed but little furniture. They loved,
+indeed, bright colours and ingenious craftsmanship, but rather in the
+adjuncts to their furniture than in the furniture itself; in costly
+carpets, or worked and coloured leather hung upon the wall,[13] or
+spread upon their _alhamies_ and _alhan�as_; in fountains bubbling in
+the middle of their courts and halls; in doors, and ceilings, and
+_celos�as_ exquisitely carved, and joined with matchless cunning; in
+flower-vases placed in niches; in bronze or silver perfume-burners
+rolling at their feet; but not (within the ordinary limit of the term)
+in furniture. Upon this theme the Reverend Lancelot Addison discourses
+very quaintly. "The host here," he wrote of "West Barbary" in 1663, "is
+one Cidi Caffian Shat, a grandee, reported to be an Andalusian, one of
+the race of the Moors bansht (_sic_) Spain.... We were called to a
+little upper Room, which we could not enter till we had put off our
+shoes at the threshold: not for Religion, but Cleanliness, and not to
+prevent our unhallowing the floor, but defiling the carpets wherewith it
+was curiously spread. At the upper end of the Room was laid a Velvit
+Cushion, as large as those we use in our Pulpits, and it denoted the
+most Honourable part of the Room. After we had reposed about an hour,
+there was brought in a little oval Table, about twenty Inches high,
+which was covered with a long piece of narrow linnen; and this served
+for Diaper.[14] For the Moors, by their law, are forbidden such
+superfluous Utensils as napkins, knives, spoons, etc. Their Religion
+laying down the general maxim, that meer necessaries are to be provided
+for; which caused a precise Moor to refuse to drink out of my dish when
+he could sup water enough out of the hollow of his hand."
+
+  [13] The wood-carving and decorative leather-work of older Spain will
+       be described a little later on. As to the use of decorated leather
+       by the Moors, in the small chamber of the Alhambra opening into
+       the Mirador of Daraxa, and known as the Sala de los Ajimeces, is a
+       bare space about nine feet in height, which runs the whole way
+       round beneath the copious ornament of the remainder of the wall.
+       Contreras says that the Moorish sultans used to hang these spaces
+       with decorated leathers, tapestry, and armour. Sometimes the
+       tapestry or leather would be worked or painted with hunting-scenes
+       (_tardwahsh_--the chase of the lion, panther, or wild boar), or
+       even with portraits of the sultans. Among these latter is the
+       celebrated painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice,
+       executed, as are its companions at each side of it, upon a leather
+       groundwork with a plaster coating.
+
+  [14] I think this shows why to this day a Spaniard who professes to be
+       an educated person will often wipe his or her mouth upon the
+       tablecloth. Not many weeks ago I saw the elegantly dressed daughter
+       of a Spanish member of Parliament perform this semi-oriental feat
+       in an hotel at Granada. Montaigne would judge this _se�orita_ with
+       benevolence; not so, I fear, my compatriots. Similarly, it is
+       considered rude in Spain to stretch yourself; but not to spit upon
+       the dining-room floor, or pick your teeth at table.
+
+The same author proceeds to relate his experiences at bed-time. "Having
+supp'd and solaced ourselves with muddy beverage and Moresco music, we
+all composed ourselves to sleep: about twenty were allotted to lodge in
+this small chamber, whereof two were Christians, three Jews, and the
+rest Moors; every one made his bed of what he wore, which made our
+English constitutions to wish for the morning."
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                                ARMCHAIR
+                 (_17th Century. Museum of Salamanca_)]
+
+Among the Mussulmans all this has undergone no change. Do we not find
+their present furniture to be identical with that of distant
+centuries?--a characteristic scarcity of portable articles of wood; the
+isolated box (_arqueta_ or _arc�n_) which serves the purpose of our
+clumsier chest of drawers or wardrobe;[15] carpets and decorated
+leathers; the tiny, indispensable table; the lack of knives and spoons;
+ornaments to regale the eye rather than commodities which the hand might
+seize upon and utilize? Such was, and is, and will continue to remain
+Mohammedan society throughout the world; and these descriptive passages
+of life in seventeenth-century Morocco might have been penned with equal
+truth in reference to the Spanish Muslim of a thousand years ago.
+
+  [15] Mr. Cunninghame Graham, visiting a Caid's house in present-day
+       Morocco, noted, as the only furniture, "leather-covered cushions,
+       the cover cut into intricate geometric patterns; the room contained
+       a small trunk-shaped box."
+
+The furniture of the Moorish mosques was also of the scantiest. "They
+are," to quote once more from Lancelot Addison's amusing little
+brochure, "without the too easy accommodations of seats, pews, or
+benches. The floor of the Gi�mma is handsomely matted, and so are the
+walls about two feet high. If the roof be large and weighty, it is
+supported with pillars, among which hang the lamps, which are kept
+burning all the night." At one point of his expedition the reason for
+such paucity of furniture was vividly expounded to our tourist. A Moor
+indignantly exclaimed to him that it was "a shame to see women, dogs,
+and dirty shoes brought into a place sacred to God's worship, and that
+men ... should have chaires there to sit in with as much lascivious ease
+as at home."[16]
+
+  [16] _West Barbary_, p. 150.
+
+Nevertheless, a pulpit in the mosque, and a seat of some kind in the
+palace or the private house, were not to be dispensed with. We learn
+from Ibn-Khaldoun and many other writers, that the throne of the
+Mussulman sultans was the _mimbar_, _takcht_, or _cursi_. Each of these
+objects was a wooden seat. The first of the sultans to use a throne was
+Moawia, son of Abu-Sofyan. The princes who came after him continued the
+same usage, but displayed a constantly increasing splendour in the
+decoration of the throne. This custom spread, in course of time, from
+east to west throughout almost the whole dominion of the Muslims. The
+Beni-Nasr princes of Granada are also known to have used a throne, but
+this is believed to have consisted simply of some cushions piled one
+upon another. This inference is drawn by Eguilaz Yanguas and other
+Arabists from the old _Vocabulary_ of Fray Pedro de Alcal�, who renders
+a "throne" or "royal seat" by _martaba_, a word equivalent to "cushion."
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                            CHAIR AND TABLE
+                 (_17th Century. Salamanca Cathedral_)]
+
+Cushions, too, became symbolic, even with the Christian Spaniards, of a
+seat of honour; both because they lent themselves to rich embroidery or
+leather-work, and because they raised their occupant above the level of
+the persons seated positively on the carpet or the floor. In the
+painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice in the Alhambra, ten men
+are congregated in Mohammedan costume, each of them seated on a
+cushion. Some writers, including Argote de Molina, Diego Hurtado de
+Mendoza, and Hernando del Pulgar, believed these figures to be actual
+portraits of the sultans; others maintain that they depict the _Mizouar_
+or royal council. In either case, however, the cushion here is clearly
+an honourable place. We have, besides, abundant evidence that the
+Spanish Christians viewed the cushion with as marked a liking as their
+rivals. Alvarez de Colmenar relates that at the very close of the
+seventeenth century the Spanish women sat at meals in Moorish fashion.
+"Un p�re de famille est assis seul � table, et toutes les femmes, sans
+exception, mangent par terre, assises sur un carreau avec leurs enfants,
+et leur table dress�e sur un tapis �tendu." The same work says elsewhere
+that "lorsque les dames se rendent visite, elles ne se donnent ni si�ge
+ni fauteuil, mais elles sont toutes assises par terre, les jambes en
+croix, sur des tapis ou des carreaux."[17]
+
+  [17] _Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal_, vol. iii., pp. 324, 327.
+
+Therefore, until two centuries ago, the women of Christian Spain were
+suffered to take their seat on cushions of brocade or damask. Only the
+men made use of stools or chairs, according to their rank. To "give a
+chair" (_dar silla_) to a visitor of the male sex was to pay him a
+valued courtesy;[18] and even now the wife of a grandee of Spain goes
+through the honourable though irksome ceremony, at the palace of Madrid,
+of "taking the cushion."
+
+  [18] "H�nrale el Sr Roberto, alma del Rey, y _le ha dado Silla_, y le
+       tuvo � su lado." Lope de Vega's comedy, _The Key of Honour_.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                 CHAIRS UPHOLSTERED WITH _GUADAMECILES_
+                           (_17th Century_)]
+
+Another usage with the Spaniards of the seventeenth and immediately
+preceding centuries was the "dais of honour" or _estrado de
+cumplimiento_. This was a platform very slightly raised, and separated
+by a railing from the rest of the room. The curious manuscript
+discovered by Gayangos, descriptive of court-life at Valladolid in 1605,
+contains the following account of one of the occasions when the Queen,
+following a common custom of a Sunday, dined alone, in sight of all the
+aristocracy. "The table was laid upon the dais (_estrado alto_), beneath
+a canopy of brocade that overhung the whole of it. The queen sat at the
+head of the table, and three ladies, standing, waited on her; two
+uncovering the dishes as they came,[19] and the third carving. The
+dishes were brought from the dining-room door by the _meninos_, who
+handed them to the ladies. Other ladies of the royal household, wives or
+daughters of grandees, stood leaning against the wall in company with
+gentlemen who, on such occasions, sue for leave beforehand to attend on
+Lady So and So, or So and So. Commonly there are two such cavaliers to
+every dame. If the queen asks for water, one of these ladies takes it to
+her, kneels, makes an obeisance, kisses the goblet, hands it to her
+majesty, and retires to her appointed place. Behind the queen was one of
+her chamberlains. Many of the Englishmen were witnessing the meal. They
+always put the English first on such occasions; and as they are such
+hulking fellows (God bless them!) I, who was at their back, scarce noted
+anything of what was passing, and only saw that many plates went to and
+fro."
+
+  [19] The covers would be fastened by a lock and key, as a defence, not
+       against poison, but against theft. "A little afterwards Don
+       Federico de Cardona, who had gone out to see how matters were
+       proceeding, returned, bearing a large silver vessel, the cover of
+       which was secured by a lock and key, as is the custom in
+       Spain."--Countess d'Aulnoy's _Travels_. As late as the year 1792,
+       Townsend, in his "Directions to the Itinerant in Spain," recommends
+       (vol. i., p. 2) that the vessel to boil the traveller's meat should
+       be provided with a cover and a lock.
+
+Solid and expensive furniture continued to be used in Spain throughout
+the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries; the ponderous chest, the
+ponderous brasier, ponderous stools, ponderous armchairs with massive
+nails and coverings of velvet or of decorated leather (Plates v., vi.,
+and vii.). Upon the wall, the tapestry of earlier times was often
+replaced by paintings of a sacred character, or family portraits. The
+comedy titled _La Gardu�a de Sevilla_, written about the middle of the
+seventeenth century by Alonso del Castillo Solorzano, describes the
+interior of a rich man's dwelling of this period. "Upstairs Rufina noted
+delicate summer hangings, new chairs of Moscovy cowhide, curiously
+carved buffets, and ebony and ivory writing-desks; for Marquina, though
+a skinflint towards others, was generous in the decoration of his own
+abode.... When dinner was over, he took her to a room embellished with
+fine paintings, and with a bed whose canopy was of some Indian
+fabric.... Paintings by famous masters were plentifully hung about the
+house, together with fine Italian hangings, various kinds of
+writing-desks, and costly beds and canopies. When they had visited
+nearly all the rooms, they opened the door of one which contained a
+beautiful altar and its oratory. Here were a great array of costly
+and elaborate Roman vessels, agnuses of silver and of wood, and flowers
+arranged in various ways. This chamber, too, was full of books
+distributed in gilded cases."
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                         THE _SALA DE LA BARCA_
+            (_Before the fire of 1890. Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+A characteristic piece of Spanish furniture was at this time the
+solid-looking cabinet known as the _vargue�o_, so denominated from the
+little town of Vargas, near Toledo, formerly a well-known centre of
+their manufacture. These cabinets, whose origin, according to the
+Marquis of Monistrol, may be traced to a fifteenth-century form of
+_huche_, or chest provided with drawers for guarding articles of value,
+and which opened in the centre, are commonly made of walnut. The front
+lets down upon a massive wooden rest supported by the legs, and forms a
+folding writing-table containing at the back a number of drawers or
+compartments for storing documents, or other things of minor bulk.
+
+The woodwork of these cabinets is often without carving; but generally
+in such cases their bareness is relieved by massive and elaborately
+ornamented iron fastenings and a decorative key.
+
+The Ordinances of Granada tell us that in 1616 the making of defective
+furniture had grown to be a scandal in that town. The cause, it seems,
+was partly in the wood itself, proceeding from the Sierra de Segura,
+Pinar del Duque, and the Sierra de Gor. "Divers of our carpenters and
+joiners cut their walnut and other woods while yet the moon is crescent,
+whereby the wood decays and spoils. Others there be that make and sell
+chairs, desks, beds, and other furniture of green unseasoned wood which
+warps and loosens, insomuch that within some days the article is
+worthless. Therefore we order that all walnut wood and other woods for
+making furniture be only cut at the time of the waning moon, and be not
+used until they shall have seasoned thoroughly, so as not to warp; and
+that they be approved by the inspectors of this trade, under a penalty
+of six thousand _maravedis_ for each of the aforesaid Ordinances that be
+not complied with."
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                  DOOR OF THE HALL OF THE ABENCERRAJES
+                         (_Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+The municipal laws of the same city relative to the "chair-makers who
+make hip-chairs to sit in, and leather-covered chests," were cried, in
+1515 and 1536, "in the street of the chairmakers and carpenters."
+Fettered by irksome regulations of this kind, we cannot wonder that the
+arts and crafts of Christian Spain were fated to decline.[20] Owing
+to the "false and faulty workmanship" prevailing in Granada, it is
+provided by these statutes that the wood employed in making chairs must
+be bought by the manufacturers in public auction only, held "in the
+little square where dwell the chairmakers." It must be thoroughly dry
+and free from flaws, and of sufficient stoutness to sustain the
+decorative marquetry. The chair which lacks these requisite conditions
+must be seized and burnt. The four nails which fasten the seat of the
+chair to the legs must traverse the frame completely and be hammered
+back upon the other side, unless the surface of the chair be inlaid, in
+which case they need not pass completely through. The leather for the
+seats and backs of chairs must be good in quality and well prepared and
+dressed, besides being strongly sewn with flaxen thread. Chairs of all
+sizes must bear the official city mark, stamped by the authorities at a
+charge of one _maravedi_ for each of the large chairs and a _blanca_ for
+each of the small.
+
+  [20] The purpose of these Spanish city laws was in its essence
+       unimpeachable; namely, to guard the intensely ignorant Christian
+       populace--the same which fugitive Moriscos of the kingdom of
+       Valencia had readily prevailed upon to barter tons of brass and
+       pewter trash for sterling gold and silver coin--from being imposed
+       upon by manufacturers and merchants. But the power of
+       discriminating between a genuine or well-made object and a piece
+       of counterfeit or worthless rubbish is, among all peoples, better
+       sought for and developed by experience than by legislation; and
+       there was something noxiously prosaic in a code of city ordinances
+       which forbade the craftsman to prepare his own design, or choose
+       his own material, or establish his own prices. How violently, or at
+       least how primitively, hostile to the sense of art must not have
+       been these Christian sons of Spain to need--or think they
+       needed--so impertinent and tyrannous a system of protection!
+
+Makers of the leather-covered chests are ordered to use the hides of
+horses, mares, or mules, and not the hides of oxen, cows, or calves,
+because, if covered with this latter, "the chests grow moth-eaten and
+are destroyed much sooner." The craftsman who transgresses this command
+must lose the faulty piece of furniture, and pay four hundred
+_maravedis_, while under a further penalty of two hundred _maravedis_
+the hinges must be fixed inside the chest, and not to its exterior.
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                    MOORISH DOOR, DETAIL OF CARVING
+            (_Hall of the Two Sisters, Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+I have omitted hitherto all mention of the furnishing of humbler Spanish
+houses in the olden time. The following passage from the Ordinances of
+Granada shows us, referring to an inn, an unpretentious lodging of about
+four hundred years ago:--
+
+"_Item._ If the innkeeper have a parlour or alcove that fastens with a
+lock, and therein a bed of the better class, with hangings round about
+it, and a canopy above, and on the bed a counterpane, friezed
+blanket, and pillows; also a bench with its strip of carpet or striped
+benchcloth, a table with its service of tablecloths and all that be
+needful, besides a lamp of brass or ware, all of the best that he is
+able to provide--for such a bed and room he may demand twelve
+_maravedis_ each day; whether the room be taken by one guest, or two, or
+more."[21]
+
+  [21] _Ordenanza de Mesoneros_, titulo 54.
+
+Nor was the Spanish inn more comfortable in the seventeenth or
+eighteenth centuries than in the sixteenth. "On entre d'ordinaire dans
+les H�telleries par l'�curie, du moins dans de certaines Provinces; on
+vous m�ne dans quelque chambre, o� vous trouvez les quatre parois,
+quelquefois un bois de lit; pour chandelle on allume un grand nombre de
+petites bougies, qui font assez de lumi�re pour voir ce que vous mangez;
+et afin que l'odeur and la fum�e de tant de bougies n'incommode pas, on
+vous apporte, si vous le souhaitez, un brasier de noyaux d'olives en
+charbon. Quand on monte, on trouve au haut de l'escalier, la _Se�ora de
+la Casa_, qui a eu le tems de prendre ses beaux habits de dimanche pour
+vous faire honneur et s'en faire � elle-m�me." (Alvarez de Colmenar, in
+1715.)
+
+It is interesting to compare these passages with Lancelot Addison's
+account of a Morocco inn towards the middle of the seventeenth century;
+bearing in mind that _fonda_, the current Spanish term for _hostelry_,
+is common both to Spain and to Morocco:--
+
+"In later years, every town of traffic hath erected a sort of Inns
+called _Alf�ndach_, which affords nothing but House-room for man and
+beast, the market yielding provision for both. Those that farm these
+_fand�chs_ cannot exact above a Blankil a night both for man and beast,
+which is in sterling money about two pence. The horses lodging costing
+equally with his Rider's."[22]
+
+  [22] _West Barbary_, p. 129.
+
+Similarly, the keeper of the older Spanish inn was not allowed by law to
+traffic in provisions. "Nothing but house-room" was available for
+wayfarers, and the weary visitor, as soon as ever he arrived, must sally
+forth to do his marketing.
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                   DOOR OF THE _SALON DE EMBAJADORES_
+                        (_Alc�zar of Seville_)]
+
+"Quand on arrive aux H�telleries, fut il minuit pass�, l'on n'y trouve
+rien de pr�t, non pas m�me un pot sur le feu. L'h�tel ne vous donne que
+le couvert et le lit, pour tout le reste, il le faut envoyer chercher,
+si vous ne voulez prendre la peine d'y aller vous-m�me. On donne
+l'argent n�cessaire, et l'on va vous chercher du pain, du vin, de la
+viande, et g�n�ralement tout ce que l'on souhaite, si tant est qu'on le
+puisse trouver. Il est vrai que cette coutume a son bon c�t�.
+
+"Le prix de toutes ces choses est r�gl�, l'on sait ce qu'il faut payer,
+et un h�te ne peut pas friponner. On vous appr�te votre viande, et l'on
+donne une r�ale et demie, ou deux r�aux pour le _servicio_, comme ils
+parlent, et autant pour le lit, ce qui revient environ � quinze sous de
+France. Si l'on se trouve dans quelque grande ville, on aura une nappe
+grande comme une serviette, et une serviette grande comme un mouchoir de
+poche; dans d'autres endroits il faut s'en passer.
+
+"Les lits ne sont pas fort ragoutans; quelque matelas, ou quelque
+paillasse, ou tout au plus une couverture de coton; � la campagne il
+faut passer la nuit sur le carreau, ou bien sur quelque botte de paille,
+qu'on doit avoir soin de faire bien secouer, pour en chasser la
+vermine."
+
+The statements in this passage relative to the lack of food in Spanish
+hostelries are confirmed, nearly a century later, by Townsend, who
+records that on reaching a certain village his first proceeding was to
+turn his steps, not to the _fonda_ or _posada_ where he would engage
+his bed, but to the butcher's, wine-seller's, and so forth, "to see what
+was to be had, as I had travelled all day fasting."
+
+It is beyond the province of this work to dwell upon the foreign taste
+in furniture which invaded Spain from France upon the advent of the
+Bourbon dynasty, and so I limit my notice of the eighteenth century to
+quoting from Laborde the following comprehensive passage:--
+
+"If the Spaniards," this traveller wrote in 1809, "take many precautions
+against heat, they take scarcely any against cold; it is very uncommon
+to find doors or windows that shut close, and the rooms are very little
+and very ill-warmed. The use of chimneys even is very uncommon, and only
+prevails in the houses of such Spaniards as have travelled. Brasiers of
+copper or silver are generally employed, which are set in the middle of
+the apartment, filled with burning charcoal, and round which the family
+place themselves.
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                   DOOR OF THE _SALON DE EMBAJADORES_
+                        (_Alc�zar of Seville_)]
+
+"The beds in Spain are hard. They are only made of mattresses, more or
+fewer, laid on paillasses which rest upon a boarded bottom; for neither
+sacking nor feather beds are known. No bolsters are used, but in
+their place little, short, flat pillows are heaped up, sometimes to the
+number of six or eight. The sheets are in general short and narrow; and
+napkins scarcely as big as a small pocket handkerchief.
+
+"The furniture of the houses is usually very simple. The floor is
+covered with a matting of _esparto_ in winter, and of rushes or palm
+leaves in summer. A matting of the same kind, a painted cloth, or
+painting in panels, covers the walls from the floor to the height of
+four or five feet; above, the wall is bare, painted white, and adorned
+with pictures of saints and a kind of ornamented metal chandeliers;
+these are covered with a glass, surrounded with a border of gilt
+ornaments; and a little branch of gilt copper proceeds from them forming
+zig-zags or festoons, on which the candles are placed; they are called
+cornucopias; they are from one to three feet in height, and give the
+apartment the air of a coffee room, or billiard room. Mirrors are placed
+between the windows, and a lustre of clear glass in imitation of crystal
+is suspended from the middle of the handsomest saloons. The chairs have
+straw bottoms; in some provinces, as Murcia, Andalusia, and Valencia,
+they are of different heights; those on one side of the room being of
+the common height, and the others one third lower. The latter are
+intended for the ladies. In some of the principal cities one also sees
+chairs and sofas of walnut wood, the backs of which are bare, and the
+seats covered with damask; usually crimson or yellow.
+
+"Luxury begins, however, to show itself in these objects. In the chief
+cities many hangings are of painted paper or linen; even hangings of
+brocades, of one and of three colours, and of various other kinds of
+silk; large and beautiful mirrors, and a number of sofas may be seen.
+The houses of the grandees in Madrid are magnificently furnished, but
+usually with more cost than taste. Hangings of silk, velvet, and damask,
+adorned with rich fringes and gold embroidery, are very common, and the
+seats are of corresponding magnificence. Many houses in Barcelona,
+Cadiz, Valencia, and Madrid are decorated with equal study and elegance.
+
+"The custom of painting the walls is of late introducing itself into
+Spain. They are covered with representations of men and animals, with
+trees, flowers, landscapes, houses, urns, vases, or history pieces,
+divided into compartments, adorned with pillars, pilasters, friezes,
+cornices, and arabesques; the effect of the whole is often very
+agreeable. This kind of decoration was imported from Italy."[23]
+
+  [23] Vol. v., pp. 301-304.
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+                           ALC�ZAR OF SEVILLE
+                   (_Fa�ade and principal entrance_)]
+
+In this account we clearly trace each various and successive influence
+that had permeated older Spain, leaving her, at the close of every
+period, a nation that produced illustrious artists, but never a nation
+deeply versed in, or devoted to, the arts. The beds and brasiers of
+these modern Spaniards were derived from ancient Rome; their general
+dearth of comfortable furniture, together with the lower, and therefore
+more humiliating, seats for women, from the Spanish Moors; the typically
+ponderous hangings from medi�val Spain herself; the fresco
+wall-paintings, such as may still be seen in many a Spanish country
+home, from classic or Renaissance Italy; and the finicking gilt, rococo
+cornucopias from France; while the use of mirrors and of lustres in
+hideous combination with straw-bottomed chairs, almost reminds us of the
+days of Visigothic barbarism.
+
+
+                                LEATHER
+
+_Guadamaciler�a_, or the art of decorating leather with painting,
+gilding, and impressions in relief, is commonly believed to have crossed
+from Africa to Spain at some time in the Middle Ages. According to
+Duveyrier, the word _guadamec�_ or _guadamecil_ is taken from Ghadames,
+a town in Barbary where the craft was practised long ago; but
+Covarrubias gives it an origin directly Spanish, supposing that the
+title and the craft alike proceeded from a certain town of Andalusia.
+However this may be, the preparation of these leathers grew to be a most
+important industry in various parts of Spain, and spread, as time went
+on, to Italy, France, and other European countries.[24]
+
+  [24] "Spain lays claim to the invention of the art of gilding leather;
+       it is asserted that, after being discovered there, the secret was
+       carried to Naples by Peter Paul Majorano."--Laborde, vol. v.,
+       p. 231.
+
+In the Peninsula, the principal centres of this work were Cordova,
+Seville, Lerida, Barcelona, Ciudad Real, and Valladolid. Cordova,
+however, was so far ahead of all the rest that leathers decorated in
+this style were known throughout the world as _cueros de C�rdoba_, or
+"Cordova leathers." Another name for them is said to have been
+_cordobanes_; but possibly the application of this latter word was less
+restricted. Bertaut de Rouen wrote in the seventeenth century of Ciudad
+Real:--"C'est une ville situ�e dans une grande plaine, et dont
+l'enceinte est assez grande, qui estoit mesme fort peupl�e autrefois,
+mais elle est quasi deserte � present. Il ne luy reste plus rien sinon
+que c'est l� o� l'on appreste le mieux les peaux de _Cordouan_, dont on
+fait les gans d'Espagne. C'est del� aussi d'o� elles viennent pour la
+pluspart � Madrid. J'en achetay quelques-unes."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                   DOOR OF THE CAPILLA DE LOS VARGAS
+                              (_Madrid_)]
+
+In 1197 Alfonso the Ninth presented the town of Castro de los Jud�os to
+Le�n Cathedral and its bishop, confirming at the same time the tribute
+which the Jews who occupied that town were bound to render upon Saint
+Martin's day in every year, and which consisted of two hundred
+_sueldos_, a fine skin, and two _guadamec�s_. This tribute had existed
+since the reign of Ferdinand the First: that is, towards the middle of
+the preceding century.[25]
+
+  [25] Count of Clonard; _Memorias para la historia del traje espa�ol_.
+
+None of these primitive leathers now exist, and consequently the details
+of their workmanship have perished with them. Ram�rez de Arellano
+mentions two small coffers in the Cluny Museum, which date from about
+the fourteenth century and are decorated with the forms of animals cut
+from leather and overlaid on velvet. Other _guadamec�s_, though not of
+the oldest, are in the South Kensington Museum. "The earliest
+_guadamecileros_," says Ram�rez de Arellano, speaking particularly of
+this art at Cordova, "were accustomed to imitate brocade upon their
+leathers, employing beaten silver together with the colours red, green,
+blue, black, white, and carmine, applied in oils, or sometimes (although
+the law prohibited this) in tempera. Gold was not used till 1529, when
+Charles the Fifth confirmed the Ordinances of this industry. The
+leather-workers tanned the hides themselves, stamping the pattern from a
+wooden mould, and then (if we may call it so) engraving on them. The
+hides were those of rams. The spaces between the decoration were either
+coloured red or blue, or simply left the colour of the skin; or else the
+pattern would be wrought in colours on the natural hide. Gold, which at
+a later epoch almost totally replaces silver, was introduced between
+1529 and 1543, and was applied as follows. The artists smeared with
+oil the parts they wished to figure in raised or sunk relief, and laid
+the beaten gold upon the oil. They then applied a heated iron or copper
+mould; the pattern in relief was stamped; and the gold, superfluous
+shreds of which were wiped away with lint, adhered upon the leather. The
+irons required to be moderately hot, because if overheated they would
+burn the hide, or, if not hot enough, the fixing of the gold would not
+be permanent."
+
+                           [Illustration: XV
+                              MUDEJAR DOOR
+                  (_Palacio de las Due�as, Seville_)]
+
+The importance of this industry in Spain may be judged of from the fact
+that towards the close of the Middle Ages the _guadamacileros_ of
+Seville occupied nearly the whole of an important street--the Calle
+Placentines. Similarly, at Cordova they filled the quarter of the city
+known as the Ajerqu�a. "So many _guadamec�es_ are made here," wrote
+Ambrosio de Morales, "that in this craft no other capital can compare
+with her; and in such quantities that they supply all Europe and the
+Indies. This industry enriches Cordova and also beautifies her; for
+since the gilded, wrought, and painted leathers are fixed upon large
+boards and placed in the sun in order to be dried, by reason of their
+splendour and variety they make her principal streets right fair to look
+upon."
+
+We owe to Rafael Ram�rez de Arellano most valuable and recent
+information respecting this ancient Spanish-Moorish craft.[26] He has
+discovered the names of nearly forty _guadamacileros_ who lived and
+worked at Cordova, principally in the sixteenth century. It is not worth
+while to repeat these names alone, but one or two particulars connected
+with a few of them are interesting. In 1557 four of these artificers,
+named Benito Ruiz, Diego de San Llorente, Diego de Ayora, and Anton de
+Valdelomar, signed a contract to prepare the cut and painted
+_guadamaciles_ for decorating a palace at Rome. This contract, which is
+most precise and technical, is published in No. 101 of the _Bolet�n de
+la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones_. The only further notice which
+Se�or Ram�rez de Arellano has discovered relating to any of these four
+craftsmen, tells us that nine years after the signing of the document
+just mentioned, Diego de Ayora leased some houses in the Calle de la
+Feria for a yearly rental of twenty-two ducats and three pairs of live
+hens.
+
+  [26] _Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones_, Nos. 101, 102;
+       Art. _Guadamac�es_.
+
+Another interesting contract is dated April 17th, 1587. By it the
+_guadamacilero_ Andr�s Lopez de Valdelomar agreed, in company with
+Hernando del Olmo of Marchena, and with Francisco de Gaviria and
+Francisco Delgado, painters, of Cordova, to make a number of pieces of
+_guadamec�_ for the Duke of Arcos. The work was to be terminated by July
+of the same year. Valdelomar was to receive from the duke's agent three
+_reales_ for each piece, and the painters two _reales_ and a half; this
+money to be paid them by instalments as the work proceeded.
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                               _CELOS�A_
+                         (_Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+On August 26th, 1567, before the mayor of Cordova and the two inspectors
+of this trade, Pedro de Blancas was officially examined and approved in
+"cutting, working, and completing a _guadamec�_ of red damask with gold
+and silver borders on a green field, and a cushion with green and
+crimson decoration and faced with silver brocade."
+
+The Ordinances of Cordova also tell us much about this industry. The
+oldest of these city laws which deal with it are dated 1529. Those of
+1543 were ratified by a Crown pragmatic early in the seventeenth
+century, and at this later date we learn that the craft had much
+declined, the leather being by now "of wretched quality, the colouring
+imperfect, and the pieces undersized." The Ordinances published in the
+sixteenth century provide that every applicant for official licence to
+pursue this craft and open business as a _guadamacilero_, must prove
+himself, in presence of the examiners, able to mix his colours and
+design with them, and to make a canopy together with its fringe, as well
+as "a cushion of any size or style that were demanded of him; nor shall
+he explain merely by word of mouth the making of the same, but make it
+with his very hands in whatsoever house or place shall be appointed by
+the mayor and the overseers of the craft aforesaid."
+
+It was also provided by these Ordinances that the pieces of leather were
+to be dyed, not with Brazil-wood, but with madder, and that their size,
+whether the hide were silvered, gilt, or painted, was to be strictly
+uniform, namely, "the size of the primitive mould," or "three-quarters
+of a yard in length by two-thirds of a yard, all but one inch, in
+width." The standard measures, made of iron and stamped with the city
+seal, were guarded under lock and key; and the Ordinances of 1567
+establish the penalty of death for every _guadamacilero_ who shall seek,
+in silvering his wares, to palm off tin for silver.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVII
+                            CARVED _ALERO_]
+
+These leathers served a great variety of purposes, public or private,
+sacred or profane. They were used upon the walls and floors of
+palaces and castles, as table-covers, counterpanes, bed-hangings,
+cushions, curtains for doors, linings for travelling-litters, coverings
+of chests and boxes,[27] and seats and backs of chairs and benches
+(Plate vii.). In churches and cathedrals, especially throughout the
+sixteenth century, we find them used as tapestry and carpets,[28]
+altar-fronts (such as one which is preserved in the chapel of San Isidro
+in Palencia cathedral), or crowns for images of the Virgin.[29] As time
+advanced, gold and a coat or so of colour was succeeded by elaborate
+painting. Thus painted, they were often cut into the forms of columns,
+pilasters, or friezes in the Plateresco or Renaissance style,[30] until
+the growing popularity of wall-pictures, together with the importation
+of French fashions at the death of Charles the Second, crippled and
+ultimately killed the decorative leather industry of Spain.
+
+  [27] The _Poem of the Cid_ tells us of the two chests, covered with red
+       _guadamec�_, which the hero filled with sand to cheat the Jewish
+       money-lenders:--
+
+          "_Con vuestro consejo bastir quiero dos archas.
+          Incamosla d'arena, c� bien ser�n pesadas,
+          Cubiertas de guadamec� � bien enclavadas;
+          Los guadamec�s bermeios � los clavos bien dorados._"
+
+       Nevertheless, the "coffer of the Cid" at Burgos (see p. 12) does
+       not appear to have been thus fitted.
+
+  [28] The same usage obtained in Morocco. Lancelot Addison wrote in 1669
+       that on the first day of their "Little Feast" the Moors across the
+       Strait "spread the floor of their Giammas with coloured
+       leather."--_West Barbary_, p. 213.
+
+  [29] An inventory of effects belonging to the Hospital of San Jos� at
+       Jerez de la Frontera mentions, in 1589, "clothes and trimmings for
+       the image of Our Lady. A crown of gilded _guadamec�_."--Gestoso,
+       _Diccionario de Art�fices Sevillanos_, vol. i., p. xxii, _note_.
+
+  [30] A hall, says Ram�rez de Arellano, would often be embellished by
+       surrounding it with arches wrought of leather in relief and
+       superposed on leather. As a rule the arches were gilt and silvered,
+       and rested upon pilasters or columns. When pilasters were used,
+       their centres would be ornamented with Italian devices such as
+       flowers, trophies, imitated cameos, and foliage. Landscapes with a
+       far horizon and no figures, known as _boscaje_ or _pintura verde_
+       were painted on the space between the arches, so that the general
+       effect was that of a pavilion with arches on all sides, displaying
+       everywhere a wide expanse of fertile country. The arches rested on
+       a broad bordering of _guadamec�es_, and running round the lower
+       part was a _z�calo_ or socle, commonly made of tiling.
+
+Such is the kind of decoration which was most in vogue in Spain
+throughout the latter half of the sixteenth century; that which was
+exported to Rome; and that which was commissioned by the Duke of Arcos.
+
+
+                       CARPENTRY AND WOOD-CARVING
+
+The artistic carpentry of older Spain produced as its most typical and
+striking monuments, three groups of objects which may be included
+generally under Furniture. These are the _celos�a_ or window-lattice,
+the door of _lazo_-work, and the _artesonado_-ceiling which adorns a
+hall or chamber, corridor or staircase.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+                            CARVED _ZAPATAS_
+                    (_Casa de Salinas, Salamanca_)]
+
+These happy and effective styles of decoration came originally from the
+East. Their passage may be traced along the coast of Africa from Egypt
+into Spain; and they flourished in Spain for the same reason which had
+caused them to flourish at Cairo. "When we remember," says Professor
+Lane-Poole, "how little wood grows in Egypt, the extensive use made of
+this material in the mosques and houses of Cairo appears very
+remarkable. In mosques, the ceilings, some of the windows, the pulpit,
+lectern or Koran desk, tribune, tomb-casing, doors, and cupboards, are
+of wood, and often there are carved wooden inscriptions and stalactites
+of the same material leading up to the circle of the dome. In the older
+houses, ceilings, doors, cupboards, and furniture are made of wood, and
+carved lattice windows, or meshrebiyas, abound. In a cold climate, such
+employment of the most easily worked of substances is natural enough;
+but in Egypt, apart from the scarcity of the material, and the
+necessity of importing it, the heat offers serious obstacles to its
+use. A plain board of wood properly seasoned may keep its shape well
+enough in England, but when exposed to the sun of Cairo it will speedily
+lose its accurate proportions; and when employed in combination with
+other pieces, to form windows or doors, boxes or pulpits, its joints
+will open, its carvings split, and the whole work will become unsightly
+and unstable. The leading characteristic of Cairo wood-work is its
+subdivision into numerous panels; and this principle is obviously the
+result of climatic considerations, rather than any doctrine of art. The
+only mode of combating the shrinking and warping effects of the sun was
+found in a skilful division of the surfaces into panels small enough,
+and sufficiently easy in their setting, to permit of slight shrinking
+without injury to the general outline. The little panels of a Cairo door
+or pulpit may expand without encountering enough resistance to cause any
+cracking or splitting in the surrounding portions, and the Egyptian
+workmen soon learned to accommodate themselves to the conditions of
+their art in a hot climate."[31]
+
+  [31] _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt_, pp. 124, 125.
+
+                           [Illustration: XIX
+                            CARVED _ZAPATAS_
+                        (_Museum of Zaragoza_)]
+
+These valuable and interesting observations apply with equal justice
+to the decorative woodwork of the Spanish Muslims. A further point of
+interest lies in the fact that window-grilles and ceilings of the kind
+referred to, grew to be extremely fashionable through the whole
+Peninsula. Carried by Moorish or Mudejar craftsmen far beyond the
+frontiers of the Mussulman sultans of this European land, we find to-day
+surviving specimens in every part of Spain--most of them, it is true, in
+sultry Andalus; but many also in the old seigniorial mansions of
+Castile, or even in the cold and humid towns and cities of Cantabria.
+
+The man who did this kind of work was not a common carpenter. Such work
+was largely practical and prosaic, but also it was largely decorative
+and poetical. Probably, both in his own and in his customer's regard,
+the decorative quality was set before the practical. Therefore, beyond
+the dry, comparatively facile details of technique, this workman
+studied, with an artist's reverence and zeal, the inner, subtler,
+sweeter mysteries of line and form; harmonies of curve and angle;
+patterns, now geometrical, now floral, now these two combined with magic
+ingenuity; steeping himself in the �sthetic sense; making, indeed, his
+work the literal fact or fitting of prosaic application that was
+indispensable; but also, and as if upon some loftier initiative of his
+own, a miracle of art for people of a later day to come and stand before
+and wonder at.
+
+                           [Illustration: XX
+                   _ALERO_ AND CORNICE OF CARVED WOOD
+               (_Cuarto de Comares, Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+Indeed, whether because Our Lord had practised it, or from some other
+motive, carpentry was always well esteemed among the Spaniards. The
+Ordinances of Seville eulogize it, in conjunction with its sister-work
+of masonry and building, as "a noble art and self-contained, that
+increaseth the nobleness of the King and of his kingdom, that pacifieth
+the people, and spreadeth love among mankind, conducing to much
+good."[32] The same Ordinances divide these honourable craftsmen into
+half a dozen classes and sub-classes; carvers or _entalladores_,
+carpenters who kept a shop (_carpinteros de tienda_), _carpinteros de lo
+prieto_, and _carpinteros de lo blanco_. The latter are the class we are
+considering here, and these, in turn, were subdivided into _lazeros_ or
+makers of _lazo_-work, _non-lazeros_ or those who did not make it, and
+_jumetricos_ or _ge�metricos_. The statutory examination was severe
+in all these branches. Thus, the _lazero_-carpenters of Seville were
+required to make a chamber of octagonal _lazo_-work, including its
+pendentives at the corners; while the wood-carvers of the same city were
+required to be experienced draughtsmen and to make and carve "artistic
+altar-screens with decorated columns, pedestals for images, and
+tabernacles (_i.e._ the part of an altar where the cibory and the Host
+are kept), as well as tombs and chambranles with their covering,
+tabernacles of the utmost art (_de grande arte_), and rich
+choir-stalls."
+
+  [32] _"Es noble arte, complida en s�; � acrescienta la nobleza del rey
+       y del reyno, si en ella pararen mientes, como deuen; � pone paz en
+       el pueblo y amor entre los omes, onde es carrera para muchos
+       bienes."_--_Ordenanzas de Sevilla_, Part 1, p. 141.
+
+Nor was the making of artistic ceilings, doors, and window-gratings
+carried out exclusively by men of Moorish blood. Tutored by these, the
+Christians practised it with great success. Prominent among these last
+we find, early in the seventeenth century, the name of Diego Lopez de
+Arenas, a Christian-Spaniard and a native of Marchena, who held the
+licensed title of master-carpenter and lived for many years at
+Seville.[33] In a lucky moment it occurred to Lopez de Arenas to write
+and publish for the benefit of his fellow-craftsmen a book upon this
+decorative oriental woodwork that had passed into the Spanish national
+life. This book, _Carpinter�a de lo Blanco_,[34] appeared at Seville in
+1633, and fresh editions were printed at the same city in 1727, and at
+Madrid in 1867. As in the Ordinances of Granada, Seville, and Toledo,
+Arabic terms, too copious and too complicated for elucidation here, are
+constantly repeated in this book.[35] Much of the general information
+which we gather from it is, however, of great interest. Thus, we are
+told that with the Spanish artists, as in Egypt, the wood most often
+used, no doubt as being the cheapest, was pitch pine, parcelled and put
+together in the most elaborate decorative schemes. Such was the
+characteristic _alfarge_[36] ceiling of the Moorish, Morisco, and
+Spanish-Christian _carpintero de lo blanco_. Its many fragments were
+secured upon the frame by long, small-headed nails, or by these nails
+combined with glue. If we observe the ceilings from close by, as when,
+for instance, they are taken down to be restored, the workmanship
+appears to be coarse, inaccurate, and hasty; the myriad pieces to be
+clumsily and loosely joined; the nails to be driven in without method,
+or even awry. Nevertheless, this false effect betrays the calculating
+genius of the craftsman. He planned his work for contemplation by a
+certain light and at a certain elevation; and therefore, as the ceiling
+is removed again to its appointed distance, it seems to re-create itself
+in proud defiance of an error of our own, and grows at once to its
+habitual delicacy, harmony, and richness.
+
+  [33] Gestoso finds no record of him in the city archives; but from a
+       rough portrait of Arenas prefixed to his treatise, we judge that
+       he was born about the year 1580.
+
+  [34] Arenas himself defines a _carpintero de lo blanco_ as "he who
+       prepares and works upon the wood employed in building; also, he
+       who fashions tables, benches, etc., in his workshop."
+
+  [35] "His language abounds in Arabic words and phrases of uncertain
+       origin, whose meaning (since he wrote for men familiar with this
+       work) he makes no effort to explain."--Editor's introduction to
+       the third edition of _Carpinter�a de lo Blanco_.
+
+  [36] Arabic _al-farx_, a carpet, piece of tapestry, or anything that
+       covers and adorns.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                           "ELIJAH SLEEPING"
+                  (_Statue in wood, by Alonso Cano_)]
+
+I have said that the decoration of these ceilings is sometimes floral,
+sometimes geometrical, sometimes a combination of the two.[37] Sometimes
+the wood is plain, or sometimes silvered, gilt, or painted. Sometimes it
+is employed alone, or sometimes variegated and inlaid with plaster
+points and patches. By far the commonest motive is the _lazo_--an
+ornamental scheme composed of infinite strips that turn, and twist, and
+intersect, describing in their mazy passage many polygons. One of these
+polygons determines, in a way, the scheme of the entire ceiling, which
+is denominated as consisting of "a _lazo_ of eight," "of ten," "of
+twelve," etc., from this particular. The most attractive and most
+frequent is the scheme "of eight." Among the decorative details used to
+brighten and enhance the _lazo_ proper are _mocarabes_ or wooden lacery
+for relieving cubes and joists or surfaces, and _r�cimos_ or "clusters";
+that is, hollow or solid wooden cones or prisms, disposed along the side
+and centre panels of the ceiling like (in Arenas' ingenious phrase) the
+buttons on a jacket, and contributing to the massive aspect of the
+whole. These clusters, too, were sometimes in the stalactite and
+sometimes in a simpler form, and show, both in the quantity and richness
+of their ornament, a limitless diversity.
+
+  [37] This mingled decoration is extremely common; and may be studied in
+       our country, in the carved panels at South Kensington which are
+       believed to proceed from the pulpit of the mosque of Kusun; or in
+       the thirteenth-century panels of the tomb of Es-salih Ayyub.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXII
+                              SAINT BRUNO
+                (_By Alonso Cano. Cartuja of Granada_)]
+
+Magnificent Spanish-Moorish, Spanish, and Mudejar ceilings still exist
+in Spain. Such are the marvellous domed ceiling in the Hall of Comares
+(or of Ambassadors) in the Alhambra, those of the Castle of the
+Aljafer�a at Zaragoza and of the archbishop's palace at Alcal� de
+Henares, the Arab _alfarge_ ceilings in the churches of San Francisco
+and Santiago of Guadix, that of the Hall of Cortes in the Audiencia of
+Valencia, that of the Sala Capitular of Toledo Cathedral, that of the
+Chapel of the Holy Spirit of the Cathedral of Cuenca (considered by many
+to be the finest _artesonado_ ceiling in all Spain), or those of the
+churches of Jesus Crucificado, El Carmen, and San Pablo at Cordova. The
+ceiling of the Sala de la Barca, in the Moorish palace of the Alhambra,
+was almost totally destroyed by fire in 1890, but a good photograph had
+previously been taken, and I reproduce it here (Plate viii.). One of the
+later _artesonado_ ceilings is at Cordova, in the parish church of
+Santiago. Covered with a _b�veda_ or vault of cane, it is in excellent
+preservation, and was made in 1635 by the master-carpenter Alonso Mu�oz
+de los R�os, who received for his labour fourteen thousand _reales_.[38]
+The _artesonado_ ceilings which Diego Lopez de Arenas tells us in his
+treatise that he made for the church, the choir, and the _sobreescalera_
+of the monastery of Santa Paula at Seville, as well as a ceiling which
+he made for the church of Mairena, are all extant to-day. Other
+remarkable examples of this craft are the ceilings of the rooms
+constructed to the order of, and which were actually occupied by,
+Charles the Fifth, within the precincts of the old Alhambra. Upon these
+half-Italian, half-Morisco ceilings and their frieze we read the words,
+"_Plus Oultre_"; and the inscription, "_Imperator C�sar Karolus V.
+Hispaniarum rex semper augustus pius f[oe]lix invictissimus_." In one of
+the same apartments, known as the "chamber of the fruits," the ceiling
+has octagonal _artesones_ of superb effect, though even richer is that
+of what is called the Second Sala de las Frutas, conspicuously
+influenced by Italian art, and believed by G�mez Moreno to have been
+designed by Pedro Machuca and executed by Juan de Plasencia.
+
+  [38] Cordova was a famous centre of this craft for many centuries.
+       Ram�rez de Arellano has found and published a notice relative to
+       Lope de Lia�o and Garc�a Alonso, two artificers of this city who
+       signed, on January 7th, 1572, a contract with the prior of the
+       monastery of the Holy Martyrs to build a ceiling for one of the
+       chapels of the same. The document, which is quoted _in extenso_ in
+       the _Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones_ for November,
+       1900, abounds in technical expressions, many of them partly or
+       entirely Moorish.
+
+The same writer publishes the names (hitherto completely unrecorded) of
+thirteen other artist-carpenters who worked at Cordova in the latter
+half of the sixteenth century and early in the seventeenth. The craft,
+in fact, died hard, and ceilings of this kind, replete with Moorish
+detail, were made in certain parts of Southern Spain until the closing
+moments of the eighteenth century.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                         SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST
+                     (_San Juan de Dios, Granada_)]
+
+Marvellous in conjunction with the thousand lighted lamps which served
+to manifest its beauties, must have been the primitive ceiling
+(_as-sicafes_) of the mosque of Cordova, of which an Arab poet sang;
+"Look at the gold on it, like the kindled flame, or like the
+lightning-stroke that darts across the heavens."[39] Our notices of this
+ceiling, barbarously hacked to pieces by Christian architects, are
+neither numerous nor clear. We are told, however, that it was nearly
+finished in the reign of Abd-er-Rhaman the First, and terminated
+altogether by his son Hixem. New ceilings were added on the enlarging of
+the mosque by Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, while fresh additions were made
+by Al-Hakem the Second and Al-Manzor. Ambrosio de Morales gives a quaint
+description of the earliest, or an early, ceiling of this temple. "The
+roof of the whole church, made of wood painted and adorned in divers
+ways, is of incredible richness, as will be seen from what I am about
+to say. It is of larch throughout, odorous, resembling pine, which is
+not found in any part but Barbary,[40] whence it is brought by sea. And
+every time that a part of this temple was thrown down for new
+constructions to be added, the wood removed was sold for many thousand
+ducats for making guitars and other delicate objects. The ceiling was
+built across the church upon the nineteen naves thereof, and over it,
+covered likewise with wood, the roofs, nineteen in number also, each
+with its ridge atop, drooping to one and other side."[41]
+
+  [39] That the Moors were proud of their mastery in woodwork is proved by
+       an inscription in the Torre de la Cautiva at Granada, saying; "In
+       the plaster and the tiles is work of extreme beauty, _but the
+       woodwork of the roof has vanquished them in elegance_."
+
+  [40] Morales was probably mistaken. "On entering Aragon one sees whole
+       forests of 'Spanish Cedar' or _alerce_, some of the trees so thick
+       that they measure four feet in diameter."--Bowles' _Natural History
+       of Spain_, p. 102.
+
+  [41] _Antig�edades de las ciudades de Espa�a_ (A.D. 1575), p. 123.
+
+Three pieces made of common pine, and which are thought to have belonged
+to the original ceiling of this mosque or to an early replica, are now
+in the National Museum at Madrid, but the carving of these fragments is
+so simple that in the opinion of Rodrigo Amador de los R�os the
+decoration of the wood itself was purposely subordinated in this
+instance to the richness and variety of the painting.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIV
+                              CHOIR-STALLS
+                        (_Santo Tom�s, Avila_)]
+
+Three types of decorative doors were made in older Spain. In the
+earliest and simplest (_lacer�a en talla_), the _lacer�a_ or _lazo_-work
+is carved directly on and from the solid plank which forms the body of
+the door. In the second type, the carver's art is delicately blended
+with the joiner's--_lazo_-work with _ensamblaje_. In the third type the
+_lazo_-work is _sobrepuesta_--that is, attached to, not elaborated from,
+the planking.[42]
+
+[42] Jos� Amador de los R�os mentions, as a good example of the first of
+these types, a thirteenth-century door of the _claustrilla_ in the
+monastery of Las Huelgas at Burgos. Other doors in the same monastery
+are illustrative of the second type; while all three types are
+represented by the doors, described herewith, which close the principal
+entrance to the misnamed Hall of Ambassadors in the Alc�zar of Seville.
+
+As in the case of ceilings, many and excellent examples of these doors
+exist to-day in Spain. Among the most remarkable are several in the
+Moorish palace of the Alhambra, such as the two (dating from the end of
+the fourteenth century or early in the fifteenth) belonging,
+respectively, to the famous Hall of the Abencerrajes (Pl. ix.), and to
+the Hall of the Two Sisters (Pl. x.). Apparently it was the former of
+these doors which Bertaut de Rouen wrote of in the seventeenth century
+as "une porte aussi grande et aussi �paisse comme celles de nos plus
+grandes �glises. Elle s'ouvre des deux costez, et est toute de pieces
+rapport�es, et d'un bois de differentes couleurs, comme les beaux
+cabinets et les belles tables qui coustent si cher."[43]
+
+  [43] _Journal du Voyage en Espagne_, p. 85.
+
+An early Mudejar door proceeding from the church of San Pedro at Daroca
+in Aragon is now in the National Museum. This door, which is of larch,
+and measures nearly fourteen feet in height by nine in breadth, is of a
+simple design and represents a horse-shoe door described within the door
+itself. It was originally painted vermilion, with other decorative
+painting of a simple character in black, white, and red, and is
+fortified with massive iron braces. It is believed to date from earlier
+than the fourteenth century.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                           CARVED CHOIR-STALL
+                         (_Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+The mighty doors of the "Hall of Ambassadors," in the medi�val royal
+residence of Seville (Plates xi. and xii.), are quite the finest to be
+seen in Spain. Although a widespread superstition assigns their
+manufacture to a period close upon the Moorish conquest, it has been
+proved conclusively that they were made by Mudejar craftsmen of Toledo
+at the time when the whole Alc�zar was erected more or less upon the
+ruins of the old, by Pedro the First of Castile, denominated, according
+to the prejudice with which we view his character, "the Cruel," or
+"the Just."[44]
+
+  [44] The following words record the date of the construction of this
+       place and its doors, and may be read (Plate xiii.) upon the scroll
+       of tiles or _alizares_ crowning the principal fa�ade:--
+
+       [cross] EL � MUY � ALTO � ET � MUY � NOBLE � ET � MUY �
+       PODEROSO � ET � MUY � CONQUERIDOR � DON � PEDRO � POR �
+       LA � GRACIA � DE � DIOS � REY � DE � CASTIELLA � ET �
+       DE � LEON � MAND� � FACER � ESTOS � ALC�ZARES � ET �
+       ESTOS � PALACIOS � ET � ESTAS � PORTADAS � QUE � FU� �
+       FECHO � EN � LA � ERA � DE � MILL � ET � QUATRO�IENTOS �
+       Y � DOS �
+
+The observant Swinburne was not misled, like many travellers of to-day,
+into believing the Alc�zar to be of purely Moorish origin. "Having read
+that the Moors built one part of this palace, I concluded I was admiring
+something as old as the Mahometan kings of Seville; but upon closer
+examination was not a little surprised to find _lions_, _castles_, and
+other armorial ensigns of Castille and Leon, interwoven with Arabesque
+foliages; and still more so, to see in large Gothic characters, an
+inscription informing me that these edifices were built in the
+fourteenth century, by the most mighty king of Castille and Leon, Don
+Pedro."
+
+These doors, which under a pretence of restoration have been mutilated
+more than once, are made of larch, and measure sixteen feet in height by
+thirteen feet (including both the leaves) in width. The upper part of
+either leaf consists of geometrical and floral ornament in exquisitely
+tasteful combination, executed in the scheme known technically, from the
+angles at the central polygon, as _lazo de � doce_--"_lazo_-work of
+twelve." The decoration of the lower part is more minute, and in the
+scheme of _lazo de � diez_--"_lazo_-work of ten." Inscriptions in Arabic
+and Latin, many of which are quoted from the Psalms, are distributed on
+both sides of the woodwork, and confirm our other evidence that the
+doors were made during the reign and in obedience to the orders, of Don
+Pedro.
+
+The Plateresco sixteenth-century doors of the Capilla de los Vargas at
+Madrid (Plate xiv.) are attributed by Cean Bermudez and by Ponz to an
+artist named Giralte, who carved them in walnut with various military
+and other scenes from Scripture, alternating with shields and floral
+ornament; the whole surrounded by an exquisitely delicate and tasteful
+border. Lamp�rez remarks that the errors of perspective recall the
+similar productions of Ghiberti.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVI
+                              CHOIR-STALLS
+                         (_Burgos Cathedral_)]
+
+The _celos�a_ or decorative wooden window-grating, imported by the
+Mussulman conqueror from Egypt and the East, extended to all parts of
+Christian Spain, and was particularly used in convents. These gratings,
+identical in form and workmanship with those of Cairo,[45] were
+attached to projecting windows, so that the women of a household
+could look into the street without themselves being seen, a custom which
+the Spanish woman still recalls to us by peering, for hours at a time,
+between the lowered _persiana_ of her balcony.[46] By the seventeenth
+century, which may truthfully be called the age of Spanish jealousy, and
+when the "Othello-like revenge of the Moor" had eaten into the very
+entrails of society, the _celos�a_ had become as indispensable to houses
+as the door or window. "La," wrote Bertaut de Rouen of a residence on
+the outskirts of Madrid, and obviously alluding to these gratings, "il y
+avoit bien des Dames dans l'appartement d'enhaut qui y demeurerent
+cach�es, se contentant de nous voir promener dans le jardin par les
+fen�tres."
+
+  [45] "The windows, which are chiefly composed of curious wooden
+       lattice-work, serving to screen the inhabitants from the view of
+       persons without, as also to admit both light and air, commonly
+       project outwards, and are furnished with mattresses and
+       cushions."--Lane's _Arabian Nights_, vol. i., p. 192.
+
+  [46] It is strange that Ford should have confounded the _reja_ with the
+       _celos�a_ (_Handbook_, vol. i., p. 153). However, he opportunely
+       quotes the Spanish proverb, _Muger ventanera tuercela el cuello si
+       la quieres buena_ ("The remedy for a woman who is always thrusting
+       her head from the casement is to twist her neck").
+
+We know from the stone coat of arms which is carved above the doorway of
+the "House of Castril at Granada" that in the olden time the balconies
+of the Hall of Comares in the Alhambra were fitted with projecting
+wooden _celos�as_; and Contreras says that in the Torre de los Pu�ales
+of the same palace there used to be "a kind of wooden _mirador_ or
+_menacir_, covered with _celos�as_ like those of Cairo, and many of
+which were still to be seen in Granada early in the nineteenth century."
+
+I am not aware of any Moorish _celos�a_ remaining to this day outside a
+Spanish building. In such exposed positions weather and the natural
+delicacy of the woodwork seem to have destroyed them all. As an interior
+ornament, a single one (Pl. xvi.) exists in the Alhambra. Nevertheless,
+I hesitate to call this _celos�a_ purely Moorish. Perhaps it is the work
+of a Morisco, or even of a Christian-Spaniard, for we know that
+decorative wooden fittings for the Alhambra were made in the sixteenth
+century by Antonio Navarro and other craftsmen. The grating, which is
+well preserved, covers a window over the archway leading from the Hall
+of the Two Sisters into the Sala de los Ajimeces and the Mirador de
+Daraxa, and consists of minute prisms and turned pieces in the typical
+Egyptian style.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                              CHOIR STALLS
+                         (_San M�rcos, Le�n_)]
+
+Other fittings for a building, wrought in wood by Moorish artists and
+by these communicated to the Christian-Spaniards, were balustrades and
+cornices, _aleros_ (decorative bands beneath the eaves of a roof, Plate
+xvii.) and _zapatas_ (gargoyle-looking figures, often in human form,
+used to support a roof or gallery). In the so-called "Patio de las Asas"
+of the convent of Santa Catalina de Zafra, at Granada, exists an
+interesting Moorish balustrade[47] that seems almost untouched by time.
+I reproduce an outline of it as the tailpiece to the present chapter,
+and am glad to append the little sketch in question, copied from a
+photograph I took upon the spot three years ago, because it is almost
+impossible to obtain admission to this convent. Beautiful or uncouth and
+quaint _zapatas_ may be seen in the Casa de los Tiros at Granada, and in
+many other places (Plates xviii. and xix.). Much of the Moorish woodwork
+of the palace of the Alhambra was destroyed by the fire of 1590, but
+there yet remain the ample cornice and carved _alero_ of the fa�ade of
+the Cuarto de Comares (Plate xx.), which is often called in error the
+Court of the Mezquita. This _alero_ bears the following inscription,
+allusive to the Sultan Mohammed the Fifth:--"I am the place where the
+crown is guarded, and on my doors being opened the regions of the west
+believe the east to be contained within me. Algami Billah charged me to
+keep guard upon the doorway."
+
+  [47] Almagro Cardenas calls it "part of a _celos�a_" (_Museo Granadino_,
+       p. 79); but as it can never have been a window-grating, this term
+       is incorrect. G�mez Moreno calls it, not too lucidly, "a wooden
+       balustrade forming squares and rectangular figures in the manner
+       of a _celos�a_" (_Gu�a de Granada_, p. 421). Valladar (_Gu�a de
+       Granada_, edition of 1906, p. 117) calls it simply a balustrade,
+       and this, it seems to me, is the only term which truthfully
+       describes the object.
+
+Other remarkable _aleros_ are in the Generalife and in the Court of
+Lions of the Alhambra, while, also in this last-named mansion, genuine
+Moorish woodwork of elaborately inlaid ebony and larch is in two niches
+near the entrance to the Sala de Embajadores.
+
+
+      SACRED STATUARY, _SILLER�AS_ OR CHOIR-STALLS, AND _RETABLOS_
+
+The genius of the wood-carvers of older Spain is manifested chiefly in
+three groups of objects--sacred statuary, choir-stalls, and _retablos_.
+Among this people, and probably by reason of its cheapness, plain, or
+gilt, or polychrome painted wood has always been a favourite material
+for the statues of their temples, whether such statues were employed
+alone, or as an accessory to a larger article of sacred furniture, such
+as a pulpit, or a _siller�a_, or an altar-screen. So powerful, in fact,
+has been the vogue of this material here,[48] that even to-day the
+Spanish people, making, in Symonds' happy phrase, "representation an
+object in itself, independently of its spiritual significance," attempt
+to elevate the most remarkable of their wooden, and by preference their
+coloured wooden, statuary (typically defended by Pacheco's indigested
+tome), to rank beside the noblest and the purest monuments of bronze and
+marble; denoting, by this reckless and uneducated partiality, a
+positively national misconception of the true domain of art.
+
+  [48] My readers are no doubt aware that every Spanish hamlet has its
+       wooden image of the Virgin, badly executed as a rule, and rendered
+       doubly hideous by a gaudy gown. Most of these local images are
+       believed to hold the power of working miracles, or at least to
+       have been fashioned and conducted to their present shrine by
+       supernatural agency--on which account the populace and their
+       pastors call these latter _imagenes aparecidas_, as distinct from
+       _manufactured_ images. Such are the Virgins of Montserrat, Granada,
+       and numerous other cities, towns, or villages of this illiterate
+       and ill-starred Peninsula. The curious may refer for every kind of
+       detail to Villafa�e's _Compendious History of the Wonder-working
+       Images of Spain_, which numbered in this author's day (his book was
+       published in 1740) one hundred and eighty-nine. But the most
+       extraordinary miracle of all was that which is recalled, with pious
+       gravity, by Bertaut de Rouen. Speaking of the gilt-wood image of
+       Nuestra Se�ora del Pilar at Zaragoza, he says:--"On y void quantit�
+       de lampes d'argent et on m'en raconta un miracle qu'il me fut
+       impossible de ne pas croire. C'est d'un pauvre homme qui ayant eu
+       la jambe coup�e pour une blessure, et s'estant bien recommand� �
+       _Nostra Se�ora del Pilar_, il se trouva un jour avec sa mesme jambe
+       qu'il avoit d�ja fait enterrer. Y'ay sceu l'histoire du chirurgien
+       mesme qui coupa cette jambe et de quantit� de t�moins de veu�. Il
+       n'y a que quinze ans que cela est arriv�, mais l'homme est mort
+       depuis peu."--_Journal du Voyage en Espagne_, p. 203.
+
+                         [Illustration: XXVIII
+                         DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS
+                          (_Le�n Cathedral_)]
+
+It is outside the scope of such a work as this to deal at any length
+with Spanish figure-sculpture. However, it is only fair to recognize
+that Spain produced a couple of score or so of admirable carvers of
+wood-statuary. Among the greatest of these craftsmen or _imagineros_
+were Becerra, Berruguete, Juan de Juni, author of the _Mater Dolorosa_
+("Our Lady of the Knives"), of Valladolid; Gregorio Hern�ndez the
+Galician, author of "Simon the Cyrenian," "Santa Veronica," and "the
+Baptism of our Lord"; Mart�nez Monta�es, author of "San Jer�nimo" and of
+the "Cristo del Gran Poder";[49] Solis, Gaspar de Ribas, Juan G�mez,
+author of the "Jesus" of Puerto de Santa Maria; Pedro Roldan, with whom,
+according to Tubino, "the art of Seville closed its eyes"; and Alonso
+Cano, master of Pedro and Alonso de Mena, Ruiz del Peral, Jos� de Mora,
+and Diego de Mora, and who carved the exquisite "Elijah Sleeping" (Pl.
+xxi.) now at Toledo, and also (as it is believed) the famous statuette
+(Frontispiece to the present volume) of Saint Francis of Assisi.
+
+  [49] It is due to Mart�nez Monta�es to mention that in many of his
+       contracts he stipulated that the painters of his statuary should
+       be chosen by himself, "so as not to corrupt the outline and the
+       sentiment of the figures."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIX
+                              CHOIR-STALLS
+                        (_Plasencia Cathedral_)]
+
+The earliest centre of this branch of wood-carving was Valladolid, where
+lived and laboured Juni and Hern�ndez. Nevertheless, although so popular
+in every part of Spain, it had a short-lived prime, originating in the
+two Castiles towards the reign of Philip the Second, declining steadily
+(with Seville for its centre now) all through the seventeenth century,
+and flickering out, despite the perseverance and the genius of the
+Murcian Susillo, in the century succeeding.
+
+In decorative _siller�as_ or sets of choir-stalls, Spain has produced
+examples worthy to be set beside the masterpiece of Vitry in the abbey
+of Sainte-Claude, the best productions of D�rer and his followers in
+Germany, or those of Donatello, Brunelleschi, Valdambrino, Vechietta,
+and Verrochio in Italy. Nevertheless, her most distinguished
+_siller�a_-makers were at almost every moment inspired and directed by
+the foreigner. Germans or Flemings were her first preceptors in this
+craft. These artists had been sent for, or proceeded of their own
+accord, to Spain, and settling in this country rapidly spread the
+technics of their art among the Spaniards. In the Peninsula the origin
+of this school or movement may be traced to Burgos. Here, just as the
+fifteenth century was drawing to its close, and just before the breath
+of the Renaissance crossed the Spanish frontier at its eastern side, was
+gathered a small though influential group of eminent workers in more
+crafts than one; painters and sculptors, architects, embroiderers,
+carvers of wood, _reja_-makers, and painters of cathedral glass.
+Prominent among them all was a foreigner named Philip Vigarny,[50] who
+is described by Diego de Sagrado as "singular above all others in the
+art of making statuary and sculpture; a man of vast experience, general
+in his mastery of the liberal and mechanic arts, and no less resolute in
+all that is related with the sciences of architecture."
+
+  [50] In Spanish he is called Felipe de Borgo�a, but Mart� y Mons� says
+       that the proper spelling of the surname is Biguerny.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                         DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS
+                    (_Convent of San Marcos, Le�n_)]
+
+Burgundy is said to have been the birthplace of Felipe de Borgo�a, but
+of his early history we have no tidings. In documents which bear his
+signature he styles himself "_imaginario_, resident at Burgos." Three
+such documents exist. On August 1st, 1505, he agrees, for 130,000
+_maravedis_, to make "such images as may be necessary" for the altar of
+the high chapel of Palencia cathedral, "he with his own hand to carve
+the hands and faces, out of good smooth walnut, without painting." This
+document is dated from Palencia. The other two are dated severally,
+Burgos, December 6th, 1506, and Corcos, September 6th, without the
+addition of the year.[51] We also know this craftsman to have made the
+great _retablo_ of Burgos cathedral. Such, from the fragmentary
+semblance we can trace of him, was Philip Vigarny, the pioneer of the
+wood-carvers of older Spain, and who, aided by other craftsmen from
+abroad, communicated all the secrets of his art to Spaniards such as Gil
+de Siloe, Ruy Sanchez, Diego de la Cruz, Alonso de Lima, and Berruguete.
+
+  [51] Zarco del Valle, _Documentos In�ditos para la Historia de las
+       Bellas Artes en Espa�a_, pp. 161, 162.
+
+The typical _siller�a_ consists of two tiers; the _sellia_ or upper
+seats, with high backs and a canopy, intended for the canons, and the
+lower seats or _subsellia_, of simpler pattern and with lower backs,
+intended for the _beneficiados_. At the head of all is placed the
+presidential throne, larger than the other stalls, and covered, in many
+cases, by a canopy surmounted by a tall spire. When the _siller�a_
+belongs to a monastery, the higher stalls are for the _profesos_, and
+the lower for the novices and _legos_. Commonly the part that forms the
+actual seat is hinged and rises to a vertical position, being so
+contrived that when the occupant rises to his feet, there remains a
+narrow ledge projecting from the under surface. This ledge is called the
+"seat of pity" or "of patience," because the worshipper is able to
+incline himself on it and give his limbs some measure of repose without
+appearing to be seated. There also is commonly another piece, intended
+for him to rest his hands upon in rising, which projects from the sides
+of the stall and forms a part of the decorative carving, as well as,
+somewhat higher still, the carved support to rest his arms while he is
+on his feet.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXI
+                                "SAMSON"
+               (_Carved Choir-stall of Le�n Cathedral_)]
+
+The earliest Spanish _siller�as_ date from the fourteenth century; but
+it is not until the century succeeding that we find them at their very
+best. Gothic or Plateresco _siller�as_ of marvellous design and
+workmanship are those of the Seo of Zaragoza (begun in 1412), the
+Cartuja de Miraflores of Burgos (1489), the monastery of O�a, Santa
+Mar�a de N�jera (1495), the church of Santa Mar�a del Campo, in the
+province of Burgos, Santo Tom�s of Avila (finished in 1493), and the
+cathedrals of Oviedo, Segovia (1461-1497), Ciudad Rodrigo, Tarragona
+(1478), Tarazona, Toledo (begun in 1494), Zamora, Astorga, Barcelona
+(1453-1483), and Seville (finished in 1478).
+
+The Gothic choir-stalls of the Seo of Zaragoza have lofty backs with
+arabesque Mudejar ornamentation, small Gothic columns, and medallions
+containing figures upon the arms of every stall. The material is Flemish
+oak. The carving was begun in 1412 by the Moors Al� Arrondi, Muza, and
+Chamar, who earned a daily wage of four _sueldos_. In 1446 Juan Navarro
+and the brothers Antonio and Francisco Gomar were working at the same
+stalls, and also, in 1449, Francoy.
+
+The stalls of the Cartuja de Miraflores at Burgos were carved by Martin
+S�nchez, who received in 1486, and for the _mano de obra_ alone, the sum
+of 125,000 _maravedis_. The material, which was presented by Luis de
+Velasco, Se�or of Belorado, is dark walnut.
+
+The _siller�a_ of Santa Mar�a de N�jera, the work of Maestro Andr�s and
+Maestro Nicol�s, is Gothic merging into the Renaissance. That of Santo
+Tom�s of Avila (late Gothic) consists of sixty oaken stalls, besides two
+larger ones resembling thrones (Plate xxiv.), intended to be occupied by
+Ferdinand and Isabella, founders of this monastery, and whose arms they
+bear in lace-like carving. The rest of the decoration is composed of
+thistles, vines, trefoils, and pomegranates. Owing to the fact that not
+a single cross appears on any part of the _siller�a_ (although this
+circumstance is not unusual in sacred Gothic woodwork), there is a
+superstition that these stalls were wrought anonymously by some Jew,
+condemned to execute them by the Inquisition as a form of punishment.
+This fable has no value. Although the author's name is not upon the
+stalls, they are identical in nearly every detail with those of the
+Cartuja de Miraflores at Burgos, known to have been carved by Martin
+S�nchez in 1486. Hence it is extremely probable that this craftsman was
+the author of both _siller�as_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                                 "ESAU"
+               (_Carved Choir-stall of Le�n Cathedral_)]
+
+On many Spanish _siller�as_ we find most spirited reproductions of the
+life and manners of their time; satirical allusions to contemporary
+vices, allegories and caprices as fantastic, in the phrase of Vargas
+Ponce, as "one of Bosch's nightmares," hunting-scenes or love-scenes,
+banquets, tournaments, dances, battles, sieges, and even bull-fights.
+Thus, on the stalls of the cathedrals of Zamora, Oviedo, Plasencia,
+Astorga, and Le�n are carved such subjects as the following. A fox
+dressed as a friar, preaching to a group of hens but slyly abstracting
+their chicks (Zamora), men fighting with their fists (Zamora), a hog
+playing the bagpipes (Le�n), the Devil in the garb of a confessor,
+tempting a penitent (Le�n), a woman suckling an ass (Le�n), a man armed
+with a lance, fighting a woman (Astorga), a bird of prey struggling with
+a crocodile (Astorga), card-players (Astorga), a warrior on all-fours,
+whipped by a woman (Plasencia), an _auto-de-f�_ (Plasencia), swine
+praying and spinning (Ciudad Rodrigo), a fight between a tiger and a
+bull (Ciudad Rodrigo), a monkey beating a drum (Ciudad Rodrigo), and a
+monkey wearing a mitre (Ciudad Rodrigo).
+
+The style of the lower stalls of Toledo cathedral is good Plateresque.
+They were begun in 1494 by Maese Rodrigo, one of the very best of
+Spain's _entalladores_, and portray, in each successive stall, the
+phases of the last campaign against Granada (Plate xxv.); the sieges or
+battles of Altora, Melis, Xornas, Erefran, Alminia, Baza, M�laga (two
+stalls), Salobre�a, Almu�ecar, Comares, Beles, Montefr�o, Mocl�n,
+Illora, Loja, Cazarabonela, Coyn, Cartama, Marbella, Ronda, Setenil,
+Alora, Alhama, Nixar, Padux, Vera, Hu�scar, Guadix, Purchena, Almer�a,
+Ri�n, Castil de Ferro, Cambril, Zagani, Castul, Gor, Canzoria, Moxacar,
+V�lez el Blanco, Gurarca, V�lez el Rubio, Soreo, and Cabrera.
+
+The upper tier of the same stalls belongs to a later period, and will,
+in consequence, be noticed subsequently.
+
+The _siller�a_ of Barcelona cathedral was begun in the middle of the
+fifteenth century by Matias Bonaf�, at the same time that the German
+Michael Locher and his pupil John Frederic worked at the canopies. It
+was finished thirty years later. Upon the back (which otherwise is
+plain) of every stall is a coat of arms distinct from all its
+neighbours, marking the seat of one of the princes or nobles summoned by
+Charles the Fifth to the Chapter of the Order of the Golden Fleece,
+March 5th, 1519.[52]
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXIII
+                               _RETABLO_
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+The splendid _siller�a_ of Seville cathedral is a mingling of the Gothic
+with the Mudejar and Plateresque. The material is oak and fir, and the
+number of the seats one hundred and seventeen. The _sellia_ are
+surmounted by a graceful running _guardapolvo_. Each seat is carved
+distinctly from the rest, and further decorated in the Mudejar style
+with inlaid woods of various kinds and colours, imitating stone mosaic.
+Among this labyrinth of design are groups of people, angels, animals,
+and scenes from Scripture, as well as, on the lower stalls, the Giralda
+tower, which forms the arms of the cathedral. The _siller�a_ is further
+embellished with two hundred and sixteen statuettes, seventy-two of
+which are ranged along the canopy or _dosel_, the remainder being
+distributed between the seats.
+
+  [52] "The stalls of the choir are neatly carved, and hung with
+       escutcheons of princes and noblemen, among which I remarked the
+       arms of our Henry the Eighth."--Swinburne.
+
+The authors of this splendid work of art (judiciously restored some
+years ago by Boutelou, Fernandez, and Mattoni) were Nufio Sanchez,
+Dancart, and several other craftsmen, concerning whom we know but very
+little. S�nchez' name is carved upon the second stall of the upper row,
+and on the side of the Evangelist, as follows:--
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+The above inscription states that "this choir was made by Nufio Sanchez,
+_entallador_ (God guard him[53]), and finished in the year one thousand
+four hundred and seventy-eight."
+
+  [53] This kind of parenthetical remark or prayer is one of the many
+       Muslim phrases that have passed into the regular service of the
+       Spanish Christian.
+
+With the dawn of the sixteenth century, the Gothic style runs rapidly
+into that of the Renaissance. At about this time, and as Baron Davillier
+pointed out, we sometimes find a triple influence, namely, the
+Burgundian, the Italian, and the native Spanish. Vigarny may be called
+the champion of the first of these, Berruguete (who studied in Italy)
+of the second, and Guillermo Doncel of the third. After this the purer
+Renaissance gives place to the decadent, as in the stalls of Santiago,
+M�laga, Cordova, and Salamanca.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIV
+                     _RETABLO_ OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL
+                         (_Detail of Carving_)]
+
+Sixteenth-century _siller�as_ of note are those of Burgos cathedral
+(Plate xxvi.), carved by Vigarny, Avila cathedral, the Pilar of
+Zaragoza, the Minor Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos, Pamplona cathedral,
+San Marcos of Le�n, Huesca, the _alta siller�a_ of Toledo, and the
+walnut stalls--carved in 1526 by Bartolom� Fernandez de Segovia, and now
+in the Madrid Museum--of the Parral of Segovia.
+
+The _siller�a_ of Avila cathedral is believed to have been begun in 1527
+by Juan Rodrigo, although the greater part of it was probably executed
+between 1536 and 1547 by Cornelis de Holanda, who took for his model the
+stalls of San Benito of Valladolid. The cost of the walnut wood and of
+its workmanship amounted to 33,669 _reales_.
+
+The upper stalls of Toledo cathedral were carved by Vigarny and Alonso
+Berruguete in collaboration, so that we find in them the northern and
+Italian styles effectively and interestingly united. The
+Plateresque-Renaissance _siller�a_, described as "genuinely Spanish," of
+the old convent of San Marcos of Le�n, containing statuettes of biblical
+personages and of fathers of the Church--Saint Isidore among them,--was
+finished in 1542 by Guillermo Doncel, who added the inscription
+"_Magister Guillermus Doncel me fecit MDXLII_" (Plate xxvii.). We know,
+however, nothing more about this excellent Spanish artist, except that
+(on the unsupported testimony of Cean) he worked at the fa�ade of this
+convent between the years 1537 and 1544.
+
+The intricate _siller�a_ of the Pilar of Zaragoza, containing almost
+every kind of subject--beasts, birds and fishes, allegories, incidents
+of the chase, or scenes of popular life--was designed by Esteban de
+Obray, a Navarrese, and executed by him and his assistants, Juan Moreto
+Florentino and Nicolas de Lobato, between 1542 and 1548. That of the
+Minor Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos was carved at a cost of eight
+hundred and ten ducats by Sim�n de Bueras, in 1558. That of Pamplona
+cathedral dates from about the middle of the century, and is the work of
+one Ancheta, who had visited Italy and gathered inspiration from the
+masterpieces of Siena. The material is English oak. The stalls of
+Huesca, carved from oak proceeding from an older _siller�a_ which had
+been removed, were begun in 1587 and finished in 1594. The craftsmen
+were Nicol�s de Ver�stegui and Juan Verrueta de Sang�esa.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXV
+                          DETAIL OF _RETABLO_
+              (_Late 15th century. Museum of Valladolid_)]
+
+Seventeenth-century _siller�as_ are those of Santiago, carved by Juan de
+Vila in 1603; Salamanca, in 1651, by Alfonso Balb�s; Orihuela, in 1692,
+by Juan Bautista Borja; and Segorbe, carved in the same year by Nicol�s
+Camar�n; while dating from the eighteenth century--a period of manifest
+decadence in this beautiful but short-lived craft--are the stalls of
+Lerida, by Luis Bonifar y Mas� (born in 1730), and Cordova, executed
+between 1748 and 1757, at a cost of 913,889 _reales_, by Pedro Ciriaco
+Duque y Cornejo, a son of Seville and a pupil of the Sevillano Roldan.
+
+The least imperfect of these later and decadent _siller�as_ is that of
+M�laga, whose author, Pedro de Mena, was, like his master, Alonso Cano,
+a native of Granada.
+
+Mena's contract with two canons of the cathedral, nominated by the
+bishop to prepare and sign the stipulations, will be found in No. 134 of
+the _Bolet�n de la Sociedad de Excursiones_.
+
+The stalls of M�laga number a hundred and one, carved in walnut, larch,
+cedar, and the heavy Indian wood called _granadillo_. As happens with
+many of the _siller�as_ of this country, the costumes of the figures are
+of great historical value. Among the saints is San Roque, in pilgrim's
+garb, attended by the dog who brought him day by day a loaf of bread
+while men refused to succour him.
+
+No less magnificent than these sets of choir-stalls are the carved
+_retablos_ or altar-screens,[54] a gradual excrescence from the
+primitive and unpretentious altar of the early days of Christianity.
+Several kinds of craftsmen worked upon these altar-screens, such as
+_tallistas_, _entalladores_, _imagineros_, and even architects.
+
+  [54] Wood is the usual material for these altar-screens, though
+       sometimes marble was employed, or stone, or silver. Of Genoese
+       marble is the _retablo_ (end of the fourteenth or beginning of the
+       fifteenth century) of the Cartuja del Paular in the Lozoya valley;
+       of stone, those of the parish church of San Nicol�s at Burgos (end
+       of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century), and of the
+       "chapel of the tailors" in Tarragona Cathedral; while a silver
+       _retablo_, in the Renaissance style, was that of the church, now
+       demolished, of Santa Mar�a at Madrid.
+
+The Golden Age of the _retablo_ embraces the end of the fifteenth
+century and the whole of the sixteenth. Notable examples belonging to
+this period are the screens of the monastery of Santo Tom�s at Avila,
+San Martin of Segovia, the Cartuja de Miraflores, the Colegiata of
+Covarrubias in the province of Burgos, the cathedrals of Avila, Toledo,
+Tudela, and Tarazona; several in the churches of Toledo, two in the
+church of San Lesmes (Burgos), two in Burgos Cathedral (Plate xxxvi.),
+and three, including those of _Reyes_ and of _Buena Mariana_, in the
+church of San Gil in the same city. Not one of these, however, has the
+grandeur or variety of the altar-screen of Seville (Plates xxxiii. and
+xxxiv.), which is carefully described in Cean's monograph. "The style is
+Gothic; the material, undecaying larch; and the screen, which reaches
+nearly to the vaulting, is the largest in the country, although at first
+it spanned the presbytery only, not including either side. It was
+designed in 1482 by Dancat or Danchart, who began work upon it as soon
+as his sketches were approved, and worked at it till 1492, in which year
+he seems to have died.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXVI
+                          DETAIL OF _RETABLO_
+               (_Chapel of Santa Ana, Burgos Cathedral_)]
+
+"Dancat was succeeded by Master Marco and Bernardo de Ortega, whose
+carving reached, by 1505, the canopy or _viga_, and who were followed in
+their turn by Francisco, Bernardo's son, father and teacher of
+Bernardino and Nufrio de Ortega, his assistants. Some of the statues
+were carved by Micer Domingo. The rest of the _imaginer�a_ was finished
+in 1526; and the gilding and painting were done by Alejo Fern�ndez, his
+brother, and Andr�s de Covarrubias.
+
+"So the screen remained till 1550, when the Chapter decided to extend
+it, without altering the style of decoration, to the sides of the
+presbytery. By this time Spanish sculpture had improved, and many of our
+best-known sculptors lent their aid, of whom the earliest were Roque
+Balduc, Pedro Becerril, el Castellano, Juan de Villalva, Diego Vazquez,
+and Pedro Bernal. In 1553 the Chapter appointed, to inspect the work of
+these artists, Juan Reclid and Luis de Aguilar, both of whom lived at
+Jaen. Henceforth the master-craftsmen working at the screen were Pedro
+de Heredia, Gomez de Orozco, Diego Vazquez the younger, Juan Lopez,
+Andr�s Lopez del Castillo, and his sons, Juan de Palencia, and Juan
+Bautista Vazquez. By 1564 the screen was quite concluded.
+
+"The Gothic work is of incomparable richness. Ten groups of tall and
+narrow columns, resting upon two pedestals or socles, divide the
+_retablo_ into nine spaces, crossed by horizontal bands of complicated
+carving, forming a series of thirty-six niches, in four rows. Statues a
+little less than life-size represent, in the first row, the creation and
+fall of our first parents, and the mysteries of the infancy of Christ;
+in the second, His preaching and miracles; in the third, His passion and
+death; and in the fourth, His resurrection, appearance to the disciples,
+and ascension; also the coming of the Holy Ghost. Upon the altar-table,
+and resting in its niche, is the statue, covered with silver plates, of
+Nuestra Se�ora de la Sede, presented to this temple by Saint Ferdinand.
+Above the _viga_, which has an _artesonado_ ceiling, rises a
+frontispiece containing thirteen canopied niches with statues of the
+apostles, and in the centre niche that of the Virgin Mary. Crowning the
+whole _retablo_ are statues larger than life-size, and a Calvary
+standing in free space."[55]
+
+  [55] _Descripci�n de la Catedral de Sevilla_, pp. 27, 28.
+
+Throughout these Spanish altar-screens the influence which predominates
+is that of Germany. They are essentially distinguished by a Northern art
+(Plates xxxv., xxxvi.), not sentimental but material, not tender but
+robust, not (like the art of the Italians) retrospective or prospective,
+but prosaic, realistic, actual. Curiously enough, their presence seems
+incongruous in Spain, and yet they made themselves at home here; for
+Spanish art was ever realistic, so probably on this account two widely
+different nations found, at least in this particular craft, a common
+bond of sympathy. Certainly the Renaissance, while it seemed to cherish
+and encourage, really undermined and killed this branch of Spanish
+wood-carving. A similar phenomenon attends the art of the Alhambra. In
+either case the plenitude of power and of beauty is even more ephemeral
+than the term of human life; and thus, deluded by so brilliant and
+majestic a decay, we fail to apprehend, or seek to grow oblivious of,
+the imminence of their ruin.
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                                IVORIES
+
+
+The story of Spanish ivory-work is shortly told, for probably
+no craft, excepting glass, has been so little practised in this country.
+The older Spanish writers rarely mention it, although from time to time
+this substance may have been employed for carving diptyches and boxes,
+and Roderick is stated to have entered the battle of the Guadalete in an
+ivory car, by which is meant, perhaps, a chariot of Byzantine make or
+pattern, covered with ivory plates. However, properly speaking, the
+history of this art as exercised in Spain begins in the eleventh
+century, attains its prime towards the fourteenth century, and ceases
+altogether at the time of the Renaissance.
+
+Among the ivory objects now preserved in Spain, and which were wrought
+by artists other than Mohammedan, none is more interesting or important
+than the consular diptych of Oviedo cathedral. Although this valuable
+diptych was not made in Spain, but manifests Byzantine art in all its
+purity, it well deserves to be described. It consists of two ivory
+tablets measuring sixteen inches and a half in height by twelve inches
+and a half across both leaves. Each leaf has a simple border of a triple
+form, and just inside each corner is a circular floral ornament in
+relief, with a lion's head in the centre. Another ornament, also
+circular, is in the centre of each leaf, and contains, carved within a
+graceful S-shaped border, a half-length portrait of the Consul, who is
+represented in the act of throwing down into the amphitheatre his
+_mappa_ or handkerchief[56] with his right hand, while in his left he
+holds the sceptre (_scipio imaginifer_), crowned with a small bust. His
+hair is curled in the Byzantine fashion, and his costume is a richly
+decorated toga.
+
+  [56] _I.e._ as a signal to begin the sport. The same usage (except that
+       the handkerchief is waved, and not thrown down) is followed at
+       this moment in the Spanish bull-ring.
+
+An inscription runs along the top of either tablet, between the border
+and the circular devices carved with flowers. It says:--
+
+_Flavius Strategius Apion--Strategius Apion. Vir inlustris Comes
+Devotissimorum Domesticorum et Consul ordinarius._
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXVII
+                               IVORY BOX
+                    (_9th Century. Madrid Museum_)]
+
+We gather, therefore, that this magnate was a chamberlain at court, as
+well as ordinary consul.
+
+Diptyches were used among the Romans for all kinds of purposes, such as
+to convey love-messages, as invitations to a banquet, or to notify the
+celebration of feasts and games. We find the diptych also used in
+Christian temples from the time of Constantine, serving to record church
+festivals or names of saints and martyrs, as covers for a copy of the
+gospel (_diptycha evangeliorum_), or as reliquaries (_thecae
+reliquiarum_). Sometimes these diptyches were wrought expressly for the
+church, or sometimes they were consular diptyches that had been
+preserved from former ages. This latter class, when cleansed from pagan
+usage and devoted to the ceremonies of the Christian faith, was known as
+_diptycha mixta_.
+
+Such early objects as were wrought in ivory by Spanish hands, consisting
+as a rule of circular or oblong, square or oval caskets, were
+principally carved by Moors or Mudejares. Among the Spanish-Moorish
+boxes which are still preserved are several of the greatest interest and
+beauty (Plates xxxviii., xxxix., xl.). One of them, made from pieces of
+an older casket believed to date from earlier than the Moorish conquest,
+is in the National Museum. The decoration in its present form consists
+of Arabic inscriptions in relief, together with figures of the apostles.
+This casket, which proceeds from the Colegiata of Saint Isidore at Le�n,
+measures seven inches in length by five in depth and six in height, and
+has been used as a reliquary.
+
+Another, dating from the middle of the eleventh century and proceeding
+from the same temple as the one just noticed, is also in the National
+Museum. It was a present from the Emir Mohammed Almotamid-Aben-Abed to
+his second wife, Al-Badir ("the Moon"), and includes among the
+decoration dogs and doves, symbolic of affection and fidelity. The style
+of carving is what is known as Persian-Arabic. We do not know, however,
+whether the box was imported from the East, or whether it was made in
+Spain by somebody of Persian parentage or skilled in Persian art. The
+material is a delicate _taracea_ of sandal, aloe, and cypress woods
+inlaid on larch. The box, which was used at Le�n as a reliquary, has
+bronze clasps, and is inscribed along the top with sentences from which
+we learn that it was made by Aben-As-Serag.
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXVIII
+                              IVORY CASKET
+             (_Moorish; 11th Century. Pamplona Cathedral_)]
+
+In the cathedral of Pamplona is a magnificent ivory box (Plate
+xxxviii.) which was originally at Sang�esa in Navarre. It measures, says
+Ria�o, fifteen inches long by nine and a quarter inches wide. "It is
+completely covered with carvings in relief, within circular cusped
+medallions, with figures in the centres representing different subjects;
+men seated, hawking, or struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single
+figures of lions, stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces
+contain an ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to
+the geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box
+appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters:--'In the name of
+God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the happiness, the
+fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning the fatal
+period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the State),
+Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of the said
+Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch, Nomayr
+ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave, in the year of 395 (A.D. 1005).'
+
+"In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is
+represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions.
+He holds on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription,
+with the following religious formula: 'There is no god but God,' or a
+similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the
+centre of this shield may be read the words, 'Made by Hair,' undoubtedly
+one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's name may be read
+with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears on one of the
+medallions on the left side; it is written on the thigh of a stag, which
+is attacked by a lion: 'It was made by Obeidat.' Three other
+inscriptions of a similar character appear in other parts of this box,
+which probably give the names of other artists, but I have been unable
+to decipher them."
+
+Other interesting boxes dating from the same period are that of Santo
+Domingo de Silos at Burgos, and several which are in the National Museum
+at Madrid. The box which is preserved at Burgos is made of ivory, and
+measures thirteen inches and a quarter in length by seven inches and a
+half in width and height. The decorative work consists of hunting
+scenes, and also of an inscription in Cufic characters which says:
+"Permanent felicity for the owner (of this box). May God lengthen
+his days. It was made at Medina ...[57] in the year four hundred
+and seventeen (A.D. 1025). It is the work of his servant
+Mohammed-ibn-Zeiyan. May God glorify him."
+
+  [57] At this break in the inscription Ria�o professed to discover the
+       beginning of the word _Cuenca_.
+
+There is also in the provincial museum of Burgos a handsome ivory
+diptych which was formerly at the convent of Santo Domingo de Silos. It
+bears at each extremity--that is, four times repeated--the following
+inscription:--"This was ordered to be made by the Iman, servant of God,
+Abd-er-Rhaman, prince of believers."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIX
+                               IVORY BOX
+                 (_11th Century. Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Among the rectangular boxes in the National Museum is one of carved
+ivory, with an inscription recording it to have been a gift from Prince
+Ali to one of the favourites of his harem, and another of the same
+material which was once upon a time at Carrion de los Condes, in the
+province of Palencia. This box is painted with a decorative pattern in
+carmine and dark green. The lid, which is imperfect, contains the
+following inscription in Cufic characters, standing boldly out against a
+green ground:--"In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate.
+The protection of Allah and an impending victory for the servant of
+Allah ... and his wali Maad Abu-Temim--the Iman Al-Moez ... prince of
+believers (the blessing of Allah be upon him and his sons the good).
+(This) was commanded to be made for (celebrating) the fortunate victory.
+It was made by ... Jorasani." The length of this box is eighteen inches,
+and its height nine inches.
+
+A fine Moorish box (Plate xxxix.), now in the cathedral of Palencia, is
+covered with elaborately engraved and perforated ivory plates upon a
+ground of gilt leather backed by wood, and further ornamented with
+enamel-work upon a copper surface. This box is fourteen inches long, and
+has a gable top. The decoration on the sides and lid consists of
+palm-leaves, birds, and men engaged in combating and chasing antelopes
+and lions in the characteristic manner of Assyrian art. A lengthy Cufic
+inscription tells us that the box was made at Cuenca (_Medina Cuenca_)
+by Abd-er-Rahman ben Ziyan, to the order of the Moorish princes of
+Toledo, and that it dates from the year 441 of the Hegira.[58] Vives has
+pointed out that Cuenca was evidently a principal centre of this
+industry, and that caskets executed here about this time exist in
+Perpignan cathedral and in the provincial museum of Burgos.
+
+  [58] Detailed accounts of this casket will be found in the _Bolet�n de
+       la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones_ for June 1893, and in the
+       _Bolet�n de la Real Academia de la Historia_, vol. xx.
+
+Ria�o mentions seven ivory boxes of particular interest, which were
+probably made in Spain by Spanish Arabs, or else by Eastern craftsmen
+who had emigrated to this country. "On all their carving," he adds, "the
+names of Spanish historical persons appear, and it is hardly possible
+that they were ordered in remote countries, especially as some of these
+objects are small and comparatively unimportant."
+
+                           [Illustration: XL
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE IVORY CASKET
+          (_13th Century. Royal Academy of History, Madrid_)]
+
+Two of these boxes are in the South Kensington Museum. The one which is
+cylindrical in shape and has a domed cover is thus described by Maskell
+in his _Ivories, Ancient and Medi�val, in the South Kensington
+Museum_:--"This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of
+it, with interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which, on the
+cover, are four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well
+designed and most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the
+lid.
+
+"Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf
+ornament. The same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the
+larger quatrefoils on the cover."
+
+"The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the
+upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band
+has an Arabic inscription: 'A favour of God to the servant of God, Al
+Hakem al Mostanser Billah, commander of the faithful.' He was a Caliph
+who reigned at Cordova, A.D. 961-976."
+
+The other box is oblong and rectangular. "The cover and sides are carved
+with scroll foliated ornament; the hinges and clasp are of chased silver
+inlaid with niello. Round the sides, immediately below the lid, is the
+following Arabic inscription in Cufic characters:--'In the name of God.
+This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah, the wife of
+Abd-er-Rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and satisfied
+with him.'" This inscription, adds Ria�o, "must allude to Abd-er-Rahman
+the Third, the first Caliph of Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el
+Mumenin. The formula 'God be merciful,' etc., denotes that he was dead
+when it was written. He died A.D. 961."
+
+                           [Illustration: XLI
+                             IVORY CRUCIFIX
+                    (_11th Century. Madrid Museum_)]
+
+Another Spanish-Moorish casket, also at South Kensington, and dating
+from the eleventh century, is described by Maskell as "richly
+carved in deep relief with foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing
+one another, and forming larger and smaller circles. The top and each
+side is a single plaque of ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back
+has two panels. On the two are two animals, like doves; a large bird
+stands at the back of each, attacking it with his beak. The sloping
+sides have, in the large circles, men on horseback, and animals
+fighting. The intermediate spaces are completely filled with foliage,
+and smaller beasts. Similar subjects are repeated in the circles on the
+panels forming the lower sides of the casket, and among them are two
+groups of men and women sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on
+a guitar, another holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other."
+Ria�o adds: "There is no inscription on this casket, but in one of the
+medallions on the lid there is a bust, which is carried on the back of a
+horse, and which is probably a representation of the prince for whom the
+casket was made."
+
+                        [Illustration: XLI (_a_)
+                             IVORY CRUCIFIX
+              (_11th Century. Back view. Madrid Museum_)]
+
+The _Letter of Testament_ setting forth the various objects bequeathed
+by Ferdinand the First and his consort Sancha to the church of Saint
+John the Baptist (or of Saint Isidore) at Le�n, mentions an ivory cross
+(which will be noticed presently), an ivory box fitted with gold, and
+two ivory boxes fitted with silver, one of them containing three other
+silver boxes, similarly decorated.
+
+One of these boxes is described by Ambrosio de Morales, and from his
+words we conclude it to be the one which was adorned with gold, "of
+which metal," he wrote in 1572, "it has even more than of ivory," adding
+that it measured more than half a yard in length, and enshrined the body
+of Saint Vincent of Avila. He also tells us that it bore the following
+inscription, carved upon a golden frieze:--
+
+          ARCULA SANCTORUM MICAT HAEC SUB HONORE DUORUM
+
+          BAPTISTAE SANCTI JOHANNIS SIVE PELAGII
+
+          CEU REX FERNANDUS, REGINAQUE SANTIA, FIERI JUSSIT.
+
+          ERA MILLENA SEPTENA SEU NONAGENA.[59]
+
+  [59] A.D. 1059.
+
+This _arca_ has been much mutilated, and stripped of all the precious
+metal. Morales' description is therefore of especial value, as are the
+ivory tablets (eleventh century), carved with Christian themes, which
+yet remain upon the body of the box.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLII
+                          BYZANTINE CRUCIFIX]
+
+Dating from the thirteenth century is a Moorish casket (Plate xl.),
+preserved in the Academy of History at Madrid, and proceeding from the
+Carthusian monastery of Val de Cristo at Segorbe. It measures a foot in
+length by eight inches in height and four and a half inches in depth.
+The lid is deeply bevelled, and contains on each of the bevelled sides
+shields with the bars which constitute the arms of Aragon, painted upon
+a gold ground, together with imperial eagles painted in black upon a
+carmine ground. A decorative device of leaves and stems is also painted
+on the ivory.
+
+Rodrigo Amador de los R�os believes that this casket was captured in war
+by Jayme the First of Aragon, remaining with successive princes of his
+line until the reign of Don Martin, by whom it was presented to the
+monastery. The shields would thus be added to the primitive Moorish
+casket by some Christian-Spanish painter.
+
+The ivory crucifix (Plates xli. and xli. (_a_)), of Ferdinand the First
+and Do�a Sancha, made in the first half of the eleventh century, and
+offered by these sovereigns to the church of Saint John the Baptist (or
+of Saint Isidore) at Le�n, measures twenty-one inches in length by
+thirteen inches and a half in height. The figure of Christ recalls the
+rigidness and rudeness of Byzantine craftsmanship, such as is found in
+ancient crucifixes still preserved in Spain (Plate xlii.). The pupils of
+the enormous, expressionless eyes are made of jet. We see the wound upon
+each foot, with wavy marks to imitate the flowing blood, but no trace of
+a nail. Nails, however, transfix the hands. The arms are separate from
+the trunk, but the _suppedaneum_ on which the feet are resting is of a
+single piece with the body of the figure.
+
+The surface of the cross, especially about the borders, contains
+elaborate decoration, including animals and foliage. Above the Saviour's
+head is the inscription:--
+
+                                IHS NAZA
+
+                               RENVS REX
+
+                                IVDEORVM
+
+Above this is another figure of Christ seated, crowned with a cruciform
+nimbus and holding a Greek processional cross. Beneath the feet of the
+larger figure is Adam in an uncouth posture, turning his head to gaze
+upward, and at the lower extremity of the cross are carved the words:--
+
+                            FERDINANDVS REX
+
+                             SANCIA REGINA
+
+The lateral arms are carved with numerous devices forming an effective
+whole, including animals upon a tessellated band which seems to imitate
+a groundwork of mosaic. Other subjects represented are the Resurrection
+of the Flesh, the ascent of the blessed to Heaven, and the fall of the
+wicked to Hell.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIII
+                        "THE VIRGIN OF BATTLES"
+                  (_13th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+Upon the obverse side are pairs of quadrupeds, birds, and serpents,
+among a maze of foliage, together with the eagle, lion, lamb, and ox, as
+symbols of the evangelists. The lion and the ox have wings, and at the
+foot of the cross is an angel.
+
+The carving of the Saviour's form is clearly inferior to that of the
+decoration which surrounds it. Amador de los R�os seeks to account for
+this by declaring that "the difficulty from the point of view of art
+increases in proportion as the size of the figure is required to be
+larger"--a statement with which I wholly disagree. I believe, in fact,
+that in this cross the figure of Christ and the surrounding
+ornamentation are not by the same hand, and that the carver of the
+decorative detail was simply the better craftsman of the two.
+
+Many of the statuettes of the Virgin which are preserved in Spain were
+probably made in France. One that is typically and unquestionably
+Spanish is the celebrated "Virgin of Battles" (Plate xliii.), now
+guarded, together with other relics of Saint Ferdinand (see Vol. I.,
+Plate xi.), in the Chapel Royal of Seville cathedral. These statuettes,
+the use of which originated with the Greek emperors, and which were
+called by the Byzantines _socia belli_, consist of a seated figure of
+the Virgin with a small door opening underneath her throne, and served
+as reliquaries, and also as a kind of talisman. Boutelou says that the
+Spanish warriors of the Middle Ages were accustomed to carry these
+images to war with them, fitted upon a pin protruding from the left side
+of the saddle-bow. The "Virgin of Battles," made in Spain in the early
+part of the thirteenth century, was thus carried by King Ferdinand the
+Saint, resting between his shield or _rodela_ and his left arm, and so
+protected, and protecting, in the brunt of war.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIV
+                      SPANISH MEDI�VAL _BACULUS_]
+
+The image is of ivory, and measures seventeen inches in height. The
+style is primitive Gothic, not as yet emancipated from Romanic and
+Byzantine art; and the expression of the Madonna and her Babe is marked
+by an engaging sweetness. Through lapse of centuries, myriads of
+diminutive cracks have opened on the surface of the ivory, and this has
+turned, in colour, to a brightish yellow. The right arm of the Virgin
+was broken off at some time prior to the sixteenth century, and has been
+replaced by another one. Mother and Child wear crowns of silver-gilt
+which probably were added later, and the hair, lips, and eyes have been
+badly painted or repainted with discordant colouring. A four-sided hole
+bored deep into the ivory served for holding the image to the _perno_
+which projected from the monarch's saddle-bow.
+
+A few elaborate _baculi_ or pastoral staves (Plate xliv.) exist in
+Spain, including one of the fourteenth century, in ivory, which belonged
+to the late Marquis of Monistrol, and is carved with the Crucifixion and
+also with the Virgin contemplating the Holy Infant as He is offered cups
+by angels. Another interesting Spanish baculus, though not of ivory, but
+copper decorated with turquoises and bright blue enamel, belonged to
+Bishop Pelayo de Cebeyra of Mondo�edo (A.D. 1199-1218), and has been
+preserved, together with that prelate's gilded shoes. In the celebrated
+processions of Santiago, at which Alfonso the Sixth was personally
+present, magnificent ivory _baculi_ were borne, not only by the
+archbishop (_eburnea virga pontificali decoratus_), but even by the
+choristers.
+
+Between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries, Spanish craftsmen
+produced a fair quantity of ivory boxes, reliquaries, diptyches,
+triptyches, combs, and other less important objects. A fifteenth-century
+ivory spoon, ten inches long, whose handle is carved with six
+crocodiles, is in the National Museum, and may be Spanish work. In the
+same collection are one or two ivory diptyches and leaves of diptyches,
+and a wooden box (fourteenth century), with figures of carved ivory
+representing passages from the life of Saint George upon the body of the
+box, and from the Old Testament upon the lid. A carved Renaissance
+temple of the same material, with the Virgin and Child in its interior,
+is probably Italian.
+
+                           [Illustration: XLV
+                             "A TOURNAMENT"
+             (_Carved lid of box in ivory; 14th Century_)]
+
+In the fortieth volume of _Espa�a Sagrada_ it is stated that four ivory
+diptyches (_quatuor dictacos eburneos_) were offered in A.D. 897 to Lugo
+cathedral by Alfonso the Third and his queen Jimena. Other ivory
+diptyches were presented in A.D. 1063 by Ferdinand the Second to the
+church of Saint Isidore at Le�n. Jos� Villa-amil, in his study of an
+ivory statuette of the Virgin, belonging to the nuns of Allariz
+(_Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones_; nos. 76 and 77),
+mentions a carved ivory box (_capsa eburnea_) made in the year 1122 for
+Santiago cathedral by order of Archbishop Gelmirez; another which
+existed in the sixteenth century in the church of Santa Mar�a at
+Finisterre; and a third, used as a reliquary, which in 1572 was opened
+by the monks of Samos in presence of Ambrosio de Morales.
+
+During the Middle Ages portable altars (_altares port�tiles_) were
+widely used in Spain, and some were made of ivory. It was the custom to
+open them at the time of prayer, and as a rule they rested upon
+_reclinatorios_ or hung upon the wall. The _imagen abriente_ or "opening
+image" was also popular in Spain throughout the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries. As the name implies, these images opened in the manner of a
+triptych, and were very often used as reliquaries. Specimens are
+preserved in many parts of Europe, but only one or two exist in Spain
+and Portugal. That which belongs to the nuns of Allariz dates from the
+end of the thirteenth century, and was a present from Queen Violante. It
+is described fantastically by Morales, and accurately by Villa-amil, but
+the quaintest account is by the chronicler Jacobo de Castro. It
+measures, Castro tells us, "about half-a-yard in length and is one of
+the fairest ever seen, since it opens downward from the neck,
+discovering, on plates of half-relief, the principal mysteries of Christ
+and of Our Lady. The devotion towards it of the people in this
+neighbourhood exceeds description, and God has wrought a quantity of
+miracles through the intercession thereof."
+
+A fourteenth-century triptych carved in bone with scenes from Scripture
+is in the National Museum. It proceeds from Aragon, and is said to have
+belonged to Jayme the Conqueror. The Escorial possesses a handsome ivory
+diptych (Plate xlvi.) which is either Spanish or Italian--probably the
+former. It measures exactly a foot in height by nine inches across both
+leaves, and is deeply carved with passages from the life of Christ. The
+style is late Romanic merging into Gothic, and points to the second half
+of the thirteenth century.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVI
+                             IVORY DIPTYCH
+                     (_13th Century. El Escorial_)]
+
+
+
+
+                                POTTERY
+
+                                ANCIENT
+
+
+Quantities of ancient common pottery have been, and are continually
+being found in many parts of Spain. Prehistoric cups, shaped with the
+fingers and dried and hardened by the sun, are preserved in the Museum
+of History at Barcelona. They were discovered at Argar. Similar objects
+have been extracted from the caves of Seg�briga, L�brega in Old Castile,
+and El Tesoro in the province of M�laga. Those which were found at
+Seg�briga are divided by Capelle into six groups, one of which includes
+a vessel resembling the ordinary Spanish pitcher of to-day.
+
+Villa-amil y Castro has described in the _Museo Espa�ol de Antig�edades_
+pieces of prehistoric sun-dried ware discovered in Galicia, roughly
+decorated with patterns imprinted by the finger. In other instances a
+double spiral has been described with a pointed instrument about the
+vessel's neck. Similar fragments have been found by G�ngora in
+Andalusia. Celtic pottery was found in 1862 by Captain Brome on Windmill
+Hill at Gibraltar, in 1866 by M. Lartet in the caves of Torrecilla de
+Cameros, and by Casiano de Prado in a cave near Pedraza, as well as at
+Navares de Ayuso and elsewhere. In central Spain, vessels of the
+Celtiberian era have been found in tombs at Pr�dena, and pieces of red
+Saguntine ware, with dark red decoration, at Otero de Herreros, close to
+vestiges of a Roman mine. Lecea y Garc�a describes in his work on _Old
+Segovian Industries_ a Celtiberian plate of reddish clay covered with
+black varnish, which was dug up some years ago in a garden at that town.
+This plate, measuring no less than four feet in diameter, and containing
+two inscriptions in characters believed to be Celtiberian, as well as
+the figure of a warrior armed with a lance and three javelins, was
+submitted to Heiss, who wrote of it in the _Gazette Arch�ologique_ and
+pronounced it to be genuine. I have not seen the plate in question. I
+have, however, met with cleverly executed forgeries, also varnished
+black, of primitive Spanish pottery.
+
+In 1899 quantities of Celtic ware, believed to date from the time of the
+Ph[oe]nicians, or even earlier, were unearthed by M. Bonsor from tumuli
+in the Guadalquivir valley. These objects are ornamented in relief with
+complicated patterns paler than the ground, obtained by using
+lighter-coloured clay. "As similar Celtic pottery has been found in
+Portugal, it will be understood that the Celtic influence, having
+crossed the Pyrenees, reached the south by the western seaboard. It will
+thus be seen that long before the arrival of the Romans a relatively
+high degree of civilisation had been reached at least in the south of
+Spain."[60]
+
+  [60] Martin Hume, _The Spanish People_, p. 15 (note).
+
+In the summer of 1905 two German arch�ologists, Messrs. Schulten and
+K�nen, who had obtained permission from the Spanish Government to
+explore the site of old Numancia, filled four large cases with the
+Celtiberian pottery they extracted from the ruins. These cases were
+forwarded to the University of G�ttingen. I understand, however, that
+they have been returned, or are to be returned immediately, to Spain.
+
+Long before the Christian era, Greek colonies existed on the Spanish
+coast at Rhodas, Denia, Emporium (Ampurias), Saguntum (Murviedro), and
+elsewhere. Pottery of good design and workmanship was manufactured at
+these towns, and strongly influenced native art. Bowls and other objects
+showing such an influence were discovered by M. Bonsor in his recent
+excavations. Another powerful influence was that of Rome. Roman
+potteries existed in the suburb of Seville called Triana, and in the
+provinces of C�ceres and Badajoz. M�rida was also an important centre of
+this industry, and vessels which were used in sacred rites, such as the
+_aquiminarium_, the _prefericulum_, the _simpulum_, and the _urnula_,
+were discovered here not long ago. The name "Saguntine ware" was given
+by the Romans to a kind of pottery which seems to have been made along
+the Spanish littoral extending southward from Saguntum. Fragments of
+this pottery, which closely resembles the Arezzo ware,[61] are found in
+shoals upon the sites of Roman towns, particularly Tarragona. These
+_barros saguntinos_, or (as H�bner prefers to call them) _barros
+tarraconenses_, have been divided into four classes, namely, white,
+grey, red (covered with a dark red varnish),[62] and yellow striped with
+red. This ware is commonly adorned with garlands, animals,
+hunting-scenes, divinities, games, or religious ceremonies, and also
+bears, in nearly every case, the potter's name or mark; _e.g._ ALBINVS F
+("Albinus fecit") or OF. ALBIN ("officina Albini"). More than two
+hundred marks have been discovered which were used by potters of
+Ampurias alone.
+
+  [61] "A ware exactly like that of Arezzo, called by some the red Roman
+       ware, and by others Samian, distinguished by its close grain
+       composed of a fine clay, and presenting, when broken, edges of an
+       opaque light red colour, whilst the inner and outer surfaces are
+       quite smooth, and of a brighter and darker red, is found in all
+       places of the ancient world to which the Roman arms or civilisation
+       reached. It is distinguished from the Aretine by its darker tone,
+       stronger glaze, and coarser ornamentation. Possibly, the whole
+       passage of Pliny in which he speaks of the earthenware of his day
+       refers to this red ware. Thus, for dishes he praises the Samian
+       and the Aretine ware; for cups, that of Surrentum, Asta and
+       Pollentia, Saguntum and Pergamus. Tralles and Mutina had their
+       manufactories. Cos was most esteemed; Hadria produced the hardest
+       ware. That one of these, that of Saguntum, was a red ware, is
+       clear; that of Cum� was also of the same colour.... That the red
+       ware is found amidst the dense forests of Germany and on the
+       distant shores of Britain, is a remarkable fact in the civilisation
+       of the old world. It was apparently an importation, being exactly
+       identical wherever discovered, and is readily distinguished from
+       the local pottery."--Birch, _History of Ancient Pottery_,
+       pp. 560, 561.
+
+  [62] "It belongs to the class of tender lustrous pottery, consisting of
+       a bright red paste like sealing-wax, breaking with a close texture,
+       and covered with a siliceous, or, according to some, a metallic
+       glaze. This glaze is exceedingly thin, transparent, and equally
+       laid upon the whole surface, only slightly augmenting the colour
+       of the clay."--Birch, p. 561.
+
+There seems to be no doubt that Saguntum and Emporium were principal
+centres of this industry, and possibly, since these towns were old Greek
+settlements, the _barros saguntinos_ were of Grecian origin. Pella y
+Forgas, describing in his _History of the Ampurdan_ the fine red ware of
+this locality, says that parts of the decoration were fashioned on the
+wheel, others directly by the potter's hand, and others from a mould,
+while the ornament of dotted lines was made by the wheeled _roulette_.
+
+Among the commoner objects dating from this time are amphor� and small
+earthen lamps (Pl. xlvii.). These lamps have been discovered in great
+numbers, and, owing to the dryness of the Spanish soil, in excellent
+preservation. They measure about the size of the hand, and have two
+holes, one in the spout or beak, to hold the wick, and the other at the
+top, for pouring in the oil. The top, which as a rule is slightly
+concave, is often ornamented with devices in relief, such as a chariot
+and its driver, or the emblem of a deity.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVII
+                   AMPHORAIC VASES AND OTHER POTTERY
+                        (_Museum of Tarragona_)]
+
+The typical amphora was a long, narrow vessel (usually of earthenware;
+less frequently of brass or glass), with an elongated handle at either
+side of the neck, and tapering nearly to a point. It served for
+storing honey, oil, or wine, and in order to keep it upright the pointed
+lower end was stuck into the soil, or rested on a perforated wooden
+stand. In the spring of 1893 some fishermen drew up in their nets, just
+off the coast of Alicante, three large intact amphor� thickly cased with
+shells, and sold them for eight dollars each. Other fine amphor�, now in
+the collection of the Marquis of Cerralbo, were washed upon the beach at
+Torrevieja, and many more are in museums. Vessels of this kind are known
+to have been made at Rhodas (Rosas) and Saguntum, and their use
+continued in Spain until the downfall of the second empire.
+
+
+                  HISPANO-MORESQUE NON-LUSTRED POTTERY
+
+The statements of Saint Isidore, confirmed by one or two discoveries in
+southern Spain, prove that the pottery in use among the Visigoths was
+principally Roman. Probably in this, as in so many of her arts, the
+Moorish conquest brought about a radical and rapid change. Remains of
+pottery dating from this period are extremely rare. The provincial
+museum of Granada contains some bowls and plates, all more or less
+imperfect, which are ascribed by experts to about the year 1000. These
+objects, which were dug up in 1878 on the slopes of the Sierra Elvira, a
+few miles from Granada, are coloured black and green upon a white or
+whitish ground. The most important is a dish which measures fourteen
+inches in diameter, and is decorated with a falcon on a horse's back
+(Plate xlviii.).[63] All of this pottery shows the double influence of
+Byzantium and the East. Among the designs upon the other pieces are
+hares and stags surrounded by a bordering of primitive arabesques. Ria�o
+remarks that "it is almost impossible to assert whether this pottery was
+made in or imported into Spain." Nevertheless, Persians are stated to
+have settled in this region early in the days of Muslim rule, while
+these dilapidated specimens of ancient ware are greatly similar in
+colouring and substance to the common dishes and _barre�os_ which are
+still produced throughout the province of Granada.
+
+  [63] The falcon is one of the commonest devices on all Persian pottery,
+       and was, in fact, the national emblem of the chase. Its importance
+       for the purpose of pursuing and securing game is well described in
+       Sir John Malcolm's _Sketches in Persia_.
+
+Moorish potteries producing lustred or non-lustred ware existed from
+an early date at M�laga, Valencia, Toledo, Calatayud, Murviedro, Murcia,
+and Barcelona. Another centre of this craft was probably Granada; for
+though she is not mentioned in this sense by any of the Moorish authors,
+the late Se�or Contreras discovered here the vestiges of two ancient
+potteries, while one of the old entrances was known as Bab Alfajjarin,
+or "the potters' gate."
+
+                         [Illustration: XLVIII
+                                  DISH
+                (_About A.D. 1000. Museum of Granada_)]
+
+The Ordinances of Granada contain provisions which were evidently copied
+from the Spanish Moors, relating to the _almadraveros_ or tilemakers,
+the _tinajeros_ or makers of _tinajas_, and the _olleros_ or potters
+generally. The Ordinances which concern the tilemakers are dated between
+1528 and 1540. The restrictions imposed upon these craftsmen were
+irksome, foolish, and unnecessary. All bricks and tiles were to be
+stamped in three places with the city mark, and were only permitted to
+be made between the first of April and the thirty-first of October in
+each year, "since what is made at other seasons is not good or perfect,
+owing to the rain, and cold, and frost."
+
+Another Ordinance, illustrating the lawlessness prevailing at Granada in
+the times succeeding the reconquest, complains that "many persons,
+including labourers and hodmen, go forth into the roads and streets,
+and seize the tiles and bricks by violence from those who are conveying
+them, and bear them to their houses, or to the work which they are paid
+to do."
+
+A picturesque, though cheap and unluxurious, vessel of a thoroughly
+eastern character, and which was very largely manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors, is the terra-cotta _tinaja_ or gigantic jar for storing
+wine, or olive oil, or grain (Plate xlix.). The use of these receptacles
+extended through the whole Peninsula, and has continued undiminished to
+this day. The principal centres of _tinaja_-making were Toledo, Seville,
+and Granada. The Ordinances of the latter town embody Moorish rules
+relating to this branch of pottery. These laws, revived in 1526, provide
+that all _tinajas_ must contain two kinds of earth, one red, the other
+white, thoroughly compounded in a trough of water. Before the potter
+removes the clay from the trough, he must call the city supervisor or
+_veedor_ to look into the quality and mixing of the mass. The vessel as
+it leaves the oven must be white; otherwise, even although it have no
+flaw, the inspector is to break it. The potter is forbidden to coat his
+_tinajas_ with a glaze composed of eggs, blood, chalk, and other
+strange ingredients; nor may he fire the glaze with torches, "because
+the smell of the smoke clings to the _tinaja_, and the wine or stum
+deposited therein grows redolent of it, and it stays within the jar
+perpetually."
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIX
+                       HISPANO-MORESQUE _TINAJA_]
+
+Owing doubtless to their plain, domestic purpose and their trifling
+market cost, early _tinajas_ are not often met with. A fine example in
+excellent preservation is at South Kensington, and is described by Ria�o
+as "a wine jar, amphora-shaped, and ornamented with an incised pattern
+of vine leaves, and stamped diaper of a Gothic character." Several good
+_tinajas_ have been discovered of late years at Seville. Gestoso
+mentions six, five of which are glazed. The first of these was found in
+1893, and has a bright green glaze upon a ground of reddish earth. Both
+handles and nearly all the neck are wanting. The decoration consists of
+various bands or _fajas_ round the body of the jar, a series of
+archways, another of leaves, and a central band of stars, three deep,
+strongly imprinted from a mould. In every ninth arch are stamped
+symbolic hands, such as we see upon the Gate of Justice of the Alhambra.
+
+The second _tinaja_ is similar to the one just mentioned, except that
+it has the neck. It was discovered in 1895, and is now in Seville
+museum.
+
+The third _tinaja_ is also in this museum, and was discovered in 1901.
+It is in a very poor condition, and Gestoso believes that it was
+originally covered with a honey-coloured glaze.
+
+The fourth _tinaja_ was found in a drain, in the same year as the
+preceding one, and is inscribed with words, including _Blessing_ and
+_Felicity_, in Cufic characters. Gestoso is unable to decide whether
+this vessel was made at Seville or elsewhere.
+
+The fifth _tinaja_ is in the collection of Don Jos� Mor�n, and possesses
+greater interest than the others, both because it is in excellent
+condition, and also because the decoration is entirely in the
+Spanish-Christian style, without a trace of Saracenic ornament. Small
+Gothic-looking shields surround the body of this vessel, which is
+stamped with pomegranates, and with the arms and emblems of the Ponce de
+Le�n and other families. Between each pair of shields is an oval-shaped
+medallion containing human figures.
+
+The sixth _tinaja_ is unglazed. It was found in June of 1893, and is
+adorned with repetitions of the words _Prosperity_ and _Blessing_, as
+well as with a series of deer and other animals in the act of running;
+some of them with birds upon their backs. These designs are very
+uncommon, and Gestoso has seen no other _tinaja_, proceeding from this
+region, similarly decorated.
+
+_Tinajas_ are still made in large quantities at Toboso, Lucena, Colmenar
+de Oreja, and other Spanish towns and villages.
+
+Other large objects of a thoroughly oriental character were earthenware
+glazed _brocales_ or brims of wells, which, like the _tinajas_, were
+largely manufactured at Seville and Toledo. Specimens of these
+_brocales_ exist in the museums of Toledo and Cordova. Ria�o describes
+one which is at South Kensington. "It was bought at Toledo for three
+guineas at a shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green
+earthenware, with ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round,
+which appear to be of the fourteenth century. The inscription, which is
+repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words 'the
+power, the excellence, and the peace.'"
+
+Gestoso describes two _brocales_ and the fragments of a third. All these
+objects were found at Seville. The two which are intact, or nearly so,
+are cylindrical, and of a white ware. One of them has a simple leaf
+decoration, and seems to have been covered with a green glaze. The
+other, which was discovered in 1894, is surrounded by a triple band of
+inscription in African characters which are illegible.
+
+Gestoso also describes some interesting baptismal fonts, a class of
+object which he pronounces to have been the most important of all that
+were produced in the potteries of Triana, by reason both of their large
+dimensions and of their elaborate ornamentation. He states that three
+methods were employed to decorate these fonts. The first consisted in
+attaching to their surface small moulded plates which bore the likeness
+of a saint, flowers, monograms, or other devices. By the second method
+the decoration was moulded directly on the font; while the third method
+consisted in a combination of the other two.
+
+Splendid examples of these Spanish fonts exist in various churches of
+Andalusia and in private collections. One of the finest is in the parish
+church of Nuestra Se�ora de la Concepci�n, at Laguna, Tenerife. It is
+suggested by Gestoso that this _pila_ of Laguna was made at Seville and
+sent to the Canaries in the year 1479, when orders were issued by
+Ferdinand and Isabella for the completion of the monasteries in those
+islands.
+
+_Pilas_ were also manufactured at Toledo, although Gestoso says that the
+workmanship of those produced at Seville was in every way superior.
+Nevertheless, he has only found the maker's name upon a single font,
+which is inscribed with that of Juan Sanchez Vachero, and is now
+preserved in the church of San Pedro at Carmona. Another remarkable
+_pila_ is that of the hospital of San L�zaro at Seville.
+
+In course of time the Spanish Church forbade the use of _pilas_ made of
+glazed earthenware, and ordered their substitution by fonts of stone or
+marble. One of these dispositions, included among the _Constituciones
+Sinodales_ of the bishopric of M�laga, and dated 1671, is quoted by
+Gestoso. It enacts that the _pila_ be of stone and not of earthenware,
+and that if any of this latter class remain, they are to be "consumed"
+(_i.e._ destroyed) within two months.
+
+Returning to the Ordinances of Granada, those which concern the potters
+or _olleros_ generally are dated 1530, and inform us of the price of
+glazed and unglazed articles in common use, such as _ollas_ or pots
+(with and without glaze), _cazuelas_ or earthen vessels for cooking
+meat, plates of many colours and dimensions, _jarros_ (jugs), _alcuzas_
+(vials), _cantaros castellanos_ (Castilian water-pitchers), _cantaros
+moriscos_ (Moorish water-pitchers[64]), _morteros_ (mortars),
+_lebrillos_ (earthen tubs), _candiles_ (lamps with a green, white or
+yellow glaze), _orzas_ (gally pots), _botijas_ (narrow-necked jars), and
+_salseras_ (saucers).
+
+  [64] The watersellers' Ordinance of 1516 enacts that each of these
+       vendors shall carry a minimum load of six _c�ntaros_, and that the
+       c�ntaros themselves shall be "of the round shape, and not the
+       Moorish ones, as these have long spouts; each _c�ntaro_ to be
+       closed with a cork." The latter is the typical pitcher of Morocco.
+       "As we were talking, neighbours dropped in, in the familiar Eastern
+       way, and sat quiet and self-contained, occasionally drinking from
+       one of the two long-necked and porous water-jars, known as
+       'Baradas' or the 'coolers,' which stand, their wooden stoppers tied
+       to them with a palmetto cord, on each side the divan."--Cunninghame
+       Graham, _Mogreb-el-Acksa_, p. 88.
+
+The shape and colouring of many of these common articles have been
+continued till to-day, especially in Andalusia. I reproduce a photograph
+of some (Plate l.), in which the influence of the East is unmistakable.
+The smaller of the two unglazed jars is used for carrying and cooling
+water, and is made at Loja. The other, which is often used for storing
+honey, is from Guadalajara. The spherical vessel is a kind of bottle for
+_aguardiente_. It is glazed a brightish green, and is made in various
+parts of Andalusia, as are the gourd-shaped _calabazas_, which have a
+yellow glaze. The smallest vessel, or that which has a funnel-shaped and
+bulging mouth, is coated with a coarse metallic glaze coloured in white
+and blue, and proceeds from Granada.
+
+                            [Illustration: L
+                         COARSE SPANISH POTTERY
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+So is the influence of the Spanish Moors, linking the present intimately
+to the past, and handed down by early craftsmen to the moderns, and from
+Mussulmans to Christian Spaniards, maintained and kept alive, not only
+by the city ordinances I have quoted, but also by the more occult yet no
+less permanent and cogent force of local and unchronicled tradition. In
+the historic quarter of Granada which is called the Albaycin, survive a
+few _alfarer�as_ to this hour (Plate lxix.). Here, on the potter's wheel
+or ranged about his yard, may yet be seen the red Granada earth that is
+believed to have inspired the vase of the Alhambra, applied to-day to
+common crockery that notwithstanding has a subtle, unfamiliar charm. And
+towards the time of sundown, when the master turns indoors to supper and
+his workmen have gone home, when the last of the red light is colouring
+the ancient city wall until it too looks like a mammoth monument of the
+potter's art of old Granada, it is a strange experience to wander
+through these desolate yards, among the files of ruddy Granadino ware
+kindling with vivid memories of the vanished Mussulmans of Spain, and
+bringing back to us that spirited old poet of the East who also sang of
+pottery:--
+
+               "Listen again. One Evening at the Close
+               Of Ramazan, ere the better Moon arose,
+                   In that old Potter's Shop I stood alone
+               With the clay Population round in Rows.
+
+               And strange to tell, among that Earthen Lot
+               Some could articulate, while others not:
+                   And suddenly one more impatient cried--
+               'Who _is_ the Potter, pray, and who the Pot?'
+
+               Then said another--'Surely not in vain
+               My substance from the common Earth was ta'en,
+                   That He who subtly wrought me into Shape
+               Should stamp me back to common Earth again.'"
+
+
+                         MOSAIC-WORK AND TILES
+
+The art of colouring and glazing earthenware was practised by various
+peoples of the ancient eastern world, and passed, in course of time,
+through Egypt to Ph[oe]nicia, Greece, and Rome, and, later still, to
+Mussulman peoples of north-western Africa.
+
+Glazed earthenware was possibly produced in Roman Spain, although the
+specimens of it which have been discovered are singularly and, indeed,
+significantly few. Their colour is commonly green or lightish yellow.
+Gestoso makes particular mention of a small jar now preserved in the
+museum of Seville, describing it as "of an ordinary shape, but finely
+made." He admits, however, that no trace of glaze exists in any of the
+broken Visigothic vessels (copied, as Saint Isidore tells us, from the
+Roman-Spanish pottery) that were found some years ago among the ruins of
+Italica. Thus it is not decided whether the Spanish potters learned to
+glaze, or whether this development of their craft remained familiar to
+the Spaniards of that period through imported objects merely.
+
+As with glazed earthenware, the origin of mosaic must be looked for in
+the East. Greece, who had doubtless borrowed it from Egypt, communicated
+it to Rome at least two centuries before the Christian era, and from
+this time the Romans used it freely in the decoration of their
+buildings. The Greek mosaic was composed exclusively of stone. The
+Romans modified this usage by the introduction of diminutive cubes of
+clay, painted and baked like porcelain; and later, in the reign of
+Claudius, dyed these cubes with various colours.
+
+Roman mosaic-work (commonly in the tessellated style and not the _opus
+sectile_) has been unearthed in many parts of the Peninsula. Such are
+the two "mosaics of the Muses," discovered at Italica on December 12th,
+1799, and June 12th, 1839;[65] other mosaics, to the number of some
+thirty, discovered from time to time among the same ruins; another,
+discovered at Majorca in 1833; that of the Calle Batitales at Lugo (the
+Roman _Lucus Augusti_), discovered in 1842; those of Palencia, Gerona,
+Merida, Milla del Rio (near Le�n), Rielves (near Toledo), Durat�n,
+Aguilafuente, and Paradinas (near Segovia), and Carabanchel, three miles
+from Madrid. The mosaic found at Lugo is believed to have formed part of
+a temple dedicated to Diana. The decoration is partly geometrical, and
+consists of the head of a man between two dolphins, with other fishes
+swimming along the border. Laborde describes another mosaic which
+existed, early in the nineteenth century, in a hall of the archbishop's
+palace at Valencia. "The pavement of this hall demands particular
+attention; it is formed of antique pavements, discovered in the month of
+February, 1777, three hundred paces north-east of the town of Puch,
+between Valencia and Murviedro; some were entire, others were only
+fragments. They were separated with care, and placed on the floor of
+this hall, where they are carefully preserved. They are different
+mosaics, formed by little stones of three or four lines in diameter,
+curiously enchased. They are distributed into seven squares in each of
+which medallions and divers designs have been drawn: their compartments
+are of blue on a white ground. We observe in one of these squares an
+imitation of the pavement of Bacchus, discovered at Murviedro, and of
+which there remained but very few vestiges; it was copied in a
+drawing-book which a priest of this town had preserved; it is executed
+with such art and exactness, that no difference can be observed between
+this modern work and that of the Romans. In another we see Neptune
+seated in a car, in one hand holding a whip, and in the other a trident
+and the reins of the horses by which his car is drawn: these appear to
+be galloping."
+
+  [65] The latter, which was the finer of the two, was dug out by Don Ivo
+       de la Cortina. It has subsequently been allowed to go to pieces,
+       but a coloured plate depicting it will be found in the first volume
+       of the _Museo Espa�ol de Antig�edades_.
+
+"In the same hall are also seen other pavements, of which only fragments
+could be preserved. Some serve for borders and ornaments to the
+preceding pavements. On these are represented a tiger, fishes, birds,
+houses, flowers, and garlands, well executed. There are particularly
+five stuck on wood and shut up in a closet; on these are birds, fruits,
+and flowers, figured in different colours, the execution of which is
+very curious; they are perhaps the most precious of the whole."
+
+The same author says elsewhere: "In digging to make a road from Valencia
+to Murviedro in 1755, at the entrance of the latter town a mosaic
+pavement was discovered; it was entire, and of such beauty that it was
+thought worthy of preservation. Ferdinand the Sixth caused it to be
+surrounded with walls; but the king's intentions were not properly
+fulfilled; the gates were suffered to remain open, and every one carried
+away some part of the pavement, which consequently soon became
+despoiled; it was rectangular, and measured twenty-four feet by
+fourteen. There are still some fragments of it in several houses at
+Murviedro. A priest of that town, Don Diego Puch, an antiquarian, took a
+drawing of it, which he afterwards had painted at Valencia on the tiles
+fabricated there, and paved an apartment of his house with them. It was
+likewise copied with the greatest exactness, with small stones perfectly
+similar, in an apartment of the library belonging to the archiepiscopal
+palace, as we have already stated."
+
+Swinburne also mentions a mosaic pavement which he saw at Barcelona,
+upon the site of what he believed to have been a temple of Neptune. In
+it were represented "two large green figures of tritons, holding a shell
+in each hand; between them a sea-horse, and on the sides a serpent and a
+dolphin."
+
+In October of 1901 a very important and beautiful mosaic was discovered
+at Italica. It is known as "the mosaic of Bacchus," the worship of which
+deity, says Se�or Quintero, was probably general in Andalusia, owing to
+her wealth of vines. This mosaic was found at a depth of six feet six
+inches below the surface of the soil, and measures twenty-one feet
+square. It is believed to have formed the pavement of a Roman
+dining-chamber.
+
+Mosaic in the manner of the Greeks and Romans seems in Spain to have
+disappeared with the Visigoths. That it was known to these is told us by
+Saint Isidore:--"Pavimenta originem apud graecos habent elaboratae arte
+picturae, litostrata parvulis crustis ac tesselis tinctis in varios
+colores."[66]
+
+  [66] _Tessela_ and _crusta_ are defined by him as follows: "Tesselae
+       sunt e quibus domicilia sternuntur a tesseris nominata, id est
+       quadratis lapillis, per diminutionem."
+
+       "Crustae sunt tabulae marmoris. Unde et marmorari parietes et
+       constati dicuntur. Qui autem marmora secandi in crustas rationem
+       excogitaverunt non constat. Fiunt autem arena et ferro serraque in
+       praetenui linea premente arenas, tractuque ipse secante: sed
+       crassior arena plus erodet marmoris. Nam tenuis fabricis et
+       polituris accomodata est."
+
+                           [Illustration: LI
+                           DOOR OF THE MIHRAB
+              (_Showing mosaic-work. Cordova Cathedral_)]
+
+It is impossible to affirm with any confidence that glazed earthenware,
+whether in the form of tiles or other objects, was manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors during the Cordovese Caliphate, or the period of the
+kinglings of Taifa. No trace of it has been discovered among the scanty
+ruins of Medina Az-zahar�[67] and Az-zahira--ancient palaces of
+Cordova--or in the marvellous mosque. We know, however, that towards the
+seventh century the Arabs borrowed from Byzantium the mosaic-work of
+tessons known as _psephosis fsefysa_, and this, or something similar,
+was used, though probably to a small extent, among the Muslims of the
+Spanish Caliphate. Although, towards the middle of the thirteenth
+century, the historian Aben-Said, a native of Granada, recorded that in
+Al-Andalus "is made a kind of _mofassass_ which is called in the East
+_alfoseifesa_," remains of this elaborate product only exist to-day at
+Cordova, where patches may yet be seen lining the dome of the _mirhab_
+in the vast _aljama_ (Plate li.). The mosaic in question is stated to
+have been a gift from the Byzantine emperor to the sultan Al-Hakem, and
+was set in place by a skilled workman, a Greek, who, like the offering
+itself, proceeded from Constantinople.
+
+  [67] Among these ruins, at five miles' distance from the city, pieces
+       of common brick have come to light; but no glazed pottery of any
+       kind, whether as _foseifesa_, _azulejos_, or mosaic.
+
+During his stay at Cordova this Greek was helped by certain of the
+Sultan's slaves, who thus acquired the secrets of the craft, and
+practised it thereafter.[68]
+
+  [68] Dozy's version of _The History of Almagreb_, by Ibn-Adzar� the
+       Moor; p. 253.
+
+Rodrigo Amador de los Rios contends, however, that this decoration is
+in no sense a true mosaic, but just a tempera painting executed on the
+wall and overlaid with cubes of glass. In any case, no other specimen of
+such work has been discovered in any part of the Peninsula.
+
+By the time of the Almohade invasion or very shortly after--that is,
+towards the twelfth century,--the Spanish Moors had grown acquainted
+with glazed earthenware. Indeed, the Almohades are believed by some
+authorities to have actually introduced it. Gestoso, on the contrary,
+suggests that Spain may have transmitted it to Africa. However this may
+be, the Almohades used it largely in the decoration of their homes and
+public buildings in Andalusia; first as _aliceres_ or bands composed of
+smallish pieces running round a room, and subsequently in the more
+effective and more useful form of _azulejos_ proper. The Spanish Moors
+employed the word _almofassass_ to designate both _aliceres_ and
+_azulejos_. Nevertheless, the two were not identical, although Ria�o
+takes them to be so. He says: "The earliest tiles or _azulejos_ made in
+Spain are composed of small pieces let into the wall, forming
+geometrical patterns." These, in fact, were _aliceres_. It is not so
+easy to define an _azulejo_. We read in Aben-Said, quoted by
+Al-Makkari: "There is another kind of work employed for paving houses.
+It is called _azzulech�_ and resembles _mofassass_. It has wonderful
+colouring, and replaces the coloured marble used by the people of the
+East to decorate their chambers."
+
+This definition is not completely clear. Those of the Christian-Spanish
+writers are not more satisfactory. Covarrubias calls these objects
+"small bricks, square and of other shapes, used for lining chambers in
+the mansions of the wealthy, or in garden paths." Nebrija calls them
+_tessela pavimenticia_, adding that they bear the name of _azulejos_
+because the earliest ones were of a blue colour--a statement which Dozy
+supports by instancing the Persian-Arabic _zaward_ or "blue stone."
+
+Gestoso resolves the question sufficiently for our purpose by showing
+that the term _azulejo_ is usually applied to square tiles of a largish
+size, the length of whose sides varies between eleven centimetres and
+eighteen centimetres, _aliceres_ being properly the smaller strips or
+pieces (technically known as _cintas_ or _verduguillos_) used in a
+bordering or frieze. Other decorative pieces of small dimensions,
+invented in the fifteenth century, were called _olambres_ or
+_olambrillas_, and served to lend variety to the red or yellow brickwork
+of a pavement or a floor.
+
+The production of _azulejos_ in Spain may thus be traced to as far back
+as the twelfth century. By far the most important centre of the craft
+was Seville. Here, from the twelfth until the fourteenth century, was
+made the glazed and decorative tiling which consisted of small pieces of
+monochrome earthenware--black, white, green, blue, or yellow--cut one by
+one, and pieced together in the manner of a true mosaic. This process,
+says Gestoso, was lengthy, difficult, and dear. In the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries the same mosaic would often take the form of a
+series of narrow, white, ribbon-like strips, with coloured interspaces.
+Specimens of this "ribbon-work tiling" exist to-day in the Patio de Las
+Doncellas of the Alc�zar (Plate lii.). Towards the sixteenth century the
+Sevillano potters discovered a simpler way of making effective and
+artistic _azulejos_, which they called the _cuerda seca_ process. This
+novel method consisted in pressing a wood or metal mould upon the
+unbaked tile, in such a manner that the outline of the pattern remained
+in slight relief. This outline was next brushed over with a mixture
+of manganese and grease, which turns, in baking, very nearly black. The
+body of the pattern was then filled in with the various colours, which
+the greasy line completely separated, and thus prepared, the tile was
+rendered permanent by firing.
+
+                           [Illustration: LII
+                  MOSAIC OF THE PATIO DE LAS DONCELLAS
+                        (_Alc�zar of Seville_)]
+
+This process, in which the patterns are nearly always geometrical,
+remained in general use until about the year 1550, when it began to be
+superseded by two others, known respectively as the processes of
+"cuenca" and "Pisano".
+
+The _cuenca_ tile was simple and of excellent effect. The pattern,
+stamped from a metal mould, remained in bas-relief,--a characteristic
+which caused these objects to be also known as _azulejos_ "_de
+relieve_". The shelving border of each hollow stamped into the tile thus
+formed a kind of natural barrier which kept the colour there deposited
+from mingling with its neighbours. When of a larger size, and joined in
+pairs to form between each two a single motive (_ladrillo por tabla_),
+these _azulejos_ were often employed for decorating roofs and ceilings.
+
+The tiles which bear the name of their inventor, Francesco Niculoso
+Pisano the Italian, who lived and worked for many years at Seville, date
+from about the same time as the "cuenca" _azulejos_. In the case of the
+_Pisano_ tile, there is no indentation caused by the imprint of a mould,
+the surface being merely coated with a monochrome glaze, painted upon
+and fired, the decoration thus remaining flat all over. Commonly the
+ground is white or yellow, with the colour of the pattern shaded blue,
+or black, or deepish purple. This process, which lent itself to most
+elaborate and effective schemes of ornament, remained in vogue until the
+eighteenth century, and was practised, not only by Pisano himself, but
+by a long succession of his pupils, followers, and imitators.
+
+                          [Illustration: LIII
+                      ANDALUSIAN NON-LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1480-1495. Osma Collection_)]
+
+Such were the processes in use among the _azulejo_-makers of old
+Seville. Specimens of their craftsmanship which yet survive and
+illustrate the various styles and epochs may be thus enumerated:--
+
+(1) Mosaic tile-work, such as appears in Seville at the time of the
+Almohade invasion. A fragment of this kind of work forms part of the
+collection of Se�or Osma, and proceeds from the church of San Andr�s.
+Tiles and smaller pieces of mosaic-work, coloured in malachite green and
+white, were also found in 1899 and 1900, in the upper walls of the
+renowned Torre del Oro, or "Golden Tower," erected in the year 1220,
+and which is popularly thought to derive its venerable title from the
+sparkle of the sun upon its _azulejos_. Another piece of primitive
+mosaic, measuring rather less than a yard square, and containing
+star-shaped geometrical devices, was found in 1890 beneath the floor of
+the cathedral; while mosaics of a later age, including the more
+elaborate _lacer�a_ patterns that resemble ribbon, are preserved in the
+Patio de las Doncellas of the Alc�zar, in the Casa de Olea, and in the
+parish churches of San Est�ban, San Gil, and Omnium Sanctorum.
+
+(2) A small group of curious tiles, believed to be anterior to the reign
+of Pedro the First, has come to light some years ago, in the churches of
+San Andr�s and Santa Marina, and in the Claustro del Lagarto of the
+cathedral. Those of San Andr�s are of white earthenware, glazed in the
+same colour and stamped from a mould with the figures of two wolves in
+fairly bold relief (see tailpiece to this chapter). Traces of a glaze of
+malachite green are on the bodies of these wolves. The _azulejos_ of the
+church of Santa Marina, also discovered recently, are examined by Se�or
+Osma in his pamphlet _Azulejos sevillanos del siglo xiii_ (Madrid,
+1902). They measure about three and a half inches square, and bear
+devices of a castle and an eagle, stamped in the diagonal direction of
+the tile, showing that this was fixed upon the wall in lozenge fashion.
+The tiles are bathed upon their surface with what is termed by Osma "the
+semi-transparent, caramel-coloured glaze peculiar to the pottery of
+Moorish Spain."[69] Upon this ground is stamped the decoration,--the
+eagles in the blackish purple of baked manganese, the castles without
+additional colour, so as to be distinguished only by their outline from
+the yellowish surface of the tile.
+
+  [69] According to Gestoso, the colours in use among the Almohades
+       consisted of green, black, caramel or honey, and deep purple.
+       These colours underwent no change until the sixteenth century.
+
+The _azulejos_ of the Claustro del Lagarto of the cathedral are three in
+number, and were found in 1888. Two of them are stamped with a castle of
+a single tower described within a shield, and the third with a Greek
+cross. These are considered by Osma to be the only tiles existing at
+this moment which date from the latter third of the thirteenth century.
+In fact, he places their manufacture between the years 1252 and 1269.
+
+                           [Illustration: LIV
+                             _CUENCA_ TILES
+                        (_Alc�zar of Seville_)]
+
+(3) _Cuerda seca_ tiles. Handsome _zocalos_ or dadoes of these tiles are
+in the Casa de los Pinelos, and in the chapels of the palaces of the
+Dukes of Alba and Medinaceli. Gestoso attributes them to the end of the
+fifteenth century or the beginning of the sixteenth. Detached _cuerda
+seca_ tiles are preserved in the municipal museum of arch�ology, while a
+fine pair (Plate liii.) of this class of _azulejos_ belongs to Se�or
+Osma, who considers they were made between 1480 and 1495. They are thus
+coeval with the no less interesting dish of the time of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, of which a reproduction is given opposite page 190.
+
+(4) _Cuenca_ tiles. Quantities of these, dating from the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, may yet be seen in many parts of Seville; for
+instance, in her churches or her convents, in her superb Alc�zar, or in
+the mansions of her old nobility. Probably the most remarkable of all
+are those in the gardens of the Alc�zar, and lining the walls of the
+Pavilion of Charles the Fifth. The devices on these polychrome
+_azulejos_ (16th century; Plate liv.) are very numerous, including men
+and animals, centaurs and other monsters, the Pillars of Hercules, and
+imitations of elaborate dress fabrics.
+
+(5) _Pisano_ tiles. Although some facts have been unearthed concerning
+the Italian Francesco Niculoso Pisano, we do not know precisely in what
+year he came to Seville, or in what year he died. Davillier thought it
+probable that he had studied at Faenza or at Caffagiolo. At all events,
+it was Pisano who broadly launched the art of the Sevillian potters on
+the stream of the Renaissance.[70] I have stated that the tiles which
+bear his name are painted on a white or yellow ground. Consequently
+their surface is flat, without the ridges and depressions of the
+_cuenca_ or the _cuerda seca_ methods. We find _Pisano_ tiles applied to
+various objects, such as tombs, altars, friezes, and archivolts. This
+artist, says Gestoso, further introduced the use of two new
+colours,--violet and rose. Several of his best productions are still
+intact, including the doorway of the church of the monastery of Santa
+Paula (in which he was assisted by a Spanish master, Pedro Millan), and
+the altar of the Catholic Sovereigns in the Alc�zar. Both these
+masterpieces were executed in the year 1504, and bear Pisano's
+signature. The doorway of Santa Paula is described by Gestoso as
+consisting of a single body of masonry, distinct from that of the
+building itself, though resting against it, and constructed of bricks
+of uniform size, which show us, by their perfect symmetry, how skilful
+were the masons of that time, with whom the Moorish craftsmanship was
+yet a living power. The doorway is formed by a series of concentric
+Gothic arches resting on slender pillars. The space which forms the
+outer archivolt is most remarkable. Upon a ground of _azulejos_ which
+copy the colour of the brickwork, we see a number of Plateresque designs
+of exquisite beauty, painted in white and blue, with occasional touches
+of other colours. Among the devices are chimeras, war-trophies, volutes,
+chaplets, parapegms, antelopes, masks, and others which are
+characteristic of the Florentine Renaissance. Upon this ground, and
+enclosed by circular garlands in high relief, consisting of polychrome
+fruits and flowers, are seven medallions containing figures of male and
+female saints, except the one which is upon the keystone, and which
+represents the birth of Christ. In this medallion the figures are
+enamelled in white upon a cobalt-blue ground, recalling, as also do the
+garlands, the work of the celebrated della Robbia.[71] In the rest of
+the medallions the figures are glazed in brilliant colours. In the
+three medallions upon the left, beginning with the lowest one, we see,
+upon the first, Saint Helen; upon the second, two saints in monkish
+dress; and upon the third, Saint Peter and Saint Paul. On the medallions
+of the other side are another saint dressed as a monk, San Cosm�, San
+Dami�n, and San Roque. The spaces on either side of the archivolt are
+covered with tiles which represent a landscape. In each of the upper
+angles is an angel holding a large tablet with IHS in ornamental Gothic
+character upon a black ground. These letters, and also the angels and
+the frames of the tablets, are enamelled in gold. Beneath each tablet is
+an angel standing with extended wings upon a bracket of lustred
+earthenware, and holding an open book. The brickwork of the door is
+closed by a plain impost supporting a small battlement covered with
+_cuenca_ tiles, and crowned with a cornice of flamboyant ornaments
+alternating with the heads of cherubs glazed in white, and with a white
+marble cross in the centre. The tympanum is embellished by a superb
+shield carved in high relief upon white marble with the arms of Castile,
+Le�n, Aragon, and Sicily, surmounted by a royal crown and the eagle with
+the nimbus. Beside this shield are two smaller ones of _azulejos_
+painted with the yoke and sheaf of arrows, and the motto T[=A]TO
+M[=O]TA. The ground on which are executed these three shields occupies
+the whole tympanum, and is covered with Plateresque devices including
+two tablets, on one of which we read the letters S.P.Q.R., and on the
+other, PISANO. Above the first of these tablets is another of an oval
+shape, bearing the word NICULOSO. Lastly, at the base of the archivolt,
+and on the left-hand side of the spectator, is a very small rectangular
+tablet with this inscription:--
+
+                                NICVLOSO
+
+                              FRANCISCO-I-
+
+                              TALIANO-MEF
+
+                           ECIT INELAGNO DEI
+
+                                � 154 �
+
+  [70] Gestoso says that florid Gothic and Renaissance motives are found
+       occasionally in the older _cuenca_ tiles. This was, however, quite
+       exceptional.
+
+  [71] A plaque belongs to Se�or Gestoso which proceeds from the
+       demolished Mudejar church of San Miguel at Seville. It measures
+       fifteen inches high by ten wide, and is decorated with a
+       representation, in bas-relief, of the Coronation of the Virgin. The
+       eyebrows, eyelids, and lips of the figures are executed in cobalt
+       upon a thick layer of white glaze, and strongly recall the method
+       of Lucca della Robbia. Gestoso considers that this plaque was made
+       in the latter part of the fourteenth century. If so, it is
+       antecedent to the work of della Robbia (whose _Resurrection_ upon
+       one of the doors of the Duomo of Florence dates from 1438) by a
+       good many years. A similar example, also by an unknown hand and
+       representing the Coronation, is in the chapel of the Sagrario of
+       Seville Cathedral.
+
+The altar in the Alc�zar of the same city, and which is known as that of
+the Catholic Sovereigns (Plate lv.), is entirely covered with "Pisano"
+_azulejos_ measuring sixteen centimetres square. Imbedded in the centre
+is a picture, also of painted tiles, representing the visit of the
+Virgin to Saint Elizabeth. This picture measures five feet in height by
+three feet eight inches in breadth. Beneath it is the figure of a
+patriarch resting his head upon his hand. Boughs with large flowers
+issue from his breast, and among the flowers are half-length figures of
+the prophets, together with those of Jesus and the Virgin, the whole of
+this decoration forming a frame to the central picture. The rest of the
+altar is profusely decorated with designs in the Renaissance style,
+consisting of vases, animals, genii, and the emblems of Ferdinand and
+Isabella. In the centre of the tiling which forms the altar-front is a
+circular picture made of _azulejos_ surrounded by a garland of fruits
+and laurel leaves, and representing the Annunciation, garland and
+picture being supported by two monsters with the tails of dragons and
+the upper parts of women. Large flaming torches rest between the
+out-stretched arms of the monsters, and round about or springing from
+them are flowers, animals, cornucopias, and other decoration. The
+entire _retablo_ is painted lightish blue and white upon a yellow
+ground, except the larger picture and its decorative border, which is of
+a deeper blue. A small tablet beneath the Virgin's feet contains the
+words NICULOSO FRANCESCO ITALIANO ME FECIT, and on the pilaster
+represented on the left hand of the same picture is added the date,
+1504. As Gestoso, Davillier, and others have remarked, it is evident
+that while the rest of the altar is pure Renaissance-Plateresque, the
+pictures copied on the tiles are of a northern school. Probably they
+were designed for Niculoso by one of the various German or Flemish
+masters who at that time were resident in Seville.
+
+                           [Illustration: LV
+                    ALTAR OF THE CATHOLIC SOVEREIGNS
+                        (_Alc�zar of Seville_)]
+
+Another altar which was formerly in the same palace, but which has
+disappeared, was also painted by this craftsman. It was described by
+Cean Bermudez as containing scenes from the life of the Virgin, the
+Trinity, and the two Saints John, and bore the same date as the altar
+which is yet existing, namely, 1504.
+
+Among the other works of Niculoso are the altar of the church of
+Tentudia, the tomb of I�igo Lopez in the church of Santa Ana in the
+quarter of Triana, and a tile-picture representing, similarly to the
+one which forms the centre of the altar in the Alc�zar, the Virgin's
+visit to Saint Elizabeth. This picture formerly belonged to the kings of
+Portugal, and is now in the museum of Amsterdam.[72]
+
+  [72] Certain _azulejos_, signed by Niculoso and dated 1500, were
+       formerly existing in the palace of the Counts of El Real de
+       Valencia in the city of this name. These tiles were executed in
+       relief, and proved that Niculoso did not work exclusively in the
+       Italian style.
+
+Such were the decorative _azulejos_ which made the potteries of Seville
+famous throughout Europe, and which are known to have been exported to
+Italy, Portugal, and even England.[73] The names of several hundred
+medi�val and post-medi�val makers of these Seville tiles have been
+exhumed and published by Gestoso.
+
+  [73] In Portugal, tiles which Gestoso believes to have been made at
+       Seville, exist in Coimbra cathedral, the church of San Roque at
+       Lisbon, and the two palaces of Cintra. In our own country, Seville
+       tiles are stated by Marryat and Demmin to line the walls of the
+       Mayor's Chapel at Bristol, whither they were doubtless conveyed by
+       one of the numerous English merchants who traded between Spain and
+       England, and who are known to have made their home at Seville in
+       the sixteenth century. Another tile of Seville workmanship,
+       proceeding from Haccombe Church, Devonshire, is in the British
+       Museum.
+
+The general title of the Spanish potter was _ollero_, a comprehensive
+term which reaches from the most ambitious _azulejero_ to the maker of
+the meanest kitchen-ware. The _olleros_ of older Seville produced for
+centuries, not only glazed and coloured tiling by the processes already
+indicated, but countless other objects such as brims of wells,
+apothecary's jars, baptismal fonts, and dishes of every shape and size.
+They used a general mark (the tower of the Giralda) to stamp their
+pottery; but private marks are nearly always absent. The facts that have
+appeared in recent years concerning these artificers are seldom
+interesting. The mere mention of a name is meaningless, or even
+perplexing, seeing that a Moor or Mudejar would frequently assume the
+name and surname of a Christian. Nevertheless, Gestoso has brought to
+light important notices concerning one or two, and in particular a
+document dating from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, relating to a
+celebrated potter of that period named Fernan Martinez Guijarro. This
+document, which is dated 1479, describes Martinez as "a very great
+master in the art of making _azulejos_, fonts, and all the things
+pertaining to his trade, insomuch that none other in all this kingdom is
+like unto him," and subsequently, "considering him to be so excellent a
+craftsman that persons come hither from Portugal and other parts to
+purchase and to carry off his ware." It is further stated that Martinez
+Guijarro was in wealthy circumstances ("hombre rrico e de mucha rrenta e
+fasyenda"). His _talleres_ or workshops were in the _barrio_ of Triana,
+and included (as we learn from one of the documents copied by the same
+investigator) a separate department for the manufacture or storage of
+lustred ware.
+
+Unfortunately, even Gestoso is unable to point to any piece of tiling or
+other pottery now existing, as being unquestionably executed by this
+master.
+
+Another Sevillian potter of exceptional merit was Crist�bal de Augusta,
+who worked in the latter half of the sixteenth century, and left his
+name upon the _azulejo_ dadoes of the Halls of Charles the Fifth in the
+Alc�zar. The style of these most brilliant tiles is pure Renaissance,
+and forms a worthy continuation of the splendid work of Niculoso.
+Augusta, indeed, is termed in the Archives of the Alc�zar "master of
+making tiles in the Pisano manner" (_del pisano_).[74] Some tilemakers
+of little note succeeded him, but even the names of these are carefully
+recorded by Gestoso.
+
+  [74] The _pisano_ process is believed by Gestoso to have succumbed
+       before the _cuenca_. He says he is aware of no _pisano_ tiling
+       which can be dated from as late as the second half of the
+       seventeenth century.
+
+Seville was thus the principal centre of the craft of decorative
+tile-making. _Azulejos_ were also made at Barcelona and other towns in
+Catalu�a, at Talavera de la Reina, Burgos, Toledo, Granada, and
+Valencia, in several towns of Aragon, and probably at Cordova. Ria�o
+quotes a letter written about the year 1422, from the wife of the
+Admiral of Castile to the abbess of the nunnery of Santo Domingo at
+Toledo, requesting that a number of _azulejos_ be sent to her. "She
+alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was
+expecting a master potter from Seville to place the tiles in their
+proper places. This shows us" (continues Ria�o) "that it was only in the
+province of Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into
+geometrical sections and mosaic patterns."
+
+The meaning of this passage is obscure. Ria�o speaks of painted tiles
+and _azulejos_ as though they were distinct objects, and yet they are
+essentially the same. Again, if only Andalusia was able to produce such
+tiles, why did the Almirante's wife order them from Toledo? Perhaps the
+faulty English of Ria�o's handbook is responsible, but, as it stands,
+this passage tells us practically nothing. In any case, abundant
+evidence exists to show that large quantities of Mudejar and
+Renaissance tiles were manufactured at Toledo. In general appearance,
+they are similar to those of Seville.
+
+Ram�rez de Arellano believes that decorative tiles were manufactured at
+Cordova in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and quotes, in proof
+of this, the names of "maestros de hacer vidriado" or makers of glazed
+ware, who resided at this ancient capital. One of these craftsmen was
+Alonso Rodriguez the younger, who, on June 7th, 1574, sold to a canon of
+the cathedral ten thousand white and green tiles of a common kind
+(_ladrillos_), probably employed for roofing. The price was three ducats
+the thousand. On April 10th, 1598, Juan Sanchez engaged to supply the
+same temple with the same quantity of glazed tiles (_tejas_) for
+roofing, coloured white, green, and yellow, at sixteen _maravedis_ each
+tile.
+
+_Azulejos_ were certainly made at Granada in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, and probably earlier.
+
+                           [Illustration: LVI
+                            THE GATE OF WINE
+           (_Showing polychrome tiling. Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+In a passage of the Alhambra palace leading from the Patio de la Alberca
+to the Cuarto Dorado, a space was laid bare not many years ago,
+containing the original _mostagueras_ or small tiles used for flooring,
+glazed in two colours; and in the same building, although in
+constantly diminishing quantities, are large numbers of tiles which date
+from the time of the Spanish Moors. There has been a good deal of
+discussion as to whether the roofs of the Alhambra were originally
+covered with decorative tiles. Swinburne (who must not, however, be
+taken as the safest of authorities) wrote that "in Moorish times the
+building was covered with large painted and glazed tiles, of which some
+few are yet to be seen."
+
+Indifferent Renaissance tiles, made in the reign of Philip the Fifth,
+are still preserved in parts of the Alhambra.
+
+Excellent polychrome _cuerda seca_ tiles (fourteenth century), in white,
+green, yellow, blue, and black, are over the horseshoe archway of the
+Gate of Wine of the Alhambra (Plate lvi.). According to G�mez
+Moreno,[75] they were manufactured here, as were the Moorish _azulejos_,
+yellow, black, white, violet, and sky-blue, in the Mirador de
+Daraxa.[76] The archives of the Moorish palace also state that towards
+the close of the sixteenth century Antonio Tenorio, whose pottery was
+situated in the Secano, and consequently within a stone's-throw of the
+Casa Real, made several sets of _azulejos_ for the Hall of the
+Abencerrajes. Good Morisco tiles, dating from the same period and
+wrought by craftsmen such as Gaspar Hernandez, Pedro Tenorio, and the
+members of the Robles family, are in the Sala de Comares, and in one of
+the rooms of the Casa de los Tiros.
+
+  [75] _Gu�a de Granada_; pp. 35, 36.
+
+  [76] Pure red is the rarest of the colours employed in Moorish
+       tile-work. It is, however, found in a single part of the Alhambra;
+       namely, among the superb tile-decoration of the Torre de la
+       Cautiva.
+
+       Gestoso says that red was practically unknown among the Seville
+       potters. Sometimes, however, in coats of arms, a space that should
+       have properly been gules was left uncoloured in the actual making
+       of the tile, and painted red with oil-colour after firing.
+
+From the thirteenth century until the eighteenth, excellent _azulejos_
+were made in Catalu�a. Specimens of every period exist in the
+collections of Don Francisco Rogent and Don Jos� Font y Gum�, of
+Barcelona, and Don Luis Santacana, of Martorell. The tiles belonging to
+these gentlemen proceed from the cathedral and other temples of
+Barcelona, and from the monasteries or castles of Poblet, Santas Creus,
+Montserrat, Marmell�, San Miguel de Ervol, Centellas, Torre Pallaresa,
+San Miguel del Fay, and Vallpellach.[77]
+
+  [77] Coloured plates of Catalan and other Spanish _azulejos_ are
+       published with Garc�a Llans�'s text in the _Historia General del
+       Arte_; Vol. II.
+
+Another region which has long been celebrated for its _azulejeria_ is
+the kingdom of Valencia. Even in the eighteenth century, when this craft
+was generally in a state of great decadence, Valencian tiles were
+thoroughly well made, although the patterns on them were defective.
+Laborde pronounced them "the best executed and most elegant in Europe,"
+and further said of this locality; "the painted earthenware tiles or
+_azulejos_ are used in the country, but only a small part of them; a
+great many are sent into the interior of Spain as well as to Cadiz,
+where they are shipped for Spanish America, and to Marseilles, whence
+they are conveyed into Africa."
+
+The same writer inserts an interesting account of the manufacture of
+these _azulejos_. "It is at Valencia that the tiles of earthenware are
+made, with which they incrust walls and pave apartments: those tiles are
+of a clayey earth, which is found in the territories of Quarte near
+Valencia; they harden the earth long after soaking it in water; the
+tiles are formed in moulds, and are dried in the sun; they are then
+beaten with a piece of square wood of the dimensions of which they are
+wanted. They are then put into the oven, where they undergo a slight
+baking. As soon as they are done they are glazed, and are afterwards
+painted in water colours with whatever subject is intended to be
+represented. The tiles are then replaced in the oven so as not to touch
+one another, and that the action of the fire may penetrate them all
+equally: as the colours change by baking, the workmen apply them anew in
+proportion to the changes that take place; the red alone alters
+entirely. The varnish with which they are glazed is made with lead, tin,
+and white sand. These three substances are ground in a mill to powder,
+which is mixed with water, to form a paste, and baked in the oven; it is
+again pounded and put into the oven, where it crystallises: being once
+more reduced to powder and diluted with water, it becomes varnish. There
+are two kinds of it; one is whiter than the other, though the same
+materials are used: the mode of mixing alone makes the difference; the
+whiter, the clearer the tiles. It takes a certain number of tiles to
+form a picture: they are of different dimensions; the smallest are three
+inches nine lines, the largest seven inches nine lines. The price varies
+according to the size of the tile, the beauty of the varnish, and the
+variety of the drawings: the lowest price is eight pesos (25s.) a
+thousand, and the highest 100 pesos or �15, 12_s._ 6_d._ There is a
+considerable demand for them; they are superior both in beauty and
+strength to those used in Holland."
+
+                          [Illustration: LVII
+                     TILES OF THE DECADENT PERIOD]
+
+Bourgoing, author of the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_, described, in
+1789, the same product in the following terms: "L'industrie des
+Valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les productions de leur sol.
+Il contient une esp�ce de terre dont ils font ces carreaux de fa�ence
+color�e, connus sous le nom d'_Azulejos_, et qu'on ne fabrique qu'�
+Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en rev�t leurs lambris; on y
+peint les sujets les plus compliqu�s, tels par exemple qu'un bal masqu�,
+une f�te de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la seule qui ne puisse �tre
+fix�e sur cette esp�ce de fa�ence; elle s'altere enti�rement par la
+cuisson."[78]
+
+  [78] Vol. iii., p. 56.
+
+For the amusement of my readers, I insert an illustration of common
+Spanish tiles of the decadent period (Plate lvii.), displaying
+considerable liveliness combined with reckless ignorance of
+draughtsmanship. A class of these degenerate tiles, made in large
+quantities at Seville in the eighteenth century, is known as _azulejos
+de monter�a_ or "hunting-tiles," since episodes of the chase form one
+of the favourite themes of their design.
+
+Although it passed through a long period of prostration, embracing the
+greater part of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, at no time has
+the manufacture of decorative Spanish tiles succumbed completely. Of
+recent years it has revived surprisingly at Seville, Barcelona, and
+Segovia; and at the first of these cities the older _azulejos_, and
+particularly those in the _cuenca_ style, are imitated to perfection.
+
+In the cheapest kinds of modern tiling, such as is used for corridors
+and kitchens, a common device is a series of repeated curves and dots
+which evidently has its source in Arabic lettering. Indeed, the
+ornamental and attractive written characters of the Spanish Moors,
+rendered familiar to their rivals through long centuries of intercourse,
+seem to have constantly found favour with the Christian Spaniards. The
+_fuero_ of Jaca, dated A.D. 1064, tells us that a Christian prince of
+Spain, Don Sancho Ramirez, was accustomed to write his signature in
+Arabic lettering. Meaningless inscriptions in the same language, and
+evidently executed by a Christian hand, are engraved on objects in the
+Royal Armoury; and Se�or Osma describes in an interesting pamphlet
+(_Los letreros ornamentales en la cer�mica morisca del Siglo XV._) how,
+in the pottery of older Spain, a word in Arabic such as _alafia_
+("prosperity" or "blessing") would often be corrupted by Morisco
+craftsmen into a motive of a purely ornamental character, and which
+would only in this sense be comprehended and appreciated by the
+Christian.[79]
+
+  [79] _Alafia_ is written in Neshki, [Illustration], which word, says
+       Se�or Osma, by suppressing the diacritical points and prolonging
+       some of the lines, was converted by the potter into the
+       conventional and exclusively decorative device:--
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+                    HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED POTTERY
+
+Probably no pottery in the world possesses greater loveliness or
+interest than the celebrated, yet even to this day mysterious, lustred
+ware of Moorish Spain. Our knowledge of the early history of this ware
+is still imperfect. In modern times, attention was first drawn to the
+lustre process by M. Riocreux, of the S�vres Museum. In spite, however,
+of the subsequent monographs and researches of Davillier and other
+authorities, the origin of lustred pottery is yet a problem which awaits
+solution. Until some years ago it was believed to have had its source in
+Persia, where many specimens have been discovered in the form of tiles
+and other objects; but this belief was afterwards shaken by Fouquet, who
+unearthed at Fostat in Egypt, in the year 1884, specimens of lustred
+ware which are known to date from the eleventh century. Saladin, too,
+affirms that he has seen upon the mosque of Kairuan lustred plaques with
+inscriptions recording them to have been presented, between A.D. 864 and
+875, by the emir Ibrahim Ahmed-ibn-el-Aglab.
+
+Whatever these facts may signify, it appears from a statement by the
+geographer Edrisi that lustred ware was made in Spain as early as the
+twelfth century. "Here," said the writer, speaking of Calatayud, "is
+produced the gold-coloured pottery which is exported to all countries."
+The next allusion to it is by the traveller Ibn-Batutah, who visited
+certain parts of Spain in the middle of the fourteenth century. "At
+M�laga," he wrote, "is made the beautiful golden pottery which is
+exported to the farthest countries." These passages refer respectively
+to Aragon and Andalusia. The same ware was produced in Murcia. Ibn-Said,
+quoted by Al-Makkari, mentions the "glazed and gilded porcelain" of
+Murcia, M�laga, and Almer�a, calling it "strange and admirable." It was
+also manufactured, probably in larger quantities than in any other part
+of Spain, in many towns and villages of the kingdom of Valencia, such as
+Carcer, Alaquaz, Moncada, Quarte, Villalonga, Traiguera, and Manises. In
+the _Excellencies of the Kingdom of Valencia_, written by Eximenes and
+published in 1499, we find it stated that "surpassing everything else is
+the ware of Manises, gilded and painted with such mastery that all the
+world is enamoured thereof, insomuch that the pope, the cardinals, and
+princes send for it, astonished that objects of such excellence can be
+made of earth."[80]
+
+  [80] "_Sobre tot es la bellessa de la obra de manizes daurada �
+       maestriuolment pintada que ja tot lo mon ha enamorat ent[=a]t que
+       lo papa, � los cardenals � lo princeps del mon per special gracia
+       la requeren � stan marauellats que d'terra se puxa fer obra axi
+       excellent � noble._"
+
+Other writers on the same locality, such as Diago and Escolano, author
+of the _Historia de la insigne y coronada ciudad y reino de Valencia_
+(Valencia, 1610, 1611), confirm this eulogy of Eximenes. According to
+Escolano, Valencian ware was "of such loveliness that in return for that
+which the Italians send us from Pisa, we send them boatloads of it from
+Manises." One of the most recent of authorities on lustred ware remarks
+that "in the fifteenth century ornamental vases in the (Spanish-Moorish)
+wares appear to have been commanded from Spain by wealthy Florentines,
+as is evident from the Medici arms and impresa in fig. 40; others
+bearing the Florentine lily (fig. 41) seem to have been ordered from the
+same city." The illustrations to which the author of this monograph[81]
+refers, depict a vase and a boccale, both in lustred ware, and which it
+is extremely probable were manufactured at Manises.
+
+  [81] Wallis, _The Oriental Influence on Italian Ceramic Art_. London;
+       1900.
+
+The same ware was also possibly made in Catalu�a, where pieces of it
+have been found among the ruins of the village of Las Casas. _La
+Alhambra_, a small magazine which is published at Granada, contains, in
+the number dated September 30th, 1901, an account of these fragments by
+their finder, Joaqu�n Vilaplana.
+
+Some years ago the Balearic Islands were also thought to have produced
+this pottery. One of the earliest and most fervent champions of this
+theory, now definitely shown to be erroneous, was Baron Davillier. This
+gentleman, in some respects an excellent authority on Spanish ceramics,
+relied too strongly on certain assurances made him by a Se�or Bover, and
+ended by declaring that in the museums of Paris and London he had
+himself seen lustred plates which bore the arms of Ynca in the
+Balearics, proving them to have been manufactured at that town.
+
+However, a Majorcan arch�ologist, named Alvaro Campaner, refuted one by
+one Davillier's points of argument, and showed beyond all question that
+both the plates of Ynca and the arms which decorated them were simply
+nonexistent, and that the term _Majolica_, deriving from _Majorica_,
+applies to pottery in general, and not with any preference to lustred
+ware. Campaner also suggested very ingeniously that the word _Majolica_
+was probably applied by the Italians to Catalan or Valencian pottery
+conveyed to Italy in vessels themselves belonging to the Balearics, and
+which were in the habit of completing their cargoes in the ports of
+Barcelona and Valencia, and he added that this suggestion is supported
+by the fact that specimens of lustred ware are far more often met with
+on the Balearic coast than in the towns and villages of the interior. It
+is only fair to state that Davillier frankly and fully recognized the
+value of Campaner's refutation.
+
+As to the methods of producing lustred pottery, the chemical
+investigations practised by Riocreux, Brogniart, Carand, and others,
+have shown that the metals used to produce the characteristic reflex
+which gives the ware its name were copper and silver, entering into the
+composition of an extremely thin glaze extended over the surface of the
+pottery, and employed, sometimes together, and sometimes separately. It
+is obvious that the lustre produced by copper would be deeper, redder,
+and less delicate than that produced by silver, while varying gradations
+would be obtainable by the mixture of both metals. It is also beyond
+doubt that the oldest specimens of this pottery extant to-day are those
+which contain the palest and most pearly lustre, and consequently the
+largest quantity of the costlier metal. In those of later date there is
+an evident inferiority, both in colour, lustre, and design. In fact, two
+separate, or nearly separate, epochs of this branch of Spanish pottery
+are pointed out by Se�or M�lida, who gives the name of _Mudejar_ to
+lustred objects manufactured at an earlier time by Moorish artists
+working in the cities captured by the Christians, and that of _Morisco_
+to the second or inferior class produced by Morisco craftsmen after the
+reconquest, and distinguished by the coarser and degenerate lustre,
+colouring, and draughtsmanship.
+
+The rarest and most beautiful examples of this ware are naturally those
+which belong to the former class, and consist of various kinds of plates
+and other objects in which elaborate devices such as lions, antelopes,
+and shields of heraldry, often combined with foliage and inscriptions in
+Gothic lettering, are coloured in bistre or pale blue,[82] and rendered
+doubly beautiful by the delicate nacreous lustre.
+
+  [82] In lustred pottery these colours, and particularly blue, are far
+       the commonest. It has been found that other colours, such as green
+       and black, were ill adapted to the lustre process.
+
+In nearly every case it is extremely difficult to determine with any
+certainty the date of manufacture of these objects, as well as the
+locality. Wallis says he is aware of "no example of Spanish lustre
+pottery antecedent to those in the class to which the large Palermo jar
+belongs, and they are not likely to be much earlier than the end of the
+fourteenth century. Happily the celebrated plaque (Plate lviii.)
+formerly belonging to Fortuny, and now in the possession of Excmo Sr.
+Don G. J. de Osma, furnishes an early date, which, according to its
+owner, is between May 1408 and November 1417. Those who know the
+original will remember that it is no less remarkable for the quality of
+its golden lustre than for the grace and elegance of its fanciful
+Oriental design." It is also believed by Se�or Osma that this plaque was
+manufactured in the kingdom of Granada; _i.e._ either at Granada or
+M�laga.
+
+                          [Illustration: LVIII
+                    HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED PLAQUE
+                (_Early 15th Century. Osma Collection_)]
+
+A specimen of Spanish lustred ware more celebrated even than Fortuny's
+plaque is the "vase of the Alhambra" (Plate lix.), which rests to-day in
+a corner of the Sala de las Dos Hermanas. The history of this mighty jar
+is interesting. Popular superstition affirms it to have been discovered,
+filled to the brim with gold, by the Marquis of Mondejar, first of the
+Christian governors of the fortress of Granada. Exposed for many years
+to every stress of weather and to every mutilation at the hands of
+passers-by, it stood, in company with other vases of enormous size,
+upon a rampart which is now the garden terrace known as the Adarves.
+Several of the older travellers have described these vessels or alluded
+to them. Marmol wrote of them as far back as the sixteenth century,
+while the journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the following
+notice;--"Sur la premi�re terrasse par o� l'on entre, et d'o� l'on a de
+la peine � regarder en bas sans estre �blo�y, il y a deux fontaines
+jaillissantes, et tout du long des murs du chasteau, des espaliers
+d'orangers et de grenadiers, avec de grands vases de terre peinte, aussi
+belle que la porcelaine, o� il n'y avoit pour lors, sinon quelques
+fleurs en quelques-uns: mais o� l'on dit que le Marquis de Mondejar
+trouva quantit� d'or que les Mores avaient cach� dans la terre, quand il
+y f�t estably par Ferdinand." The priest Echeverr�a, who forged the
+relics of the ancient Alcazaba of Granada,[83] was careful to repeat
+this fable in the twenty-sixth chapter of his _Paseos por Granada_. The
+first edition of this work was published in 1764, under the assumed name
+of Joseph Romero Yranzo. There were then two vases and part of a third,
+all "lacerated, peeled, and maltreated." The Englishman Swinburne wrote
+in 1776 that below the Towers of the Bell, "on the south-side, on a slip
+of terrace, is the governor's garden, a very pleasant walk, full of fine
+orange and cypress trees and myrtle hedges, but quite abandoned. The
+view it commands is incomparable. Two large vases enamelled with gold
+and azure foliages and characters are the only ornaments left: these
+were taken out of the vaults under the royal apartments." In the second
+edition of Echeverr�a's _Paseos_, which was republished in 1814, it is
+added in a footnote that only a single vase remained, "in a room that
+overlooks the Court of Myrtles." Lozano, however, in his _Antig�edades
+Arabes_, mentions two vases as existing at the same period. Argote de
+Molina (_Nuevos Paseos por Granada_, published about 1808) describes,
+together with the wretchedly executed marble statues in the Sala de las
+Ninfas, the "two or three great porcelain jars whereof some pieces only
+now remain," and reminds us that according to the old tradition these
+statues looked continually towards the vases, which were full of
+treasure. Argote, nevertheless, takes Echeverr�a sharply to task for his
+absurdities upon this theme; and Washington Irving, a diligent gleaner
+in Echeverr�a's somewhat scanty field, makes use of the same material
+for his well-known story.
+
+  [83] I have fully described these forgeries in Chapters II and III of
+       _Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies, and Impressions_.
+
+                           [Illustration: LIX
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE
+                         (_Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+In the time of Owen Jones the one surviving vase, now standing with a
+wooden rail before it in a corner of the Hall of the Two Sisters, still
+occupied the "room that looks upon the Court of Myrtles." Jones wrote of
+it in 1842:--"This beautiful vase was discovered, it is said, full of
+gold in one of the subterranean chambers of the Casa Real. It is at
+present to be seen in a small chamber of the Court of the Fish-pond, in
+which are deposited the archives of the palace. It is engraved in the
+Spanish work by Lozano, _Antig�edades Arabes de Espa�a_, with another of
+the same size, which was broken a few years ago, and the pieces sold to
+a passing traveller. The vase is executed in baked clay, with enamelled
+colours and gold similar to the mosaics."
+
+A more precise description is the following. The vase, which measures
+four feet six inches in height by eight feet two inches and a half in
+circumference, is of common earthenware painted with intricate devices
+fired after painting. This was a difficult operation in a vessel of such
+size; and here, in consequence, the colours have slightly run and
+mingled. Besides these technical flaws, the belly of the vase is broken
+clean in half, and one of the handles is missing. The shape is
+amphoraic, with a moderate downward curve. About the middle, surrounded
+by leaf and stem and geometrical devices effectively intertwined, are
+two antelopes. The vase is coloured blue and caramel upon a delicate
+yellow ground, and has a faint metallic lustre.[84] An Arabic
+inscription is repeated several times, and consists of the words
+"Felicity" and "Welcome."
+
+  [84] This lustre is faint but quite distinguishable, and Rada y Delgado
+       was clearly in error in supposing that there is none.
+
+This vase is believed to date from the fourteenth century; and if we
+judge from the colour and composition of the earth employed, it appears
+probable that it was made at Granada. Together with the other vases
+which have disappeared,[85] it was doubtless meant to serve as a
+receptacle for water, and for decorating the chambers of the palace,
+where it would rest in amphora-fashion on a perforated stand, while
+smaller vases containing flowers would fill the niches which may yet
+be seen in various inner walls of the Alhambra. The belief of Argote[86]
+and many other writers that these niches were intended to receive the
+slippers of the Moors is utterly unfounded.
+
+  [85] The lost jar mentioned by Owen Jones, of which a drawing has been
+       made, was of the same shape as the one which now remains; but in
+       its decoration were included the arms of the Nasrite dynasty of
+       Granada. It is this circumstance which has induced G�mez Moreno to
+       suppose that these vases were the work of Granadino artists.
+
+  [86] "_Los nichos para chinelas_," as he calls them, in describing the
+       Sala de Comares.
+
+Until quite recently all published illustrations of the great _jarr�n de
+la Alhambra_ were inaccurate, and as a rule grotesquely so. Among the
+very worst are those inserted in the handbooks of Ria�o and Contreras. I
+am glad to be able to reproduce an excellent photograph, which both
+corrects the atrocious cuts I have observed elsewhere, and relieves me
+from giving a prolix and possibly a wearisome description of the
+decoration on the vase.
+
+                           [Illustration: LX
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE
+                           (_Madrid Museum_)]
+
+Several other lustred vases of large size are still preserved in Spain
+and other countries. One, proceeding from a Sicilian church, is in the
+museum of Palermo. Wallis, who inserts an illustration, describes it as
+"amphora-shaped, with two large flat handles; pear-shaped body, long
+neck, ribbed at lower part, canellated above, moulded lip. Whitish body,
+tin glaze. Ornament painted in gold lustre on white ground, the pattern
+in parts almost obliterated. Hispano-Moresque. Height, one metre,
+seventeen centimetres."
+
+Another of these great vases belonged to the painter Fortuny, and was
+sold at his death to Prince Basilewsky, for thirty thousand francs. It
+was found by Fortuny at the village of Salar, near Granada, and
+purchased by him at a low price. "The neck and mouth resemble those of
+the Alhambra vase. The ornamentation is distributed about the body of
+the vase in four zones; one of the two central zones has tangent
+circles, and the other an inscription."
+
+                           [Illustration: LXI
+                             LUSTRED TILES
+                          (_Osma Collection_)]
+
+Another large lustred vase is in the museum of Madrid (Plate lx.). It
+was found by a labourer at Hornos in the province of Jaen, and passed
+into the hands of the village priest, who placed it in his church to
+support the font of holy water. In course of time a dealer in
+antiquities, by name Amat, happened to pass that way, observed the vase,
+and made an offer for it to the _padre_. This latter at first refused,
+but subsequently, stimulated by an ignorant though well-intentioned and
+disinterested zeal for bettering the temple, he stipulated that if the
+dealer provided a new support of marble for the font, and paid for white
+washing the church, he might bear off the coveted _jarr�n_.
+Fulfilling these conditions at all speed, he mounted the precious vessel
+on an ass, and briskly strode away. When he had gone a little distance
+the villagers, missing their cherished vase, though unaware, of course,
+of its artistic worth, swarmed angrily about the purchaser, flourished
+their knives and sticks at him, and pelted him with stones. At this he
+called upon the mayor for protection; the mayor provided him with two
+armed men for bodyguard, and, thus defended, the indomitable dealer
+reached Madrid and sold his jar to government for fifteen hundred
+dollars. Its present value is estimated at not less than thirty
+thousand.[87]
+
+  [87] J. R. M�lida, _Jarrones ar�bigos de loza vidriada_; published in
+       the _Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursionistas_.
+
+One of the earliest and most interesting notices relating to the
+preparation of this lustred ware is contained in a description by one of
+the royal archers, named Henry Cock, of the progress, performed in 1585,
+of Philip the Second from the court of Spain to Zaragoza.[88] Cock wrote
+of Muel, in Aragon:--"Almost all the inhabitants of this village are
+potters, and all the earthenware sold at Zaragoza is made in the
+following manner. The vessels are first fashioned to the required shape
+from a certain substance extracted from the earth of this locality. They
+are next baked in a specially constructed oven, and when removed from
+this are varnished with white varnish and polished, after which they are
+washed with a mixture of twenty-five pounds of lead, three or four
+pounds of tin, and as many pounds of a certain sand which is found
+there. All these ingredients are mixed into a paste resembling ice,
+which is broken small, pounded like flour, and kept in powder. This
+powder is mixed with water, the dishes are passed through it, and after
+being rebaked they keep their lustre. Next, in order to gild the
+pottery, they take the strongest vinegar mixed with about two _reales_
+of powdered silver, vermilion, and red ochre, and a little wire. When
+all is thoroughly mixed they paint the patterns on the dishes with a
+feather, bake them again, and their gold colour is now quite permanent.
+I was told all this by the potters themselves."[89]
+
+  [88] _Relaci�n del viaje hecho por Felipe II. en 1585._ Madrid, 1876.
+
+  [89] The village of Muel continued to be a centre of this craft.
+       Townsend, who travelled in Spain in 1786 and 1787, wrote of
+       it:--"There are many potters, who turn their own wheels, not by
+       hand, but with their feet, by means of a larger wheel concentric
+       with that on which they mould the clay, and nearly level with the
+       floor."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXII
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection_)]
+
+Another most interesting account of the manufacture of lustred ware
+was discovered in manuscript by Ria�o in the British Museum, and,
+although it belongs to a later date (1785), is well worth quoting fully.
+It consists of a report upon the later gilded pottery of Manises, and
+was drawn up by order of the Count of Floridablanca:--
+
+"After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with white and blue, the
+only colours used besides the gold lustre; the vessels are again baked;
+if the objects are to be painted with gold colour, this can only be put
+on the white varnish, after they have gone twice through the oven. The
+vessels are then painted with the said gold colour and are baked a third
+time, with only dry rosemary for fuel.
+
+"The white varnish used is composed of lead and tin, which are melted
+together in an oven made on purpose; after these materials are
+sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and when in this state the
+mixture is removed and mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand:
+fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when cold, pounded
+into powder. The only sand which can be used is from a cave at
+Benalguacil, three leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish
+should be fine, for every _arroba_, twenty-five pounds of lead, six to
+twelve ounces of tin must be added, and half a bushel of finely-powdered
+salt: if a coarse kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very small
+quantity of tin, and three or four _cuartos_ worth of salt, which in
+this case must be added when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the
+vessel.
+
+"Five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour: copper,
+which is better the older it is; silver, as old as possible; sulphur;
+red ochre; and strong vinegar, which are mixed in the following
+proportions: of copper three ounces, of red ochre twelve ounces, of
+silver one _peseta_ (about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar a
+quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the earth or scori�, which is
+left after this pottery is painted with the gold colour, is added to the
+other ingredients.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXIII
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection_)]
+
+"They are mixed in the following manner: a small portion of sulphur in
+powder is put into a casserole with two small bits of copper, between
+them a coin of one silver _peseta_; the rest of the sulphur and copper
+is then added to it. When this casserole is ready, it is placed on the
+fire, and is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed, which is
+evident when no flame issues from it. The preparation is then taken
+from the fire, and when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre and
+scori� are then added to it; it is mixed up by hand and again pounded
+into powder. The preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with enough
+water to make a sufficient paste to stick on the sides of the basin; the
+mixture is then rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore
+indispensable that the water should be added very gradually until the
+mixture is in the proper state.
+
+"The basin ready prepared must be placed in an oven for six hours. At
+Manises it is customary to do so when the vessels of common pottery are
+baked; after this the mixture is scratched off the sides of the basin
+with some iron instrument; it is then removed from there and broken up
+into small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar with the
+quantity of vinegar already mentioned, and after having been well ground
+and pounded together for two hours the mixture is ready for decorating.
+It is well to observe that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured
+mixture which is required for every object can only be ascertained by
+practice."
+
+Nevertheless, the gilded ware of the kingdom of Valencia had by this
+time deteriorated very greatly. Formerly, from as far back as the reign
+of Jayme the Conqueror, the other towns or villages of this region which
+produced the lustred and non-lustred pottery were J�tiva, Paterna,
+Quarte, Villalonga, Alaqua, Carcer, and Moncada. Early in the fourteenth
+century fourteen potteries were working in the town of Biar, and
+twenty-three at Traiguera. Manises, however, maintained the lead for
+many years. The notices of Eximenes and other writers concerning the
+pottery of this town have been already quoted. The same ware is
+mentioned in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by Diago (1613),
+Francisco J�vier Borrell, Beuter, and Martin de Viciana. Marineus
+Siculus, the chronicler of Ferdinand and Isabella, adds that similar or
+identical pottery ("_desta misma arte_") was made in Murcia, whose
+manufacture of it had been praised in earlier times by Ibn-Said. Toledo
+also manufactured gilded ware with blue or bistre colouring. Garc�a
+Llans� says that in the sixteenth century this capital produced plates
+which contain the arms of Spain in the centre, the rest of the plate
+being completely covered with minute geometrical or floral
+ornamentation.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXIV
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection_)]
+
+It is certain that during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
+large quantities of lustred pottery were produced in many parts of
+Andalusia, Castile, Aragon, and Valencia. The oldest and most valuable
+specimens of this pottery are those which have the palest and most
+purely golden lustre, combined with blue or bluish decoration in the
+form of animals, coats of arms, or foliage. The lustred ware of Manises
+began to deteriorate about the time of the expulsion of the Moriscos,
+when the leaves and fronds of a clean gold tone upon a lightish ground
+are replaced by commoner and coarser patterns, and the gold itself by
+the coppery lustre which is still employed.
+
+After the seventeenth century the further decline of this once famous
+industry may be traced from the accounts of travellers. Towards the
+middle of this century Bowles wrote that "two leagues from the capital
+(Valencia) is a fair-looking town of only four streets, whose occupants
+are nearly all potters. They make a _copper-coloured_ ware of great
+beauty, _used for common purposes and for decorating the houses of the
+working-people of the province_. They make this ware of an argillaceous
+earth resembling in its colour and composition that portion of the soil
+of Valencia which produces native mercury.... The objects they fashion
+of this earth possess a glitter and are very inexpensive, since I
+purchased half a dozen plates for a _real_. Nevertheless, _this is not
+the ware which has the highest reputation in the kingdom of Valencia_.
+The factory which the Count of Aranda has established at Alcora is not
+surpassed in Europe, and is ahead of many in fineness of substance,
+hardness of the varnish, and elegance of form. It would be perfect of
+its kind if the varnish did not crack and peel off so easily."
+
+According to Laborde, early in the nineteenth century Manises contained
+two potteries "of considerable extent, which employ seventy workmen. The
+people occupied in these possess the art of producing a gold _bronze_
+colour which they carefully keep a secret, never communicating it to any
+person." Elsewhere in the same book Laborde is more explicit. "Manises
+is a village situated a league and a quarter north of Valencia. It is
+seen on the left coming from New Castile. It is noted for its
+manufactories of earthen ware, which employ thirty kilns, and occupy a
+great part of the inhabitants. The women are employed in forming the
+designs and applying the colours. There are two large manufactories of a
+superior kind, the earthen ware of which is tolerably fine, of a
+beautiful white, and a moderate price. They also make here vases
+worked with a great degree of delicacy."
+
+                           [Illustration: LXV
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                (_Late 15th Century. Osma Collection_)]
+
+"The society of these workmen possess the secret of the composition of a
+colour which in the fire takes the tint and brightness of a beautiful
+gilt _bronze_. It has been unsuccessfully attempted to be imitated; the
+heads of the society compose the colour themselves, and distribute it to
+the masters who take care of it; it is a liquid of the colour of Spanish
+tobacco, but a little deeper."
+
+The quantity of Hispano-Moresque lustred pottery preserved in the public
+and private collections of various countries is far from small, although
+to classify it according to the place and date of its production is
+nearly always a matter of extreme difficulty.
+
+Among the earliest specimens are the vase of the Alhambra, those which
+are now in the museums of Palermo and Madrid, that which belonged to
+Fortuny, and the plaque which once was also his, and now forms part of
+the Osma collection. Lustred Spanish tiles are scarce. A few exist at
+Seville[90] and Granada, chiefly in altar-fronts, along the archivolts
+of doorways, or, with heraldic motives, on the inner walls of houses of
+the aristocracy. Invariably, says Gestoso, such tiles are coloured with
+combinations of white, blue, and gold, since in the lustre process other
+colours--black, or green, or deepish yellow--proved unsatisfactory.
+Other lustred tiles of exquisite beauty are owned by Se�or Osma, (Plate
+lxi.), and seem to have even gained in brilliance by the centuries that
+have passed over them. Ria�o gives a list of the specimens of this
+pottery which are at South Kensington, consisting of bowls, vases, and
+plates. One of the vases is particularly beautiful. It dates from the
+fifteenth century, and is described by Fortnum as having "a spherical
+body on a trumpet-shaped base, with a neck of elongated funnel form,
+flanked by two large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular holes.
+The surface, except the mouldings, is entirely covered with a
+diaper-pattern of ivy or briony leaves, tendrils, and small flowers in
+brownish lustre and blue on the white ground."
+
+  [90] No direct proof has been found that lustred ware was ever made at
+       Seville; but a document copied by Gestoso, and which I have already
+       mentioned (p. 152), records that the famous _ollero_ of the time of
+       Ferdinand and Isabella, named Fernan Martinez Guijarro, reserved a
+       department ("_tiendas del dorado_") of his premises for making or
+       for storing lustred pottery.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXVI
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                (_Late 15th Century. Osma Collection_)]
+
+Through the courtesy of Se�or Osma I am able to give illustrations of
+a few of the finest specimens of lustred ware in his magnificent
+collection (Plates lxii.-lxvi.). The three small vessels facing pages
+176, 178, and 180 are of Valencian workmanship, and date, according to
+their owner, from between 1460 and 1480. The two plates are also
+Valencian. The one with a bull in the centre dates from between 1480 and
+1500; and that which has a greyhound from slightly earlier--say 1470 to
+1490.
+
+
+POTTERY OF SEVILLE, PUENTE DEL ARZOBISPO, TALAVERA DE LA REINA, TOLEDO,
+AND BARCELONA; POROUS WARE; PORCELAIN OF ALCORA AND THE ROYAL FACTORY OF
+                            THE BUEN RETIRO.
+
+We have seen that Seville was an early and important centre of the
+potter's craft in Spain. Her potteries were celebrated even with the
+Romans, and probably have at no moment been inactive. Fifty, established
+in the suburb of Triana, were mentioned in the sixteenth century by
+Pedro de Medina, and documents which tell of many more have recently
+been discovered by Gestoso. The excellence of the Seville tiles has been
+described in a preceding section of this chapter. Their production
+still continues upon a large scale; and the ware of the Cartuja factory,
+which reached the zenith of its fame towards the end of the eighteenth
+century, is considered by Jacquemart and other authorities to rival with
+the Italian wares of Savona.
+
+Pottery made in other parts of the Peninsula--particularly that of
+Talavera de la Reina--is known to have been imitated by the Seville
+potters with embarrassing perfection. In the case of the so-called "loza
+de Puente del Arzobispo," it is the Seville ware itself which seems to
+have been imitated. Puente del Arzobispo is a small village near Toledo.
+Mendez wrote of it in the seventeenth century:--"Fine pottery is
+manufactured in about eight kilns, which produce more than 40,000 ducats
+yearly." "In 1755," says Ria�o, "thirteen pottery kilns existed at this
+place; they still worked in 1791, but their productions were very
+inferior in artistic merit."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXVII
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE]
+
+Not many years ago the name of Puente del Arzobispo was connected by
+Baron Davillier with certain polychrome non-lustred plates and other
+vessels which are greatly esteemed for their rarity, and of which a few
+specimens exist in the South Kensington and other museums, as well as in
+one or two private collections, such as that of Se�or Osma.
+
+Gestoso says that the usual diameter of these plates is either
+twenty-three centimetres or forty-two centimetres. "Their decoration,
+betraying at a glance the Saracenic influence, consists of leaves and
+flowers, together with animals of a more or less fantastic character:
+lions, rabbits, and birds. In other specimens the centre is occupied by
+a heart, fleurs-de-lis, or other fancy devices, or yet, in some few
+cases, with the head of a man or woman. These central designs are
+surrounded with leaves and flowers. The draughtsmanship upon these
+plates is of the rudest, and the process of their colouring was as
+follows. The figures were drawn upon the unfired surface in manganese
+ink mixed with a greasy substance; and after this the aqueous enamel or
+glaze was allowed to drop from a hogshair brush into the spaces which
+the black had outlined."
+
+This will be recognized as the _cuerda seca_ process, so extensively
+employed in making Seville tiles. Nevertheless, judging by certain marks
+upon this pottery, Baron Davillier declared it to proceed from Puente
+del Arzobispo. The marks in question consist in one or two examples of
+what appears to be the letters A.P. or P.A.[91] Davillier, however,
+affirmed that he had seen a plate fully inscribed as follows:--
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+  [91] These, says Se�or Osma, are doubtful in every case, and are only
+       found on plates which bear the figure of a lion. Two plates in this
+       gentleman's possession are thus marked [Illustration], and another
+       [Illustration].
+
+The existence of this plate is now discredited; at least, no trace of it
+can be discovered at this day. Upon the other hand, Gestoso points to
+various objects manufactured by the _cuerda seca_ method, and which
+undoubtedly proceed from Seville. Among them are three shields, one of
+which, containing the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella, is of exceptional
+interest, for it is accompanied by an inscribed slab, evidently coeval
+with the shield itself, recording it to have been made in the year 1503,
+and by Jer�nimo Suarez. This shield and slab were removed from a
+courtyard of the old Alh�ndiga to Seville Museum, where they now remain.
+Of the two other shields, one belongs to Se�or Osma, and the second,
+which is still at Seville, adorns the tomb of Don Le�n Enriquez in the
+church of Santa Paula; and since it is unquestionable that all these
+_cuerda seca_ shields, as well as quantities of _cuerda seca_ tiles,
+were made at Seville, Gestoso prudently suggests that we should
+designate as "_cuerda seca_ ware" that pottery which has hitherto passed
+as specially belonging to Puente del Arzobispo. In fact, towards the end
+of the fifteenth century this pottery is found extending northward from
+Seville to Toledo, and Se�or Osma assures me that Toledo specimens are
+of a somewhat later manufacture than those which were produced at
+Seville. One of the rarest and most interesting _cuerda seca_ plates in
+this gentleman's collection is reproduced herewith (lxviii.). No other
+plate of similar pattern is known to exist. Its date may be placed
+between 1480 and 1495, and it gives a curious illustration of the
+masculine headdress and headwear in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+The pottery of Talavera de la Reina was at one time much esteemed. The
+earliest mention of it, says Ria�o, occurs in 1560, in a manuscript
+history of this town, while another notice, dated 1576, says that here
+was produced "fine white glazed earthenware and other pottery, which
+supplied the country, part of Portugal, and India." More explicit are
+the observations of Father Alonso de Ajofr�n, who wrote, in 1651, a
+history of Talavera. He says that "her pottery is as good as that of
+Pisa, while quantities of _azulejos_ are made here to adorn the front of
+altars, churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and
+small specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight
+separate kilns. Four other kilns produce the commoner kinds of ware. Red
+porous clay vessels and drinking-cups are baked in two other kilns in a
+thousand shapes to imitate birds and other creatures; also
+_brinqui�os_ for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after
+drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was
+brought them."
+
+                         [Illustration: LXVIII
+                                  DISH
+       (_Andalusian non-lustred ware in the_ Cuerda seca _style.
+                   A.D. 1480-1495. Osma Collection_)]
+
+The following most interesting notice relating to this town is also
+quoted by Ria�o: "The earthenware pottery made here has reached a great
+perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups, _bucaros_
+and _brinqui�os_ are made of different kinds, dishes and table centres,
+and imitations of snails, owls, dogs, and every kind of fruits, olives,
+and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection, and the
+imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are most
+excellent. Everyone is surprised that in so small a town such excellent
+things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made
+with tin and sand, and is now found to be more acceptable than coloured
+earthenware; so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this
+town, although they have in their houses dinner-services of silver, buy
+earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand
+which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, and is
+now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as
+silk.
+
+"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides
+the great variety of objects, and the different medals which they place
+upon them, they have invented some small _brinqui�os_ of so small and
+delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also made of
+the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture of this
+pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who eat the
+pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their confessors to
+check this custom."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXIX
+                    AN _ALFARER�A_ OR POTTER'S YARD
+                              (_Granada_)]
+
+This porous pottery for keeping water cool had been imported from
+America, and was chiefly made in Andalusia, Portugal, and Extremadura.
+It is still produced at Andujar and elsewhere. Nearly all travellers in
+Spain describe it, and insist upon the curious circumstance that it was
+eaten by the Spanish women. "I have mentioned elsewhere," wrote Countess
+d'Aulnoy, "the longing many women feel to chew this clay, which often
+obstructs their bodies internally. Their stomachs swell, and grow as
+hard as stone, while their skin turns yellow as a quince. I also felt a
+curiosity to taste this ware, that is so highly yet so undeservedly
+esteemed; but I would devour a grindstone rather than put it in my mouth
+again. Nevertheless, if one wants to be agreeable to the Spanish ladies,
+one has to present them with some _bucaros_, which they themselves call
+_barros_, and which, as many deem, possess such numerous and admirable
+qualities, since they claim for the clay that it cures sickness, and
+that a drinking vessel made of it betrays the presence of a poison. I
+possess one which spoils the taste of wine, but greatly improves water.
+This liquid seems to boil and tremble when it is thrown into the cup in
+question; but after a little while the vessel empties--so porous is the
+clay of which it is composed--and then it has a fragrant odour."
+
+Similar accounts are given by travellers of a later time. "I wish,"
+wrote Swinburne, "I could contrive a method of carrying you some of the
+fine earthen jars, called _buxaros_, which are made in Andalusia. They
+are remarkably convenient for water-drinkers, as they are light, smooth,
+and handy; being not more than half-baked, they are very porous, and the
+outside is kept moist by the water's filtering through; though placed in
+the sun, the water in the pots remains as cold as ice. The most
+disagreeable circumstance attending them is, that they emit a smell of
+earth refreshed by a sudden shower after a long drought."[92]
+
+  [92] _Travels through Spain_; p. 305. Swinburne could have been no
+       lover of nature to speak in such terms of the smell of earth.
+
+Laborde, who wrote a few years later, seems to have copied some of his
+information from Bowles. "The Murcians," he said, "use in their houses
+little jars called _Bucaros_, the same as those which in some parts of
+Andalusia are called Alcarrazas.[93] They have handles open at the top,
+are smaller at the bottom than above, and bulge in the middle; they are
+slight, porous, smooth, and half-baked; they are made of a peculiar kind
+of clay. When water is put into them, they emit a smell like that sent
+up by the earth after a shower of rain in summer. The water makes its
+way very slowly through the pores, and keeps them constantly moist on
+the outside; they are used to cool water for drinking. The windows and
+balconies of all the houses have large iron rings, with a flat surface,
+on which they are placed at night, and the water, oozing incessantly,
+becomes very cool.[94] In Andalusia some of these jars are white, and
+others red; in Murcia they have only white ones. They appear to be in
+every respect of the same nature as the evaporating vases of Africa,
+Egypt, Syria, and India, of which so much has been said by travellers,
+and on which the learned have made so many dissertations."
+
+  [93] One of the prettiest of the popular Spanish _coplas_ has the
+       _alcarraza_ for its theme;--
+
+               "Alcarraza de tu casa
+               chiquilla, quisiera ser,
+               para besarte los labios
+               cuando fueras � beber."
+
+       "Dearest, I would be the _alcarraza_ in your house; so should I
+       kiss your lips each time you drank from me."
+
+  [94] Laborde's translator adds: "These jars are very common in Jamaica;
+       they are of different sizes, from a pint to three pints. A number
+       of them are ranged at night in the balconies, to furnish a supply
+       of cool water. Coolers of a similar kind have been lately
+       introduced in England."
+
+The same vessels are noticed by Ford in his description of a Spanish
+_posada_. "Near the staircase downstairs, and always in a visible place,
+is a gibbous jar, _tinaja_, of the ancient classical amphora shape,
+filled with fresh water; and by it is a tin or copper utensil to take
+water out with, and often a row of small pipkins, made of a red porous
+clay,[95] which are kept ready filled with water, on, or rather in, a
+shelf fixed to the wall, and called _la tallada, el taller_. These
+pots, _alcarrazas_, from the constant evaporation, keep the water
+extremely cool. They are of various shapes, many, especially in Valencia
+and Andalusia, being of the unchanged identical form of those similar
+clay drinking-vessels discovered at Pompeii. They are the precise
+_trulla_. Martial speaks both of the colour and the material of those
+made at Saguntum, where they still are prepared in great quantities;
+they are not unlike the _ckool'lehs_ of Egypt, which are made of the
+same material and for the same purposes, and represent the ancient
+Canobic [Greek: statika]. They are seldom destined to be placed on the
+table; their bottoms being pointed and conical, they could not stand
+upright. This singular form was given to the _vasa futilia_, or cups
+used at the sacrifices of Vesta, which would have been defiled had they
+touched the ground. As soon, therefore, as they are drunk off, they are
+refilled and replaced in their holes on the shelf, as is done with
+decanters in our butlers' pantries."[96]
+
+  [95] "Those of the finest quality," adds Ford, "are called _Bucaros_;
+       the best come from South America--the form is more elegant, the
+       clay finer, and often sweet-scented; many women have a trick of
+       biting, even eating bits of them."
+
+  [96] _Handbook_; Vol. I., p. 26.
+
+I am only aware of one author who derides the statement that this porous
+clay was eaten by the Spanish women. According to Bowles, who certainly
+describes and comments on it with intelligence and scholarship, the
+neighbourhood of Andujar contains "large quantities of the white argil
+of which are made the jars or _alcarrazas_ which serve in many parts of
+Spain for cooling water in the summer-time. In other parts of Andalusia
+is found a red variety of this clay, employed in making the vessels
+known as _b�caros_, which serve to freshen the water as well as for
+drinking it out of--a thing the Spanish ladies love greatly. Both the
+white _alcarrazas_ and the _b�caros_ as red as the blood of a bull are
+thin, porous, smooth, and half-baked. When filled with water they emit a
+pleasant smell like that of dry earth rained upon in summer, and as the
+water filters through the outer surface, remain continually damp." The
+same writer adds that at that time (1752) the _b�caros_ proceeding from
+the Indies were of finer workmanship, and had a more agreeable smell
+than those of Spanish manufacture. "In the Encyclop�dia," he continues,
+"and in the Dictionary of Natural History, we read that Spanish ladies
+are for ever chewing _b�caro_, and that the hardest penance their
+confessors can inflict upon them is to deprive them for a single day of
+this enjoyment." Bowles, however, quotes these observations in a
+scornful tone, and deprecates the habit of "believing writers who
+without inquiring into things, concoct and publish novels to divert the
+populace and rid them of their money."
+
+Turning our attention once again to the finer kinds of Talavera ware,
+Gestoso adduces proofs that this as well as Chinese porcelain was
+faultlessly and freely imitated in the potteries of Seville. Here,
+therefore, is a source of fresh confusion; and probably a great
+proportion of the polychrome ware which goes by the name of Talaveran is
+really of Sevillian origin. It is further known that at one period,
+which seems to begin with the second half of the sixteenth century,
+potters who were natives of Talavera were hired to work in Seville.
+
+                           [Illustration: LXX
+                             TALAVERA VASE]
+
+It has not been ascertained when Talavera herself grew celebrated for
+this industry. Garc�a Llans� supposes that at first, before it felt the
+influence of Italy and France, her pottery was partly Mudejar, and
+vestiges of oriental art survive in fairly late examples. The
+characteristic colour-scheme was either blue on white, or else the
+decoration is more variegated. Ria�o says:--"Although we find by the
+remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors that earthenware of
+every description was made at Talavera, the specimens which are more
+generally met with may be divided into two groups, which are painted on
+a white ground, either in blue, or in colours, in the manner of Italian
+maiolica. The most important examples which have reached us consist of
+bowls of different sizes, dishes, vases (Plate lxx.), _tinajas_,
+holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decoration. Blue oriental
+china was imitated to a vast extent: the colouring was successful, but
+the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the time, and the
+figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste so general in
+Spain in the eighteenth century. The imitations of Italian maiolica are
+effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese, orange, blue,
+and green."
+
+Talavera maintained her reputation for pottery till nearly the middle of
+the eighteenth century, supporting more than six hundred workmen
+employed in eight large potteries.[97] From then onwards the trade
+declined, and by the close of the same century was practically dead,
+owing, Larruga tells us, to the constantly increasing cost of prime
+materials. Nevertheless, the Crown made efforts to revive the craft, and
+met with some success till 1777, in which year four establishments
+(locally known as _barrer�as_) for making common pottery were opened in
+the same town, and speedily crushed their rivals. "The potteries of
+Talavera," wrote Laborde soon after this, "were greatly celebrated for
+many years, and supplied a lucrative and important branch of commerce.
+They are evidently on the decline. The manufactories are reduced to
+seven or eight. These productions no longer exhibit the same delicacy of
+execution. Their designs are also lamentably defective. The material
+employed in them is a certain earth which is found near Calera, three
+leagues from Talavera."
+
+  [97] "On y fait," wrote Alvarez de Colmenar, "des ouvrages verniss�s
+       d'une fa�on ing�nieuse, avec des peintures vari�es de bon go�t; on
+       estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes
+       Orientales, et on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce n�goce rend
+       plus de cinquante mille ducats par an."--_Annales d'Espagne et de
+       Portugal_; Vol. II., p. 187. This work is dated 1740, but my copy
+       is reprinted from another edition published earlier in the century.
+
+The older Talavera ware, decorated, as a rule, with horses, birds,
+hunting-scenes, or coats of arms, is seldom met with nowadays. Although
+it is not particularly choice, the drawing is firm, and the colouring
+vigorous and agreeable.
+
+I have said that pottery continued to be made in Aragon, at Muel,
+Villafeliche, and other places. In course of time these local
+industries were also suffered to decay. Laborde says that early in the
+nineteenth century the Villafeliche factory employed thirty-eight
+workmen. "The ware is of a very inferior sort. This article might be
+carried to a greater extent. In several parts of the province, earth is
+found of an excellent quality for earthenware, particularly in Zaragoza
+and in Tauste; the latter affords the best, which is very fine, and of
+three colours, and would answer for the making of porcelain."
+
+In the eighteenth century Toledo, upon the initiative of Don Ignacio
+Velasco, produced good imitations of Genoese ware, while other kinds of
+pottery were made at Teruel, Valladolid, Jaen, Zamora, Segovia, Puente
+del Arzobispo, and in the Balearic Islands. Another region which
+continued to be a most important centre of the potter's craft was
+Catalu�a, where it had always been encouraged by this thrifty and
+art-loving people. As early as the year 1257 two potters occupied a
+place upon the municipal council of Barcelona, while the potters' guild
+was strictly regulated from the beginning of the fourteenth century.[98]
+At the same time two whole streets in the centre of the town, as well
+as others in the suburbs, were occupied by potters. The ancient names of
+these streets are yet retained in the Calles Escudillers, Escudillers
+Blancs (white varnished pottery), Obradors (where many of the potteries
+were situated), and Tallers (_i.e._ the potteries for producing common
+ware).
+
+  [98] For a sketch of the origin and growth of the Spanish trade guilds,
+       see Appendix H.
+
+The pottery of Catalu�a generally was largely exported to Sicily,
+Alexandria, and other parts. Among the places in this region which
+produced it were Tarragona, Tortosa, and Villafranca. In 1528 the
+municipal council of the capital herself forbade, as a protective
+measure, the introduction into Barcelona of local pottery made at
+Malgrat, La Selva, and other towns and villages of this neighbourhood.
+In 1546 the Portuguese Barreyros declared in his work _Chorograf�a de
+algunos lugares_ that the Barcelona ware surpassed all other classes
+made in Spain, including the Valencian. She continued to produce good
+pottery all through the sixteenth century, and excellent common ware
+until considerably later.[99]
+
+  [99] _Historia General del Arte._--Vol. II.: _Cer�mica_, by Garc�a
+       Llans�.
+
+About the beginning of the eighteenth century Laborde mentioned as
+working centres of this craft "manufactories of delf-ware at Avil�s,
+Gij�n, Oviedo, Nava, and Cangas de Onis, in the Asturias; at Segovia in
+Old Castile; at Puente del Arzobispo and Talavera de la Reina in New
+Castile; at Seville in the kingdom of that name; at Villafeliche in
+Aragon; at Onda, Alcora, and Manises, in the kingdom of Valencia; at San
+Andero in Biscay; and at Tortosa in Catalu�a.... The most important of
+these potteries is the one at Alcora, the delf of which is tolerably
+fine, though not of the first quality. No china is made, except at
+Alcora and Madrid: that of the former place is very common, and
+inconsiderable as to quantity. The china manufactured at Madrid is
+beautiful, and without exaggeration may be considered as equalling that
+of S�vres. It is a royal pottery; but it is impossible to give any
+description of its state, because admission to the interior of the
+manufactory is strictly prohibited."
+
+Ricord states in his pamphlet relative to Valencian industries that in
+1791 factories of high-class pottery were working in the kingdom of
+Valencia, at Onda, Alcora, Ribesalves, Manises, Eslida, and Bech�; and
+of common ware at San Felipe, Morella, Manises, Murviedro, Alicante,
+Moncada, Orihuela, Segorbe, and other towns and villages of this
+locality. In all, there were throughout the province eighty-seven of
+these latter potteries, besides two hundred and twenty tileries, and
+four factories of artistic tiles or _azulejos_ established at Valencia.
+The yearly output of these _azulejerias_ was 150,000 tiles, 20,000 of
+which were exported to Andalusia and Castile.
+
+Although the pottery of Alcora only achieved distinction at a later age,
+this craft had long been practised in the neighbourhood. This
+circumstance induced the Count of Aranda to found here, in 1726, a large
+factory for producing costly and artistic ware. Ria�o obtained
+permission to examine the archives of the family of Aranda, with their
+mass of documents relating to this enterprise. His notice of Alcora ware
+is therefore most complete and valuable, and has been copied, frequently
+without acknowledgment, by almost every writer on the subject.
+
+It appears from these archives that the cost of building and opening the
+factory of Alcora amounted to about �10,000. The works were placed
+beneath the supervision of Don Joaqu�n Joseph de Sayas, at the same time
+that a Frenchman named Ollery was engaged at a good salary and brought
+from Moustiers to act as principal draughtsman. A couple of years later
+Count Aranda paid Ollery the high compliment of saying that "the fine
+and numerous models which he has designed, have contributed to make my
+manufacture the first in Spain." He seems to have retired in 1737, when
+the Count rewarded him with a yearly pension of five hundred francs
+besides the amount of his salary, "for his especial zeal in the
+improvement of the manufactory, and his great skill in directing the
+construction of every kind of work." Ria�o adds that from this date
+until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only Spanish artists worked
+at Alcora.
+
+The products of this factory continued to improve, and reached, in
+course of time, a yearly total of about three hundred thousand objects.
+The ordinances, which are dated between 1732 and 1733, tell us that "in
+these works of ours no pottery should be made except the very finest,
+similar to the Chinese, and of as fine an earth. The models and wheels
+should be perfect, the drawing first-rate, the varnish and colours
+excellent, and the pottery light and of the highest quality, for it is
+our express wish that the best pottery should only be distinguished
+from that of an inferior kind by the greater or less amount of painting
+which covers it."
+
+Not less interesting are certain communications, copied by Ria�o, which
+passed in 1746 between the Spanish Tribunal of Commerce and the Count of
+Aranda, in which it is stated that "the perfection of the earthenware of
+Alcora consists in the excellent models which have been made by
+competent foreign artists, as well as in the quality of the earth and
+the recipes brought at great cost from abroad." We learn from the same
+document that "from the earliest period of the manufacture, pyramids
+with figures of children, holding garlands of flowers and baskets of
+fruits on their heads, were made with great perfection; also brackets,
+centre and three-cornered tables, large objects, some as large as five
+feet high, to be placed upon them, chandeliers, cornucopias, statues of
+different kinds, and animals of different sorts and sizes. The entire
+ornamentation of a room has also been made here; the work is so perfect
+that nothing in Spain, France, Italy, or Holland could equal it in
+merit."
+
+It is not necessary to follow in close detail all the modifications and
+vicissitudes (extending over quite a hundred years) which affected the
+Alcora factory. I therefore only take some general notices from Ria�o.
+In 1750 Count Aranda transferred the works to a private company, which
+remained in possession of them until 1766. In 1741 a Frenchman named
+Fran�ois Haly was engaged for ten years, and with a yearly salary of
+rather more than a thousand francs, under the following conditions:--
+
+"That the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given
+him, and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the
+Director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which
+he had undertaken to make." Haly agreed to surrender his recipes, and it
+was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter
+working by his side, and that if in one year his porcelain were
+satisfactory, the Count would make him a present of a thousand
+_tornoises_.[100]
+
+  [100] Ria�o; _Handbook_; pp. 182, 183.
+
+Porcelain was first produced at Alcora towards the middle of the
+eighteenth century. A contract was drawn up on March 24th, 1764, with a
+German called John Christian Knipfer, who had already worked there in
+the pottery section. By the original agreement, which exists in the
+archives, we find he was to prepare works of "porcelain and painting
+similar to those made at Dresden, during a period of six years, under
+the following conditions:--
+
+"That the said Knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices
+the composition and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes, and
+colours, and whatever he may know at the present time, or discover
+during this period of six years; he is not to prevent the Director of
+the Works from being present at all the essays made.
+
+"The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain, and to employ
+gold and silver in its decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares;
+likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet, blues of different
+shades, yellow, greens, browns, reds, and black.
+
+"That Knipfer will give up an account of his secrets, and the management
+and manner of using them, in order that in all times the truth of what
+he has asserted may be verified."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXI
+               ORNAMENT IN PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO]
+
+In 1774 a Frenchman named Fran�ois Martin was engaged to make "hard
+paste porcelain, Japanese fa�ence, English paste (pipeclay), and
+likewise to mould and bake it: the necessary materials to be provided
+by the Count of Aranda." Ria�o says that the combined assistance of
+Knipfer and Martin went far to better the products of the factory.
+
+Martin died in 1786, and Knipfer left soon afterwards. A Frenchman was
+now engaged, whose services proved also beneficial to the works. This
+was Pierre Cloostermans, "a skilful man, well versed in the manufacture
+of porcelain pastes, as well as in painting and decorating them."
+Cloostermans, however, was much molested by the envy of the Spanish
+workmen at Alcora, as well as by their typical intolerance in matters of
+religion, although the Count, his master, behaved towards him with the
+utmost kindness. Under his supervision, the quality of Alcora ware was
+notably improved. Figures and groups of many kinds were attempted, and
+even Wedgwood jasper ware was creditably imitated. In 1789, among other
+pottery that was sent to Madrid were "two hard paste porcelain cups,
+adorned with low relief in the English style." The most important one
+was moulded by Francisco Garc�s, the garlands and low reliefs by Joaqu�n
+Ferrer, sculptor, the flowers on the covers by an apprentice, helped by
+Cloostermans.
+
+Dated in the same year (1789), Ria�o quotes an interesting letter from
+the Count of Aranda to Don Pedro Abadia, his steward. "I wish," he said,
+"to export the porcelain of my manufactory, but chiefly in common
+objects, such as cups of different kinds, tea and coffee services, etc.
+These may be varied in form and colour, the principal point being that
+the paste should bear hot liquids, for we Spaniards above everything
+wish that nothing we buy should ever break. By no means let time be
+wasted in making anything that requires much loss of time. The chief
+object is that the pastes should be of first-rate excellence and
+durability."
+
+In 1793 Cloostermans was driven from the country by political
+disturbances; but he was allowed to return in 1795, and resumed his
+duties at the factory. All through these years Alcora continued to make
+most excellent pottery. Essays were made with foreign earths, as well as
+with the best that could be found in Spain. About this time kaolin was
+discovered in Catalu�a, and the Count was particularly anxious that this
+native product should be utilised at Alcora. "The kaolin of Catalu�a,"
+he wrote in 1790, "may be good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be
+kaolin, and if we do not employ it I must close my works."
+
+The Count of Aranda and Pierre Cloostermans both died in 1798, and in
+1800 the Duke of Hijar became the manager and proprietor of the
+potteries. "Two hundred workmen were employed, and pottery of every
+description was made, common earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the
+English ones, and porcelain in small quantities; common wares were made
+in large quantities; the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the
+English in brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily stained.
+A large number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this
+period."--(Ria�o.)
+
+In the early years of the nineteenth century Alcora ware deteriorated
+not a little. This decline was further aggravated by the French
+invasion; and although an attempt was subsequently made to revive the
+industry by bringing craftsmen from the porcelain factory of Madrid, it
+suffered fresh relapses and produced henceforward little but the
+commonest kinds of ware. "This system," says Ria�o, "continued until
+1858, when the Duke of Hijar sold the manufactory to Don Ram�n Girona,
+who brought over English workmen from Staffordshire in order to improve
+the wares. Many imitations of the older styles have also been made at
+Alcora of late years."
+
+Ria�o appends instructive tables, which I copy in Appendix I, of every
+kind of pottery manufactured at Alcora. He also believes that a great
+deal of pottery which was formerly thought to proceed from French or
+English factories is really of Alcora make, including "a great quantity
+of objects of white pipeclay porcelain which have been found of late
+years in Spain. They have hitherto been classified by amateurs as Leeds
+pottery. We find, in papers relating to Alcora, that a decided
+distinction is made between white and straw-coloured pottery. This
+indication may be sufficient to distinguish it from English wares."
+
+The celebrated Royal Porcelain Factory of the Buen Retiro at Madrid,
+formerly situated in the public gardens of that name and popularly known
+as the "Fabrica de la China," was founded in 1759 by Charles the Third,
+who erected a vast edifice for this purpose, and filled it with a
+multitude of workmen and their families, including two hundred and
+twenty-five persons whom he brought over from his other factory of
+Capo-di-Monte in Italy. He also transferred a great part of the
+material.[101] The cost of the new works amounted to eleven and a half
+millions of _reales_, and they were terminated in 1764. The cost of
+keeping up the factory is stated by Larruga to have amounted to three
+millions of _reales_ yearly. The first directors were Juan Tom�s
+Bonicelli and Domingo Bonicelli, and the first modellers-in-chief and
+superintendents, possessing the secrets of the fabrication
+(_secretistas_), were Cayetano Schepers and Carlos Gricci.
+
+  [101] On September 11th, 1759, the king wrote to his Secretary of
+        State, Richard Wall:--"The workmen and utensils of the Royal
+        Porcelain Manufactory of Capo-di-Monte must also be sent from
+        Naples to Alicante, in the vessels prepared for this purpose, in
+        order to proceed from Alicante to Madrid. The necessary
+        conveyances are to be provided, and the expenses to be charged to
+        his Majesty's account."
+
+Ria�o says that every kind of porcelain was made at the Buen Retiro,
+"hard and soft paste, white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and
+modelled in the style of Capo-di-Monte." A great many objects existed
+imitating the blue jasper ware of Wedgwood, and they also made flowers,
+coloured and biscuit, groups (Pl. lxxi.), and single figures, and
+painted porcelain of different kinds. Great quantities of tiles for
+pavements were also made there, which may still be seen at the Casa del
+Labrador at Aranjuez: they are mentioned in the accounts which exist at
+the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We find in these same
+accounts interesting details of the objects made monthly. In January,
+1808, a large number of figures were made, including 151 heads for the
+table centre which was made for the king, 306 objects ornamented with
+paintings, 2506 tiles, 577 objects of less artistic importance, such as
+dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens which exist are in the
+Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the palaces of Madrid and
+Aranjuez, of which the walls are completely covered with China plaques
+and looking-glasses, modelled in the most admirable manner with figures,
+fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is covered with a bold
+ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in high relief, painted
+with colours and gold with the most exquisite details. The figures unite
+the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese decoration. The chandelier
+is in the same style (Plate lxxii.). Upon a vase on the wainscot to the
+right of the entrance door is the following inscription:--
+
+                                 JOSEPH
+
+                                 GRICCI
+
+                             DELINEAV^{it}
+
+                                   ET
+
+                               SCUL^{it}
+
+                                 1763.
+
+This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the
+roof we find,
+
+                                 "A�O
+
+                                 1765;
+
+probably the year the work was terminated."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXII
+            ROOM DECORATED WITH PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO
+                     (_Royal Palace of Aranjuez_)]
+
+The earliest mark upon the Buen Retiro porcelain was a blue
+fleur-de-lis, to which were subsequently added the letter M and a royal
+crown. Still later, in the reign of Charles the Fourth, the mark used
+was a fleur-de-lis with two crossed C's.
+
+The object of the Buen Retiro Factory was almost wholly to supply the
+Crown with costly ware, and would-be visitors were jealously excluded.
+Townsend wrote in 1786: "I tried to obtain admission to the china
+manufacture, which is likewise administered on the king's account, but
+his Majesty's injunctions are so severe, that I could neither get
+introduced to see it, nor meet with anyone who had ever been able to
+procure that favour for himself. I was the less mortified upon this
+occasion, because from the specimens which I have seen, both in the
+palace at Madrid and in the provinces, it resembles the manufacture of
+S�vres, which I had formerly visited in a tour through France."
+
+Laborde also complained that the factory was "wholly inaccessible: all
+entrance to it is interdicted, and its existence is only ascertained by
+the exhibition which is made of its productions in the royal palace."
+The same writer refers to another class of work which was produced here,
+namely, stone mosaic. "The process by which stone is wrought into
+pictures is as delicate as it is curious: a selection is made from
+marble fragments of various shades and dimensions, which are found, by
+judicious assimilation, to produce no bad resemblance to painting." Jean
+Fran�ois de Bourgoing, French Minister at Madrid, was lucky enough, in
+1782, to penetrate into the factory and view the process. "Le Monarque
+actuel," he wrote, "a �tabli dans leur int�rieur une fabrique de
+porcelaine, dont l'entr�e est jusqu'� pr�sent interdite � tout le monde.
+On veut sans doute que ses essais se perfectionnent dans le silence,
+avant de les exposer aux regards des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent
+encore se voir que dans les Palais du Souverain, ou dans quelques Cours
+d'Italie, auxquelles il les envoie en pr�sens. On travaille dans le m�me
+�difice � certains ouvrages de marqueterie, qui sont encore peu connus
+en Europe. J'y p�n�trai un jour, sous les auspices d'un �tranger
+distingu� en faveur duquel le Roi avoit lev� la prohibition rigoureuse,
+qui en exclut tout le monde. Je suis t�moin de la patience and de
+l'adresse avec lesquelles on taille and on rapproche divers petits
+morceaux de marbre color�, pour en former des tableaux assez compliqu�s,
+qui en faisant �-peu-pr�s le m�me effet que la peinture, ont sur elle
+l'avantage de braver par leur couleur immortelles les ravages du temps,
+qui n'�pargnent pas les plus belles productions de cet art."[102]
+
+  [102] _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_; Vol. I., pp. 232, 233.
+
+This factory was not long-lived. Until 1803 it followed the styles of
+the older establishment at Capo-di-Monte, uniting neo-classic motives
+with the manner of Baroque. In that year it began to produce porcelain
+imitating that of S�vres, and two Frenchmen, Vivien and Victor Perche,
+were brought from Paris to superintend this change. "Among the finest
+specimens of this period," says Ria�o, "are a splendid clock and four
+vases, two m�tres high, with porcelain flowers, which exist in one of
+the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases are placed in the
+four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with large biscuit
+figures. A large number of vases of Retiro china exist at the royal
+palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and the Escorial. They are often finely
+mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers. The blue of the
+imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the biscuit work so fine
+as the English. Gold is often added to these specimens."
+
+                         [Illustration: LXXIII
+                   PORCELAIN OF THE MONCLOA FACTORY]
+
+Nevertheless, this manufacture was by now decadent. It had suffered
+severely from the death of Charles the Third, and upon the French
+invasion in 1808 was seized by the enemy and occupied by them for
+several months. During the reign of the "_intruso_," Joseph Buonaparte,
+porcelain was still produced to some extent; but by the time of the
+Peninsular campaign the works had practically ceased. "Near this
+quarter," wrote Ford, describing the Retiro gardens, towards the middle
+of last century, "was _La China_, or the royal porcelain manufactory,
+that was destroyed by the invaders, and made by them into a
+fortification, which surrendered, with two hundred cannon, August 14th,
+1812, to the Duke. It was blown up October 30th, by Lord Hill, when the
+misconduct of Ballesteros compelled him to evacuate Madrid. Now _La
+China_ is one of the standing Spanish and _afrancesado_ calumnies
+against us, as it is stated that we, the English, destroyed this
+manufactory from commercial jealousy, because it was a rival to our
+potteries. 'What can be done (as the Duke said) with such libels but
+despise them. There is no end of the calumnies against me and the army,
+and I should have no time to do anything else if I were to begin either
+to refute or even to notice them?' (Disp., Oct. 16, 1813.) These china
+potsherds and similar inventions of the enemy shivered against his iron
+power of conscious superiority.
+
+"The real plain _truth_ is this. The French broke the _ollas_, and
+converted this S�vres of Madrid into a Bastile, which, and not the
+pipkins, was destroyed by the English, who now, so far from dreading any
+Spanish competition, have actually introduced their system of pottery;
+and accordingly very fair china is now made at Madrid and Seville, and
+by English workmen. At the latter place a convent, also converted by
+Soult into a citadel, is now made a hardware manufactory by our
+countryman, Mr Pickman. Ferdinand the Seventh, on his restoration,
+re-created _La China_, removing the workshops and warerooms to La
+Moncloa, once a villa of the Alva family on the Manzanares."
+
+This factory of La Moncloa was founded in 1816, and it continued working
+until 1849. A specimen of the Moncloa ware is reproduced in Plate
+lxxiii.
+
+Outside the royal palaces of Spain, the Buen Retiro porcelain is scarce.
+The choicest collections which are not the property of the Crown belong,
+or have belonged till recently, to the Marquis of Arcicollar, the Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan, and Don Francisco Laiglesia.
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                                 GLASS
+
+
+Small vessels of uncoloured glass, belonging to the Celtic
+period, have been discovered in Galicia; so that the origin of this
+industry in Spain is possibly pre-Roman. After the conquest glass was
+made here by the Romans,[103] who built their ovens with a celebrated
+argil (potter's earth) extracted from the neighbourhood of Valencia or
+Tortosa. The Roman glass was doubtless imitated by the native Spaniards:
+at least we know from observations by Saint Isidore that this substance
+was quite familiar to the Visigoths. "Olim fiebat et in Italia, et per
+Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima pila mola qua terebatur."
+The same author speaks with admiration of coloured glass-work imitating
+precious stones. "Tingitur etiam multis modis, ita ut hyacinthos,
+saphirosque et virides imitetur et oniches vel aliarum gemmarum
+colores"; and again; "Fingunt enim eas ex diverso genere nigro, candido,
+minioque colore. Nam pro lapide pretiosissimo smaragdo quidam vitrum
+arte inficiunt, et fallit oculos sub dolo quadam falsa irriditas
+quoadusque non est qui probet simulatum et arguat: sic et alia alio
+atque alio modo. Neque enim est sine fraude ulla vita mortalium." We
+gather from these statements that coloured glass in imitation of the
+genuine precious stone was freely manufactured by the Visigoths. Such
+imitations, justifying by their excellence Saint Isidore's assertion
+that "vera a falsis discernere magna difficultas est," may still be seen
+upon the crowns and other ornaments discovered at Guarrazar (see Vol.
+I., pp. 15-29), as well as upon triptyches and weapons. Indeed, a taste
+for imitation jewels forms an inherent trait of Spanish character, and
+is discoverable at all moments of the national history. Travellers have
+constantly observed it, and the remarks, already quoted, of Countess
+d'Aulnoy, are confirmed by other authors. "In the broken banks south of
+the river," wrote Swinburne of the Manzanares at Madrid, "are found
+large quantities of pebbles, called Diamonds of Saint Isidro. They cut
+them like precious stones, and ladies of the first fashion wear them in
+their hair as pins, or on their fingers as rings. They have little or no
+lustre, and a very dead glassy water. The value of the best rough stone
+does not exceed a few pence."
+
+  [103] "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo haren�
+        temperantur."--Pliny, Bk. xxxvi; Chap. 66.
+
+        The chief centres of glass-making were Tarragona, several towns of
+        Betica (Andalusia), and the Balearic Islands.
+
+It is chiefly in the form of imitation gems that specimens of the
+earliest Spanish glass have been preserved until our time,[104] although
+the characteristic of old Roman glass which is known in Italian as the
+_lattocinio_ or "milk-white" ornament, in the form of a thread or line
+carried all over the surface of a vessel, remains until this day a
+common feature of the glass of Spain, besides being found in
+Spanish-Moorish glass-work.
+
+  [104] The distinction which Ria�o attempts to draw between glass and
+        glass paste is unsatisfactory. He remarks, too, that the
+        manufacture of glass _may_ have existed in Spain at an earlier
+        period than the last three centuries, but continues: "The earliest
+        mention of glass-works in Spain will be found in Pliny, who, while
+        explaining the proceedings which were employed in this industry,
+        says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and Spain."
+
+Rico y Sinobas says that the rules for cutting glass by means of a
+diamond or _naife_ (as it was once called) are embodied in a treatise
+titled _El Lapidario_, originally written (perhaps in the fourth, fifth,
+or sixth century) in Hebrew, and which was brought to Spain some two or
+three hundred years later. This treatise was translated into Arabic by
+one Abolais, who lived at some time previous to the thirteenth century,
+and subsequently (in the year 1248, and by command of Alfonso the
+Learned) into the Castilian language.
+
+Mixed up with a great deal of fabulous and fantastic matter, this
+treatise contains instructive and interesting notices of the composition
+and the colouring of old glass, including that of Spain. One of such
+notices is the following. "Of the eleventh degree of the sign of
+Sagittarius is the glass stone, containing a substance which is a body
+in itself (sand), and another which is added to it (salt), and when they
+clean these substances and draw them from the fire, they make between
+the two a single body. The stone thus made (glass) has many colours.
+Sometimes it is white (and this is nobler and better than the others),
+or sometimes it is red, or green, or _xade_ (a dark, burnt colour), or
+purple. It is a stone which readily melteth in the fire, but which, when
+drawn therefrom, turneth again to its former substance: and if it be
+drawn from the flame unseasonably, and without cooling it little by
+little, it snappeth asunder. And it receiveth readily whatever colour
+be placed upon it. And if an animal be hurt therewith, it openeth as
+keen a wound as though it were of iron."
+
+The treatise also describes a stone called _ecce_, which was used in
+glassmaking, saying that it was found in Spain, "in a mountain, not of
+great height, which overlooks the town of Arraca, and is called
+Secludes. And the stone is of an intense black colour, spotted with
+yellow drops. It is shiny and porous, brittle, and of light weight ...
+and if it be ground up with honey, and the glass be smeared with it and
+submitted to the fire, it dyes the glass of a beautiful gold colour, and
+makes it stronger than it was before, so that it does not melt so
+readily, or snap asunder with such ease."
+
+I have said that the power of a diamond to cut glass is referred to in
+the same work, which further tells us that this gem "breaketh all other
+kind of stones, boring holes in them or cutting them, and no other stone
+is able to bruise it; nay more, it powdereth all other stones if it be
+rubbed upon them ... and such as seek to cut or perforate those other
+stones take portions of a diamond, small and slender and sharp-pointed,
+and mount them on slips of silver or of copper, and with them make the
+holes or cuttings they require. Thus do they grave and carve intaglios."
+
+All these branches of glassmaking were therefore practised by the
+Spaniards from an early period of their history. This people were also
+familiar with the use of emery powder, of talc applied to covering
+windows, and of rock crystal. We read in the translation of Abolais that
+crystal at that time was "found in many parts, albeit the finest is that
+of Ethiopia. The substance which composes it is frozen water, petrified.
+And the proof of this is that when it is broken, small grains are
+discovered to be within, that made their entry as it was becoming stone
+(crystallizing); or again, in some of it is found what seems to be clear
+water. And it possesses two qualities in which it is distinct from every
+other stone: for when crystal is heated it receiveth any colouring that
+is applied to it, and is wrought with greater ease, besides being melted
+by fire; insomuch that it can be made into any shape desired; and if
+this shape be round, and the stone be set in the sun, it burneth
+anything inflammable that be set before it: yet does it not effect this
+by any virtue of its own, but by _the clearness of its substance_, and
+by the sunbeams which beat upon it, and by the roundness of its form."
+
+We seem to foreshadow here, clearly enough, the application of this
+substance to making glasses to assist the sight, especially when the
+author of the treatise adds that on looking through the crystal, the
+human eye discovers "details of the greatest beauty, and things that are
+secreted from the simple (_i.e._ the unaided) vision."
+
+Rico y Sinobas (who possessed a fine collection of antique glass,
+Spanish and non-Spanish) inclined to think that in the time of the
+Romans the finest and strongest glass, as well as the costliest and the
+most sought after, was that which was manufactured in Spain. In early
+times the chief centres of Spanish glass-making were situated in the
+heart of the Peninsula (where now is New Castile), in the neighbourhood
+of Tortosa, and in certain districts lying between the Pyrenees and the
+coast of Catalu�a, though subsequently the practice of this craft
+extended through the kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, and the valleys of
+Oller�a, Salinas, Busot, and the Rio Almanzora, forming a zone which
+reached from Cape Creus to Cape Gata. Other regions in which the craft
+was introduced, apparently at a later epoch, were those of the
+Mediterranean littoral, Cuenca, Toledo, Avila, Segovia, and other parts
+of New Castile, as far as the slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama. In the
+rest of the Peninsula there is not the slightest indication (excepting
+an obscure reference by Strabo, to vessels and receptacles of _wax_)
+that glass was made during the Roman domination of the country, either
+in Andalusia, Lusitania (Portugal), or in the northern regions of
+Cantabria.
+
+Rico y Sinobas has described a Spanish glass-oven of those primitive
+times. He says that such as were used for making objects of a fair size
+consisted of three compartments resting one upon the other; the lowest
+cylindrical, to hold the fire and ashes, the next with a domed top, for
+concentrating the heat, and the third and uppermost, which also had a
+domed top, for holding the pieces of glass that were set to cool by slow
+degrees. The wall of the oven contained a number of openings, which
+served, according to the level at which they were situated, for
+controlling the fire, adjusting the crucibles, or extracting, by means
+of metal rods, the lumps of molten glass, previously to submitting them
+to the action of the blowpipe. The dimensions of such of these
+primitive ovens as have been found in Spain or Italy, are nine feet in
+height by six feet in diameter, and the material of which they are built
+is argil, of a kind insensible to heat, and carefully freed by washing
+from all foreign, soluble, or inflammable substances. The crucibles,
+which were fitted in the oven two, four, or at most six at a time, were
+of this argil also, wrought and purified with even greater care. Ovens
+and crucibles of a smaller size were used for making diminutive objects
+such as beads and imitation precious stones.[105]
+
+  [105] Rico y Sinobas, _Del Vidrio y de sus artifices en Espa�a
+        (Almanaque del Museo de la Industria_, 1870).
+
+Almer�a was probably the most important centre of Spanish-Moorish
+glass-making, and is mentioned in connection with this craft by
+Al-Makkari. The oriental shape of the older vessels which were made in
+this locality is still preserved in certain objects such as jars, bowls,
+flasks, and _aguardiente_-bottles, which are still manufactured, or were
+so until quite recently, throughout a region extending from Almer�a to
+the slopes of the Alpujarra. "All these objects," says Ria�o, "are
+decorated with a serrated ornamentation of buttons, trellis-work, and
+the lines to which I have already alluded, which were placed there
+after the object was made, in the Roman style. The paste is generally of
+a dark green colour, and when we find these same features in vessels of
+clear white glass, we may affirm that they are contemporary imitations
+made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are very seldom to be met with in
+the provinces of Almer�a and Granada, and are generally found at Toledo
+and other localities; it is, moreover, a common condition of oriental
+art that its general form complies with a geometrical tracery, and we
+never find, as in Italian works of art, forms and capricious
+ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the general lines,
+and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole."
+
+None of the original Moorish glass of the Alhambra has survived till
+nowadays. Most of it was destroyed by the explosion, in the year 1590,
+of a powder factory which lay immediately beneath the palace and beside
+the river Darro. In the Alhambra archives, particular mention is made of
+the circular glass windows or "eyes," only the corresponding holes of
+which remain, in the baths of the same palace. This glass, which may
+have been in colour, was also destroyed by the explosion, as were the
+windows, "painted in colour with fancy devices and Arabic lettering,"
+of the Sala de Embajadores,[106] those of the Hall of the Two Sisters,
+and certain windows, "painted with many histories and royal arms,"
+belonging to the church of the Alhambra.
+
+  [106] Oliver, _Granada y sus monumentos �rabes_.
+
+Excellent glass, reported by some authors to have equalled that of
+Venice, was made at Barcelona from as early as the thirteenth century.
+An inventory of the Crown of Aragon, dated A.D. 1389 and quoted by
+Garc�a Llans�, mentions as manufactured here, glass sweetmeat-vessels,
+cups, and silver-mounted tankards blazoned with the royal arms. The
+guild of Barcelona glassmakers was founded in 1455, and later in the
+same century Jer�nimo Paulo wrote that "glass vessels of varying quality
+and shape, and which may well compete with the Venetian, are exported to
+Rome and other places." Similar statements are made by Marineus Siculus
+and Gaspar Barreyros.
+
+Other centres of Spanish glass-making were Caspe in Aragon, Seville,
+Valencia,[107] Pinar de la Vidriera, Royo Molino (near Jaen,) El
+Recuenco (Guadalajara), Cebreros (Avila), Medina del Campo, Venta del
+Cojo, Venta de los Toros de Guisando, and Castiel de la Pe�a in Castile.
+The glass-works of Castiel de la Pe�a were founded by the intelligent
+and indefatigable Hernando de Zafra, secretary to the Catholic
+sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. "It has been calculated," says
+Ria�o, "that about two tons of sand were used at these glass-works every
+month."
+
+  [107] The inventory (A.D. 1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque mentions "a
+        white box with four small bottles of Valencia glass containing
+        ointment for the hands." Other objects specified in this inventory
+        are "a large glass cup, with two lizards for handles, and two more
+        lizards on the cover"; "three glass cocoanuts, partly coloured and
+        with gold blown into them, together with their covers"; and "a
+        large glass cup, of Barcelona, blown with gold." The value of
+        these cups, if they existed now, would not be less than two or
+        three hundred pounds apiece.
+
+More important than the foregoing was the famous factory of a village in
+Toledo province called Cadalso, or sometimes, from the nature of its
+only industry, Cadalso (or Cadahalso) de los Vidrios. The glass made
+here is mentioned in terms of high praise by various writers of the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, such as Marineus Siculus and Mendez
+Silva. The former of these authors says in his work upon the _Memorable
+Things of Spain_: "Glass was produced in several towns of Castile, the
+most important being that of Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom."
+Ewers and bottles of Cadalso glass are mentioned in the Alburquerque
+inventory. Mendez Silva says that the number of ovens was originally
+three, and that their coloured glass was equal to Venetian (Plate
+lxxiv.). This was towards the middle of the seventeenth century. Larruga
+tells us that by the end of the eighteenth this local industry was
+languishing. One of the three ovens had been abandoned. The other two
+produced inferior glass, as well as in diminished quantities.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXIV
+                        VESSELS OF SPANISH GLASS
+                      (_South Kensington Museum_)]
+
+The glass of Catalu�a maintained its ancient reputation all through the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and part of the seventeenth, and at
+this time was still compared with the Venetian by observant travellers
+(Plate lxxv.). Besides the capital, the principal glass-works in this
+province were at Almatret, Moncada, Cervell�, and Matar�. In 1489 a
+Barcelonese, by name Vicente Sala, and his sons applied to the City
+Council for leave to construct an oven at Moncada "in order to pursue
+the craft of glass-making, _lo qual a present aci se obre axi bellament
+e suptil com en part del mon_ (seeing that the glass we manufacture in
+this neighbourhood competes with any in the world for subtlety and
+beauty)."
+
+A document is extant from which we learn that the City Councillors of
+Barcelona made strenuous efforts to prevail upon Ferdinand the Catholic
+to abolish a certain monopoly or other form of exclusive privilege which
+he had conceded to a local glass-maker. The result of this appeal is not
+recorded. In 1503 Ferdinand presented his consort with two hundred and
+seventy-four glass objects made at Barcelona, and Philip the Second
+possessed a hundred and nineteen pieces proceeding from the same
+locality.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXV
+                        VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS
+                    (_From Drawings by the Author_)]
+
+An important development of this craft was the manufacture of coloured
+glass for churches and cathedrals. In the Peninsula, the earliest
+introducers of this branch of glass-making were principally natives of
+Germany, France, and Flanders, who came to Spain at the beginning of the
+fifteenth century.[108] Many of the oldest windows executed by these
+foreigners, or by the Spaniards who were taught by them, are still
+existing in the cathedrals of Le�n, Toledo, Burgos, Barcelona, and
+the Seo of Zaragoza. Le�n has several windows which date from as far
+back as the thirteenth century, and in which the glass is in small
+pieces, arranged as though it were mosaic. Some of the later and larger
+windows in the same cathedral are thirty-five feet high, and one, dating
+from the sixteenth century, is believed to have been presented to this
+temple by Mary of England, prior to her marriage with Philip the Second.
+
+  [108] Before this time, however, Aymerich had written, in or about the
+        year 1100, that sixty large windows in Santiago cathedral were
+        closed by glass, which probably was coloured. We also hear of
+        Francisco Socoma, who made or fitted windows of coloured glass at
+        Palma, in the island of Majorca, in 1380, and of Guillermo de
+        Collivella, who, in 1391, fitted at Lerida the glass which had
+        been coloured for the cathedral of that town by Juan de San-Amat.
+
+It was, however, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that the custom
+became general, in Spain as in other lands, of colouring the surface of
+white glass by partial fusing--a process which is mentioned in the
+treatise of Abolais, to which I have referred repeatedly. Between the
+eleventh and the thirteenth centuries the coloured windows of Spanish
+temples were still composed of pieces of glass united in the manner of
+mosaic, forming ornamental patterns of stars and similar devices; but
+subsequently to this period the decorative themes are said to be painted
+_en caballete_, and consist of figures, or the representation of scenes
+from Scripture. In Spain, and dating from the twelfth century, the
+workshops for preparing this coloured glass were commonly situated
+within the precincts of important temples, such as Toledo cathedral, or
+else, as was the case at Burgos, in separate buildings and
+_dependencias_. Here, in the square ovens characteristic of that age,
+and before it was mounted in the ponderous leaden frame, the glass was
+coloured with exquisite solicitude and patience by the hand of the
+master-craftsman, sometimes with a colour upon one of its surfaces
+alone, sometimes with the same colour upon both, or sometimes with a
+different colour upon either surface. The cartoons from which such
+windows were constructed, and which were often designed by painters of
+renown, were usually three in number. The first contained, upon a
+reduced scale, a coloured outline of the window; the second, drawn to
+the exact scale of the window as it was to be, was composed of all the
+pieces cut out and numbered according to the various colours; and the
+third, also of the projected size of the window, was kept complete, to
+serve as a pattern in case the window should suffer any accident, and
+require to be restored or mended. Not one of these cartoons is known to
+be preserved to-day, but Rico y Sinobas points out that from the strong
+and simple character of their colouring and outline, the illuminated
+illustrations of Spanish thirteenth century manuscripts, such as the
+_Cantigas_, and the _Book of Chess_ of Alfonso the Learned, may well
+have been utilized for, or else be copied from, glass windows of that
+period.
+
+As soon as the cartoon was finished, the window-painter traced it upon
+the surface of the glass. This was in square pieces, fitted conveniently
+together, with sufficient space between the pieces to allow the passage
+of the leads. Before being laid upon the glass and being submitted to
+the fixing action of fire, the colours were mixed with honey, urine,
+vinegar, and other fluids or substances which served as mediums to
+attach the colour to the glass. Thus prepared, and in the form of
+powder, the colours were allowed to dry for two or three days before the
+glass was placed in the oven. Yellow, which was the strongest colour,
+and that which penetrated deepest beneath the surface of the glass, was
+made from certain combinations of silver and nitrate of potash, while
+oxides or other forms of copper, lead, iron, tin, silver, and manganese,
+were used for making black, white, red, green, blue, purple, violet, or
+flesh-colour. These colours penetrated the glass to the depth of about
+half a millimetre; but sometimes, after the colour had been applied,
+the craftsman would submit the glass to friction by a wooden polisher or
+wheel, thus giving it an appearance of greater clearness and
+transparency at any spot he might desire.
+
+Among the artists who produced the coloured windows of Le�n cathedral
+were Master Joan de Arge (A.D. 1424), Master Baldov�n, and Rodrigo de
+Ferreras. Those of Toledo date from early in the fifteenth century, and
+were made by Albert of Holland, Vasco Troya, Luis Pedro Franc�s, Juan de
+Campos, and others, including the eminent Dolf�n, who, according to
+Cean, began to work here in 1418, by order of the archbishop, Don Sancho
+de Rojas. The documents collected and published for the first time by
+Zarco del Valle tell us that on March 22nd, 1424, Dolf�n received from
+Alfonso Martinez, treasurer and superintendent of works, two hundred
+gold florins and certain other moneys on account of his total payment of
+four hundred gold florins for "the eighth window he is making for the
+head of the cathedral." Other certificates of payment relating to
+Maestre Dolf�n (as he always signed himself) are included in the same
+collection. By 1427 he was "defunct, God pardon him!" and the windows
+he had left unfinished were terminated by his assistant Lois
+(Louis).[109]
+
+  [109] _Documentos In�ditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes en
+        Espa�a_, p. 282 _et seq._
+
+In 1458, and also at Toledo, a friar named Pablo began to repair the
+painted windows of the _crucero_. His pay was fixed by the "abbot and
+superintendent of works" at fifty _maravedis_ each day, and that of "his
+lads, Ximeno and Juanico," at one half of this amount. Other artists
+engaged in the same work were Pablo (not the friar just referred to),
+Peter, a German, and "Master Henry," who was also German. Pablo received
+authority to purchase ten and a half _quintales_ and thirteen pounds of
+coloured Flemish glass, at two thousand _maravedis_ for each _quintal_.
+By a contract dated 1485 (he died between 1487 and 1493), Master Henry
+was handed by the cathedral authorities a sum of 150,000 _maravedis_ "to
+proceed to Flanders or any other part he may desire, and where good
+glass is to be found, white, blue, green, scarlet, purple, yellow, or
+blackish (_prieto_), equal in thickness to the sample which he bears,
+and bring us thence such quantity as he has need of for the windows of
+our cathedral."
+
+It is evident from this notice that Spain was then unable to produce
+the finest quality of glass. With such as he brought with him from
+abroad, Henry engaged to fashion "every kind of figure, image, scroll,
+and other object whatsoever be commanded him, according to the place it
+is to fill; the colours of the glass to be well mingled and
+distributed." He was also to make "the leaden casings stout and deep, so
+as to embrace and hold the glass aforesaid, that it may resist the air
+and wind." In return for this, he was to be supplied with an erected
+scaffolding, with all the chalk and iron he might require, and with the
+proper number of assistants, receiving, in payment of his labour, one
+hundred and fifteen _maravedis_ for every square palm of glass the
+preparation of which should satisfy the superintendent and examiners of
+works.
+
+One of the witnesses to this document was Henry's wife, Mar�a Maldonada,
+who came forward to affix her signature "with the license and pleasure
+of the aforesaid Master Enrique, her husband."
+
+In 1433, Master Juan (perhaps the same as Joan de Arge, already
+mentioned) began to work at the windows of Burgos, where, later in this
+century, he was succeeded by Juan de Valdivieso and Diego de
+Santillana. We learn from the _Documentos In�ditos_ (pp. 159, 160) that
+Santillana lived at Burgos, and that, on May 31st, 1512, he contracted
+to make three "historical windows" for the monastery of San Francisco,
+at a price of ninety-five _maravedis_ for each palm of glass, this to be
+"of good colours and shades," and "measured by the Burgos standard." Two
+other contracts are preserved, signed by the same craftsman and both
+relating to Palencia. By one of them Santillana is to receive for six
+"storied windows," the subjects of which are specified, ninety-five
+_maravedis_ the palm, besides the scaffolding and his house and coals.
+
+Arnao de Flandes (Arnold of Flanders) was appointed master glass-painter
+to Burgos cathedral in 1512. Other glass-painters who worked here in the
+sixteenth century were Francisco de Valdivieso, Gaspar Cotin, Juan de
+Arce, his son Juan and grandson Pedro, and, in the seventeenth century,
+Valentin Ruiz, Francisco Alonso, Simon Ruiz, and Francisco Alcalde. Most
+of the windows made by all these men have been destroyed by time and
+weather, and have been replaced by barren panes of white; but a few fine
+specimens of the original work may yet be seen in the chapels of the
+Presentation, the Constable, and San Jer�nimo. Perhaps the most
+remarkable of any is the rose-window, above the Puerta del
+Sarmental.[110]
+
+  [110] In the monastery of Miraflores, near this city, the queen of
+        Ferdinand the Catholic built, at her expense, a rich pantheon to
+        guard the ashes of her parents and her brother. The coloured glass
+        was made by Simon of Cologne. One day, while visiting Miraflores,
+        Isabella noticed upon the windows of this sanctuary the shield of
+        a gentleman named Martin de Soria. Furious at the liberty thus
+        taken with a fabric of her own, "afferte mihi gladium" she called
+        in Latin to one of her attendants, and, raising the sword, dashed
+        the offending window into a thousand pieces, crying that in that
+        spot she would allow no arms but those of her father.
+
+Other good cathedral windows prior to the sixteenth century are those of
+Avila, which date from about the year 1497, and were executed by Diego
+de Santillana, Juan de Valdivieso, and other artists; those of the Seo
+of Zaragoza, by the Catalans Terri and Jayme Romeu (1447); and some at
+Barcelona, painted in 1494 by Gil Fontanet.
+
+It is, however, in the sixteenth century that Spanish ecclesiastical
+window-glass attains its highest grade of excellence.[111] Dating from
+this century are windows in Toledo cathedral, painted in 1503 by Vasco
+de Troya, in 1509 by Alejo Jim�nez, in 1513 by Gonzalo de C�rdoba (these
+are considered by competent judges to be the finest of any), in 1515 by
+Juan de la Cuesta, in 1522 by Juan Campos, in 1525 by Albert of Holland,
+in 1534 by Juan de Ortega, and in 1542 by Nicol�s Vergara the
+elder.[112] In 1537 Ortega was engaged to repair the damaged or broken
+panes at a yearly salary of 11,250 _maravedis_. Where the panes were
+wanting, he was to replace them by new ones painted by his hand,
+receiving, for each _palmo_ of new glass so painted, an extra payment of
+ninety _maravedis_.[113]
+
+  [111] Se�or L�zaro, who has recently made at Madrid windows for Le�n
+        cathedral imitating those of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+        centuries, remarks that with the sixteenth century the process
+        grew more complicated, patterns composed with pieces of a single
+        colour being replaced by glass containing a variety of tints. He
+        has also discovered the following usage of the older Spanish
+        craftsmen: "By way of furnishing a key to their arrangement, all
+        the pieces used to be marked with the point of a diamond, and
+        this mark indicates the tone the glass requires for such and such
+        a part of the design. The signs most often employed were three,
+        namely X, L, and V, for red, blue and yellow respectively,
+        intermediate tones being shown by combinations of these
+        letters--XL, LV, XV, with "lines of unities" placed before or
+        after to indicate the necessary gradation in the tone."
+
+  [112] This artist painted a series of magnificent windows representing
+        scenes from the life of San Pedro Nolasco, for the convent of La
+        Piedad, at Valencia.
+
+  [113] Zarco del Valle, _Documentos In�ditos, etc._, pp. 339 _et seq._
+
+In the same century the windows of Seville cathedral, begun some years
+previously (Cean says in 1504) by Micer Crist�bal Alem�n ("Master
+Christopher the German"), were continued by Masters Jacobo, Juan Juan
+Vivan, Juan Bernai, Bernardino de Gelandia, Juan Jaques, Arnold of
+Flanders (1525), Arnao de Vergara (1525), Charles of Bruges, (1557), and
+Vicente Menandro (1557).[114] In 1562 Diego de Valdivieso, and in 1570
+Pedro de Valdivieso and Gerald of Holland, painted windows for Cuenca
+cathedral. In 1542 the same work was done at Palencia by Diego de
+Salcedo, and in 1533 George of Burgundy, "master in the art of glass,"
+then resident at Burgos, proceeded to the same town and engaged to
+renew the cathedral windows at a cost of a hundred _maravedis_ for every
+palm of coloured glass, and fifty for every palm of plain.[115]
+
+  [114] According to Cean (_La Catedral de Sevilla_), Menandro painted in
+        1560 the conversion of Saint Paul on a window in the Chapel of
+        Santiago, in 1567 another window with the scene of the
+        Annunciation, over the gate of San Miguel, and in 1569 the
+        companion to it, representing the Visitation, over the Puerta del
+        Bautismo. "In all these windows," wrote Cean, prejudiced, as was
+        customary in his day, in favour of the strictly classic style,
+        "the drawing, pose, and composition are good, _although_ in the
+        draperies and figures we observe the influence of Germany."
+
+        In Cean's own time--that is, towards the close of the eighteenth
+        century--the coloured windows of Seville Cathedral amounted to
+        ninety-three, five of which were circular, and the rest with the
+        pointed Gothic arch. The dimensions of the latter are twenty-eight
+        feet high by twelve feet broad, and the subjects painted on them
+        include the likenesses of prophets, patriarchs, martyrs,
+        confessors, and virgins, or scenes from the New Testament, such as
+        the rising of Lazarus, Christ driving the merchants from the
+        temple, the Last Supper, and the
+        anointing by Mary Magdalene.
+
+  [115] Zarco del Valle, _Documentos In�ditos_, p. 159
+
+In 1544, sixty-two windows in the nave of Segovia cathedral were filled
+with painted glass prepared chiefly at Valladolid and Medina del Campo,
+though some was brought from Flanders. The remaining windows were left
+unfilled till 1676, in which year a canon of the cathedral, named Tom�s
+de la Plaza Aguirre, succeeded in rediscovering a formula for the
+practise of this craft, and the panes yet needed were made and coloured
+at Valdequemada by Juan Danis, under Plaza Aguirre's supervision.
+Thirty-three additional windows were completed from this factory.
+According to Lecea y Garc�a, the chapter of Segovia cathedral possess,
+or possessed for many years, two curious manuscripts relating severally
+to _The painting of glass windows_, by Francisco Herranz, and
+_Glass-making_, by Juan Danis--the same who owned and worked the factory
+at Valdequemada. These interesting treatises were examined by Bosarte,
+who has described them. He says that the one on glass-making consisted
+of twenty-three sheets of clear writing, and the one on glass-painting
+of eight sheets; both manuscripts being in quarto size. The latter
+contained, distributed beside the text, sketches of the various
+instruments required for this craft. The other and longer monograph
+consisted of the following chapters:--(1) How to draw upon glass. (2)
+How to cut glass. (3) How to paint and shade glass. (4) Of the
+substances and ingredients for painting glass. (5) How to give a
+flesh-colour to glass. (6) How to give a yellow or golden colour to
+white or pale blue glass, but no other. (7) How to fire glass. (8) How
+to make the glass-oven.
+
+Windows were painted in the cathedral of Palma de Mallorca by Sebasti�n
+Dangl�s in 1566 and by Juan Jord� in 1599, in that of M�laga by Octavio
+Valerio in 1579, and in those of Tarragona and Avila respectively, by
+Juan Guasch in 1571, and by Pierre de Chiberri in 1549. This craftsman
+was undoubtedly a foreigner. The following entry which concerns him is
+quoted by Rosell de Torres from the _Libro de F�brica_ of Segovia
+cathedral: "By order of the Canon Juan Rodriguez, on the twelfth day of
+August, I paid to Pierre de Chiberri, master-maker of window-glass, the
+sum of 56,560 _maravedis_, 34,960 for the casings of seven large
+windows with their side-windows--in all twenty-one casings--besides ten
+casings for the windows of the lower chapels, containing altogether
+MMMCCCCXCVI palms, amounting at ten _maravedis_ the palm to the
+aforesaid 34,960 maravedis: also 19,125 _maravedis_ for CCCLXXII palms
+of glass for the said chapels at a _real_ and a half each palm, plus
+2476 _maravedis_ for certain glass which had yet to be measured because
+it was in the skylights. The total sum amounts to the aforesaid 56,560
+_maravedis_."[116]
+
+  [116] Isidoro Rosell de Torres, _Las Vidrieras pintadas en Espa�a_
+        (published in the _Museo Espa�ol de Antig�edades_).
+
+During the seventeenth century, glass-work of various kinds continued to
+be produced upon a large scale at Barcelona, Matar�, Gerona, Cuenca,
+Toledo, Valmaqueda, and Seville. In 1680 the Duke of Villahermosa
+established a glass factory at San Martin de Valdeiglesias, and placed
+it under the direction of a native of Namur named Diodonet Lambot, aided
+by various other artists from the Netherlands. In 1683 Lambot was
+succeeded by Santiago Vandoleto, who proved incompetent, and caused, in
+1692, the total stoppage of the factory.
+
+I have said that glass was made at Medina del Campo, in the province of
+Valladolid. Pinheiro da Veiga's _Pincigraphia_, written at the beginning
+of the seventeenth century, contains an interesting notice of this
+glassware. "Really, the glass-work of Valladolid is most beautiful, and
+worth going to see if only for the pleasure of its contemplation. There
+are objects of considerable size, such as (glass) pitchers of every form
+and colour. Others are called _penados_, and are of a syphon shape,
+pouring out water in small quantities.[117] Besides this there are all
+manner of cunningly contrived retorts such as we never see in Lisbon,
+and yet in Valladolid their cost is only moderate.... The principal
+shops for selling these and porcelain are two in number, and the prices
+are the same as in Portugal."
+
+  [117] "_Penado._ A narrow-mouthed vessel that affords the liquor with
+        scantiness and difficulty." Connelly and Higgins' Dictionary;
+        A.D. 1798.
+
+Two very important Spanish glass factories were founded in the
+eighteenth century. The first, which was under Crown protection, was
+established by Don Juan Goyeneche in the year 1720 at a place called
+Nuevo Bazt�n, in the province of Toledo. The royal privilege allowed
+this factory to produce "all articles of glass up to a height of twenty
+inches, working and polishing the same, embellishing, and coating them
+with metal; to make looking-glasses and similar ornaments, glass vessels
+of all descriptions, white glass for window-panes, and glass objects of
+any kind or shape, whether already known to us, or that may be invented
+in the future."
+
+The factory of Nuevo Bazt�n continued working for some years, and turned
+out excellent glass for exportation to America and other parts; but it
+was killed eventually by the rising price of fuel, and above all by
+competition from abroad. "When the foreigners," says Larruga in his
+_Memorias pol�ticas y econ�micas_, "saw that the factory was in full
+swing, they conspired to bring about its ruin, and begged their
+ambassadors to communicate against it with the ministers; but finding
+this of no avail, and recognising the importance to themselves of
+overthrowing this manufacture, they decided to sell glassware at a price
+at which it would be impossible to sell the products of Nuevo Bazt�n.
+The amount of this reduction was the one-third part of the entire value.
+By this means the foreigners made it impossible for the factory to
+support itself, since the objects it produced were laid away and found
+no purchaser for years. This, and the cost of the wood required to keep
+the ovens burning day and night, not excepting feast-days (for to stop
+the fires for a moment would have meant the spoiling of the oven),
+induced the downfall of this celebrated factory, as soon as the fuel of
+all the neighbouring forests had been consumed."
+
+Nevertheless, upon the closing of these works, one of the experts who
+had been employed there, a Catalan named Ventura Sit, attracted by the
+forests of Valsain and the excellent and abundant sand obtainable in
+this locality--principally from near the villages of Espirdo and Bernuy
+de Porreros--decided to open another glass-works at La Granja. Here is
+the royal summer residence of San Ildefonso, and Sit was fortunate
+enough to secure at the outset--that is, in 1728--the firm protection of
+Philip the Fifth and of his consort, Isabel Farnese. Instructed by the
+sovereigns to make some mirrors, he produced these objects of a moderate
+size at first, increasing it, after the year 1734, to a maximum length
+of 145 inches by 85 in breadth. Larruga says that these mirrors were the
+largest produced anywhere at that time, and they continued to be made
+until very nearly the end of the century. They are often referred to in
+the narratives of travellers. Swinburne wrote in 1776: "Not far from
+Carthagena is a place called Almazaron, where they gather a fine red
+earth called Almagra, used in the manufactures of Saint Ildephonso, for
+polishing looking-glasses. In Seville, it is worked up with the tobacco,
+to give it a colour, fix its volatility, and communicate to it that
+softness which constitutes the principal merit of Spanish snuff."
+
+Describing the royal palace at Madrid, the same author says that the
+walls of the great audience-chamber "are incrustated with beautiful
+marble, and all round hung with large plates of looking-glass in rich
+frames. The manufactory of glass is at Saint Ildefonso, where they cast
+them of a very great size; but I am told they are apt to turn out much
+rougher and more full of flaws than those of France."
+
+According to Townsend (1786), "The glass manufacture is here carried to
+a degree of perfection unknown in England. The largest mirrors are made
+in a brass frame, one hundred and sixty-two inches long, ninety-three
+wide, and six deep, weighing near nine tons. These are designed wholly
+for the royal palaces, and for presents from the king. Yet even for such
+purposes the factory is ill-placed, and proves a devouring monster in a
+country where provisions are dear, fuel scarce, and carriage exceedingly
+expensive."
+
+Laborde wrote of the same factory a few years later: "There is also a
+glass-house, in which bottles are wrought of a superior quality; and
+white glasses, which are carved with much ingenuity (Plates lxxvi. and
+lxxvii.). Near this glass-house has been founded a manufactory for
+mirrors, in a large and well-arranged edifice. There are two furnaces,
+and a considerable number of stoves, in which the plates are left to
+cool after they have been precipitated. They are of all dimensions, and
+the largest that have yet been fabricated. They are sometimes from a
+hundred, a hundred and thirty, or a hundred and thirty-five inches in
+height, to fifty, sixty, or sixty-five inches in breadth: they are
+expanded in the hand. The process for polishing them is performed by a
+machine;[118] they are then transported to Madrid, for the purpose of
+being metallised. It is not uncommon to see tables of bronze, on which
+mirrors are extended, a hundred and sixty inches in length, and ninety
+in breadth."
+
+  [118] This machine was invented by a Catalan named Pedro Fronvila.
+
+These tables are described by Bowles: "The largest measures a hundred
+and forty-five inches in length by eighty-five in breadth, and weighs
+four hundred and five _arrobas_. The smallest measures a hundred and
+twenty inches in length, and seventy-five in breadth, and weighs three
+hundred and eighty _arrobas_."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXVI
+                 GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO]
+
+The best account of any is contained in the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_
+(1789) of Bourgoing. This author wrote: "A c�t� de cette Fabrique
+naissante de premi�re n�cessit�" (_i.e._ the royal linen factory at La
+Granja) "il y en a une de luxe qui remonte au regne de Philippe V; c'est
+une Manufacture de glaces, la seule qu'il y ait en Espagne. On s'�toit
+d'abord born� � une Verrerie qui subsiste encore, et donne des
+bouteilles d'une assez bonne qualit�, et des verres blancs qu'on y
+cisele avec assez d'adresse. J'en ai rapport� quelques-uns o� l'on a
+grav� des chiffres, des lettres, et jusqu'� de jolis paysages. Cette
+Verrerie �toit un acheminement � une entreprise plus brillante. La
+Manufacture de glaces de Saint Ildephonse est comparable aux plus beaux
+�tablissements de ce genre; on en peut voir les dessins dans les
+Planches de l'Encyclop�die. L'�difice est vaste et tr�s bien distribu�;
+il contient deux fourneaux et une vingtaine de fours o� l'on fait
+refroidir lentement les glaces apr�s les avoir coul�es. On y en coule
+dans toutes les dimensions depuis les carreaux de vitres jusqu'aux plus
+grands trumeaux. Elles sont moins blanches et peut-�tre moins bien
+polies que celles de Venise et de St-Gobin; mais nulle part on n'en a
+encore coul� d'aussi grandes. L'op�ration du coulage s'y fait avec
+beaucoup de pr�cision et d'ensemble. Monseigneur Comte d'Artois eut la
+curiosit� d'y assister; la glace qu'on y coula devant lui avoit, autant
+que je puis m'en souvenir, cent trente-trois pouces de long, sur
+soixante-cinq de large, et l'on m'a assur� qu'il y en avoit encore de
+plus grandes. On les d�grossit � mains d'hommes dans une longue galerie
+qui est attenante � la Fabrique, et il y a � un quart de lieue une
+machine que l'eau fait mouvoir, et o� on acheve de les polir; on les
+porte ensuite � Madrid pour les �tamer. Le Roi consacre les plus belles
+� la parure de ses appartements; il en fait des cadeaux aux Cours qui
+ont des relations intimes avec lui. En 1783, S.M.C. en fit joindre
+quelques-unes aux pr�sens qu'il envoyoit � la Porte Ottomane, avec
+laquelle elle venoit de conclure un trait�. C'est une id�e agr�able pour
+un cosmopolite tol�rant, de penser qu'en d�pit des pr�jug�s de religion
+et de politique qui divisoient autrefois les Nations, la main des arts a
+�tabli entr'elles un �change de jouissances d'un bout de l'Europe �
+l'autre, et que les beaut�s du serrail se mirent dans les glaces coul�es
+� Saint-Ildefonse, tandis que les tapis de Turquie sont foul�s par des
+pieds Fran�ois. Ce qui sort d'ailleurs de la Manufacture de
+Saint-Ildefonse est vendu, pour le compte du Roi, � Madrid et dans les
+provinces; mais on sent bien que ce profit est trop mince pour couvrir
+les frais d'un �tablissement aussi consid�rable qui, le bois except�,
+est �loign� de toutes les mati�res premi�res qu'il employe, qui est
+situ� fort avant dans l'int�rieur des terres, au sein des montagnes, et
+loin de toute rivi�re navigable; aussi doit il �tre compt� parmi ces
+fondations de luxe qui prosperent � l'ombre du Tr�ne, et qui ajoutent �
+son �clat."[119]
+
+  [119] Vol. I., pp. 144-147.
+
+A few more details are added by Swinburne: "Below the town is the
+manufactory of plate-glass belonging to the crown, carried on under the
+direction of Mr Dowling; two hundred and eighty men are employed. The
+largest plate they have made is one hundred and twenty-six Spanish
+inches long; the small pieces are sold in looking-glasses all over the
+kingdom; but I am told the king makes no great profit by it; however, it
+is a very material point to be able to supply his subjects with a good
+commodity, and to keep in the country a large sum of money that
+heretofore went out annually to purchase it from strangers. They also
+make bottles and drinking-glasses (Plates lxxvi., lxxvii.); and are now
+busy erecting very spacious new furnaces to enlarge the works. To
+provide fuel for the fires, they have put the pinewoods under proper
+regulations and stated falls; twenty-seven mule-loads of fir-wood are
+consumed every day; and four loads cost the king, including all the
+expenses of cutting and bringing down from the mountains, about forty
+reals."
+
+                         [Illustration: LXXVII
+                 GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO]
+
+In 1736, the first factory which had been established at San Ildefonso
+was nearly destroyed by fire; but the damage was repaired, and the
+factory placed under state control. Its finances were at no time
+prosperous. In 1762 Charles the Third granted a privilege reserving to
+it the exclusive sale of glass within a radius of twenty leagues from
+Madrid and Segovia; but the sales did not improve. In spite of this, the
+monarch, a few years later, erected a new and costly factory from
+designs by Villanueva and Real. There were two departments in this ample
+building. One, for the manufacture of the plainest glass, was
+directed by a Hanoverian, named Sigismund Brun; and the other, devoted
+to smaller and more elaborate articles, by Eder, a Swede. "The greater
+number of the objects made at these important works were of transparent,
+colourless glass, possessing a marked French style, and were either
+richly engraved and cut, or gilded, or sometimes (though less often)
+they were made of coloured and enamelled glass. At this time, too, were
+manufactured mirrors for the royal palaces, as well as candlesticks and
+chandeliers of great beauty, following the Venetian method, and
+embellished with coloured flowers."[120]
+
+  [120] Bre�osa and Castellarnau; _Guide to San Ildefonso_ (1884), p. 53.
+        Rico y Sinobas observes that in the objects produced at the
+        factory of La Granja, the glass itself is inferior to the
+        engraving or cutting with which it is adorned. This leads him to
+        infer that the foreigners brought over by the kings of Spain to
+        superintend the factory, were cutters and engravers of glass,
+        rather than skilled glass-makers. He also draws attention to the
+        fact that the Spanish monarchs chose these foreign craftsmen from
+        too limited a class, entrusting the most important posts at all
+        the royal factories to Frenchmen who were stated to descend from
+        the old nobility of their native country. In this manner the
+        progress and welfare of the craft itself was sacrificed to an
+        insane prejudice in favour of the aristocratic origin of the
+        craftsman.
+
+In spite of all these efforts, the works at the dawn of the nineteenth
+century were in a moribund condition. In 1829 they passed into the
+hands of private persons, who also failed to make them pay, and
+subsequently, owing to the ineptitude of Spanish governments and the
+severity of foreign competition, have definitely closed their doors.
+
+"In Catalonia," wrote Laborde, towards the year 1800, "are two glass
+houses; but the glass blown in them is dark, and destitute of lustre.
+Aragon has four, one at Alfamen, one at Pe�alva, one at Utrillas, and
+one at Jaulin, which is the largest; but the quality of the glass is not
+superior to that of Catalonia. The glass-house at Utrillas produces both
+flint and common glass. Glass houses are also established at Pajarejo
+and at Recuenco in Castile, which manufacture the most beautifully white
+and transparent glass."
+
+In 1791 there were six glass-ovens in the kingdom of Valencia, situated
+at Valencia, Alicante, Salines, Olleria, and Alcira. They turned out
+2100 pieces in this year, some of which were exported to Castile and
+Aragon.[121]
+
+  [121] Ricord; _Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones del
+        Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que ten�an en el
+        a�o 1791._ Valencia, 1793.
+
+Early in the eighteenth century the glass of Barcelona was praised by
+Alvarez de Colmenar ("Il s'y fait de belles verreries"), and we know
+that all through this period her _forns de vidre_ continued to produce
+good work, including holy-water vessels of uncoloured glass relieved
+with blue or with the fine white _latticinio_, the local _arruixadors_
+or _borrachas_, and the typical _porr�n_. The former of these vessels is
+of small size, and has several spouts. Commonly it is filled with
+scented water for gallants to sprinkle on girls at dances in the public
+square. The _porr�n_ invariably excites the curiosity of
+foreigners,[122] and is often thought to be of purely Spanish origin.
+This is not so. Upon a Roman lampstand in Naples museum is a figure of
+Bacchus riding on a tiger and "holding in his hand the horn from which
+the ancients drank, using it as, among some other peoples, do the modern
+Catalans--that is, not placing the vessel in their mouth, but holding it
+aloft and thus imbibing it; a method which requires no small amount of
+practice." In fact, there is reason to believe that the _porr�n_ is
+derived from a similar vessel in use among the ancient Persians, who
+poured their liquor from it into the hollow of the hand, and thence
+imbibed it in the fashion called, in Catalu�a and Valencia, _al gallet_.
+For just as a certain class of American displays his marksmanship in
+spitting, so does the Catalan who is accomplished in the art, amuse
+himself and others by causing the ruby wine to spout from his _porr�n_
+on to the very apex of his nose, continuing from this point, in the form
+of a fine and undulating rivulet, over his upper lip and down his
+throat.
+
+  [122] "The mode of drinking in this country is singular; they hold a
+        broad-bottom'd glass bottle at arm's length, and let the liquor
+        spout out of a long neck upon their tongue; from what I see,
+        their expertness at this exercise arises from frequent practise;
+        for the Catalans drink often and in large quantities, but as yet
+        I have not seen any of them intoxicated."--Swinburne.
+
+Windows of Spanish houses were seldom glazed until about one hundred
+years ago. When Bertaut de Rouen travelled here in 1659, this fact
+impressed him disagreeably. Even in the royal palace at Madrid he found
+that there were chambers "qui n'ont point du tout de fenestr�s, ou qui
+n'en ont qu'une petite, et d'o� le jour ne vient que d'enhaut, le verre
+estant fort rare en Espagne, et la pluspart des fenestr�s des maisons
+n'ayant pas de vitres." In 1787, Arthur Young was no less horrified at
+the glassless condition of the houses in Catalu�a. "Reach Scull�; the
+inn so bad that our guide would not permit us to enter it, so he went to
+the house of the Cur�. A scene followed so new to English eyes, that we
+could not refrain from laughing very heartily. Not a pane of glass in
+the whole town, but our reverend host had a chimney in his kitchen; he
+ran to the river to catch trout; a man brought us some chickens which
+were put to death on the spot.... This town and its inhabitants are, to
+the eye, equally wretched, the smoke-holes instead of chimneys, the
+total want of glass windows--the cheerfulness of which, to the eye, is
+known only by the want."
+
+However, as an exception to this doleful rule, the town of Poeblar had
+"some good houses with glass windows, and we saw a well-dressed young
+lady gallanted by two monks."
+
+
+
+
+                              PRINTED BY
+
+                      NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,
+
+                              EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as an misprint.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. x: LIX -> LIX.
+  p. 20: Mr Cunninghame Graham -> Mr.
+  p. 23: avec leurs enfans -> enfants
+  p. 32: feu. L'h�te -> L'h�tel
+  p. 33: choses est r�gl� -> r�gl�
+  p. 39: fort peupl�e autresfois -> autrefois
+  p. 71: pp. 161, 162 -> pp. 161, 162.
+  p. 72: Le�n Cathedral_ -> Le�n Cathedral_)
+  p. 96: peintures vari�es de bon g�ut -> go�t
+  p. 98: on the cover. -> on the cover."
+  p. 104: (see Vol. I. Plate xi.) -> (see Vol. I., Plate xi.)
+  p. 132: appear to be galloping. -> galloping."
+  p. 139: and "Pisano." -> and "Pisano".
+  p. 139: "_de relieve_." -> "_de relieve_".
+  p. 159: les plus compliq�es -> compliqu�s
+  p. 159: qu'un bal masq�e -> masqu�
+  p. 169: the journal of Bertant -> Bertaut
+  p. 180: Quarte, Vilallonga -> Villalonga
+  p. 183: degree of delicacy. -> delicacy."
+  p. 188: says Se�or Osmo -> Osma
+  p. 188: and another [Illustration] -> [Illustration].
+  p. 213: style of Capo-di-Monte. -> Capo-di-Monte."
+  p. 225: in France and Spain. -> Spain."
+  p. 228: albeit the the -> albeit the
+  p. 236: VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS -> LXXV VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS
+  p. 254: GLASS OF THE -> LXXVI GLASS OF THE
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN,
+VOLUME II (OF 3)***
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+<body>
+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume II
+(of 3), by Leonard Williams</h1>
+<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a
+href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
+<p>Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume II (of 3)</p>
+<p>Author: Leonard Williams</p>
+<p>Release Date: December 10, 2013  [eBook #44392]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME II (OF 3)***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3 class="pg">E-text prepared by<br />
+    Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm">Volume I</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm">Volume III</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm
+      <a href="">
+      </a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="339" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a>
+<p class="caption">SAINT FRANCIS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;"><br /><br />The World of Art Series</span></p>
+
+<h1>The Arts and Crafts<br />
+of Older Spain</h1>
+
+<p class="title">BY<br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 150%;">LEONARD WILLIAMS</span><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy, of<br />
+the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the<br />
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts; Author<br />
+Of &ldquo;The Land of the Dons&rdquo;; &ldquo;Toledo and<br />
+Madrid&rdquo;; &ldquo;Granada,&rdquo; etc.</span><br /><br />
+
+<i>IN THREE VOLUMES, ILLUSTRATED</i><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">VOLUME II</span><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_03.jpg" width="100" height="99"
+        alt="title-symbol"
+        title="title-symbol" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">CHICAGO<br />
+A. C. McCLURG &amp; CO.</span><br />
+EDINBURGH: T. N. FOULIS<br />
+1908<br /><br /><br />
+AMERICAN EDITION<br />
+Published October 10, 1908</p>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO</h2>
+
+<table summary="TOC" cellpadding="4">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGES</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="title"><a href="#FURNITURE"><span class="smcap">Furniture</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">1&ndash;86</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="title"><a href="#IVORIES"><span class="smcap">Ivories</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">89&ndash;108</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="title"><a href="#POTTERY"><span class="smcap">Pottery</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">111&ndash;220</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="title"><a href="#GLASS"><span class="smcap">Glass</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">223&ndash;263</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><i>VOLUME TWO</i></p>
+
+<table summary="LOI" cellpadding="2">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">FURNITURE</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">PLATE</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">St Francis of Assisi; Toledo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">I.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Medi�val Chair</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_10.jpg">10</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">II.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Gothic Chair</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_11.jpg">12</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">III.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish <i>Arc�n</i> or Baggage-Chest</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_16.jpg">16</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Arca</i> of Cardinal Cisneros</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_18.jpg">18</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">V.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Armchair; Museum of Salamanca</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_20.jpg">20</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Chair and Table; Salamanca Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_22.jpg">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Chairs upholstered with <i>Guadameciles</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_24.jpg">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Sala de la Barca; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_26.jpg">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door of the Hall of the Abencerrajes; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_28.jpg">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">X.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Door; Detail of Carving; Hall of the Two Sisters, Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_30.jpg">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">X.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door of the Sal�n de Embajadores; Alc�zar of Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_32.jpg">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The same</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_34.jpg">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Alc�zar of Seville; Fa�ade and Principal Entrance</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_36.jpg">36</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door of the Capilla de los Vargas, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_38.jpg">38</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Mudejar Door; Palacio de las Due�as, Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_40.jpg">40</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Celos�a</i>; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_42.jpg">42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved <i>Alero</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_44.jpg">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved <i>Zapatas</i>; Casa de las Salinas, Salamanca</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_46.jpg">46</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved <i>Zapatas</i>; Museum of Zaragoza</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_48.jpg">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved <i>Zapatas</i>; Museum of Zaragoza<i>Alero</i> and Cornice of Carved Wood; Cuarto de Comares, Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_50.jpg">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;Elijah Sleeping&rdquo;; Statue in Wood, by Alonso</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_52.jpg">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Saint Bruno, by Alonso Cano; Cartuja of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_54.jpg">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Saint John the Baptist; San Juan de Dios, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_56.jpg">56</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Choir-Stalls; Santo Tom�s, Avila</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_58.jpg">58</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Carved Choir-Stall; Toledo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_60.jpg">60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Choir-Stalls; Burgos Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_62.jpg">62</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Choir-Stalls; San Marcos, Le�n</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_64.jpg">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Detail of Choir-Stalls; Le�n Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_66.jpg">66</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Choir-Stalls; Plasencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_68.jpg">68</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Detail of Choir-Stalls; Convent of San Marcos, Le�n</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_70.jpg">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;Samson&rdquo;; Carved Choir-Stall; Le�n Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_72.jpg">72</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;Esau&rdquo;; Carved Choir-Stall; Le�n Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_74.jpg">74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Retablo</i>; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_76.jpg">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Retablo</i> of Seville Cathedral; Detail of Carving</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_79.jpg">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Detail of <i>Retablo</i>; Museum of Valladolid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_80.jpg">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Detail of <i>Retablo</i>; Chapel of Santa Ana; Burgos Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_82.jpg">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">IVORIES</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Box; Madrid Museum</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_90.jpg">90</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Casket; Pamplona Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_92.jpg">92</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Box; Palencia Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_94.jpg">94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XL.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Ivory Casket; Royal Academy of History, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_96.jpg">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Crucifix; Madrid Museum</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_98.jpg">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLI<span class="smcap">A</span>.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Back View of same</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_99.jpg">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Byzantine Crucifix</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_100.jpg">100</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Virgin of Battles&rdquo;; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_102.jpg">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Medi�val <i>Baculus</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_104.jpg">104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;A Tournament&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_106.jpg">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ivory Diptych; The Escorial</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_108.jpg">108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">POTTERY</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Amphoraic Vases and other Pottery; Museum of Tarragona</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_116.jpg">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Dish; Museum of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_118.jpg">118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque <i>Tinaja</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_120.jpg">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">L.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Coarse Spanish Pottery (Modern)</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_126.jpg">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door of the Mihrab; Cordova Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_134.jpg">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Mosaic of the Patio de las Doncellas; Alc�zar of Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_138.jpg">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Andalusian non-lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_140.jpg">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Cuenca</i> Tiles; Alc�zar of Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_142.jpg">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Altar of the Catholic Sovereigns; Alc�zar of Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_148.jpg">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Gate of Wine; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_154.jpg">154</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Tiles of the Decadent Period</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_158.jpg">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Plaque</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_168.jpg">168</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Alhambra, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_170.jpg">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Madrid Museum</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_172.jpg">172</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Lustred Tiles; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_174.jpg">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_176.jpg">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_178.jpg">178</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_180.jpg">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_182.jpg">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_184.jpg">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_186.jpg">186</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Dish; Osma Collection</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_190.jpg">190</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">An <i>Alfarer�a</i> or Potter's Yard; Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_192.jpg">192</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Talavera Vase</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_198.jpg">198</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ornament in Porcelain of the Buen Retiro</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_208.jpg">208</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Room decorated with Porcelain of the Buen Retiro; Royal Palace of Aranjuez</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_214.jpg">214</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Porcelain of the Moncloa Factory</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_218.jpg">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">GLASS</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Vessels of Cadalso Glass</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_234.jpg">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Vessels of Cadalso Glass</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_236.jpg">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_254.jpg">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_258.jpg">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="FURNITURE" id="FURNITURE">FURNITURE</a></h2>
+
+<p>Whether the primitive Iberians ate as well as
+slept upon their cave or cabin floor, or whether&mdash;as
+some classics call upon us to believe&mdash;they used
+a kind of folding-chair (<i>dureta</i>) and (more advanced
+and comfort-loving than the Andalusian rustics of
+this day) devoured their simple meal from benches
+or supports constructed in the wall, is not of
+paramount importance to the history of Spanish
+furniture. The statements of those early authors
+may be granted or rejected as we please; for not
+a single piece of furniture produced by prehistoric,
+or, indeed, by Roman or by Visigothic Spain, has
+been preserved. But if we look for evidence to
+other crafts, recovered specimens of her early gold
+and silver work and pottery show us that Roman
+Spain grew to be eminently Roman in her social
+and artistic life. This fact, together with the statements
+of Saint Isidore and certain other writers of
+his day, would seem to prove that all the usual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+articles of Roman furniture were commonly adopted
+by the subjugated tribes, and subsequently by the
+Visigoths;&mdash;the Roman eating-couch or <i>lectus
+triclinaris</i>, the state-bed or <i>lectus genialis</i>, the
+ordinary sleeping-bed or <i>lectus cubicularis</i>, made,
+in prosperous households, of luxurious woods
+inlaid with ivory, or even of gold and silver;
+lamps or candelabra of silver, copper, glass,
+and iron<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>; the <i>cathedra</i> or chair for women,
+the <i>bisellium</i> or seat for honoured guests, the
+<i>solium</i> or chair for the head of the house, the
+simpler chairs without a back, known as the
+<i>scabellum</i> and the <i>sella</i>, and the benches or
+<i>subsellia</i> for the servants. Further, the walls
+were hung with tapestries or rendered cheerful
+by mural painting; while the fireplace<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and
+the brasier (<i>foculus</i>) have descended to contemporary
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Advancing to a period well within the reach of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+history, we find that early in the Middle Ages
+Spain's seigniorial mansions and the houses of
+the well-to-do were furnished in a style of rude
+magnificence. Roman models, derived from
+purely Roman and Byzantine sources through
+the Visigoths, continued to remain in vogue
+until the tenth or the eleventh century.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Then,
+as the fashion of these declined, the furniture
+of Christian Spain was modified in turn by
+Moorish, Gothic, and Renaissance art; or two of
+these would overlap and interact, or even all the
+three.</p>
+
+<p>During the Middle Ages the furniture of the
+eating, sleeping, and living room which formed
+the principal apartment in the mansion of a great
+seignior, was very much the same throughout the
+whole of Christian Europe. Viollet-le-Duc has
+described it in the closest detail. The dominant
+object, looming in a corner, was the ponderous
+bed, transformed into a thing of beauty by its costly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+canopy and hangings.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Throughout the earlier
+medi�val times the Spanish bedstead was of iron
+or bronze. Wood, plain at first, then richly carved,
+succeeded metal towards the fourteenth century,
+and with this change the bed grew even vaster
+than before. Often it rose so high above the
+level of the flooring that the lord and lady required
+a set of steps to clamber up to it. These steps
+were portable, and sometimes made of solid silver.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+I quote herewith a full description of a medi�val<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+Spanish bed, extracted from an inventory of the
+Princess Juana which was made upon her marriage
+with the Count of Foix, in 1392. The same bed
+had formerly belonged to Juana's mother, the
+Princess Martha, at her marriage with King Juan
+the First. It had &ldquo;a velvet canopy with lions
+of gold thread, and a dove and a horse confronting
+every lion. And each of the lions and doves and
+horses bears a lettering; and the lettering of the
+lions is <i>Estre por voyr</i>, and that of the doves and
+horses <i>aay</i>, and the whole is lined with green
+cloth. <i>Item</i>, a counterpane of the said velvet,
+with a similar design of doves and lions, and
+likewise lined with green cloth. <i>Item</i>, three
+curtain-pieces of fine blue silk, with their metal
+rings and cords of blue thread. <i>Item</i>, three
+cushion-covers of blue velvet, two of them of large
+size, bearing two lions on either side, and four
+of them small, with a single lion on either side,
+embroidered with gold thread; with their linen
+coverings. <i>Item</i>, a cloth of a barred pattern, with
+the bars of blue velvet and cloth of gold upon a
+red ground; which cloth serves for a state-chair
+or for a window, and is lined with cloth. <i>Item</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+another cloth made of the said velvet and cloth of
+gold, which serves for the small chair (<i>reclinatorio</i>)
+for hearing Mass, and is lined with the aforesaid
+green cloth. <i>Item</i>, two large linen sheets enveloping
+the aforesaid canopy and counterpane. A
+pair of linen sheets, of four breadths apiece,
+bordered on every side with a handbreadth of silk
+and gold thread decoration consisting of various
+kinds of birds, leaves, and letters; and each of
+the said sheets contains at the head-end about
+five handbreadths of the said decoration. <i>Item</i>,
+four cushions of the same linen, all of them adorned
+all round with about a handbreadth of the aforesaid
+decoration of birds, leaves, and letters. <i>Item</i>,
+two leather boxes, lined with wool, which contained
+all these objects. <i>Item</i>, five canvas-covered
+cushions stuffed with feather, for use with the
+said six coverings of blue velvet bearing the said
+devices. <i>Item</i>, three large pieces of wall tapestry
+made of blue wool with the same devices of lions,
+horses, and doves, made likewise of wool, yellow
+and of other colours. <i>Item</i>, five carpets made
+of the aforesaid wool, bearing the same devices.
+<i>Item</i>, three coverlets of the same wool, and with
+the same devices, for placing on the bed. <i>Item</i>,
+a coverlet of red leather bearing in its centre the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+arms of the King and the Infanta. <i>Item</i>, another
+coverlet made of leather bars and plain red
+leather. <i>Item</i>, a woollen coverlet with the arms
+of the Infanta.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another corner of the room was occupied by
+the dining-table,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> spread at meal-times with a
+cloth denominated by Saint Isidore the <i>mappa</i>,
+<i>m�pula</i>, <i>mapil</i>, <i>mantella</i>, or <i>mantellia</i>; and laid
+with the <i>mand�bulas</i> or &ldquo;jaw-wipers&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> napkins;
+see Du Cange), plates (<i>discos</i>), dishes (<i>mensorios</i>,
+<i>messorios</i>, or <i>misorios</i>), spoons (<i>cocleares</i>,
+<i>culiares</i>), though not as yet with forks,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> cups of
+various shapes and substances, with or without
+a cover (<i>copos</i>, <i>v�sculos</i>, and many other terms),
+the water-flagon (<i>kana</i>, <i>mikana</i>, <i>almakana</i>),
+the cruet-stand (<i>canatella</i>), and the salt-cellar
+(<i>salare</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This table also served to write upon, while in
+its neighbourhood would stand the massive sideboard,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+piled with gold and silver plate, and vessels
+of glass or ivory, wood or alabaster.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the bed and table in their several corners,
+the chamber would contain a suitable variety of
+chairs and stools, mostly surrounding the capacious
+fireplace. Members of the household also sat on
+carpets spread upon the floor. The great armchair
+of the seignior himself was more ornate than
+any of the rest, and was provided somewhat later
+with a lofty Gothic back (Plates <a href="#img_10.jpg">i</a>. and <a href="#img_11.jpg">ii</a>.). A
+chair with a back of moderate height was destined
+for distinguished visitors. The back of
+ordinary chairs reached only to about the sitter's
+shoulder, and coverings of cloth or other stuffs
+were not made fast, but hung quite loosely from the
+wooden frame. This usage lasted till the sixteenth
+century, when the upholsterers began to nail the
+coverings of the larger chairs and benches.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the oriental influence brought back
+from the Crusades, the furniture of Europe, not
+excluding Spain, grew ever more elaborate and
+costly, while further, in the case of this Peninsula,
+the native Moorish influence operated steadily and
+strongly from Toledo, Seville, Cordova, Valencia,
+and elsewhere. Tapestries of Eastern manufacture
+(<i>alcatifas</i>) were now in general use for decorating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+floors and walls. The bed grew more and more
+gigantic, and its clothes and curtains more extravagantly
+sumptuous, until the florid Gothic woodwork
+harmonized with canopies and curtains cut
+from priceless skins, or wrought in gold and silver
+thread on multicolor satin and brocade. And at
+the bed's head, like some jewel marvellously set,
+rested, in every noble home, the diptych or the
+triptych with its image of the Saviour or the
+Virgin Mary.</p>
+
+<p>Under the influence of the Renaissance this
+love of luxury continued to increase among the
+royal and the noble families of Spain. In 1574 an
+inventory of the estate of Do�a Juana, sister of
+Philip the Second, mentions a silver balustrade,
+weighing one hundred and twenty-one pounds,
+for placing round a bed. The inventory (1560)
+of the Dukes of Alburquerque contains a great
+variety of entries relative to the furniture and
+chamber-fittings of the period. We find here
+mentioned, Turkey carpets and the celebrated
+Spanish ones of Alcaraz, linens of Rouen, green
+cloth of Cuenca, Toledo cloths, hangings of Arras
+and elsewhere, tablecovers of damask and of
+velvet, gold-fringed canopies (<i>doseles</i>) of green or
+crimson velvet or brocade, a &ldquo;canopy for a sideboard,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+of red and yellow Toledo cloth, with the
+arms of the La Cuevas in embroidery, together
+with stripes and bows, and repetitions of the letter
+I (for <i>Isabel Giron</i>, the duchess), also embroidered
+fringes of the same cloth, and cords of the aforesaid
+colours.&rdquo; We also read of a <i>sitial</i> or state-chair
+of crimson satin brocade, and &ldquo;a small
+walnut table covered with silver plates, bearing
+the arms of my lord the duke and of my lady the
+duchess, and edged with silver stripes.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The
+bedstead, fitted with hangings of double taffeta
+and scarlet cloth, was no less sumptuous than the
+other objects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_10.jpg" width="380" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_10.jpg" id="img_10.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">I<br />MEDI�VAL CHAIR<br />
+(<i>Carved with the arms of Castile and Le�n</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A popular and even an indispensable piece of
+furniture in every medi�val Spanish household
+was the <i>caja de novia</i> or &ldquo;bride's chest.&rdquo; The use
+of this, as well as of a smaller kind of box, was
+common both to Moors and Christians. No
+matter of what size, these objects were essentially
+the same. They served innumerable purposes;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+were made of all dimensions&mdash;from the tiniest
+casket (<i>arcellina</i>, <i>capsula</i>, or <i>pyxide</i>; see vol. i.,
+p. 45 <i>et seq.</i>) to the ponderous and vast <i>arc�n</i>,&mdash;and
+almost any substance&mdash;ivory or crystal,
+mother-of-pearl or glass, gold, silver, copper,
+silver-gilt, jasper, agate, or fine wood; and we
+find them in every part of the Peninsula, from
+the dawn of the Middle Ages till very nearly
+the end of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_11.jpg" width="208" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_11.jpg" id="img_11.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">II<br />GOTHIC CHAIR<br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to the Marquis of Monistrol, the
+larger boxes or <i>arcones</i> constitute by far the
+commonest article of Spanish furniture all through
+the earlier portion of this lengthy period. The
+same authority divides them broadly into seven
+classes, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>(1) Burial-chests.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Chests for storing chasubles, chalices,
+candelabra, and other objects connected
+with the ceremonies of the church.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Archive-chests, for storing documents.</p>
+
+<p>(4) Chests for storing treasure (<i>huches</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(5) Brides' chests.</p>
+
+<p>(6) Chests for storing arms.</p>
+
+<p>(7) <i>Arcones-trojes</i>, or chests of common
+make, employed for storing grain in
+country dwellings or <i>posadas</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The decorative richness of these quaint <i>arcones</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+varies according to their date of manufacture, or
+the purpose they were meant to serve. Commonly,
+in the earliest of them, dating from the sixth or
+seventh century, the iron clamps or fastenings
+form the principal or only ornament. Such are
+reported to have been the two chests which the
+Cid Campeador loaded with sand and foisted as
+filled with specie on his &ldquo;dear friends&rdquo; Rachel
+and Vidas, the Jewish though trustful usurers
+of Burgos, in return for six hundred marks of
+gold and silver. Tradition says, moreover, that
+the chest now shown at Burgos as the &ldquo;coffer
+of the Cid&rdquo; is actually one of these. It is certain
+that the archives of the cathedral have been
+deposited in this chest for many centuries.
+Evidently, too, it dates from about the lifetime
+of the Cid, while the rings with which it is fitted
+show it to have been a kind of trunk intended to
+be carried on the backs of sumpter-mules or horses.</p>
+
+<p>After the Roman domination in this country, the
+Latin term <i>capsa</i> was applied to every kind of
+chest; but at a later age sepulchral chests or coffins
+were denominated <i>urns</i>, in order to distinguish
+them from <i>arcas</i> and <i>arcones</i>, which were used for
+storing clothes or jewellery. Excellent examples<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+of Spanish medi�val burial-chests are those of
+Do�a Urraca, preserved in the Sagrario of the
+cathedral of Palencia, and of San Isidro, patron
+of Madrid. The former, mentioned by painstaking
+Ponz, and by Pulgar in his <i>Secular and
+Ecclesiastical Annals of Palencia</i>, is of a plain
+design, and really constitutes a coffin. The sepulchral
+chest of San Isidro, dating from the end of
+the thirteenth century, or the early part of the
+fourteenth, and kept at Madrid in a niche of the
+<i>camar�n</i> of the parish church of San Andr�s, is
+in the Romanic style, and measures seven feet
+six inches in length. It has a gable top, and is
+painted in brilliant colours on plaster-coated
+parchment, with miracles effected by the saint,
+and other scenes related with his life; but much
+of the painting is effaced.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting sepulchral chest would
+probably have been the one presented in 1052
+by Ferdinand the First, together with his royal
+robe and crown,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> to the basilica of Saint John
+the Baptist at Le�n, to guard the remains of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+Saint Isidore. This chest was covered with thick
+gold plates studded with precious stones, and
+bore, in enamel and relief, the figures of the
+apostles gathered round the Saviour, and medallions
+containing figures of the Virgin, saints, and
+martyrs. According to Ambrosio de Morales,
+the gold plates were torn off by Alfonso the
+First of Aragon, who replaced them by others
+of silver-gilt. The same monarch, regardless of
+the church's fierce anathema pronounced on all
+who dared to touch her property,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> is accused by
+his chronicler of having appropriated a box of
+pure gold studded with gems, enshrining a crucifix
+made of the true Cross, and which was kept in
+some town or village of the kingdom of Le�n.
+Doubtless as a chastisement for Alfonso's impiety,
+this precious box was captured from him by the
+Moors at the battle of Fraga.</p>
+
+<p>Among the reliquary chests, the oldest specimen
+extant in Spain is the <i>arca santa</i> of Oviedo
+cathedral. This object, which is purely Byzantine
+in its style, is believed to have been made at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+Constantinople. It was improved by Alfonso the
+Sixth, who added <i>repouss�</i> plates to it, with Arabic
+ornamentation in the form of meaningless inscriptions
+of a merely decorative character, but which
+are interesting as showing the kinship existing at
+this time between the Spanish Christians and the
+Spanish Moors.</p>
+
+<p>Equally important is the coffer which was made
+by order of Don Sancho el Mayor to enshrine the
+wonder-working bones of San Millan, and which
+is now at San Millan de la Cogulla, in the
+province of La Rioja. The author of this chest,
+which dates from <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1033, is vaguely spoken of
+as &ldquo;Master Aparicio.&rdquo; The chest itself consists
+of a wooden body beneath a covering of ivory
+and gold, further enriched with statuettes and
+studded with real and imitation stones. It is
+divided into twenty-two compartments carved in
+ivory with passages from the life and miracles of
+the saint, and figures of &ldquo;princes, monks, and
+benefactors,&rdquo; who had contributed in one way or
+another to the execution of the reliquary.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the &ldquo;coffer of the Cid&rdquo; was
+made for carrying baggage. A very interesting
+Spanish baggage-chest, although more modern
+than the Cid's by several centuries, is now the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+property of Se�or Moreno Carbonero (Plate <a href="#img_16.jpg">iii</a>.).
+This very competent authority believes it to have
+belonged to Isabella the Catholic, and says that it
+was formerly the usage of the sovereigns of this
+country to mark their baggage-boxes with the
+first quartering of the royal arms and also with
+their monogram. Such is the decoration, consisting
+of repeated castles and the letter Y (for Ysabel),
+upon this trunk. The space between is painted
+red upon a surface thinly spread with wax.
+Strips of iron, twisted to imitate the girdle of Saint
+Francis, are carried over all the frame, surrounding
+the castles and the letters. This box was found
+at Ronda.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_16.jpg" width="500" height="302"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_16.jpg" id="img_16.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">III<br /><i>ARC�N</i><br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A handsome <i>arc�n</i>, dating from the same period
+as this baggage-chest of Isabella the Catholic,
+namely, the end of the fifteenth century, is stated
+by its owner, Don Manuel Lopez de Ayala, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+have belonged to Cardinal Cisneros (Plate <a href="#img_18.jpg">iv</a>.).
+The material is wood, covered inside with dark
+blue cloth, and outside with red velvet, most of
+the nap of which is worn away. The dimensions
+are four feet six inches in length, two feet in
+height, and twenty inches in depth. The chest,
+which has a triple lock, is covered with <i>repouss�</i>
+iron plates representing twisted columns and
+other architectural devices, combined with Gothic
+thistle-leaves. A coat of arms is on the front.</p>
+
+<p>Such is an outline of the history of these
+Spanish chests. Most of the earlier ones are
+cumbersome and scantily adorned. Then, as
+time proceeds, we find on them the florid Gothic
+carving, unsurpassed for purity and charm; then
+the Renaissance, with its characteristic ornament of
+urns, and birds, and intertwining frond and ribbon;
+and finally, towards, and lasting through the
+greater portion of, the eighteenth century, the
+tasteless and decadent manner of Baroque. Yet
+even in the worst and latest we descry from time
+to time a flickering remnant of the art of Moorish
+Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_18.jpg" width="500" height="290"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_18.jpg" id="img_18.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IV<br /><i>ARCA</i> OF CARDINAL CISNEROS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These Spanish Moors, obedient to the custom
+of their fellow-Mussulmans throughout the world,
+employed but little furniture. They loved, indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+bright colours and ingenious craftsmanship, but
+rather in the adjuncts to their furniture than in the
+furniture itself; in costly carpets, or worked and
+coloured leather hung upon the wall,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> or spread
+upon their <i>alhamies</i> and <i>alhan�as</i>; in fountains
+bubbling in the middle of their courts and halls;
+in doors, and ceilings, and <i>celos�as</i> exquisitely
+carved, and joined with matchless cunning; in
+flower-vases placed in niches; in bronze or silver
+perfume-burners rolling at their feet; but not
+(within the ordinary limit of the term) in furniture.
+Upon this theme the Reverend Lancelot Addison
+discourses very quaintly. &ldquo;The host here,&rdquo; he
+wrote of &ldquo;West Barbary&rdquo; in 1663, &ldquo;is one Cidi
+Caffian Shat, a grandee, reported to be an Andalusian,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+one of the race of the Moors bansht (<i>sic</i>)
+Spain&hellip;. We were called to a little upper
+Room, which we could not enter till we had put
+off our shoes at the threshold: not for Religion,
+but Cleanliness, and not to prevent our unhallowing
+the floor, but defiling the carpets wherewith
+it was curiously spread. At the upper end of the
+Room was laid a Velvit Cushion, as large as
+those we use in our Pulpits, and it denoted the
+most Honourable part of the Room. After we
+had reposed about an hour, there was brought in
+a little oval Table, about twenty Inches high, which
+was covered with a long piece of narrow linnen;
+and this served for Diaper.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> For the Moors, by
+their law, are forbidden such superfluous Utensils
+as napkins, knives, spoons, etc. Their Religion
+laying down the general maxim, that meer
+necessaries are to be provided for; which caused
+a precise Moor to refuse to drink out of my dish,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+when he could sup water enough out of the hollow
+of his hand.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author proceeds to relate his experiences
+at bed-time. &ldquo;Having supp'd and solaced
+ourselves with muddy beverage and Moresco
+music, we all composed ourselves to sleep: about
+twenty were allotted to lodge in this small chamber,
+whereof two were Christians, three Jews, and the
+rest Moors; every one made his bed of what he
+wore, which made our English constitutions to
+wish for the morning.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_20.jpg" width="346" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_20.jpg" id="img_20.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">V<br />ARMCHAIR<br />
+(<i>17th Century. Museum of Salamanca</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the Mussulmans all this has undergone
+no change. Do we not find their present furniture
+to be identical with that of distant centuries?&mdash;a
+characteristic scarcity of portable articles of
+wood; the isolated box (<i>arqueta</i> or <i>arc�n</i>) which
+serves the purpose of our clumsier chest of drawers
+or wardrobe;<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> carpets and decorated leathers; the
+tiny, indispensable table; the lack of knives and
+spoons; ornaments to regale the eye rather than
+commodities which the hand might seize upon
+and utilize? Such was, and is, and will continue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+to remain Mohammedan society throughout the
+world; and these descriptive passages of life in
+seventeenth-century Morocco might have been
+penned with equal truth in reference to the Spanish
+Muslim of a thousand years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The furniture of the Moorish mosques was also
+of the scantiest. &ldquo;They are,&rdquo; to quote once more
+from Lancelot Addison's amusing little brochure,
+&ldquo;without the too easy accommodations of seats,
+pews, or benches. The floor of the Gi�mma is
+handsomely matted, and so are the walls about
+two feet high. If the roof be large and weighty,
+it is supported with pillars, among which hang
+the lamps, which are kept burning all the night.&rdquo;
+At one point of his expedition the reason for such
+paucity of furniture was vividly expounded to our
+tourist. A Moor indignantly exclaimed to him
+that it was &ldquo;a shame to see women, dogs, and
+dirty shoes brought into a place sacred to God's
+worship, and that men &hellip;; should have chaires
+there to sit in with as much lascivious ease as at
+home.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, a pulpit in the mosque, and a seat
+of some kind in the palace or the private house,
+were not to be dispensed with. We learn from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+Ibn-Khaldoun and many other writers, that the
+throne of the Mussulman sultans was the <i>mimbar</i>,
+<i>takcht</i>, or <i>cursi</i>. Each of these objects was a
+wooden seat. The first of the sultans to use a
+throne was Moawia, son of Abu-Sofyan. The
+princes who came after him continued the same
+usage, but displayed a constantly increasing
+splendour in the decoration of the throne. This
+custom spread, in course of time, from east to west
+throughout almost the whole dominion of the
+Muslims. The Beni-Nasr princes of Granada
+are also known to have used a throne, but this
+is believed to have consisted simply of some
+cushions piled one upon another. This inference
+is drawn by Eguilaz Yanguas and other
+Arabists from the old <i>Vocabulary</i> of Fray Pedro
+de Alcal�, who renders a &ldquo;throne&rdquo; or &ldquo;royal
+seat&rdquo; by <i>martaba</i>, a word equivalent to &ldquo;cushion.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_22.jpg" width="500" height="349"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_22.jpg" id="img_22.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VI<br />CHAIR AND TABLE<br />
+(<i>17th Century. Salamanca Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cushions, too, became symbolic, even with the
+Christian Spaniards, of a seat of honour; both
+because they lent themselves to rich embroidery
+or leather-work, and because they raised their
+occupant above the level of the persons seated
+positively on the carpet or the floor. In the
+painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice in the
+Alhambra, ten men are congregated in Mohammedan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+costume, each of them seated on a cushion.
+Some writers, including Argote de Molina, Diego
+Hurtado de Mendoza, and Hernando del Pulgar,
+believed these figures to be actual portraits of the
+sultans; others maintain that they depict the
+<i>Mizouar</i> or royal council. In either case, however,
+the cushion here is clearly an honourable
+place. We have, besides, abundant evidence that
+the Spanish Christians viewed the cushion with
+as marked a liking as their rivals. Alvarez de
+Colmenar relates that at the very close of the
+seventeenth century the Spanish women sat at
+meals in Moorish fashion. &ldquo;Un p�re de famille
+est assis seul � table, et toutes les femmes, sans
+exception, mangent par terre, assises sur un
+carreau avec leurs enfants, et leur table dress�e
+sur un tapis �tendu.&rdquo; The same work says elsewhere
+that &ldquo;lorsque les dames se rendent visite,
+elles ne se donnent ni si�ge ni fauteuil, mais elles
+sont toutes assises par terre, les jambes en croix,
+sur des tapis ou des carreaux.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p>Therefore, until two centuries ago, the women
+of Christian Spain were suffered to take their
+seat on cushions of brocade or damask. Only
+the men made use of stools or chairs, according<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+to their rank. To &ldquo;give a chair&rdquo; (<i>dar silla</i>) to
+a visitor of the male sex was to pay him a valued
+courtesy;<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and even now the wife of a grandee
+of Spain goes through the honourable though
+irksome ceremony, at the palace of Madrid, of
+&ldquo;taking the cushion.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_24.jpg" width="500" height="352"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_24.jpg" id="img_24.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VII<br />CHAIRS UPHOLSTERED WITH <i>GUADAMECILES</i><br />
+(<i>17th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another usage with the Spaniards of the
+seventeenth and immediately preceding centuries
+was the &ldquo;dais of honour&rdquo; or <i>estrado de cumplimiento</i>.
+This was a platform very slightly
+raised, and separated by a railing from the rest
+of the room. The curious manuscript discovered
+by Gayangos, descriptive of court-life at Valladolid
+in 1605, contains the following account of one
+of the occasions when the Queen, following a
+common custom of a Sunday, dined alone, in
+sight of all the aristocracy. &ldquo;The table was laid
+upon the dais (<i>estrado alto</i>), beneath a canopy of
+brocade that overhung the whole of it. The
+queen sat at the head of the table, and three ladies,
+standing, waited on her; two uncovering the
+dishes as they came,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> and the third carving. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+dishes were brought from the dining-room door
+by the <i>meninos</i>, who handed them to the ladies.
+Other ladies of the royal household, wives or
+daughters of grandees, stood leaning against the
+wall in company with gentlemen who, on such
+occasions, sue for leave beforehand to attend on
+Lady So and So, or So and So. Commonly
+there are two such cavaliers to every dame. If
+the queen asks for water, one of these ladies takes
+it to her, kneels, makes an obeisance, kisses the
+goblet, hands it to her majesty, and retires to her
+appointed place. Behind the queen was one of
+her chamberlains. Many of the Englishmen
+were witnessing the meal. They always put the
+English first on such occasions; and as they are
+such hulking fellows (God bless them!) I, who
+was at their back, scarce noted anything of what
+was passing, and only saw that many plates went
+to and fro.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Solid and expensive furniture continued to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+used in Spain throughout the sixteenth and the
+seventeenth centuries; the ponderous chest, the
+ponderous brasier, ponderous stools, ponderous
+armchairs with massive nails and coverings of
+velvet or of decorated leather (Plates <a href="#img_20.jpg">v</a>v., <a href="#img_22.jpg">vi</a>., and
+<a href="#img_24.jpg">vii</a>.). Upon the wall, the tapestry of earlier
+times was often replaced by paintings of a sacred
+character, or family portraits. The comedy titled
+<i>La Gardu�a de Sevilla</i>, written about the middle
+of the seventeenth century by Alonso del Castillo
+Solorzano, describes the interior of a rich man's
+dwelling of this period. &ldquo;Upstairs Rufina noted
+delicate summer hangings, new chairs of Moscovy
+cowhide, curiously carved buffets, and ebony and
+ivory writing-desks; for Marquina, though a
+skinflint towards others, was generous in the
+decoration of his own abode&hellip;. When dinner
+was over, he took her to a room embellished with
+fine paintings, and with a bed whose canopy was
+of some Indian fabric&hellip;. Paintings by famous
+masters were plentifully hung about the house,
+together with fine Italian hangings, various kinds
+of writing-desks, and costly beds and canopies.
+When they had visited nearly all the rooms, they
+opened the door of one which contained a beautiful
+altar and its oratory. Here were a great array<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+of costly and elaborate Roman vessels, agnuses
+of silver and of wood, and flowers arranged in
+various ways. This chamber, too, was full of
+books distributed in gilded cases.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_26.jpg" width="391" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_26.jpg" id="img_26.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">VIII<br />THE <i>SALA DE LA BARCA</i><br />
+(<i>Before the fire of 1890. Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A characteristic piece of Spanish furniture was
+at this time the solid-looking cabinet known as the
+<i>vargue�o</i>, so denominated from the little town
+of Vargas, near Toledo, formerly a well-known
+centre of their manufacture. These cabinets,
+whose origin, according to the Marquis of Monistrol,
+may be traced to a fifteenth-century form of
+<i>huche</i>, or chest provided with drawers for guarding
+articles of value, and which opened in the centre,
+are commonly made of walnut. The front lets
+down upon a massive wooden rest supported by the
+legs, and forms a folding writing-table containing at
+the back a number of drawers or compartments for
+storing documents, or other things of minor bulk.</p>
+
+<p>The woodwork of these cabinets is often without
+carving; but generally in such cases their bareness
+is relieved by massive and elaborately ornamented
+iron fastenings and a decorative key.</p>
+
+<p>The Ordinances of Granada tell us that in
+1616 the making of defective furniture had grown
+to be a scandal in that town. The cause, it
+seems, was partly in the wood itself, proceeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+from the Sierra de Segura, Pinar del Duque, and
+the Sierra de Gor. &ldquo;Divers of our carpenters
+and joiners cut their walnut and other woods
+while yet the moon is crescent, whereby the wood
+decays and spoils. Others there be that make
+and sell chairs, desks, beds, and other furniture
+of green unseasoned wood which warps and
+loosens, insomuch that within some days the
+article is worthless. Therefore we order that
+all walnut wood and other woods for making
+furniture be only cut at the time of the waning
+moon, and be not used until they shall have
+seasoned thoroughly, so as not to warp; and that
+they be approved by the inspectors of this trade,
+under a penalty of six thousand <i>maravedis</i> for
+each of the aforesaid Ordinances that be not
+complied with.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_28.jpg" width="390" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_28.jpg" id="img_28.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IX<br />DOOR OF THE HALL OF THE ABENCERRAJES<br />
+(<i>Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The municipal laws of the same city relative
+to the &ldquo;chair-makers who make hip-chairs to sit
+in, and leather-covered chests,&rdquo; were cried, in
+1515 and 1536, &ldquo;in the street of the chairmakers
+and carpenters.&rdquo; Fettered by irksome regulations
+of this kind, we cannot wonder that the arts and
+crafts of Christian Spain were fated to decline.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Owing to the &ldquo;false and faulty workmanship&rdquo; prevailing
+in Granada, it is provided by these statutes
+that the wood employed in making chairs must
+be bought by the manufacturers in public auction
+only, held &ldquo;in the little square where dwell the
+chairmakers.&rdquo; It must be thoroughly dry and
+free from flaws, and of sufficient stoutness to
+sustain the decorative marquetry. The chair
+which lacks these requisite conditions must be
+seized and burnt. The four nails which fasten
+the seat of the chair to the legs must traverse the
+frame completely and be hammered back upon
+the other side, unless the surface of the chair
+be inlaid, in which case they need not pass
+completely through. The leather for the seats
+and backs of chairs must be good in quality and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+well prepared and dressed, besides being strongly
+sewn with flaxen thread. Chairs of all sizes
+must bear the official city mark, stamped by the
+authorities at a charge of one <i>maravedi</i> for each
+of the large chairs and a <i>blanca</i> for each of the
+small.</p>
+
+<p>Makers of the leather-covered chests are
+ordered to use the hides of horses, mares, or
+mules, and not the hides of oxen, cows, or calves,
+because, if covered with this latter, &ldquo;the chests
+grow moth-eaten and are destroyed much sooner.&rdquo;
+The craftsman who transgresses this command
+must lose the faulty piece of furniture, and pay four
+hundred <i>maravedis</i>, while under a further penalty
+of two hundred <i>maravedis</i> the hinges must be
+fixed inside the chest, and not to its exterior.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_30.jpg" width="500" height="383"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_30.jpg" id="img_30.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">X<br />MOORISH DOOR, DETAIL OF CARVING<br />
+(<i>Hall of the Two Sisters, Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have omitted hitherto all mention of the
+furnishing of humbler Spanish houses in the olden
+time. The following passage from the Ordinances
+of Granada shows us, referring to an inn, an
+unpretentious lodging of about four hundred
+years ago:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Item.</i> If the innkeeper have a parlour or
+alcove that fastens with a lock, and therein a
+bed of the better class, with hangings round
+about it, and a canopy above, and on the bed a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+counterpane, friezed blanket, and pillows; also a
+bench with its strip of carpet or striped benchcloth,
+a table with its service of tablecloths and
+all that be needful, besides a lamp of brass or
+ware, all of the best that he is able to provide&mdash;for
+such a bed and room he may demand twelve
+<i>maravedis</i> each day; whether the room be taken
+by one guest, or two, or more.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>Nor was the Spanish inn more comfortable in
+the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries than in
+the sixteenth. &ldquo;On entre d'ordinaire dans les
+H�telleries par l'�curie, du moins dans de certaines
+Provinces; on vous m�ne dans quelque chambre,
+o� vous trouvez les quatre parois, quelquefois un
+bois de lit; pour chandelle on allume un grand
+nombre de petites bougies, qui font assez de
+lumi�re pour voir ce que vous mangez; et afin
+que l'odeur and la fum�e de tant de bougies
+n'incommode pas, on vous apporte, si vous le
+souhaitez, un brasier de noyaux d'olives en
+charbon. Quand on monte, on trouve au haut de
+l'escalier, la <i>Se�ora de la Casa</i>, qui a eu le tems
+de prendre ses beaux habits de dimanche pour
+vous faire honneur et s'en faire � elle-m�me.&rdquo;
+(Alvarez de Colmenar, in 1715.)</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to compare these passages with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+Lancelot Addison's account of a Morocco inn
+towards the middle of the seventeenth century;
+bearing in mind that <i>fonda</i>, the current Spanish
+term for <i>hostelry</i>, is common both to Spain and to
+Morocco:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In later years, every town of traffic hath
+erected a sort of Inns called <i>Alf�ndach</i>, which
+affords nothing but House-room for man and
+beast, the market yielding provision for both.
+Those that farm these <i>fand�chs</i> cannot exact
+above a Blankil a night both for man and beast,
+which is in sterling money about two pence. The
+horses lodging costing equally with his Rider's.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>Similarly, the keeper of the older Spanish inn
+was not allowed by law to traffic in provisions.
+&ldquo;Nothing but house-room&rdquo; was available for wayfarers,
+and the weary visitor, as soon as ever he
+arrived, must sally forth to do his marketing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_32.jpg" width="385" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_32.jpg" id="img_32.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XI<br />DOOR OF THE <i>SALON DE EMBAJADORES</i><br />
+(<i>Alc�zar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Quand on arrive aux H�telleries, fut il minuit
+pass�, l'on n'y trouve rien de pr�t, non pas m�me
+un pot sur le feu. L'h�tel ne vous donne que le
+couvert et le lit, pour tout le reste, il le faut envoyer
+chercher, si vous ne voulez prendre la peine
+d'y aller vous-m�me. On donne l'argent n�cessaire,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+et l'on va vous chercher du pain, du vin,
+de la viande, et g�n�ralement tout ce que
+l'on souhaite, si tant est qu'on le puisse trouver.
+Il est vrai que cette coutume a son bon
+c�t�.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Le prix de toutes ces choses est r�gl�, l'on
+sait ce qu'il faut payer, et un h�te ne peut pas
+friponner. On vous appr�te votre viande, et l'on
+donne une r�ale et demie, ou deux r�aux pour le
+<i>servicio</i>, comme ils parlent, et autant pour le lit,
+ce qui revient environ � quinze sous de France.
+Si l'on se trouve dans quelque grande ville, on
+aura une nappe grande comme une serviette, et
+une serviette grande comme un mouchoir de
+poche; dans d'autres endroits il faut s'en passer.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Les lits ne sont pas fort ragoutans; quelque
+matelas, ou quelque paillasse, ou tout au plus une
+couverture de coton; � la campagne il faut passer
+la nuit sur le carreau, ou bien sur quelque botte
+de paille, qu'on doit avoir soin de faire bien
+secouer, pour en chasser la vermine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The statements in this passage relative to the
+lack of food in Spanish hostelries are confirmed,
+nearly a century later, by Townsend, who records
+that on reaching a certain village his first proceeding
+was to turn his steps, not to the <i>fonda</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+<i>posada</i> where he would engage his bed, but to
+the butcher's, wine-seller's, and so forth, &ldquo;to see
+what was to be had, as I had travelled all day
+fasting.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is beyond the province of this work to dwell
+upon the foreign taste in furniture which invaded
+Spain from France upon the advent of the
+Bourbon dynasty, and so I limit my notice of the
+eighteenth century to quoting from Laborde the
+following comprehensive passage:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;If the Spaniards,&rdquo; this traveller wrote in
+1809, &ldquo;take many precautions against heat, they
+take scarcely any against cold; it is very uncommon
+to find doors or windows that shut
+close, and the rooms are very little and very
+ill-warmed. The use of chimneys even is very
+uncommon, and only prevails in the houses of
+such Spaniards as have travelled. Brasiers of
+copper or silver are generally employed, which
+are set in the middle of the apartment, filled
+with burning charcoal, and round which the family
+place themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_34.jpg" width="391" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_34.jpg" id="img_34.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XII<br />DOOR OF THE <i>SALON DE EMBAJADORES</i><br />
+(<i>Alc�zar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The beds in Spain are hard. They are only
+made of mattresses, more or fewer, laid on paillasses
+which rest upon a boarded bottom; for
+neither sacking nor feather beds are known. No<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+bolsters are used, but in their place little, short,
+flat pillows are heaped up, sometimes to the
+number of six or eight. The sheets are in
+general short and narrow; and napkins scarcely
+as big as a small pocket handkerchief.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The furniture of the houses is usually very
+simple. The floor is covered with a matting of
+<i>esparto</i> in winter, and of rushes or palm leaves in
+summer. A matting of the same kind, a painted
+cloth, or painting in panels, covers the walls
+from the floor to the height of four or five feet;
+above, the wall is bare, painted white, and adorned
+with pictures of saints and a kind of ornamented
+metal chandeliers; these are covered with a glass,
+surrounded with a border of gilt ornaments; and
+a little branch of gilt copper proceeds from them
+forming zig-zags or festoons, on which the candles
+are placed; they are called cornucopias; they are
+from one to three feet in height, and give the
+apartment the air of a coffee room, or billiard room.
+Mirrors are placed between the windows, and a
+lustre of clear glass in imitation of crystal is suspended
+from the middle of the handsomest
+saloons. The chairs have straw bottoms; in
+some provinces, as Murcia, Andalusia, and
+Valencia, they are of different heights; those on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+one side of the room being of the common height,
+and the others one third lower. The latter are
+intended for the ladies. In some of the principal
+cities one also sees chairs and sofas of walnut
+wood, the backs of which are bare, and the
+seats covered with damask; usually crimson or
+yellow.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Luxury begins, however, to show itself in
+these objects. In the chief cities many hangings
+are of painted paper or linen; even hangings of
+brocades, of one and of three colours, and of
+various other kinds of silk; large and beautiful
+mirrors, and a number of sofas may be seen.
+The houses of the grandees in Madrid are
+magnificently furnished, but usually with more
+cost than taste. Hangings of silk, velvet, and
+damask, adorned with rich fringes and gold embroidery,
+are very common, and the seats are of
+corresponding magnificence. Many houses in
+Barcelona, Cadiz, Valencia, and Madrid are
+decorated with equal study and elegance.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The custom of painting the walls is of late
+introducing itself into Spain. They are covered
+with representations of men and animals, with
+trees, flowers, landscapes, houses, urns, vases, or
+history pieces, divided into compartments, adorned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+with pillars, pilasters, friezes, cornices, and arabesques;
+the effect of the whole is often very
+agreeable. This kind of decoration was imported
+from Italy.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_36.jpg" width="417" height="600"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_36.jpg" id="img_36.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIII<br />ALC�ZAR OF SEVILLE<br />
+(<i>Fa�ade and principal entrance</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this account we clearly trace each various
+and successive influence that had permeated older
+Spain, leaving her, at the close of every period, a
+nation that produced illustrious artists, but never
+a nation deeply versed in, or devoted to, the arts.
+The beds and brasiers of these modern Spaniards
+were derived from ancient Rome; their general
+dearth of comfortable furniture, together with the
+lower, and therefore more humiliating, seats for
+women, from the Spanish Moors; the typically
+ponderous hangings from medi�val Spain herself;
+the fresco wall-paintings, such as may still
+be seen in many a Spanish country home, from
+classic or Renaissance Italy; and the finicking
+gilt, rococo cornucopias from France; while the
+use of mirrors and of lustres in hideous combination
+with straw-bottomed chairs, almost reminds us
+of the days of Visigothic barbarism.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>LEATHER</h3>
+
+<p><i>Guadamaciler�a</i>, or the art of decorating leather
+with painting, gilding, and impressions in relief,
+is commonly believed to have crossed from Africa
+to Spain at some time in the Middle Ages.
+According to Duveyrier, the word <i>guadamec�</i> or
+<i>guadamecil</i> is taken from Ghadames, a town in
+Barbary where the craft was practised long ago;
+but Covarrubias gives it an origin directly
+Spanish, supposing that the title and the craft
+alike proceeded from a certain town of Andalusia.
+However this may be, the preparation of these
+leathers grew to be a most important industry in
+various parts of Spain, and spread, as time went
+on, to Italy, France, and other European
+countries.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_38.jpg" width="325" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_38.jpg" id="img_38.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIV<br />DOOR OF THE CAPILLA DE LOS VARGAS<br />
+(<i>Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Peninsula, the principal centres of this
+work were Cordova, Seville, Lerida, Barcelona,
+Ciudad Real, and Valladolid. Cordova, however,
+was so far ahead of all the rest that leathers
+decorated in this style were known throughout
+the world as <i>cueros de C�rdoba</i>, or &ldquo;Cordova<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+leathers.&rdquo; Another name for them is said to
+have been <i>cordobanes</i>; but possibly the application
+of this latter word was less restricted.
+Bertaut de Rouen wrote in the seventeenth
+century of Ciudad Real:&mdash;&ldquo;C'est une ville situ�e
+dans une grande plaine, et dont l'enceinte est
+assez grande, qui estoit mesme fort peupl�e
+autrefois, mais elle est quasi deserte � present.
+Il ne luy reste plus rien sinon que c'est l� o� l'on
+appreste le mieux les peaux de <i>Cordouan</i>, dont
+on fait les gans d'Espagne. C'est del� aussi d'o�
+elles viennent pour la pluspart � Madrid. J'en
+achetay quelques-unes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1197 Alfonso the Ninth presented the town
+of Castro de los Jud�os to Le�n Cathedral and
+its bishop, confirming at the same time the
+tribute which the Jews who occupied that town
+were bound to render upon Saint Martin's day
+in every year, and which consisted of two hundred
+<i>sueldos</i>, a fine skin, and two <i>guadamec�s</i>. This
+tribute had existed since the reign of Ferdinand
+the First: that is, towards the middle of the
+preceding century.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>None of these primitive leathers now exist, and
+consequently the details of their workmanship<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+have perished with them. Ram�rez de Arellano
+mentions two small coffers in the Cluny Museum,
+which date from about the fourteenth century
+and are decorated with the forms of animals
+cut from leather and overlaid on velvet. Other
+<i>guadamec�s</i>, though not of the oldest, are in
+the South Kensington Museum. &ldquo;The earliest
+<i>guadamecileros</i>,&rdquo; says Ram�rez de Arellano, speaking
+particularly of this art at Cordova, &ldquo;were accustomed
+to imitate brocade upon their leathers,
+employing beaten silver together with the colours
+red, green, blue, black, white, and carmine,
+applied in oils, or sometimes (although the law
+prohibited this) in tempera. Gold was not used
+till 1529, when Charles the Fifth confirmed
+the Ordinances of this industry. The leather-workers
+tanned the hides themselves, stamping
+the pattern from a wooden mould, and then
+(if we may call it so) engraving on them.
+The hides were those of rams. The spaces
+between the decoration were either coloured
+red or blue, or simply left the colour of the
+skin; or else the pattern would be wrought in
+colours on the natural hide. Gold, which at a
+later epoch almost totally replaces silver, was
+introduced between 1529 and 1543, and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+applied as follows. The artists smeared with oil
+the parts they wished to figure in raised or sunk
+relief, and laid the beaten gold upon the oil.
+They then applied a heated iron or copper mould;
+the pattern in relief was stamped; and the gold,
+superfluous shreds of which were wiped away with
+lint, adhered upon the leather. The irons required
+to be moderately hot, because if overheated
+they would burn the hide, or, if not hot enough,
+the fixing of the gold would not be permanent.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_40.jpg" width="349" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_40.jpg" id="img_40.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XV<br />MUDEJAR DOOR<br />
+(<i>Palacio de las Due�as, Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The importance of this industry in Spain may
+be judged of from the fact that towards the close
+of the Middle Ages the <i>guadamacileros</i> of Seville
+occupied nearly the whole of an important street&mdash;the
+Calle Placentines. Similarly, at Cordova
+they filled the quarter of the city known as the
+Ajerqu�a. &ldquo;So many <i>guadamec�es</i> are made here,&rdquo;
+wrote Ambrosio de Morales, &ldquo;that in this craft no
+other capital can compare with her; and in such
+quantities that they supply all Europe and the
+Indies. This industry enriches Cordova and
+also beautifies her; for since the gilded, wrought,
+and painted leathers are fixed upon large boards
+and placed in the sun in order to be dried, by
+reason of their splendour and variety they make
+her principal streets right fair to look upon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We owe to Rafael Ram�rez de Arellano most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+valuable and recent information respecting this
+ancient Spanish-Moorish craft.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> He has discovered
+the names of nearly forty <i>guadamacileros</i>
+who lived and worked at Cordova, principally in
+the sixteenth century. It is not worth while to
+repeat these names alone, but one or two
+particulars connected with a few of them are
+interesting. In 1557 four of these artificers,
+named Benito Ruiz, Diego de San Llorente,
+Diego de Ayora, and Anton de Valdelomar, signed
+a contract to prepare the cut and painted <i>guadamaciles</i>
+for decorating a palace at Rome. This contract,
+which is most precise and technical, is
+published in No. 101 of the <i>Bolet�n de la Sociedad
+Espa�ola de Excursiones</i>. The only further notice
+which Se�or Ram�rez de Arellano has discovered
+relating to any of these four craftsmen, tells us
+that nine years after the signing of the document
+just mentioned, Diego de Ayora leased some
+houses in the Calle de la Feria for a yearly rental
+of twenty-two ducats and three pairs of live hens.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting contract is dated April
+17th, 1587. By it the <i>guadamacilero</i> Andr�s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+Lopez de Valdelomar agreed, in company with
+Hernando del Olmo of Marchena, and with
+Francisco de Gaviria and Francisco Delgado,
+painters, of Cordova, to make a number of pieces
+of <i>guadamec�</i> for the Duke of Arcos. The work
+was to be terminated by July of the same year.
+Valdelomar was to receive from the duke's agent
+three <i>reales</i> for each piece, and the painters two
+<i>reales</i> and a half; this money to be paid them by
+instalments as the work proceeded.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_42.jpg" width="351" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_42.jpg" id="img_42.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVI<br /><i>CELOS�A</i><br />
+(<i>Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On August 26th, 1567, before the mayor of
+Cordova and the two inspectors of this trade, Pedro
+de Blancas was officially examined and approved
+in &ldquo;cutting, working, and completing a <i>guadamec�</i>
+of red damask with gold and silver borders on a
+green field, and a cushion with green and crimson
+decoration and faced with silver brocade.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Ordinances of Cordova also tell us much
+about this industry. The oldest of these city laws
+which deal with it are dated 1529. Those of 1543
+were ratified by a Crown pragmatic early in the
+seventeenth century, and at this later date we
+learn that the craft had much declined, the leather
+being by now &ldquo;of wretched quality, the colouring
+imperfect, and the pieces undersized.&rdquo; The
+Ordinances published in the sixteenth century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+provide that every applicant for official licence to
+pursue this craft and open business as a <i>guadamacilero</i>,
+must prove himself, in presence of the
+examiners, able to mix his colours and design with
+them, and to make a canopy together with its
+fringe, as well as &ldquo;a cushion of any size or style
+that were demanded of him; nor shall he explain
+merely by word of mouth the making of the same,
+but make it with his very hands in whatsoever
+house or place shall be appointed by the mayor
+and the overseers of the craft aforesaid.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It was also provided by these Ordinances that
+the pieces of leather were to be dyed, not with
+Brazil-wood, but with madder, and that their size,
+whether the hide were silvered, gilt, or painted,
+was to be strictly uniform, namely, &ldquo;the size of
+the primitive mould,&rdquo; or &ldquo;three-quarters of a yard
+in length by two-thirds of a yard, all but one inch,
+in width.&rdquo; The standard measures, made of iron
+and stamped with the city seal, were guarded under
+lock and key; and the Ordinances of 1567 establish
+the penalty of death for every <i>guadamacilero</i> who
+shall seek, in silvering his wares, to palm off tin
+for silver.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_44.jpg" width="500" height="343"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_44.jpg" id="img_44.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVII<br />CARVED <i>ALERO</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These leathers served a great variety of
+purposes, public or private, sacred or profane.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+They were used upon the walls and floors of
+palaces and castles, as table-covers, counterpanes,
+bed-hangings, cushions, curtains for doors, linings
+for travelling-litters, coverings of chests and
+boxes,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and seats and backs of chairs and
+benches (Plate <a href="#img_24.jpg">vii</a>.). In churches and cathedrals,
+especially throughout the sixteenth century, we
+find them used as tapestry and carpets,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> altar-fronts
+(such as one which is preserved in the
+chapel of San Isidro in Palencia cathedral), or
+crowns for images of the Virgin.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> As time
+advanced, gold and a coat or so of colour was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+succeeded by elaborate painting. Thus painted,
+they were often cut into the forms of columns,
+pilasters, or friezes in the Plateresco or Renaissance
+style,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> until the growing popularity of wall-pictures,
+together with the importation of French
+fashions at the death of Charles the Second,
+crippled and ultimately killed the decorative
+leather industry of Spain.</p>
+
+<h3>CARPENTRY AND WOOD-CARVING</h3>
+
+<p>The artistic carpentry of older Spain produced
+as its most typical and striking monuments, three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+groups of objects which may be included generally
+under Furniture. These are the <i>celos�a</i> or
+window-lattice, the door of <i>lazo</i>-work, and the
+<i>artesonado</i>-ceiling which adorns a hall or chamber,
+corridor or staircase.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_46.jpg" width="500" height="350"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_46.jpg" id="img_46.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XVIII<br />CARVED <i>ZAPATAS</i><br />
+(<i>Casa de Salinas, Salamanca</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These happy and effective styles of decoration
+came originally from the East. Their passage
+may be traced along the coast of Africa from
+Egypt into Spain; and they flourished in Spain
+for the same reason which had caused them to
+flourish at Cairo. &ldquo;When we remember,&rdquo; says
+Professor Lane-Poole, &ldquo;how little wood grows
+in Egypt, the extensive use made of this material
+in the mosques and houses of Cairo appears very
+remarkable. In mosques, the ceilings, some of
+the windows, the pulpit, lectern or Koran desk,
+tribune, tomb-casing, doors, and cupboards, are
+of wood, and often there are carved wooden inscriptions
+and stalactites of the same material leading
+up to the circle of the dome. In the older
+houses, ceilings, doors, cupboards, and furniture
+are made of wood, and carved lattice windows, or
+meshrebiyas, abound. In a cold climate, such
+employment of the most easily worked of substances
+is natural enough; but in Egypt, apart
+from the scarcity of the material, and the necessity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+of importing it, the heat offers serious obstacles
+to its use. A plain board of wood properly
+seasoned may keep its shape well enough in
+England, but when exposed to the sun of Cairo
+it will speedily lose its accurate proportions; and
+when employed in combination with other pieces,
+to form windows or doors, boxes or pulpits, its
+joints will open, its carvings split, and the whole
+work will become unsightly and unstable. The
+leading characteristic of Cairo wood-work is its
+subdivision into numerous panels; and this
+principle is obviously the result of climatic considerations,
+rather than any doctrine of art. The
+only mode of combating the shrinking and
+warping effects of the sun was found in a skilful
+division of the surfaces into panels small enough,
+and sufficiently easy in their setting, to permit
+of slight shrinking without injury to the general
+outline. The little panels of a Cairo door or
+pulpit may expand without encountering enough
+resistance to cause any cracking or splitting in
+the surrounding portions, and the Egyptian workmen
+soon learned to accommodate themselves to
+the conditions of their art in a hot climate.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_48.jpg" width="500" height="346"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_48.jpg" id="img_48.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XIX<br />CARVED <i>ZAPATAS</i><br />
+(<i>Museum of Zaragoza</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These valuable and interesting observations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+apply with equal justice to the decorative woodwork
+of the Spanish Muslims. A further point
+of interest lies in the fact that window-grilles and
+ceilings of the kind referred to, grew to be extremely
+fashionable through the whole Peninsula.
+Carried by Moorish or Mudejar craftsmen far
+beyond the frontiers of the Mussulman sultans of
+this European land, we find to-day surviving
+specimens in every part of Spain&mdash;most of them,
+it is true, in sultry Andalus; but many also in the
+old seigniorial mansions of Castile, or even in
+the cold and humid towns and cities of Cantabria.</p>
+
+<p>The man who did this kind of work was not a
+common carpenter. Such work was largely practical
+and prosaic, but also it was largely decorative
+and poetical. Probably, both in his own and in
+his customer's regard, the decorative quality was
+set before the practical. Therefore, beyond the
+dry, comparatively facile details of technique, this
+workman studied, with an artist's reverence and
+zeal, the inner, subtler, sweeter mysteries of line
+and form; harmonies of curve and angle; patterns,
+now geometrical, now floral, now these two combined
+with magic ingenuity; steeping himself in
+the �sthetic sense; making, indeed, his work the
+literal fact or fitting of prosaic application that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+was indispensable; but also, and as if upon some
+loftier initiative of his own, a miracle of art for
+people of a later day to come and stand before
+and wonder at.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_50.jpg" width="383" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_50.jpg" id="img_50.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XX<br /><i>ALERO</i> AND CORNICE OF CARVED WOOD<br />
+(<i>Cuarto de Comares, Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Indeed, whether because Our Lord had practised
+it, or from some other motive, carpentry was
+always well esteemed among the Spaniards. The
+Ordinances of Seville eulogize it, in conjunction
+with its sister-work of masonry and building, as
+&ldquo;a noble art and self-contained, that increaseth
+the nobleness of the King and of his kingdom,
+that pacifieth the people, and spreadeth love
+among mankind, conducing to much good.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> The
+same Ordinances divide these honourable craftsmen
+into half a dozen classes and sub-classes;
+carvers or <i>entalladores</i>, carpenters who kept a shop
+(<i>carpinteros de tienda</i>), <i>carpinteros de lo prieto</i>,
+and <i>carpinteros de lo blanco</i>. The latter are the
+class we are considering here, and these, in turn,
+were subdivided into <i>lazeros</i> or makers of <i>lazo</i>-work,
+<i>non-lazeros</i> or those who did not make it,
+and <i>jumetricos</i> or <i>ge�metricos</i>. The statutory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+examination was severe in all these branches.
+Thus, the <i>lazero</i>-carpenters of Seville were required
+to make a chamber of octagonal <i>lazo</i>-work,
+including its pendentives at the corners; while
+the wood-carvers of the same city were required
+to be experienced draughtsmen and to make
+and carve &ldquo;artistic altar-screens with decorated
+columns, pedestals for images, and tabernacles (<i>i.e.</i>
+the part of an altar where the cibory and the Host
+are kept), as well as tombs and chambranles
+with their covering, tabernacles of the utmost art
+(<i>de grande arte</i>), and rich choir-stalls.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nor was the making of artistic ceilings, doors,
+and window-gratings carried out exclusively by
+men of Moorish blood. Tutored by these, the
+Christians practised it with great success. Prominent
+among these last we find, early in the
+seventeenth century, the name of Diego Lopez
+de Arenas, a Christian-Spaniard and a native of
+Marchena, who held the licensed title of master-carpenter
+and lived for many years at Seville.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+In a lucky moment it occurred to Lopez de
+Arenas to write and publish for the benefit of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+fellow-craftsmen a book upon this decorative
+oriental woodwork that had passed into the
+Spanish national life. This book, <i>Carpinter�a
+de lo Blanco</i>,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> appeared at Seville in 1633, and
+fresh editions were printed at the same city
+in 1727, and at Madrid in 1867. As in the
+Ordinances of Granada, Seville, and Toledo,
+Arabic terms, too copious and too complicated for
+elucidation here, are constantly repeated in this
+book.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Much of the general information which
+we gather from it is, however, of great interest.
+Thus, we are told that with the Spanish artists,
+as in Egypt, the wood most often used, no doubt
+as being the cheapest, was pitch pine, parcelled
+and put together in the most elaborate decorative
+schemes. Such was the characteristic <i>alfarge</i><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+ceiling of the Moorish, Morisco, and Spanish-Christian
+<i>carpintero de lo blanco</i>. Its many fragments
+were secured upon the frame by long,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+small-headed nails, or by these nails combined
+with glue. If we observe the ceilings from
+close by, as when, for instance, they are taken
+down to be restored, the workmanship appears
+to be coarse, inaccurate, and hasty; the myriad
+pieces to be clumsily and loosely joined; the nails
+to be driven in without method, or even awry.
+Nevertheless, this false effect betrays the calculating
+genius of the craftsman. He planned his
+work for contemplation by a certain light and at
+a certain elevation; and therefore, as the ceiling
+is removed again to its appointed distance, it
+seems to re-create itself in proud defiance of an
+error of our own, and grows at once to its habitual
+delicacy, harmony, and richness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_52.jpg" width="347" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_52.jpg" id="img_52.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXI<br />&ldquo;ELIJAH SLEEPING&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Statue in wood, by Alonso Cano</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have said that the decoration of these ceilings
+is sometimes floral, sometimes geometrical, sometimes
+a combination of the two.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> Sometimes the
+wood is plain, or sometimes silvered, gilt, or
+painted. Sometimes it is employed alone, or
+sometimes variegated and inlaid with plaster
+points and patches. By far the commonest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+motive is the <i>lazo</i>&mdash;an ornamental scheme composed
+of infinite strips that turn, and twist, and
+intersect, describing in their mazy passage many
+polygons. One of these polygons determines,
+in a way, the scheme of the entire ceiling, which
+is denominated as consisting of &ldquo;a <i>lazo</i> of eight,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;of ten,&rdquo; &ldquo;of twelve,&rdquo; etc., from this particular.
+The most attractive and most frequent is the
+scheme &ldquo;of eight.&rdquo; Among the decorative details
+used to brighten and enhance the <i>lazo</i>
+proper are <i>mocarabes</i> or wooden lacery for relieving
+cubes and joists or surfaces, and <i>r�cimos</i>
+or &ldquo;clusters&rdquo;; that is, hollow or solid wooden
+cones or prisms, disposed along the side and centre
+panels of the ceiling like (in Arenas' ingenious
+phrase) the buttons on a jacket, and contributing
+to the massive aspect of the whole. These
+clusters, too, were sometimes in the stalactite and
+sometimes in a simpler form, and show, both in
+the quantity and richness of their ornament, a
+limitless diversity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_54.jpg" width="324" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_54.jpg" id="img_54.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXII<br />SAINT BRUNO<br />
+(<i>By Alonso Cano. Cartuja of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Magnificent Spanish-Moorish, Spanish, and
+Mudejar ceilings still exist in Spain. Such are
+the marvellous domed ceiling in the Hall of
+Comares (or of Ambassadors) in the Alhambra,
+those of the Castle of the Aljafer�a at Zaragoza<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+and of the archbishop's palace at Alcal� de
+Henares, the Arab <i>alfarge</i> ceilings in the
+churches of San Francisco and Santiago of
+Guadix, that of the Hall of Cortes in the Audiencia
+of Valencia, that of the Sala Capitular of Toledo
+Cathedral, that of the Chapel of the Holy Spirit
+of the Cathedral of Cuenca (considered by many
+to be the finest <i>artesonado</i> ceiling in all Spain),
+or those of the churches of Jesus Crucificado,
+El Carmen, and San Pablo at Cordova. The
+ceiling of the Sala de la Barca, in the Moorish
+palace of the Alhambra, was almost totally destroyed
+by fire in 1890, but a good photograph
+had previously been taken, and I reproduce it
+here (Plate <a href="#img_26.jpg">viii</a>.). One of the later <i>artesonado</i>
+ceilings is at Cordova, in the parish church
+of Santiago. Covered with a <i>b�veda</i> or vault
+of cane, it is in excellent preservation, and was
+made in 1635 by the master-carpenter Alonso
+Mu�oz de los R�os, who received for his labour
+fourteen thousand <i>reales</i>.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> The <i>artesonado</i> ceilings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+which Diego Lopez de Arenas tells us in his
+treatise that he made for the church, the choir,
+and the <i>sobreescalera</i> of the monastery of Santa
+Paula at Seville, as well as a ceiling which he
+made for the church of Mairena, are all extant
+to-day. Other remarkable examples of this craft
+are the ceilings of the rooms constructed to the
+order of, and which were actually occupied by,
+Charles the Fifth, within the precincts of the old
+Alhambra. Upon these half-Italian, half-Morisco
+ceilings and their frieze we read the words, &ldquo;<i>Plus
+Oultre</i>&rdquo;; and the inscription, &ldquo;<i>Imperator C�sar
+Karolus V. Hispaniarum rex semper augustus pius
+f&oelig;lix invictissimus</i>.&rdquo; In one of the same apartments,
+known as the &ldquo;chamber of the fruits,&rdquo; the
+ceiling has octagonal <i>artesones</i> of superb effect,
+though even richer is that of what is called
+the Second Sala de las Frutas, conspicuously
+influenced by Italian art, and believed by G�mez<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+Moreno to have been designed by Pedro Machuca
+and executed by Juan de Plasencia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_56.jpg" width="369" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_56.jpg" id="img_56.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIII<br />SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST<br />
+(<i>San Juan de Dios, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Marvellous in conjunction with the thousand
+lighted lamps which served to manifest its beauties,
+must have been the primitive ceiling (<i>as-sicafes</i>)
+of the mosque of Cordova, of which an Arab poet
+sang; &ldquo;Look at the gold on it, like the kindled
+flame, or like the lightning-stroke that darts
+across the heavens.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Our notices of this ceiling,
+barbarously hacked to pieces by Christian architects,
+are neither numerous nor clear. We are
+told, however, that it was nearly finished in the
+reign of Abd-er-Rhaman the First, and terminated
+altogether by his son Hixem. New ceilings were
+added on the enlarging of the mosque by Abd-er-Rhaman
+the Second, while fresh additions were
+made by Al-Hakem the Second and Al-Manzor.
+Ambrosio de Morales gives a quaint description
+of the earliest, or an early, ceiling of this temple.
+&ldquo;The roof of the whole church, made of wood
+painted and adorned in divers ways, is of incredible
+richness, as will be seen from what I am about to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+say. It is of larch throughout, odorous, resembling
+pine, which is not found in any part but Barbary,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+whence it is brought by sea. And every time
+that a part of this temple was thrown down for
+new constructions to be added, the wood removed
+was sold for many thousand ducats for making
+guitars and other delicate objects. The ceiling
+was built across the church upon the nineteen
+naves thereof, and over it, covered likewise
+with wood, the roofs, nineteen in number also,
+each with its ridge atop, drooping to one and
+other side.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>Three pieces made of common pine, and which
+are thought to have belonged to the original ceiling
+of this mosque or to an early replica, are
+now in the National Museum at Madrid, but the
+carving of these fragments is so simple that in
+the opinion of Rodrigo Amador de los R�os the
+decoration of the wood itself was purposely subordinated
+in this instance to the richness and
+variety of the painting.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_58.jpg" width="398" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_58.jpg" id="img_58.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIV<br />CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>Santo Tom�s, Avila</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Three types of decorative doors were made in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+older Spain. In the earliest and simplest (<i>lacer�a
+en talla</i>), the <i>lacer�a</i> or <i>lazo</i>-work is carved directly
+on and from the solid plank which forms the body
+of the door. In the second type, the carver's art
+is delicately blended with the joiner's&mdash;<i>lazo</i>-work
+with <i>ensamblaje</i>. In the third type the <i>lazo</i>-work
+is <i>sobrepuesta</i>&mdash;that is, attached to, not elaborated
+from, the planking.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<p>As in the case of ceilings, many and excellent
+examples of these doors exist to-day in Spain.
+Among the most remarkable are several in the
+Moorish palace of the Alhambra, such as the two
+(dating from the end of the fourteenth century or
+early in the fifteenth) belonging, respectively, to
+the famous Hall of the Abencerrajes (Pl. <a href="#img_28.jpg">ix</a>.), and
+to the Hall of the Two Sisters (Pl. <a href="#img_30.jpg">x</a>.). Apparently
+it was the former of these doors which Bertaut de
+Rouen wrote of in the seventeenth century as
+&ldquo;une porte aussi grande et aussi �paisse comme
+celles de nos plus grandes �glises. Elle s'ouvre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+des deux costez, et est toute de pieces rapport�es,
+et d'un bois de differentes couleurs, comme les
+beaux cabinets et les belles tables qui coustent si
+cher.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>An early Mudejar door proceeding from the
+church of San Pedro at Daroca in Aragon is now
+in the National Museum. This door, which is
+of larch, and measures nearly fourteen feet in
+height by nine in breadth, is of a simple design and
+represents a horse-shoe door described within the
+door itself. It was originally painted vermilion,
+with other decorative painting of a simple character
+in black, white, and red, and is fortified with
+massive iron braces. It is believed to date from
+earlier than the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_60.jpg" width="500" height="398"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_60.jpg" id="img_60.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXV<br />CARVED CHOIR-STALL<br />
+(<i>Toledo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The mighty doors of the &ldquo;Hall of Ambassadors,&rdquo;
+in the medi�val royal residence of Seville (Plates
+<a href="#img_32.jpg">xi</a>. and <a href="#img_34.jpg">xii</a>.), are quite the finest to be seen in Spain.
+Although a widespread superstition assigns their
+manufacture to a period close upon the Moorish
+conquest, it has been proved conclusively that
+they were made by Mudejar craftsmen of Toledo
+at the time when the whole Alc�zar was erected
+more or less upon the ruins of the old, by Pedro
+the First of Castile, denominated, according to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+the prejudice with which we view his character,
+&ldquo;the Cruel,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the Just.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>These doors, which under a pretence of restoration
+have been mutilated more than once, are
+made of larch, and measure sixteen feet in height
+by thirteen feet (including both the leaves) in
+width. The upper part of either leaf consists of
+geometrical and floral ornament in exquisitely
+tasteful combination, executed in the scheme known
+technically, from the angles at the central polygon,
+as <i>lazo de � doce</i>&mdash;&ldquo;<i>lazo</i>-work of twelve.&rdquo; The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+decoration of the lower part is more minute, and in
+the scheme of <i>lazo de � diez</i>&mdash;&ldquo;<i>lazo</i>-work of ten.&rdquo;
+Inscriptions in Arabic and Latin, many of which
+are quoted from the Psalms, are distributed on
+both sides of the woodwork, and confirm our other
+evidence that the doors were made during the
+reign and in obedience to the orders, of Don Pedro.</p>
+
+<p>The Plateresco sixteenth-century doors of the
+Capilla de los Vargas at Madrid (Plate <a href="#img_38.jpg">xiv</a>.) are
+attributed by Cean Bermudez and by Ponz to an
+artist named Giralte, who carved them in walnut
+with various military and other scenes from Scripture,
+alternating with shields and floral ornament;
+the whole surrounded by an exquisitely delicate
+and tasteful border. Lamp�rez remarks that the
+errors of perspective recall the similar productions
+of Ghiberti.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_62.jpg" width="500" height="369"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_62.jpg" id="img_62.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVI<br />CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>Burgos Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>celos�a</i> or decorative wooden window-grating,
+imported by the Mussulman conqueror
+from Egypt and the East, extended to all parts
+of Christian Spain, and was particularly used in
+convents. These gratings, identical in form and
+workmanship with those of Cairo,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> were attached<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+to projecting windows, so that the women of a
+household could look into the street without
+themselves being seen, a custom which the Spanish
+woman still recalls to us by peering, for hours at
+a time, between the lowered <i>persiana</i> of her
+balcony.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> By the seventeenth century, which
+may truthfully be called the age of Spanish
+jealousy, and when the &ldquo;Othello-like revenge of
+the Moor&rdquo; had eaten into the very entrails of
+society, the <i>celos�a</i> had become as indispensable
+to houses as the door or window. &ldquo;La,&rdquo; wrote
+Bertaut de Rouen of a residence on the outskirts
+of Madrid, and obviously alluding to these
+gratings, &ldquo;il y avoit bien des Dames dans l'appartement
+d'enhaut qui y demeurerent cach�es, se
+contentant de nous voir promener dans le jardin
+par les fen�tres.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We know from the stone coat of arms which
+is carved above the doorway of the &ldquo;House of
+Castril at Granada&rdquo; that in the olden time the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+balconies of the Hall of Comares in the Alhambra
+were fitted with projecting wooden <i>celos�as</i>; and
+Contreras says that in the Torre de los Pu�ales
+of the same palace there used to be &ldquo;a kind of
+wooden <i>mirador</i> or <i>menacir</i>, covered with <i>celos�as</i>
+like those of Cairo, and many of which were still
+to be seen in Granada early in the nineteenth
+century.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I am not aware of any Moorish <i>celos�a</i> remaining
+to this day outside a Spanish building. In
+such exposed positions weather and the natural
+delicacy of the woodwork seem to have destroyed
+them all. As an interior ornament, a single one
+(Pl. <a href="#img_42.jpg">xvi</a>.) exists in the Alhambra. Nevertheless,
+I hesitate to call this <i>celos�a</i> purely Moorish.
+Perhaps it is the work of a Morisco, or even of
+a Christian-Spaniard, for we know that decorative
+wooden fittings for the Alhambra were made in
+the sixteenth century by Antonio Navarro and
+other craftsmen. The grating, which is well preserved,
+covers a window over the archway leading
+from the Hall of the Two Sisters into the Sala
+de los Ajimeces and the Mirador de Daraxa, and
+consists of minute prisms and turned pieces in
+the typical Egyptian style.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_64.jpg" width="500" height="348"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_64.jpg" id="img_64.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVII<br />CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>San M�rcos, Le�n</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other fittings for a building, wrought in wood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+by Moorish artists and by these communicated
+to the Christian-Spaniards, were balustrades and
+cornices, <i>aleros</i> (decorative bands beneath the
+eaves of a roof, Plate <a href="#img_44.jpg">xvii</a>.) and <i>zapatas</i> (gargoyle-looking
+figures, often in human form, used to
+support a roof or gallery). In the so-called &ldquo;Patio
+de las Asas&rdquo; of the convent of Santa Catalina de
+Zafra, at Granada, exists an interesting Moorish
+balustrade<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> that seems almost untouched by time.
+I reproduce an outline of it as the tailpiece to the
+present chapter, and am glad to append the little
+sketch in question, copied from a photograph I
+took upon the spot three years ago, because it
+is almost impossible to obtain admission to this
+convent. Beautiful or uncouth and quaint <i>zapatas</i>
+may be seen in the Casa de los Tiros at Granada,
+and in many other places (Plates <a href="#img_46.jpg">xviii</a>. and <a href="#img_48.jpg">xix</a>.).
+Much of the Moorish woodwork of the palace of
+the Alhambra was destroyed by the fire of 1590,
+but there yet remain the ample cornice and carved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+<i>alero</i> of the fa�ade of the Cuarto de Comares
+(Plate <a href="#img_50.jpg">xx</a>.), which is often called in error the
+Court of the Mezquita. This <i>alero</i> bears the
+following inscription, allusive to the Sultan Mohammed
+the Fifth:&mdash;&ldquo;I am the place where the
+crown is guarded, and on my doors being opened
+the regions of the west believe the east to be contained
+within me. Algami Billah charged me to
+keep guard upon the doorway.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_66.jpg" width="330" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_66.jpg" id="img_66.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXVIII<br />DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>Le�n Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other remarkable <i>aleros</i> are in the Generalife
+and in the Court of Lions of the Alhambra, while,
+also in this last-named mansion, genuine Moorish
+woodwork of elaborately inlaid ebony and larch
+is in two niches near the entrance to the Sala de
+Embajadores.</p>
+
+<h3>SACRED STATUARY, <i>SILLER�AS</i> OR CHOIR-STALLS, AND <i>RETABLOS</i></h3>
+
+<p>The genius of the wood-carvers of older Spain
+is manifested chiefly in three groups of objects&mdash;sacred
+statuary, choir-stalls, and <i>retablos</i>. Among
+this people, and probably by reason of its cheapness,
+plain, or gilt, or polychrome painted wood has
+always been a favourite material for the statues
+of their temples, whether such statues were employed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+alone, or as an accessory to a larger article
+of sacred furniture, such as a pulpit, or a <i>siller�a</i>,
+or an altar-screen. So powerful, in fact, has been
+the vogue of this material here,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> that even to-day
+the Spanish people, making, in Symonds' happy
+phrase, &ldquo;representation an object in itself, independently
+of its spiritual significance,&rdquo; attempt to
+elevate the most remarkable of their wooden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+and by preference their coloured wooden, statuary
+(typically defended by Pacheco's indigested tome),
+to rank beside the noblest and the purest monuments
+of bronze and marble; denoting, by this
+reckless and uneducated partiality, a positively
+national misconception of the true domain of art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_68.jpg" width="386" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_68.jpg" id="img_68.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXIX<br />CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>Plasencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is outside the scope of such a work as this
+to deal at any length with Spanish figure-sculpture.
+However, it is only fair to recognize that
+Spain produced a couple of score or so of admirable
+carvers of wood-statuary. Among the
+greatest of these craftsmen or <i>imagineros</i> were
+Becerra, Berruguete, Juan de Juni, author of the
+<i>Mater Dolorosa</i> (&ldquo;Our Lady of the Knives&rdquo;), of
+Valladolid; Gregorio Hern�ndez the Galician,
+author of &ldquo;Simon the Cyrenian,&rdquo; &ldquo;Santa
+Veronica,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the Baptism of our Lord&rdquo;;
+Mart�nez Monta�es, author of &ldquo;San Jer�nimo&rdquo;
+and of the &ldquo;Cristo del Gran Poder&rdquo;;<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Solis,
+Gaspar de Ribas, Juan G�mez, author of the
+&ldquo;Jesus&rdquo; of Puerto de Santa Maria; Pedro
+Roldan, with whom, according to Tubino, &ldquo;the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+art of Seville closed its eyes&rdquo;; and Alonso Cano,
+master of Pedro and Alonso de Mena, Ruiz del
+Peral, Jos� de Mora, and Diego de Mora, and who
+carved the exquisite &ldquo;Elijah Sleeping&rdquo; (Pl. <a href="#img_52.jpg">xxi</a>.)
+now at Toledo, and also (as it is believed) the
+famous statuette (Frontispiece to the present
+volume) of Saint Francis of Assisi.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest centre of this branch of wood-carving
+was Valladolid, where lived and laboured
+Juni and Hern�ndez. Nevertheless, although so
+popular in every part of Spain, it had a short-lived
+prime, originating in the two Castiles towards
+the reign of Philip the Second, declining
+steadily (with Seville for its centre now) all
+through the seventeenth century, and flickering
+out, despite the perseverance and the genius of
+the Murcian Susillo, in the century succeeding.</p>
+
+<p>In decorative <i>siller�as</i> or sets of choir-stalls,
+Spain has produced examples worthy to be set
+beside the masterpiece of Vitry in the abbey of
+Sainte-Claude, the best productions of D�rer and
+his followers in Germany, or those of Donatello,
+Brunelleschi, Valdambrino, Vechietta, and Verrochio
+in Italy. Nevertheless, her most distinguished
+<i>siller�a</i>-makers were at almost every
+moment inspired and directed by the foreigner.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+Germans or Flemings were her first preceptors in
+this craft. These artists had been sent for, or
+proceeded of their own accord, to Spain, and
+settling in this country rapidly spread the technics
+of their art among the Spaniards. In the
+Peninsula the origin of this school or movement
+may be traced to Burgos. Here, just as the
+fifteenth century was drawing to its close, and just
+before the breath of the Renaissance crossed the
+Spanish frontier at its eastern side, was gathered
+a small though influential group of eminent
+workers in more crafts than one; painters and
+sculptors, architects, embroiderers, carvers of
+wood, <i>reja</i>-makers, and painters of cathedral glass.
+Prominent among them all was a foreigner
+named Philip Vigarny,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> who is described by
+Diego de Sagrado as &ldquo;singular above all others
+in the art of making statuary and sculpture;
+a man of vast experience, general in his mastery
+of the liberal and mechanic arts, and no less
+resolute in all that is related with the sciences
+of architecture.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_70.jpg" width="338" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_70.jpg" id="img_70.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXX<br />DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS<br />
+(<i>Convent of San Marcos, Le�n</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Burgundy is said to have been the birthplace
+of Felipe de Borgo�a, but of his early history we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+have no tidings. In documents which bear
+his signature he styles himself &ldquo;<i>imaginario</i>,
+resident at Burgos.&rdquo; Three such documents
+exist. On August 1st, 1505, he agrees, for 130,000
+<i>maravedis</i>, to make &ldquo;such images as may be
+necessary&rdquo; for the altar of the high chapel of
+Palencia cathedral, &ldquo;he with his own hand to
+carve the hands and faces, out of good smooth
+walnut, without painting.&rdquo; This document is
+dated from Palencia. The other two are dated
+severally, Burgos, December 6th, 1506, and
+Corcos, September 6th, without the addition of
+the year.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> We also know this craftsman to have
+made the great <i>retablo</i> of Burgos cathedral.
+Such, from the fragmentary semblance we can
+trace of him, was Philip Vigarny, the pioneer
+of the wood-carvers of older Spain, and who,
+aided by other craftsmen from abroad, communicated
+all the secrets of his art to Spaniards such
+as Gil de Siloe, Ruy Sanchez, Diego de la Cruz,
+Alonso de Lima, and Berruguete.</p>
+
+<p>The typical <i>siller�a</i> consists of two tiers; the
+<i>sellia</i> or upper seats, with high backs and a canopy,
+intended for the canons, and the lower seats or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+<i>subsellia</i>, of simpler pattern and with lower backs,
+intended for the <i>beneficiados</i>. At the head of all
+is placed the presidential throne, larger than the
+other stalls, and covered, in many cases, by a
+canopy surmounted by a tall spire. When the
+<i>siller�a</i> belongs to a monastery, the higher stalls
+are for the <i>profesos</i>, and the lower for the novices
+and <i>legos</i>. Commonly the part that forms the
+actual seat is hinged and rises to a vertical position,
+being so contrived that when the occupant rises
+to his feet, there remains a narrow ledge projecting
+from the under surface. This ledge is called the
+&ldquo;seat of pity&rdquo; or &ldquo;of patience,&rdquo; because the
+worshipper is able to incline himself on it and
+give his limbs some measure of repose without
+appearing to be seated. There also is commonly
+another piece, intended for him to rest his hands
+upon in rising, which projects from the sides
+of the stall and forms a part of the decorative
+carving, as well as, somewhat higher still, the
+carved support to rest his arms while he is on
+his feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_72.jpg" width="345" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_72.jpg" id="img_72.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXI<br />&ldquo;SAMSON&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Carved Choir-stall of Le�n Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest Spanish <i>siller�as</i> date from the
+fourteenth century; but it is not until the century
+succeeding that we find them at their very best.
+Gothic or Plateresco <i>siller�as</i> of marvellous design<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+and workmanship are those of the Seo of Zaragoza
+(begun in 1412), the Cartuja de Miraflores of
+Burgos (1489), the monastery of O�a, Santa
+Mar�a de N�jera (1495), the church of Santa
+Mar�a del Campo, in the province of Burgos,
+Santo Tom�s of Avila (finished in 1493), and the
+cathedrals of Oviedo, Segovia (1461&ndash;1497),
+Ciudad Rodrigo, Tarragona (1478), Tarazona,
+Toledo (begun in 1494), Zamora, Astorga,
+Barcelona (1453&ndash;1483), and Seville (finished
+in 1478).</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic choir-stalls of the Seo of Zaragoza
+have lofty backs with arabesque Mudejar ornamentation,
+small Gothic columns, and medallions
+containing figures upon the arms of every stall.
+The material is Flemish oak. The carving
+was begun in 1412 by the Moors Al� Arrondi,
+Muza, and Chamar, who earned a daily wage
+of four <i>sueldos</i>. In 1446 Juan Navarro and the
+brothers Antonio and Francisco Gomar were
+working at the same stalls, and also, in 1449,
+Francoy.</p>
+
+<p>The stalls of the Cartuja de Miraflores at
+Burgos were carved by Martin S�nchez, who
+received in 1486, and for the <i>mano de obra</i> alone,
+the sum of 125,000 <i>maravedis</i>. The material,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+which was presented by Luis de Velasco, Se�or of
+Belorado, is dark walnut.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>siller�a</i> of Santa Mar�a de N�jera, the
+work of Maestro Andr�s and Maestro Nicol�s,
+is Gothic merging into the Renaissance. That
+of Santo Tom�s of Avila (late Gothic) consists
+of sixty oaken stalls, besides two larger ones
+resembling thrones (Plate <a href="#img_58.jpg">xxiv</a>.), intended to be
+occupied by Ferdinand and Isabella, founders
+of this monastery, and whose arms they bear in
+lace-like carving. The rest of the decoration is
+composed of thistles, vines, trefoils, and pomegranates.
+Owing to the fact that not a single
+cross appears on any part of the <i>siller�a</i> (although
+this circumstance is not unusual in sacred Gothic
+woodwork), there is a superstition that these stalls
+were wrought anonymously by some Jew, condemned
+to execute them by the Inquisition as
+a form of punishment. This fable has no
+value. Although the author's name is not upon
+the stalls, they are identical in nearly every
+detail with those of the Cartuja de Miraflores
+at Burgos, known to have been carved by Martin
+S�nchez in 1486. Hence it is extremely probable
+that this craftsman was the author of both
+<i>siller�as</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_74.jpg" width="291" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_74.jpg" id="img_74.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXII<br />&ldquo;ESAU&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Carved Choir-stall of Le�n Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On many Spanish <i>siller�as</i> we find most spirited<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+reproductions of the life and manners of their
+time; satirical allusions to contemporary vices,
+allegories and caprices as fantastic, in the phrase
+of Vargas Ponce, as &ldquo;one of Bosch's nightmares,&rdquo;
+hunting-scenes or love-scenes, banquets, tournaments,
+dances, battles, sieges, and even bull-fights.
+Thus, on the stalls of the cathedrals of Zamora,
+Oviedo, Plasencia, Astorga, and Le�n are carved
+such subjects as the following. A fox dressed as
+a friar, preaching to a group of hens but slyly
+abstracting their chicks (Zamora), men fighting
+with their fists (Zamora), a hog playing the
+bagpipes (Le�n), the Devil in the garb of a
+confessor, tempting a penitent (Le�n), a woman
+suckling an ass (Le�n), a man armed with a
+lance, fighting a woman (Astorga), a bird of prey
+struggling with a crocodile (Astorga), card-players
+(Astorga), a warrior on all-fours, whipped by a
+woman (Plasencia), an <i>auto-de-f�</i> (Plasencia),
+swine praying and spinning (Ciudad Rodrigo),
+a fight between a tiger and a bull (Ciudad
+Rodrigo), a monkey beating a drum (Ciudad
+Rodrigo), and a monkey wearing a mitre (Ciudad
+Rodrigo).</p>
+
+<p>The style of the lower stalls of Toledo cathedral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+is good Plateresque. They were begun in 1494
+by Maese Rodrigo, one of the very best of Spain's
+<i>entalladores</i>, and portray, in each successive stall,
+the phases of the last campaign against Granada
+(Plate <a href="#img_60.jpg">xxv</a>.); the sieges or battles of Altora, Melis,
+Xornas, Erefran, Alminia, Baza, M�laga (two
+stalls), Salobre�a, Almu�ecar, Comares, Beles,
+Montefr�o, Mocl�n, Illora, Loja, Cazarabonela,
+Coyn, Cartama, Marbella, Ronda, Setenil, Alora,
+Alhama, Nixar, Padux, Vera, Hu�scar, Guadix,
+Purchena, Almer�a, Ri�n, Castil de Ferro, Cambril,
+Zagani, Castul, Gor, Canzoria, Moxacar, V�lez el
+Blanco, Gurarca, V�lez el Rubio, Soreo, and
+Cabrera.</p>
+
+<p>The upper tier of the same stalls belongs to a
+later period, and will, in consequence, be noticed
+subsequently.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_76.jpg" width="377" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_76.jpg" id="img_76.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXIII<br /><i>RETABLO</i><br />
+(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>siller�a</i> of Barcelona cathedral was begun
+in the middle of the fifteenth century by Matias
+Bonaf�, at the same time that the German
+Michael Locher and his pupil John Frederic
+worked at the canopies. It was finished thirty
+years later. Upon the back (which otherwise is
+plain) of every stall is a coat of arms distinct from
+all its neighbours, marking the seat of one of
+the princes or nobles summoned by Charles the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+Fifth to the Chapter of the Order of the Golden
+Fleece, March 5th, 1519.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>The splendid <i>siller�a</i> of Seville cathedral is a
+mingling of the Gothic with the Mudejar and
+Plateresque. The material is oak and fir, and
+the number of the seats one hundred and seventeen.
+The <i>sellia</i> are surmounted by a graceful
+running <i>guardapolvo</i>. Each seat is carved distinctly
+from the rest, and further decorated in the
+Mudejar style with inlaid woods of various kinds
+and colours, imitating stone mosaic. Among
+this labyrinth of design are groups of people,
+angels, animals, and scenes from Scripture, as
+well as, on the lower stalls, the Giralda tower,
+which forms the arms of the cathedral. The
+<i>siller�a</i> is further embellished with two hundred
+and sixteen statuettes, seventy-two of which are
+ranged along the canopy or <i>dosel</i>, the remainder
+being distributed between the seats.</p>
+
+<p>The authors of this splendid work of art
+(judiciously restored some years ago by Boutelou,
+Fernandez, and Mattoni) were Nufio Sanchez,
+Dancart, and several other craftsmen, concerning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+whom we know but very little. S�nchez'
+name is carved upon the second stall of the
+upper row, and on the side of the Evangelist,
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_78.jpg" width="500" height="217"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_78.jpg" id="img_78.jpg"></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The above inscription states that &ldquo;this choir
+was made by Nufio Sanchez, <i>entallador</i> (God
+guard him<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>), and finished in the year one thousand
+four hundred and seventy-eight.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_79.jpg" width="311" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_79.jpg" id="img_79.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXIV<br /><i>RETABLO</i> OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL<br />
+(<i>Detail of Carving</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the dawn of the sixteenth century, the
+Gothic style runs rapidly into that of the Renaissance.
+At about this time, and as Baron Davillier
+pointed out, we sometimes find a triple influence,
+namely, the Burgundian, the Italian, and the native
+Spanish. Vigarny may be called the champion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+of the first of these, Berruguete (who studied in
+Italy) of the second, and Guillermo Doncel of the
+third. After this the purer Renaissance gives
+place to the decadent, as in the stalls of Santiago,
+M�laga, Cordova, and Salamanca.</p>
+
+<p>Sixteenth-century <i>siller�as</i> of note are those of
+Burgos cathedral (Plate <a href="#img_62.jpg">xxvi</a>.), carved by Vigarny,
+Avila cathedral, the Pilar of Zaragoza, the Minor
+Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos, Pamplona cathedral,
+San Marcos of Le�n, Huesca, the <i>alta
+siller�a</i> of Toledo, and the walnut stalls&mdash;carved
+in 1526 by Bartolom� Fernandez de Segovia,
+and now in the Madrid Museum&mdash;of the Parral
+of Segovia.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>siller�a</i> of Avila cathedral is believed to
+have been begun in 1527 by Juan Rodrigo,
+although the greater part of it was probably
+executed between 1536 and 1547 by Cornelis de
+Holanda, who took for his model the stalls of
+San Benito of Valladolid. The cost of the walnut
+wood and of its workmanship amounted to 33,669
+<i>reales</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The upper stalls of Toledo cathedral were
+carved by Vigarny and Alonso Berruguete in
+collaboration, so that we find in them the northern
+and Italian styles effectively and interestingly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+united. The Plateresque-Renaissance <i>siller�a</i>,
+described as &ldquo;genuinely Spanish,&rdquo; of the old convent
+of San Marcos of Le�n, containing statuettes
+of biblical personages and of fathers of the
+Church&mdash;Saint Isidore among them,&mdash;was finished
+in 1542 by Guillermo Doncel, who added the
+inscription &ldquo;<i>Magister Guillermus Doncel me fecit
+MDXLII</i>&rdquo; (Plate <a href="#img_64.jpg">xxvii</a>.). We know, however,
+nothing more about this excellent Spanish artist,
+except that (on the unsupported testimony of
+Cean) he worked at the fa�ade of this convent
+between the years 1537 and 1544.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_80.jpg" width="378" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_80.jpg" id="img_80.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXV<br />DETAIL OF <i>RETABLO</i><br />
+(<i>Late 15th century. Museum of Valladolid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The intricate <i>siller�a</i> of the Pilar of Zaragoza,
+containing almost every kind of subject&mdash;beasts,
+birds and fishes, allegories, incidents of the chase,
+or scenes of popular life&mdash;was designed by Esteban
+de Obray, a Navarrese, and executed by him and
+his assistants, Juan Moreto Florentino and Nicolas
+de Lobato, between 1542 and 1548. That of the
+Minor Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos was carved
+at a cost of eight hundred and ten ducats by
+Sim�n de Bueras, in 1558. That of Pamplona
+cathedral dates from about the middle of the century,
+and is the work of one Ancheta, who had
+visited Italy and gathered inspiration from the
+masterpieces of Siena. The material is English<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+oak. The stalls of Huesca, carved from oak proceeding
+from an older <i>siller�a</i> which had been
+removed, were begun in 1587 and finished in
+1594. The craftsmen were Nicol�s de Ver�stegui
+and Juan Verrueta de Sang�esa.</p>
+
+<p>Seventeenth-century <i>siller�as</i> are those of
+Santiago, carved by Juan de Vila in 1603; Salamanca,
+in 1651, by Alfonso Balb�s; Orihuela, in
+1692, by Juan Bautista Borja; and Segorbe,
+carved in the same year by Nicol�s Camar�n;
+while dating from the eighteenth century&mdash;a
+period of manifest decadence in this beautiful but
+short-lived craft&mdash;are the stalls of Lerida, by Luis
+Bonifar y Mas� (born in 1730), and Cordova,
+executed between 1748 and 1757, at a cost of
+913,889 <i>reales</i>, by Pedro Ciriaco Duque y Cornejo,
+a son of Seville and a pupil of the Sevillano
+Roldan.</p>
+
+<p>The least imperfect of these later and decadent
+<i>siller�as</i> is that of M�laga, whose author, Pedro
+de Mena, was, like his master, Alonso Cano, a
+native of Granada.</p>
+
+<p>Mena's contract with two canons of the cathedral,
+nominated by the bishop to prepare and sign
+the stipulations, will be found in No. 134 of the
+<i>Bolet�n de la Sociedad de Excursiones</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The stalls of M�laga number a hundred and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+one, carved in walnut, larch, cedar, and the heavy
+Indian wood called <i>granadillo</i>. As happens with
+many of the <i>siller�as</i> of this country, the costumes
+of the figures are of great historical value.
+Among the saints is San Roque, in pilgrim's
+garb, attended by the dog who brought him day
+by day a loaf of bread while men refused to
+succour him.</p>
+
+<p>No less magnificent than these sets of choir-stalls
+are the carved <i>retablos</i> or altar-screens,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> a
+gradual excrescence from the primitive and unpretentious
+altar of the early days of Christianity.
+Several kinds of craftsmen worked upon these
+altar-screens, such as <i>tallistas</i>, <i>entalladores</i>, <i>imagineros</i>,
+and even architects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_82.jpg" width="373" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_82.jpg" id="img_82.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXVI<br />DETAIL OF <i>RETABLO</i><br />
+(<i>Chapel of Santa Ana, Burgos Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Golden Age of the <i>retablo</i> embraces the
+end of the fifteenth century and the whole of the
+sixteenth. Notable examples belonging to this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+period are the screens of the monastery of Santo
+Tom�s at Avila, San Martin of Segovia, the
+Cartuja de Miraflores, the Colegiata of Covarrubias
+in the province of Burgos, the cathedrals
+of Avila, Toledo, Tudela, and Tarazona; several
+in the churches of Toledo, two in the church of
+San Lesmes (Burgos), two in Burgos Cathedral
+(Plate <a href="#img_82.jpg">xxxvi</a>.), and three, including those of <i>Reyes</i>
+and of <i>Buena Mariana</i>, in the church of San Gil
+in the same city. Not one of these, however,
+has the grandeur or variety of the altar-screen
+of Seville (Plates <a href="#img_76.jpg">xxxiii</a>. and <a href="#img_79.jpg">xxxiv</a>.), which is
+carefully described in Cean's monograph. &ldquo;The
+style is Gothic; the material, undecaying larch;
+and the screen, which reaches nearly to the
+vaulting, is the largest in the country, although
+at first it spanned the presbytery only, not
+including either side. It was designed in 1482
+by Dancat or Danchart, who began work upon
+it as soon as his sketches were approved, and
+worked at it till 1492, in which year he seems to
+have died.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Dancat was succeeded by Master Marco and
+Bernardo de Ortega, whose carving reached, by
+1505, the canopy or <i>viga</i>, and who were followed
+in their turn by Francisco, Bernardo's son, father<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+and teacher of Bernardino and Nufrio de Ortega,
+his assistants. Some of the statues were carved
+by Micer Domingo. The rest of the <i>imaginer�a</i>
+was finished in 1526; and the gilding and painting
+were done by Alejo Fern�ndez, his brother, and
+Andr�s de Covarrubias.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;So the screen remained till 1550, when the
+Chapter decided to extend it, without altering the
+style of decoration, to the sides of the presbytery.
+By this time Spanish sculpture had improved,
+and many of our best-known sculptors lent their
+aid, of whom the earliest were Roque Balduc,
+Pedro Becerril, el Castellano, Juan de Villalva,
+Diego Vazquez, and Pedro Bernal. In 1553 the
+Chapter appointed, to inspect the work of these
+artists, Juan Reclid and Luis de Aguilar, both of
+whom lived at Jaen. Henceforth the master-craftsmen
+working at the screen were Pedro de
+Heredia, Gomez de Orozco, Diego Vazquez the
+younger, Juan Lopez, Andr�s Lopez del Castillo,
+and his sons, Juan de Palencia, and Juan Bautista
+Vazquez. By 1564 the screen was quite concluded.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Gothic work is of incomparable richness.
+Ten groups of tall and narrow columns, resting
+upon two pedestals or socles, divide the <i>retablo</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+into nine spaces, crossed by horizontal bands of
+complicated carving, forming a series of thirty-six
+niches, in four rows. Statues a little less
+than life-size represent, in the first row, the creation
+and fall of our first parents, and the mysteries
+of the infancy of Christ; in the second, His preaching
+and miracles; in the third, His passion and
+death; and in the fourth, His resurrection, appearance
+to the disciples, and ascension; also the
+coming of the Holy Ghost. Upon the altar-table,
+and resting in its niche, is the statue, covered
+with silver plates, of Nuestra Se�ora de la Sede,
+presented to this temple by Saint Ferdinand.
+Above the <i>viga</i>, which has an <i>artesonado</i> ceiling,
+rises a frontispiece containing thirteen canopied
+niches with statues of the apostles, and in the
+centre niche that of the Virgin Mary. Crowning
+the whole <i>retablo</i> are statues larger than life-size,
+and a Calvary standing in free space.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>Throughout these Spanish altar-screens the
+influence which predominates is that of Germany.
+They are essentially distinguished by a Northern art
+(Plates <a href="#img_80.jpg">xxxv</a>., <a href="#img_82.jpg">xxxvi</a>.), not sentimental but material,
+not tender but robust, not (like the art of the
+Italians) retrospective or prospective, but prosaic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+realistic, actual. Curiously enough, their presence
+seems incongruous in Spain, and yet they made
+themselves at home here; for Spanish art was ever
+realistic, so probably on this account two widely
+different nations found, at least in this particular
+craft, a common bond of sympathy. Certainly the
+Renaissance, while it seemed to cherish and encourage,
+really undermined and killed this branch of
+Spanish wood-carving. A similar phenomenon
+attends the art of the Alhambra. In either case
+the plenitude of power and of beauty is even more
+ephemeral than the term of human life; and thus,
+deluded by so brilliant and majestic a decay, we
+fail to apprehend, or seek to grow oblivious of,
+the imminence of their ruin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_86.jpg" width="500" height="256"
+        alt="end of chapter"
+        title="end of chapter" />
+        <a name="img_86.jpg" id="img_86.jpg"></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Documents, quoted by the Count of Clonard, of Alfonso the
+Second, San Genadio, Froylan, and the Infanta Urraca.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> According to Miquel y Bad�a, the <i>focus</i> of the Romans is the
+present <i>clar de foch</i> of Catalu�a; &ldquo;a square platform of brick or
+stone raised somewhat from the ground, surrounded by a bench
+(<i>esc�</i>), and large enough to serve for roasting beasts entire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Swinburne wrote from Reus in 1775;&mdash;&ldquo;we here for the first time
+saw a true Spanish kitchen, viz., an hearth raised above the level of
+the floor under a wide funnel, where a circle of muleteers were
+huddled together over a few cinders.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The <i>Codex of the Testaments</i>, preserved in Oviedo Cathedral,
+contains some valuable illustrations of Spanish furniture of the tenth
+century. Greatly interesting, too, is the chair of San Raimundo
+(12th century) preserved at Roda in Aragon. It is of the &ldquo;scissors&rdquo;
+or folding form (<i>sella plicatilis</i>, Ducange), and the arms are
+terminated by heads of animals.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The early nomenclature of the clothes and other fittings of a
+Spanish bed is bewildering. We find in common use the canopy
+(<i>almocalla</i>, <i>almuzala</i>; Arabic, <i>al-mokalla</i>, i.e. &ldquo;haven of refuge in
+all winds&rdquo;&mdash;not always, possibly, a judicious term in the case of a
+<i>cama de matrimonio</i> or &ldquo;marriage-bed&rdquo;); the cloth-lined skins for
+chilly weather (<i>alifafe</i>, <i>alifad</i>; Arabic <i>al-lifafh</i>), such as King Juan
+the First of Aragon provided for his daughter (&ldquo;two leathers of
+Morocco for the bed.&rdquo; <i>Archive of the Crown of Aragon;
+Registro 1906, fol. 42</i>); the parament or <i>dosal</i>; the <i>galnap�</i> or
+topmost of the bedclothes proper (&ldquo;<i>un lecho con guenabe</i>&rdquo;; Fuero
+of C�ceres, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1229); the counterpane (<i>fatel</i>, <i>fatol</i>, <i>alfatel</i>, <i>facel</i>,
+<i>farele</i>, <i>fateye</i>, <i>fatiro</i>; Arabic <i>fatla</i>); the linen sheets (<i>izares</i>, <i>lentros</i>,
+<i>lentos</i>, <i>lintes</i>, <i>lincas</i>, <i>linte�minas</i>, or <i>lencios</i>); and the mattress,
+pillow, and bolster, called, all three of them, <i>plumazo</i>, <i>plumario</i>, or
+<i>plumaco</i>. Nearly or quite identical in meaning with these last are
+<i>c�lcita</i> and <i>almadraque</i>. <i>C�lcita</i> is corrupted into <i>colcedra</i>, <i>cocedra</i>,
+<i>conzara</i>, <i>colotra</i>, and other more or less barbaric variations; while
+<i>almohada</i>, <i>almuella</i>, <i>travesera</i>, <i>almofadinha</i>, <i>faseruelo</i>, and <i>aljamar</i>
+also signify a pillow or a cushion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> &ldquo;E due haber encara h�la entegrament, ses vestitz � ses joyes
+� un leyt ben garnit del misllors apereylltz que sien en casa, � <i>una</i>
+<i>escala d'argent</i> � una cortina.&rdquo; Fuero of Jaca, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1331, quoted
+by Abad y la Sierra and the Count of Clonard.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Sanpere y Miquel; <i>Las costumbres catalanas en tiempo de
+Juan I.</i>, pp. 83, 84.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Miquel y Bad�a believes that the Spaniards abandoned the
+Roman usage of reclining at their meals towards the sixth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Forks were not introduced till later. It has even been questioned
+whether they were known in Spain as late as the sixteenth
+century. But Ambrosio de Morales mentions one in 1591, while
+another is recorded in 1607 as belonging to the monastery of San
+Jer�nimo de Valparaiso, near Cordova. (See vol. i., p. 84.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> This kind of furniture was prohibited by a sumptuary pragmatic
+of 1594. &ldquo;No silversmith or other craftsman, or any person
+whatsoever, shall make, or cause to be made, or sold, or sell himself
+or purchase, whether openly or privately, buffets, writing-desks,
+chests, brasiers, pattens, tables, letter-cases, <i>rejillas</i> or foot-warmers,
+images, or any other object that has silver fittings, whether the
+silver be beaten, stamped, wrought in relief, carved, or plain.&rdquo;
+<i>Suma de todas las leyes</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1628), p. 42.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Describing how the monarch made these presents to the church
+when lying at the point of death, the <i>Chronicle of the Monk of Silos</i>
+says: &ldquo;<i>exuit regalem clamydem, qua induebatur corpus et deposuit
+gemmatam coronam, qua ambiebatur caput</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The formula is worded thus: &ldquo;<i>Quisquis ille fuerit qui talia
+commiserit, sit maledictus coram Deo et Angelis ejus, mendicitas
+et lepra prosapiam teneat suam et extraneus persistat a sancta
+communione, quatenus cum Juda, Christi proditore, ardendus permaneat
+in �terna damnatione.</i>&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> To keep the dust or rain from entering these trunks, they were
+covered, when on the march, with stout square cloths called
+<i>reposteros</i>, which were often richly worked and bore the owner's
+arms or monogram. The same word subsequently came to mean
+the tapestried or other decorative cloths displayed in Spain on gala
+days from balconies of public edifices, or the mansions of the
+aristocracy; but dictionaries which were printed at the close of the
+eighteenth century still define the <i>repostero</i> as &ldquo;caparison, a square
+cloth with the arms of a prince or lord on it, which serves to cover
+a led-horse, or sumpter-horse.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The wood-carving and decorative leather-work of older Spain
+will be described a little later on. As to the use of decorated leather
+by the Moors, in the small chamber of the Alhambra opening into
+the Mirador of Daraxa, and known as the Sala de los Ajimeces, is
+a bare space about nine feet in height, which runs the whole way
+round beneath the copious ornament of the remainder of the wall.
+Contreras says that the Moorish sultans used to hang these spaces
+with decorated leathers, tapestry, and armour. Sometimes the
+tapestry or leather would be worked or painted with hunting-scenes
+(<i>tardwahsh</i>&mdash;the chase of the lion, panther, or wild boar), or even
+with portraits of the sultans. Among these latter is the celebrated
+painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice, executed, as are its
+companions at each side of it, upon a leather groundwork with a
+plaster coating.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> I think this shows why to this day a Spaniard who professes to
+be an educated person will often wipe his or her mouth upon the
+tablecloth. Not many weeks ago I saw the elegantly dressed
+daughter of a Spanish member of Parliament perform this semi-oriental
+feat in an hotel at Granada. Montaigne would judge this
+<i>se�orita</i> with benevolence; not so, I fear, my compatriots. Similarly,
+it is considered rude in Spain to stretch yourself; but not to
+spit upon the dining-room floor, or pick your teeth at table.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Mr Cunninghame Graham, visiting a Caid's house in present-day
+Morocco, noted, as the only furniture, &ldquo;leather-covered cushions,
+the cover cut into intricate geometric patterns; the room contained
+a small trunk-shaped box.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>West Barbary</i>, p. 150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal</i>, vol. iii., pp. 324, 327.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> &ldquo;H�nrale el Sr Roberto, alma del Rey, y <i>le ha dado Silla</i>, y le
+tuvo � su lado.&rdquo; Lope de Vega's comedy, <i>The Key of Honour</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The covers would be fastened by a lock and key, as a defence,
+not against poison, but against theft. &ldquo;A little afterwards Don
+Federico de Cardona, who had gone out to see how matters were
+proceeding, returned, bearing a large silver vessel, the cover of
+which was secured by a lock and key, as is the custom in Spain.&rdquo;&mdash;Countess
+d'Aulnoy's <i>Travels</i>. As late as the year 1792, Townsend,
+in his &ldquo;Directions to the Itinerant in Spain,&rdquo; recommends (vol. i., p.
+2) that the vessel to boil the traveller's meat should be provided with
+a cover and a lock.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The purpose of these Spanish city laws was in its essence unimpeachable;
+namely, to guard the intensely ignorant Christian
+populace&mdash;the same which fugitive Moriscos of the kingdom of
+Valencia had readily prevailed upon to barter tons of brass and
+pewter trash for sterling gold and silver coin&mdash;from being imposed
+upon by manufacturers and merchants. But the power of discriminating
+between a genuine or well-made object and a piece of
+counterfeit or worthless rubbish is, among all peoples, better sought
+for and developed by experience than by legislation; and there was
+something noxiously prosaic in a code of city ordinances which
+forbade the craftsman to prepare his own design, or choose his
+own material, or establish his own prices. How violently, or at
+least how primitively, hostile to the sense of art must not have been
+these Christian sons of Spain to need&mdash;or think they needed&mdash;so
+impertinent and tyrannous a system of protection!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Ordenanza de Mesoneros</i>, titulo 54.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>West Barbary</i>, p. 129.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Vol. v., pp. 301&ndash;304.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> &ldquo;Spain lays claim to the invention of the art of gilding leather;
+it is asserted that, after being discovered there, the secret was carried
+to Naples by Peter Paul Majorano.&rdquo;&mdash;Laborde, vol. v., p. 231.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Count of Clonard; <i>Memorias para la historia del traje espa�ol</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones</i>, Nos. 101,
+102; Art. <i>Guadamac�es</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The <i>Poem of the Cid</i> tells us of the two chests, covered with red
+<i>guadamec�</i>, which the hero filled with sand to cheat the Jewish
+money-lenders:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Con vuestro consejo bastir quiero dos archas.</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Incamosla d'arena, c� bien ser�n pesadas,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Cubiertas de guadamec� � bien enclavadas;</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Los guadamec�s bermeios � los clavos bien dorados.</i>&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the &ldquo;coffer of the Cid&rdquo; at Burgos (see p. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>) does
+not appear to have been thus fitted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The same usage obtained in Morocco. Lancelot Addison
+wrote in 1669 that on the first day of their &ldquo;Little Feast&rdquo; the Moors
+across the Strait &ldquo;spread the floor of their Giammas with coloured
+leather.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>West Barbary</i>, p. 213.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> An inventory of effects belonging to the Hospital of San Jos� at
+Jerez de la Frontera mentions, in 1589, &ldquo;clothes and trimmings for
+the image of Our Lady. A crown of gilded <i>guadamec�</i>.&rdquo;&mdash;Gestoso,
+<i>Diccionario de Art�fices Sevillanos</i>, vol. i., p. xxii, <i>note</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> A hall, says Ram�rez de Arellano, would often be embellished
+by surrounding it with arches wrought of leather in relief and
+superposed on leather. As a rule the arches were gilt and silvered,
+and rested upon pilasters or columns. When pilasters were used,
+their centres would be ornamented with Italian devices such as
+flowers, trophies, imitated cameos, and foliage. Landscapes with a
+far horizon and no figures, known as <i>boscaje</i> or <i>pintura verde</i> were
+painted on the space between the arches, so that the general effect
+was that of a pavilion with arches on all sides, displaying everywhere
+a wide expanse of fertile country. The arches rested on a
+broad bordering of <i>guadamec�es</i>, and running round the lower part
+was a <i>z�calo</i> or socle, commonly made of tiling.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the kind of decoration which was most in vogue in Spain
+throughout the latter half of the sixteenth century; that which was
+exported to Rome; and that which was commissioned by the Duke
+of Arcos.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <i>The Art of the Saracens in Egypt</i>, pp. 124, 125.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>&ldquo;Es noble arte, complida en s�; � acrescienta la nobleza del rey
+y del reyno, si en ella pararen mientes, como deuen; � pone paz en
+el pueblo y amor entre los omes, onde es carrera para muchos
+bienes.&rdquo;</i>&mdash;<i>Ordenanzas de Sevilla</i>, Part 1, p. 141.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Gestoso finds no record of him in the city archives; but from a
+rough portrait of Arenas prefixed to his treatise, we judge that he
+was born about the year 1580.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Arenas himself defines a <i>carpintero de lo blanco</i> as &ldquo;he who
+prepares and works upon the wood employed in building; also, he
+who fashions tables, benches, etc., in his workshop.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> &ldquo;His language abounds in Arabic words and phrases of uncertain
+origin, whose meaning (since he wrote for men familiar with
+this work) he makes no effort to explain.&rdquo;&mdash;Editor's introduction to
+the third edition of <i>Carpinter�a de lo Blanco</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Arabic <i>al-farx</i>, a carpet, piece of tapestry, or anything that covers
+and adorns.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> This mingled decoration is extremely common; and may be
+studied in our country, in the carved panels at South Kensington
+which are believed to proceed from the pulpit of the mosque of Kusun;
+or in the thirteenth-century panels of the tomb of Es-salih Ayyub.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Cordova was a famous centre of this craft for many centuries.
+Ram�rez de Arellano has found and published a notice relative to
+Lope de Lia�o and Garc�a Alonso, two artificers of this city who
+signed, on January 7th, 1572, a contract with the prior of the monastery
+of the Holy Martyrs to build a ceiling for one of the chapels
+of the same. The document, which is quoted <i>in extenso</i> in the
+<i>Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones</i> for November,
+1900, abounds in technical expressions, many of them partly or
+entirely Moorish.</p>
+
+<p>The same writer publishes the names (hitherto completely unrecorded)
+of thirteen other artist-carpenters who worked at Cordova
+in the latter half of the sixteenth century and early in the seventeenth.
+The craft, in fact, died hard, and ceilings of this kind,
+replete with Moorish detail, were made in certain parts of Southern
+Spain until the closing moments of the eighteenth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> That the Moors were proud of their mastery in woodwork is
+proved by an inscription in the Torre de la Cautiva at Granada,
+saying; &ldquo;In the plaster and the tiles is work of extreme beauty,
+<i>but the woodwork of the roof has vanquished them in elegance</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Morales was probably mistaken. &ldquo;On entering Aragon one
+sees whole forests of &lsquo;Spanish Cedar&rsquo; or <i>alerce</i>, some of the trees
+so thick that they measure four feet in diameter.&rdquo;&mdash;Bowles' <i>Natural
+History of Spain</i>, p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Antig�edades de las ciudades de Espa�a</i> (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1575), p. 123.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Jos� Amador de los R�os mentions, as a good example of the first
+of these types, a thirteenth-century door of the <i>claustrilla</i> in the
+monastery of Las Huelgas at Burgos. Other doors in the same
+monastery are illustrative of the second type; while all three types
+are represented by the doors, described herewith, which close the
+principal entrance to the misnamed Hall of Ambassadors in the
+Alc�zar of Seville.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>Journal du Voyage en Espagne</i>, p. 85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The following words record the date of the construction of this
+place and its doors, and may be read (Plate <a href="#img_36.jpg">xiii</a>.) upon the scroll
+of tiles or <i>alizares</i> crowning the principal fa�ade:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">&#9769; EL &#65072; MUY &#65072; ALTO &#65072; ET &#65072; MUY &#65072; NOBLE &#65072; ET &#65072; MUY &#65072;
+PODEROSO &#65072; ET &#65072; MUY &#65072; CONQUERIDOR &#65072; DON &#65072; PEDRO &#65072;
+POR &#65072; LA &#65072; GRACIA &#65072; DE &#65072; DIOS &#65072; REY &#65072; DE &#65072;
+CASTIELLA &#65072; ET &#65072; DE &#65072; LEON &#65072; MAND� &#65072; FACER &#65072; ESTOS &#65072;
+ALC�ZARES &#65072; ET &#65072; ESTOS &#65072; PALACIOS &#65072; ET &#65072; ESTAS &#65072;
+PORTADAS &#65072; QUE &#65072; FU� &#65072; FECHO &#65072; EN &#65072; LA &#65072; ERA &#65072;
+DE &#65072; MILL &#65072; ET &#65072; QUATRO�IENTOS &#65072; Y &#65072; DOS &#65072;</div>
+
+<p>The observant Swinburne was not misled, like many travellers of
+to-day, into believing the Alc�zar to be of purely Moorish origin.
+&ldquo;Having read that the Moors built one part of this palace, I
+concluded I was admiring something as old as the Mahometan kings
+of Seville; but upon closer examination was not a little surprised
+to find <i>lions</i>, <i>castles</i>, and other armorial ensigns of Castille and
+Leon, interwoven with Arabesque foliages; and still more so, to
+see in large Gothic characters, an inscription informing me that
+these edifices were built in the fourteenth century, by the most
+mighty king of Castille and Leon, Don Pedro.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> &ldquo;The windows, which are chiefly composed of curious wooden
+lattice-work, serving to screen the inhabitants from the view of
+persons without, as also to admit both light and air, commonly project
+outwards, and are furnished with mattresses and cushions.&rdquo;&mdash;Lane's
+<i>Arabian Nights</i>, vol. i., p. 192.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> It is strange that Ford should have confounded the <i>reja</i> with
+the <i>celos�a</i> (<i>Handbook</i>, vol. i., p. 153). However, he opportunely
+quotes the Spanish proverb, <i>Muger ventanera tuercela el cuello si la
+quieres buena</i> (&ldquo;The remedy for a woman who is always thrusting
+her head from the casement is to twist her neck&rdquo;).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Almagro Cardenas calls it &ldquo;part of a <i>celos�a</i>&rdquo; (<i>Museo Granadino</i>,
+p. 79); but as it can never have been a window-grating, this term is
+incorrect. G�mez Moreno calls it, not too lucidly, &ldquo;a wooden balustrade
+forming squares and rectangular figures in the manner of a
+<i>celos�a</i>&rdquo; (<i>Gu�a de Granada</i>, p. 421). Valladar (<i>Gu�a de Granada</i>,
+edition of 1906, p. 117) calls it simply a balustrade, and this, it
+seems to me, is the only term which truthfully describes the object.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> My readers are no doubt aware that every Spanish hamlet has
+its wooden image of the Virgin, badly executed as a rule, and
+rendered doubly hideous by a gaudy gown. Most of these local
+images are believed to hold the power of working miracles, or at
+least to have been fashioned and conducted to their present shrine
+by supernatural agency&mdash;on which account the populace and their
+pastors call these latter <i>imagenes aparecidas</i>, as distinct from <i>manufactured</i>
+images. Such are the Virgins of Montserrat, Granada,
+and numerous other cities, towns, or villages of this illiterate and
+ill-starred Peninsula. The curious may refer for every kind of
+detail to Villafa�e's <i>Compendious History of the Wonder-working
+Images of Spain</i>, which numbered in this author's day (his book
+was published in 1740) one hundred and eighty-nine. But the most
+extraordinary miracle of all was that which is recalled, with pious
+gravity, by Bertaut de Rouen. Speaking of the gilt-wood image of
+Nuestra Se�ora del Pilar at Zaragoza, he says:&mdash;&ldquo;On y void quantit�
+de lampes d'argent et on m'en raconta un miracle qu'il me
+fut impossible de ne pas croire. C'est d'un pauvre homme qui
+ayant eu la jambe coup�e pour une blessure, et s'estant bien recommand�
+� <i>Nostra Se�ora del Pilar</i>, il se trouva un jour avec sa mesme
+jambe qu'il avoit d�ja fait enterrer. Y'ay sceu l'histoire du chirurgien
+mesme qui coupa cette jambe et de quantit� de t�moins de veu�.
+Il n'y a que quinze ans que cela est arriv�, mais l'homme est mort
+depuis peu.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Journal du Voyage en Espagne</i>, p. 203.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> It is due to Mart�nez Monta�es to mention that in many of his
+contracts he stipulated that the painters of his statuary should be
+chosen by himself, &ldquo;so as not to corrupt the outline and the
+sentiment of the figures.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> In Spanish he is called Felipe de Borgo�a, but Mart� y Mons�
+says that the proper spelling of the surname is Biguerny.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos In�ditos para la Historia de las
+Bellas Artes en Espa�a</i>, pp. 161, 162.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> &ldquo;The stalls of the choir are neatly carved, and hung with
+escutcheons of princes and noblemen, among which I remarked the
+arms of our Henry the Eighth.&rdquo;&mdash;Swinburne.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> This kind of parenthetical remark or prayer is one of the many
+Muslim phrases that have passed into the regular service of the
+Spanish Christian.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Wood is the usual material for these altar-screens, though sometimes
+marble was employed, or stone, or silver. Of Genoese marble
+is the <i>retablo</i> (end of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth
+century) of the Cartuja del Paular in the Lozoya valley; of stone,
+those of the parish church of San Nicol�s at Burgos (end of the
+fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century), and of the &ldquo;chapel
+of the tailors&rdquo; in Tarragona Cathedral; while a silver <i>retablo</i>, in the
+Renaissance style, was that of the church, now demolished, of
+Santa Mar�a at Madrid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Descripci�n de la Catedral de Sevilla</i>, pp. 27, 28.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="IVORIES" id="IVORIES">IVORIES</a></h2>
+
+<p>The story of Spanish ivory-work is shortly told,
+for probably no craft, excepting glass, has been so
+little practised in this country. The older Spanish
+writers rarely mention it, although from time to
+time this substance may have been employed for
+carving diptyches and boxes, and Roderick is
+stated to have entered the battle of the Guadalete
+in an ivory car, by which is meant, perhaps, a
+chariot of Byzantine make or pattern, covered
+with ivory plates. However, properly speaking,
+the history of this art as exercised in Spain begins
+in the eleventh century, attains its prime towards
+the fourteenth century, and ceases altogether at
+the time of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>Among the ivory objects now preserved in
+Spain, and which were wrought by artists other
+than Mohammedan, none is more interesting or
+important than the consular diptych of Oviedo
+cathedral. Although this valuable diptych was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+not made in Spain, but manifests Byzantine art in
+all its purity, it well deserves to be described. It
+consists of two ivory tablets measuring sixteen
+inches and a half in height by twelve inches and a
+half across both leaves. Each leaf has a simple
+border of a triple form, and just inside each corner
+is a circular floral ornament in relief, with a lion's
+head in the centre. Another ornament, also circular,
+is in the centre of each leaf, and contains,
+carved within a graceful S-shaped border, a half-length
+portrait of the Consul, who is represented
+in the act of throwing down into the amphitheatre
+his <i>mappa</i> or handkerchief<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> with his right hand,
+while in his left he holds the sceptre (<i>scipio imaginifer</i>),
+crowned with a small bust. His hair is
+curled in the Byzantine fashion, and his costume
+is a richly decorated toga.</p>
+
+<p>An inscription runs along the top of either
+tablet, between the border and the circular devices
+carved with flowers. It says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Flavius Strategius Apion&mdash;Strategius Apion.
+Vir inlustris Comes Devotissimorum Domesticorum
+et Consul ordinarius.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_90.jpg" width="500" height="327"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_90.jpg" id="img_90.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXVII<br />IVORY BOX<br />
+(<i>9th Century. Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We gather, therefore, that this magnate was a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+chamberlain at court, as well as ordinary consul.</p>
+
+<p>Diptyches were used among the Romans for all
+kinds of purposes, such as to convey love-messages,
+as invitations to a banquet, or to notify the celebration
+of feasts and games. We find the diptych
+also used in Christian temples from the time of
+Constantine, serving to record church festivals or
+names of saints and martyrs, as covers for a copy
+of the gospel (<i>diptycha evangeliorum</i>), or as reliquaries
+(<i>thecae reliquiarum</i>). Sometimes these
+diptyches were wrought expressly for the church,
+or sometimes they were consular diptyches that
+had been preserved from former ages. This latter
+class, when cleansed from pagan usage and devoted
+to the ceremonies of the Christian faith, was
+known as <i>diptycha mixta</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Such early objects as were wrought in ivory by
+Spanish hands, consisting as a rule of circular or
+oblong, square or oval caskets, were principally
+carved by Moors or Mudejares. Among the
+Spanish-Moorish boxes which are still preserved
+are several of the greatest interest and beauty
+(Plates <a href="#img_92.jpg">xxxviii</a>., <a href="#img_94.jpg">xxxix</a>., <a href="#img_96.jpg">xl</a>.). One of them, made
+from pieces of an older casket believed to date
+from earlier than the Moorish conquest, is in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+the National Museum. The decoration in its
+present form consists of Arabic inscriptions in
+relief, together with figures of the apostles. This
+casket, which proceeds from the Colegiata of Saint
+Isidore at Le�n, measures seven inches in length
+by five in depth and six in height, and has been
+used as a reliquary.</p>
+
+<p>Another, dating from the middle of the eleventh
+century and proceeding from the same temple as
+the one just noticed, is also in the National
+Museum. It was a present from the Emir Mohammed
+Almotamid-Aben-Abed to his second
+wife, Al-Badir (&ldquo;the Moon&rdquo;), and includes among
+the decoration dogs and doves, symbolic of affection
+and fidelity. The style of carving is what is
+known as Persian-Arabic. We do not know,
+however, whether the box was imported from the
+East, or whether it was made in Spain by somebody
+of Persian parentage or skilled in Persian
+art. The material is a delicate <i>taracea</i> of sandal,
+aloe, and cypress woods inlaid on larch. The
+box, which was used at Le�n as a reliquary, has
+bronze clasps, and is inscribed along the top with
+sentences from which we learn that it was made
+by Aben-As-Serag.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_92.jpg" width="500" height="320"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_92.jpg" id="img_92.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXVIII<br />IVORY CASKET<br />
+(<i>Moorish; 11th Century. Pamplona Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the cathedral of Pamplona is a magnificent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+ivory box (Plate <a href="#img_92.jpg">xxxviii</a>.) which was originally at
+Sang�esa in Navarre. It measures, says Ria�o,
+fifteen inches long by nine and a quarter inches
+wide. &ldquo;It is completely covered with carvings
+in relief, within circular cusped medallions, with
+figures in the centres representing different
+subjects; men seated, hawking, or struggling
+with wild beasts, and numerous single figures of
+lions, stags, and other animals. The intermediate
+spaces contain an ornamentation of leaves and
+flowers which is accommodated to the geometrical
+style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of
+this box appears an Arabic inscription in fine
+Cufic characters:&mdash;&lsquo;In the name of God. The
+blessing of God, the complete felicity, the happiness,
+the fulfilment of the hope of good works,
+and the adjourning the fatal period (of death), be
+with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the State),
+Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made
+by the orders (of the said Hagib), under the inspection
+or direction of his chief eunuch, Nomayr
+ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave, in the year
+of 395 (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1005).&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the centre medallion, on the opposite side
+to the lock, is represented the standing figure of
+a man who is attacked by two lions. He holds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an
+inscription, with the following religious formula:
+&lsquo;There is no god but God,&rsquo; or a similar one,
+for the characters are very illegible and confused.
+In the centre of this shield may be read the words,
+&lsquo;Made by Hair,&rsquo; undoubtedly one of the artists
+who made the box. Another artist's name may
+be read with difficulty in a similar inscription
+which appears on one of the medallions on the
+left side; it is written on the thigh of a stag,
+which is attacked by a lion: &lsquo;It was made by
+Obeidat.&rsquo; Three other inscriptions of a similar
+character appear in other parts of this box, which
+probably give the names of other artists, but I
+have been unable to decipher them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_94.jpg" width="500" height="325"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_94.jpg" id="img_94.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XXXIX<br />IVORY BOX<br />
+(<i>11th Century. Palencia Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other interesting boxes dating from the same
+period are that of Santo Domingo de Silos at
+Burgos, and several which are in the National
+Museum at Madrid. The box which is preserved
+at Burgos is made of ivory, and measures thirteen
+inches and a quarter in length by seven inches
+and a half in width and height. The decorative
+work consists of hunting scenes, and also of an
+inscription in Cufic characters which says: &ldquo;Permanent
+felicity for the owner (of this box). May
+God lengthen his days. It was made at Medina &hellip;;<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+in the year four hundred and seventeen (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span>
+1025). It is the work of his servant Mohammed-ibn-Zeiyan.
+May God glorify him.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There is also in the provincial museum of
+Burgos a handsome ivory diptych which was
+formerly at the convent of Santo Domingo de
+Silos. It bears at each extremity&mdash;that is, four
+times repeated&mdash;the following inscription:&mdash;&ldquo;This
+was ordered to be made by the Iman, servant
+of God, Abd-er-Rhaman, prince of believers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Among the rectangular boxes in the National
+Museum is one of carved ivory, with an inscription
+recording it to have been a gift from Prince Ali
+to one of the favourites of his harem, and another
+of the same material which was once upon a time
+at Carrion de los Condes, in the province of
+Palencia. This box is painted with a decorative
+pattern in carmine and dark green. The lid,
+which is imperfect, contains the following inscription
+in Cufic characters, standing boldly out
+against a green ground:&mdash;&ldquo;In the name of
+Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The
+protection of Allah and an impending victory
+for the servant of Allah &hellip;; and his wali Maad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+Abu-Temim&mdash;the Iman Al-Moez &hellip;; prince of
+believers (the blessing of Allah be upon him
+and his sons the good). (This) was commanded
+to be made for (celebrating) the fortunate
+victory. It was made by &hellip;; Jorasani.&rdquo; The
+length of this box is eighteen inches, and its
+height nine inches.</p>
+
+<p>A fine Moorish box (Plate <a href="#img_94.jpg">xxxix</a>.), now in the
+cathedral of Palencia, is covered with elaborately
+engraved and perforated ivory plates upon a
+ground of gilt leather backed by wood, and
+further ornamented with enamel-work upon a
+copper surface. This box is fourteen inches
+long, and has a gable top. The decoration
+on the sides and lid consists of palm-leaves,
+birds, and men engaged in combating and
+chasing antelopes and lions in the characteristic
+manner of Assyrian art. A lengthy Cufic inscription
+tells us that the box was made at Cuenca
+(<i>Medina Cuenca</i>) by Abd-er-Rahman ben Ziyan,
+to the order of the Moorish princes of Toledo,
+and that it dates from the year 441 of the Hegira.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>
+Vives has pointed out that Cuenca was evidently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+a principal centre of this industry, and that
+caskets executed here about this time exist in
+Perpignan cathedral and in the provincial museum
+of Burgos.</p>
+
+<p>Ria�o mentions seven ivory boxes of particular
+interest, which were probably made in Spain by
+Spanish Arabs, or else by Eastern craftsmen
+who had emigrated to this country. &ldquo;On all
+their carving,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;the names of Spanish
+historical persons appear, and it is hardly possible
+that they were ordered in remote countries, especially
+as some of these objects are small and comparatively
+unimportant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_96.jpg" width="500" height="312"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_96.jpg" id="img_96.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XL<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE IVORY CASKET<br />
+(<i>13th Century. Royal Academy of History, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two of these boxes are in the South Kensington
+Museum. The one which is cylindrical in shape
+and has a domed cover is thus described by
+Maskell in his <i>Ivories, Ancient and Medi�val,
+in the South Kensington Museum</i>:&mdash;&ldquo;This beautiful
+box is carved throughout, except the bottom
+of it, with interlacing narrow bands forming
+quatrefoils, in which, on the cover, are four eagles.
+These have spread wings and stand erect; well
+designed and most delicately executed. A small
+knob serves to lift the lid.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a
+star having a leaf ornament. The same decoration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+is repeated in the spaces between the larger quatrefoils
+on the cover.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The whole is carved in pierced work, except a
+band which forms the upper upright portion of the
+box, round the side of the lid. This band has an
+Arabic inscription: &lsquo;A favour of God to the
+servant of God, Al Hakem al Mostanser Billah,
+commander of the faithful.&rsquo; He was a Caliph
+who reigned at Cordova, <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 961&ndash;976.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The other box is oblong and rectangular.
+&ldquo;The cover and sides are carved with scroll
+foliated ornament; the hinges and clasp are of
+chased silver inlaid with niello. Round the sides,
+immediately below the lid, is the following Arabic
+inscription in Cufic characters:&mdash;&lsquo;In the name of
+God. This (box) was ordered to be made by
+Seidat Allah, the wife of Abd-er-Rahman, prince
+of the believers. God be merciful and satisfied
+with him.&rsquo;&rdquo; This inscription, adds Ria�o, &ldquo;must
+allude to Abd-er-Rahman the Third, the first
+Caliph of Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el
+Mumenin. The formula &lsquo;God be merciful,&rsquo; etc.,
+denotes that he was dead when it was written.
+He died <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 961.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_98.jpg" width="314" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_98.jpg" id="img_98.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLI<br />IVORY CRUCIFIX<br />
+(<i>11th Century. Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another Spanish-Moorish casket, also at South
+Kensington, and dating from the eleventh century,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+is described by Maskell as &ldquo;richly carved in deep
+relief with foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing
+one another, and forming larger and smaller
+circles. The top and each side is a single plaque
+of ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back has
+two panels. On the two are two animals, like
+doves; a large bird stands at the back of each,
+attacking it with his beak. The sloping sides
+have, in the large circles, men on horseback, and
+animals fighting. The intermediate spaces are
+completely filled with foliage, and smaller beasts.
+Similar subjects are repeated in the circles on the
+panels forming the lower sides of the casket, and
+among them are two groups of men and women
+sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on
+a guitar, another holding a cup in one hand and a
+flower in the other.&rdquo; Ria�o adds: &ldquo;There is no
+inscription on this casket, but in one of the
+medallions on the lid there is a bust, which is
+carried on the back of a horse, and which is
+probably a representation of the prince for whom
+the casket was made.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_99.jpg" width="351" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_99.jpg" id="img_99.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLI (<i>a</i>)<br />IVORY CRUCIFIX<br />
+(<i>11th Century. Back view. Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Letter of Testament</i> setting forth the
+various objects bequeathed by Ferdinand the
+First and his consort Sancha to the church of
+Saint John the Baptist (or of Saint Isidore) at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+Le�n, mentions an ivory cross (which will be
+noticed presently), an ivory box fitted with gold,
+and two ivory boxes fitted with silver, one of
+them containing three other silver boxes, similarly
+decorated.</p>
+
+<p>One of these boxes is described by Ambrosio
+de Morales, and from his words we conclude it
+to be the one which was adorned with gold,
+&ldquo;of which metal,&rdquo; he wrote in 1572, &ldquo;it has even
+more than of ivory,&rdquo; adding that it measured more
+than half a yard in length, and enshrined the body
+of Saint Vincent of Avila. He also tells us that
+it bore the following inscription, carved upon a
+golden frieze:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">ARCULA SANCTORUM MICAT HAEC SUB HONORE DUORUM<br />
+BAPTISTAE SANCTI JOHANNIS SIVE PELAGII<br />
+CEU REX FERNANDUS, REGINAQUE SANTIA, FIERI JUSSIT.<br />
+ERA MILLENA SEPTENA SEU NONAGENA.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></div>
+
+<p>This <i>arca</i> has been much mutilated, and stripped
+of all the precious metal. Morales' description
+is therefore of especial value, as are the ivory
+tablets (eleventh century), carved with Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+themes, which yet remain upon the body of
+the box.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_100.jpg" width="335" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_100.jpg" id="img_100.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLII<br />BYZANTINE CRUCIFIX</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Dating from the thirteenth century is a Moorish
+casket (Plate <a href="#img_96.jpg">xl</a>.), preserved in the Academy
+of History at Madrid, and proceeding from
+the Carthusian monastery of Val de Cristo at
+Segorbe. It measures a foot in length by eight
+inches in height and four and a half inches in
+depth. The lid is deeply bevelled, and contains
+on each of the bevelled sides shields with the
+bars which constitute the arms of Aragon, painted
+upon a gold ground, together with imperial eagles
+painted in black upon a carmine ground. A
+decorative device of leaves and stems is also
+painted on the ivory.</p>
+
+<p>Rodrigo Amador de los R�os believes that this
+casket was captured in war by Jayme the First
+of Aragon, remaining with successive princes of
+his line until the reign of Don Martin, by
+whom it was presented to the monastery. The
+shields would thus be added to the primitive
+Moorish casket by some Christian-Spanish
+painter.</p>
+
+<p>The ivory crucifix (Plates <a href="#img_98.jpg">xli</a>. and <a href="#img_99.jpg">xli</a>. (<i>a</i>)), of
+Ferdinand the First and Do�a Sancha, made in
+the first half of the eleventh century, and offered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+by these sovereigns to the church of Saint John
+the Baptist (or of Saint Isidore) at Le�n, measures
+twenty-one inches in length by thirteen inches and
+a half in height. The figure of Christ recalls the
+rigidness and rudeness of Byzantine craftsmanship,
+such as is found in ancient crucifixes still
+preserved in Spain (Plate <a href="#img_100.jpg">xlii</a>.). The pupils of the
+enormous, expressionless eyes are made of jet.
+We see the wound upon each foot, with wavy
+marks to imitate the flowing blood, but no trace
+of a nail. Nails, however, transfix the hands.
+The arms are separate from the trunk, but the
+<i>suppedaneum</i> on which the feet are resting is of
+a single piece with the body of the figure.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of the cross, especially about the
+borders, contains elaborate decoration, including
+animals and foliage. Above the Saviour's head is
+the inscription:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">IHS NAZA<br />
+RENVS REX<br />
+IVDEORVM</p>
+
+<p>Above this is another figure of Christ seated,
+crowned with a cruciform nimbus and holding a
+Greek processional cross. Beneath the feet of
+the larger figure is Adam in an uncouth posture,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+turning his head to gaze upward, and at the
+lower extremity of the cross are carved the
+words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">FERDINANDVS REX<br />
+SANCIA REGINA</p>
+
+<p>The lateral arms are carved with numerous
+devices forming an effective whole, including
+animals upon a tessellated band which seems to
+imitate a groundwork of mosaic. Other subjects
+represented are the Resurrection of the Flesh,
+the ascent of the blessed to Heaven, and the fall
+of the wicked to Hell.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_102.jpg" width="373" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_102.jpg" id="img_102.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLIII<br />&ldquo;THE VIRGIN OF BATTLES&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>13th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Upon the obverse side are pairs of quadrupeds,
+birds, and serpents, among a maze of foliage,
+together with the eagle, lion, lamb, and ox, as
+symbols of the evangelists. The lion and the ox
+have wings, and at the foot of the cross is an
+angel.</p>
+
+<p>The carving of the Saviour's form is clearly
+inferior to that of the decoration which surrounds
+it. Amador de los R�os seeks to account for this
+by declaring that &ldquo;the difficulty from the point of
+view of art increases in proportion as the size of
+the figure is required to be larger&rdquo;&mdash;a statement
+with which I wholly disagree. I believe, in
+fact, that in this cross the figure of Christ and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+the surrounding ornamentation are not by the
+same hand, and that the carver of the decorative
+detail was simply the better craftsman of the two.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the statuettes of the Virgin which
+are preserved in Spain were probably made in
+France. One that is typically and unquestionably
+Spanish is the celebrated &ldquo;Virgin of Battles&rdquo;
+(Plate <a href="#img_102.jpg">xliii</a>.), now guarded, together with other
+relics of Saint Ferdinand (see Vol. I., Plate <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#img_64.jpg">xi</a>xi.),
+in the Chapel Royal of Seville cathedral. These
+statuettes, the use of which originated with the
+Greek emperors, and which were called by the
+Byzantines <i>socia belli</i>, consist of a seated figure of
+the Virgin with a small door opening underneath
+her throne, and served as reliquaries, and also as
+a kind of talisman. Boutelou says that the Spanish
+warriors of the Middle Ages were accustomed to
+carry these images to war with them, fitted upon
+a pin protruding from the left side of the saddle-bow.
+The &ldquo;Virgin of Battles,&rdquo; made in Spain
+in the early part of the thirteenth century, was
+thus carried by King Ferdinand the Saint, resting
+between his shield or <i>rodela</i> and his left arm, and
+so protected, and protecting, in the brunt of war.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_104.jpg" width="346" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_104.jpg" id="img_104.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLIV<br />SPANISH MEDI�VAL <i>BACULUS</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The image is of ivory, and measures seventeen
+inches in height. The style is primitive Gothic,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+not as yet emancipated from Romanic and Byzantine
+art; and the expression of the Madonna and
+her Babe is marked by an engaging sweetness.
+Through lapse of centuries, myriads of diminutive
+cracks have opened on the surface of the ivory,
+and this has turned, in colour, to a brightish
+yellow. The right arm of the Virgin was broken
+off at some time prior to the sixteenth century,
+and has been replaced by another one. Mother
+and Child wear crowns of silver-gilt which probably
+were added later, and the hair, lips, and
+eyes have been badly painted or repainted with
+discordant colouring. A four-sided hole bored
+deep into the ivory served for holding the image
+to the <i>perno</i> which projected from the monarch's
+saddle-bow.</p>
+
+<p>A few elaborate <i>baculi</i> or pastoral staves
+(Plate <a href="#img_104.jpg">xliv</a>.) exist in Spain, including one of the
+fourteenth century, in ivory, which belonged to the
+late Marquis of Monistrol, and is carved with the
+Crucifixion and also with the Virgin contemplating
+the Holy Infant as He is offered cups by angels.
+Another interesting Spanish baculus, though not
+of ivory, but copper decorated with turquoises and
+bright blue enamel, belonged to Bishop Pelayo
+de Cebeyra of Mondo�edo (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1199&ndash;1218), and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+has been preserved, together with that prelate's
+gilded shoes. In the celebrated processions of
+Santiago, at which Alfonso the Sixth was personally
+present, magnificent ivory <i>baculi</i> were borne,
+not only by the archbishop (<i>eburnea virga pontificali
+decoratus</i>), but even by the choristers.</p>
+
+<p>Between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries,
+Spanish craftsmen produced a fair quantity
+of ivory boxes, reliquaries, diptyches, triptyches,
+combs, and other less important objects. A
+fifteenth-century ivory spoon, ten inches long,
+whose handle is carved with six crocodiles, is in
+the National Museum, and may be Spanish work.
+In the same collection are one or two ivory
+diptyches and leaves of diptyches, and a wooden
+box (fourteenth century), with figures of carved
+ivory representing passages from the life of Saint
+George upon the body of the box, and from the Old
+Testament upon the lid. A carved Renaissance
+temple of the same material, with the Virgin and
+Child in its interior, is probably Italian.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_106.jpg" width="600" height="368"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_106.jpg" id="img_106.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLV<br />&ldquo;A TOURNAMENT&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Carved lid of box in ivory; 14th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the fortieth volume of <i>Espa�a Sagrada</i> it is
+stated that four ivory diptyches (<i>quatuor dictacos
+eburneos</i>) were offered in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 897 to Lugo
+cathedral by Alfonso the Third and his queen
+Jimena. Other ivory diptyches were presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+in <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1063 by Ferdinand the Second to the
+church of Saint Isidore at Le�n. Jos� Villa-amil,
+in his study of an ivory statuette of the
+Virgin, belonging to the nuns of Allariz (<i>Bolet�n
+de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones</i>; nos. 76
+and 77), mentions a carved ivory box (<i>capsa
+eburnea</i>) made in the year 1122 for Santiago
+cathedral by order of Archbishop Gelmirez;
+another which existed in the sixteenth century in
+the church of Santa Mar�a at Finisterre; and a
+third, used as a reliquary, which in 1572 was
+opened by the monks of Samos in presence of
+Ambrosio de Morales.</p>
+
+<p>During the Middle Ages portable altars (<i>altares
+port�tiles</i>) were widely used in Spain, and some
+were made of ivory. It was the custom to open
+them at the time of prayer, and as a rule
+they rested upon <i>reclinatorios</i> or hung upon the
+wall. The <i>imagen abriente</i> or &ldquo;opening image&rdquo;
+was also popular in Spain throughout the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries. As the name implies,
+these images opened in the manner of a triptych,
+and were very often used as reliquaries. Specimens
+are preserved in many parts of Europe,
+but only one or two exist in Spain and Portugal.
+That which belongs to the nuns of Allariz dates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+from the end of the thirteenth century, and was a
+present from Queen Violante. It is described
+fantastically by Morales, and accurately by Villa-amil,
+but the quaintest account is by the chronicler
+Jacobo de Castro. It measures, Castro tells us,
+&ldquo;about half-a-yard in length and is one of the
+fairest ever seen, since it opens downward from
+the neck, discovering, on plates of half-relief, the
+principal mysteries of Christ and of Our Lady.
+The devotion towards it of the people in this
+neighbourhood exceeds description, and God has
+wrought a quantity of miracles through the
+intercession thereof.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A fourteenth-century triptych carved in bone
+with scenes from Scripture is in the National
+Museum. It proceeds from Aragon, and is said to
+have belonged to Jayme the Conqueror. The
+Escorial possesses a handsome ivory diptych
+(Plate <a href="#img_108.jpg">xlvi</a>.) which is either Spanish or Italian&mdash;probably
+the former. It measures exactly a foot
+in height by nine inches across both leaves, and
+is deeply carved with passages from the life of
+Christ. The style is late Romanic merging into
+Gothic, and points to the second half of the
+thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_108.jpg" width="387" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_108.jpg" id="img_108.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLVI<br />IVORY DIPTYCH<br />
+(<i>13th Century. El Escorial</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>I.e.</i> as a signal to begin the sport. The same usage (except that
+the handkerchief is waved, and not thrown down) is followed at this
+moment in the Spanish bull-ring.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> At this break in the inscription Ria�o professed to discover the
+beginning of the word <i>Cuenca</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Detailed accounts of this casket will be found in the <i>Bolet�n de
+la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursiones</i> for June 1893, and in the
+<i>Bolet�n de la Real Academia de la Historia</i>, vol. xx.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1059.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="POTTERY" id="POTTERY">POTTERY</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ANCIENT</h3>
+
+<p>Quantities of ancient common pottery have been,
+and are continually being found in many parts of
+Spain. Prehistoric cups, shaped with the fingers
+and dried and hardened by the sun, are preserved
+in the Museum of History at Barcelona. They
+were discovered at Argar. Similar objects have
+been extracted from the caves of Seg�briga,
+L�brega in Old Castile, and El Tesoro in the
+province of M�laga. Those which were found at
+Seg�briga are divided by Capelle into six groups,
+one of which includes a vessel resembling the
+ordinary Spanish pitcher of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Villa-amil y Castro has described in the <i>Museo
+Espa�ol de Antig�edades</i> pieces of prehistoric
+sun-dried ware discovered in Galicia, roughly
+decorated with patterns imprinted by the finger.
+In other instances a double spiral has been described<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+with a pointed instrument about the
+vessel's neck. Similar fragments have been
+found by G�ngora in Andalusia. Celtic pottery
+was found in 1862 by Captain Brome on Windmill
+Hill at Gibraltar, in 1866 by M. Lartet in
+the caves of Torrecilla de Cameros, and by
+Casiano de Prado in a cave near Pedraza, as well
+as at Navares de Ayuso and elsewhere. In
+central Spain, vessels of the Celtiberian era have
+been found in tombs at Pr�dena, and pieces of
+red Saguntine ware, with dark red decoration, at
+Otero de Herreros, close to vestiges of a Roman
+mine. Lecea y Garc�a describes in his work on
+<i>Old Segovian Industries</i> a Celtiberian plate of
+reddish clay covered with black varnish, which
+was dug up some years ago in a garden at that
+town. This plate, measuring no less than four
+feet in diameter, and containing two inscriptions
+in characters believed to be Celtiberian, as well
+as the figure of a warrior armed with a lance and
+three javelins, was submitted to Heiss, who wrote
+of it in the <i>Gazette Arch�ologique</i> and pronounced
+it to be genuine. I have not seen the plate in
+question. I have, however, met with cleverly
+executed forgeries, also varnished black, of
+primitive Spanish pottery.</p>
+
+<p>In 1899 quantities of Celtic ware, believed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+date from the time of the Ph&oelig;nicians, or even
+earlier, were unearthed by M. Bonsor from tumuli
+in the Guadalquivir valley. These objects are
+ornamented in relief with complicated patterns
+paler than the ground, obtained by using lighter-coloured
+clay. &ldquo;As similar Celtic pottery has
+been found in Portugal, it will be understood that
+the Celtic influence, having crossed the Pyrenees,
+reached the south by the western seaboard. It
+will thus be seen that long before the arrival of
+the Romans a relatively high degree of civilisation
+had been reached at least in the south of
+Spain.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1905 two German arch�ologists,
+Messrs. Schulten and K�nen, who had
+obtained permission from the Spanish Government
+to explore the site of old Numancia, filled four
+large cases with the Celtiberian pottery they
+extracted from the ruins. These cases were forwarded
+to the University of G�ttingen. I understand,
+however, that they have been returned,
+or are to be returned immediately, to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Long before the Christian era, Greek colonies
+existed on the Spanish coast at Rhodas, Denia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+Emporium (Ampurias), Saguntum (Murviedro),
+and elsewhere. Pottery of good design and workmanship
+was manufactured at these towns, and
+strongly influenced native art. Bowls and other
+objects showing such an influence were discovered
+by M. Bonsor in his recent excavations. Another
+powerful influence was that of Rome. Roman
+potteries existed in the suburb of Seville called
+Triana, and in the provinces of C�ceres and
+Badajoz. M�rida was also an important centre
+of this industry, and vessels which were used in
+sacred rites, such as the <i>aquiminarium</i>, the
+<i>prefericulum</i>, the <i>simpulum</i>, and the <i>urnula</i>, were
+discovered here not long ago. The name
+&ldquo;Saguntine ware&rdquo; was given by the Romans to a
+kind of pottery which seems to have been made
+along the Spanish littoral extending southward
+from Saguntum. Fragments of this pottery,
+which closely resembles the Arezzo ware,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+found in shoals upon the sites of Roman towns,
+particularly Tarragona. These <i>barros saguntinos</i>,
+or (as H�bner prefers to call them) <i>barros
+tarraconenses</i>, have been divided into four classes,
+namely, white, grey, red (covered with a dark red
+varnish),<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> and yellow striped with red. This ware
+is commonly adorned with garlands, animals,
+hunting-scenes, divinities, games, or religious
+ceremonies, and also bears, in nearly every case, the
+potter's name or mark; <i>e.g.</i> <span class="smcap">ALBINVS F</span> (&ldquo;Albinus
+fecit&rdquo;) or <span class="smcap">OF. ALBIN</span> (&ldquo;officina Albini&rdquo;). More
+than two hundred marks have been discovered
+which were used by potters of Ampurias alone.</p>
+
+<p>There seems to be no doubt that Saguntum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+and Emporium were principal centres of this
+industry, and possibly, since these towns were
+old Greek settlements, the <i>barros saguntinos</i> were
+of Grecian origin. Pella y Forgas, describing in
+his <i>History of the Ampurdan</i> the fine red ware
+of this locality, says that parts of the decoration
+were fashioned on the wheel, others directly by
+the potter's hand, and others from a mould, while
+the ornament of dotted lines was made by the
+wheeled <i>roulette</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Among the commoner objects dating from
+this time are amphor� and small earthen lamps
+(Pl. <a href="#img_116.jpg">xlvii</a>.). These lamps have been discovered in
+great numbers, and, owing to the dryness of the
+Spanish soil, in excellent preservation. They
+measure about the size of the hand, and have two
+holes, one in the spout or beak, to hold the wick,
+and the other at the top, for pouring in the oil.
+The top, which as a rule is slightly concave, is
+often ornamented with devices in relief, such as a
+chariot and its driver, or the emblem of a deity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_116.jpg" width="600" height="393"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_116.jpg" id="img_116.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLVII<br />AMPHORAIC VASES AND OTHER POTTERY<br />
+(<i>Museum of Tarragona</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The typical amphora was a long, narrow vessel
+(usually of earthenware; less frequently of brass
+or glass), with an elongated handle at either side
+of the neck, and tapering nearly to a point. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+served for storing honey, oil, or wine, and in order
+to keep it upright the pointed lower end was
+stuck into the soil, or rested on a perforated
+wooden stand. In the spring of 1893 some fishermen
+drew up in their nets, just off the coast of
+Alicante, three large intact amphor� thickly cased
+with shells, and sold them for eight dollars each.
+Other fine amphor�, now in the collection of the
+Marquis of Cerralbo, were washed upon the
+beach at Torrevieja, and many more are in
+museums. Vessels of this kind are known to
+have been made at Rhodas (Rosas) and Saguntum,
+and their use continued in Spain until the downfall
+of the second empire.</p>
+
+<h3>HISPANO-MORESQUE NON-LUSTRED POTTERY</h3>
+
+<p>The statements of Saint Isidore, confirmed
+by one or two discoveries in southern Spain,
+prove that the pottery in use among the Visigoths
+was principally Roman. Probably in this, as in so
+many of her arts, the Moorish conquest brought
+about a radical and rapid change. Remains of
+pottery dating from this period are extremely
+rare. The provincial museum of Granada contains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+some bowls and plates, all more or less imperfect,
+which are ascribed by experts to about the
+year 1000. These objects, which were dug up in
+1878 on the slopes of the Sierra Elvira, a few
+miles from Granada, are coloured black and green
+upon a white or whitish ground. The most important
+is a dish which measures fourteen inches
+in diameter, and is decorated with a falcon on a
+horse's back (Plate <a href="#img_118.jpg">xlviii</a>.).<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> All of this pottery
+shows the double influence of Byzantium and the
+East. Among the designs upon the other pieces
+are hares and stags surrounded by a bordering of
+primitive arabesques. Ria�o remarks that &ldquo;it is
+almost impossible to assert whether this pottery
+was made in or imported into Spain.&rdquo; Nevertheless,
+Persians are stated to have settled in this
+region early in the days of Muslim rule, while
+these dilapidated specimens of ancient ware are
+greatly similar in colouring and substance to the
+common dishes and <i>barre�os</i> which are still produced
+throughout the province of Granada.</p>
+
+<p>Moorish potteries producing lustred or non-lustred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+ware existed from an early date at M�laga,
+Valencia, Toledo, Calatayud, Murviedro, Murcia,
+and Barcelona. Another centre of this craft was
+probably Granada; for though she is not mentioned
+in this sense by any of the Moorish authors, the
+late Se�or Contreras discovered here the vestiges
+of two ancient potteries, while one of the old
+entrances was known as Bab Alfajjarin, or &ldquo;the
+potters' gate.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_118.jpg" width="500" height="402"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_118.jpg" id="img_118.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLVIII<br />DISH<br />
+(<i>About A.D. 1000. Museum of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Ordinances of Granada contain provisions
+which were evidently copied from the Spanish
+Moors, relating to the <i>almadraveros</i> or tilemakers,
+the <i>tinajeros</i> or makers of <i>tinajas</i>, and the <i>olleros</i>
+or potters generally. The Ordinances which
+concern the tilemakers are dated between 1528
+and 1540. The restrictions imposed upon these
+craftsmen were irksome, foolish, and unnecessary.
+All bricks and tiles were to be stamped in three
+places with the city mark, and were only permitted
+to be made between the first of April and the
+thirty-first of October in each year, &ldquo;since what
+is made at other seasons is not good or perfect,
+owing to the rain, and cold, and frost.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another Ordinance, illustrating the lawlessness
+prevailing at Granada in the times succeeding the
+reconquest, complains that &ldquo;many persons, including<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+labourers and hodmen, go forth into the
+roads and streets, and seize the tiles and bricks
+by violence from those who are conveying them,
+and bear them to their houses, or to the work
+which they are paid to do.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A picturesque, though cheap and unluxurious,
+vessel of a thoroughly eastern character, and
+which was very largely manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors, is the terra-cotta <i>tinaja</i> or
+gigantic jar for storing wine, or olive oil, or grain
+(Plate <a href="#img_120.jpg">xlix</a>.). The use of these receptacles extended
+through the whole Peninsula, and has continued
+undiminished to this day. The principal
+centres of <i>tinaja</i>-making were Toledo, Seville,
+and Granada. The Ordinances of the latter town
+embody Moorish rules relating to this branch
+of pottery. These laws, revived in 1526, provide
+that all <i>tinajas</i> must contain two kinds of earth,
+one red, the other white, thoroughly compounded
+in a trough of water. Before the potter removes
+the clay from the trough, he must call the city
+supervisor or <i>veedor</i> to look into the quality and
+mixing of the mass. The vessel as it leaves the
+oven must be white; otherwise, even although it
+have no flaw, the inspector is to break it. The
+potter is forbidden to coat his <i>tinajas</i> with a glaze<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+composed of eggs, blood, chalk, and other strange
+ingredients; nor may he fire the glaze with
+torches, &ldquo;because the smell of the smoke clings
+to the <i>tinaja</i>, and the wine or stum deposited
+therein grows redolent of it, and it stays within
+the jar perpetually.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_120.jpg" width="371" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_120.jpg" id="img_120.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">XLIX<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE <i>TINAJA</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Owing doubtless to their plain, domestic purpose
+and their trifling market cost, early <i>tinajas</i> are
+not often met with. A fine example in excellent
+preservation is at South Kensington, and is
+described by Ria�o as &ldquo;a wine jar, amphora-shaped,
+and ornamented with an incised pattern
+of vine leaves, and stamped diaper of a Gothic
+character.&rdquo; Several good <i>tinajas</i> have been discovered
+of late years at Seville. Gestoso mentions
+six, five of which are glazed. The first of these
+was found in 1893, and has a bright green glaze
+upon a ground of reddish earth. Both handles
+and nearly all the neck are wanting. The decoration
+consists of various bands or <i>fajas</i> round the
+body of the jar, a series of archways, another of
+leaves, and a central band of stars, three deep,
+strongly imprinted from a mould. In every
+ninth arch are stamped symbolic hands, such as
+we see upon the Gate of Justice of the Alhambra.</p>
+
+<p>The second <i>tinaja</i> is similar to the one just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+mentioned, except that it has the neck. It
+was discovered in 1895, and is now in Seville
+museum.</p>
+
+<p>The third <i>tinaja</i> is also in this museum, and
+was discovered in 1901. It is in a very poor condition,
+and Gestoso believes that it was originally
+covered with a honey-coloured glaze.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth <i>tinaja</i> was found in a drain, in the
+same year as the preceding one, and is inscribed
+with words, including <i>Blessing</i> and <i>Felicity</i>, in
+Cufic characters. Gestoso is unable to decide
+whether this vessel was made at Seville or elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The fifth <i>tinaja</i> is in the collection of Don Jos�
+Mor�n, and possesses greater interest than the
+others, both because it is in excellent condition,
+and also because the decoration is entirely in the
+Spanish-Christian style, without a trace of Saracenic
+ornament. Small Gothic-looking shields surround
+the body of this vessel, which is stamped
+with pomegranates, and with the arms and emblems
+of the Ponce de Le�n and other families.
+Between each pair of shields is an oval-shaped
+medallion containing human figures.</p>
+
+<p>The sixth <i>tinaja</i> is unglazed. It was found in
+June of 1893, and is adorned with repetitions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+the words <i>Prosperity</i> and <i>Blessing</i>, as well as with
+a series of deer and other animals in the act of
+running; some of them with birds upon their
+backs. These designs are very uncommon, and
+Gestoso has seen no other <i>tinaja</i>, proceeding from
+this region, similarly decorated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tinajas</i> are still made in large quantities at
+Toboso, Lucena, Colmenar de Oreja, and other
+Spanish towns and villages.</p>
+
+<p>Other large objects of a thoroughly oriental
+character were earthenware glazed <i>brocales</i> or
+brims of wells, which, like the <i>tinajas</i>, were largely
+manufactured at Seville and Toledo. Specimens
+of these <i>brocales</i> exist in the museums of Toledo
+and Cordova. Ria�o describes one which is at
+South Kensington. &ldquo;It was bought at Toledo
+for three guineas at a shoemaker's shop. It is
+made of glazed white and green earthenware,
+with ornamental Cufic characters in high relief
+all round, which appear to be of the fourteenth
+century. The inscription, which is repeated, is
+imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the
+words &lsquo;the power, the excellence, and the peace.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso describes two <i>brocales</i> and the fragments
+of a third. All these objects were found
+at Seville. The two which are intact, or nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+so, are cylindrical, and of a white ware. One of
+them has a simple leaf decoration, and seems to
+have been covered with a green glaze. The
+other, which was discovered in 1894, is surrounded
+by a triple band of inscription in African characters
+which are illegible.</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso also describes some interesting baptismal
+fonts, a class of object which he pronounces
+to have been the most important of all that were
+produced in the potteries of Triana, by reason
+both of their large dimensions and of their elaborate
+ornamentation. He states that three methods
+were employed to decorate these fonts. The first
+consisted in attaching to their surface small
+moulded plates which bore the likeness of a saint,
+flowers, monograms, or other devices. By the
+second method the decoration was moulded directly
+on the font; while the third method consisted in
+a combination of the other two.</p>
+
+<p>Splendid examples of these Spanish fonts exist
+in various churches of Andalusia and in private
+collections. One of the finest is in the parish
+church of Nuestra Se�ora de la Concepci�n, at
+Laguna, Tenerife. It is suggested by Gestoso
+that this <i>pila</i> of Laguna was made at Seville and
+sent to the Canaries in the year 1479, when orders<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+were issued by Ferdinand and Isabella for the
+completion of the monasteries in those islands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pilas</i> were also manufactured at Toledo,
+although Gestoso says that the workmanship of
+those produced at Seville was in every way
+superior. Nevertheless, he has only found the
+maker's name upon a single font, which is inscribed
+with that of Juan Sanchez Vachero, and is now
+preserved in the church of San Pedro at Carmona.
+Another remarkable <i>pila</i> is that of the hospital of
+San L�zaro at Seville.</p>
+
+<p>In course of time the Spanish Church forbade
+the use of <i>pilas</i> made of glazed earthenware, and
+ordered their substitution by fonts of stone or
+marble. One of these dispositions, included
+among the <i>Constituciones Sinodales</i> of the bishopric
+of M�laga, and dated 1671, is quoted by
+Gestoso. It enacts that the <i>pila</i> be of stone and
+not of earthenware, and that if any of this latter
+class remain, they are to be &ldquo;consumed&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+destroyed) within two months.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the Ordinances of Granada, those
+which concern the potters or <i>olleros</i> generally are
+dated 1530, and inform us of the price of glazed
+and unglazed articles in common use, such as
+<i>ollas</i> or pots (with and without glaze), <i>cazuelas</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+earthen vessels for cooking meat, plates of many
+colours and dimensions, <i>jarros</i> (jugs), <i>alcuzas</i>
+(vials), <i>cantaros castellanos</i> (Castilian water-pitchers),
+<i>cantaros moriscos</i> (Moorish water-pitchers<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>),
+<i>morteros</i> (mortars), <i>lebrillos</i> (earthen
+tubs), <i>candiles</i> (lamps with a green, white or
+yellow glaze), <i>orzas</i> (gally pots), <i>botijas</i> (narrow-necked
+jars), and <i>salseras</i> (saucers).</p>
+
+<p>The shape and colouring of many of these
+common articles have been continued till to-day,
+especially in Andalusia. I reproduce a photograph
+of some (Plate <a href="#img_126.jpg">l</a>.), in which the influence of the
+East is unmistakable. The smaller of the two
+unglazed jars is used for carrying and cooling
+water, and is made at Loja. The other, which is
+often used for storing honey, is from Guadalajara.
+The spherical vessel is a kind of bottle for <i>aguardiente</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+It is glazed a brightish green, and is made
+in various parts of Andalusia, as are the gourd-shaped
+<i>calabazas</i>, which have a yellow glaze.
+The smallest vessel, or that which has a funnel-shaped
+and bulging mouth, is coated with a coarse
+metallic glaze coloured in white and blue, and
+proceeds from Granada.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_126.jpg" width="500" height="341"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_126.jpg" id="img_126.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">L<br />COARSE SPANISH POTTERY<br />
+(<i>Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>So is the influence of the Spanish Moors, linking
+the present intimately to the past, and
+handed down by early craftsmen to the moderns,
+and from Mussulmans to Christian Spaniards,
+maintained and kept alive, not only by the city
+ordinances I have quoted, but also by the more
+occult yet no less permanent and cogent force of
+local and unchronicled tradition. In the historic
+quarter of Granada which is called the Albaycin,
+survive a few <i>alfarer�as</i> to this hour (Plate <a href="#img_192.jpg">lxix</a>.).
+Here, on the potter's wheel or ranged about his
+yard, may yet be seen the red Granada earth that is
+believed to have inspired the vase of the Alhambra,
+applied to-day to common crockery that notwithstanding
+has a subtle, unfamiliar charm. And
+towards the time of sundown, when the master
+turns indoors to supper and his workmen have gone
+home, when the last of the red light is colouring the
+ancient city wall until it too looks like a mammoth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+monument of the potter's art of old Granada, it is
+a strange experience to wander through these
+desolate yards, among the files of ruddy Granadino
+ware kindling with vivid memories of the vanished
+Mussulmans of Spain, and bringing back to us
+that spirited old poet of the East who also sang of
+pottery:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Listen again. One Evening at the Close</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Of Ramazan, ere the better Moon arose,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">In that old Potter's Shop I stood alone</span><br />
+<span class="i0">With the clay Population round in Rows.</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And strange to tell, among that Earthen Lot</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Some could articulate, while others not:</span><br />
+<span class="i2">And suddenly one more impatient cried&mdash;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">&lsquo;Who <i>is</i> the Potter, pray, and who the Pot?&rsquo;</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Then said another&mdash;&lsquo;Surely not in vain</span><br />
+<span class="i0">My substance from the common Earth was ta'en,</span><br />
+<span class="i2">That He who subtly wrought me into Shape</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Should stamp me back to common Earth again.&rsquo;&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<h3>MOSAIC-WORK AND TILES</h3>
+
+<p>The art of colouring and glazing earthenware
+was practised by various peoples of the ancient
+eastern world, and passed, in course of time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+through Egypt to Ph&oelig;nicia, Greece, and Rome,
+and, later still, to Mussulman peoples of north-western
+Africa.</p>
+
+<p>Glazed earthenware was possibly produced in
+Roman Spain, although the specimens of it which
+have been discovered are singularly and, indeed,
+significantly few. Their colour is commonly green
+or lightish yellow. Gestoso makes particular
+mention of a small jar now preserved in the
+museum of Seville, describing it as &ldquo;of an
+ordinary shape, but finely made.&rdquo; He admits,
+however, that no trace of glaze exists in any of
+the broken Visigothic vessels (copied, as Saint
+Isidore tells us, from the Roman-Spanish pottery)
+that were found some years ago among the ruins
+of Italica. Thus it is not decided whether the
+Spanish potters learned to glaze, or whether this
+development of their craft remained familiar to
+the Spaniards of that period through imported
+objects merely.</p>
+
+<p>As with glazed earthenware, the origin of
+mosaic must be looked for in the East. Greece,
+who had doubtless borrowed it from Egypt,
+communicated it to Rome at least two centuries
+before the Christian era, and from this time the
+Romans used it freely in the decoration of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+buildings. The Greek mosaic was composed exclusively
+of stone. The Romans modified this
+usage by the introduction of diminutive cubes of
+clay, painted and baked like porcelain; and later,
+in the reign of Claudius, dyed these cubes with
+various colours.</p>
+
+<p>Roman mosaic-work (commonly in the tessellated
+style and not the <i>opus sectile</i>) has been unearthed
+in many parts of the Peninsula. Such are the
+two &ldquo;mosaics of the Muses,&rdquo; discovered at Italica
+on December 12th, 1799, and June 12th, 1839;<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>
+other mosaics, to the number of some thirty,
+discovered from time to time among the same
+ruins; another, discovered at Majorca in 1833;
+that of the Calle Batitales at Lugo (the Roman
+<i>Lucus Augusti</i>), discovered in 1842; those of
+Palencia, Gerona, Merida, Milla del Rio (near
+Le�n), Rielves (near Toledo), Durat�n, Aguilafuente,
+and Paradinas (near Segovia), and Carabanchel,
+three miles from Madrid. The mosaic
+found at Lugo is believed to have formed part of
+a temple dedicated to Diana. The decoration is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+partly geometrical, and consists of the head of
+a man between two dolphins, with other fishes
+swimming along the border. Laborde describes
+another mosaic which existed, early in the nineteenth
+century, in a hall of the archbishop's palace
+at Valencia. &ldquo;The pavement of this hall demands
+particular attention; it is formed of antique pavements,
+discovered in the month of February,
+1777, three hundred paces north-east of the town
+of Puch, between Valencia and Murviedro; some
+were entire, others were only fragments. They
+were separated with care, and placed on the floor
+of this hall, where they are carefully preserved.
+They are different mosaics, formed by little stones
+of three or four lines in diameter, curiously enchased.
+They are distributed into seven squares
+in each of which medallions and divers designs
+have been drawn: their compartments are of blue
+on a white ground. We observe in one of these
+squares an imitation of the pavement of Bacchus,
+discovered at Murviedro, and of which there remained
+but very few vestiges; it was copied in
+a drawing-book which a priest of this town had
+preserved; it is executed with such art and exactness,
+that no difference can be observed between
+this modern work and that of the Romans. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+another we see Neptune seated in a car, in one
+hand holding a whip, and in the other a trident
+and the reins of the horses by which his car is
+drawn: these appear to be galloping.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the same hall are also seen other pavements,
+of which only fragments could be preserved.
+Some serve for borders and ornaments to the
+preceding pavements. On these are represented a
+tiger, fishes, birds, houses, flowers, and garlands,
+well executed. There are particularly five stuck
+on wood and shut up in a closet; on these are
+birds, fruits, and flowers, figured in different
+colours, the execution of which is very curious;
+they are perhaps the most precious of the
+whole.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author says elsewhere: &ldquo;In digging
+to make a road from Valencia to Murviedro in
+1755, at the entrance of the latter town a mosaic
+pavement was discovered; it was entire, and of
+such beauty that it was thought worthy of preservation.
+Ferdinand the Sixth caused it to be
+surrounded with walls; but the king's intentions
+were not properly fulfilled; the gates were suffered
+to remain open, and every one carried away some
+part of the pavement, which consequently soon became
+despoiled; it was rectangular, and measured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+twenty-four feet by fourteen. There are still
+some fragments of it in several houses at
+Murviedro. A priest of that town, Don Diego
+Puch, an antiquarian, took a drawing of it, which
+he afterwards had painted at Valencia on the tiles
+fabricated there, and paved an apartment of his
+house with them. It was likewise copied with
+the greatest exactness, with small stones perfectly
+similar, in an apartment of the library belonging
+to the archiepiscopal palace, as we have already
+stated.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Swinburne also mentions a mosaic pavement
+which he saw at Barcelona, upon the site of what
+he believed to have been a temple of Neptune.
+In it were represented &ldquo;two large green figures
+of tritons, holding a shell in each hand; between
+them a sea-horse, and on the sides a serpent and
+a dolphin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In October of 1901 a very important and
+beautiful mosaic was discovered at Italica. It is
+known as &ldquo;the mosaic of Bacchus,&rdquo; the worship
+of which deity, says Se�or Quintero, was probably
+general in Andalusia, owing to her wealth of
+vines. This mosaic was found at a depth of six
+feet six inches below the surface of the soil, and
+measures twenty-one feet square. It is believed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+to have formed the pavement of a Roman dining-chamber.</p>
+
+<p>Mosaic in the manner of the Greeks and
+Romans seems in Spain to have disappeared with
+the Visigoths. That it was known to these is
+told us by Saint Isidore:&mdash;&ldquo;Pavimenta originem
+apud graecos habent elaboratae arte picturae,
+litostrata parvulis crustis ac tesselis tinctis in
+varios colores.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_134.jpg" width="389" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_134.jpg" id="img_134.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LI<br />DOOR OF THE MIHRAB<br />
+(<i>Showing mosaic-work. Cordova Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is impossible to affirm with any confidence
+that glazed earthenware, whether in the form of
+tiles or other objects, was manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors during the Cordovese Caliphate,
+or the period of the kinglings of Taifa. No trace
+of it has been discovered among the scanty ruins
+of Medina Az-zahar�<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> and Az-zahira&mdash;ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+palaces of Cordova&mdash;or in the marvellous mosque.
+We know, however, that towards the seventh
+century the Arabs borrowed from Byzantium
+the mosaic-work of tessons known as <i>psephosis
+fsefysa</i>, and this, or something similar, was used,
+though probably to a small extent, among the
+Muslims of the Spanish Caliphate. Although,
+towards the middle of the thirteenth century,
+the historian Aben-Said, a native of Granada,
+recorded that in Al-Andalus &ldquo;is made a kind of
+<i>mofassass</i> which is called in the East <i>alfoseifesa</i>,&rdquo;
+remains of this elaborate product only exist to-day
+at Cordova, where patches may yet be seen lining
+the dome of the <i>mirhab</i> in the vast <i>aljama</i>
+(Plate <a href="#img_134.jpg">li</a>.). The mosaic in question is stated to
+have been a gift from the Byzantine emperor to
+the sultan Al-Hakem, and was set in place by a
+skilled workman, a Greek, who, like the offering
+itself, proceeded from Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p>During his stay at Cordova this Greek was
+helped by certain of the Sultan's slaves, who thus
+acquired the secrets of the craft, and practised it
+thereafter.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p>Rodrigo Amador de los Rios contends, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+that this decoration is in no sense a true mosaic,
+but just a tempera painting executed on the wall
+and overlaid with cubes of glass. In any case, no
+other specimen of such work has been discovered
+in any part of the Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>By the time of the Almohade invasion or very
+shortly after&mdash;that is, towards the twelfth century,&mdash;the
+Spanish Moors had grown acquainted
+with glazed earthenware. Indeed, the Almohades
+are believed by some authorities to have actually
+introduced it. Gestoso, on the contrary, suggests
+that Spain may have transmitted it to Africa.
+However this may be, the Almohades used it
+largely in the decoration of their homes and public
+buildings in Andalusia; first as <i>aliceres</i> or bands
+composed of smallish pieces running round a room,
+and subsequently in the more effective and more
+useful form of <i>azulejos</i> proper. The Spanish Moors
+employed the word <i>almofassass</i> to designate both
+<i>aliceres</i> and <i>azulejos</i>. Nevertheless, the two were
+not identical, although Ria�o takes them to be so.
+He says: &ldquo;The earliest tiles or <i>azulejos</i> made in
+Spain are composed of small pieces let into the
+wall, forming geometrical patterns.&rdquo; These, in
+fact, were <i>aliceres</i>. It is not so easy to define
+an <i>azulejo</i>. We read in Aben-Said, quoted by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+Al-Makkari: &ldquo;There is another kind of work
+employed for paving houses. It is called <i>azzulech�</i>
+and resembles <i>mofassass</i>. It has wonderful
+colouring, and replaces the coloured marble
+used by the people of the East to decorate their
+chambers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This definition is not completely clear. Those
+of the Christian-Spanish writers are not more
+satisfactory. Covarrubias calls these objects
+&ldquo;small bricks, square and of other shapes, used
+for lining chambers in the mansions of the wealthy,
+or in garden paths.&rdquo; Nebrija calls them <i>tessela
+pavimenticia</i>, adding that they bear the name of
+<i>azulejos</i> because the earliest ones were of a blue
+colour&mdash;a statement which Dozy supports by
+instancing the Persian-Arabic <i>zaward</i> or &ldquo;blue
+stone.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso resolves the question sufficiently for
+our purpose by showing that the term <i>azulejo</i> is
+usually applied to square tiles of a largish size,
+the length of whose sides varies between eleven
+centimetres and eighteen centimetres, <i>aliceres</i>
+being properly the smaller strips or pieces
+(technically known as <i>cintas</i> or <i>verduguillos</i>) used
+in a bordering or frieze. Other decorative pieces
+of small dimensions, invented in the fifteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+century, were called <i>olambres</i> or <i>olambrillas</i>, and
+served to lend variety to the red or yellow brickwork
+of a pavement or a floor.</p>
+
+<p>The production of <i>azulejos</i> in Spain may thus
+be traced to as far back as the twelfth century.
+By far the most important centre of the craft
+was Seville. Here, from the twelfth until the
+fourteenth century, was made the glazed and
+decorative tiling which consisted of small pieces
+of monochrome earthenware&mdash;black, white, green,
+blue, or yellow&mdash;cut one by one, and pieced
+together in the manner of a true mosaic. This
+process, says Gestoso, was lengthy, difficult, and
+dear. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the
+same mosaic would often take the form of a series
+of narrow, white, ribbon-like strips, with coloured
+interspaces. Specimens of this &ldquo;ribbon-work
+tiling&rdquo; exist to-day in the Patio de Las Doncellas
+of the Alc�zar (Plate <a href="#img_138.jpg">lii</a>.). Towards the sixteenth
+century the Sevillano potters discovered a simpler
+way of making effective and artistic <i>azulejos</i>, which
+they called the <i>cuerda seca</i> process. This novel
+method consisted in pressing a wood or metal
+mould upon the unbaked tile, in such a manner
+that the outline of the pattern remained in slight
+relief. This outline was next brushed over with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+a mixture of manganese and grease, which turns,
+in baking, very nearly black. The body of the
+pattern was then filled in with the various colours,
+which the greasy line completely separated, and
+thus prepared, the tile was rendered permanent
+by firing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_138.jpg" width="339" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_138.jpg" id="img_138.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LII<br />MOSAIC OF THE PATIO DE LAS DONCELLAS<br />
+(<i>Alc�zar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This process, in which the patterns are nearly
+always geometrical, remained in general use until
+about the year 1550, when it began to be superseded
+by two others, known respectively as the
+processes of &ldquo;cuenca&rdquo; and &ldquo;Pisano&rdquo;.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>cuenca</i> tile was simple and of excellent
+effect. The pattern, stamped from a metal
+mould, remained in bas-relief,&mdash;a characteristic
+which caused these objects to be also known as
+<i>azulejos</i> &ldquo;<i>de relieve</i>&rdquo;. The shelving border of
+each hollow stamped into the tile thus formed
+a kind of natural barrier which kept the colour
+there deposited from mingling with its neighbours.
+When of a larger size, and joined in pairs to form
+between each two a single motive (<i>ladrillo por
+tabla</i>), these <i>azulejos</i> were often employed for
+decorating roofs and ceilings.</p>
+
+<p>The tiles which bear the name of their inventor,
+Francesco Niculoso Pisano the Italian, who lived
+and worked for many years at Seville, date from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+about the same time as the &ldquo;cuenca&rdquo; <i>azulejos</i>. In
+the case of the <i>Pisano</i> tile, there is no indentation
+caused by the imprint of a mould, the surface
+being merely coated with a monochrome glaze,
+painted upon and fired, the decoration thus
+remaining flat all over. Commonly the ground
+is white or yellow, with the colour of the pattern
+shaded blue, or black, or deepish purple. This
+process, which lent itself to most elaborate and
+effective schemes of ornament, remained in vogue
+until the eighteenth century, and was practised,
+not only by Pisano himself, but by a long succession
+of his pupils, followers, and imitators.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_140.jpg" width="600" height="353"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_140.jpg" id="img_140.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LIII<br />ANDALUSIAN NON-LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>A.D. 1480&ndash;1495. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such were the processes in use among the
+<i>azulejo</i>-makers of old Seville. Specimens of
+their craftsmanship which yet survive and illustrate
+the various styles and epochs may be thus
+enumerated:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) Mosaic tile-work, such as appears in Seville
+at the time of the Almohade invasion. A fragment
+of this kind of work forms part of the collection of
+Se�or Osma, and proceeds from the church of
+San Andr�s. Tiles and smaller pieces of mosaic-work,
+coloured in malachite green and white,
+were also found in 1899 and 1900, in the upper
+walls of the renowned Torre del Oro, or &ldquo;Golden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+Tower,&rdquo; erected in the year 1220, and which is
+popularly thought to derive its venerable title
+from the sparkle of the sun upon its <i>azulejos</i>.
+Another piece of primitive mosaic, measuring
+rather less than a yard square, and containing
+star-shaped geometrical devices, was found in 1890
+beneath the floor of the cathedral; while mosaics
+of a later age, including the more elaborate <i>lacer�a</i>
+patterns that resemble ribbon, are preserved in
+the Patio de las Doncellas of the Alc�zar, in the
+Casa de Olea, and in the parish churches of San
+Est�ban, San Gil, and Omnium Sanctorum.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A small group of curious tiles, believed to
+be anterior to the reign of Pedro the First, has
+come to light some years ago, in the churches of
+San Andr�s and Santa Marina, and in the Claustro
+del Lagarto of the cathedral. Those of San
+Andr�s are of white earthenware, glazed in the
+same colour and stamped from a mould with the
+figures of two wolves in fairly bold relief (see
+tailpiece to this chapter). Traces of a glaze of
+malachite green are on the bodies of these wolves.
+The <i>azulejos</i> of the church of Santa Marina, also
+discovered recently, are examined by Se�or Osma
+in his pamphlet <i>Azulejos sevillanos del siglo xiii</i>
+(Madrid, 1902). They measure about three and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+a half inches square, and bear devices of a castle
+and an eagle, stamped in the diagonal direction
+of the tile, showing that this was fixed upon the
+wall in lozenge fashion. The tiles are bathed
+upon their surface with what is termed by Osma
+&ldquo;the semi-transparent, caramel-coloured glaze
+peculiar to the pottery of Moorish Spain.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Upon
+this ground is stamped the decoration,&mdash;the eagles
+in the blackish purple of baked manganese, the
+castles without additional colour, so as to be
+distinguished only by their outline from the
+yellowish surface of the tile.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>azulejos</i> of the Claustro del Lagarto of the
+cathedral are three in number, and were found in
+1888. Two of them are stamped with a castle of
+a single tower described within a shield, and the
+third with a Greek cross. These are considered
+by Osma to be the only tiles existing at this
+moment which date from the latter third of the
+thirteenth century. In fact, he places their manufacture
+between the years 1252 and 1269.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_142.jpg" width="500" height="465"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_142.jpg" id="img_142.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LIV<br /><i>CUENCA</i> TILES<br />
+(<i>Alc�zar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Cuerda seca</i> tiles. Handsome <i>zocalos</i> or
+dadoes of these tiles are in the Casa de los<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+Pinelos, and in the chapels of the palaces of the
+Dukes of Alba and Medinaceli. Gestoso attributes
+them to the end of the fifteenth century
+or the beginning of the sixteenth. Detached
+<i>cuerda seca</i> tiles are preserved in the municipal
+museum of arch�ology, while a fine pair (Plate <a href="#img_140.jpg">liii</a>.)
+of this class of <i>azulejos</i> belongs to Se�or Osma,
+who considers they were made between 1480 and
+1495. They are thus coeval with the no less interesting
+dish of the time of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+of which a reproduction is given opposite page 190.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Cuenca</i> tiles. Quantities of these, dating
+from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, may
+yet be seen in many parts of Seville; for instance,
+in her churches or her convents, in her superb
+Alc�zar, or in the mansions of her old nobility.
+Probably the most remarkable of all are those in
+the gardens of the Alc�zar, and lining the walls of
+the Pavilion of Charles the Fifth. The devices
+on these polychrome <i>azulejos</i> (16th century;
+Plate <a href="#img_142.jpg">liv</a>.) are very numerous, including men and
+animals, centaurs and other monsters, the Pillars of
+Hercules, and imitations of elaborate dress fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Pisano</i> tiles. Although some facts have
+been unearthed concerning the Italian Francesco
+Niculoso Pisano, we do not know precisely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+in what year he came to Seville, or in what
+year he died. Davillier thought it probable that
+he had studied at Faenza or at Caffagiolo. At
+all events, it was Pisano who broadly launched the
+art of the Sevillian potters on the stream of the
+Renaissance.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> I have stated that the tiles which
+bear his name are painted on a white or yellow
+ground. Consequently their surface is flat,
+without the ridges and depressions of the <i>cuenca</i> or
+the <i>cuerda seca</i> methods. We find <i>Pisano</i> tiles
+applied to various objects, such as tombs, altars,
+friezes, and archivolts. This artist, says Gestoso,
+further introduced the use of two new colours,&mdash;violet
+and rose. Several of his best productions
+are still intact, including the doorway of the church
+of the monastery of Santa Paula (in which he was
+assisted by a Spanish master, Pedro Millan), and
+the altar of the Catholic Sovereigns in the Alc�zar.
+Both these masterpieces were executed in the
+year 1504, and bear Pisano's signature. The
+doorway of Santa Paula is described by Gestoso
+as consisting of a single body of masonry,
+distinct from that of the building itself, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+resting against it, and constructed of bricks of
+uniform size, which show us, by their perfect
+symmetry, how skilful were the masons of that
+time, with whom the Moorish craftsmanship was
+yet a living power. The doorway is formed by a
+series of concentric Gothic arches resting on
+slender pillars. The space which forms the outer
+archivolt is most remarkable. Upon a ground
+of <i>azulejos</i> which copy the colour of the brickwork,
+we see a number of Plateresque designs of exquisite
+beauty, painted in white and blue, with
+occasional touches of other colours. Among
+the devices are chimeras, war-trophies, volutes,
+chaplets, parapegms, antelopes, masks, and others
+which are characteristic of the Florentine Renaissance.
+Upon this ground, and enclosed by circular
+garlands in high relief, consisting of polychrome
+fruits and flowers, are seven medallions containing
+figures of male and female saints, except the one
+which is upon the keystone, and which represents
+the birth of Christ. In this medallion the figures
+are enamelled in white upon a cobalt-blue ground,
+recalling, as also do the garlands, the work of the
+celebrated della Robbia.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> In the rest of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+medallions the figures are glazed in brilliant
+colours. In the three medallions upon the left,
+beginning with the lowest one, we see, upon the
+first, Saint Helen; upon the second, two saints
+in monkish dress; and upon the third, Saint Peter
+and Saint Paul. On the medallions of the other
+side are another saint dressed as a monk, San
+Cosm�, San Dami�n, and San Roque. The
+spaces on either side of the archivolt are covered
+with tiles which represent a landscape. In each
+of the upper angles is an angel holding a large
+tablet with IHS in ornamental Gothic character
+upon a black ground. These letters, and also
+the angels and the frames of the tablets, are
+enamelled in gold. Beneath each tablet is an
+angel standing with extended wings upon a
+bracket of lustred earthenware, and holding an
+open book. The brickwork of the door is closed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+by a plain impost supporting a small battlement
+covered with <i>cuenca</i> tiles, and crowned with a
+cornice of flamboyant ornaments alternating with
+the heads of cherubs glazed in white, and with a
+white marble cross in the centre. The tympanum
+is embellished by a superb shield carved in high
+relief upon white marble with the arms of Castile,
+Le�n, Aragon, and Sicily, surmounted by a royal
+crown and the eagle with the nimbus. Beside this
+shield are two smaller ones of <i>azulejos</i> painted with
+the yoke and sheaf of arrows, and the motto <span class="smcap">T&#256;TO
+M&#332;TA</span>. The ground on which are executed these
+three shields occupies the whole tympanum, and
+is covered with Plateresque devices including two
+tablets, on one of which we read the letters <span class="smcap">S.P.Q.R.</span>,
+and on the other, <span class="smcap">PISANO</span>. Above the first of these
+tablets is another of an oval shape, bearing the word
+<span class="smcap">NICULOSO</span>. Lastly, at the base of the archivolt,
+and on the left-hand side of the spectator, is a very
+small rectangular tablet with this inscription:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0;">NICVLOSO<br />
+FRANCISCO-I-<br />
+TALIANO-MEF<br />
+ECIT INELAGNO DEI<br />
+� 154 �</p>
+
+<p>The altar in the Alc�zar of the same city, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+which is known as that of the Catholic Sovereigns
+(Plate <a href="#img_148.jpg">lv</a>.), is entirely covered with &ldquo;Pisano&rdquo;
+<i>azulejos</i> measuring sixteen centimetres square.
+Imbedded in the centre is a picture, also of painted
+tiles, representing the visit of the Virgin to Saint
+Elizabeth. This picture measures five feet in
+height by three feet eight inches in breadth. Beneath
+it is the figure of a patriarch resting his head
+upon his hand. Boughs with large flowers issue
+from his breast, and among the flowers are half-length
+figures of the prophets, together with those
+of Jesus and the Virgin, the whole of this decoration
+forming a frame to the central picture. The rest
+of the altar is profusely decorated with designs in
+the Renaissance style, consisting of vases, animals,
+genii, and the emblems of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+In the centre of the tiling which forms the altar-front
+is a circular picture made of <i>azulejos</i> surrounded
+by a garland of fruits and laurel leaves,
+and representing the Annunciation, garland and
+picture being supported by two monsters with the
+tails of dragons and the upper parts of women.
+Large flaming torches rest between the out-stretched
+arms of the monsters, and round about
+or springing from them are flowers, animals,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+cornucopias, and other decoration. The entire
+<i>retablo</i> is painted lightish blue and white upon a
+yellow ground, except the larger picture and its
+decorative border, which is of a deeper blue. A
+small tablet beneath the Virgin's feet contains the
+words <span class="smcap">NICULOSO FRANCESCO ITALIANO ME FECIT</span>, and
+on the pilaster represented on the left hand of the
+same picture is added the date, 1504. As Gestoso,
+Davillier, and others have remarked, it is evident
+that while the rest of the altar is pure Renaissance-Plateresque,
+the pictures copied on the tiles are of
+a northern school. Probably they were designed
+for Niculoso by one of the various German or
+Flemish masters who at that time were resident
+in Seville.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_148.jpg" width="420" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_148.jpg" id="img_148.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LV<br />ALTAR OF THE CATHOLIC SOVEREIGNS<br />
+(<i>Alc�zar of Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another altar which was formerly in the same
+palace, but which has disappeared, was also
+painted by this craftsman. It was described by
+Cean Bermudez as containing scenes from the
+life of the Virgin, the Trinity, and the two Saints
+John, and bore the same date as the altar which
+is yet existing, namely, 1504.</p>
+
+<p>Among the other works of Niculoso are the
+altar of the church of Tentudia, the tomb of
+I�igo Lopez in the church of Santa Ana in the
+quarter of Triana, and a tile-picture representing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+similarly to the one which forms the centre of the
+altar in the Alc�zar, the Virgin's visit to Saint
+Elizabeth. This picture formerly belonged to
+the kings of Portugal, and is now in the museum
+of Amsterdam.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such were the decorative <i>azulejos</i> which made
+the potteries of Seville famous throughout Europe,
+and which are known to have been exported to
+Italy, Portugal, and even England.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> The names
+of several hundred medi�val and post-medi�val
+makers of these Seville tiles have been exhumed
+and published by Gestoso.</p>
+
+<p>The general title of the Spanish potter was
+<i>ollero</i>, a comprehensive term which reaches from
+the most ambitious <i>azulejero</i> to the maker of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+meanest kitchen-ware. The <i>olleros</i> of older
+Seville produced for centuries, not only glazed
+and coloured tiling by the processes already
+indicated, but countless other objects such as
+brims of wells, apothecary's jars, baptismal fonts,
+and dishes of every shape and size. They used a
+general mark (the tower of the Giralda) to stamp
+their pottery; but private marks are nearly
+always absent. The facts that have appeared in
+recent years concerning these artificers are seldom
+interesting. The mere mention of a name is
+meaningless, or even perplexing, seeing that a
+Moor or Mudejar would frequently assume the
+name and surname of a Christian. Nevertheless,
+Gestoso has brought to light important notices
+concerning one or two, and in particular a document
+dating from the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, relating to a celebrated potter of that
+period named Fernan Martinez Guijarro. This
+document, which is dated 1479, describes Martinez
+as &ldquo;a very great master in the art of making
+<i>azulejos</i>, fonts, and all the things pertaining to
+his trade, insomuch that none other in all this
+kingdom is like unto him,&rdquo; and subsequently,
+&ldquo;considering him to be so excellent a craftsman
+that persons come hither from Portugal and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+parts to purchase and to carry off his ware.&rdquo; It
+is further stated that Martinez Guijarro was in
+wealthy circumstances (&ldquo;hombre rrico e de mucha
+rrenta e fasyenda&rdquo;). His <i>talleres</i> or workshops
+were in the <i>barrio</i> of Triana, and included (as we
+learn from one of the documents copied by the
+same investigator) a separate department for the
+manufacture or storage of lustred ware.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, even Gestoso is unable to point
+to any piece of tiling or other pottery now existing,
+as being unquestionably executed by this master.</p>
+
+<p>Another Sevillian potter of exceptional merit
+was Crist�bal de Augusta, who worked in the
+latter half of the sixteenth century, and left his
+name upon the <i>azulejo</i> dadoes of the Halls of
+Charles the Fifth in the Alc�zar. The style of
+these most brilliant tiles is pure Renaissance, and
+forms a worthy continuation of the splendid work
+of Niculoso. Augusta, indeed, is termed in the
+Archives of the Alc�zar &ldquo;master of making tiles
+in the Pisano manner&rdquo; (<i>del pisano</i>).<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Some tilemakers
+of little note succeeded him, but even the
+names of these are carefully recorded by Gestoso.</p>
+
+<p>Seville was thus the principal centre of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+craft of decorative tile-making. <i>Azulejos</i> were
+also made at Barcelona and other towns in Catalu�a,
+at Talavera de la Reina, Burgos, Toledo,
+Granada, and Valencia, in several towns of
+Aragon, and probably at Cordova. Ria�o quotes
+a letter written about the year 1422, from the wife
+of the Admiral of Castile to the abbess of the
+nunnery of Santo Domingo at Toledo, requesting
+that a number of <i>azulejos</i> be sent to her. &ldquo;She
+alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and
+says she was expecting a master potter from
+Seville to place the tiles in their proper places.
+This shows us&rdquo; (continues Ria�o) &ldquo;that it was
+only in the province of Andalusia that the art was
+known of cutting these tiles into geometrical sections
+and mosaic patterns.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The meaning of this passage is obscure. Ria�o
+speaks of painted tiles and <i>azulejos</i> as though they
+were distinct objects, and yet they are essentially
+the same. Again, if only Andalusia was able to
+produce such tiles, why did the Almirante's wife
+order them from Toledo? Perhaps the faulty
+English of Ria�o's handbook is responsible, but,
+as it stands, this passage tells us practically nothing.
+In any case, abundant evidence exists to show<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+that large quantities of Mudejar and Renaissance
+tiles were manufactured at Toledo. In general
+appearance, they are similar to those of Seville.</p>
+
+<p>Ram�rez de Arellano believes that decorative
+tiles were manufactured at Cordova in the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries, and quotes, in proof
+of this, the names of &ldquo;maestros de hacer vidriado&rdquo;
+or makers of glazed ware, who resided at this
+ancient capital. One of these craftsmen was
+Alonso Rodriguez the younger, who, on June 7th,
+1574, sold to a canon of the cathedral ten
+thousand white and green tiles of a common kind
+(<i>ladrillos</i>), probably employed for roofing. The
+price was three ducats the thousand. On April
+10th, 1598, Juan Sanchez engaged to supply the
+same temple with the same quantity of glazed
+tiles (<i>tejas</i>) for roofing, coloured white, green, and
+yellow, at sixteen <i>maravedis</i> each tile.</p>
+
+<p><i>Azulejos</i> were certainly made at Granada in the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and probably
+earlier.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_154.jpg" width="373" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_154.jpg" id="img_154.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LVI<br />THE GATE OF WINE<br />
+(<i>Showing polychrome tiling. Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In a passage of the Alhambra palace leading
+from the Patio de la Alberca to the Cuarto Dorado,
+a space was laid bare not many years ago,
+containing the original <i>mostagueras</i> or small tiles
+used for flooring, glazed in two colours; and in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+same building, although in constantly diminishing
+quantities, are large numbers of tiles which date
+from the time of the Spanish Moors. There has
+been a good deal of discussion as to whether the
+roofs of the Alhambra were originally covered with
+decorative tiles. Swinburne (who must not, however,
+be taken as the safest of authorities) wrote
+that &ldquo;in Moorish times the building was covered
+with large painted and glazed tiles, of which some
+few are yet to be seen.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Indifferent Renaissance tiles, made in the reign
+of Philip the Fifth, are still preserved in parts of
+the Alhambra.</p>
+
+<p>Excellent polychrome <i>cuerda seca</i> tiles (fourteenth
+century), in white, green, yellow, blue, and
+black, are over the horseshoe archway of the Gate
+of Wine of the Alhambra (Plate <a href="#img_154.jpg">lvi</a>.). According
+to G�mez Moreno,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> they were manufactured here,
+as were the Moorish <i>azulejos</i>, yellow, black, white,
+violet, and sky-blue, in the Mirador de Daraxa.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+The archives of the Moorish palace also state
+that towards the close of the sixteenth century
+Antonio Tenorio, whose pottery was situated
+in the Secano, and consequently within a stone's-throw
+of the Casa Real, made several sets of
+<i>azulejos</i> for the Hall of the Abencerrajes. Good
+Morisco tiles, dating from the same period and
+wrought by craftsmen such as Gaspar Hernandez,
+Pedro Tenorio, and the members of the Robles
+family, are in the Sala de Comares, and in one of
+the rooms of the Casa de los Tiros.</p>
+
+<p>From the thirteenth century until the eighteenth,
+excellent <i>azulejos</i> were made in Catalu�a. Specimens
+of every period exist in the collections of
+Don Francisco Rogent and Don Jos� Font y
+Gum�, of Barcelona, and Don Luis Santacana,
+of Martorell. The tiles belonging to these
+gentlemen proceed from the cathedral and other
+temples of Barcelona, and from the monasteries
+or castles of Poblet, Santas Creus, Montserrat,
+Marmell�, San Miguel de Ervol, Centellas, Torre
+Pallaresa, San Miguel del Fay, and Vallpellach.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another region which has long been celebrated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+for its <i>azulejeria</i> is the kingdom of Valencia.
+Even in the eighteenth century, when this craft
+was generally in a state of great decadence,
+Valencian tiles were thoroughly well made,
+although the patterns on them were defective.
+Laborde pronounced them &ldquo;the best executed
+and most elegant in Europe,&rdquo; and further said
+of this locality; &ldquo;the painted earthenware tiles
+or <i>azulejos</i> are used in the country, but only a
+small part of them; a great many are sent into
+the interior of Spain as well as to Cadiz, where
+they are shipped for Spanish America, and to
+Marseilles, whence they are conveyed into Africa.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same writer inserts an interesting account
+of the manufacture of these <i>azulejos</i>. &ldquo;It is at
+Valencia that the tiles of earthenware are made,
+with which they incrust walls and pave apartments:
+those tiles are of a clayey earth, which is
+found in the territories of Quarte near Valencia;
+they harden the earth long after soaking it in
+water; the tiles are formed in moulds, and are
+dried in the sun; they are then beaten with a
+piece of square wood of the dimensions of which
+they are wanted. They are then put into the oven,
+where they undergo a slight baking. As soon as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+they are done they are glazed, and are afterwards
+painted in water colours with whatever subject
+is intended to be represented. The tiles are
+then replaced in the oven so as not to touch one
+another, and that the action of the fire may
+penetrate them all equally: as the colours change
+by baking, the workmen apply them anew in
+proportion to the changes that take place; the
+red alone alters entirely. The varnish with
+which they are glazed is made with lead, tin, and
+white sand. These three substances are ground
+in a mill to powder, which is mixed with water,
+to form a paste, and baked in the oven; it is
+again pounded and put into the oven, where it
+crystallises: being once more reduced to powder
+and diluted with water, it becomes varnish.
+There are two kinds of it; one is whiter than
+the other, though the same materials are used:
+the mode of mixing alone makes the difference;
+the whiter, the clearer the tiles. It takes a certain
+number of tiles to form a picture: they are of
+different dimensions; the smallest are three inches
+nine lines, the largest seven inches nine lines.
+The price varies according to the size of the
+tile, the beauty of the varnish, and the variety of
+the drawings: the lowest price is eight pesos
+(25s.) a thousand, and the highest 100 pesos or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+�15, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> There is a considerable demand
+for them; they are superior both in beauty and
+strength to those used in Holland.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_158.jpg" width="232" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_158.jpg" id="img_158.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LVII<br />TILES OF THE DECADENT PERIOD</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bourgoing, author of the <i>Nouveau Voyage en
+Espagne</i>, described, in 1789, the same product in
+the following terms: &ldquo;L'industrie des Valenciens
+tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les productions de
+leur sol. Il contient une esp�ce de terre dont ils
+font ces carreaux de fa�ence color�e, connus sous
+le nom d'<i>Azulejos</i>, et qu'on ne fabrique qu'�
+Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en
+rev�t leurs lambris; on y peint les sujets les plus
+compliqu�s, tels par exemple qu'un bal masqu�,
+une f�te de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la
+seule qui ne puisse �tre fix�e sur cette esp�ce de
+fa�ence; elle s'altere enti�rement par la cuisson.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p>For the amusement of my readers, I insert an
+illustration of common Spanish tiles of the decadent
+period (Plate <a href="#img_158.jpg">lvii</a>.), displaying considerable
+liveliness combined with reckless ignorance of
+draughtsmanship. A class of these degenerate
+tiles, made in large quantities at Seville in the
+eighteenth century, is known as <i>azulejos de
+monter�a</i> or &ldquo;hunting-tiles,&rdquo; since episodes of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+chase form one of the favourite themes of their
+design.</p>
+
+<p>Although it passed through a long period of
+prostration, embracing the greater part of the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, at no time
+has the manufacture of decorative Spanish tiles
+succumbed completely. Of recent years it has
+revived surprisingly at Seville, Barcelona, and
+Segovia; and at the first of these cities the older
+<i>azulejos</i>, and particularly those in the <i>cuenca</i> style,
+are imitated to perfection.</p>
+
+<p>In the cheapest kinds of modern tiling, such as
+is used for corridors and kitchens, a common device
+is a series of repeated curves and dots which
+evidently has its source in Arabic lettering.
+Indeed, the ornamental and attractive written
+characters of the Spanish Moors, rendered familiar
+to their rivals through long centuries of intercourse,
+seem to have constantly found favour with the
+Christian Spaniards. The <i>fuero</i> of Jaca, dated
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1064, tells us that a Christian prince of Spain,
+Don Sancho Ramirez, was accustomed to write
+his signature in Arabic lettering. Meaningless
+inscriptions in the same language, and evidently
+executed by a Christian hand, are engraved on
+objects in the Royal Armoury; and Se�or Osma<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+describes in an interesting pamphlet (<i>Los letreros
+ornamentales en la cer�mica morisca del Siglo XV.</i>)
+how, in the pottery of older Spain, a word in Arabic
+such as <i>alafia</i> (&ldquo;prosperity&rdquo; or &ldquo;blessing&rdquo;) would
+often be corrupted by Morisco craftsmen into a
+motive of a purely ornamental character, and
+which would only in this sense be comprehended
+and appreciated by the Christian.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<h3>HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED POTTERY</h3>
+
+<p>Probably no pottery in the world possesses
+greater loveliness or interest than the celebrated,
+yet even to this day mysterious, lustred ware of
+Moorish Spain. Our knowledge of the early
+history of this ware is still imperfect. In modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+times, attention was first drawn to the lustre
+process by M. Riocreux, of the S�vres Museum.
+In spite, however, of the subsequent monographs
+and researches of Davillier and other authorities,
+the origin of lustred pottery is yet a problem which
+awaits solution. Until some years ago it was
+believed to have had its source in Persia, where
+many specimens have been discovered in the form
+of tiles and other objects; but this belief was
+afterwards shaken by Fouquet, who unearthed at
+Fostat in Egypt, in the year 1884, specimens of
+lustred ware which are known to date from the
+eleventh century. Saladin, too, affirms that he
+has seen upon the mosque of Kairuan lustred
+plaques with inscriptions recording them to have
+been presented, between <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 864 and 875, by the
+emir Ibrahim Ahmed-ibn-el-Aglab.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever these facts may signify, it appears
+from a statement by the geographer Edrisi that
+lustred ware was made in Spain as early as the
+twelfth century. &ldquo;Here,&rdquo; said the writer, speaking
+of Calatayud, &ldquo;is produced the gold-coloured
+pottery which is exported to all countries.&rdquo; The
+next allusion to it is by the traveller Ibn-Batutah,
+who visited certain parts of Spain in the middle
+of the fourteenth century. &ldquo;At M�laga,&rdquo; he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+wrote, &ldquo;is made the beautiful golden pottery which
+is exported to the farthest countries.&rdquo; These
+passages refer respectively to Aragon and Andalusia.
+The same ware was produced in Murcia.
+Ibn-Said, quoted by Al-Makkari, mentions the
+&ldquo;glazed and gilded porcelain&rdquo; of Murcia, M�laga,
+and Almer�a, calling it &ldquo;strange and admirable.&rdquo;
+It was also manufactured, probably in larger
+quantities than in any other part of Spain, in many
+towns and villages of the kingdom of Valencia,
+such as Carcer, Alaquaz, Moncada, Quarte, Villalonga,
+Traiguera, and Manises. In the <i>Excellencies
+of the Kingdom of Valencia</i>, written by Eximenes
+and published in 1499, we find it stated that
+&ldquo;surpassing everything else is the ware of Manises,
+gilded and painted with such mastery that all the
+world is enamoured thereof, insomuch that the
+pope, the cardinals, and princes send for it,
+astonished that objects of such excellence can be
+made of earth.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>Other writers on the same locality, such as Diago
+and Escolano, author of the <i>Historia de la insigne</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+<i>y coronada ciudad y reino de Valencia</i> (Valencia,
+1610, 1611), confirm this eulogy of Eximenes.
+According to Escolano, Valencian ware was &ldquo;of
+such loveliness that in return for that which the
+Italians send us from Pisa, we send them boatloads
+of it from Manises.&rdquo; One of the most recent of
+authorities on lustred ware remarks that &ldquo;in the
+fifteenth century ornamental vases in the (Spanish-Moorish)
+wares appear to have been commanded
+from Spain by wealthy Florentines, as is evident
+from the Medici arms and impresa in fig. 40;
+others bearing the Florentine lily (fig. 41) seem
+to have been ordered from the same city.&rdquo; The
+illustrations to which the author of this monograph<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>
+refers, depict a vase and a boccale, both
+in lustred ware, and which it is extremely probable
+were manufactured at Manises.</p>
+
+<p>The same ware was also possibly made in
+Catalu�a, where pieces of it have been found
+among the ruins of the village of Las Casas. <i>La
+Alhambra</i>, a small magazine which is published
+at Granada, contains, in the number dated
+September 30th, 1901, an account of these fragments
+by their finder, Joaqu�n Vilaplana.</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago the Balearic Islands were also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+thought to have produced this pottery. One of
+the earliest and most fervent champions of this
+theory, now definitely shown to be erroneous,
+was Baron Davillier. This gentleman, in some
+respects an excellent authority on Spanish ceramics,
+relied too strongly on certain assurances
+made him by a Se�or Bover, and ended by declaring
+that in the museums of Paris and London
+he had himself seen lustred plates which bore the
+arms of Ynca in the Balearics, proving them to
+have been manufactured at that town.</p>
+
+<p>However, a Majorcan arch�ologist, named Alvaro
+Campaner, refuted one by one Davillier's
+points of argument, and showed beyond all
+question that both the plates of Ynca and the
+arms which decorated them were simply nonexistent,
+and that the term <i>Majolica</i>, deriving
+from <i>Majorica</i>, applies to pottery in general,
+and not with any preference to lustred ware.
+Campaner also suggested very ingeniously that
+the word <i>Majolica</i> was probably applied by the
+Italians to Catalan or Valencian pottery conveyed
+to Italy in vessels themselves belonging to the
+Balearics, and which were in the habit of completing
+their cargoes in the ports of Barcelona<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+and Valencia, and he added that this suggestion
+is supported by the fact that specimens of lustred
+ware are far more often met with on the Balearic
+coast than in the towns and villages of the interior.
+It is only fair to state that Davillier frankly and
+fully recognized the value of Campaner's refutation.</p>
+
+<p>As to the methods of producing lustred pottery,
+the chemical investigations practised by Riocreux,
+Brogniart, Carand, and others, have shown that
+the metals used to produce the characteristic reflex
+which gives the ware its name were copper and
+silver, entering into the composition of an extremely
+thin glaze extended over the surface of
+the pottery, and employed, sometimes together,
+and sometimes separately. It is obvious that the
+lustre produced by copper would be deeper, redder,
+and less delicate than that produced by silver,
+while varying gradations would be obtainable by
+the mixture of both metals. It is also beyond
+doubt that the oldest specimens of this pottery
+extant to-day are those which contain the palest
+and most pearly lustre, and consequently the
+largest quantity of the costlier metal. In those
+of later date there is an evident inferiority, both
+in colour, lustre, and design. In fact, two
+separate, or nearly separate, epochs of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+branch of Spanish pottery are pointed out by
+Se�or M�lida, who gives the name of <i>Mudejar</i>
+to lustred objects manufactured at an earlier time
+by Moorish artists working in the cities captured
+by the Christians, and that of <i>Morisco</i> to the
+second or inferior class produced by Morisco
+craftsmen after the reconquest, and distinguished
+by the coarser and degenerate lustre, colouring,
+and draughtsmanship.</p>
+
+<p>The rarest and most beautiful examples of this
+ware are naturally those which belong to the
+former class, and consist of various kinds of plates
+and other objects in which elaborate devices such
+as lions, antelopes, and shields of heraldry, often
+combined with foliage and inscriptions in Gothic
+lettering, are coloured in bistre or pale blue,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> and
+rendered doubly beautiful by the delicate nacreous
+lustre.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly every case it is extremely difficult to
+determine with any certainty the date of manufacture
+of these objects, as well as the locality.
+Wallis says he is aware of &ldquo;no example of Spanish
+lustre pottery antecedent to those in the class to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+which the large Palermo jar belongs, and they
+are not likely to be much earlier than the end of
+the fourteenth century. Happily the celebrated
+plaque (Plate <a href="#img_168.jpg">lviii</a>.) formerly belonging to Fortuny,
+and now in the possession of Excmo Sr. Don G. J.
+de Osma, furnishes an early date, which,
+according to its owner, is between May 1408
+and November 1417. Those who know the
+original will remember that it is no less remarkable
+for the quality of its golden lustre than for
+the grace and elegance of its fanciful Oriental
+design.&rdquo; It is also believed by Se�or Osma that
+this plaque was manufactured in the kingdom of
+Granada; <i>i.e.</i> either at Granada or M�laga.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_168.jpg" width="241" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_168.jpg" id="img_168.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LVIII<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED PLAQUE<br />
+(<i>Early 15th Century. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A specimen of Spanish lustred ware more
+celebrated even than Fortuny's plaque is the
+&ldquo;vase of the Alhambra&rdquo; (Plate <a href="#img_170.jpg">lix</a>.), which rests
+to-day in a corner of the Sala de las Dos Hermanas.
+The history of this mighty jar is
+interesting. Popular superstition affirms it to
+have been discovered, filled to the brim with
+gold, by the Marquis of Mondejar, first of the
+Christian governors of the fortress of Granada.
+Exposed for many years to every stress of weather
+and to every mutilation at the hands of passers-by,
+it stood, in company with other vases of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+enormous size, upon a rampart which is now the
+garden terrace known as the Adarves. Several
+of the older travellers have described these vessels
+or alluded to them. Marmol wrote of them as
+far back as the sixteenth century, while the
+journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the following
+notice;&mdash;&ldquo;Sur la premi�re terrasse par o� l'on
+entre, et d'o� l'on a de la peine � regarder en
+bas sans estre �blo�y, il y a deux fontaines jaillissantes,
+et tout du long des murs du chasteau, des
+espaliers d'orangers et de grenadiers, avec de
+grands vases de terre peinte, aussi belle que la
+porcelaine, o� il n'y avoit pour lors, sinon quelques
+fleurs en quelques-uns: mais o� l'on dit que le
+Marquis de Mondejar trouva quantit� d'or que les
+Mores avaient cach� dans la terre, quand il y f�t
+estably par Ferdinand.&rdquo; The priest Echeverr�a,
+who forged the relics of the ancient Alcazaba of
+Granada,<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> was careful to repeat this fable in the
+twenty-sixth chapter of his <i>Paseos por Granada</i>.
+The first edition of this work was published in
+1764, under the assumed name of Joseph Romero
+Yranzo. There were then two vases and part of
+a third, all &ldquo;lacerated, peeled, and maltreated.&rdquo;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+The Englishman Swinburne wrote in 1776 that
+below the Towers of the Bell, &ldquo;on the south-side,
+on a slip of terrace, is the governor's garden, a
+very pleasant walk, full of fine orange and cypress
+trees and myrtle hedges, but quite abandoned.
+The view it commands is incomparable. Two
+large vases enamelled with gold and azure foliages
+and characters are the only ornaments left: these
+were taken out of the vaults under the royal apartments.&rdquo;
+In the second edition of Echeverr�a's
+<i>Paseos</i>, which was republished in 1814, it is
+added in a footnote that only a single vase
+remained, &ldquo;in a room that overlooks the Court of
+Myrtles.&rdquo; Lozano, however, in his <i>Antig�edades
+Arabes</i>, mentions two vases as existing at the
+same period. Argote de Molina (<i>Nuevos Paseos
+por Granada</i>, published about 1808) describes,
+together with the wretchedly executed marble
+statues in the Sala de las Ninfas, the &ldquo;two or
+three great porcelain jars whereof some pieces
+only now remain,&rdquo; and reminds us that according
+to the old tradition these statues looked continually
+towards the vases, which were full of treasure.
+Argote, nevertheless, takes Echeverr�a sharply to
+task for his absurdities upon this theme; and
+Washington Irving, a diligent gleaner in Echeverr�a's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+somewhat scanty field, makes use of the
+same material for his well-known story.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_170.jpg" width="388" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_170.jpg" id="img_170.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LIX<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE<br />
+(<i>Alhambra, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the time of Owen Jones the one surviving
+vase, now standing with a wooden rail before it
+in a corner of the Hall of the Two Sisters, still
+occupied the &ldquo;room that looks upon the Court of
+Myrtles.&rdquo; Jones wrote of it in 1842:&mdash;&ldquo;This
+beautiful vase was discovered, it is said, full of
+gold in one of the subterranean chambers of the
+Casa Real. It is at present to be seen in a small
+chamber of the Court of the Fish-pond, in which
+are deposited the archives of the palace. It is
+engraved in the Spanish work by Lozano,
+<i>Antig�edades Arabes de Espa�a</i>, with another of
+the same size, which was broken a few years ago,
+and the pieces sold to a passing traveller. The
+vase is executed in baked clay, with enamelled
+colours and gold similar to the mosaics.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A more precise description is the following.
+The vase, which measures four feet six inches in
+height by eight feet two inches and a half in
+circumference, is of common earthenware painted
+with intricate devices fired after painting. This
+was a difficult operation in a vessel of such size;
+and here, in consequence, the colours have slightly
+run and mingled. Besides these technical flaws,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+the belly of the vase is broken clean in half, and
+one of the handles is missing. The shape is
+amphoraic, with a moderate downward curve.
+About the middle, surrounded by leaf and stem
+and geometrical devices effectively intertwined,
+are two antelopes. The vase is coloured blue
+and caramel upon a delicate yellow ground, and
+has a faint metallic lustre.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> An Arabic inscription
+is repeated several times, and consists of the
+words &ldquo;Felicity&rdquo; and &ldquo;Welcome.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This vase is believed to date from the fourteenth
+century; and if we judge from the colour
+and composition of the earth employed, it appears
+probable that it was made at Granada. Together
+with the other vases which have disappeared,<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> it
+was doubtless meant to serve as a receptacle for
+water, and for decorating the chambers of the
+palace, where it would rest in amphora-fashion
+on a perforated stand, while smaller vases containing
+flowers would fill the niches which may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+yet be seen in various inner walls of the Alhambra.
+The belief of Argote<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> and many other writers
+that these niches were intended to receive the
+slippers of the Moors is utterly unfounded.</p>
+
+<p>Until quite recently all published illustrations
+of the great <i>jarr�n de la Alhambra</i> were inaccurate,
+and as a rule grotesquely so. Among
+the very worst are those inserted in the handbooks
+of Ria�o and Contreras. I am glad to be
+able to reproduce an excellent photograph, which
+both corrects the atrocious cuts I have observed
+elsewhere, and relieves me from giving a prolix
+and possibly a wearisome description of the
+decoration on the vase.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_172.jpg" width="346" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_172.jpg" id="img_172.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LX<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE<br />
+(<i>Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several other lustred vases of large size are
+still preserved in Spain and other countries. One,
+proceeding from a Sicilian church, is in the
+museum of Palermo. Wallis, who inserts an
+illustration, describes it as &ldquo;amphora-shaped, with
+two large flat handles; pear-shaped body, long
+neck, ribbed at lower part, canellated above,
+moulded lip. Whitish body, tin glaze. Ornament
+painted in gold lustre on white ground,
+the pattern in parts almost obliterated. Hispano-Moresque.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+Height, one metre, seventeen centimetres.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another of these great vases belonged to the
+painter Fortuny, and was sold at his death to
+Prince Basilewsky, for thirty thousand francs. It
+was found by Fortuny at the village of Salar,
+near Granada, and purchased by him at a low
+price. &ldquo;The neck and mouth resemble those of
+the Alhambra vase. The ornamentation is distributed
+about the body of the vase in four zones;
+one of the two central zones has tangent circles,
+and the other an inscription.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_174.jpg" width="318" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_174.jpg" id="img_174.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXI<br />LUSTRED TILES<br />
+(<i>Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another large lustred vase is in the museum of
+Madrid (Plate <a href="#img_172.jpg">lx</a>.). It was found by a labourer
+at Hornos in the province of Jaen, and passed
+into the hands of the village priest, who placed it
+in his church to support the font of holy water.
+In course of time a dealer in antiquities, by name
+Amat, happened to pass that way, observed the
+vase, and made an offer for it to the <i>padre</i>. This
+latter at first refused, but subsequently, stimulated
+by an ignorant though well-intentioned and disinterested
+zeal for bettering the temple, he stipulated
+that if the dealer provided a new support
+of marble for the font, and paid for white washing
+the church, he might bear off the coveted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+<i>jarr�n</i>. Fulfilling these conditions at all speed, he
+mounted the precious vessel on an ass, and briskly
+strode away. When he had gone a little distance
+the villagers, missing their cherished vase, though
+unaware, of course, of its artistic worth, swarmed
+angrily about the purchaser, flourished their knives
+and sticks at him, and pelted him with stones. At
+this he called upon the mayor for protection; the
+mayor provided him with two armed men for bodyguard,
+and, thus defended, the indomitable dealer
+reached Madrid and sold his jar to government
+for fifteen hundred dollars. Its present value is
+estimated at not less than thirty thousand.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest and most interesting notices
+relating to the preparation of this lustred ware is
+contained in a description by one of the royal
+archers, named Henry Cock, of the progress,
+performed in 1585, of Philip the Second from the
+court of Spain to Zaragoza.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> Cock wrote of Muel,
+in Aragon:&mdash;&ldquo;Almost all the inhabitants of this
+village are potters, and all the earthenware sold
+at Zaragoza is made in the following manner.
+The vessels are first fashioned to the required<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+shape from a certain substance extracted from the
+earth of this locality. They are next baked in a
+specially constructed oven, and when removed
+from this are varnished with white varnish and
+polished, after which they are washed with a
+mixture of twenty-five pounds of lead, three or
+four pounds of tin, and as many pounds of a
+certain sand which is found there. All these
+ingredients are mixed into a paste resembling ice,
+which is broken small, pounded like flour, and
+kept in powder. This powder is mixed with
+water, the dishes are passed through it, and after
+being rebaked they keep their lustre. Next, in
+order to gild the pottery, they take the strongest
+vinegar mixed with about two <i>reales</i> of powdered
+silver, vermilion, and red ochre, and a little wire.
+When all is thoroughly mixed they paint the
+patterns on the dishes with a feather, bake them
+again, and their gold colour is now quite permanent.
+I was told all this by the potters
+themselves.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_176.jpg" width="500" height="378"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_176.jpg" id="img_176.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXII<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>A.D. 1460&ndash;1480. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another most interesting account of the manufacture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+of lustred ware was discovered in manuscript
+by Ria�o in the British Museum, and,
+although it belongs to a later date (1785), is well
+worth quoting fully. It consists of a report upon
+the later gilded pottery of Manises, and was drawn
+up by order of the Count of Floridablanca:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with
+white and blue, the only colours used besides the
+gold lustre; the vessels are again baked; if the
+objects are to be painted with gold colour, this
+can only be put on the white varnish, after they
+have gone twice through the oven. The vessels
+are then painted with the said gold colour and
+are baked a third time, with only dry rosemary
+for fuel.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The white varnish used is composed of lead
+and tin, which are melted together in an oven
+made on purpose; after these materials are
+sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and
+when in this state the mixture is removed and
+mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand:
+fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when
+cold, pounded into powder. The only sand which
+can be used is from a cave at Benalguacil, three
+leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish
+should be fine, for every <i>arroba</i>, twenty-five pounds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+of lead, six to twelve ounces of tin must be added,
+and half a bushel of finely-powdered salt: if a
+coarse kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very
+small quantity of tin, and three or four <i>cuartos</i>
+worth of salt, which in this case must be added
+when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the
+vessel.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Five ingredients enter into the composition of
+the gold colour: copper, which is better the older
+it is; silver, as old as possible; sulphur; red
+ochre; and strong vinegar, which are mixed in
+the following proportions: of copper three ounces,
+of red ochre twelve ounces, of silver one <i>peseta</i>
+(about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar
+a quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the
+earth or scori�, which is left after this pottery is
+painted with the gold colour, is added to the
+other ingredients.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_178.jpg" width="500" height="381"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_178.jpg" id="img_178.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXIII<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;They are mixed in the following manner: a
+small portion of sulphur in powder is put into a
+casserole with two small bits of copper, between
+them a coin of one silver <i>peseta</i>; the rest of the
+sulphur and copper is then added to it. When
+this casserole is ready, it is placed on the fire, and
+is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed,
+which is evident when no flame issues from it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+The preparation is then taken from the fire, and
+when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre
+and scori� are then added to it; it is mixed up
+by hand and again pounded into powder. The
+preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with
+enough water to make a sufficient paste to stick
+on the sides of the basin; the mixture is then
+rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore
+indispensable that the water should be added very
+gradually until the mixture is in the proper state.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The basin ready prepared must be placed in
+an oven for six hours. At Manises it is customary
+to do so when the vessels of common pottery are
+baked; after this the mixture is scratched off
+the sides of the basin with some iron instrument;
+it is then removed from there and broken up into
+small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar
+with the quantity of vinegar already
+mentioned, and after having been well ground
+and pounded together for two hours the mixture
+is ready for decorating. It is well to observe
+that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured
+mixture which is required for every object can
+only be ascertained by practice.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the gilded ware of the kingdom
+of Valencia had by this time deteriorated very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+greatly. Formerly, from as far back as the reign
+of Jayme the Conqueror, the other towns or
+villages of this region which produced the lustred
+and non-lustred pottery were J�tiva, Paterna,
+Quarte, Villalonga, Alaqua, Carcer, and Moncada.
+Early in the fourteenth century fourteen potteries
+were working in the town of Biar, and twenty-three
+at Traiguera. Manises, however, maintained
+the lead for many years. The notices of
+Eximenes and other writers concerning the pottery
+of this town have been already quoted. The
+same ware is mentioned in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries by Diago (1613), Francisco
+J�vier Borrell, Beuter, and Martin de Viciana.
+Marineus Siculus, the chronicler of Ferdinand
+and Isabella, adds that similar or identical pottery
+(&ldquo;<i>desta misma arte</i>&rdquo;) was made in Murcia, whose
+manufacture of it had been praised in earlier
+times by Ibn-Said. Toledo also manufactured
+gilded ware with blue or bistre colouring. Garc�a
+Llans� says that in the sixteenth century this
+capital produced plates which contain the arms of
+Spain in the centre, the rest of the plate being
+completely covered with minute geometrical or
+floral ornamentation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_180.jpg" width="500" height="488"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_180.jpg" id="img_180.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXIV<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is certain that during the fourteenth and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+fifteenth centuries large quantities of lustred
+pottery were produced in many parts of Andalusia,
+Castile, Aragon, and Valencia. The oldest and
+most valuable specimens of this pottery are those
+which have the palest and most purely golden
+lustre, combined with blue or bluish decoration in
+the form of animals, coats of arms, or foliage.
+The lustred ware of Manises began to deteriorate
+about the time of the expulsion of the Moriscos,
+when the leaves and fronds of a clean gold tone
+upon a lightish ground are replaced by commoner
+and coarser patterns, and the gold itself by the
+coppery lustre which is still employed.</p>
+
+<p>After the seventeenth century the further decline
+of this once famous industry may be traced
+from the accounts of travellers. Towards the
+middle of this century Bowles wrote that &ldquo;two
+leagues from the capital (Valencia) is a fair-looking
+town of only four streets, whose occupants are
+nearly all potters. They make a <i>copper-coloured</i>
+ware of great beauty, <i>used for common purposes and
+for decorating the houses of the working-people
+of the province</i>. They make this ware of an
+argillaceous earth resembling in its colour and
+composition that portion of the soil of Valencia
+which produces native mercury&hellip;. The objects<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+they fashion of this earth possess a glitter and are
+very inexpensive, since I purchased half a dozen
+plates for a <i>real</i>. Nevertheless, <i>this is not the
+ware which has the highest reputation in the kingdom
+of Valencia</i>. The factory which the Count of
+Aranda has established at Alcora is not surpassed
+in Europe, and is ahead of many in fineness of
+substance, hardness of the varnish, and elegance
+of form. It would be perfect of its kind if the
+varnish did not crack and peel off so easily.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Laborde, early in the nineteenth
+century Manises contained two potteries &ldquo;of considerable
+extent, which employ seventy workmen.
+The people occupied in these possess the art of
+producing a gold <i>bronze</i> colour which they carefully
+keep a secret, never communicating it to any
+person.&rdquo; Elsewhere in the same book Laborde
+is more explicit. &ldquo;Manises is a village situated a
+league and a quarter north of Valencia. It is
+seen on the left coming from New Castile. It is
+noted for its manufactories of earthen ware, which
+employ thirty kilns, and occupy a great part of the
+inhabitants. The women are employed in forming
+the designs and applying the colours. There are
+two large manufactories of a superior kind, the
+earthen ware of which is tolerably fine, of a beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+white, and a moderate price. They also make
+here vases worked with a great degree of delicacy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_182.jpg" width="362" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_182.jpg" id="img_182.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXV<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The society of these workmen possess the
+secret of the composition of a colour which in the
+fire takes the tint and brightness of a beautiful
+gilt <i>bronze</i>. It has been unsuccessfully attempted
+to be imitated; the heads of the society compose
+the colour themselves, and distribute it to the
+masters who take care of it; it is a liquid of the
+colour of Spanish tobacco, but a little deeper.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of Hispano-Moresque lustred
+pottery preserved in the public and private collections
+of various countries is far from small, although
+to classify it according to the place and date of its
+production is nearly always a matter of extreme
+difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest specimens are the vase
+of the Alhambra, those which are now in the
+museums of Palermo and Madrid, that which
+belonged to Fortuny, and the plaque which once
+was also his, and now forms part of the Osma
+collection. Lustred Spanish tiles are scarce. A
+few exist at Seville<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and Granada, chiefly in altar-fronts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+along the archivolts of doorways, or, with
+heraldic motives, on the inner walls of houses
+of the aristocracy. Invariably, says Gestoso,
+such tiles are coloured with combinations of white,
+blue, and gold, since in the lustre process other
+colours&mdash;black, or green, or deepish yellow&mdash;proved
+unsatisfactory. Other lustred tiles of
+exquisite beauty are owned by Se�or Osma,
+(Plate <a href="#img_174.jpg">lxi</a>.), and seem to have even gained in
+brilliance by the centuries that have passed over
+them. Ria�o gives a list of the specimens of this
+pottery which are at South Kensington, consisting
+of bowls, vases, and plates. One of the vases is
+particularly beautiful. It dates from the fifteenth
+century, and is described by Fortnum as having
+&ldquo;a spherical body on a trumpet-shaped base, with
+a neck of elongated funnel form, flanked by two
+large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular
+holes. The surface, except the mouldings,
+is entirely covered with a diaper-pattern of ivy
+or briony leaves, tendrils, and small flowers in
+brownish lustre and blue on the white ground.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_184.jpg" width="361" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_184.jpg" id="img_184.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXVI<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Through the courtesy of Se�or Osma I am<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+able to give illustrations of a few of the finest
+specimens of lustred ware in his magnificent
+collection (Plates <a href="#img_176.jpg">lxii</a>.&ndash;<a href="#img_184.jpg">lxvi</a>.). The three small
+vessels facing pages 176, 178, and 180 are of
+Valencian workmanship, and date, according to
+their owner, from between 1460 and 1480. The
+two plates are also Valencian. The one with a
+bull in the centre dates from between 1480 and
+1500; and that which has a greyhound from
+slightly earlier&mdash;say 1470 to 1490.</p>
+
+<h3>POTTERY OF SEVILLE, PUENTE DEL ARZOBISPO,
+TALAVERA DE LA REINA, TOLEDO, AND BARCELONA;
+POROUS WARE; PORCELAIN OF ALCORA
+AND THE ROYAL FACTORY OF THE BUEN RETIRO.</h3>
+
+<p>We have seen that Seville was an early and
+important centre of the potter's craft in Spain.
+Her potteries were celebrated even with the
+Romans, and probably have at no moment been
+inactive. Fifty, established in the suburb of
+Triana, were mentioned in the sixteenth century
+by Pedro de Medina, and documents which tell
+of many more have recently been discovered by
+Gestoso. The excellence of the Seville tiles has
+been described in a preceding section of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+chapter. Their production still continues upon
+a large scale; and the ware of the Cartuja factory,
+which reached the zenith of its fame towards the
+end of the eighteenth century, is considered by
+Jacquemart and other authorities to rival with the
+Italian wares of Savona.</p>
+
+<p>Pottery made in other parts of the Peninsula&mdash;particularly
+that of Talavera de la Reina&mdash;is
+known to have been imitated by the Seville potters
+with embarrassing perfection. In the case of the
+so-called &ldquo;loza de Puente del Arzobispo,&rdquo; it is
+the Seville ware itself which seems to have been
+imitated. Puente del Arzobispo is a small village
+near Toledo. Mendez wrote of it in the seventeenth
+century:&mdash;&ldquo;Fine pottery is manufactured in
+about eight kilns, which produce more than 40,000
+ducats yearly.&rdquo; &ldquo;In 1755,&rdquo; says Ria�o, &ldquo;thirteen
+pottery kilns existed at this place; they still
+worked in 1791, but their productions were very
+inferior in artistic merit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_186.jpg" width="235" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_186.jpg" id="img_186.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXVII<br />HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not many years ago the name of Puente del
+Arzobispo was connected by Baron Davillier with
+certain polychrome non-lustred plates and other
+vessels which are greatly esteemed for their rarity,
+and of which a few specimens exist in the South
+Kensington and other museums, as well as in one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+or two private collections, such as that of Se�or
+Osma.</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso says that the usual diameter of these
+plates is either twenty-three centimetres or forty-two
+centimetres. &ldquo;Their decoration, betraying
+at a glance the Saracenic influence, consists of
+leaves and flowers, together with animals of a
+more or less fantastic character: lions, rabbits,
+and birds. In other specimens the centre is
+occupied by a heart, fleurs-de-lis, or other fancy
+devices, or yet, in some few cases, with the head
+of a man or woman. These central designs are
+surrounded with leaves and flowers. The draughtsmanship
+upon these plates is of the rudest, and
+the process of their colouring was as follows.
+The figures were drawn upon the unfired surface
+in manganese ink mixed with a greasy substance;
+and after this the aqueous enamel or glaze was
+allowed to drop from a hogshair brush into the
+spaces which the black had outlined.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This will be recognized as the <i>cuerda seca</i> process,
+so extensively employed in making Seville
+tiles. Nevertheless, judging by certain marks upon
+this pottery, Baron Davillier declared it to proceed
+from Puente del Arzobispo. The marks in
+question consist in one or two examples of what<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+appears to be the letters A.P. or P.A.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> Davillier,
+however, affirmed that he had seen a plate fully
+inscribed as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_188a.jpg" width="347" height="350"
+        alt="inscription"
+        title="inscription" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The existence of this plate is now discredited; at
+least, no trace of it can be discovered at this day.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+Upon the other hand, Gestoso points to various
+objects manufactured by the <i>cuerda seca</i> method,
+and which undoubtedly proceed from Seville.
+Among them are three shields, one of which,
+containing the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+is of exceptional interest, for it is accompanied by
+an inscribed slab, evidently coeval with the shield
+itself, recording it to have been made in the year
+1503, and by Jer�nimo Suarez. This shield and
+slab were removed from a courtyard of the old
+Alh�ndiga to Seville Museum, where they now
+remain. Of the two other shields, one belongs
+to Se�or Osma, and the second, which is still at
+Seville, adorns the tomb of Don Le�n Enriquez
+in the church of Santa Paula; and since it is unquestionable
+that all these <i>cuerda seca</i> shields,
+as well as quantities of <i>cuerda seca</i> tiles, were
+made at Seville, Gestoso prudently suggests that
+we should designate as &ldquo;<i>cuerda seca</i> ware&rdquo; that
+pottery which has hitherto passed as specially
+belonging to Puente del Arzobispo. In fact,
+towards the end of the fifteenth century this
+pottery is found extending northward from Seville
+to Toledo, and Se�or Osma assures me that Toledo
+specimens are of a somewhat later manufacture
+than those which were produced at Seville. One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+of the rarest and most interesting <i>cuerda seca</i>
+plates in this gentleman's collection is reproduced
+herewith (lxviii.). No other plate of similar
+pattern is known to exist. Its date may be
+placed between 1480 and 1495, and it gives a
+curious illustration of the masculine headdress and
+headwear in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.</p>
+
+<p>The pottery of Talavera de la Reina was at
+one time much esteemed. The earliest mention
+of it, says Ria�o, occurs in 1560, in a manuscript
+history of this town, while another notice, dated
+1576, says that here was produced &ldquo;fine white
+glazed earthenware and other pottery, which
+supplied the country, part of Portugal, and India.&rdquo;
+More explicit are the observations of Father
+Alonso de Ajofr�n, who wrote, in 1651, a history
+of Talavera. He says that &ldquo;her pottery is as
+good as that of Pisa, while quantities of <i>azulejos</i>
+are made here to adorn the front of altars,
+churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers,
+and large and small specimens of every kind.
+Two hundred workmen work at eight separate
+kilns. Four other kilns produce the commoner
+kinds of ware. Red porous clay vessels and
+drinking-cups are baked in two other kilns in
+a thousand shapes to imitate birds and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+creatures; also <i>brinqui�os</i> for the use of ladies, so
+deliciously flavoured that after drinking the water
+they contained, they eat the cup in which it was
+brought them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_190.jpg" width="500" height="445"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_190.jpg" id="img_190.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXVIII<br />DISH<br />
+(<i>Andalusian non-lustred ware in the</i> Cuerda seca <i>style.
+A.D. 1480-1495. Osma Collection</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following most interesting notice relating
+to this town is also quoted by Ria�o: &ldquo;The
+earthenware pottery made here has reached a
+great perfection; it is formed of white and red
+clay. Vases, cups, <i>bucaros</i> and <i>brinqui�os</i> are
+made of different kinds, dishes and table centres,
+and imitations of snails, owls, dogs, and every
+kind of fruits, olives, and almonds. These objects
+are painted with great perfection, and the imitations
+of porcelain brought from the Portuguese
+Indies are most excellent. Everyone is surprised
+that in so small a town such excellent things
+should be made. The varnish used for the
+white pottery is made with tin and sand, and
+is now found to be more acceptable than coloured
+earthenware; so much so, that persons of importance
+who pass by this town, although they
+have in their houses dinner-services of silver,
+buy earthenware made at Talavera, on account
+of its excellence. The sand which was used
+to make the white varnish was brought from
+Hita, and is now found at Mejorada, near<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as
+silk.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The red pottery made at Talavera is much
+to be commended, for besides the great variety of
+objects, and the different medals which they place
+upon them, they have invented some small
+<i>brinqui�os</i> of so small and delicate a kind, that
+the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also made of
+the same material. A certain scent is added in
+the manufacture of this pottery which excites the
+appetite and taste of the women, who eat the
+pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to
+their confessors to check this custom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_192.jpg" width="500" height="371"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_192.jpg" id="img_192.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXIX<br />AN <i>ALFARER�A</i> OR POTTER'S YARD<br />
+(<i>Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This porous pottery for keeping water cool
+had been imported from America, and was chiefly
+made in Andalusia, Portugal, and Extremadura.
+It is still produced at Andujar and elsewhere.
+Nearly all travellers in Spain describe it, and insist
+upon the curious circumstance that it was eaten
+by the Spanish women. &ldquo;I have mentioned elsewhere,&rdquo;
+wrote Countess d'Aulnoy, &ldquo;the longing
+many women feel to chew this clay, which often
+obstructs their bodies internally. Their stomachs
+swell, and grow as hard as stone, while their
+skin turns yellow as a quince. I also felt a
+curiosity to taste this ware, that is so highly yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+so undeservedly esteemed; but I would devour a
+grindstone rather than put it in my mouth again.
+Nevertheless, if one wants to be agreeable to the
+Spanish ladies, one has to present them with some
+<i>bucaros</i>, which they themselves call <i>barros</i>, and
+which, as many deem, possess such numerous and
+admirable qualities, since they claim for the clay
+that it cures sickness, and that a drinking vessel
+made of it betrays the presence of a poison. I
+possess one which spoils the taste of wine, but
+greatly improves water. This liquid seems to
+boil and tremble when it is thrown into the cup in
+question; but after a little while the vessel
+empties&mdash;so porous is the clay of which it is
+composed&mdash;and then it has a fragrant odour.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Similar accounts are given by travellers of a
+later time. &ldquo;I wish,&rdquo; wrote Swinburne, &ldquo;I could
+contrive a method of carrying you some of the
+fine earthen jars, called <i>buxaros</i>, which are made
+in Andalusia. They are remarkably convenient
+for water-drinkers, as they are light, smooth, and
+handy; being not more than half-baked, they are
+very porous, and the outside is kept moist by the
+water's filtering through; though placed in the sun,
+the water in the pots remains as cold as ice. The
+most disagreeable circumstance attending them is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+that they emit a smell of earth refreshed by a
+sudden shower after a long drought.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<p>Laborde, who wrote a few years later, seems to
+have copied some of his information from Bowles.
+&ldquo;The Murcians,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;use in their houses
+little jars called <i>Bucaros</i>, the same as those which
+in some parts of Andalusia are called Alcarrazas.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>
+They have handles open at the top, are smaller at
+the bottom than above, and bulge in the middle;
+they are slight, porous, smooth, and half-baked;
+they are made of a peculiar kind of clay. When
+water is put into them, they emit a smell like that
+sent up by the earth after a shower of rain in
+summer. The water makes its way very slowly
+through the pores, and keeps them constantly
+moist on the outside; they are used to cool water
+for drinking. The windows and balconies of all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+the houses have large iron rings, with a flat surface,
+on which they are placed at night, and the water,
+oozing incessantly, becomes very cool.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> In Andalusia
+some of these jars are white, and others red;
+in Murcia they have only white ones. They appear
+to be in every respect of the same nature as
+the evaporating vases of Africa, Egypt, Syria,
+and India, of which so much has been said by
+travellers, and on which the learned have made so
+many dissertations.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same vessels are noticed by Ford in his
+description of a Spanish <i>posada</i>. &ldquo;Near the staircase
+downstairs, and always in a visible place, is
+a gibbous jar, <i>tinaja</i>, of the ancient classical
+amphora shape, filled with fresh water; and by
+it is a tin or copper utensil to take water out with,
+and often a row of small pipkins, made of a red
+porous clay,<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> which are kept ready filled with
+water, on, or rather in, a shelf fixed to the wall,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+and called <i>la tallada, el taller</i>. These pots,
+<i>alcarrazas</i>, from the constant evaporation, keep
+the water extremely cool. They are of various
+shapes, many, especially in Valencia and Andalusia,
+being of the unchanged identical form of
+those similar clay drinking-vessels discovered at
+Pompeii. They are the precise <i>trulla</i>. Martial
+speaks both of the colour and the material of
+those made at Saguntum, where they still are
+prepared in great quantities; they are not unlike
+the <i>ckool'lehs</i> of Egypt, which are made of the
+same material and for the same purposes, and
+represent the ancient Canobic &#954;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#945;. They are
+seldom destined to be placed on the table; their
+bottoms being pointed and conical, they could not
+stand upright. This singular form was given to
+the <i>vasa futilia</i>, or cups used at the sacrifices of
+Vesta, which would have been defiled had they
+touched the ground. As soon, therefore, as they
+are drunk off, they are refilled and replaced in
+their holes on the shelf, as is done with decanters
+in our butlers' pantries.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+<p>I am only aware of one author who derides the
+statement that this porous clay was eaten by the
+Spanish women. According to Bowles, who certainly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+describes and comments on it with intelligence
+and scholarship, the neighbourhood of
+Andujar contains &ldquo;large quantities of the white
+argil of which are made the jars or <i>alcarrazas</i>
+which serve in many parts of Spain for cooling
+water in the summer-time. In other parts of
+Andalusia is found a red variety of this clay, employed
+in making the vessels known as <i>b�caros</i>,
+which serve to freshen the water as well as for
+drinking it out of&mdash;a thing the Spanish ladies
+love greatly. Both the white <i>alcarrazas</i> and
+the <i>b�caros</i> as red as the blood of a bull are
+thin, porous, smooth, and half-baked. When
+filled with water they emit a pleasant smell like
+that of dry earth rained upon in summer, and as
+the water filters through the outer surface, remain
+continually damp.&rdquo; The same writer adds that
+at that time (1752) the <i>b�caros</i> proceeding from
+the Indies were of finer workmanship, and had
+a more agreeable smell than those of Spanish
+manufacture. &ldquo;In the Encyclop�dia,&rdquo; he continues,
+&ldquo;and in the Dictionary of Natural History,
+we read that Spanish ladies are for ever chewing
+<i>b�caro</i>, and that the hardest penance their confessors
+can inflict upon them is to deprive them
+for a single day of this enjoyment.&rdquo; Bowles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+however, quotes these observations in a scornful
+tone, and deprecates the habit of &ldquo;believing writers
+who without inquiring into things, concoct and
+publish novels to divert the populace and rid them
+of their money.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Turning our attention once again to the finer
+kinds of Talavera ware, Gestoso adduces proofs
+that this as well as Chinese porcelain was faultlessly
+and freely imitated in the potteries of Seville.
+Here, therefore, is a source of fresh confusion; and
+probably a great proportion of the polychrome
+ware which goes by the name of Talaveran is
+really of Sevillian origin. It is further known that
+at one period, which seems to begin with the second
+half of the sixteenth century, potters who were
+natives of Talavera were hired to work in Seville.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_198.jpg" width="420" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_198.jpg" id="img_198.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXX<br />TALAVERA VASE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has not been ascertained when Talavera herself
+grew celebrated for this industry. Garc�a
+Llans� supposes that at first, before it felt the
+influence of Italy and France, her pottery was
+partly Mudejar, and vestiges of oriental art survive
+in fairly late examples. The characteristic colour-scheme
+was either blue on white, or else the
+decoration is more variegated. Ria�o says:&mdash;&ldquo;Although
+we find by the remarks we have quoted
+from contemporary authors that earthenware of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+every description was made at Talavera, the
+specimens which are more generally met with may
+be divided into two groups, which are painted on
+a white ground, either in blue, or in colours, in the
+manner of Italian maiolica. The most important
+examples which have reached us consist of bowls
+of different sizes, dishes, vases (Plate <a href="#img_198.jpg">lxx</a>.), <i>tinajas</i>,
+holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decoration.
+Blue oriental china was imitated to a vast
+extent: the colouring was successful, but the design
+was an imitation of the baroque school of the time,
+and the figures, landscapes, and decoration follow
+the bad taste so general in Spain in the eighteenth
+century. The imitations of Italian maiolica are
+effective. The colours most commonly used are
+manganese, orange, blue, and green.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Talavera maintained her reputation for pottery
+till nearly the middle of the eighteenth century,
+supporting more than six hundred workmen
+employed in eight large potteries.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> From then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+onwards the trade declined, and by the close of the
+same century was practically dead, owing, Larruga
+tells us, to the constantly increasing cost of prime
+materials. Nevertheless, the Crown made efforts
+to revive the craft, and met with some success till
+1777, in which year four establishments (locally
+known as <i>barrer�as</i>) for making common pottery
+were opened in the same town, and speedily
+crushed their rivals. &ldquo;The potteries of Talavera,&rdquo;
+wrote Laborde soon after this, &ldquo;were greatly
+celebrated for many years, and supplied a lucrative
+and important branch of commerce. They are
+evidently on the decline. The manufactories are
+reduced to seven or eight. These productions no
+longer exhibit the same delicacy of execution.
+Their designs are also lamentably defective. The
+material employed in them is a certain earth
+which is found near Calera, three leagues from
+Talavera.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The older Talavera ware, decorated, as a rule,
+with horses, birds, hunting-scenes, or coats of
+arms, is seldom met with nowadays. Although
+it is not particularly choice, the drawing is firm,
+and the colouring vigorous and agreeable.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that pottery continued to be made
+in Aragon, at Muel, Villafeliche, and other places.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+In course of time these local industries were also
+suffered to decay. Laborde says that early in the
+nineteenth century the Villafeliche factory employed
+thirty-eight workmen. &ldquo;The ware is of a
+very inferior sort. This article might be carried
+to a greater extent. In several parts of the
+province, earth is found of an excellent quality
+for earthenware, particularly in Zaragoza and in
+Tauste; the latter affords the best, which is very
+fine, and of three colours, and would answer for
+the making of porcelain.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the eighteenth century Toledo, upon the
+initiative of Don Ignacio Velasco, produced good
+imitations of Genoese ware, while other kinds of
+pottery were made at Teruel, Valladolid, Jaen,
+Zamora, Segovia, Puente del Arzobispo, and in
+the Balearic Islands. Another region which continued
+to be a most important centre of the potter's
+craft was Catalu�a, where it had always been
+encouraged by this thrifty and art-loving people.
+As early as the year 1257 two potters occupied
+a place upon the municipal council of Barcelona,
+while the potters' guild was strictly regulated from
+the beginning of the fourteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> At the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+same time two whole streets in the centre of the
+town, as well as others in the suburbs, were
+occupied by potters. The ancient names of these
+streets are yet retained in the Calles Escudillers,
+Escudillers Blancs (white varnished pottery),
+Obradors (where many of the potteries were
+situated), and Tallers (<i>i.e.</i> the potteries for producing
+common ware).</p>
+
+<p>The pottery of Catalu�a generally was largely
+exported to Sicily, Alexandria, and other parts.
+Among the places in this region which produced
+it were Tarragona, Tortosa, and Villafranca. In
+1528 the municipal council of the capital herself
+forbade, as a protective measure, the introduction
+into Barcelona of local pottery made at Malgrat,
+La Selva, and other towns and villages of this
+neighbourhood. In 1546 the Portuguese Barreyros
+declared in his work <i>Chorograf�a de algunos
+lugares</i> that the Barcelona ware surpassed all
+other classes made in Spain, including the Valencian.
+She continued to produce good pottery all
+through the sixteenth century, and excellent common
+ware until considerably later.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<p>About the beginning of the eighteenth century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+Laborde mentioned as working centres of this
+craft &ldquo;manufactories of delf-ware at Avil�s, Gij�n,
+Oviedo, Nava, and Cangas de Onis, in the Asturias;
+at Segovia in Old Castile; at Puente del Arzobispo
+and Talavera de la Reina in New Castile; at
+Seville in the kingdom of that name; at Villafeliche
+in Aragon; at Onda, Alcora, and Manises, in the
+kingdom of Valencia; at San Andero in Biscay;
+and at Tortosa in Catalu�a&hellip;. The most
+important of these potteries is the one at Alcora,
+the delf of which is tolerably fine, though not of
+the first quality. No china is made, except at
+Alcora and Madrid: that of the former place is
+very common, and inconsiderable as to quantity.
+The china manufactured at Madrid is beautiful,
+and without exaggeration may be considered as
+equalling that of S�vres. It is a royal pottery;
+but it is impossible to give any description of its
+state, because admission to the interior of the
+manufactory is strictly prohibited.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ricord states in his pamphlet relative to
+Valencian industries that in 1791 factories of
+high-class pottery were working in the kingdom
+of Valencia, at Onda, Alcora, Ribesalves, Manises,
+Eslida, and Bech�; and of common ware at San
+Felipe, Morella, Manises, Murviedro, Alicante,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+Moncada, Orihuela, Segorbe, and other towns
+and villages of this locality. In all, there were
+throughout the province eighty-seven of these
+latter potteries, besides two hundred and twenty
+tileries, and four factories of artistic tiles or
+<i>azulejos</i> established at Valencia. The yearly
+output of these <i>azulejerias</i> was 150,000 tiles,
+20,000 of which were exported to Andalusia and
+Castile.</p>
+
+<p>Although the pottery of Alcora only achieved
+distinction at a later age, this craft had long been
+practised in the neighbourhood. This circumstance
+induced the Count of Aranda to found
+here, in 1726, a large factory for producing costly
+and artistic ware. Ria�o obtained permission
+to examine the archives of the family of Aranda,
+with their mass of documents relating to this
+enterprise. His notice of Alcora ware is therefore
+most complete and valuable, and has been
+copied, frequently without acknowledgment, by
+almost every writer on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>It appears from these archives that the cost
+of building and opening the factory of Alcora
+amounted to about �10,000. The works were
+placed beneath the supervision of Don Joaqu�n
+Joseph de Sayas, at the same time that a Frenchman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+named Ollery was engaged at a good salary
+and brought from Moustiers to act as principal
+draughtsman. A couple of years later Count
+Aranda paid Ollery the high compliment of saying
+that &ldquo;the fine and numerous models which he
+has designed, have contributed to make my manufacture
+the first in Spain.&rdquo; He seems to have
+retired in 1737, when the Count rewarded him
+with a yearly pension of five hundred francs
+besides the amount of his salary, &ldquo;for his especial
+zeal in the improvement of the manufactory, and
+his great skill in directing the construction of every
+kind of work.&rdquo; Ria�o adds that from this date
+until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only
+Spanish artists worked at Alcora.</p>
+
+<p>The products of this factory continued to
+improve, and reached, in course of time, a yearly
+total of about three hundred thousand objects.
+The ordinances, which are dated between 1732
+and 1733, tell us that &ldquo;in these works of ours no
+pottery should be made except the very finest,
+similar to the Chinese, and of as fine an earth.
+The models and wheels should be perfect, the
+drawing first-rate, the varnish and colours excellent,
+and the pottery light and of the highest
+quality, for it is our express wish that the best<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+pottery should only be distinguished from that of
+an inferior kind by the greater or less amount of
+painting which covers it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Not less interesting are certain communications,
+copied by Ria�o, which passed in 1746 between
+the Spanish Tribunal of Commerce and
+the Count of Aranda, in which it is stated that
+&ldquo;the perfection of the earthenware of Alcora
+consists in the excellent models which have been
+made by competent foreign artists, as well as in
+the quality of the earth and the recipes brought
+at great cost from abroad.&rdquo; We learn from the
+same document that &ldquo;from the earliest period of
+the manufacture, pyramids with figures of children,
+holding garlands of flowers and baskets of fruits
+on their heads, were made with great perfection;
+also brackets, centre and three-cornered tables,
+large objects, some as large as five feet high, to
+be placed upon them, chandeliers, cornucopias,
+statues of different kinds, and animals of different
+sorts and sizes. The entire ornamentation of a
+room has also been made here; the work is so
+perfect that nothing in Spain, France, Italy, or
+Holland could equal it in merit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary to follow in close detail
+all the modifications and vicissitudes (extending<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+over quite a hundred years) which affected the
+Alcora factory. I therefore only take some
+general notices from Ria�o. In 1750 Count
+Aranda transferred the works to a private company,
+which remained in possession of them until
+1766. In 1741 a Frenchman named Fran�ois
+Haly was engaged for ten years, and with a
+yearly salary of rather more than a thousand
+francs, under the following conditions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;That the travelling expenses of his wife and
+children should be given him, and that his salary
+should be paid as soon as he made before the
+Director and two competent judges the different
+kinds of porcelain which he had undertaken to
+make.&rdquo; Haly agreed to surrender his recipes,
+and it was promised him that he should have two
+modellers and one painter working by his side,
+and that if in one year his porcelain were satisfactory,
+the Count would make him a present of a
+thousand <i>tornoises</i>.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p>
+
+<p>Porcelain was first produced at Alcora towards
+the middle of the eighteenth century. A contract
+was drawn up on March 24th, 1764, with
+a German called John Christian Knipfer, who
+had already worked there in the pottery section.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+By the original agreement, which exists in the
+archives, we find he was to prepare works of
+&ldquo;porcelain and painting similar to those made at
+Dresden, during a period of six years, under the
+following conditions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;That the said Knipfer obliges himself to
+make and teach the apprentices the composition
+and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes,
+and colours, and whatever he may know at the
+present time, or discover during this period of six
+years; he is not to prevent the Director of the
+Works from being present at all the essays made.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish
+porcelain, and to employ gold and silver in its
+decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares;
+likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet,
+blues of different shades, yellow, greens, browns,
+reds, and black.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;That Knipfer will give up an account of his
+secrets, and the management and manner of using
+them, in order that in all times the truth of what
+he has asserted may be verified.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_208.jpg" width="364" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_208.jpg" id="img_208.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXI<br />ORNAMENT IN PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1774 a Frenchman named Fran�ois Martin
+was engaged to make &ldquo;hard paste porcelain,
+Japanese fa�ence, English paste (pipeclay), and likewise
+to mould and bake it: the necessary materials<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+to be provided by the Count of Aranda.&rdquo; Ria�o
+says that the combined assistance of Knipfer and
+Martin went far to better the products of the factory.</p>
+
+<p>Martin died in 1786, and Knipfer left soon afterwards.
+A Frenchman was now engaged, whose
+services proved also beneficial to the works.
+This was Pierre Cloostermans, &ldquo;a skilful man,
+well versed in the manufacture of porcelain pastes,
+as well as in painting and decorating them.&rdquo;
+Cloostermans, however, was much molested by
+the envy of the Spanish workmen at Alcora, as
+well as by their typical intolerance in matters of
+religion, although the Count, his master, behaved
+towards him with the utmost kindness. Under
+his supervision, the quality of Alcora ware was
+notably improved. Figures and groups of many
+kinds were attempted, and even Wedgwood jasper
+ware was creditably imitated. In 1789, among
+other pottery that was sent to Madrid were &ldquo;two
+hard paste porcelain cups, adorned with low relief
+in the English style.&rdquo; The most important one
+was moulded by Francisco Garc�s, the garlands
+and low reliefs by Joaqu�n Ferrer, sculptor, the
+flowers on the covers by an apprentice, helped
+by Cloostermans.</p>
+
+<p>Dated in the same year (1789), Ria�o quotes an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+interesting letter from the Count of Aranda to Don
+Pedro Abadia, his steward. &ldquo;I wish,&rdquo; he said,
+&ldquo;to export the porcelain of my manufactory, but
+chiefly in common objects, such as cups of different
+kinds, tea and coffee services, etc. These may be
+varied in form and colour, the principal point being
+that the paste should bear hot liquids, for we
+Spaniards above everything wish that nothing we
+buy should ever break. By no means let time be
+wasted in making anything that requires much
+loss of time. The chief object is that the pastes
+should be of first-rate excellence and durability.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1793 Cloostermans was driven from the
+country by political disturbances; but he was
+allowed to return in 1795, and resumed his duties
+at the factory. All through these years Alcora
+continued to make most excellent pottery. Essays
+were made with foreign earths, as well as with the
+best that could be found in Spain. About this
+time kaolin was discovered in Catalu�a, and the
+Count was particularly anxious that this native
+product should be utilised at Alcora. &ldquo;The
+kaolin of Catalu�a,&rdquo; he wrote in 1790, &ldquo;may be
+good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be kaolin,
+and if we do not employ it I must close my works.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Count of Aranda and Pierre Cloostermans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+both died in 1798, and in 1800 the Duke of Hijar
+became the manager and proprietor of the potteries.
+&ldquo;Two hundred workmen were employed, and
+pottery of every description was made, common
+earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the English
+ones, and porcelain in small quantities; common
+wares were made in large quantities; the pipeclays
+were pronounced superior to the English in
+brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily
+stained. A large number of snuff-boxes and other
+small objects belong to this period.&rdquo;&mdash;(Ria�o.)</p>
+
+<p>In the early years of the nineteenth century
+Alcora ware deteriorated not a little. This decline
+was further aggravated by the French invasion;
+and although an attempt was subsequently made
+to revive the industry by bringing craftsmen from
+the porcelain factory of Madrid, it suffered fresh
+relapses and produced henceforward little but the
+commonest kinds of ware. &ldquo;This system,&rdquo; says
+Ria�o, &ldquo;continued until 1858, when the Duke
+of Hijar sold the manufactory to Don Ram�n
+Girona, who brought over English workmen from
+Staffordshire in order to improve the wares.
+Many imitations of the older styles have also been
+made at Alcora of late years.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Ria�o appends instructive tables, which I copy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+in Appendix I, of every kind of pottery manufactured
+at Alcora. He also believes that a great
+deal of pottery which was formerly thought to
+proceed from French or English factories is really
+of Alcora make, including &ldquo;a great quantity of
+objects of white pipeclay porcelain which have
+been found of late years in Spain. They have
+hitherto been classified by amateurs as Leeds
+pottery. We find, in papers relating to Alcora,
+that a decided distinction is made between white
+and straw-coloured pottery. This indication may
+be sufficient to distinguish it from English wares.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The celebrated Royal Porcelain Factory of the
+Buen Retiro at Madrid, formerly situated in the
+public gardens of that name and popularly known
+as the &ldquo;Fabrica de la China,&rdquo; was founded in
+1759 by Charles the Third, who erected a vast
+edifice for this purpose, and filled it with a multitude
+of workmen and their families, including two
+hundred and twenty-five persons whom he brought
+over from his other factory of Capo-di-Monte in
+Italy. He also transferred a great part of the
+material.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> The cost of the new works amounted
+to eleven and a half millions of <i>reales</i>, and they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+were terminated in 1764. The cost of keeping
+up the factory is stated by Larruga to have
+amounted to three millions of <i>reales</i> yearly. The
+first directors were Juan Tom�s Bonicelli and
+Domingo Bonicelli, and the first modellers-in-chief
+and superintendents, possessing the secrets
+of the fabrication (<i>secretistas</i>), were Cayetano
+Schepers and Carlos Gricci.</p>
+
+<p>Ria�o says that every kind of porcelain was made
+at the Buen Retiro, &ldquo;hard and soft paste, white
+china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and modelled
+in the style of Capo-di-Monte.&rdquo; A great many
+objects existed imitating the blue jasper ware of
+Wedgwood, and they also made flowers, coloured
+and biscuit, groups (Pl. <a href="#img_208.jpg">lxxi</a>.), and single figures,
+and painted porcelain of different kinds. Great
+quantities of tiles for pavements were also made
+there, which may still be seen at the Casa del
+Labrador at Aranjuez: they are mentioned in the
+accounts which exist at the Ministry of Finance for
+1807 and 1808. We find in these same accounts
+interesting details of the objects made monthly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+In January, 1808, a large number of figures were
+made, including 151 heads for the table centre
+which was made for the king, 306 objects ornamented
+with paintings, 2506 tiles, 577 objects of
+less artistic importance, such as dishes, plates,
+etc. The finest specimens which exist are in the
+Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the palaces
+of Madrid and Aranjuez, of which the walls are
+completely covered with China plaques and looking-glasses,
+modelled in the most admirable manner
+with figures, fruits, and flowers. The room at
+Aranjuez is covered with a bold ornamentation of
+figures in the Japanese style, in high relief, painted
+with colours and gold with the most exquisite
+details. The figures unite the fine Italian modelling
+with the Japanese decoration. The chandelier
+is in the same style (Plate <a href="#img_214.jpg">lxxii</a>.). Upon a vase
+on the wainscot to the right of the entrance door
+is the following inscription:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0;">JOSEPH<br />
+GRICCI<br />
+DELINEAV<sup>it</sup><br />
+ET<br />
+SCUL<sup>it</sup><br />
+1763.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This same date is repeated in the angles, and in
+some shields near the roof we find,</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0;">&ldquo;A�O<br />
+1765;</p>
+
+<p>probably the year the work was terminated.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_214.jpg" width="500" height="350"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_214.jpg" id="img_214.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXII<br />ROOM DECORATED WITH PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO<br />
+(<i>Royal Palace of Aranjuez</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest mark upon the Buen Retiro porcelain
+was a blue fleur-de-lis, to which were subsequently
+added the letter M and a royal crown. Still later,
+in the reign of Charles the Fourth, the mark used
+was a fleur-de-lis with two crossed C's.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the Buen Retiro Factory was
+almost wholly to supply the Crown with costly
+ware, and would-be visitors were jealously excluded.
+Townsend wrote in 1786: <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>&ldquo;I tried to
+obtain admission to the china manufacture, which
+is likewise administered on the king's account, but
+his Majesty's injunctions are so severe, that I
+could neither get introduced to see it, nor meet
+with anyone who had ever been able to procure
+that favour for himself. I was the less mortified
+upon this occasion, because from the specimens
+which I have seen, both in the palace at Madrid
+and in the provinces, it resembles the manufacture
+of S�vres, which I had formerly visited in a tour
+through France.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Laborde also complained that the factory was
+&ldquo;wholly inaccessible: all entrance to it is interdicted,
+and its existence is only ascertained by
+the exhibition which is made of its productions
+in the royal palace.&rdquo; The same writer refers to
+another class of work which was produced here,
+namely, stone mosaic. &ldquo;The process by which
+stone is wrought into pictures is as delicate
+as it is curious: a selection is made from marble
+fragments of various shades and dimensions,
+which are found, by judicious assimilation, to
+produce no bad resemblance to painting.&rdquo; Jean
+Fran�ois de Bourgoing, French Minister at
+Madrid, was lucky enough, in 1782, to penetrate
+into the factory and view the process. &ldquo;Le
+Monarque actuel,&rdquo; he wrote, &ldquo;a �tabli dans leur
+int�rieur une fabrique de porcelaine, dont l'entr�e
+est jusqu'� pr�sent interdite � tout le monde.
+On veut sans doute que ses essais se perfectionnent
+dans le silence, avant de les exposer aux
+regards des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent
+encore se voir que dans les Palais du Souverain,
+ou dans quelques Cours d'Italie, auxquelles il
+les envoie en pr�sens. On travaille dans le m�me
+�difice � certains ouvrages de marqueterie, qui
+sont encore peu connus en Europe. J'y p�n�trai<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+un jour, sous les auspices d'un �tranger distingu�
+en faveur duquel le Roi avoit lev� la prohibition
+rigoureuse, qui en exclut tout le monde. Je suis
+t�moin de la patience and de l'adresse avec
+lesquelles on taille and on rapproche divers petits
+morceaux de marbre color�, pour en former des
+tableaux assez compliqu�s, qui en faisant �-peu-pr�s
+le m�me effet que la peinture, ont sur elle
+l'avantage de braver par leur couleur immortelles
+les ravages du temps, qui n'�pargnent pas les
+plus belles productions de cet art.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>This factory was not long-lived. Until 1803
+it followed the styles of the older establishment at
+Capo-di-Monte, uniting neo-classic motives with
+the manner of Baroque. In that year it began
+to produce porcelain imitating that of S�vres,
+and two Frenchmen, Vivien and Victor Perche,
+were brought from Paris to superintend this
+change. &ldquo;Among the finest specimens of this
+period,&rdquo; says Ria�o, &ldquo;are a splendid clock and
+four vases, two m�tres high, with porcelain flowers,
+which exist in one of the state rooms of the Palace
+of Madrid. The vases are placed in the four
+corners of the room. The clock is ornamented
+with large biscuit figures. A large number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+vases of Retiro china exist at the royal palaces of
+Madrid, Aranjuez, and the Escorial. They are
+often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or
+porcelain flowers. The blue of the imitations of
+Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the biscuit work
+so fine as the English. Gold is often added to
+these specimens.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_218.jpg" width="500" height="368"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_218.jpg" id="img_218.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXIII<br />PORCELAIN OF THE MONCLOA FACTORY</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, this manufacture was by now
+decadent. It had suffered severely from the death
+of Charles the Third, and upon the French invasion
+in 1808 was seized by the enemy and occupied
+by them for several months. During the
+reign of the &ldquo;<i>intruso</i>,&rdquo; Joseph Buonaparte, porcelain
+was still produced to some extent; but by the
+time of the Peninsular campaign the works had
+practically ceased. &ldquo;Near this quarter,&rdquo; wrote
+Ford, describing the Retiro gardens, towards the
+middle of last century, &ldquo;was <i>La China</i>, or the royal
+porcelain manufactory, that was destroyed by the
+invaders, and made by them into a fortification,
+which surrendered, with two hundred cannon,
+August 14th, 1812, to the Duke. It was blown
+up October 30th, by Lord Hill, when the misconduct
+of Ballesteros compelled him to evacuate
+Madrid. Now <i>La China</i> is one of the standing
+Spanish and <i>afrancesado</i> calumnies against us, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+it is stated that we, the English, destroyed this
+manufactory from commercial jealousy, because it
+was a rival to our potteries. &lsquo;What can be done
+(as the Duke said) with such libels but despise
+them. There is no end of the calumnies against
+me and the army, and I should have no time to do
+anything else if I were to begin either to refute
+or even to notice them?&rsquo; (Disp., Oct. 16, 1813.)
+These china potsherds and similar inventions of
+the enemy shivered against his iron power of
+conscious superiority.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The real plain <i>truth</i> is this. The French
+broke the <i>ollas</i>, and converted this S�vres of
+Madrid into a Bastile, which, and not the pipkins,
+was destroyed by the English, who now, so far
+from dreading any Spanish competition, have
+actually introduced their system of pottery; and
+accordingly very fair china is now made at Madrid
+and Seville, and by English workmen. At the
+latter place a convent, also converted by Soult
+into a citadel, is now made a hardware manufactory
+by our countryman, Mr Pickman. Ferdinand
+the Seventh, on his restoration, re-created
+<i>La China</i>, removing the workshops and warerooms
+to La Moncloa, once a villa of the Alva family
+on the Manzanares.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This factory of La Moncloa was founded in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+1816, and it continued working until 1849. A
+specimen of the Moncloa ware is reproduced in
+Plate <a href="#img_218.jpg">lxxiii</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Outside the royal palaces of Spain, the Buen
+Retiro porcelain is scarce. The choicest collections
+which are not the property of the Crown
+belong, or have belonged till recently, to the
+Marquis of Arcicollar, the Count of Valencia de
+Don Juan, and Don Francisco Laiglesia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_220.jpg" width="202" height="250"
+        alt="end of chapter"
+        title="end of chapter" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Martin Hume, <i>The Spanish People</i>, p. 15 (note).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> &ldquo;A ware exactly like that of Arezzo, called by some the red
+Roman ware, and by others Samian, distinguished by its close grain
+composed of a fine clay, and presenting, when broken, edges of an
+opaque light red colour, whilst the inner and outer surfaces are quite
+smooth, and of a brighter and darker red, is found in all places of
+the ancient world to which the Roman arms or civilisation reached.
+It is distinguished from the Aretine by its darker tone, stronger
+glaze, and coarser ornamentation. Possibly, the whole passage of
+Pliny in which he speaks of the earthenware of his day refers to this
+red ware. Thus, for dishes he praises the Samian and the Aretine
+ware; for cups, that of Surrentum, Asta and Pollentia, Saguntum and
+Pergamus. Tralles and Mutina had their manufactories. Cos was
+most esteemed; Hadria produced the hardest ware. That one of
+these, that of Saguntum, was a red ware, is clear; that of Cum�
+was also of the same colour&hellip;. That the red ware is found
+amidst the dense forests of Germany and on the distant shores of
+Britain, is a remarkable fact in the civilisation of the old world.
+It was apparently an importation, being exactly identical wherever
+discovered, and is readily distinguished from the local pottery.&rdquo;&mdash;Birch,
+<i>History of Ancient Pottery</i>, pp. 560, 561.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> &ldquo;It belongs to the class of tender lustrous pottery, consisting of a
+bright red paste like sealing-wax, breaking with a close texture, and
+covered with a siliceous, or, according to some, a metallic glaze.
+This glaze is exceedingly thin, transparent, and equally laid upon
+the whole surface, only slightly augmenting the colour of the clay.&rdquo;&mdash;Birch,
+p. 561.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> The falcon is one of the commonest devices on all Persian
+pottery, and was, in fact, the national emblem of the chase. Its
+importance for the purpose of pursuing and securing game is well
+described in Sir John Malcolm's <i>Sketches in Persia</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> The watersellers' Ordinance of 1516 enacts that each of these
+vendors shall carry a minimum load of six <i>c�ntaros</i>, and that the
+c�ntaros themselves shall be &ldquo;of the round shape, and not the
+Moorish ones, as these have long spouts; each <i>c�ntaro</i> to be closed
+with a cork.&rdquo; The latter is the typical pitcher of Morocco. &ldquo;As
+we were talking, neighbours dropped in, in the familiar Eastern
+way, and sat quiet and self-contained, occasionally drinking from
+one of the two long-necked and porous water-jars, known as
+&lsquo;Baradas&rsquo; or the &lsquo;coolers,&rsquo; which stand, their wooden stoppers
+tied to them with a palmetto cord, on each side the divan.&rdquo;&mdash;Cunninghame
+Graham, <i>Mogreb-el-Acksa</i>, p. 88.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> The latter, which was the finer of the two, was dug out by Don
+Ivo de la Cortina. It has subsequently been allowed to go to pieces,
+but a coloured plate depicting it will be found in the first volume of
+the <i>Museo Espa�ol de Antig�edades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> <i>Tessela</i> and <i>crusta</i> are defined by him as follows: &ldquo;Tesselae
+sunt e quibus domicilia sternuntur a tesseris nominata, id est quadratis
+lapillis, per diminutionem.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Crustae sunt tabulae marmoris. Unde et marmorari parietes et
+constati dicuntur. Qui autem marmora secandi in crustas rationem
+excogitaverunt non constat. Fiunt autem arena et ferro serraque
+in praetenui linea premente arenas, tractuque ipse secante: sed
+crassior arena plus erodet marmoris. Nam tenuis fabricis et
+polituris accomodata est.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Among these ruins, at five miles' distance from the city, pieces
+of common brick have come to light; but no glazed pottery of any
+kind, whether as <i>foseifesa</i>, <i>azulejos</i>, or mosaic.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Dozy's version of <i>The History of Almagreb</i>, by Ibn-Adzar� the
+Moor; p. 253.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> According to Gestoso, the colours in use among the Almohades
+consisted of green, black, caramel or honey, and deep purple. These
+colours underwent no change until the sixteenth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Gestoso says that florid Gothic and Renaissance motives are
+found occasionally in the older <i>cuenca</i> tiles. This was, however,
+quite exceptional.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> A plaque belongs to Se�or Gestoso which proceeds from the
+demolished Mudejar church of San Miguel at Seville. It measures
+fifteen inches high by ten wide, and is decorated with a representation,
+in bas-relief, of the Coronation of the Virgin. The eyebrows,
+eyelids, and lips of the figures are executed in cobalt upon a thick
+layer of white glaze, and strongly recall the method of Lucca della
+Robbia. Gestoso considers that this plaque was made in the latter
+part of the fourteenth century. If so, it is antecedent to the work
+of della Robbia (whose <i>Resurrection</i> upon one of the doors of the
+Duomo of Florence dates from 1438) by a good many years. A
+similar example, also by an unknown hand and representing the
+Coronation, is in the chapel of the Sagrario of Seville Cathedral.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Certain <i>azulejos</i>, signed by Niculoso and dated 1500, were
+formerly existing in the palace of the Counts of El Real de Valencia
+in the city of this name. These tiles were executed in relief, and
+proved that Niculoso did not work exclusively in the Italian style.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> In Portugal, tiles which Gestoso believes to have been made at
+Seville, exist in Coimbra cathedral, the church of San Roque at
+Lisbon, and the two palaces of Cintra. In our own country, Seville
+tiles are stated by Marryat and Demmin to line the walls of the
+Mayor's Chapel at Bristol, whither they were doubtless conveyed by
+one of the numerous English merchants who traded between Spain
+and England, and who are known to have made their home at
+Seville in the sixteenth century. Another tile of Seville workmanship,
+proceeding from Haccombe Church, Devonshire, is in the
+British Museum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> The <i>pisano</i> process is believed by Gestoso to have succumbed
+before the <i>cuenca</i>. He says he is aware of no <i>pisano</i> tiling which
+can be dated from as late as the second half of the seventeenth
+century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> <i>Gu�a de Granada</i>; pp. 35, 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Pure red is the rarest of the colours employed in Moorish tile-work.
+It is, however, found in a single part of the Alhambra;
+namely, among the superb tile-decoration of the Torre de la
+Cautiva.</p>
+
+<p>Gestoso says that red was practically unknown among the
+Seville potters. Sometimes, however, in coats of arms, a space that
+should have properly been gules was left uncoloured in the actual
+making of the tile, and painted red with oil-colour after firing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Coloured plates of Catalan and other Spanish <i>azulejos</i> are
+published with Garc�a Llans�'s text in the <i>Historia General del
+Arte</i>; Vol. II.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Vol. iii., p. 56.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> <i>Alafia</i> is written in Neshki, <img src="images/img_161a.jpg" width="100" height="50" alt="text" />, which word, says
+Se�or Osma, by suppressing the diacritical points and prolonging
+some of the lines, was converted by the potter into the conventional
+and exclusively decorative device:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img_161b.jpg" width="150" height="54" alt="text" /></div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Sobre tot es la bellessa de la obra de manizes daurada �
+maestriuolment pintada que ja tot lo mon ha enamorat ent&#257;t que lo
+papa, � los cardenals � lo princeps del mon per special gracia la
+requeren � stan marauellats que d'terra se puxa fer obra axi
+excellent � noble.</i>&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Wallis, <i>The Oriental Influence on Italian Ceramic Art</i>.
+London; 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> In lustred pottery these colours, and particularly blue, are far
+the commonest. It has been found that other colours, such as
+green and black, were ill adapted to the lustre process.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> I have fully described these forgeries in Chapters II and III of
+<i>Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies, and Impressions</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> This lustre is faint but quite distinguishable, and Rada y
+Delgado was clearly in error in supposing that there is none.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> The lost jar mentioned by Owen Jones, of which a drawing has
+been made, was of the same shape as the one which now remains;
+but in its decoration were included the arms of the Nasrite dynasty
+of Granada. It is this circumstance which has induced G�mez
+Moreno to suppose that these vases were the work of Granadino
+artists.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Los nichos para chinelas</i>,&rdquo; as he calls them, in describing the
+Sala de Comares.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> J. R. M�lida, <i>Jarrones ar�bigos de loza vidriada</i>; published in
+the <i>Bolet�n de la Sociedad Espa�ola de Excursionistas</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>Relaci�n del viaje hecho por Felipe II. en 1585.</i> Madrid, 1876.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> The village of Muel continued to be a centre of this craft.
+Townsend, who travelled in Spain in 1786 and 1787, wrote of it:&mdash;&ldquo;There
+are many potters, who turn their own wheels, not by hand,
+but with their feet, by means of a larger wheel concentric with that
+on which they mould the clay, and nearly level with the floor.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> No direct proof has been found that lustred ware was ever
+made at Seville; but a document copied by Gestoso, and which
+I have already mentioned (p. 152), records that the famous <i>ollero</i>
+of the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, named Fernan Martinez
+Guijarro, reserved a department (&ldquo;<i>tiendas del dorado</i>&rdquo;) of his
+premises for making or for storing lustred pottery.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> These, says Se�or Osma, are doubtful in every case, and are
+only found on plates which bear the figure of a lion. Two plates
+in this gentleman's possession are thus marked <img src="images/img_188b.jpg" width="50" height="49" alt="symbol" />, and
+another <img src="images/img_188c.jpg" width="47" height="50" alt="symbol" />.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> <i>Travels through Spain</i>; p. 305. Swinburne could have been
+no lover of nature to speak in such terms of the smell of earth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> One of the prettiest of the popular Spanish <i>coplas</i> has the
+<i>alcarraza</i> for its theme;&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Alcarraza de tu casa</span><br />
+<span class="i0">chiquilla, quisiera ser,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">para besarte los labios</span><br />
+<span class="i0">cuando fueras � beber.&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Dearest, I would be the <i>alcarraza</i> in your house; so should I
+kiss your lips each time you drank from me.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Laborde's translator adds: &ldquo;These jars are very common in
+Jamaica; they are of different sizes, from a pint to three pints. A
+number of them are ranged at night in the balconies, to furnish a
+supply of cool water. Coolers of a similar kind have been lately
+introduced in England.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> &ldquo;Those of the finest quality,&rdquo; adds Ford, &ldquo;are called <i>Bucaros</i>;
+the best come from South America&mdash;the form is more elegant, the
+clay finer, and often sweet-scented; many women have a trick of
+biting, even eating bits of them.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> <i>Handbook</i>; Vol. I., p. 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> &ldquo;On y fait,&rdquo; wrote Alvarez de Colmenar, &ldquo;des ouvrages
+verniss�s d'une fa�on ing�nieuse, avec des peintures vari�es de bon
+go�t; on estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes
+Orientales, et on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce n�goce rend
+plus de cinquante mille ducats par an.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Annales d'Espagne et de
+Portugal</i>; Vol. II., p. 187. This work is dated 1740, but my copy is
+reprinted from another edition published earlier in the century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> For a sketch of the origin and growth of the Spanish trade guilds,
+see Appendix H.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte.</i>&mdash;Vol. II.: <i>Cer�mica</i>, by Garc�a
+Llans�.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Ria�o; <i>Handbook</i>; pp. 182, 183.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> On September 11th, 1759, the king wrote to his Secretary of
+State, Richard Wall:&mdash;&ldquo;The workmen and utensils of the Royal
+Porcelain Manufactory of Capo-di-Monte must also be sent from
+Naples to Alicante, in the vessels prepared for this purpose, in
+order to proceed from Alicante to Madrid. The necessary
+conveyances are to be provided, and the expenses to be charged
+to his Majesty's account.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> <i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne</i>; Vol. I., pp. 232, 233.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="GLASS" id="GLASS">GLASS</a></h2>
+
+<p>Small vessels of uncoloured glass, belonging to
+the Celtic period, have been discovered in Galicia;
+so that the origin of this industry in Spain is
+possibly pre-Roman. After the conquest glass
+was made here by the Romans,<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> who built their
+ovens with a celebrated argil (potter's earth) extracted
+from the neighbourhood of Valencia or
+Tortosa. The Roman glass was doubtless imitated
+by the native Spaniards: at least we know
+from observations by Saint Isidore that this substance
+was quite familiar to the Visigoths. &ldquo;Olim
+fiebat et in Italia, et per Gallias, et Hispaniam
+arena alba mollissima pila mola qua terebatur.&rdquo;
+The same author speaks with admiration of coloured
+glass-work imitating precious stones. &ldquo;Tingitur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+etiam multis modis, ita ut hyacinthos, saphirosque
+et virides imitetur et oniches vel aliarum gemmarum
+colores&rdquo;; and again; &ldquo;Fingunt enim eas
+ex diverso genere nigro, candido, minioque colore.
+Nam pro lapide pretiosissimo smaragdo quidam
+vitrum arte inficiunt, et fallit oculos sub dolo quadam
+falsa irriditas quoadusque non est qui probet simulatum
+et arguat: sic et alia alio atque alio modo.
+Neque enim est sine fraude ulla vita mortalium.&rdquo;
+We gather from these statements that coloured
+glass in imitation of the genuine precious stone
+was freely manufactured by the Visigoths. Such
+imitations, justifying by their excellence Saint
+Isidore's assertion that &ldquo;vera a falsis discernere
+magna difficultas est,&rdquo; may still be seen upon
+the crowns and other ornaments discovered at
+Guarrazar (see Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_15">15&ndash;29</a>), as well as upon
+triptyches and weapons. Indeed, a taste for imitation
+jewels forms an inherent trait of Spanish
+character, and is discoverable at all moments of
+the national history. Travellers have constantly
+observed it, and the remarks, already quoted, of
+Countess d'Aulnoy, are confirmed by other authors.
+&ldquo;In the broken banks south of the river,&rdquo; wrote
+Swinburne of the Manzanares at Madrid, &ldquo;are
+found large quantities of pebbles, called Diamonds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+of Saint Isidro. They cut them like precious
+stones, and ladies of the first fashion wear them
+in their hair as pins, or on their fingers as rings.
+They have little or no lustre, and a very dead
+glassy water. The value of the best rough stone
+does not exceed a few pence.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is chiefly in the form of imitation gems that
+specimens of the earliest Spanish glass have been
+preserved until our time,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> although the characteristic
+of old Roman glass which is known in
+Italian as the <i>lattocinio</i> or &ldquo;milk-white&rdquo; ornament,
+in the form of a thread or line carried all over
+the surface of a vessel, remains until this day
+a common feature of the glass of Spain, besides
+being found in Spanish-Moorish glass-work.</p>
+
+<p>Rico y Sinobas says that the rules for cutting
+glass by means of a diamond or <i>naife</i> (as it was
+once called) are embodied in a treatise titled
+<i>El Lapidario</i>, originally written (perhaps in the
+fourth, fifth, or sixth century) in Hebrew, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+which was brought to Spain some two or three
+hundred years later. This treatise was translated
+into Arabic by one Abolais, who lived at some
+time previous to the thirteenth century, and subsequently
+(in the year 1248, and by command of
+Alfonso the Learned) into the Castilian language.</p>
+
+<p>Mixed up with a great deal of fabulous and
+fantastic matter, this treatise contains instructive
+and interesting notices of the composition and the
+colouring of old glass, including that of Spain.
+One of such notices is the following. &ldquo;Of the
+eleventh degree of the sign of Sagittarius is the
+glass stone, containing a substance which is a
+body in itself (sand), and another which is added
+to it (salt), and when they clean these substances
+and draw them from the fire, they make between
+the two a single body. The stone thus made
+(glass) has many colours. Sometimes it is white
+(and this is nobler and better than the others), or
+sometimes it is red, or green, or <i>xade</i> (a dark,
+burnt colour), or purple. It is a stone which
+readily melteth in the fire, but which, when drawn
+therefrom, turneth again to its former substance:
+and if it be drawn from the flame unseasonably,
+and without cooling it little by little, it snappeth
+asunder. And it receiveth readily whatever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+colour be placed upon it. And if an animal be
+hurt therewith, it openeth as keen a wound as
+though it were of iron.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The treatise also describes a stone called <i>ecce</i>,
+which was used in glassmaking, saying that it was
+found in Spain, &ldquo;in a mountain, not of great
+height, which overlooks the town of Arraca, and
+is called Secludes. And the stone is of an intense
+black colour, spotted with yellow drops.
+It is shiny and porous, brittle, and of light
+weight &hellip;; and if it be ground up with honey,
+and the glass be smeared with it and submitted
+to the fire, it dyes the glass of a beautiful gold
+colour, and makes it stronger than it was before,
+so that it does not melt so readily, or snap
+asunder with such ease.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the power of a diamond to cut
+glass is referred to in the same work, which
+further tells us that this gem &ldquo;breaketh all other
+kind of stones, boring holes in them or cutting
+them, and no other stone is able to bruise it; nay
+more, it powdereth all other stones if it be rubbed
+upon them &hellip;; and such as seek to cut or
+perforate those other stones take portions of a
+diamond, small and slender and sharp-pointed,
+and mount them on slips of silver or of copper,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+and with them make the holes or cuttings they
+require. Thus do they grave and carve
+intaglios.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>All these branches of glassmaking were therefore
+practised by the Spaniards from an early
+period of their history. This people were also
+familiar with the use of emery powder, of talc
+applied to covering windows, and of rock crystal.
+We read in the translation of Abolais that crystal
+at that time was &ldquo;found in many parts, albeit the
+finest is that of Ethiopia. The substance
+which composes it is frozen water, petrified.
+And the proof of this is that when it is broken,
+small grains are discovered to be within, that
+made their entry as it was becoming stone
+(crystallizing); or again, in some of it is found
+what seems to be clear water. And it possesses
+two qualities in which it is distinct from every
+other stone: for when crystal is heated it receiveth
+any colouring that is applied to it, and is wrought
+with greater ease, besides being melted by fire;
+insomuch that it can be made into any shape
+desired; and if this shape be round, and the stone
+be set in the sun, it burneth anything inflammable
+that be set before it: yet does it not effect this by
+any virtue of its own, but by <i>the clearness of its</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+<i>substance</i>, and by the sunbeams which beat upon
+it, and by the roundness of its form.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We seem to foreshadow here, clearly enough,
+the application of this substance to making glasses
+to assist the sight, especially when the author of
+the treatise adds that on looking through the
+crystal, the human eye discovers &ldquo;details of the
+greatest beauty, and things that are secreted from
+the simple (<i>i.e.</i> the unaided) vision.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Rico y Sinobas (who possessed a fine collection
+of antique glass, Spanish and non-Spanish) inclined
+to think that in the time of the Romans the
+finest and strongest glass, as well as the costliest
+and the most sought after, was that which was
+manufactured in Spain. In early times the chief
+centres of Spanish glass-making were situated in
+the heart of the Peninsula (where now is New
+Castile), in the neighbourhood of Tortosa, and in
+certain districts lying between the Pyrenees and
+the coast of Catalu�a, though subsequently the
+practice of this craft extended through the
+kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, and the
+valleys of Oller�a, Salinas, Busot, and the Rio
+Almanzora, forming a zone which reached from
+Cape Creus to Cape Gata. Other regions in
+which the craft was introduced, apparently at a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+later epoch, were those of the Mediterranean
+littoral, Cuenca, Toledo, Avila, Segovia, and
+other parts of New Castile, as far as the slopes
+of the Sierra de Guadarrama. In the rest of the
+Peninsula there is not the slightest indication
+(excepting an obscure reference by Strabo, to
+vessels and receptacles of <i>wax</i>) that glass was
+made during the Roman domination of the country,
+either in Andalusia, Lusitania (Portugal), or in
+the northern regions of Cantabria.</p>
+
+<p>Rico y Sinobas has described a Spanish glass-oven
+of those primitive times. He says that such
+as were used for making objects of a fair size
+consisted of three compartments resting one upon
+the other; the lowest cylindrical, to hold the fire
+and ashes, the next with a domed top, for concentrating
+the heat, and the third and uppermost,
+which also had a domed top, for holding the
+pieces of glass that were set to cool by slow
+degrees. The wall of the oven contained a
+number of openings, which served, according to
+the level at which they were situated, for
+controlling the fire, adjusting the crucibles, or
+extracting, by means of metal rods, the lumps of
+molten glass, previously to submitting them to
+the action of the blowpipe. The dimensions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+such of these primitive ovens as have been found
+in Spain or Italy, are nine feet in height by six
+feet in diameter, and the material of which they
+are built is argil, of a kind insensible to heat, and
+carefully freed by washing from all foreign, soluble,
+or inflammable substances. The crucibles, which
+were fitted in the oven two, four, or at most six at
+a time, were of this argil also, wrought and purified
+with even greater care. Ovens and crucibles of
+a smaller size were used for making diminutive
+objects such as beads and imitation precious
+stones.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p>Almer�a was probably the most important centre
+of Spanish-Moorish glass-making, and is mentioned
+in connection with this craft by Al-Makkari.
+The oriental shape of the older vessels which
+were made in this locality is still preserved in
+certain objects such as jars, bowls, flasks, and
+<i>aguardiente</i>-bottles, which are still manufactured,
+or were so until quite recently, throughout a region
+extending from Almer�a to the slopes of the
+Alpujarra. &ldquo;All these objects,&rdquo; says Ria�o, &ldquo;are
+decorated with a serrated ornamentation of buttons,
+trellis-work, and the lines to which I have already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+alluded, which were placed there after the object
+was made, in the Roman style. The paste is
+generally of a dark green colour, and when we
+find these same features in vessels of clear white
+glass, we may affirm that they are contemporary
+imitations made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they
+are very seldom to be met with in the provinces
+of Almer�a and Granada, and are generally
+found at Toledo and other localities; it is, moreover,
+a common condition of oriental art that
+its general form complies with a geometrical
+tracery, and we never find, as in Italian works
+of art, forms and capricious ornamentations which
+interfere with the symmetry of the general lines,
+and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>None of the original Moorish glass of the
+Alhambra has survived till nowadays. Most of it
+was destroyed by the explosion, in the year 1590,
+of a powder factory which lay immediately beneath
+the palace and beside the river Darro. In the
+Alhambra archives, particular mention is made
+of the circular glass windows or &ldquo;eyes,&rdquo; only
+the corresponding holes of which remain, in the
+baths of the same palace. This glass, which may
+have been in colour, was also destroyed by the explosion,
+as were the windows, &ldquo;painted in colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+with fancy devices and Arabic lettering,&rdquo; of the
+Sala de Embajadores,<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> those of the Hall of the
+Two Sisters, and certain windows, &ldquo;painted with
+many histories and royal arms,&rdquo; belonging to the
+church of the Alhambra.</p>
+
+<p>Excellent glass, reported by some authors to
+have equalled that of Venice, was made at
+Barcelona from as early as the thirteenth century.
+An inventory of the Crown of Aragon, dated A.D.
+1389 and quoted by Garc�a Llans�, mentions as
+manufactured here, glass sweetmeat-vessels, cups,
+and silver-mounted tankards blazoned with the
+royal arms. The guild of Barcelona glassmakers
+was founded in 1455, and later in the same
+century Jer�nimo Paulo wrote that &ldquo;glass vessels
+of varying quality and shape, and which may well
+compete with the Venetian, are exported to Rome
+and other places.&rdquo; Similar statements are made
+by Marineus Siculus and Gaspar Barreyros.</p>
+
+<p>Other centres of Spanish glass-making were
+Caspe in Aragon, Seville, Valencia,<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> Pinar de la<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+Vidriera, Royo Molino (near Jaen,) El Recuenco
+(Guadalajara), Cebreros (Avila), Medina del
+Campo, Venta del Cojo, Venta de los Toros de
+Guisando, and Castiel de la Pe�a in Castile. The
+glass-works of Castiel de la Pe�a were founded by
+the intelligent and indefatigable Hernando de
+Zafra, secretary to the Catholic sovereigns,
+Ferdinand and Isabella. &ldquo;It has been calculated,&rdquo;
+says Ria�o, &ldquo;that about two tons of sand
+were used at these glass-works every month.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>More important than the foregoing was the
+famous factory of a village in Toledo province
+called Cadalso, or sometimes, from the nature
+of its only industry, Cadalso (or Cadahalso) de
+los Vidrios. The glass made here is mentioned
+in terms of high praise by various writers of the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, such as
+Marineus Siculus and Mendez Silva. The former
+of these authors says in his work upon the
+<i>Memorable Things of Spain</i>: &ldquo;Glass was produced
+in several towns of Castile, the most important
+being that of Cadalso, which supplied the whole
+kingdom.&rdquo; Ewers and bottles of Cadalso glass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+are mentioned in the Alburquerque inventory.
+Mendez Silva says that the number of ovens was
+originally three, and that their coloured glass
+was equal to Venetian (Plate <a href="#img_234.jpg">lxxiv</a>.). This was
+towards the middle of the seventeenth century.
+Larruga tells us that by the end of the eighteenth
+this local industry was languishing. One of the
+three ovens had been abandoned. The other two
+produced inferior glass, as well as in diminished
+quantities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_234.jpg" width="349" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_234.jpg" id="img_234.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXIV<br />VESSELS OF SPANISH GLASS<br />
+(<i>South Kensington Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The glass of Catalu�a maintained its ancient
+reputation all through the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries and part of the seventeenth, and at
+this time was still compared with the Venetian by
+observant travellers (Plate <a href="#img_236.jpg">lxxv</a>.). Besides the
+capital, the principal glass-works in this province
+were at Almatret, Moncada, Cervell�, and Matar�.
+In 1489 a Barcelonese, by name Vicente Sala, and
+his sons applied to the City Council for leave to
+construct an oven at Moncada &ldquo;in order to pursue
+the craft of glass-making, <i>lo qual a present aci se
+obre axi bellament e suptil com en part del mon</i>
+(seeing that the glass we manufacture in this
+neighbourhood competes with any in the world
+for subtlety and beauty).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A document is extant from which we learn that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+the City Councillors of Barcelona made strenuous
+efforts to prevail upon Ferdinand the Catholic to
+abolish a certain monopoly or other form of
+exclusive privilege which he had conceded to a
+local glass-maker. The result of this appeal is
+not recorded. In 1503 Ferdinand presented his
+consort with two hundred and seventy-four glass
+objects made at Barcelona, and Philip the Second
+possessed a hundred and nineteen pieces proceeding
+from the same locality.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_236.jpg" width="500" height="308"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_236.jpg" id="img_236.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXV<br />VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS<br />
+(<i>From Drawings by the Author</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An important development of this craft was the
+manufacture of coloured glass for churches and
+cathedrals. In the Peninsula, the earliest introducers
+of this branch of glass-making were principally
+natives of Germany, France, and Flanders,
+who came to Spain at the beginning of the
+fifteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Many of the oldest windows
+executed by these foreigners, or by the Spaniards
+who were taught by them, are still existing in the
+cathedrals of Le�n, Toledo, Burgos, Barcelona,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+and the Seo of Zaragoza. Le�n has several
+windows which date from as far back as the thirteenth
+century, and in which the glass is in small
+pieces, arranged as though it were mosaic. Some
+of the later and larger windows in the same
+cathedral are thirty-five feet high, and one, dating
+from the sixteenth century, is believed to have
+been presented to this temple by Mary of
+England, prior to her marriage with Philip the
+Second.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, in the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries that the custom became general, in
+Spain as in other lands, of colouring the surface
+of white glass by partial fusing&mdash;a process which
+is mentioned in the treatise of Abolais, to which I
+have referred repeatedly. Between the eleventh
+and the thirteenth centuries the coloured windows
+of Spanish temples were still composed of pieces
+of glass united in the manner of mosaic, forming
+ornamental patterns of stars and similar devices;
+but subsequently to this period the decorative
+themes are said to be painted <i>en caballete</i>, and
+consist of figures, or the representation of scenes
+from Scripture. In Spain, and dating from the
+twelfth century, the workshops for preparing this
+coloured glass were commonly situated within the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+precincts of important temples, such as Toledo
+cathedral, or else, as was the case at Burgos, in
+separate buildings and <i>dependencias</i>. Here, in
+the square ovens characteristic of that age, and
+before it was mounted in the ponderous leaden
+frame, the glass was coloured with exquisite
+solicitude and patience by the hand of the master-craftsman,
+sometimes with a colour upon one of
+its surfaces alone, sometimes with the same colour
+upon both, or sometimes with a different colour
+upon either surface. The cartoons from which
+such windows were constructed, and which were
+often designed by painters of renown, were
+usually three in number. The first contained,
+upon a reduced scale, a coloured outline of the
+window; the second, drawn to the exact scale of
+the window as it was to be, was composed of all
+the pieces cut out and numbered according to the
+various colours; and the third, also of the projected
+size of the window, was kept complete, to
+serve as a pattern in case the window should
+suffer any accident, and require to be restored or
+mended. Not one of these cartoons is known to
+be preserved to-day, but Rico y Sinobas points out
+that from the strong and simple character of their
+colouring and outline, the illuminated illustrations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+of Spanish thirteenth century manuscripts, such
+as the <i>Cantigas</i>, and the <i>Book of Chess</i> of Alfonso
+the Learned, may well have been utilized for, or
+else be copied from, glass windows of that period.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the cartoon was finished, the
+window-painter traced it upon the surface of the
+glass. This was in square pieces, fitted conveniently
+together, with sufficient space between
+the pieces to allow the passage of the leads.
+Before being laid upon the glass and being submitted
+to the fixing action of fire, the colours were
+mixed with honey, urine, vinegar, and other fluids
+or substances which served as mediums to attach
+the colour to the glass. Thus prepared, and in
+the form of powder, the colours were allowed to
+dry for two or three days before the glass was
+placed in the oven. Yellow, which was the
+strongest colour, and that which penetrated
+deepest beneath the surface of the glass, was
+made from certain combinations of silver and
+nitrate of potash, while oxides or other forms of
+copper, lead, iron, tin, silver, and manganese, were
+used for making black, white, red, green, blue,
+purple, violet, or flesh-colour. These colours
+penetrated the glass to the depth of about half a
+millimetre; but sometimes, after the colour had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+been applied, the craftsman would submit the
+glass to friction by a wooden polisher or wheel,
+thus giving it an appearance of greater clearness
+and transparency at any spot he might
+desire.</p>
+
+<p>Among the artists who produced the coloured
+windows of Le�n cathedral were Master Joan de
+Arge (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1424), Master Baldov�n, and Rodrigo
+de Ferreras. Those of Toledo date from early
+in the fifteenth century, and were made by Albert
+of Holland, Vasco Troya, Luis Pedro Franc�s,
+Juan de Campos, and others, including the
+eminent Dolf�n, who, according to Cean, began to
+work here in 1418, by order of the archbishop,
+Don Sancho de Rojas. The documents collected
+and published for the first time by Zarco del Valle
+tell us that on March 22nd, 1424, Dolf�n received
+from Alfonso Martinez, treasurer and superintendent
+of works, two hundred gold florins and
+certain other moneys on account of his total
+payment of four hundred gold florins for &ldquo;the
+eighth window he is making for the head of the
+cathedral.&rdquo; Other certificates of payment relating
+to Maestre Dolf�n (as he always signed himself)
+are included in the same collection. By 1427
+he was &ldquo;defunct, God pardon him!&rdquo; and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+windows he had left unfinished were terminated
+by his assistant Lois (Louis).<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1458, and also at Toledo, a friar named
+Pablo began to repair the painted windows of the
+<i>crucero</i>. His pay was fixed by the &ldquo;abbot and
+superintendent of works&rdquo; at fifty <i>maravedis</i> each
+day, and that of &ldquo;his lads, Ximeno and Juanico,&rdquo;
+at one half of this amount. Other artists engaged
+in the same work were Pablo (not the friar just
+referred to), Peter, a German, and &ldquo;Master
+Henry,&rdquo; who was also German. Pablo received
+authority to purchase ten and a half <i>quintales</i> and
+thirteen pounds of coloured Flemish glass, at two
+thousand <i>maravedis</i> for each <i>quintal</i>. By a contract
+dated 1485 (he died between 1487 and 1493),
+Master Henry was handed by the cathedral
+authorities a sum of 150,000 <i>maravedis</i> &ldquo;to
+proceed to Flanders or any other part he may
+desire, and where good glass is to be found,
+white, blue, green, scarlet, purple, yellow, or
+blackish (<i>prieto</i>), equal in thickness to the sample
+which he bears, and bring us thence such quantity
+as he has need of for the windows of our cathedral.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is evident from this notice that Spain was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+then unable to produce the finest quality of
+glass. With such as he brought with him from
+abroad, Henry engaged to fashion &ldquo;every kind
+of figure, image, scroll, and other object whatsoever
+be commanded him, according to the place
+it is to fill; the colours of the glass to be well
+mingled and distributed.&rdquo; He was also to make
+&ldquo;the leaden casings stout and deep, so as to
+embrace and hold the glass aforesaid, that it may
+resist the air and wind.&rdquo; In return for this, he
+was to be supplied with an erected scaffolding,
+with all the chalk and iron he might require, and
+with the proper number of assistants, receiving,
+in payment of his labour, one hundred and fifteen
+<i>maravedis</i> for every square palm of glass the
+preparation of which should satisfy the superintendent
+and examiners of works.</p>
+
+<p>One of the witnesses to this document was
+Henry's wife, Mar�a Maldonada, who came forward
+to affix her signature &ldquo;with the license and
+pleasure of the aforesaid Master Enrique, her
+husband.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1433, Master Juan (perhaps the same as
+Joan de Arge, already mentioned) began to work
+at the windows of Burgos, where, later in this
+century, he was succeeded by Juan de Valdivieso<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+and Diego de Santillana. We learn from the
+<i>Documentos In�ditos</i> (pp. 159, 160) that Santillana
+lived at Burgos, and that, on May 31st, 1512, he
+contracted to make three &ldquo;historical windows&rdquo;
+for the monastery of San Francisco, at a price of
+ninety-five <i>maravedis</i> for each palm of glass,
+this to be &ldquo;of good colours and shades,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;measured by the Burgos standard.&rdquo; Two other
+contracts are preserved, signed by the same
+craftsman and both relating to Palencia. By one
+of them Santillana is to receive for six &ldquo;storied
+windows,&rdquo; the subjects of which are specified,
+ninety-five <i>maravedis</i> the palm, besides the
+scaffolding and his house and coals.</p>
+
+<p>Arnao de Flandes (Arnold of Flanders) was
+appointed master glass-painter to Burgos cathedral
+in 1512. Other glass-painters who worked here
+in the sixteenth century were Francisco de Valdivieso,
+Gaspar Cotin, Juan de Arce, his son Juan
+and grandson Pedro, and, in the seventeenth
+century, Valentin Ruiz, Francisco Alonso, Simon
+Ruiz, and Francisco Alcalde. Most of the
+windows made by all these men have been destroyed
+by time and weather, and have been
+replaced by barren panes of white; but a few fine
+specimens of the original work may yet be seen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+in the chapels of the Presentation, the Constable,
+and San Jer�nimo. Perhaps the most remarkable
+of any is the rose-window, above the Puerta del
+Sarmental.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+
+<p>Other good cathedral windows prior to the sixteenth
+century are those of Avila, which date
+from about the year 1497, and were executed by
+Diego de Santillana, Juan de Valdivieso, and other
+artists; those of the Seo of Zaragoza, by the Catalans
+Terri and Jayme Romeu (1447); and some
+at Barcelona, painted in 1494 by Gil Fontanet.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in the sixteenth century that
+Spanish ecclesiastical window-glass attains its
+highest grade of excellence.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> Dating from this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+century are windows in Toledo cathedral, painted
+in 1503 by Vasco de Troya, in 1509 by Alejo
+Jim�nez, in 1513 by Gonzalo de C�rdoba (these
+are considered by competent judges to be the
+finest of any), in 1515 by Juan de la Cuesta, in
+1522 by Juan Campos, in 1525 by Albert of
+Holland, in 1534 by Juan de Ortega, and in 1542
+by Nicol�s Vergara the elder.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> In 1537 Ortega
+was engaged to repair the damaged or broken
+panes at a yearly salary of 11,250 <i>maravedis</i>.
+Where the panes were wanting, he was to replace
+them by new ones painted by his hand, receiving,
+for each <i>palmo</i> of new glass so painted, an extra
+payment of ninety <i>maravedis</i>.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the same century the windows of Seville
+cathedral, begun some years previously (Cean says
+in 1504) by Micer Crist�bal Alem�n (&ldquo;Master<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+Christopher the German&rdquo;), were continued by
+Masters Jacobo, Juan Juan Vivan, Juan Bernai,
+Bernardino de Gelandia, Juan Jaques, Arnold of
+Flanders (1525), Arnao de Vergara (1525), Charles
+of Bruges, (1557), and Vicente Menandro (1557).<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>
+In 1562 Diego de Valdivieso, and in 1570 Pedro
+de Valdivieso and Gerald of Holland, painted
+windows for Cuenca cathedral. In 1542 the
+same work was done at Palencia by Diego de
+Salcedo, and in 1533 George of Burgundy,
+&ldquo;master in the art of glass,&rdquo; then resident at
+Burgos, proceeded to the same town and engaged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+to renew the cathedral windows at a cost of a
+hundred <i>maravedis</i> for every palm of coloured
+glass, and fifty for every palm of plain.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1544, sixty-two windows in the nave of
+Segovia cathedral were filled with painted glass
+prepared chiefly at Valladolid and Medina del
+Campo, though some was brought from Flanders.
+The remaining windows were left unfilled till
+1676, in which year a canon of the cathedral,
+named Tom�s de la Plaza Aguirre, succeeded in
+rediscovering a formula for the practise of this
+craft, and the panes yet needed were made and
+coloured at Valdequemada by Juan Danis, under
+Plaza Aguirre's supervision. Thirty-three additional
+windows were completed from this factory.
+According to Lecea y Garc�a, the chapter of
+Segovia cathedral possess, or possessed for many
+years, two curious manuscripts relating severally
+to <i>The painting of glass windows</i>, by Francisco
+Herranz, and <i>Glass-making</i>, by Juan Danis&mdash;the
+same who owned and worked the factory at
+Valdequemada. These interesting treatises were
+examined by Bosarte, who has described them.
+He says that the one on glass-making consisted
+of twenty-three sheets of clear writing, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+one on glass-painting of eight sheets; both manuscripts
+being in quarto size. The latter contained,
+distributed beside the text, sketches of
+the various instruments required for this craft.
+The other and longer monograph consisted of the
+following chapters:&mdash;(1) How to draw upon
+glass. (2) How to cut glass. (3) How to paint
+and shade glass. (4) Of the substances and
+ingredients for painting glass. (5) How to give
+a flesh-colour to glass. (6) How to give a yellow
+or golden colour to white or pale blue glass,
+but no other. (7) How to fire glass. (8) How
+to make the glass-oven.</p>
+
+<p>Windows were painted in the cathedral of
+Palma de Mallorca by Sebasti�n Dangl�s in 1566
+and by Juan Jord� in 1599, in that of M�laga by
+Octavio Valerio in 1579, and in those of Tarragona
+and Avila respectively, by Juan Guasch in
+1571, and by Pierre de Chiberri in 1549. This
+craftsman was undoubtedly a foreigner. The
+following entry which concerns him is quoted by
+Rosell de Torres from the <i>Libro de F�brica</i> of
+Segovia cathedral: &ldquo;By order of the Canon Juan
+Rodriguez, on the twelfth day of August, I paid
+to Pierre de Chiberri, master-maker of window-glass,
+the sum of 56,560 <i>maravedis</i>, 34,960 for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+the casings of seven large windows with their
+side-windows&mdash;in all twenty-one casings&mdash;besides
+ten casings for the windows of the lower chapels,
+containing altogether <span class="smcap">MMMCCCCXCVI</span> palms, amounting
+at ten <i>maravedis</i> the palm to the aforesaid
+34,960 maravedis: also 19,125 <i>maravedis</i> for
+<span class="smcap">CCCLXXII</span> palms of glass for the said chapels at a
+<i>real</i> and a half each palm, plus 2476 <i>maravedis</i>
+for certain glass which had yet to be measured
+because it was in the skylights. The total sum
+amounts to the aforesaid 56,560 <i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>During the seventeenth century, glass-work of
+various kinds continued to be produced upon a
+large scale at Barcelona, Matar�, Gerona, Cuenca,
+Toledo, Valmaqueda, and Seville. In 1680 the
+Duke of Villahermosa established a glass factory
+at San Martin de Valdeiglesias, and placed it
+under the direction of a native of Namur named
+Diodonet Lambot, aided by various other artists
+from the Netherlands. In 1683 Lambot was
+succeeded by Santiago Vandoleto, who proved
+incompetent, and caused, in 1692, the total stoppage
+of the factory.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that glass was made at Medina del<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+Campo, in the province of Valladolid. Pinheiro
+da Veiga's <i>Pincigraphia</i>, written at the beginning
+of the seventeenth century, contains an interesting
+notice of this glassware. &ldquo;Really, the glass-work
+of Valladolid is most beautiful, and worth going
+to see if only for the pleasure of its contemplation.
+There are objects of considerable size, such as
+(glass) pitchers of every form and colour. Others
+are called <i>penados</i>, and are of a syphon shape,
+pouring out water in small quantities.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> Besides
+this there are all manner of cunningly contrived
+retorts such as we never see in Lisbon, and yet
+in Valladolid their cost is only moderate&hellip;.
+The principal shops for selling these and porcelain
+are two in number, and the prices are the same as
+in Portugal.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Two very important Spanish glass factories
+were founded in the eighteenth century. The
+first, which was under Crown protection, was
+established by Don Juan Goyeneche in the
+year 1720 at a place called Nuevo Bazt�n, in the
+province of Toledo. The royal privilege allowed
+this factory to produce &ldquo;all articles of glass up to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+a height of twenty inches, working and polishing
+the same, embellishing, and coating them with
+metal; to make looking-glasses and similar ornaments,
+glass vessels of all descriptions, white
+glass for window-panes, and glass objects of any
+kind or shape, whether already known to us, or
+that may be invented in the future.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The factory of Nuevo Bazt�n continued working
+for some years, and turned out excellent glass
+for exportation to America and other parts; but
+it was killed eventually by the rising price of
+fuel, and above all by competition from abroad.
+&ldquo;When the foreigners,&rdquo; says Larruga in his
+<i>Memorias pol�ticas y econ�micas</i>, &ldquo;saw that the
+factory was in full swing, they conspired to bring
+about its ruin, and begged their ambassadors to
+communicate against it with the ministers; but
+finding this of no avail, and recognising the
+importance to themselves of overthrowing this
+manufacture, they decided to sell glassware at
+a price at which it would be impossible to sell
+the products of Nuevo Bazt�n. The amount of
+this reduction was the one-third part of the entire
+value. By this means the foreigners made it
+impossible for the factory to support itself, since
+the objects it produced were laid away and found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+no purchaser for years. This, and the cost of
+the wood required to keep the ovens burning day
+and night, not excepting feast-days (for to stop
+the fires for a moment would have meant the
+spoiling of the oven), induced the downfall of this
+celebrated factory, as soon as the fuel of all the
+neighbouring forests had been consumed.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, upon the closing of these works,
+one of the experts who had been employed there,
+a Catalan named Ventura Sit, attracted by the
+forests of Valsain and the excellent and abundant
+sand obtainable in this locality&mdash;principally from
+near the villages of Espirdo and Bernuy de
+Porreros&mdash;decided to open another glass-works at
+La Granja. Here is the royal summer residence
+of San Ildefonso, and Sit was fortunate enough to
+secure at the outset&mdash;that is, in 1728&mdash;the firm
+protection of Philip the Fifth and of his consort,
+Isabel Farnese. Instructed by the sovereigns to
+make some mirrors, he produced these objects of
+a moderate size at first, increasing it, after the
+year 1734, to a maximum length of 145 inches by
+85 in breadth. Larruga says that these mirrors
+were the largest produced anywhere at that time,
+and they continued to be made until very nearly
+the end of the century. They are often referred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+to in the narratives of travellers. Swinburne
+wrote in 1776: &ldquo;Not far from Carthagena is a
+place called Almazaron, where they gather a fine
+red earth called Almagra, used in the manufactures
+of Saint Ildephonso, for polishing looking-glasses.
+In Seville, it is worked up with the tobacco, to
+give it a colour, fix its volatility, and communicate
+to it that softness which constitutes the
+principal merit of Spanish snuff.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Describing the royal palace at Madrid, the same
+author says that the walls of the great audience-chamber
+&ldquo;are incrustated with beautiful marble,
+and all round hung with large plates of looking-glass
+in rich frames. The manufactory of glass is
+at Saint Ildefonso, where they cast them of a very
+great size; but I am told they are apt to turn out
+much rougher and more full of flaws than those
+of France.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>According to Townsend (1786), &ldquo;The glass
+manufacture is here carried to a degree of perfection
+unknown in England. The largest mirrors
+are made in a brass frame, one hundred and sixty-two
+inches long, ninety-three wide, and six deep,
+weighing near nine tons. These are designed
+wholly for the royal palaces, and for presents from
+the king. Yet even for such purposes the factory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+is ill-placed, and proves a devouring monster in
+a country where provisions are dear, fuel scarce,
+and carriage exceedingly expensive.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Laborde wrote of the same factory a few years
+later: &ldquo;There is also a glass-house, in which
+bottles are wrought of a superior quality; and white
+glasses, which are carved with much ingenuity
+(Plates <a href="#img_254.jpg">lxxvi</a>. and <a href="#img_258.jpg">lxxvii</a>.). Near this glass-house
+has been founded a manufactory for mirrors, in a
+large and well-arranged edifice. There are two
+furnaces, and a considerable number of stoves, in
+which the plates are left to cool after they have been
+precipitated. They are of all dimensions, and the
+largest that have yet been fabricated. They are
+sometimes from a hundred, a hundred and thirty,
+or a hundred and thirty-five inches in height, to
+fifty, sixty, or sixty-five inches in breadth: they are
+expanded in the hand. The process for polishing
+them is performed by a machine;<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> they are then
+transported to Madrid, for the purpose of being
+metallised. It is not uncommon to see tables of
+bronze, on which mirrors are extended, a hundred
+and sixty inches in length, and ninety in breadth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These tables are described by Bowles: &ldquo;The
+largest measures a hundred and forty-five inches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+in length by eighty-five in breadth, and weighs
+four hundred and five <i>arrobas</i>. The smallest
+measures a hundred and twenty inches in length,
+and seventy-five in breadth, and weighs three
+hundred and eighty <i>arrobas</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_254.jpg" width="500" height="351"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_254.jpg" id="img_254.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXVI<br />GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The best account of any is contained in the
+<i>Nouveau Voyage en Espagne</i> (1789) of Bourgoing.
+This author wrote: &ldquo;A c�t� de cette
+Fabrique naissante de premi�re n�cessit�&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i>
+the royal linen factory at La Granja) &ldquo;il y en a
+une de luxe qui remonte au regne de Philippe V;
+c'est une Manufacture de glaces, la seule qu'il
+y ait en Espagne. On s'�toit d'abord born� �
+une Verrerie qui subsiste encore, et donne des
+bouteilles d'une assez bonne qualit�, et des verres
+blancs qu'on y cisele avec assez d'adresse. J'en
+ai rapport� quelques-uns o� l'on a grav� des chiffres,
+des lettres, et jusqu'� de jolis paysages. Cette
+Verrerie �toit un acheminement � une entreprise
+plus brillante. La Manufacture de glaces de
+Saint Ildephonse est comparable aux plus beaux
+�tablissements de ce genre; on en peut voir les
+dessins dans les Planches de l'Encyclop�die.
+L'�difice est vaste et tr�s bien distribu�; il contient
+deux fourneaux et une vingtaine de fours o� l'on
+fait refroidir lentement les glaces apr�s les avoir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+coul�es. On y en coule dans toutes les dimensions
+depuis les carreaux de vitres jusqu'aux plus
+grands trumeaux. Elles sont moins blanches
+et peut-�tre moins bien polies que celles de Venise
+et de St-Gobin; mais nulle part on n'en a encore
+coul� d'aussi grandes. L'op�ration du coulage s'y
+fait avec beaucoup de pr�cision et d'ensemble.
+Monseigneur Comte d'Artois eut la curiosit� d'y
+assister; la glace qu'on y coula devant lui avoit,
+autant que je puis m'en souvenir, cent trente-trois
+pouces de long, sur soixante-cinq de large, et l'on
+m'a assur� qu'il y en avoit encore de plus grandes.
+On les d�grossit � mains d'hommes dans une longue
+galerie qui est attenante � la Fabrique, et il y a �
+un quart de lieue une machine que l'eau fait mouvoir,
+et o� on acheve de les polir; on les porte
+ensuite � Madrid pour les �tamer. Le Roi consacre
+les plus belles � la parure de ses appartements;
+il en fait des cadeaux aux Cours qui ont
+des relations intimes avec lui. En 1783, S.M.C. en
+fit joindre quelques-unes aux pr�sens qu'il envoyoit
+� la Porte Ottomane, avec laquelle elle venoit de
+conclure un trait�. C'est une id�e agr�able pour un
+cosmopolite tol�rant, de penser qu'en d�pit des
+pr�jug�s de religion et de politique qui divisoient
+autrefois les Nations, la main des arts a �tabli<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+entr'elles un �change de jouissances d'un bout de
+l'Europe � l'autre, et que les beaut�s du serrail se
+mirent dans les glaces coul�es � Saint-Ildefonse,
+tandis que les tapis de Turquie sont foul�s par des
+pieds Fran�ois. Ce qui sort d'ailleurs de la Manufacture
+de Saint-Ildefonse est vendu, pour le
+compte du Roi, � Madrid et dans les provinces;
+mais on sent bien que ce profit est trop mince
+pour couvrir les frais d'un �tablissement aussi
+consid�rable qui, le bois except�, est �loign� de
+toutes les mati�res premi�res qu'il employe, qui est
+situ� fort avant dans l'int�rieur des terres, au sein
+des montagnes, et loin de toute rivi�re navigable;
+aussi doit il �tre compt� parmi ces fondations de
+luxe qui prosperent � l'ombre du Tr�ne, et qui
+ajoutent � son �clat.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p>A few more details are added by Swinburne:
+&ldquo;Below the town is the manufactory of plate-glass
+belonging to the crown, carried on under
+the direction of Mr Dowling; two hundred and
+eighty men are employed. The largest plate they
+have made is one hundred and twenty-six Spanish
+inches long; the small pieces are sold in looking-glasses
+all over the kingdom; but I am told the
+king makes no great profit by it; however, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+a very material point to be able to supply his
+subjects with a good commodity, and to keep in
+the country a large sum of money that heretofore
+went out annually to purchase it from strangers.
+They also make bottles and drinking-glasses
+(Plates <a href="#img_254.jpg">lxxvi</a>., <a href="#img_258.jpg">lxxvii</a>.); and are now busy erecting
+very spacious new furnaces to enlarge the works.
+To provide fuel for the fires, they have put the
+pinewoods under proper regulations and stated
+falls; twenty-seven mule-loads of fir-wood are
+consumed every day; and four loads cost the king,
+including all the expenses of cutting and bringing
+down from the mountains, about forty reals.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_258.jpg" width="500" height="331"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_258.jpg" id="img_258.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LXXVII<br />GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1736, the first factory which had been
+established at San Ildefonso was nearly destroyed
+by fire; but the damage was repaired, and the
+factory placed under state control. Its finances
+were at no time prosperous. In 1762 Charles the
+Third granted a privilege reserving to it the
+exclusive sale of glass within a radius of twenty
+leagues from Madrid and Segovia; but the sales
+did not improve. In spite of this, the monarch,
+a few years later, erected a new and costly
+factory from designs by Villanueva and Real.
+There were two departments in this ample
+building. One, for the manufacture of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+plainest glass, was directed by a Hanoverian,
+named Sigismund Brun; and the other, devoted
+to smaller and more elaborate articles, by Eder, a
+Swede. &ldquo;The greater number of the objects
+made at these important works were of transparent,
+colourless glass, possessing a marked
+French style, and were either richly engraved and
+cut, or gilded, or sometimes (though less often) they
+were made of coloured and enamelled glass. At
+this time, too, were manufactured mirrors for the
+royal palaces, as well as candlesticks and chandeliers
+of great beauty, following the Venetian
+method, and embellished with coloured flowers.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p>
+
+<p>In spite of all these efforts, the works at the dawn
+of the nineteenth century were in a moribund
+condition. In 1829 they passed into the hands<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+of private persons, who also failed to make them
+pay, and subsequently, owing to the ineptitude of
+Spanish governments and the severity of foreign
+competition, have definitely closed their doors.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In Catalonia,&rdquo; wrote Laborde, towards the
+year 1800, &ldquo;are two glass houses; but the glass
+blown in them is dark, and destitute of lustre.
+Aragon has four, one at Alfamen, one at Pe�alva,
+one at Utrillas, and one at Jaulin, which is the
+largest; but the quality of the glass is not superior
+to that of Catalonia. The glass-house at Utrillas
+produces both flint and common glass. Glass
+houses are also established at Pajarejo and at
+Recuenco in Castile, which manufacture the most
+beautifully white and transparent glass.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1791 there were six glass-ovens in the
+kingdom of Valencia, situated at Valencia, Alicante,
+Salines, Olleria, and Alcira. They turned
+out 2100 pieces in this year, some of which were
+exported to Castile and Aragon.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
+
+<p>Early in the eighteenth century the glass of
+Barcelona was praised by Alvarez de Colmenar
+(&ldquo;Il s'y fait de belles verreries&rdquo;), and we know<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+that all through this period her <i>forns de vidre</i>
+continued to produce good work, including holy-water
+vessels of uncoloured glass relieved with
+blue or with the fine white <i>latticinio</i>, the local
+<i>arruixadors</i> or <i>borrachas</i>, and the typical <i>porr�n</i>.
+The former of these vessels is of small size, and
+has several spouts. Commonly it is filled with
+scented water for gallants to sprinkle on girls at
+dances in the public square. The <i>porr�n</i> invariably
+excites the curiosity of foreigners,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> and is often
+thought to be of purely Spanish origin. This is
+not so. Upon a Roman lampstand in Naples
+museum is a figure of Bacchus riding on a tiger
+and &ldquo;holding in his hand the horn from which
+the ancients drank, using it as, among some other
+peoples, do the modern Catalans&mdash;that is, not
+placing the vessel in their mouth, but holding it
+aloft and thus imbibing it; a method which
+requires no small amount of practice.&rdquo; In fact,
+there is reason to believe that the <i>porr�n</i> is derived
+from a similar vessel in use among the ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+Persians, who poured their liquor from it into the
+hollow of the hand, and thence imbibed it in the
+fashion called, in Catalu�a and Valencia, <i>al gallet</i>.
+For just as a certain class of American displays his
+marksmanship in spitting, so does the Catalan
+who is accomplished in the art, amuse himself
+and others by causing the ruby wine to spout from
+his <i>porr�n</i> on to the very apex of his nose, continuing
+from this point, in the form of a fine and
+undulating rivulet, over his upper lip and down his
+throat.</p>
+
+<p>Windows of Spanish houses were seldom glazed
+until about one hundred years ago. When Bertaut
+de Rouen travelled here in 1659, this fact impressed
+him disagreeably. Even in the royal palace at
+Madrid he found that there were chambers &ldquo;qui
+n'ont point du tout de fenestr�s, ou qui n'en ont
+qu'une petite, et d'o� le jour ne vient que d'enhaut,
+le verre estant fort rare en Espagne, et la pluspart
+des fenestr�s des maisons n'ayant pas de vitres.&rdquo;
+In 1787, Arthur Young was no less horrified at
+the glassless condition of the houses in Catalu�a.
+&ldquo;Reach Scull�; the inn so bad that our guide
+would not permit us to enter it, so he went to the
+house of the Cur�. A scene followed so new to
+English eyes, that we could not refrain from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+laughing very heartily. Not a pane of glass in
+the whole town, but our reverend host had a
+chimney in his kitchen; he ran to the river to
+catch trout; a man brought us some chickens
+which were put to death on the spot&hellip;. This
+town and its inhabitants are, to the eye, equally
+wretched, the smoke-holes instead of chimneys,
+the total want of glass windows&mdash;the cheerfulness
+of which, to the eye, is known only by the want.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>However, as an exception to this doleful rule,
+the town of Poeblar had &ldquo;some good houses with
+glass windows, and we saw a well-dressed young
+lady gallanted by two monks.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> &ldquo;Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo haren�
+temperantur.&rdquo;&mdash;Pliny, Bk. xxxvi; Chap. 66.</p>
+
+<p>The chief centres of glass-making were Tarragona, several towns
+of Betica (Andalusia), and the Balearic Islands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> The distinction which Ria�o attempts to draw between glass
+and glass paste is unsatisfactory. He remarks, too, that the manufacture
+of glass <i>may</i> have existed in Spain at an earlier period
+than the last three centuries, but continues: &ldquo;The earliest mention
+of glass-works in Spain will be found in Pliny, who, while explaining
+the proceedings which were employed in this industry, says
+that glass was made in a similar manner in France and Spain.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Rico y Sinobas, <i>Del Vidrio y de sus artifices en Espa�a
+(Almanaque del Museo de la Industria</i>, 1870).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Oliver, <i>Granada y sus monumentos �rabes</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> The inventory (<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque mentions
+&ldquo;a white box with four small bottles of Valencia glass containing
+ointment for the hands.&rdquo; Other objects specified in this inventory
+are &ldquo;a large glass cup, with two lizards for handles, and two more
+lizards on the cover&rdquo;; &ldquo;three glass cocoanuts, partly coloured
+and with gold blown into them, together with their covers&rdquo;; and &ldquo;a
+large glass cup, of Barcelona, blown with gold.&rdquo; The value of these
+cups, if they existed now, would not be less than two or three
+hundred pounds apiece.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Before this time, however, Aymerich had written, in or about
+the year 1100, that sixty large windows in Santiago cathedral were
+closed by glass, which probably was coloured. We also hear of
+Francisco Socoma, who made or fitted windows of coloured glass at
+Palma, in the island of Majorca, in 1380, and of Guillermo de
+Collivella, who, in 1391, fitted at Lerida the glass which had been
+coloured for the cathedral of that town by Juan de San-Amat.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> <i>Documentos In�ditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes en
+Espa�a</i>, p. 282 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> In the monastery of Miraflores, near this city, the queen of
+Ferdinand the Catholic built, at her expense, a rich pantheon to
+guard the ashes of her parents and her brother. The coloured glass
+was made by Simon of Cologne. One day, while visiting Miraflores,
+Isabella noticed upon the windows of this sanctuary the shield
+of a gentleman named Martin de Soria. Furious at the liberty
+thus taken with a fabric of her own, &ldquo;afferte mihi gladium&rdquo; she
+called in Latin to one of her attendants, and, raising the sword,
+dashed the offending window into a thousand pieces, crying that in
+that spot she would allow no arms but those of her father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Se�or L�zaro, who has recently made at Madrid windows for
+Le�n cathedral imitating those of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries, remarks that with the sixteenth century the process grew
+more complicated, patterns composed with pieces of a single colour
+being replaced by glass containing a variety of tints. He has also
+discovered the following usage of the older Spanish craftsmen:
+&ldquo;By way of furnishing a key to their arrangement, all the pieces
+used to be marked with the point of a diamond, and this mark
+indicates the tone the glass requires for such and such a part of the
+design. The signs most often employed were three, namely X, L,
+and V, for red, blue and yellow respectively, intermediate tones being
+shown by combinations of these letters&mdash;XL, LV, XV, with &ldquo;lines
+of unities&rdquo; placed before or after to indicate the necessary gradation
+in the tone.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> This artist painted a series of magnificent windows representing
+scenes from the life of San Pedro Nolasco, for the convent of
+La Piedad, at Valencia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos In�ditos, etc.</i>, pp. 339 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> According to Cean (<i>La Catedral de Sevilla</i>), Menandro painted
+in 1560 the conversion of Saint Paul on a window in the Chapel of
+Santiago, in 1567 another window with the scene of the Annunciation,
+over the gate of San Miguel, and in 1569 the companion to it,
+representing the Visitation, over the Puerta del Bautismo. &ldquo;In all
+these windows,&rdquo; wrote Cean, prejudiced, as was customary in his day,
+in favour of the strictly classic style, &ldquo;the drawing, pose, and composition
+are good, <i>although</i> in the draperies and figures we observe
+the influence of Germany.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In Cean's own time&mdash;that is, towards the close of the eighteenth
+century&mdash;the coloured windows of Seville Cathedral amounted to
+ninety-three, five of which were circular, and the rest with the
+pointed Gothic arch. The dimensions of the latter are twenty-eight
+feet high by twelve feet broad, and the subjects painted on them
+include the likenesses of prophets, patriarchs, martyrs, confessors,
+and virgins, or scenes from the New Testament, such as the rising
+of Lazarus, Christ driving the merchants from the temple, the Last
+Supper, and the anointing by Mary Magdalene.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos In�ditos</i>, p. 159</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Isidoro Rosell de Torres, <i>Las Vidrieras pintadas en Espa�a</i>
+(published in the <i>Museo Espa�ol de Antig�edades</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Penado.</i> A narrow-mouthed vessel that affords the liquor
+with scantiness and difficulty.&rdquo; Connelly and Higgins' Dictionary;
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1798.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> This machine was invented by a Catalan named Pedro Fronvila.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Vol. I., pp. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm#Page_144">144&ndash;147</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Bre�osa and Castellarnau; <i>Guide to San Ildefonso</i> (1884),
+p. 53. Rico y Sinobas observes that in the objects produced at the
+factory of La Granja, the glass itself is inferior to the engraving or
+cutting with which it is adorned. This leads him to infer that the
+foreigners brought over by the kings of Spain to superintend the
+factory, were cutters and engravers of glass, rather than skilled
+glass-makers. He also draws attention to the fact that the Spanish
+monarchs chose these foreign craftsmen from too limited a class,
+entrusting the most important posts at all the royal factories to
+Frenchmen who were stated to descend from the old nobility of
+their native country. In this manner the progress and welfare of
+the craft itself was sacrificed to an insane prejudice in favour of the
+aristocratic origin of the craftsman.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Ricord; <i>Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones del
+Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que ten�an en el a�o 1791.</i>
+Valencia, 1793.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> &ldquo;The mode of drinking in this country is singular; they hold
+a broad-bottom'd glass bottle at arm's length, and let the liquor
+spout out of a long neck upon their tongue; from what I see, their
+expertness at this exercise arises from frequent practise; for the
+Catalans drink often and in large quantities, but as yet I have not
+seen any of them intoxicated.&rdquo;&mdash;Swinburne.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p class="title">PRINTED BY<br />
+NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,<br />
+EDINBURGH.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have
+been maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as a misprint.</p>
+
+<table summary="corrections">
+  <tr>
+    <td><b>The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.</b></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. x: LIX &#8594; LIX.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 23: avec leurs enfans &#8594; enfants</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 32: feu. L'h�te &#8594; L'h�tel</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 33: choses est r�gl� &#8594; r�gl�</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 39: fort peupl�e autresfois &#8594; autrefois</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 71: pp. 161, 162 &#8594; pp. 161, 162.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 72: <i>Le�n Cathedral</i> &#8594; <i>Le�n Cathedral</i>)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 96: peintures vari�es de bon g�ut &#8594; go�t</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 98: on the cover. &#8594; on the cover.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 104: (see Vol. I. Plate xi.) &#8594; (see Vol. I., Plate xi.)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 132: appear to be galloping. &#8594; galloping.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 139: and &ldquo;Pisano.&rdquo; &#8594; and &ldquo;Pisano&rdquo;.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 139: &ldquo;<i>de relieve</i>.&rdquo; &#8594; &ldquo;<i>de relieve</i>&rdquo;.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 159: les plus compliq�es &#8594; compliqu�s</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 159: qu'un bal masq�e &#8594; masqu�</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 169: the journal of Bertant &#8594; Bertaut</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 180: Quarte, Vilallonga &#8594; Villalonga</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 183: degree of delicacy. &#8594; delicacy.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 188: says Se�or Osmo &#8594; Osma</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 188: and another <img src="images/img_188c.jpg" width="47" height="50" alt="symbol" /> &#8594; <img src="images/img_188c.jpg" width="47" height="50" alt="symbol" />.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 213: style of Capo-di-Monte. &#8594; Capo-di-Monte.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 225: in France and Spain. &#8594; Spain.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 228: albeit the the &#8594; albeit the</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 236: VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS &#8594; LXXV VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 254: GLASS OF THE &#8594; LXXVI GLASS OF THE</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME II (OF 3)***</p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,6442 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume II
+(of 3), by Leonard Williams
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume II (of 3)
+
+
+Author: Leonard Williams
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 10, 2013  [eBook #44392]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER
+SPAIN, VOLUME II (OF 3)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44392-h.htm or 44392-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
+      Volume I: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44391
+      Volume III: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44393
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The signs cross and dagger have been marked as [cross]
+      and [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (Comp^a). Multiple superscripted characters are
+      enclosed by curly brackets (example: DELINEAV^{it}).
+
+      [=a] represents a letter (in this instance a lower case
+      "a") with a macron above it.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece_
+SAINT FRANCIS]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME II
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO
+
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  FURNITURE                                                        1-86
+
+  IVORIES                                                        89-108
+
+  POTTERY                                                       111-220
+
+  GLASS                                                         223-263
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                              _VOLUME TWO_
+
+
+                               FURNITURE
+
+     PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+           St Francis of Assisi; Toledo Cathedral        _Frontispiece_
+
+        I. Mediaeval Chair                                            10
+
+       II. Gothic Chair                                              12
+
+      III. Spanish _Arcon_ or Baggage-Chest                          16
+
+       IV. _Arca_ of Cardinal Cisneros                               18
+
+        V. Armchair; Museum of Salamanca                             20
+
+       VI. Chair and Table; Salamanca Cathedral                      22
+
+      VII. Chairs upholstered with _Guadameciles_                    24
+
+     VIII. The Sala de la Barca; Alhambra, Granada                   26
+
+       IX. Door of the Hall of the Abencerrajes; Alhambra, Granada   28
+
+        X. Moorish Door; Detail of Carving; Hall of the Two
+           Sisters, Alhambra, Granada                                30
+
+       XI. Door of the Salon de Embajadores; Alcazar of Seville      32
+
+      XII. The same                                                  34
+
+     XIII. Alcazar of Seville; Facade and Principal Entrance         36
+
+      XIV. Door of the Capilla de los Vargas, Madrid                 38
+
+       XV. Mudejar Door; Palacio de las Duenas, Seville              40
+
+      XVI. _Celosia_; Alhambra, Granada                              42
+
+     XVII. Carved _Alero_                                            44
+
+    XVIII. Carved _Zapatas_; Casa de las Salinas, Salamanca          46
+
+      XIX. Carved _Zapatas_; Museum of Zaragoza                      48
+
+       XX. _Alero_ and Cornice of Carved Wood; Cuarto de Comares,
+           Alhambra, Granada                                         50
+
+      XXI. "Elijah Sleeping"; Statue in Wood, by Alonso Cano         52
+
+     XXII. Saint Bruno, by Alonso Cano; Cartuja of Granada           54
+
+    XXIII. Saint John the Baptist; San Juan de Dios, Granada         56
+
+     XXIV. Choir-Stalls; Santo Tomas, Avila                          58
+
+      XXV. Carved Choir-Stall; Toledo Cathedral                      60
+
+     XXVI. Choir-Stalls; Burgos Cathedral                            62
+
+    XXVII. Choir-Stalls; San Marcos, Leon                            64
+
+   XXVIII. Detail of Choir-Stalls; Leon Cathedral                    66
+
+     XXIX. Choir-Stalls; Plasencia Cathedral                         68
+
+      XXX. Detail of Choir-Stalls; Convent of San Marcos, Leon       70
+
+     XXXI. "Samson"; Carved Choir-Stall; Leon Cathedral              72
+
+    XXXII. "Esau"; Carved Choir-Stall; Leon Cathedral                74
+
+   XXXIII. _Retablo_; Seville Cathedral                              76
+
+    XXXIV. _Retablo_ of Seville Cathedral; Detail of Carving         78
+
+     XXXV. Detail of _Retablo_; Museum of Valladolid                 80
+
+    XXXVI. Detail of _Retablo_; Chapel of Santa Ana; Burgos
+           Cathedral                                                 82
+
+
+                                IVORIES
+
+   XXXVII. Ivory Box; Madrid Museum                                  90
+
+  XXXVIII. Ivory Casket; Pamplona Cathedral                          92
+
+    XXXIX. Ivory Box; Palencia Cathedral                             94
+
+       XL. Hispano-Moresque Ivory Casket; Royal Academy of History,
+           Madrid                                                    96
+
+      XLI. Ivory Crucifix; Madrid Museum                             98
+
+     XLIA. Back View of same                                         98
+
+     XLII. Byzantine Crucifix                                       100
+
+    XLIII. "The Virgin of Battles"; Seville Cathedral               102
+
+     XLIV. Spanish Mediaeval _Baculus_                               104
+
+      XLV. "A Tournament"                                           106
+
+     XLVI. Ivory Diptych; The Escorial                              108
+
+
+                                POTTERY
+
+    XLVII. Amphoraic Vases and other Pottery; Museum of Tarragona   116
+
+   XLVIII. Dish; Museum of Granada                                  118
+
+     XLIX. Hispano-Moresque _Tinaja_                                120
+
+        L. Coarse Spanish Pottery (Modern)                          126
+
+       LI. Door of the Mihrab; Cordova Cathedral                    134
+
+      LII. Mosaic of the Patio de las Doncellas; Alcazar of Seville 138
+
+     LIII. Andalusian non-lustred Ware; Osma Collection             140
+
+      LIV. _Cuenca_ Tiles; Alcazar of Seville                       142
+
+       LV. Altar of the Catholic Sovereigns; Alcazar of Seville     148
+
+      LVI. The Gate of Wine; Alhambra, Granada                      154
+
+     LVII. Tiles of the Decadent Period                             158
+
+    LVIII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Plaque                          168
+
+      LIX. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Alhambra, Granada         170
+
+       LX. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Vase; Madrid Museum             172
+
+      LXI. Lustred Tiles; Osma Collection                           174
+
+     LXII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           176
+
+    LXIII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           178
+
+     LXIV. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           180
+
+      LXV. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           182
+
+     LXVI. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware; Osma Collection           184
+
+    LXVII. Hispano-Moresque Lustred Ware                            186
+
+   LXVIII. Dish; Osma Collection                                    190
+
+     LXIX. An _Alfareria_ or Potter's Yard; Granada                 192
+
+      LXX. Talavera Vase                                            198
+
+     LXXI. Ornament in Porcelain of the Buen Retiro                 208
+
+    LXXII. Room decorated with Porcelain of the Buen Retiro; Royal
+           Palace of Aranjuez                                       214
+
+   LXXIII. Porcelain of the Moncloa Factory                         218
+
+
+                                 GLASS
+
+    LXXIV. Vessels of Cadalso Glass                                 234
+
+     LXXV. Vessels of Catalan Glass                                 236
+
+    LXXVI. Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso                    254
+
+   LXXVII. Glass of the Factory of San Ildefonso                    258
+
+
+
+
+                               FURNITURE
+
+
+Whether the primitive Iberians ate as well as slept upon
+their cave or cabin floor, or whether--as some classics call upon us to
+believe--they used a kind of folding-chair (_dureta_) and (more advanced
+and comfort-loving than the Andalusian rustics of this day) devoured
+their simple meal from benches or supports constructed in the wall, is
+not of paramount importance to the history of Spanish furniture. The
+statements of those early authors may be granted or rejected as we
+please; for not a single piece of furniture produced by prehistoric, or,
+indeed, by Roman or by Visigothic Spain, has been preserved. But if we
+look for evidence to other crafts, recovered specimens of her early gold
+and silver work and pottery show us that Roman Spain grew to be
+eminently Roman in her social and artistic life. This fact, together
+with the statements of Saint Isidore and certain other writers of his
+day, would seem to prove that all the usual articles of Roman furniture
+were commonly adopted by the subjugated tribes, and subsequently by the
+Visigoths;--the Roman eating-couch or _lectus triclinaris_, the
+state-bed or _lectus genialis_, the ordinary sleeping-bed or _lectus
+cubicularis_, made, in prosperous households, of luxurious woods inlaid
+with ivory, or even of gold and silver; lamps or candelabra of silver,
+copper, glass, and iron[1]; the _cathedra_ or chair for women, the
+_bisellium_ or seat for honoured guests, the _solium_ or chair for the
+head of the house, the simpler chairs without a back, known as the
+_scabellum_ and the _sella_, and the benches or _subsellia_ for the
+servants. Further, the walls were hung with tapestries or rendered
+cheerful by mural painting; while the fireplace[2] and the brasier
+(_foculus_) have descended to contemporary Spain.
+
+  [1] Documents, quoted by the Count of Clonard, of Alfonso the Second,
+      San Genadio, Froylan, and the Infanta Urraca.
+
+  [2] According to Miquel y Badia, the _focus_ of the Romans is the
+      present _clar de foch_ of Cataluna; "a square platform of brick or
+      stone raised somewhat from the ground, surrounded by a bench
+      (_esco_), and large enough to serve for roasting beasts entire."
+
+Swinburne wrote from Reus in 1775;--"we here for the first time saw a
+true Spanish kitchen, viz., an hearth raised above the level of the
+floor under a wide funnel, where a circle of muleteers were huddled
+together over a few cinders."
+
+Advancing to a period well within the reach of history, we find that
+early in the Middle Ages Spain's seigniorial mansions and the houses of
+the well-to-do were furnished in a style of rude magnificence. Roman
+models, derived from purely Roman and Byzantine sources through the
+Visigoths, continued to remain in vogue until the tenth or the eleventh
+century.[3] Then, as the fashion of these declined, the furniture of
+Christian Spain was modified in turn by Moorish, Gothic, and Renaissance
+art; or two of these would overlap and interact, or even all the three.
+
+During the Middle Ages the furniture of the eating, sleeping, and living
+room which formed the principal apartment in the mansion of a great
+seignior, was very much the same throughout the whole of Christian
+Europe. Viollet-le-Duc has described it in the closest detail. The
+dominant object, looming in a corner, was the ponderous bed, transformed
+into a thing of beauty by its costly canopy and hangings.[4] Throughout
+the earlier mediaeval times the Spanish bedstead was of iron or bronze.
+Wood, plain at first, then richly carved, succeeded metal towards the
+fourteenth century, and with this change the bed grew even vaster than
+before. Often it rose so high above the level of the flooring that the
+lord and lady required a set of steps to clamber up to it. These steps
+were portable, and sometimes made of solid silver.[5] I quote herewith a
+full description of a mediaeval Spanish bed, extracted from an inventory
+of the Princess Juana which was made upon her marriage with the Count of
+Foix, in 1392. The same bed had formerly belonged to Juana's mother, the
+Princess Martha, at her marriage with King Juan the First. It had "a
+velvet canopy with lions of gold thread, and a dove and a horse
+confronting every lion. And each of the lions and doves and horses bears
+a lettering; and the lettering of the lions is _Estre por voyr_, and
+that of the doves and horses _aay_, and the whole is lined with green
+cloth. _Item_, a counterpane of the said velvet, with a similar design
+of doves and lions, and likewise lined with green cloth. _Item_, three
+curtain-pieces of fine blue silk, with their metal rings and cords of
+blue thread. _Item_, three cushion-covers of blue velvet, two of them of
+large size, bearing two lions on either side, and four of them small,
+with a single lion on either side, embroidered with gold thread; with
+their linen coverings. _Item_, a cloth of a barred pattern, with the
+bars of blue velvet and cloth of gold upon a red ground; which cloth
+serves for a state-chair or for a window, and is lined with cloth.
+_Item_, another cloth made of the said velvet and cloth of gold, which
+serves for the small chair (_reclinatorio_) for hearing Mass, and is
+lined with the aforesaid green cloth. _Item_, two large linen sheets
+enveloping the aforesaid canopy and counterpane. A pair of linen sheets,
+of four breadths apiece, bordered on every side with a handbreadth of
+silk and gold thread decoration consisting of various kinds of birds,
+leaves, and letters; and each of the said sheets contains at the
+head-end about five handbreadths of the said decoration. _Item_, four
+cushions of the same linen, all of them adorned all round with about a
+handbreadth of the aforesaid decoration of birds, leaves, and letters.
+_Item_, two leather boxes, lined with wool, which contained all these
+objects. _Item_, five canvas-covered cushions stuffed with feather, for
+use with the said six coverings of blue velvet bearing the said devices.
+_Item_, three large pieces of wall tapestry made of blue wool with the
+same devices of lions, horses, and doves, made likewise of wool, yellow
+and of other colours. _Item_, five carpets made of the aforesaid wool,
+bearing the same devices. _Item_, three coverlets of the same wool, and
+with the same devices, for placing on the bed. _Item_, a coverlet of red
+leather bearing in its centre the arms of the King and the Infanta.
+_Item_, another coverlet made of leather bars and plain red leather.
+_Item_, a woollen coverlet with the arms of the Infanta."[6]
+
+  [3] The _Codex of the Testaments_, preserved in Oviedo Cathedral,
+      contains some valuable illustrations of Spanish furniture of the
+      tenth century. Greatly interesting, too, is the chair of San
+      Raimundo (12th century) preserved at Roda in Aragon. It is of the
+      "scissors" or folding form (_sella plicatilis_, Ducange), and the
+      arms are terminated by heads of animals.
+
+  [4] The early nomenclature of the clothes and other fittings of a
+      Spanish bed is bewildering. We find in common use the canopy
+      (_almocalla_, _almuzala_; Arabic, _al-mokalla_, i.e. "haven of
+      refuge in all winds"--not always, possibly, a judicious term in the
+      case of a _cama de matrimonio_ or "marriage-bed"); the cloth-lined
+      skins for chilly weather (_alifafe_, _alifad_; Arabic _al-lifafh_),
+      such as King Juan the First of Aragon provided for his daughter
+      ("two leathers of Morocco for the bed." _Archive of the Crown of
+      Aragon; Registro 1906, fol. 42_); the parament or _dosal_; the
+      _galnape_ or topmost of the bedclothes proper ("_un lecho con
+      guenabe_"; Fuero of Caceres, A.D. 1229); the counterpane (_fatel_,
+      _fatol_, _alfatel_, _facel_, _farele_, _fateye_, _fatiro_; Arabic
+      _fatla_); the linen sheets (_izares_, _lentros_, _lentos_, _lintes_,
+      _lincas_, _linteaminas_, or _lencios_); and the mattress, pillow,
+      and bolster, called, all three of them, _plumazo_, _plumario_, or
+      _plumaco_. Nearly or quite identical in meaning with these last are
+      _culcita_ and _almadraque_. _Culcita_ is corrupted into _colcedra_,
+      _cocedra_, _conzara_, _colotra_, and other more or less barbaric
+      variations; while _almohada_, _almuella_, _travesera_,
+      _almofadinha_, _faseruelo_, and _aljamar_ also signify a pillow or
+      a cushion.
+
+  [5] "E due haber encara hela entegrament, ses vestitz e ses joyes e un
+      leyt ben garnit del misllors apereylltz que sien en casa, e _una_
+      _escala d'argent_ e una cortina." Fuero of Jaca, A.D. 1331, quoted
+      by Abad y la Sierra and the Count of Clonard.
+
+  [6] Sanpere y Miquel; _Las costumbres catalanas en tiempo de Juan I._,
+      pp. 83, 84.
+
+Another corner of the room was occupied by the dining-table,[7] spread
+at meal-times with a cloth denominated by Saint Isidore the _mappa_,
+_mapula_, _mapil_, _mantella_, or _mantellia_; and laid with the
+_mandibulas_ or "jaw-wipers" (_i.e._ napkins; see Du Cange), plates
+(_discos_), dishes (_mensorios_, _messorios_, or _misorios_), spoons
+(_cocleares_, _culiares_), though not as yet with forks,[8] cups of
+various shapes and substances, with or without a cover (_copos_,
+_vasculos_, and many other terms), the water-flagon (_kana_, _mikana_,
+_almakana_), the cruet-stand (_canatella_), and the salt-cellar
+(_salare_).
+
+  [7] Miquel y Badia believes that the Spaniards abandoned the Roman
+      usage of reclining at their meals towards the sixth century.
+
+  [8] Forks were not introduced till later. It has even been questioned
+      whether they were known in Spain as late as the sixteenth century.
+      But Ambrosio de Morales mentions one in 1591, while another is
+      recorded in 1607 as belonging to the monastery of San Jeronimo de
+      Valparaiso, near Cordova. (See vol. i., p. 84.)
+
+This table also served to write upon, while in its neighbourhood would
+stand the massive sideboard, piled with gold and silver plate, and
+vessels of glass or ivory, wood or alabaster.
+
+Besides the bed and table in their several corners, the chamber would
+contain a suitable variety of chairs and stools, mostly surrounding the
+capacious fireplace. Members of the household also sat on carpets spread
+upon the floor. The great armchair of the seignior himself was more
+ornate than any of the rest, and was provided somewhat later with a
+lofty Gothic back (Plates i. and ii.). A chair with a back of moderate
+height was destined for distinguished visitors. The back of ordinary
+chairs reached only to about the sitter's shoulder, and coverings of
+cloth or other stuffs were not made fast, but hung quite loosely from
+the wooden frame. This usage lasted till the sixteenth century, when the
+upholsterers began to nail the coverings of the larger chairs and
+benches.
+
+Owing to the oriental influence brought back from the Crusades, the
+furniture of Europe, not excluding Spain, grew ever more elaborate and
+costly, while further, in the case of this Peninsula, the native Moorish
+influence operated steadily and strongly from Toledo, Seville, Cordova,
+Valencia, and elsewhere. Tapestries of Eastern manufacture (_alcatifas_)
+were now in general use for decorating floors and walls. The bed grew
+more and more gigantic, and its clothes and curtains more extravagantly
+sumptuous, until the florid Gothic woodwork harmonized with canopies and
+curtains cut from priceless skins, or wrought in gold and silver thread
+on multicolor satin and brocade. And at the bed's head, like some jewel
+marvellously set, rested, in every noble home, the diptych or the
+triptych with its image of the Saviour or the Virgin Mary.
+
+Under the influence of the Renaissance this love of luxury continued to
+increase among the royal and the noble families of Spain. In 1574 an
+inventory of the estate of Dona Juana, sister of Philip the Second,
+mentions a silver balustrade, weighing one hundred and twenty-one
+pounds, for placing round a bed. The inventory (1560) of the Dukes of
+Alburquerque contains a great variety of entries relative to the
+furniture and chamber-fittings of the period. We find here mentioned,
+Turkey carpets and the celebrated Spanish ones of Alcaraz, linens of
+Rouen, green cloth of Cuenca, Toledo cloths, hangings of Arras and
+elsewhere, tablecovers of damask and of velvet, gold-fringed canopies
+(_doseles_) of green or crimson velvet or brocade, a "canopy for a
+sideboard, of red and yellow Toledo cloth, with the arms of the La
+Cuevas in embroidery, together with stripes and bows, and repetitions of
+the letter I (for _Isabel Giron_, the duchess), also embroidered fringes
+of the same cloth, and cords of the aforesaid colours." We also read of
+a _sitial_ or state-chair of crimson satin brocade, and "a small walnut
+table covered with silver plates, bearing the arms of my lord the duke
+and of my lady the duchess, and edged with silver stripes."[9] The
+bedstead, fitted with hangings of double taffeta and scarlet cloth, was
+no less sumptuous than the other objects.
+
+  [9] This kind of furniture was prohibited by a sumptuary pragmatic of
+      1594. "No silversmith or other craftsman, or any person whatsoever,
+      shall make, or cause to be made, or sold, or sell himself or
+      purchase, whether openly or privately, buffets, writing-desks,
+      chests, brasiers, pattens, tables, letter-cases, _rejillas_ or
+      foot-warmers, images, or any other object that has silver fittings,
+      whether the silver be beaten, stamped, wrought in relief, carved,
+      or plain." _Suma de todas las leyes_ (A.D. 1628), p. 42.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                             MEDIAEVAL CHAIR
+             (_Carved with the arms of Castile and Leon_)]
+
+A popular and even an indispensable piece of furniture in every mediaeval
+Spanish household was the _caja de novia_ or "bride's chest." The
+use of this, as well as of a smaller kind of box, was common both
+to Moors and Christians. No matter of what size, these objects were
+essentially the same. They served innumerable purposes; were made of
+all dimensions--from the tiniest casket (_arcellina_, _capsula_, or
+_pyxide_; see vol. i., p. 45 _et seq._) to the ponderous and vast
+_arcon_,--and almost any substance--ivory or crystal, mother-of-pearl or
+glass, gold, silver, copper, silver-gilt, jasper, agate, or fine wood;
+and we find them in every part of the Peninsula, from the dawn of the
+Middle Ages till very nearly the end of the eighteenth century.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+                              GOTHIC CHAIR
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+According to the Marquis of Monistrol, the larger boxes or _arcones_
+constitute by far the commonest article of Spanish furniture all through
+the earlier portion of this lengthy period. The same authority divides
+them broadly into seven classes, thus:--
+
+  (1) Burial-chests.
+
+  (2) Chests for storing chasubles, chalices, candelabra, and other
+      objects connected with the ceremonies of the church.
+
+  (3) Archive-chests, for storing documents.
+
+  (4) Chests for storing treasure (_huches_).
+
+  (5) Brides' chests.
+
+  (6) Chests for storing arms.
+
+  (7) _Arcones-trojes_, or chests of common make, employed for storing
+      grain in country dwellings or _posadas_.
+
+The decorative richness of these quaint _arcones_ varies according to
+their date of manufacture, or the purpose they were meant to serve.
+Commonly, in the earliest of them, dating from the sixth or seventh
+century, the iron clamps or fastenings form the principal or only
+ornament. Such are reported to have been the two chests which the Cid
+Campeador loaded with sand and foisted as filled with specie on his
+"dear friends" Rachel and Vidas, the Jewish though trustful usurers of
+Burgos, in return for six hundred marks of gold and silver. Tradition
+says, moreover, that the chest now shown at Burgos as the "coffer of the
+Cid" is actually one of these. It is certain that the archives of the
+cathedral have been deposited in this chest for many centuries.
+Evidently, too, it dates from about the lifetime of the Cid, while the
+rings with which it is fitted show it to have been a kind of trunk
+intended to be carried on the backs of sumpter-mules or horses.
+
+After the Roman domination in this country, the Latin term _capsa_ was
+applied to every kind of chest; but at a later age sepulchral chests or
+coffins were denominated _urns_, in order to distinguish them from
+_arcas_ and _arcones_, which were used for storing clothes or jewellery.
+Excellent examples of Spanish mediaeval burial-chests are those of Dona
+Urraca, preserved in the Sagrario of the cathedral of Palencia, and of
+San Isidro, patron of Madrid. The former, mentioned by painstaking Ponz,
+and by Pulgar in his _Secular and Ecclesiastical Annals of Palencia_, is
+of a plain design, and really constitutes a coffin. The sepulchral chest
+of San Isidro, dating from the end of the thirteenth century, or the
+early part of the fourteenth, and kept at Madrid in a niche of the
+_camarin_ of the parish church of San Andres, is in the Romanic style,
+and measures seven feet six inches in length. It has a gable top, and is
+painted in brilliant colours on plaster-coated parchment, with miracles
+effected by the saint, and other scenes related with his life; but much
+of the painting is effaced.
+
+Another interesting sepulchral chest would probably have been the one
+presented in 1052 by Ferdinand the First, together with his royal robe
+and crown,[10] to the basilica of Saint John the Baptist at Leon, to
+guard the remains of Saint Isidore. This chest was covered with thick
+gold plates studded with precious stones, and bore, in enamel and
+relief, the figures of the apostles gathered round the Saviour, and
+medallions containing figures of the Virgin, saints, and martyrs.
+According to Ambrosio de Morales, the gold plates were torn off by
+Alfonso the First of Aragon, who replaced them by others of silver-gilt.
+The same monarch, regardless of the church's fierce anathema pronounced
+on all who dared to touch her property,[11] is accused by his chronicler
+of having appropriated a box of pure gold studded with gems, enshrining
+a crucifix made of the true Cross, and which was kept in some town or
+village of the kingdom of Leon. Doubtless as a chastisement for
+Alfonso's impiety, this precious box was captured from him by the Moors
+at the battle of Fraga.
+
+  [10] Describing how the monarch made these presents to the church when
+       lying at the point of death, the _Chronicle of the Monk of Silos_
+       says: "_exuit regalem clamydem, qua induebatur corpus et deposuit
+       gemmatam coronam, qua ambiebatur caput_."
+
+  [11] The formula is worded thus: "_Quisquis ille fuerit qui talia
+       commiserit, sit maledictus coram Deo et Angelis ejus, mendicitas
+       et lepra prosapiam teneat suam et extraneus persistat a sancta
+       communione, quatenus cum Juda, Christi proditore, ardendus
+       permaneat in aeterna damnatione._"
+
+Among the reliquary chests, the oldest specimen extant in Spain is the
+_arca santa_ of Oviedo cathedral. This object, which is purely Byzantine
+in its style, is believed to have been made at Constantinople. It was
+improved by Alfonso the Sixth, who added _repousse_ plates to it, with
+Arabic ornamentation in the form of meaningless inscriptions of a merely
+decorative character, but which are interesting as showing the kinship
+existing at this time between the Spanish Christians and the Spanish
+Moors.
+
+Equally important is the coffer which was made by order of Don Sancho el
+Mayor to enshrine the wonder-working bones of San Millan, and which is
+now at San Millan de la Cogulla, in the province of La Rioja. The author
+of this chest, which dates from A.D. 1033, is vaguely spoken of as
+"Master Aparicio." The chest itself consists of a wooden body beneath a
+covering of ivory and gold, further enriched with statuettes and studded
+with real and imitation stones. It is divided into twenty-two
+compartments carved in ivory with passages from the life and miracles of
+the saint, and figures of "princes, monks, and benefactors," who had
+contributed in one way or another to the execution of the reliquary.
+
+I have said that the "coffer of the Cid" was made for carrying baggage.
+A very interesting Spanish baggage-chest, although more modern than the
+Cid's by several centuries, is now the property of Senor Moreno
+Carbonero (Plate iii.). This very competent authority believes it to
+have belonged to Isabella the Catholic, and says that it was formerly
+the usage of the sovereigns of this country to mark their baggage-boxes
+with the first quartering of the royal arms and also with their
+monogram. Such is the decoration, consisting of repeated castles and the
+letter Y (for Ysabel), upon this trunk. The space between is painted red
+upon a surface thinly spread with wax. Strips of iron, twisted to
+imitate the girdle of Saint Francis, are carried over all the frame,
+surrounding the castles and the letters. This box was found at
+Ronda.[12]
+
+  [12] To keep the dust or rain from entering these trunks, they were
+       covered, when on the march, with stout square cloths called
+       _reposteros_, which were often richly worked and bore the owner's
+       arms or monogram. The same word subsequently came to mean the
+       tapestried or other decorative cloths displayed in Spain on gala
+       days from balconies of public edifices, or the mansions of the
+       aristocracy; but dictionaries which were printed at the close of
+       the eighteenth century still define the _repostero_ as "caparison,
+       a square cloth with the arms of a prince or lord on it, which
+       serves to cover a led-horse, or sumpter-horse."
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                                _ARCON_
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+A handsome _arcon_, dating from the same period as this baggage-chest of
+Isabella the Catholic, namely, the end of the fifteenth century, is
+stated by its owner, Don Manuel Lopez de Ayala, to have belonged to
+Cardinal Cisneros (Plate iv.). The material is wood, covered inside with
+dark blue cloth, and outside with red velvet, most of the nap of which
+is worn away. The dimensions are four feet six inches in length, two
+feet in height, and twenty inches in depth. The chest, which has a
+triple lock, is covered with _repousse_ iron plates representing twisted
+columns and other architectural devices, combined with Gothic
+thistle-leaves. A coat of arms is on the front.
+
+Such is an outline of the history of these Spanish chests. Most of the
+earlier ones are cumbersome and scantily adorned. Then, as time
+proceeds, we find on them the florid Gothic carving, unsurpassed for
+purity and charm; then the Renaissance, with its characteristic ornament
+of urns, and birds, and intertwining frond and ribbon; and finally,
+towards, and lasting through the greater portion of, the eighteenth
+century, the tasteless and decadent manner of Baroque. Yet even in the
+worst and latest we descry from time to time a flickering remnant of the
+art of Moorish Spain.
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                      _ARCA_ OF CARDINAL CISNEROS]
+
+These Spanish Moors, obedient to the custom of their fellow-Mussulmans
+throughout the world, employed but little furniture. They loved,
+indeed, bright colours and ingenious craftsmanship, but rather in the
+adjuncts to their furniture than in the furniture itself; in costly
+carpets, or worked and coloured leather hung upon the wall,[13] or
+spread upon their _alhamies_ and _alhanias_; in fountains bubbling in
+the middle of their courts and halls; in doors, and ceilings, and
+_celosias_ exquisitely carved, and joined with matchless cunning; in
+flower-vases placed in niches; in bronze or silver perfume-burners
+rolling at their feet; but not (within the ordinary limit of the term)
+in furniture. Upon this theme the Reverend Lancelot Addison discourses
+very quaintly. "The host here," he wrote of "West Barbary" in 1663, "is
+one Cidi Caffian Shat, a grandee, reported to be an Andalusian, one of
+the race of the Moors bansht (_sic_) Spain.... We were called to a
+little upper Room, which we could not enter till we had put off our
+shoes at the threshold: not for Religion, but Cleanliness, and not to
+prevent our unhallowing the floor, but defiling the carpets wherewith it
+was curiously spread. At the upper end of the Room was laid a Velvit
+Cushion, as large as those we use in our Pulpits, and it denoted the
+most Honourable part of the Room. After we had reposed about an hour,
+there was brought in a little oval Table, about twenty Inches high,
+which was covered with a long piece of narrow linnen; and this served
+for Diaper.[14] For the Moors, by their law, are forbidden such
+superfluous Utensils as napkins, knives, spoons, etc. Their Religion
+laying down the general maxim, that meer necessaries are to be provided
+for; which caused a precise Moor to refuse to drink out of my dish when
+he could sup water enough out of the hollow of his hand."
+
+  [13] The wood-carving and decorative leather-work of older Spain will
+       be described a little later on. As to the use of decorated leather
+       by the Moors, in the small chamber of the Alhambra opening into
+       the Mirador of Daraxa, and known as the Sala de los Ajimeces, is a
+       bare space about nine feet in height, which runs the whole way
+       round beneath the copious ornament of the remainder of the wall.
+       Contreras says that the Moorish sultans used to hang these spaces
+       with decorated leathers, tapestry, and armour. Sometimes the
+       tapestry or leather would be worked or painted with hunting-scenes
+       (_tardwahsh_--the chase of the lion, panther, or wild boar), or
+       even with portraits of the sultans. Among these latter is the
+       celebrated painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice,
+       executed, as are its companions at each side of it, upon a leather
+       groundwork with a plaster coating.
+
+  [14] I think this shows why to this day a Spaniard who professes to be
+       an educated person will often wipe his or her mouth upon the
+       tablecloth. Not many weeks ago I saw the elegantly dressed daughter
+       of a Spanish member of Parliament perform this semi-oriental feat
+       in an hotel at Granada. Montaigne would judge this _senorita_ with
+       benevolence; not so, I fear, my compatriots. Similarly, it is
+       considered rude in Spain to stretch yourself; but not to spit upon
+       the dining-room floor, or pick your teeth at table.
+
+The same author proceeds to relate his experiences at bed-time. "Having
+supp'd and solaced ourselves with muddy beverage and Moresco music, we
+all composed ourselves to sleep: about twenty were allotted to lodge in
+this small chamber, whereof two were Christians, three Jews, and the
+rest Moors; every one made his bed of what he wore, which made our
+English constitutions to wish for the morning."
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                                ARMCHAIR
+                 (_17th Century. Museum of Salamanca_)]
+
+Among the Mussulmans all this has undergone no change. Do we not find
+their present furniture to be identical with that of distant
+centuries?--a characteristic scarcity of portable articles of wood; the
+isolated box (_arqueta_ or _arcon_) which serves the purpose of our
+clumsier chest of drawers or wardrobe;[15] carpets and decorated
+leathers; the tiny, indispensable table; the lack of knives and spoons;
+ornaments to regale the eye rather than commodities which the hand might
+seize upon and utilize? Such was, and is, and will continue to remain
+Mohammedan society throughout the world; and these descriptive passages
+of life in seventeenth-century Morocco might have been penned with equal
+truth in reference to the Spanish Muslim of a thousand years ago.
+
+  [15] Mr. Cunninghame Graham, visiting a Caid's house in present-day
+       Morocco, noted, as the only furniture, "leather-covered cushions,
+       the cover cut into intricate geometric patterns; the room contained
+       a small trunk-shaped box."
+
+The furniture of the Moorish mosques was also of the scantiest. "They
+are," to quote once more from Lancelot Addison's amusing little
+brochure, "without the too easy accommodations of seats, pews, or
+benches. The floor of the Giamma is handsomely matted, and so are the
+walls about two feet high. If the roof be large and weighty, it is
+supported with pillars, among which hang the lamps, which are kept
+burning all the night." At one point of his expedition the reason for
+such paucity of furniture was vividly expounded to our tourist. A Moor
+indignantly exclaimed to him that it was "a shame to see women, dogs,
+and dirty shoes brought into a place sacred to God's worship, and that
+men ... should have chaires there to sit in with as much lascivious ease
+as at home."[16]
+
+  [16] _West Barbary_, p. 150.
+
+Nevertheless, a pulpit in the mosque, and a seat of some kind in the
+palace or the private house, were not to be dispensed with. We learn
+from Ibn-Khaldoun and many other writers, that the throne of the
+Mussulman sultans was the _mimbar_, _takcht_, or _cursi_. Each of these
+objects was a wooden seat. The first of the sultans to use a throne was
+Moawia, son of Abu-Sofyan. The princes who came after him continued the
+same usage, but displayed a constantly increasing splendour in the
+decoration of the throne. This custom spread, in course of time, from
+east to west throughout almost the whole dominion of the Muslims. The
+Beni-Nasr princes of Granada are also known to have used a throne, but
+this is believed to have consisted simply of some cushions piled one
+upon another. This inference is drawn by Eguilaz Yanguas and other
+Arabists from the old _Vocabulary_ of Fray Pedro de Alcala, who renders
+a "throne" or "royal seat" by _martaba_, a word equivalent to "cushion."
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                            CHAIR AND TABLE
+                 (_17th Century. Salamanca Cathedral_)]
+
+Cushions, too, became symbolic, even with the Christian Spaniards, of a
+seat of honour; both because they lent themselves to rich embroidery or
+leather-work, and because they raised their occupant above the level of
+the persons seated positively on the carpet or the floor. In the
+painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Justice in the Alhambra, ten men
+are congregated in Mohammedan costume, each of them seated on a
+cushion. Some writers, including Argote de Molina, Diego Hurtado de
+Mendoza, and Hernando del Pulgar, believed these figures to be actual
+portraits of the sultans; others maintain that they depict the _Mizouar_
+or royal council. In either case, however, the cushion here is clearly
+an honourable place. We have, besides, abundant evidence that the
+Spanish Christians viewed the cushion with as marked a liking as their
+rivals. Alvarez de Colmenar relates that at the very close of the
+seventeenth century the Spanish women sat at meals in Moorish fashion.
+"Un pere de famille est assis seul a table, et toutes les femmes, sans
+exception, mangent par terre, assises sur un carreau avec leurs enfants,
+et leur table dressee sur un tapis etendu." The same work says elsewhere
+that "lorsque les dames se rendent visite, elles ne se donnent ni siege
+ni fauteuil, mais elles sont toutes assises par terre, les jambes en
+croix, sur des tapis ou des carreaux."[17]
+
+  [17] _Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal_, vol. iii., pp. 324, 327.
+
+Therefore, until two centuries ago, the women of Christian Spain were
+suffered to take their seat on cushions of brocade or damask. Only the
+men made use of stools or chairs, according to their rank. To "give a
+chair" (_dar silla_) to a visitor of the male sex was to pay him a
+valued courtesy;[18] and even now the wife of a grandee of Spain goes
+through the honourable though irksome ceremony, at the palace of Madrid,
+of "taking the cushion."
+
+  [18] "Honrale el Sr Roberto, alma del Rey, y _le ha dado Silla_, y le
+       tuvo a su lado." Lope de Vega's comedy, _The Key of Honour_.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                 CHAIRS UPHOLSTERED WITH _GUADAMECILES_
+                           (_17th Century_)]
+
+Another usage with the Spaniards of the seventeenth and immediately
+preceding centuries was the "dais of honour" or _estrado de
+cumplimiento_. This was a platform very slightly raised, and separated
+by a railing from the rest of the room. The curious manuscript
+discovered by Gayangos, descriptive of court-life at Valladolid in 1605,
+contains the following account of one of the occasions when the Queen,
+following a common custom of a Sunday, dined alone, in sight of all the
+aristocracy. "The table was laid upon the dais (_estrado alto_), beneath
+a canopy of brocade that overhung the whole of it. The queen sat at the
+head of the table, and three ladies, standing, waited on her; two
+uncovering the dishes as they came,[19] and the third carving. The
+dishes were brought from the dining-room door by the _meninos_, who
+handed them to the ladies. Other ladies of the royal household, wives or
+daughters of grandees, stood leaning against the wall in company with
+gentlemen who, on such occasions, sue for leave beforehand to attend on
+Lady So and So, or So and So. Commonly there are two such cavaliers to
+every dame. If the queen asks for water, one of these ladies takes it to
+her, kneels, makes an obeisance, kisses the goblet, hands it to her
+majesty, and retires to her appointed place. Behind the queen was one of
+her chamberlains. Many of the Englishmen were witnessing the meal. They
+always put the English first on such occasions; and as they are such
+hulking fellows (God bless them!) I, who was at their back, scarce noted
+anything of what was passing, and only saw that many plates went to and
+fro."
+
+  [19] The covers would be fastened by a lock and key, as a defence, not
+       against poison, but against theft. "A little afterwards Don
+       Federico de Cardona, who had gone out to see how matters were
+       proceeding, returned, bearing a large silver vessel, the cover of
+       which was secured by a lock and key, as is the custom in
+       Spain."--Countess d'Aulnoy's _Travels_. As late as the year 1792,
+       Townsend, in his "Directions to the Itinerant in Spain," recommends
+       (vol. i., p. 2) that the vessel to boil the traveller's meat should
+       be provided with a cover and a lock.
+
+Solid and expensive furniture continued to be used in Spain throughout
+the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries; the ponderous chest, the
+ponderous brasier, ponderous stools, ponderous armchairs with massive
+nails and coverings of velvet or of decorated leather (Plates v., vi.,
+and vii.). Upon the wall, the tapestry of earlier times was often
+replaced by paintings of a sacred character, or family portraits. The
+comedy titled _La Garduna de Sevilla_, written about the middle of the
+seventeenth century by Alonso del Castillo Solorzano, describes the
+interior of a rich man's dwelling of this period. "Upstairs Rufina noted
+delicate summer hangings, new chairs of Moscovy cowhide, curiously
+carved buffets, and ebony and ivory writing-desks; for Marquina, though
+a skinflint towards others, was generous in the decoration of his own
+abode.... When dinner was over, he took her to a room embellished with
+fine paintings, and with a bed whose canopy was of some Indian
+fabric.... Paintings by famous masters were plentifully hung about the
+house, together with fine Italian hangings, various kinds of
+writing-desks, and costly beds and canopies. When they had visited
+nearly all the rooms, they opened the door of one which contained a
+beautiful altar and its oratory. Here were a great array of costly
+and elaborate Roman vessels, agnuses of silver and of wood, and flowers
+arranged in various ways. This chamber, too, was full of books
+distributed in gilded cases."
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                         THE _SALA DE LA BARCA_
+            (_Before the fire of 1890. Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+A characteristic piece of Spanish furniture was at this time the
+solid-looking cabinet known as the _vargueno_, so denominated from the
+little town of Vargas, near Toledo, formerly a well-known centre of
+their manufacture. These cabinets, whose origin, according to the
+Marquis of Monistrol, may be traced to a fifteenth-century form of
+_huche_, or chest provided with drawers for guarding articles of value,
+and which opened in the centre, are commonly made of walnut. The front
+lets down upon a massive wooden rest supported by the legs, and forms a
+folding writing-table containing at the back a number of drawers or
+compartments for storing documents, or other things of minor bulk.
+
+The woodwork of these cabinets is often without carving; but generally
+in such cases their bareness is relieved by massive and elaborately
+ornamented iron fastenings and a decorative key.
+
+The Ordinances of Granada tell us that in 1616 the making of defective
+furniture had grown to be a scandal in that town. The cause, it seems,
+was partly in the wood itself, proceeding from the Sierra de Segura,
+Pinar del Duque, and the Sierra de Gor. "Divers of our carpenters and
+joiners cut their walnut and other woods while yet the moon is crescent,
+whereby the wood decays and spoils. Others there be that make and sell
+chairs, desks, beds, and other furniture of green unseasoned wood which
+warps and loosens, insomuch that within some days the article is
+worthless. Therefore we order that all walnut wood and other woods for
+making furniture be only cut at the time of the waning moon, and be not
+used until they shall have seasoned thoroughly, so as not to warp; and
+that they be approved by the inspectors of this trade, under a penalty
+of six thousand _maravedis_ for each of the aforesaid Ordinances that be
+not complied with."
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                  DOOR OF THE HALL OF THE ABENCERRAJES
+                         (_Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+The municipal laws of the same city relative to the "chair-makers who
+make hip-chairs to sit in, and leather-covered chests," were cried, in
+1515 and 1536, "in the street of the chairmakers and carpenters."
+Fettered by irksome regulations of this kind, we cannot wonder that the
+arts and crafts of Christian Spain were fated to decline.[20] Owing
+to the "false and faulty workmanship" prevailing in Granada, it is
+provided by these statutes that the wood employed in making chairs must
+be bought by the manufacturers in public auction only, held "in the
+little square where dwell the chairmakers." It must be thoroughly dry
+and free from flaws, and of sufficient stoutness to sustain the
+decorative marquetry. The chair which lacks these requisite conditions
+must be seized and burnt. The four nails which fasten the seat of the
+chair to the legs must traverse the frame completely and be hammered
+back upon the other side, unless the surface of the chair be inlaid, in
+which case they need not pass completely through. The leather for the
+seats and backs of chairs must be good in quality and well prepared and
+dressed, besides being strongly sewn with flaxen thread. Chairs of all
+sizes must bear the official city mark, stamped by the authorities at a
+charge of one _maravedi_ for each of the large chairs and a _blanca_ for
+each of the small.
+
+  [20] The purpose of these Spanish city laws was in its essence
+       unimpeachable; namely, to guard the intensely ignorant Christian
+       populace--the same which fugitive Moriscos of the kingdom of
+       Valencia had readily prevailed upon to barter tons of brass and
+       pewter trash for sterling gold and silver coin--from being imposed
+       upon by manufacturers and merchants. But the power of
+       discriminating between a genuine or well-made object and a piece
+       of counterfeit or worthless rubbish is, among all peoples, better
+       sought for and developed by experience than by legislation; and
+       there was something noxiously prosaic in a code of city ordinances
+       which forbade the craftsman to prepare his own design, or choose
+       his own material, or establish his own prices. How violently, or at
+       least how primitively, hostile to the sense of art must not have
+       been these Christian sons of Spain to need--or think they
+       needed--so impertinent and tyrannous a system of protection!
+
+Makers of the leather-covered chests are ordered to use the hides of
+horses, mares, or mules, and not the hides of oxen, cows, or calves,
+because, if covered with this latter, "the chests grow moth-eaten and
+are destroyed much sooner." The craftsman who transgresses this command
+must lose the faulty piece of furniture, and pay four hundred
+_maravedis_, while under a further penalty of two hundred _maravedis_
+the hinges must be fixed inside the chest, and not to its exterior.
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                    MOORISH DOOR, DETAIL OF CARVING
+            (_Hall of the Two Sisters, Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+I have omitted hitherto all mention of the furnishing of humbler Spanish
+houses in the olden time. The following passage from the Ordinances of
+Granada shows us, referring to an inn, an unpretentious lodging of about
+four hundred years ago:--
+
+"_Item._ If the innkeeper have a parlour or alcove that fastens with a
+lock, and therein a bed of the better class, with hangings round about
+it, and a canopy above, and on the bed a counterpane, friezed
+blanket, and pillows; also a bench with its strip of carpet or striped
+benchcloth, a table with its service of tablecloths and all that be
+needful, besides a lamp of brass or ware, all of the best that he is
+able to provide--for such a bed and room he may demand twelve
+_maravedis_ each day; whether the room be taken by one guest, or two, or
+more."[21]
+
+  [21] _Ordenanza de Mesoneros_, titulo 54.
+
+Nor was the Spanish inn more comfortable in the seventeenth or
+eighteenth centuries than in the sixteenth. "On entre d'ordinaire dans
+les Hotelleries par l'ecurie, du moins dans de certaines Provinces; on
+vous mene dans quelque chambre, ou vous trouvez les quatre parois,
+quelquefois un bois de lit; pour chandelle on allume un grand nombre de
+petites bougies, qui font assez de lumiere pour voir ce que vous mangez;
+et afin que l'odeur and la fumee de tant de bougies n'incommode pas, on
+vous apporte, si vous le souhaitez, un brasier de noyaux d'olives en
+charbon. Quand on monte, on trouve au haut de l'escalier, la _Senora de
+la Casa_, qui a eu le tems de prendre ses beaux habits de dimanche pour
+vous faire honneur et s'en faire a elle-meme." (Alvarez de Colmenar, in
+1715.)
+
+It is interesting to compare these passages with Lancelot Addison's
+account of a Morocco inn towards the middle of the seventeenth century;
+bearing in mind that _fonda_, the current Spanish term for _hostelry_,
+is common both to Spain and to Morocco:--
+
+"In later years, every town of traffic hath erected a sort of Inns
+called _Alfandach_, which affords nothing but House-room for man and
+beast, the market yielding provision for both. Those that farm these
+_fandachs_ cannot exact above a Blankil a night both for man and beast,
+which is in sterling money about two pence. The horses lodging costing
+equally with his Rider's."[22]
+
+  [22] _West Barbary_, p. 129.
+
+Similarly, the keeper of the older Spanish inn was not allowed by law to
+traffic in provisions. "Nothing but house-room" was available for
+wayfarers, and the weary visitor, as soon as ever he arrived, must sally
+forth to do his marketing.
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                   DOOR OF THE _SALON DE EMBAJADORES_
+                        (_Alcazar of Seville_)]
+
+"Quand on arrive aux Hotelleries, fut il minuit passe, l'on n'y trouve
+rien de pret, non pas meme un pot sur le feu. L'hotel ne vous donne que
+le couvert et le lit, pour tout le reste, il le faut envoyer chercher,
+si vous ne voulez prendre la peine d'y aller vous-meme. On donne
+l'argent necessaire, et l'on va vous chercher du pain, du vin, de la
+viande, et generalement tout ce que l'on souhaite, si tant est qu'on le
+puisse trouver. Il est vrai que cette coutume a son bon cote.
+
+"Le prix de toutes ces choses est regle, l'on sait ce qu'il faut payer,
+et un hote ne peut pas friponner. On vous apprete votre viande, et l'on
+donne une reale et demie, ou deux reaux pour le _servicio_, comme ils
+parlent, et autant pour le lit, ce qui revient environ a quinze sous de
+France. Si l'on se trouve dans quelque grande ville, on aura une nappe
+grande comme une serviette, et une serviette grande comme un mouchoir de
+poche; dans d'autres endroits il faut s'en passer.
+
+"Les lits ne sont pas fort ragoutans; quelque matelas, ou quelque
+paillasse, ou tout au plus une couverture de coton; a la campagne il
+faut passer la nuit sur le carreau, ou bien sur quelque botte de paille,
+qu'on doit avoir soin de faire bien secouer, pour en chasser la
+vermine."
+
+The statements in this passage relative to the lack of food in Spanish
+hostelries are confirmed, nearly a century later, by Townsend, who
+records that on reaching a certain village his first proceeding was to
+turn his steps, not to the _fonda_ or _posada_ where he would engage
+his bed, but to the butcher's, wine-seller's, and so forth, "to see what
+was to be had, as I had travelled all day fasting."
+
+It is beyond the province of this work to dwell upon the foreign taste
+in furniture which invaded Spain from France upon the advent of the
+Bourbon dynasty, and so I limit my notice of the eighteenth century to
+quoting from Laborde the following comprehensive passage:--
+
+"If the Spaniards," this traveller wrote in 1809, "take many precautions
+against heat, they take scarcely any against cold; it is very uncommon
+to find doors or windows that shut close, and the rooms are very little
+and very ill-warmed. The use of chimneys even is very uncommon, and only
+prevails in the houses of such Spaniards as have travelled. Brasiers of
+copper or silver are generally employed, which are set in the middle of
+the apartment, filled with burning charcoal, and round which the family
+place themselves.
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                   DOOR OF THE _SALON DE EMBAJADORES_
+                        (_Alcazar of Seville_)]
+
+"The beds in Spain are hard. They are only made of mattresses, more or
+fewer, laid on paillasses which rest upon a boarded bottom; for neither
+sacking nor feather beds are known. No bolsters are used, but in
+their place little, short, flat pillows are heaped up, sometimes to the
+number of six or eight. The sheets are in general short and narrow; and
+napkins scarcely as big as a small pocket handkerchief.
+
+"The furniture of the houses is usually very simple. The floor is
+covered with a matting of _esparto_ in winter, and of rushes or palm
+leaves in summer. A matting of the same kind, a painted cloth, or
+painting in panels, covers the walls from the floor to the height of
+four or five feet; above, the wall is bare, painted white, and adorned
+with pictures of saints and a kind of ornamented metal chandeliers;
+these are covered with a glass, surrounded with a border of gilt
+ornaments; and a little branch of gilt copper proceeds from them forming
+zig-zags or festoons, on which the candles are placed; they are called
+cornucopias; they are from one to three feet in height, and give the
+apartment the air of a coffee room, or billiard room. Mirrors are placed
+between the windows, and a lustre of clear glass in imitation of crystal
+is suspended from the middle of the handsomest saloons. The chairs have
+straw bottoms; in some provinces, as Murcia, Andalusia, and Valencia,
+they are of different heights; those on one side of the room being of
+the common height, and the others one third lower. The latter are
+intended for the ladies. In some of the principal cities one also sees
+chairs and sofas of walnut wood, the backs of which are bare, and the
+seats covered with damask; usually crimson or yellow.
+
+"Luxury begins, however, to show itself in these objects. In the chief
+cities many hangings are of painted paper or linen; even hangings of
+brocades, of one and of three colours, and of various other kinds of
+silk; large and beautiful mirrors, and a number of sofas may be seen.
+The houses of the grandees in Madrid are magnificently furnished, but
+usually with more cost than taste. Hangings of silk, velvet, and damask,
+adorned with rich fringes and gold embroidery, are very common, and the
+seats are of corresponding magnificence. Many houses in Barcelona,
+Cadiz, Valencia, and Madrid are decorated with equal study and elegance.
+
+"The custom of painting the walls is of late introducing itself into
+Spain. They are covered with representations of men and animals, with
+trees, flowers, landscapes, houses, urns, vases, or history pieces,
+divided into compartments, adorned with pillars, pilasters, friezes,
+cornices, and arabesques; the effect of the whole is often very
+agreeable. This kind of decoration was imported from Italy."[23]
+
+  [23] Vol. v., pp. 301-304.
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+                           ALCAZAR OF SEVILLE
+                   (_Facade and principal entrance_)]
+
+In this account we clearly trace each various and successive influence
+that had permeated older Spain, leaving her, at the close of every
+period, a nation that produced illustrious artists, but never a nation
+deeply versed in, or devoted to, the arts. The beds and brasiers of
+these modern Spaniards were derived from ancient Rome; their general
+dearth of comfortable furniture, together with the lower, and therefore
+more humiliating, seats for women, from the Spanish Moors; the typically
+ponderous hangings from mediaeval Spain herself; the fresco
+wall-paintings, such as may still be seen in many a Spanish country
+home, from classic or Renaissance Italy; and the finicking gilt, rococo
+cornucopias from France; while the use of mirrors and of lustres in
+hideous combination with straw-bottomed chairs, almost reminds us of the
+days of Visigothic barbarism.
+
+
+                                LEATHER
+
+_Guadamacileria_, or the art of decorating leather with painting,
+gilding, and impressions in relief, is commonly believed to have crossed
+from Africa to Spain at some time in the Middle Ages. According to
+Duveyrier, the word _guadameci_ or _guadamecil_ is taken from Ghadames,
+a town in Barbary where the craft was practised long ago; but
+Covarrubias gives it an origin directly Spanish, supposing that the
+title and the craft alike proceeded from a certain town of Andalusia.
+However this may be, the preparation of these leathers grew to be a most
+important industry in various parts of Spain, and spread, as time went
+on, to Italy, France, and other European countries.[24]
+
+  [24] "Spain lays claim to the invention of the art of gilding leather;
+       it is asserted that, after being discovered there, the secret was
+       carried to Naples by Peter Paul Majorano."--Laborde, vol. v.,
+       p. 231.
+
+In the Peninsula, the principal centres of this work were Cordova,
+Seville, Lerida, Barcelona, Ciudad Real, and Valladolid. Cordova,
+however, was so far ahead of all the rest that leathers decorated in
+this style were known throughout the world as _cueros de Cordoba_, or
+"Cordova leathers." Another name for them is said to have been
+_cordobanes_; but possibly the application of this latter word was less
+restricted. Bertaut de Rouen wrote in the seventeenth century of Ciudad
+Real:--"C'est une ville situee dans une grande plaine, et dont
+l'enceinte est assez grande, qui estoit mesme fort peuplee autrefois,
+mais elle est quasi deserte a present. Il ne luy reste plus rien sinon
+que c'est la ou l'on appreste le mieux les peaux de _Cordouan_, dont on
+fait les gans d'Espagne. C'est dela aussi d'ou elles viennent pour la
+pluspart a Madrid. J'en achetay quelques-unes."
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                   DOOR OF THE CAPILLA DE LOS VARGAS
+                              (_Madrid_)]
+
+In 1197 Alfonso the Ninth presented the town of Castro de los Judios to
+Leon Cathedral and its bishop, confirming at the same time the tribute
+which the Jews who occupied that town were bound to render upon Saint
+Martin's day in every year, and which consisted of two hundred
+_sueldos_, a fine skin, and two _guadamecis_. This tribute had existed
+since the reign of Ferdinand the First: that is, towards the middle of
+the preceding century.[25]
+
+  [25] Count of Clonard; _Memorias para la historia del traje espanol_.
+
+None of these primitive leathers now exist, and consequently the details
+of their workmanship have perished with them. Ramirez de Arellano
+mentions two small coffers in the Cluny Museum, which date from about
+the fourteenth century and are decorated with the forms of animals cut
+from leather and overlaid on velvet. Other _guadamecis_, though not of
+the oldest, are in the South Kensington Museum. "The earliest
+_guadamecileros_," says Ramirez de Arellano, speaking particularly of
+this art at Cordova, "were accustomed to imitate brocade upon their
+leathers, employing beaten silver together with the colours red, green,
+blue, black, white, and carmine, applied in oils, or sometimes (although
+the law prohibited this) in tempera. Gold was not used till 1529, when
+Charles the Fifth confirmed the Ordinances of this industry. The
+leather-workers tanned the hides themselves, stamping the pattern from a
+wooden mould, and then (if we may call it so) engraving on them. The
+hides were those of rams. The spaces between the decoration were either
+coloured red or blue, or simply left the colour of the skin; or else the
+pattern would be wrought in colours on the natural hide. Gold, which at
+a later epoch almost totally replaces silver, was introduced between
+1529 and 1543, and was applied as follows. The artists smeared with
+oil the parts they wished to figure in raised or sunk relief, and laid
+the beaten gold upon the oil. They then applied a heated iron or copper
+mould; the pattern in relief was stamped; and the gold, superfluous
+shreds of which were wiped away with lint, adhered upon the leather. The
+irons required to be moderately hot, because if overheated they would
+burn the hide, or, if not hot enough, the fixing of the gold would not
+be permanent."
+
+                           [Illustration: XV
+                              MUDEJAR DOOR
+                  (_Palacio de las Duenas, Seville_)]
+
+The importance of this industry in Spain may be judged of from the fact
+that towards the close of the Middle Ages the _guadamacileros_ of
+Seville occupied nearly the whole of an important street--the Calle
+Placentines. Similarly, at Cordova they filled the quarter of the city
+known as the Ajerquia. "So many _guadamecies_ are made here," wrote
+Ambrosio de Morales, "that in this craft no other capital can compare
+with her; and in such quantities that they supply all Europe and the
+Indies. This industry enriches Cordova and also beautifies her; for
+since the gilded, wrought, and painted leathers are fixed upon large
+boards and placed in the sun in order to be dried, by reason of their
+splendour and variety they make her principal streets right fair to look
+upon."
+
+We owe to Rafael Ramirez de Arellano most valuable and recent
+information respecting this ancient Spanish-Moorish craft.[26] He has
+discovered the names of nearly forty _guadamacileros_ who lived and
+worked at Cordova, principally in the sixteenth century. It is not worth
+while to repeat these names alone, but one or two particulars connected
+with a few of them are interesting. In 1557 four of these artificers,
+named Benito Ruiz, Diego de San Llorente, Diego de Ayora, and Anton de
+Valdelomar, signed a contract to prepare the cut and painted
+_guadamaciles_ for decorating a palace at Rome. This contract, which is
+most precise and technical, is published in No. 101 of the _Boletin de
+la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_. The only further notice which
+Senor Ramirez de Arellano has discovered relating to any of these four
+craftsmen, tells us that nine years after the signing of the document
+just mentioned, Diego de Ayora leased some houses in the Calle de la
+Feria for a yearly rental of twenty-two ducats and three pairs of live
+hens.
+
+  [26] _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_, Nos. 101, 102;
+       Art. _Guadamacies_.
+
+Another interesting contract is dated April 17th, 1587. By it the
+_guadamacilero_ Andres Lopez de Valdelomar agreed, in company with
+Hernando del Olmo of Marchena, and with Francisco de Gaviria and
+Francisco Delgado, painters, of Cordova, to make a number of pieces of
+_guadameci_ for the Duke of Arcos. The work was to be terminated by July
+of the same year. Valdelomar was to receive from the duke's agent three
+_reales_ for each piece, and the painters two _reales_ and a half; this
+money to be paid them by instalments as the work proceeded.
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                               _CELOSIA_
+                         (_Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+On August 26th, 1567, before the mayor of Cordova and the two inspectors
+of this trade, Pedro de Blancas was officially examined and approved in
+"cutting, working, and completing a _guadameci_ of red damask with gold
+and silver borders on a green field, and a cushion with green and
+crimson decoration and faced with silver brocade."
+
+The Ordinances of Cordova also tell us much about this industry. The
+oldest of these city laws which deal with it are dated 1529. Those of
+1543 were ratified by a Crown pragmatic early in the seventeenth
+century, and at this later date we learn that the craft had much
+declined, the leather being by now "of wretched quality, the colouring
+imperfect, and the pieces undersized." The Ordinances published in the
+sixteenth century provide that every applicant for official licence to
+pursue this craft and open business as a _guadamacilero_, must prove
+himself, in presence of the examiners, able to mix his colours and
+design with them, and to make a canopy together with its fringe, as well
+as "a cushion of any size or style that were demanded of him; nor shall
+he explain merely by word of mouth the making of the same, but make it
+with his very hands in whatsoever house or place shall be appointed by
+the mayor and the overseers of the craft aforesaid."
+
+It was also provided by these Ordinances that the pieces of leather were
+to be dyed, not with Brazil-wood, but with madder, and that their size,
+whether the hide were silvered, gilt, or painted, was to be strictly
+uniform, namely, "the size of the primitive mould," or "three-quarters
+of a yard in length by two-thirds of a yard, all but one inch, in
+width." The standard measures, made of iron and stamped with the city
+seal, were guarded under lock and key; and the Ordinances of 1567
+establish the penalty of death for every _guadamacilero_ who shall seek,
+in silvering his wares, to palm off tin for silver.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVII
+                            CARVED _ALERO_]
+
+These leathers served a great variety of purposes, public or private,
+sacred or profane. They were used upon the walls and floors of
+palaces and castles, as table-covers, counterpanes, bed-hangings,
+cushions, curtains for doors, linings for travelling-litters, coverings
+of chests and boxes,[27] and seats and backs of chairs and benches
+(Plate vii.). In churches and cathedrals, especially throughout the
+sixteenth century, we find them used as tapestry and carpets,[28]
+altar-fronts (such as one which is preserved in the chapel of San Isidro
+in Palencia cathedral), or crowns for images of the Virgin.[29] As time
+advanced, gold and a coat or so of colour was succeeded by elaborate
+painting. Thus painted, they were often cut into the forms of columns,
+pilasters, or friezes in the Plateresco or Renaissance style,[30] until
+the growing popularity of wall-pictures, together with the importation
+of French fashions at the death of Charles the Second, crippled and
+ultimately killed the decorative leather industry of Spain.
+
+  [27] The _Poem of the Cid_ tells us of the two chests, covered with red
+       _guadameci_, which the hero filled with sand to cheat the Jewish
+       money-lenders:--
+
+          "_Con vuestro consejo bastir quiero dos archas.
+          Incamosla d'arena, ca bien seran pesadas,
+          Cubiertas de guadameci e bien enclavadas;
+          Los guadamecis bermeios e los clavos bien dorados._"
+
+       Nevertheless, the "coffer of the Cid" at Burgos (see p. 12) does
+       not appear to have been thus fitted.
+
+  [28] The same usage obtained in Morocco. Lancelot Addison wrote in 1669
+       that on the first day of their "Little Feast" the Moors across the
+       Strait "spread the floor of their Giammas with coloured
+       leather."--_West Barbary_, p. 213.
+
+  [29] An inventory of effects belonging to the Hospital of San Jose at
+       Jerez de la Frontera mentions, in 1589, "clothes and trimmings for
+       the image of Our Lady. A crown of gilded _guadameci_."--Gestoso,
+       _Diccionario de Artifices Sevillanos_, vol. i., p. xxii, _note_.
+
+  [30] A hall, says Ramirez de Arellano, would often be embellished by
+       surrounding it with arches wrought of leather in relief and
+       superposed on leather. As a rule the arches were gilt and silvered,
+       and rested upon pilasters or columns. When pilasters were used,
+       their centres would be ornamented with Italian devices such as
+       flowers, trophies, imitated cameos, and foliage. Landscapes with a
+       far horizon and no figures, known as _boscaje_ or _pintura verde_
+       were painted on the space between the arches, so that the general
+       effect was that of a pavilion with arches on all sides, displaying
+       everywhere a wide expanse of fertile country. The arches rested on
+       a broad bordering of _guadamecies_, and running round the lower
+       part was a _zocalo_ or socle, commonly made of tiling.
+
+Such is the kind of decoration which was most in vogue in Spain
+throughout the latter half of the sixteenth century; that which was
+exported to Rome; and that which was commissioned by the Duke of Arcos.
+
+
+                       CARPENTRY AND WOOD-CARVING
+
+The artistic carpentry of older Spain produced as its most typical and
+striking monuments, three groups of objects which may be included
+generally under Furniture. These are the _celosia_ or window-lattice,
+the door of _lazo_-work, and the _artesonado_-ceiling which adorns a
+hall or chamber, corridor or staircase.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+                            CARVED _ZAPATAS_
+                    (_Casa de Salinas, Salamanca_)]
+
+These happy and effective styles of decoration came originally from the
+East. Their passage may be traced along the coast of Africa from Egypt
+into Spain; and they flourished in Spain for the same reason which had
+caused them to flourish at Cairo. "When we remember," says Professor
+Lane-Poole, "how little wood grows in Egypt, the extensive use made of
+this material in the mosques and houses of Cairo appears very
+remarkable. In mosques, the ceilings, some of the windows, the pulpit,
+lectern or Koran desk, tribune, tomb-casing, doors, and cupboards, are
+of wood, and often there are carved wooden inscriptions and stalactites
+of the same material leading up to the circle of the dome. In the older
+houses, ceilings, doors, cupboards, and furniture are made of wood, and
+carved lattice windows, or meshrebiyas, abound. In a cold climate, such
+employment of the most easily worked of substances is natural enough;
+but in Egypt, apart from the scarcity of the material, and the
+necessity of importing it, the heat offers serious obstacles to its
+use. A plain board of wood properly seasoned may keep its shape well
+enough in England, but when exposed to the sun of Cairo it will speedily
+lose its accurate proportions; and when employed in combination with
+other pieces, to form windows or doors, boxes or pulpits, its joints
+will open, its carvings split, and the whole work will become unsightly
+and unstable. The leading characteristic of Cairo wood-work is its
+subdivision into numerous panels; and this principle is obviously the
+result of climatic considerations, rather than any doctrine of art. The
+only mode of combating the shrinking and warping effects of the sun was
+found in a skilful division of the surfaces into panels small enough,
+and sufficiently easy in their setting, to permit of slight shrinking
+without injury to the general outline. The little panels of a Cairo door
+or pulpit may expand without encountering enough resistance to cause any
+cracking or splitting in the surrounding portions, and the Egyptian
+workmen soon learned to accommodate themselves to the conditions of
+their art in a hot climate."[31]
+
+  [31] _The Art of the Saracens in Egypt_, pp. 124, 125.
+
+                           [Illustration: XIX
+                            CARVED _ZAPATAS_
+                        (_Museum of Zaragoza_)]
+
+These valuable and interesting observations apply with equal justice
+to the decorative woodwork of the Spanish Muslims. A further point of
+interest lies in the fact that window-grilles and ceilings of the kind
+referred to, grew to be extremely fashionable through the whole
+Peninsula. Carried by Moorish or Mudejar craftsmen far beyond the
+frontiers of the Mussulman sultans of this European land, we find to-day
+surviving specimens in every part of Spain--most of them, it is true, in
+sultry Andalus; but many also in the old seigniorial mansions of
+Castile, or even in the cold and humid towns and cities of Cantabria.
+
+The man who did this kind of work was not a common carpenter. Such work
+was largely practical and prosaic, but also it was largely decorative
+and poetical. Probably, both in his own and in his customer's regard,
+the decorative quality was set before the practical. Therefore, beyond
+the dry, comparatively facile details of technique, this workman
+studied, with an artist's reverence and zeal, the inner, subtler,
+sweeter mysteries of line and form; harmonies of curve and angle;
+patterns, now geometrical, now floral, now these two combined with magic
+ingenuity; steeping himself in the aesthetic sense; making, indeed, his
+work the literal fact or fitting of prosaic application that was
+indispensable; but also, and as if upon some loftier initiative of his
+own, a miracle of art for people of a later day to come and stand before
+and wonder at.
+
+                           [Illustration: XX
+                   _ALERO_ AND CORNICE OF CARVED WOOD
+               (_Cuarto de Comares, Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+Indeed, whether because Our Lord had practised it, or from some other
+motive, carpentry was always well esteemed among the Spaniards. The
+Ordinances of Seville eulogize it, in conjunction with its sister-work
+of masonry and building, as "a noble art and self-contained, that
+increaseth the nobleness of the King and of his kingdom, that pacifieth
+the people, and spreadeth love among mankind, conducing to much
+good."[32] The same Ordinances divide these honourable craftsmen into
+half a dozen classes and sub-classes; carvers or _entalladores_,
+carpenters who kept a shop (_carpinteros de tienda_), _carpinteros de lo
+prieto_, and _carpinteros de lo blanco_. The latter are the class we are
+considering here, and these, in turn, were subdivided into _lazeros_ or
+makers of _lazo_-work, _non-lazeros_ or those who did not make it, and
+_jumetricos_ or _geometricos_. The statutory examination was severe
+in all these branches. Thus, the _lazero_-carpenters of Seville were
+required to make a chamber of octagonal _lazo_-work, including its
+pendentives at the corners; while the wood-carvers of the same city were
+required to be experienced draughtsmen and to make and carve "artistic
+altar-screens with decorated columns, pedestals for images, and
+tabernacles (_i.e._ the part of an altar where the cibory and the Host
+are kept), as well as tombs and chambranles with their covering,
+tabernacles of the utmost art (_de grande arte_), and rich
+choir-stalls."
+
+  [32] _"Es noble arte, complida en si; e acrescienta la nobleza del rey
+       y del reyno, si en ella pararen mientes, como deuen; e pone paz en
+       el pueblo y amor entre los omes, onde es carrera para muchos
+       bienes."_--_Ordenanzas de Sevilla_, Part 1, p. 141.
+
+Nor was the making of artistic ceilings, doors, and window-gratings
+carried out exclusively by men of Moorish blood. Tutored by these, the
+Christians practised it with great success. Prominent among these last
+we find, early in the seventeenth century, the name of Diego Lopez de
+Arenas, a Christian-Spaniard and a native of Marchena, who held the
+licensed title of master-carpenter and lived for many years at
+Seville.[33] In a lucky moment it occurred to Lopez de Arenas to write
+and publish for the benefit of his fellow-craftsmen a book upon this
+decorative oriental woodwork that had passed into the Spanish national
+life. This book, _Carpinteria de lo Blanco_,[34] appeared at Seville in
+1633, and fresh editions were printed at the same city in 1727, and at
+Madrid in 1867. As in the Ordinances of Granada, Seville, and Toledo,
+Arabic terms, too copious and too complicated for elucidation here, are
+constantly repeated in this book.[35] Much of the general information
+which we gather from it is, however, of great interest. Thus, we are
+told that with the Spanish artists, as in Egypt, the wood most often
+used, no doubt as being the cheapest, was pitch pine, parcelled and put
+together in the most elaborate decorative schemes. Such was the
+characteristic _alfarge_[36] ceiling of the Moorish, Morisco, and
+Spanish-Christian _carpintero de lo blanco_. Its many fragments were
+secured upon the frame by long, small-headed nails, or by these nails
+combined with glue. If we observe the ceilings from close by, as when,
+for instance, they are taken down to be restored, the workmanship
+appears to be coarse, inaccurate, and hasty; the myriad pieces to be
+clumsily and loosely joined; the nails to be driven in without method,
+or even awry. Nevertheless, this false effect betrays the calculating
+genius of the craftsman. He planned his work for contemplation by a
+certain light and at a certain elevation; and therefore, as the ceiling
+is removed again to its appointed distance, it seems to re-create itself
+in proud defiance of an error of our own, and grows at once to its
+habitual delicacy, harmony, and richness.
+
+  [33] Gestoso finds no record of him in the city archives; but from a
+       rough portrait of Arenas prefixed to his treatise, we judge that
+       he was born about the year 1580.
+
+  [34] Arenas himself defines a _carpintero de lo blanco_ as "he who
+       prepares and works upon the wood employed in building; also, he
+       who fashions tables, benches, etc., in his workshop."
+
+  [35] "His language abounds in Arabic words and phrases of uncertain
+       origin, whose meaning (since he wrote for men familiar with this
+       work) he makes no effort to explain."--Editor's introduction to
+       the third edition of _Carpinteria de lo Blanco_.
+
+  [36] Arabic _al-farx_, a carpet, piece of tapestry, or anything that
+       covers and adorns.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                           "ELIJAH SLEEPING"
+                  (_Statue in wood, by Alonso Cano_)]
+
+I have said that the decoration of these ceilings is sometimes floral,
+sometimes geometrical, sometimes a combination of the two.[37] Sometimes
+the wood is plain, or sometimes silvered, gilt, or painted. Sometimes it
+is employed alone, or sometimes variegated and inlaid with plaster
+points and patches. By far the commonest motive is the _lazo_--an
+ornamental scheme composed of infinite strips that turn, and twist, and
+intersect, describing in their mazy passage many polygons. One of these
+polygons determines, in a way, the scheme of the entire ceiling, which
+is denominated as consisting of "a _lazo_ of eight," "of ten," "of
+twelve," etc., from this particular. The most attractive and most
+frequent is the scheme "of eight." Among the decorative details used to
+brighten and enhance the _lazo_ proper are _mocarabes_ or wooden lacery
+for relieving cubes and joists or surfaces, and _racimos_ or "clusters";
+that is, hollow or solid wooden cones or prisms, disposed along the side
+and centre panels of the ceiling like (in Arenas' ingenious phrase) the
+buttons on a jacket, and contributing to the massive aspect of the
+whole. These clusters, too, were sometimes in the stalactite and
+sometimes in a simpler form, and show, both in the quantity and richness
+of their ornament, a limitless diversity.
+
+  [37] This mingled decoration is extremely common; and may be studied in
+       our country, in the carved panels at South Kensington which are
+       believed to proceed from the pulpit of the mosque of Kusun; or in
+       the thirteenth-century panels of the tomb of Es-salih Ayyub.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXII
+                              SAINT BRUNO
+                (_By Alonso Cano. Cartuja of Granada_)]
+
+Magnificent Spanish-Moorish, Spanish, and Mudejar ceilings still exist
+in Spain. Such are the marvellous domed ceiling in the Hall of Comares
+(or of Ambassadors) in the Alhambra, those of the Castle of the
+Aljaferia at Zaragoza and of the archbishop's palace at Alcala de
+Henares, the Arab _alfarge_ ceilings in the churches of San Francisco
+and Santiago of Guadix, that of the Hall of Cortes in the Audiencia of
+Valencia, that of the Sala Capitular of Toledo Cathedral, that of the
+Chapel of the Holy Spirit of the Cathedral of Cuenca (considered by many
+to be the finest _artesonado_ ceiling in all Spain), or those of the
+churches of Jesus Crucificado, El Carmen, and San Pablo at Cordova. The
+ceiling of the Sala de la Barca, in the Moorish palace of the Alhambra,
+was almost totally destroyed by fire in 1890, but a good photograph had
+previously been taken, and I reproduce it here (Plate viii.). One of the
+later _artesonado_ ceilings is at Cordova, in the parish church of
+Santiago. Covered with a _boveda_ or vault of cane, it is in excellent
+preservation, and was made in 1635 by the master-carpenter Alonso Munoz
+de los Rios, who received for his labour fourteen thousand _reales_.[38]
+The _artesonado_ ceilings which Diego Lopez de Arenas tells us in his
+treatise that he made for the church, the choir, and the _sobreescalera_
+of the monastery of Santa Paula at Seville, as well as a ceiling which
+he made for the church of Mairena, are all extant to-day. Other
+remarkable examples of this craft are the ceilings of the rooms
+constructed to the order of, and which were actually occupied by,
+Charles the Fifth, within the precincts of the old Alhambra. Upon these
+half-Italian, half-Morisco ceilings and their frieze we read the words,
+"_Plus Oultre_"; and the inscription, "_Imperator Caesar Karolus V.
+Hispaniarum rex semper augustus pius f[oe]lix invictissimus_." In one of
+the same apartments, known as the "chamber of the fruits," the ceiling
+has octagonal _artesones_ of superb effect, though even richer is that
+of what is called the Second Sala de las Frutas, conspicuously
+influenced by Italian art, and believed by Gomez Moreno to have been
+designed by Pedro Machuca and executed by Juan de Plasencia.
+
+  [38] Cordova was a famous centre of this craft for many centuries.
+       Ramirez de Arellano has found and published a notice relative to
+       Lope de Liano and Garcia Alonso, two artificers of this city who
+       signed, on January 7th, 1572, a contract with the prior of the
+       monastery of the Holy Martyrs to build a ceiling for one of the
+       chapels of the same. The document, which is quoted _in extenso_ in
+       the _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_ for November,
+       1900, abounds in technical expressions, many of them partly or
+       entirely Moorish.
+
+The same writer publishes the names (hitherto completely unrecorded) of
+thirteen other artist-carpenters who worked at Cordova in the latter
+half of the sixteenth century and early in the seventeenth. The craft,
+in fact, died hard, and ceilings of this kind, replete with Moorish
+detail, were made in certain parts of Southern Spain until the closing
+moments of the eighteenth century.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                         SAINT JOHN THE BAPTIST
+                     (_San Juan de Dios, Granada_)]
+
+Marvellous in conjunction with the thousand lighted lamps which served
+to manifest its beauties, must have been the primitive ceiling
+(_as-sicafes_) of the mosque of Cordova, of which an Arab poet sang;
+"Look at the gold on it, like the kindled flame, or like the
+lightning-stroke that darts across the heavens."[39] Our notices of this
+ceiling, barbarously hacked to pieces by Christian architects, are
+neither numerous nor clear. We are told, however, that it was nearly
+finished in the reign of Abd-er-Rhaman the First, and terminated
+altogether by his son Hixem. New ceilings were added on the enlarging of
+the mosque by Abd-er-Rhaman the Second, while fresh additions were made
+by Al-Hakem the Second and Al-Manzor. Ambrosio de Morales gives a quaint
+description of the earliest, or an early, ceiling of this temple. "The
+roof of the whole church, made of wood painted and adorned in divers
+ways, is of incredible richness, as will be seen from what I am about
+to say. It is of larch throughout, odorous, resembling pine, which is
+not found in any part but Barbary,[40] whence it is brought by sea. And
+every time that a part of this temple was thrown down for new
+constructions to be added, the wood removed was sold for many thousand
+ducats for making guitars and other delicate objects. The ceiling was
+built across the church upon the nineteen naves thereof, and over it,
+covered likewise with wood, the roofs, nineteen in number also, each
+with its ridge atop, drooping to one and other side."[41]
+
+  [39] That the Moors were proud of their mastery in woodwork is proved by
+       an inscription in the Torre de la Cautiva at Granada, saying; "In
+       the plaster and the tiles is work of extreme beauty, _but the
+       woodwork of the roof has vanquished them in elegance_."
+
+  [40] Morales was probably mistaken. "On entering Aragon one sees whole
+       forests of 'Spanish Cedar' or _alerce_, some of the trees so thick
+       that they measure four feet in diameter."--Bowles' _Natural History
+       of Spain_, p. 102.
+
+  [41] _Antiguedades de las ciudades de Espana_ (A.D. 1575), p. 123.
+
+Three pieces made of common pine, and which are thought to have belonged
+to the original ceiling of this mosque or to an early replica, are now
+in the National Museum at Madrid, but the carving of these fragments is
+so simple that in the opinion of Rodrigo Amador de los Rios the
+decoration of the wood itself was purposely subordinated in this
+instance to the richness and variety of the painting.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIV
+                              CHOIR-STALLS
+                        (_Santo Tomas, Avila_)]
+
+Three types of decorative doors were made in older Spain. In the
+earliest and simplest (_laceria en talla_), the _laceria_ or _lazo_-work
+is carved directly on and from the solid plank which forms the body of
+the door. In the second type, the carver's art is delicately blended
+with the joiner's--_lazo_-work with _ensamblaje_. In the third type the
+_lazo_-work is _sobrepuesta_--that is, attached to, not elaborated from,
+the planking.[42]
+
+[42] Jose Amador de los Rios mentions, as a good example of the first of
+these types, a thirteenth-century door of the _claustrilla_ in the
+monastery of Las Huelgas at Burgos. Other doors in the same monastery
+are illustrative of the second type; while all three types are
+represented by the doors, described herewith, which close the principal
+entrance to the misnamed Hall of Ambassadors in the Alcazar of Seville.
+
+As in the case of ceilings, many and excellent examples of these doors
+exist to-day in Spain. Among the most remarkable are several in the
+Moorish palace of the Alhambra, such as the two (dating from the end of
+the fourteenth century or early in the fifteenth) belonging,
+respectively, to the famous Hall of the Abencerrajes (Pl. ix.), and to
+the Hall of the Two Sisters (Pl. x.). Apparently it was the former of
+these doors which Bertaut de Rouen wrote of in the seventeenth century
+as "une porte aussi grande et aussi epaisse comme celles de nos plus
+grandes eglises. Elle s'ouvre des deux costez, et est toute de pieces
+rapportees, et d'un bois de differentes couleurs, comme les beaux
+cabinets et les belles tables qui coustent si cher."[43]
+
+  [43] _Journal du Voyage en Espagne_, p. 85.
+
+An early Mudejar door proceeding from the church of San Pedro at Daroca
+in Aragon is now in the National Museum. This door, which is of larch,
+and measures nearly fourteen feet in height by nine in breadth, is of a
+simple design and represents a horse-shoe door described within the door
+itself. It was originally painted vermilion, with other decorative
+painting of a simple character in black, white, and red, and is
+fortified with massive iron braces. It is believed to date from earlier
+than the fourteenth century.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                           CARVED CHOIR-STALL
+                         (_Toledo Cathedral_)]
+
+The mighty doors of the "Hall of Ambassadors," in the mediaeval royal
+residence of Seville (Plates xi. and xii.), are quite the finest to be
+seen in Spain. Although a widespread superstition assigns their
+manufacture to a period close upon the Moorish conquest, it has been
+proved conclusively that they were made by Mudejar craftsmen of Toledo
+at the time when the whole Alcazar was erected more or less upon the
+ruins of the old, by Pedro the First of Castile, denominated, according
+to the prejudice with which we view his character, "the Cruel," or
+"the Just."[44]
+
+  [44] The following words record the date of the construction of this
+       place and its doors, and may be read (Plate xiii.) upon the scroll
+       of tiles or _alizares_ crowning the principal facade:--
+
+       [cross] EL | MUY | ALTO | ET | MUY | NOBLE | ET | MUY |
+       PODEROSO | ET | MUY | CONQUERIDOR | DON | PEDRO | POR |
+       LA | GRACIA | DE | DIOS | REY | DE | CASTIELLA | ET |
+       DE | LEON | MANDO | FACER | ESTOS | ALCAZARES | ET |
+       ESTOS | PALACIOS | ET | ESTAS | PORTADAS | QUE | FUE |
+       FECHO | EN | LA | ERA | DE | MILL | ET | QUATROCIENTOS |
+       Y | DOS |
+
+The observant Swinburne was not misled, like many travellers of to-day,
+into believing the Alcazar to be of purely Moorish origin. "Having read
+that the Moors built one part of this palace, I concluded I was admiring
+something as old as the Mahometan kings of Seville; but upon closer
+examination was not a little surprised to find _lions_, _castles_, and
+other armorial ensigns of Castille and Leon, interwoven with Arabesque
+foliages; and still more so, to see in large Gothic characters, an
+inscription informing me that these edifices were built in the
+fourteenth century, by the most mighty king of Castille and Leon, Don
+Pedro."
+
+These doors, which under a pretence of restoration have been mutilated
+more than once, are made of larch, and measure sixteen feet in height by
+thirteen feet (including both the leaves) in width. The upper part of
+either leaf consists of geometrical and floral ornament in exquisitely
+tasteful combination, executed in the scheme known technically, from the
+angles at the central polygon, as _lazo de a doce_--"_lazo_-work of
+twelve." The decoration of the lower part is more minute, and in the
+scheme of _lazo de a diez_--"_lazo_-work of ten." Inscriptions in Arabic
+and Latin, many of which are quoted from the Psalms, are distributed on
+both sides of the woodwork, and confirm our other evidence that the
+doors were made during the reign and in obedience to the orders, of Don
+Pedro.
+
+The Plateresco sixteenth-century doors of the Capilla de los Vargas at
+Madrid (Plate xiv.) are attributed by Cean Bermudez and by Ponz to an
+artist named Giralte, who carved them in walnut with various military
+and other scenes from Scripture, alternating with shields and floral
+ornament; the whole surrounded by an exquisitely delicate and tasteful
+border. Lamperez remarks that the errors of perspective recall the
+similar productions of Ghiberti.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVI
+                              CHOIR-STALLS
+                         (_Burgos Cathedral_)]
+
+The _celosia_ or decorative wooden window-grating, imported by the
+Mussulman conqueror from Egypt and the East, extended to all parts of
+Christian Spain, and was particularly used in convents. These gratings,
+identical in form and workmanship with those of Cairo,[45] were
+attached to projecting windows, so that the women of a household
+could look into the street without themselves being seen, a custom which
+the Spanish woman still recalls to us by peering, for hours at a time,
+between the lowered _persiana_ of her balcony.[46] By the seventeenth
+century, which may truthfully be called the age of Spanish jealousy, and
+when the "Othello-like revenge of the Moor" had eaten into the very
+entrails of society, the _celosia_ had become as indispensable to houses
+as the door or window. "La," wrote Bertaut de Rouen of a residence on
+the outskirts of Madrid, and obviously alluding to these gratings, "il y
+avoit bien des Dames dans l'appartement d'enhaut qui y demeurerent
+cachees, se contentant de nous voir promener dans le jardin par les
+fenetres."
+
+  [45] "The windows, which are chiefly composed of curious wooden
+       lattice-work, serving to screen the inhabitants from the view of
+       persons without, as also to admit both light and air, commonly
+       project outwards, and are furnished with mattresses and
+       cushions."--Lane's _Arabian Nights_, vol. i., p. 192.
+
+  [46] It is strange that Ford should have confounded the _reja_ with the
+       _celosia_ (_Handbook_, vol. i., p. 153). However, he opportunely
+       quotes the Spanish proverb, _Muger ventanera tuercela el cuello si
+       la quieres buena_ ("The remedy for a woman who is always thrusting
+       her head from the casement is to twist her neck").
+
+We know from the stone coat of arms which is carved above the doorway of
+the "House of Castril at Granada" that in the olden time the balconies
+of the Hall of Comares in the Alhambra were fitted with projecting
+wooden _celosias_; and Contreras says that in the Torre de los Punales
+of the same palace there used to be "a kind of wooden _mirador_ or
+_menacir_, covered with _celosias_ like those of Cairo, and many of
+which were still to be seen in Granada early in the nineteenth century."
+
+I am not aware of any Moorish _celosia_ remaining to this day outside a
+Spanish building. In such exposed positions weather and the natural
+delicacy of the woodwork seem to have destroyed them all. As an interior
+ornament, a single one (Pl. xvi.) exists in the Alhambra. Nevertheless,
+I hesitate to call this _celosia_ purely Moorish. Perhaps it is the work
+of a Morisco, or even of a Christian-Spaniard, for we know that
+decorative wooden fittings for the Alhambra were made in the sixteenth
+century by Antonio Navarro and other craftsmen. The grating, which is
+well preserved, covers a window over the archway leading from the Hall
+of the Two Sisters into the Sala de los Ajimeces and the Mirador de
+Daraxa, and consists of minute prisms and turned pieces in the typical
+Egyptian style.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                              CHOIR STALLS
+                         (_San Marcos, Leon_)]
+
+Other fittings for a building, wrought in wood by Moorish artists and
+by these communicated to the Christian-Spaniards, were balustrades and
+cornices, _aleros_ (decorative bands beneath the eaves of a roof, Plate
+xvii.) and _zapatas_ (gargoyle-looking figures, often in human form,
+used to support a roof or gallery). In the so-called "Patio de las Asas"
+of the convent of Santa Catalina de Zafra, at Granada, exists an
+interesting Moorish balustrade[47] that seems almost untouched by time.
+I reproduce an outline of it as the tailpiece to the present chapter,
+and am glad to append the little sketch in question, copied from a
+photograph I took upon the spot three years ago, because it is almost
+impossible to obtain admission to this convent. Beautiful or uncouth and
+quaint _zapatas_ may be seen in the Casa de los Tiros at Granada, and in
+many other places (Plates xviii. and xix.). Much of the Moorish woodwork
+of the palace of the Alhambra was destroyed by the fire of 1590, but
+there yet remain the ample cornice and carved _alero_ of the facade of
+the Cuarto de Comares (Plate xx.), which is often called in error the
+Court of the Mezquita. This _alero_ bears the following inscription,
+allusive to the Sultan Mohammed the Fifth:--"I am the place where the
+crown is guarded, and on my doors being opened the regions of the west
+believe the east to be contained within me. Algami Billah charged me to
+keep guard upon the doorway."
+
+  [47] Almagro Cardenas calls it "part of a _celosia_" (_Museo Granadino_,
+       p. 79); but as it can never have been a window-grating, this term
+       is incorrect. Gomez Moreno calls it, not too lucidly, "a wooden
+       balustrade forming squares and rectangular figures in the manner
+       of a _celosia_" (_Guia de Granada_, p. 421). Valladar (_Guia de
+       Granada_, edition of 1906, p. 117) calls it simply a balustrade,
+       and this, it seems to me, is the only term which truthfully
+       describes the object.
+
+Other remarkable _aleros_ are in the Generalife and in the Court of
+Lions of the Alhambra, while, also in this last-named mansion, genuine
+Moorish woodwork of elaborately inlaid ebony and larch is in two niches
+near the entrance to the Sala de Embajadores.
+
+
+      SACRED STATUARY, _SILLERIAS_ OR CHOIR-STALLS, AND _RETABLOS_
+
+The genius of the wood-carvers of older Spain is manifested chiefly in
+three groups of objects--sacred statuary, choir-stalls, and _retablos_.
+Among this people, and probably by reason of its cheapness, plain, or
+gilt, or polychrome painted wood has always been a favourite material
+for the statues of their temples, whether such statues were employed
+alone, or as an accessory to a larger article of sacred furniture, such
+as a pulpit, or a _silleria_, or an altar-screen. So powerful, in fact,
+has been the vogue of this material here,[48] that even to-day the
+Spanish people, making, in Symonds' happy phrase, "representation an
+object in itself, independently of its spiritual significance," attempt
+to elevate the most remarkable of their wooden, and by preference their
+coloured wooden, statuary (typically defended by Pacheco's indigested
+tome), to rank beside the noblest and the purest monuments of bronze and
+marble; denoting, by this reckless and uneducated partiality, a
+positively national misconception of the true domain of art.
+
+  [48] My readers are no doubt aware that every Spanish hamlet has its
+       wooden image of the Virgin, badly executed as a rule, and rendered
+       doubly hideous by a gaudy gown. Most of these local images are
+       believed to hold the power of working miracles, or at least to
+       have been fashioned and conducted to their present shrine by
+       supernatural agency--on which account the populace and their
+       pastors call these latter _imagenes aparecidas_, as distinct from
+       _manufactured_ images. Such are the Virgins of Montserrat, Granada,
+       and numerous other cities, towns, or villages of this illiterate
+       and ill-starred Peninsula. The curious may refer for every kind of
+       detail to Villafane's _Compendious History of the Wonder-working
+       Images of Spain_, which numbered in this author's day (his book was
+       published in 1740) one hundred and eighty-nine. But the most
+       extraordinary miracle of all was that which is recalled, with pious
+       gravity, by Bertaut de Rouen. Speaking of the gilt-wood image of
+       Nuestra Senora del Pilar at Zaragoza, he says:--"On y void quantite
+       de lampes d'argent et on m'en raconta un miracle qu'il me fut
+       impossible de ne pas croire. C'est d'un pauvre homme qui ayant eu
+       la jambe coupee pour une blessure, et s'estant bien recommande a
+       _Nostra Senora del Pilar_, il se trouva un jour avec sa mesme jambe
+       qu'il avoit deja fait enterrer. Y'ay sceu l'histoire du chirurgien
+       mesme qui coupa cette jambe et de quantite de temoins de veue. Il
+       n'y a que quinze ans que cela est arrive, mais l'homme est mort
+       depuis peu."--_Journal du Voyage en Espagne_, p. 203.
+
+                         [Illustration: XXVIII
+                         DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS
+                          (_Leon Cathedral_)]
+
+It is outside the scope of such a work as this to deal at any length
+with Spanish figure-sculpture. However, it is only fair to recognize
+that Spain produced a couple of score or so of admirable carvers of
+wood-statuary. Among the greatest of these craftsmen or _imagineros_
+were Becerra, Berruguete, Juan de Juni, author of the _Mater Dolorosa_
+("Our Lady of the Knives"), of Valladolid; Gregorio Hernandez the
+Galician, author of "Simon the Cyrenian," "Santa Veronica," and "the
+Baptism of our Lord"; Martinez Montanes, author of "San Jeronimo" and of
+the "Cristo del Gran Poder";[49] Solis, Gaspar de Ribas, Juan Gomez,
+author of the "Jesus" of Puerto de Santa Maria; Pedro Roldan, with whom,
+according to Tubino, "the art of Seville closed its eyes"; and Alonso
+Cano, master of Pedro and Alonso de Mena, Ruiz del Peral, Jose de Mora,
+and Diego de Mora, and who carved the exquisite "Elijah Sleeping" (Pl.
+xxi.) now at Toledo, and also (as it is believed) the famous statuette
+(Frontispiece to the present volume) of Saint Francis of Assisi.
+
+  [49] It is due to Martinez Montanes to mention that in many of his
+       contracts he stipulated that the painters of his statuary should
+       be chosen by himself, "so as not to corrupt the outline and the
+       sentiment of the figures."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIX
+                              CHOIR-STALLS
+                        (_Plasencia Cathedral_)]
+
+The earliest centre of this branch of wood-carving was Valladolid, where
+lived and laboured Juni and Hernandez. Nevertheless, although so popular
+in every part of Spain, it had a short-lived prime, originating in the
+two Castiles towards the reign of Philip the Second, declining steadily
+(with Seville for its centre now) all through the seventeenth century,
+and flickering out, despite the perseverance and the genius of the
+Murcian Susillo, in the century succeeding.
+
+In decorative _sillerias_ or sets of choir-stalls, Spain has produced
+examples worthy to be set beside the masterpiece of Vitry in the abbey
+of Sainte-Claude, the best productions of Duerer and his followers in
+Germany, or those of Donatello, Brunelleschi, Valdambrino, Vechietta,
+and Verrochio in Italy. Nevertheless, her most distinguished
+_silleria_-makers were at almost every moment inspired and directed by
+the foreigner. Germans or Flemings were her first preceptors in this
+craft. These artists had been sent for, or proceeded of their own
+accord, to Spain, and settling in this country rapidly spread the
+technics of their art among the Spaniards. In the Peninsula the origin
+of this school or movement may be traced to Burgos. Here, just as the
+fifteenth century was drawing to its close, and just before the breath
+of the Renaissance crossed the Spanish frontier at its eastern side, was
+gathered a small though influential group of eminent workers in more
+crafts than one; painters and sculptors, architects, embroiderers,
+carvers of wood, _reja_-makers, and painters of cathedral glass.
+Prominent among them all was a foreigner named Philip Vigarny,[50] who
+is described by Diego de Sagrado as "singular above all others in the
+art of making statuary and sculpture; a man of vast experience, general
+in his mastery of the liberal and mechanic arts, and no less resolute in
+all that is related with the sciences of architecture."
+
+  [50] In Spanish he is called Felipe de Borgona, but Marti y Monso says
+       that the proper spelling of the surname is Biguerny.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                         DETAIL OF CHOIR-STALLS
+                    (_Convent of San Marcos, Leon_)]
+
+Burgundy is said to have been the birthplace of Felipe de Borgona, but
+of his early history we have no tidings. In documents which bear his
+signature he styles himself "_imaginario_, resident at Burgos." Three
+such documents exist. On August 1st, 1505, he agrees, for 130,000
+_maravedis_, to make "such images as may be necessary" for the altar of
+the high chapel of Palencia cathedral, "he with his own hand to carve
+the hands and faces, out of good smooth walnut, without painting." This
+document is dated from Palencia. The other two are dated severally,
+Burgos, December 6th, 1506, and Corcos, September 6th, without the
+addition of the year.[51] We also know this craftsman to have made the
+great _retablo_ of Burgos cathedral. Such, from the fragmentary
+semblance we can trace of him, was Philip Vigarny, the pioneer of the
+wood-carvers of older Spain, and who, aided by other craftsmen from
+abroad, communicated all the secrets of his art to Spaniards such as Gil
+de Siloe, Ruy Sanchez, Diego de la Cruz, Alonso de Lima, and Berruguete.
+
+  [51] Zarco del Valle, _Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de las
+       Bellas Artes en Espana_, pp. 161, 162.
+
+The typical _silleria_ consists of two tiers; the _sellia_ or upper
+seats, with high backs and a canopy, intended for the canons, and the
+lower seats or _subsellia_, of simpler pattern and with lower backs,
+intended for the _beneficiados_. At the head of all is placed the
+presidential throne, larger than the other stalls, and covered, in many
+cases, by a canopy surmounted by a tall spire. When the _silleria_
+belongs to a monastery, the higher stalls are for the _profesos_, and
+the lower for the novices and _legos_. Commonly the part that forms the
+actual seat is hinged and rises to a vertical position, being so
+contrived that when the occupant rises to his feet, there remains a
+narrow ledge projecting from the under surface. This ledge is called the
+"seat of pity" or "of patience," because the worshipper is able to
+incline himself on it and give his limbs some measure of repose without
+appearing to be seated. There also is commonly another piece, intended
+for him to rest his hands upon in rising, which projects from the sides
+of the stall and forms a part of the decorative carving, as well as,
+somewhat higher still, the carved support to rest his arms while he is
+on his feet.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXI
+                                "SAMSON"
+               (_Carved Choir-stall of Leon Cathedral_)]
+
+The earliest Spanish _sillerias_ date from the fourteenth century; but
+it is not until the century succeeding that we find them at their very
+best. Gothic or Plateresco _sillerias_ of marvellous design and
+workmanship are those of the Seo of Zaragoza (begun in 1412), the
+Cartuja de Miraflores of Burgos (1489), the monastery of Ona, Santa
+Maria de Najera (1495), the church of Santa Maria del Campo, in the
+province of Burgos, Santo Tomas of Avila (finished in 1493), and the
+cathedrals of Oviedo, Segovia (1461-1497), Ciudad Rodrigo, Tarragona
+(1478), Tarazona, Toledo (begun in 1494), Zamora, Astorga, Barcelona
+(1453-1483), and Seville (finished in 1478).
+
+The Gothic choir-stalls of the Seo of Zaragoza have lofty backs with
+arabesque Mudejar ornamentation, small Gothic columns, and medallions
+containing figures upon the arms of every stall. The material is Flemish
+oak. The carving was begun in 1412 by the Moors Ali Arrondi, Muza, and
+Chamar, who earned a daily wage of four _sueldos_. In 1446 Juan Navarro
+and the brothers Antonio and Francisco Gomar were working at the same
+stalls, and also, in 1449, Francoy.
+
+The stalls of the Cartuja de Miraflores at Burgos were carved by Martin
+Sanchez, who received in 1486, and for the _mano de obra_ alone, the sum
+of 125,000 _maravedis_. The material, which was presented by Luis de
+Velasco, Senor of Belorado, is dark walnut.
+
+The _silleria_ of Santa Maria de Najera, the work of Maestro Andres and
+Maestro Nicolas, is Gothic merging into the Renaissance. That of Santo
+Tomas of Avila (late Gothic) consists of sixty oaken stalls, besides two
+larger ones resembling thrones (Plate xxiv.), intended to be occupied by
+Ferdinand and Isabella, founders of this monastery, and whose arms they
+bear in lace-like carving. The rest of the decoration is composed of
+thistles, vines, trefoils, and pomegranates. Owing to the fact that not
+a single cross appears on any part of the _silleria_ (although this
+circumstance is not unusual in sacred Gothic woodwork), there is a
+superstition that these stalls were wrought anonymously by some Jew,
+condemned to execute them by the Inquisition as a form of punishment.
+This fable has no value. Although the author's name is not upon the
+stalls, they are identical in nearly every detail with those of the
+Cartuja de Miraflores at Burgos, known to have been carved by Martin
+Sanchez in 1486. Hence it is extremely probable that this craftsman was
+the author of both _sillerias_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                                 "ESAU"
+               (_Carved Choir-stall of Leon Cathedral_)]
+
+On many Spanish _sillerias_ we find most spirited reproductions of the
+life and manners of their time; satirical allusions to contemporary
+vices, allegories and caprices as fantastic, in the phrase of Vargas
+Ponce, as "one of Bosch's nightmares," hunting-scenes or love-scenes,
+banquets, tournaments, dances, battles, sieges, and even bull-fights.
+Thus, on the stalls of the cathedrals of Zamora, Oviedo, Plasencia,
+Astorga, and Leon are carved such subjects as the following. A fox
+dressed as a friar, preaching to a group of hens but slyly abstracting
+their chicks (Zamora), men fighting with their fists (Zamora), a hog
+playing the bagpipes (Leon), the Devil in the garb of a confessor,
+tempting a penitent (Leon), a woman suckling an ass (Leon), a man armed
+with a lance, fighting a woman (Astorga), a bird of prey struggling with
+a crocodile (Astorga), card-players (Astorga), a warrior on all-fours,
+whipped by a woman (Plasencia), an _auto-de-fe_ (Plasencia), swine
+praying and spinning (Ciudad Rodrigo), a fight between a tiger and a
+bull (Ciudad Rodrigo), a monkey beating a drum (Ciudad Rodrigo), and a
+monkey wearing a mitre (Ciudad Rodrigo).
+
+The style of the lower stalls of Toledo cathedral is good Plateresque.
+They were begun in 1494 by Maese Rodrigo, one of the very best of
+Spain's _entalladores_, and portray, in each successive stall, the
+phases of the last campaign against Granada (Plate xxv.); the sieges or
+battles of Altora, Melis, Xornas, Erefran, Alminia, Baza, Malaga (two
+stalls), Salobrena, Almunecar, Comares, Beles, Montefrio, Moclin,
+Illora, Loja, Cazarabonela, Coyn, Cartama, Marbella, Ronda, Setenil,
+Alora, Alhama, Nixar, Padux, Vera, Huescar, Guadix, Purchena, Almeria,
+Rion, Castil de Ferro, Cambril, Zagani, Castul, Gor, Canzoria, Moxacar,
+Velez el Blanco, Gurarca, Velez el Rubio, Soreo, and Cabrera.
+
+The upper tier of the same stalls belongs to a later period, and will,
+in consequence, be noticed subsequently.
+
+The _silleria_ of Barcelona cathedral was begun in the middle of the
+fifteenth century by Matias Bonafe, at the same time that the German
+Michael Locher and his pupil John Frederic worked at the canopies. It
+was finished thirty years later. Upon the back (which otherwise is
+plain) of every stall is a coat of arms distinct from all its
+neighbours, marking the seat of one of the princes or nobles summoned by
+Charles the Fifth to the Chapter of the Order of the Golden Fleece,
+March 5th, 1519.[52]
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXIII
+                               _RETABLO_
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+The splendid _silleria_ of Seville cathedral is a mingling of the Gothic
+with the Mudejar and Plateresque. The material is oak and fir, and the
+number of the seats one hundred and seventeen. The _sellia_ are
+surmounted by a graceful running _guardapolvo_. Each seat is carved
+distinctly from the rest, and further decorated in the Mudejar style
+with inlaid woods of various kinds and colours, imitating stone mosaic.
+Among this labyrinth of design are groups of people, angels, animals,
+and scenes from Scripture, as well as, on the lower stalls, the Giralda
+tower, which forms the arms of the cathedral. The _silleria_ is further
+embellished with two hundred and sixteen statuettes, seventy-two of
+which are ranged along the canopy or _dosel_, the remainder being
+distributed between the seats.
+
+  [52] "The stalls of the choir are neatly carved, and hung with
+       escutcheons of princes and noblemen, among which I remarked the
+       arms of our Henry the Eighth."--Swinburne.
+
+The authors of this splendid work of art (judiciously restored some
+years ago by Boutelou, Fernandez, and Mattoni) were Nufio Sanchez,
+Dancart, and several other craftsmen, concerning whom we know but very
+little. Sanchez' name is carved upon the second stall of the upper row,
+and on the side of the Evangelist, as follows:--
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+The above inscription states that "this choir was made by Nufio Sanchez,
+_entallador_ (God guard him[53]), and finished in the year one thousand
+four hundred and seventy-eight."
+
+  [53] This kind of parenthetical remark or prayer is one of the many
+       Muslim phrases that have passed into the regular service of the
+       Spanish Christian.
+
+With the dawn of the sixteenth century, the Gothic style runs rapidly
+into that of the Renaissance. At about this time, and as Baron Davillier
+pointed out, we sometimes find a triple influence, namely, the
+Burgundian, the Italian, and the native Spanish. Vigarny may be called
+the champion of the first of these, Berruguete (who studied in Italy)
+of the second, and Guillermo Doncel of the third. After this the purer
+Renaissance gives place to the decadent, as in the stalls of Santiago,
+Malaga, Cordova, and Salamanca.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIV
+                     _RETABLO_ OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL
+                         (_Detail of Carving_)]
+
+Sixteenth-century _sillerias_ of note are those of Burgos cathedral
+(Plate xxvi.), carved by Vigarny, Avila cathedral, the Pilar of
+Zaragoza, the Minor Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos, Pamplona cathedral,
+San Marcos of Leon, Huesca, the _alta silleria_ of Toledo, and the
+walnut stalls--carved in 1526 by Bartolome Fernandez de Segovia, and now
+in the Madrid Museum--of the Parral of Segovia.
+
+The _silleria_ of Avila cathedral is believed to have been begun in 1527
+by Juan Rodrigo, although the greater part of it was probably executed
+between 1536 and 1547 by Cornelis de Holanda, who took for his model the
+stalls of San Benito of Valladolid. The cost of the walnut wood and of
+its workmanship amounted to 33,669 _reales_.
+
+The upper stalls of Toledo cathedral were carved by Vigarny and Alonso
+Berruguete in collaboration, so that we find in them the northern and
+Italian styles effectively and interestingly united. The
+Plateresque-Renaissance _silleria_, described as "genuinely Spanish," of
+the old convent of San Marcos of Leon, containing statuettes of biblical
+personages and of fathers of the Church--Saint Isidore among them,--was
+finished in 1542 by Guillermo Doncel, who added the inscription
+"_Magister Guillermus Doncel me fecit MDXLII_" (Plate xxvii.). We know,
+however, nothing more about this excellent Spanish artist, except that
+(on the unsupported testimony of Cean) he worked at the facade of this
+convent between the years 1537 and 1544.
+
+The intricate _silleria_ of the Pilar of Zaragoza, containing almost
+every kind of subject--beasts, birds and fishes, allegories, incidents
+of the chase, or scenes of popular life--was designed by Esteban de
+Obray, a Navarrese, and executed by him and his assistants, Juan Moreto
+Florentino and Nicolas de Lobato, between 1542 and 1548. That of the
+Minor Friars of the Cartuja of Burgos was carved at a cost of eight
+hundred and ten ducats by Simon de Bueras, in 1558. That of Pamplona
+cathedral dates from about the middle of the century, and is the work of
+one Ancheta, who had visited Italy and gathered inspiration from the
+masterpieces of Siena. The material is English oak. The stalls of
+Huesca, carved from oak proceeding from an older _silleria_ which had
+been removed, were begun in 1587 and finished in 1594. The craftsmen
+were Nicolas de Verastegui and Juan Verrueta de Sanguesa.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXV
+                          DETAIL OF _RETABLO_
+              (_Late 15th century. Museum of Valladolid_)]
+
+Seventeenth-century _sillerias_ are those of Santiago, carved by Juan de
+Vila in 1603; Salamanca, in 1651, by Alfonso Balbas; Orihuela, in 1692,
+by Juan Bautista Borja; and Segorbe, carved in the same year by Nicolas
+Camaron; while dating from the eighteenth century--a period of manifest
+decadence in this beautiful but short-lived craft--are the stalls of
+Lerida, by Luis Bonifar y Maso (born in 1730), and Cordova, executed
+between 1748 and 1757, at a cost of 913,889 _reales_, by Pedro Ciriaco
+Duque y Cornejo, a son of Seville and a pupil of the Sevillano Roldan.
+
+The least imperfect of these later and decadent _sillerias_ is that of
+Malaga, whose author, Pedro de Mena, was, like his master, Alonso Cano,
+a native of Granada.
+
+Mena's contract with two canons of the cathedral, nominated by the
+bishop to prepare and sign the stipulations, will be found in No. 134 of
+the _Boletin de la Sociedad de Excursiones_.
+
+The stalls of Malaga number a hundred and one, carved in walnut, larch,
+cedar, and the heavy Indian wood called _granadillo_. As happens with
+many of the _sillerias_ of this country, the costumes of the figures are
+of great historical value. Among the saints is San Roque, in pilgrim's
+garb, attended by the dog who brought him day by day a loaf of bread
+while men refused to succour him.
+
+No less magnificent than these sets of choir-stalls are the carved
+_retablos_ or altar-screens,[54] a gradual excrescence from the
+primitive and unpretentious altar of the early days of Christianity.
+Several kinds of craftsmen worked upon these altar-screens, such as
+_tallistas_, _entalladores_, _imagineros_, and even architects.
+
+  [54] Wood is the usual material for these altar-screens, though
+       sometimes marble was employed, or stone, or silver. Of Genoese
+       marble is the _retablo_ (end of the fourteenth or beginning of the
+       fifteenth century) of the Cartuja del Paular in the Lozoya valley;
+       of stone, those of the parish church of San Nicolas at Burgos (end
+       of the fifteenth or beginning of the sixteenth century), and of the
+       "chapel of the tailors" in Tarragona Cathedral; while a silver
+       _retablo_, in the Renaissance style, was that of the church, now
+       demolished, of Santa Maria at Madrid.
+
+The Golden Age of the _retablo_ embraces the end of the fifteenth
+century and the whole of the sixteenth. Notable examples belonging to
+this period are the screens of the monastery of Santo Tomas at Avila,
+San Martin of Segovia, the Cartuja de Miraflores, the Colegiata of
+Covarrubias in the province of Burgos, the cathedrals of Avila, Toledo,
+Tudela, and Tarazona; several in the churches of Toledo, two in the
+church of San Lesmes (Burgos), two in Burgos Cathedral (Plate xxxvi.),
+and three, including those of _Reyes_ and of _Buena Mariana_, in the
+church of San Gil in the same city. Not one of these, however, has the
+grandeur or variety of the altar-screen of Seville (Plates xxxiii. and
+xxxiv.), which is carefully described in Cean's monograph. "The style is
+Gothic; the material, undecaying larch; and the screen, which reaches
+nearly to the vaulting, is the largest in the country, although at first
+it spanned the presbytery only, not including either side. It was
+designed in 1482 by Dancat or Danchart, who began work upon it as soon
+as his sketches were approved, and worked at it till 1492, in which year
+he seems to have died.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXVI
+                          DETAIL OF _RETABLO_
+               (_Chapel of Santa Ana, Burgos Cathedral_)]
+
+"Dancat was succeeded by Master Marco and Bernardo de Ortega, whose
+carving reached, by 1505, the canopy or _viga_, and who were followed in
+their turn by Francisco, Bernardo's son, father and teacher of
+Bernardino and Nufrio de Ortega, his assistants. Some of the statues
+were carved by Micer Domingo. The rest of the _imagineria_ was finished
+in 1526; and the gilding and painting were done by Alejo Fernandez, his
+brother, and Andres de Covarrubias.
+
+"So the screen remained till 1550, when the Chapter decided to extend
+it, without altering the style of decoration, to the sides of the
+presbytery. By this time Spanish sculpture had improved, and many of our
+best-known sculptors lent their aid, of whom the earliest were Roque
+Balduc, Pedro Becerril, el Castellano, Juan de Villalva, Diego Vazquez,
+and Pedro Bernal. In 1553 the Chapter appointed, to inspect the work of
+these artists, Juan Reclid and Luis de Aguilar, both of whom lived at
+Jaen. Henceforth the master-craftsmen working at the screen were Pedro
+de Heredia, Gomez de Orozco, Diego Vazquez the younger, Juan Lopez,
+Andres Lopez del Castillo, and his sons, Juan de Palencia, and Juan
+Bautista Vazquez. By 1564 the screen was quite concluded.
+
+"The Gothic work is of incomparable richness. Ten groups of tall and
+narrow columns, resting upon two pedestals or socles, divide the
+_retablo_ into nine spaces, crossed by horizontal bands of complicated
+carving, forming a series of thirty-six niches, in four rows. Statues a
+little less than life-size represent, in the first row, the creation and
+fall of our first parents, and the mysteries of the infancy of Christ;
+in the second, His preaching and miracles; in the third, His passion and
+death; and in the fourth, His resurrection, appearance to the disciples,
+and ascension; also the coming of the Holy Ghost. Upon the altar-table,
+and resting in its niche, is the statue, covered with silver plates, of
+Nuestra Senora de la Sede, presented to this temple by Saint Ferdinand.
+Above the _viga_, which has an _artesonado_ ceiling, rises a
+frontispiece containing thirteen canopied niches with statues of the
+apostles, and in the centre niche that of the Virgin Mary. Crowning the
+whole _retablo_ are statues larger than life-size, and a Calvary
+standing in free space."[55]
+
+  [55] _Descripcion de la Catedral de Sevilla_, pp. 27, 28.
+
+Throughout these Spanish altar-screens the influence which predominates
+is that of Germany. They are essentially distinguished by a Northern art
+(Plates xxxv., xxxvi.), not sentimental but material, not tender but
+robust, not (like the art of the Italians) retrospective or prospective,
+but prosaic, realistic, actual. Curiously enough, their presence seems
+incongruous in Spain, and yet they made themselves at home here; for
+Spanish art was ever realistic, so probably on this account two widely
+different nations found, at least in this particular craft, a common
+bond of sympathy. Certainly the Renaissance, while it seemed to cherish
+and encourage, really undermined and killed this branch of Spanish
+wood-carving. A similar phenomenon attends the art of the Alhambra. In
+either case the plenitude of power and of beauty is even more ephemeral
+than the term of human life; and thus, deluded by so brilliant and
+majestic a decay, we fail to apprehend, or seek to grow oblivious of,
+the imminence of their ruin.
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                                IVORIES
+
+
+The story of Spanish ivory-work is shortly told, for probably
+no craft, excepting glass, has been so little practised in this country.
+The older Spanish writers rarely mention it, although from time to time
+this substance may have been employed for carving diptyches and boxes,
+and Roderick is stated to have entered the battle of the Guadalete in an
+ivory car, by which is meant, perhaps, a chariot of Byzantine make or
+pattern, covered with ivory plates. However, properly speaking, the
+history of this art as exercised in Spain begins in the eleventh
+century, attains its prime towards the fourteenth century, and ceases
+altogether at the time of the Renaissance.
+
+Among the ivory objects now preserved in Spain, and which were wrought
+by artists other than Mohammedan, none is more interesting or important
+than the consular diptych of Oviedo cathedral. Although this valuable
+diptych was not made in Spain, but manifests Byzantine art in all its
+purity, it well deserves to be described. It consists of two ivory
+tablets measuring sixteen inches and a half in height by twelve inches
+and a half across both leaves. Each leaf has a simple border of a triple
+form, and just inside each corner is a circular floral ornament in
+relief, with a lion's head in the centre. Another ornament, also
+circular, is in the centre of each leaf, and contains, carved within a
+graceful S-shaped border, a half-length portrait of the Consul, who is
+represented in the act of throwing down into the amphitheatre his
+_mappa_ or handkerchief[56] with his right hand, while in his left he
+holds the sceptre (_scipio imaginifer_), crowned with a small bust. His
+hair is curled in the Byzantine fashion, and his costume is a richly
+decorated toga.
+
+  [56] _I.e._ as a signal to begin the sport. The same usage (except that
+       the handkerchief is waved, and not thrown down) is followed at
+       this moment in the Spanish bull-ring.
+
+An inscription runs along the top of either tablet, between the border
+and the circular devices carved with flowers. It says:--
+
+_Flavius Strategius Apion--Strategius Apion. Vir inlustris Comes
+Devotissimorum Domesticorum et Consul ordinarius._
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXVII
+                               IVORY BOX
+                    (_9th Century. Madrid Museum_)]
+
+We gather, therefore, that this magnate was a chamberlain at court, as
+well as ordinary consul.
+
+Diptyches were used among the Romans for all kinds of purposes, such as
+to convey love-messages, as invitations to a banquet, or to notify the
+celebration of feasts and games. We find the diptych also used in
+Christian temples from the time of Constantine, serving to record church
+festivals or names of saints and martyrs, as covers for a copy of the
+gospel (_diptycha evangeliorum_), or as reliquaries (_thecae
+reliquiarum_). Sometimes these diptyches were wrought expressly for the
+church, or sometimes they were consular diptyches that had been
+preserved from former ages. This latter class, when cleansed from pagan
+usage and devoted to the ceremonies of the Christian faith, was known as
+_diptycha mixta_.
+
+Such early objects as were wrought in ivory by Spanish hands, consisting
+as a rule of circular or oblong, square or oval caskets, were
+principally carved by Moors or Mudejares. Among the Spanish-Moorish
+boxes which are still preserved are several of the greatest interest and
+beauty (Plates xxxviii., xxxix., xl.). One of them, made from pieces of
+an older casket believed to date from earlier than the Moorish conquest,
+is in the National Museum. The decoration in its present form consists
+of Arabic inscriptions in relief, together with figures of the apostles.
+This casket, which proceeds from the Colegiata of Saint Isidore at Leon,
+measures seven inches in length by five in depth and six in height, and
+has been used as a reliquary.
+
+Another, dating from the middle of the eleventh century and proceeding
+from the same temple as the one just noticed, is also in the National
+Museum. It was a present from the Emir Mohammed Almotamid-Aben-Abed to
+his second wife, Al-Badir ("the Moon"), and includes among the
+decoration dogs and doves, symbolic of affection and fidelity. The style
+of carving is what is known as Persian-Arabic. We do not know, however,
+whether the box was imported from the East, or whether it was made in
+Spain by somebody of Persian parentage or skilled in Persian art. The
+material is a delicate _taracea_ of sandal, aloe, and cypress woods
+inlaid on larch. The box, which was used at Leon as a reliquary, has
+bronze clasps, and is inscribed along the top with sentences from which
+we learn that it was made by Aben-As-Serag.
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXVIII
+                              IVORY CASKET
+             (_Moorish; 11th Century. Pamplona Cathedral_)]
+
+In the cathedral of Pamplona is a magnificent ivory box (Plate
+xxxviii.) which was originally at Sanguesa in Navarre. It measures, says
+Riano, fifteen inches long by nine and a quarter inches wide. "It is
+completely covered with carvings in relief, within circular cusped
+medallions, with figures in the centres representing different subjects;
+men seated, hawking, or struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single
+figures of lions, stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces
+contain an ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to
+the geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box
+appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters:--'In the name of
+God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the happiness, the
+fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning the fatal
+period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the State),
+Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of the said
+Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch, Nomayr
+ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave, in the year of 395 (A.D. 1005).'
+
+"In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is
+represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions.
+He holds on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription,
+with the following religious formula: 'There is no god but God,' or a
+similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the
+centre of this shield may be read the words, 'Made by Hair,' undoubtedly
+one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's name may be read
+with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears on one of the
+medallions on the left side; it is written on the thigh of a stag, which
+is attacked by a lion: 'It was made by Obeidat.' Three other
+inscriptions of a similar character appear in other parts of this box,
+which probably give the names of other artists, but I have been unable
+to decipher them."
+
+Other interesting boxes dating from the same period are that of Santo
+Domingo de Silos at Burgos, and several which are in the National Museum
+at Madrid. The box which is preserved at Burgos is made of ivory, and
+measures thirteen inches and a quarter in length by seven inches and a
+half in width and height. The decorative work consists of hunting
+scenes, and also of an inscription in Cufic characters which says:
+"Permanent felicity for the owner (of this box). May God lengthen
+his days. It was made at Medina ...[57] in the year four hundred
+and seventeen (A.D. 1025). It is the work of his servant
+Mohammed-ibn-Zeiyan. May God glorify him."
+
+  [57] At this break in the inscription Riano professed to discover the
+       beginning of the word _Cuenca_.
+
+There is also in the provincial museum of Burgos a handsome ivory
+diptych which was formerly at the convent of Santo Domingo de Silos. It
+bears at each extremity--that is, four times repeated--the following
+inscription:--"This was ordered to be made by the Iman, servant of God,
+Abd-er-Rhaman, prince of believers."
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIX
+                               IVORY BOX
+                 (_11th Century. Palencia Cathedral_)]
+
+Among the rectangular boxes in the National Museum is one of carved
+ivory, with an inscription recording it to have been a gift from Prince
+Ali to one of the favourites of his harem, and another of the same
+material which was once upon a time at Carrion de los Condes, in the
+province of Palencia. This box is painted with a decorative pattern in
+carmine and dark green. The lid, which is imperfect, contains the
+following inscription in Cufic characters, standing boldly out against a
+green ground:--"In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate.
+The protection of Allah and an impending victory for the servant of
+Allah ... and his wali Maad Abu-Temim--the Iman Al-Moez ... prince of
+believers (the blessing of Allah be upon him and his sons the good).
+(This) was commanded to be made for (celebrating) the fortunate victory.
+It was made by ... Jorasani." The length of this box is eighteen inches,
+and its height nine inches.
+
+A fine Moorish box (Plate xxxix.), now in the cathedral of Palencia, is
+covered with elaborately engraved and perforated ivory plates upon a
+ground of gilt leather backed by wood, and further ornamented with
+enamel-work upon a copper surface. This box is fourteen inches long, and
+has a gable top. The decoration on the sides and lid consists of
+palm-leaves, birds, and men engaged in combating and chasing antelopes
+and lions in the characteristic manner of Assyrian art. A lengthy Cufic
+inscription tells us that the box was made at Cuenca (_Medina Cuenca_)
+by Abd-er-Rahman ben Ziyan, to the order of the Moorish princes of
+Toledo, and that it dates from the year 441 of the Hegira.[58] Vives has
+pointed out that Cuenca was evidently a principal centre of this
+industry, and that caskets executed here about this time exist in
+Perpignan cathedral and in the provincial museum of Burgos.
+
+  [58] Detailed accounts of this casket will be found in the _Boletin de
+       la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_ for June 1893, and in the
+       _Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia_, vol. xx.
+
+Riano mentions seven ivory boxes of particular interest, which were
+probably made in Spain by Spanish Arabs, or else by Eastern craftsmen
+who had emigrated to this country. "On all their carving," he adds, "the
+names of Spanish historical persons appear, and it is hardly possible
+that they were ordered in remote countries, especially as some of these
+objects are small and comparatively unimportant."
+
+                           [Illustration: XL
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE IVORY CASKET
+          (_13th Century. Royal Academy of History, Madrid_)]
+
+Two of these boxes are in the South Kensington Museum. The one which is
+cylindrical in shape and has a domed cover is thus described by Maskell
+in his _Ivories, Ancient and Mediaeval, in the South Kensington
+Museum_:--"This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of
+it, with interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which, on the
+cover, are four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well
+designed and most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the
+lid.
+
+"Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf
+ornament. The same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the
+larger quatrefoils on the cover."
+
+"The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the
+upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band
+has an Arabic inscription: 'A favour of God to the servant of God, Al
+Hakem al Mostanser Billah, commander of the faithful.' He was a Caliph
+who reigned at Cordova, A.D. 961-976."
+
+The other box is oblong and rectangular. "The cover and sides are carved
+with scroll foliated ornament; the hinges and clasp are of chased silver
+inlaid with niello. Round the sides, immediately below the lid, is the
+following Arabic inscription in Cufic characters:--'In the name of God.
+This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah, the wife of
+Abd-er-Rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and satisfied
+with him.'" This inscription, adds Riano, "must allude to Abd-er-Rahman
+the Third, the first Caliph of Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el
+Mumenin. The formula 'God be merciful,' etc., denotes that he was dead
+when it was written. He died A.D. 961."
+
+                           [Illustration: XLI
+                             IVORY CRUCIFIX
+                    (_11th Century. Madrid Museum_)]
+
+Another Spanish-Moorish casket, also at South Kensington, and dating
+from the eleventh century, is described by Maskell as "richly
+carved in deep relief with foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing
+one another, and forming larger and smaller circles. The top and each
+side is a single plaque of ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back
+has two panels. On the two are two animals, like doves; a large bird
+stands at the back of each, attacking it with his beak. The sloping
+sides have, in the large circles, men on horseback, and animals
+fighting. The intermediate spaces are completely filled with foliage,
+and smaller beasts. Similar subjects are repeated in the circles on the
+panels forming the lower sides of the casket, and among them are two
+groups of men and women sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on
+a guitar, another holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other."
+Riano adds: "There is no inscription on this casket, but in one of the
+medallions on the lid there is a bust, which is carried on the back of a
+horse, and which is probably a representation of the prince for whom the
+casket was made."
+
+                        [Illustration: XLI (_a_)
+                             IVORY CRUCIFIX
+              (_11th Century. Back view. Madrid Museum_)]
+
+The _Letter of Testament_ setting forth the various objects bequeathed
+by Ferdinand the First and his consort Sancha to the church of Saint
+John the Baptist (or of Saint Isidore) at Leon, mentions an ivory cross
+(which will be noticed presently), an ivory box fitted with gold, and
+two ivory boxes fitted with silver, one of them containing three other
+silver boxes, similarly decorated.
+
+One of these boxes is described by Ambrosio de Morales, and from his
+words we conclude it to be the one which was adorned with gold, "of
+which metal," he wrote in 1572, "it has even more than of ivory," adding
+that it measured more than half a yard in length, and enshrined the body
+of Saint Vincent of Avila. He also tells us that it bore the following
+inscription, carved upon a golden frieze:--
+
+          ARCULA SANCTORUM MICAT HAEC SUB HONORE DUORUM
+
+          BAPTISTAE SANCTI JOHANNIS SIVE PELAGII
+
+          CEU REX FERNANDUS, REGINAQUE SANTIA, FIERI JUSSIT.
+
+          ERA MILLENA SEPTENA SEU NONAGENA.[59]
+
+  [59] A.D. 1059.
+
+This _arca_ has been much mutilated, and stripped of all the precious
+metal. Morales' description is therefore of especial value, as are the
+ivory tablets (eleventh century), carved with Christian themes, which
+yet remain upon the body of the box.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLII
+                          BYZANTINE CRUCIFIX]
+
+Dating from the thirteenth century is a Moorish casket (Plate xl.),
+preserved in the Academy of History at Madrid, and proceeding from the
+Carthusian monastery of Val de Cristo at Segorbe. It measures a foot in
+length by eight inches in height and four and a half inches in depth.
+The lid is deeply bevelled, and contains on each of the bevelled sides
+shields with the bars which constitute the arms of Aragon, painted upon
+a gold ground, together with imperial eagles painted in black upon a
+carmine ground. A decorative device of leaves and stems is also painted
+on the ivory.
+
+Rodrigo Amador de los Rios believes that this casket was captured in war
+by Jayme the First of Aragon, remaining with successive princes of his
+line until the reign of Don Martin, by whom it was presented to the
+monastery. The shields would thus be added to the primitive Moorish
+casket by some Christian-Spanish painter.
+
+The ivory crucifix (Plates xli. and xli. (_a_)), of Ferdinand the First
+and Dona Sancha, made in the first half of the eleventh century, and
+offered by these sovereigns to the church of Saint John the Baptist (or
+of Saint Isidore) at Leon, measures twenty-one inches in length by
+thirteen inches and a half in height. The figure of Christ recalls the
+rigidness and rudeness of Byzantine craftsmanship, such as is found in
+ancient crucifixes still preserved in Spain (Plate xlii.). The pupils of
+the enormous, expressionless eyes are made of jet. We see the wound upon
+each foot, with wavy marks to imitate the flowing blood, but no trace of
+a nail. Nails, however, transfix the hands. The arms are separate from
+the trunk, but the _suppedaneum_ on which the feet are resting is of a
+single piece with the body of the figure.
+
+The surface of the cross, especially about the borders, contains
+elaborate decoration, including animals and foliage. Above the Saviour's
+head is the inscription:--
+
+                                IHS NAZA
+
+                               RENVS REX
+
+                                IVDEORVM
+
+Above this is another figure of Christ seated, crowned with a cruciform
+nimbus and holding a Greek processional cross. Beneath the feet of the
+larger figure is Adam in an uncouth posture, turning his head to gaze
+upward, and at the lower extremity of the cross are carved the words:--
+
+                            FERDINANDVS REX
+
+                             SANCIA REGINA
+
+The lateral arms are carved with numerous devices forming an effective
+whole, including animals upon a tessellated band which seems to imitate
+a groundwork of mosaic. Other subjects represented are the Resurrection
+of the Flesh, the ascent of the blessed to Heaven, and the fall of the
+wicked to Hell.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIII
+                        "THE VIRGIN OF BATTLES"
+                  (_13th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+Upon the obverse side are pairs of quadrupeds, birds, and serpents,
+among a maze of foliage, together with the eagle, lion, lamb, and ox, as
+symbols of the evangelists. The lion and the ox have wings, and at the
+foot of the cross is an angel.
+
+The carving of the Saviour's form is clearly inferior to that of the
+decoration which surrounds it. Amador de los Rios seeks to account for
+this by declaring that "the difficulty from the point of view of art
+increases in proportion as the size of the figure is required to be
+larger"--a statement with which I wholly disagree. I believe, in fact,
+that in this cross the figure of Christ and the surrounding
+ornamentation are not by the same hand, and that the carver of the
+decorative detail was simply the better craftsman of the two.
+
+Many of the statuettes of the Virgin which are preserved in Spain were
+probably made in France. One that is typically and unquestionably
+Spanish is the celebrated "Virgin of Battles" (Plate xliii.), now
+guarded, together with other relics of Saint Ferdinand (see Vol. I.,
+Plate xi.), in the Chapel Royal of Seville cathedral. These statuettes,
+the use of which originated with the Greek emperors, and which were
+called by the Byzantines _socia belli_, consist of a seated figure of
+the Virgin with a small door opening underneath her throne, and served
+as reliquaries, and also as a kind of talisman. Boutelou says that the
+Spanish warriors of the Middle Ages were accustomed to carry these
+images to war with them, fitted upon a pin protruding from the left side
+of the saddle-bow. The "Virgin of Battles," made in Spain in the early
+part of the thirteenth century, was thus carried by King Ferdinand the
+Saint, resting between his shield or _rodela_ and his left arm, and so
+protected, and protecting, in the brunt of war.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIV
+                      SPANISH MEDIAEVAL _BACULUS_]
+
+The image is of ivory, and measures seventeen inches in height. The
+style is primitive Gothic, not as yet emancipated from Romanic and
+Byzantine art; and the expression of the Madonna and her Babe is marked
+by an engaging sweetness. Through lapse of centuries, myriads of
+diminutive cracks have opened on the surface of the ivory, and this has
+turned, in colour, to a brightish yellow. The right arm of the Virgin
+was broken off at some time prior to the sixteenth century, and has been
+replaced by another one. Mother and Child wear crowns of silver-gilt
+which probably were added later, and the hair, lips, and eyes have been
+badly painted or repainted with discordant colouring. A four-sided hole
+bored deep into the ivory served for holding the image to the _perno_
+which projected from the monarch's saddle-bow.
+
+A few elaborate _baculi_ or pastoral staves (Plate xliv.) exist in
+Spain, including one of the fourteenth century, in ivory, which belonged
+to the late Marquis of Monistrol, and is carved with the Crucifixion and
+also with the Virgin contemplating the Holy Infant as He is offered cups
+by angels. Another interesting Spanish baculus, though not of ivory, but
+copper decorated with turquoises and bright blue enamel, belonged to
+Bishop Pelayo de Cebeyra of Mondonedo (A.D. 1199-1218), and has been
+preserved, together with that prelate's gilded shoes. In the celebrated
+processions of Santiago, at which Alfonso the Sixth was personally
+present, magnificent ivory _baculi_ were borne, not only by the
+archbishop (_eburnea virga pontificali decoratus_), but even by the
+choristers.
+
+Between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries, Spanish craftsmen
+produced a fair quantity of ivory boxes, reliquaries, diptyches,
+triptyches, combs, and other less important objects. A fifteenth-century
+ivory spoon, ten inches long, whose handle is carved with six
+crocodiles, is in the National Museum, and may be Spanish work. In the
+same collection are one or two ivory diptyches and leaves of diptyches,
+and a wooden box (fourteenth century), with figures of carved ivory
+representing passages from the life of Saint George upon the body of the
+box, and from the Old Testament upon the lid. A carved Renaissance
+temple of the same material, with the Virgin and Child in its interior,
+is probably Italian.
+
+                           [Illustration: XLV
+                             "A TOURNAMENT"
+             (_Carved lid of box in ivory; 14th Century_)]
+
+In the fortieth volume of _Espana Sagrada_ it is stated that four ivory
+diptyches (_quatuor dictacos eburneos_) were offered in A.D. 897 to Lugo
+cathedral by Alfonso the Third and his queen Jimena. Other ivory
+diptyches were presented in A.D. 1063 by Ferdinand the Second to the
+church of Saint Isidore at Leon. Jose Villa-amil, in his study of an
+ivory statuette of the Virgin, belonging to the nuns of Allariz
+(_Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_; nos. 76 and 77),
+mentions a carved ivory box (_capsa eburnea_) made in the year 1122 for
+Santiago cathedral by order of Archbishop Gelmirez; another which
+existed in the sixteenth century in the church of Santa Maria at
+Finisterre; and a third, used as a reliquary, which in 1572 was opened
+by the monks of Samos in presence of Ambrosio de Morales.
+
+During the Middle Ages portable altars (_altares portatiles_) were
+widely used in Spain, and some were made of ivory. It was the custom to
+open them at the time of prayer, and as a rule they rested upon
+_reclinatorios_ or hung upon the wall. The _imagen abriente_ or "opening
+image" was also popular in Spain throughout the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries. As the name implies, these images opened in the manner of a
+triptych, and were very often used as reliquaries. Specimens are
+preserved in many parts of Europe, but only one or two exist in Spain
+and Portugal. That which belongs to the nuns of Allariz dates from the
+end of the thirteenth century, and was a present from Queen Violante. It
+is described fantastically by Morales, and accurately by Villa-amil, but
+the quaintest account is by the chronicler Jacobo de Castro. It
+measures, Castro tells us, "about half-a-yard in length and is one of
+the fairest ever seen, since it opens downward from the neck,
+discovering, on plates of half-relief, the principal mysteries of Christ
+and of Our Lady. The devotion towards it of the people in this
+neighbourhood exceeds description, and God has wrought a quantity of
+miracles through the intercession thereof."
+
+A fourteenth-century triptych carved in bone with scenes from Scripture
+is in the National Museum. It proceeds from Aragon, and is said to have
+belonged to Jayme the Conqueror. The Escorial possesses a handsome ivory
+diptych (Plate xlvi.) which is either Spanish or Italian--probably the
+former. It measures exactly a foot in height by nine inches across both
+leaves, and is deeply carved with passages from the life of Christ. The
+style is late Romanic merging into Gothic, and points to the second half
+of the thirteenth century.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVI
+                             IVORY DIPTYCH
+                     (_13th Century. El Escorial_)]
+
+
+
+
+                                POTTERY
+
+                                ANCIENT
+
+
+Quantities of ancient common pottery have been, and are continually
+being found in many parts of Spain. Prehistoric cups, shaped with the
+fingers and dried and hardened by the sun, are preserved in the Museum
+of History at Barcelona. They were discovered at Argar. Similar objects
+have been extracted from the caves of Segobriga, Lobrega in Old Castile,
+and El Tesoro in the province of Malaga. Those which were found at
+Segobriga are divided by Capelle into six groups, one of which includes
+a vessel resembling the ordinary Spanish pitcher of to-day.
+
+Villa-amil y Castro has described in the _Museo Espanol de Antiguedades_
+pieces of prehistoric sun-dried ware discovered in Galicia, roughly
+decorated with patterns imprinted by the finger. In other instances a
+double spiral has been described with a pointed instrument about the
+vessel's neck. Similar fragments have been found by Gongora in
+Andalusia. Celtic pottery was found in 1862 by Captain Brome on Windmill
+Hill at Gibraltar, in 1866 by M. Lartet in the caves of Torrecilla de
+Cameros, and by Casiano de Prado in a cave near Pedraza, as well as at
+Navares de Ayuso and elsewhere. In central Spain, vessels of the
+Celtiberian era have been found in tombs at Pradena, and pieces of red
+Saguntine ware, with dark red decoration, at Otero de Herreros, close to
+vestiges of a Roman mine. Lecea y Garcia describes in his work on _Old
+Segovian Industries_ a Celtiberian plate of reddish clay covered with
+black varnish, which was dug up some years ago in a garden at that town.
+This plate, measuring no less than four feet in diameter, and containing
+two inscriptions in characters believed to be Celtiberian, as well as
+the figure of a warrior armed with a lance and three javelins, was
+submitted to Heiss, who wrote of it in the _Gazette Archeologique_ and
+pronounced it to be genuine. I have not seen the plate in question. I
+have, however, met with cleverly executed forgeries, also varnished
+black, of primitive Spanish pottery.
+
+In 1899 quantities of Celtic ware, believed to date from the time of the
+Ph[oe]nicians, or even earlier, were unearthed by M. Bonsor from tumuli
+in the Guadalquivir valley. These objects are ornamented in relief with
+complicated patterns paler than the ground, obtained by using
+lighter-coloured clay. "As similar Celtic pottery has been found in
+Portugal, it will be understood that the Celtic influence, having
+crossed the Pyrenees, reached the south by the western seaboard. It will
+thus be seen that long before the arrival of the Romans a relatively
+high degree of civilisation had been reached at least in the south of
+Spain."[60]
+
+  [60] Martin Hume, _The Spanish People_, p. 15 (note).
+
+In the summer of 1905 two German archaeologists, Messrs. Schulten and
+Koenen, who had obtained permission from the Spanish Government to
+explore the site of old Numancia, filled four large cases with the
+Celtiberian pottery they extracted from the ruins. These cases were
+forwarded to the University of Goettingen. I understand, however, that
+they have been returned, or are to be returned immediately, to Spain.
+
+Long before the Christian era, Greek colonies existed on the Spanish
+coast at Rhodas, Denia, Emporium (Ampurias), Saguntum (Murviedro), and
+elsewhere. Pottery of good design and workmanship was manufactured at
+these towns, and strongly influenced native art. Bowls and other objects
+showing such an influence were discovered by M. Bonsor in his recent
+excavations. Another powerful influence was that of Rome. Roman
+potteries existed in the suburb of Seville called Triana, and in the
+provinces of Caceres and Badajoz. Merida was also an important centre of
+this industry, and vessels which were used in sacred rites, such as the
+_aquiminarium_, the _prefericulum_, the _simpulum_, and the _urnula_,
+were discovered here not long ago. The name "Saguntine ware" was given
+by the Romans to a kind of pottery which seems to have been made along
+the Spanish littoral extending southward from Saguntum. Fragments of
+this pottery, which closely resembles the Arezzo ware,[61] are found in
+shoals upon the sites of Roman towns, particularly Tarragona. These
+_barros saguntinos_, or (as Huebner prefers to call them) _barros
+tarraconenses_, have been divided into four classes, namely, white,
+grey, red (covered with a dark red varnish),[62] and yellow striped with
+red. This ware is commonly adorned with garlands, animals,
+hunting-scenes, divinities, games, or religious ceremonies, and also
+bears, in nearly every case, the potter's name or mark; _e.g._ ALBINVS F
+("Albinus fecit") or OF. ALBIN ("officina Albini"). More than two
+hundred marks have been discovered which were used by potters of
+Ampurias alone.
+
+  [61] "A ware exactly like that of Arezzo, called by some the red Roman
+       ware, and by others Samian, distinguished by its close grain
+       composed of a fine clay, and presenting, when broken, edges of an
+       opaque light red colour, whilst the inner and outer surfaces are
+       quite smooth, and of a brighter and darker red, is found in all
+       places of the ancient world to which the Roman arms or civilisation
+       reached. It is distinguished from the Aretine by its darker tone,
+       stronger glaze, and coarser ornamentation. Possibly, the whole
+       passage of Pliny in which he speaks of the earthenware of his day
+       refers to this red ware. Thus, for dishes he praises the Samian
+       and the Aretine ware; for cups, that of Surrentum, Asta and
+       Pollentia, Saguntum and Pergamus. Tralles and Mutina had their
+       manufactories. Cos was most esteemed; Hadria produced the hardest
+       ware. That one of these, that of Saguntum, was a red ware, is
+       clear; that of Cumae was also of the same colour.... That the red
+       ware is found amidst the dense forests of Germany and on the
+       distant shores of Britain, is a remarkable fact in the civilisation
+       of the old world. It was apparently an importation, being exactly
+       identical wherever discovered, and is readily distinguished from
+       the local pottery."--Birch, _History of Ancient Pottery_,
+       pp. 560, 561.
+
+  [62] "It belongs to the class of tender lustrous pottery, consisting of
+       a bright red paste like sealing-wax, breaking with a close texture,
+       and covered with a siliceous, or, according to some, a metallic
+       glaze. This glaze is exceedingly thin, transparent, and equally
+       laid upon the whole surface, only slightly augmenting the colour
+       of the clay."--Birch, p. 561.
+
+There seems to be no doubt that Saguntum and Emporium were principal
+centres of this industry, and possibly, since these towns were old Greek
+settlements, the _barros saguntinos_ were of Grecian origin. Pella y
+Forgas, describing in his _History of the Ampurdan_ the fine red ware of
+this locality, says that parts of the decoration were fashioned on the
+wheel, others directly by the potter's hand, and others from a mould,
+while the ornament of dotted lines was made by the wheeled _roulette_.
+
+Among the commoner objects dating from this time are amphorae and small
+earthen lamps (Pl. xlvii.). These lamps have been discovered in great
+numbers, and, owing to the dryness of the Spanish soil, in excellent
+preservation. They measure about the size of the hand, and have two
+holes, one in the spout or beak, to hold the wick, and the other at the
+top, for pouring in the oil. The top, which as a rule is slightly
+concave, is often ornamented with devices in relief, such as a chariot
+and its driver, or the emblem of a deity.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVII
+                   AMPHORAIC VASES AND OTHER POTTERY
+                        (_Museum of Tarragona_)]
+
+The typical amphora was a long, narrow vessel (usually of earthenware;
+less frequently of brass or glass), with an elongated handle at either
+side of the neck, and tapering nearly to a point. It served for
+storing honey, oil, or wine, and in order to keep it upright the pointed
+lower end was stuck into the soil, or rested on a perforated wooden
+stand. In the spring of 1893 some fishermen drew up in their nets, just
+off the coast of Alicante, three large intact amphorae thickly cased with
+shells, and sold them for eight dollars each. Other fine amphorae, now in
+the collection of the Marquis of Cerralbo, were washed upon the beach at
+Torrevieja, and many more are in museums. Vessels of this kind are known
+to have been made at Rhodas (Rosas) and Saguntum, and their use
+continued in Spain until the downfall of the second empire.
+
+
+                  HISPANO-MORESQUE NON-LUSTRED POTTERY
+
+The statements of Saint Isidore, confirmed by one or two discoveries in
+southern Spain, prove that the pottery in use among the Visigoths was
+principally Roman. Probably in this, as in so many of her arts, the
+Moorish conquest brought about a radical and rapid change. Remains of
+pottery dating from this period are extremely rare. The provincial
+museum of Granada contains some bowls and plates, all more or less
+imperfect, which are ascribed by experts to about the year 1000. These
+objects, which were dug up in 1878 on the slopes of the Sierra Elvira, a
+few miles from Granada, are coloured black and green upon a white or
+whitish ground. The most important is a dish which measures fourteen
+inches in diameter, and is decorated with a falcon on a horse's back
+(Plate xlviii.).[63] All of this pottery shows the double influence of
+Byzantium and the East. Among the designs upon the other pieces are
+hares and stags surrounded by a bordering of primitive arabesques. Riano
+remarks that "it is almost impossible to assert whether this pottery was
+made in or imported into Spain." Nevertheless, Persians are stated to
+have settled in this region early in the days of Muslim rule, while
+these dilapidated specimens of ancient ware are greatly similar in
+colouring and substance to the common dishes and _barrenos_ which are
+still produced throughout the province of Granada.
+
+  [63] The falcon is one of the commonest devices on all Persian pottery,
+       and was, in fact, the national emblem of the chase. Its importance
+       for the purpose of pursuing and securing game is well described in
+       Sir John Malcolm's _Sketches in Persia_.
+
+Moorish potteries producing lustred or non-lustred ware existed from
+an early date at Malaga, Valencia, Toledo, Calatayud, Murviedro, Murcia,
+and Barcelona. Another centre of this craft was probably Granada; for
+though she is not mentioned in this sense by any of the Moorish authors,
+the late Senor Contreras discovered here the vestiges of two ancient
+potteries, while one of the old entrances was known as Bab Alfajjarin,
+or "the potters' gate."
+
+                         [Illustration: XLVIII
+                                  DISH
+                (_About A.D. 1000. Museum of Granada_)]
+
+The Ordinances of Granada contain provisions which were evidently copied
+from the Spanish Moors, relating to the _almadraveros_ or tilemakers,
+the _tinajeros_ or makers of _tinajas_, and the _olleros_ or potters
+generally. The Ordinances which concern the tilemakers are dated between
+1528 and 1540. The restrictions imposed upon these craftsmen were
+irksome, foolish, and unnecessary. All bricks and tiles were to be
+stamped in three places with the city mark, and were only permitted to
+be made between the first of April and the thirty-first of October in
+each year, "since what is made at other seasons is not good or perfect,
+owing to the rain, and cold, and frost."
+
+Another Ordinance, illustrating the lawlessness prevailing at Granada in
+the times succeeding the reconquest, complains that "many persons,
+including labourers and hodmen, go forth into the roads and streets,
+and seize the tiles and bricks by violence from those who are conveying
+them, and bear them to their houses, or to the work which they are paid
+to do."
+
+A picturesque, though cheap and unluxurious, vessel of a thoroughly
+eastern character, and which was very largely manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors, is the terra-cotta _tinaja_ or gigantic jar for storing
+wine, or olive oil, or grain (Plate xlix.). The use of these receptacles
+extended through the whole Peninsula, and has continued undiminished to
+this day. The principal centres of _tinaja_-making were Toledo, Seville,
+and Granada. The Ordinances of the latter town embody Moorish rules
+relating to this branch of pottery. These laws, revived in 1526, provide
+that all _tinajas_ must contain two kinds of earth, one red, the other
+white, thoroughly compounded in a trough of water. Before the potter
+removes the clay from the trough, he must call the city supervisor or
+_veedor_ to look into the quality and mixing of the mass. The vessel as
+it leaves the oven must be white; otherwise, even although it have no
+flaw, the inspector is to break it. The potter is forbidden to coat his
+_tinajas_ with a glaze composed of eggs, blood, chalk, and other
+strange ingredients; nor may he fire the glaze with torches, "because
+the smell of the smoke clings to the _tinaja_, and the wine or stum
+deposited therein grows redolent of it, and it stays within the jar
+perpetually."
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIX
+                       HISPANO-MORESQUE _TINAJA_]
+
+Owing doubtless to their plain, domestic purpose and their trifling
+market cost, early _tinajas_ are not often met with. A fine example in
+excellent preservation is at South Kensington, and is described by Riano
+as "a wine jar, amphora-shaped, and ornamented with an incised pattern
+of vine leaves, and stamped diaper of a Gothic character." Several good
+_tinajas_ have been discovered of late years at Seville. Gestoso
+mentions six, five of which are glazed. The first of these was found in
+1893, and has a bright green glaze upon a ground of reddish earth. Both
+handles and nearly all the neck are wanting. The decoration consists of
+various bands or _fajas_ round the body of the jar, a series of
+archways, another of leaves, and a central band of stars, three deep,
+strongly imprinted from a mould. In every ninth arch are stamped
+symbolic hands, such as we see upon the Gate of Justice of the Alhambra.
+
+The second _tinaja_ is similar to the one just mentioned, except that
+it has the neck. It was discovered in 1895, and is now in Seville
+museum.
+
+The third _tinaja_ is also in this museum, and was discovered in 1901.
+It is in a very poor condition, and Gestoso believes that it was
+originally covered with a honey-coloured glaze.
+
+The fourth _tinaja_ was found in a drain, in the same year as the
+preceding one, and is inscribed with words, including _Blessing_ and
+_Felicity_, in Cufic characters. Gestoso is unable to decide whether
+this vessel was made at Seville or elsewhere.
+
+The fifth _tinaja_ is in the collection of Don Jose Moron, and possesses
+greater interest than the others, both because it is in excellent
+condition, and also because the decoration is entirely in the
+Spanish-Christian style, without a trace of Saracenic ornament. Small
+Gothic-looking shields surround the body of this vessel, which is
+stamped with pomegranates, and with the arms and emblems of the Ponce de
+Leon and other families. Between each pair of shields is an oval-shaped
+medallion containing human figures.
+
+The sixth _tinaja_ is unglazed. It was found in June of 1893, and is
+adorned with repetitions of the words _Prosperity_ and _Blessing_, as
+well as with a series of deer and other animals in the act of running;
+some of them with birds upon their backs. These designs are very
+uncommon, and Gestoso has seen no other _tinaja_, proceeding from this
+region, similarly decorated.
+
+_Tinajas_ are still made in large quantities at Toboso, Lucena, Colmenar
+de Oreja, and other Spanish towns and villages.
+
+Other large objects of a thoroughly oriental character were earthenware
+glazed _brocales_ or brims of wells, which, like the _tinajas_, were
+largely manufactured at Seville and Toledo. Specimens of these
+_brocales_ exist in the museums of Toledo and Cordova. Riano describes
+one which is at South Kensington. "It was bought at Toledo for three
+guineas at a shoemaker's shop. It is made of glazed white and green
+earthenware, with ornamental Cufic characters in high relief all round,
+which appear to be of the fourteenth century. The inscription, which is
+repeated, is imperfect, and all that I can decipher are the words 'the
+power, the excellence, and the peace.'"
+
+Gestoso describes two _brocales_ and the fragments of a third. All these
+objects were found at Seville. The two which are intact, or nearly so,
+are cylindrical, and of a white ware. One of them has a simple leaf
+decoration, and seems to have been covered with a green glaze. The
+other, which was discovered in 1894, is surrounded by a triple band of
+inscription in African characters which are illegible.
+
+Gestoso also describes some interesting baptismal fonts, a class of
+object which he pronounces to have been the most important of all that
+were produced in the potteries of Triana, by reason both of their large
+dimensions and of their elaborate ornamentation. He states that three
+methods were employed to decorate these fonts. The first consisted in
+attaching to their surface small moulded plates which bore the likeness
+of a saint, flowers, monograms, or other devices. By the second method
+the decoration was moulded directly on the font; while the third method
+consisted in a combination of the other two.
+
+Splendid examples of these Spanish fonts exist in various churches of
+Andalusia and in private collections. One of the finest is in the parish
+church of Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion, at Laguna, Tenerife. It is
+suggested by Gestoso that this _pila_ of Laguna was made at Seville and
+sent to the Canaries in the year 1479, when orders were issued by
+Ferdinand and Isabella for the completion of the monasteries in those
+islands.
+
+_Pilas_ were also manufactured at Toledo, although Gestoso says that the
+workmanship of those produced at Seville was in every way superior.
+Nevertheless, he has only found the maker's name upon a single font,
+which is inscribed with that of Juan Sanchez Vachero, and is now
+preserved in the church of San Pedro at Carmona. Another remarkable
+_pila_ is that of the hospital of San Lazaro at Seville.
+
+In course of time the Spanish Church forbade the use of _pilas_ made of
+glazed earthenware, and ordered their substitution by fonts of stone or
+marble. One of these dispositions, included among the _Constituciones
+Sinodales_ of the bishopric of Malaga, and dated 1671, is quoted by
+Gestoso. It enacts that the _pila_ be of stone and not of earthenware,
+and that if any of this latter class remain, they are to be "consumed"
+(_i.e._ destroyed) within two months.
+
+Returning to the Ordinances of Granada, those which concern the potters
+or _olleros_ generally are dated 1530, and inform us of the price of
+glazed and unglazed articles in common use, such as _ollas_ or pots
+(with and without glaze), _cazuelas_ or earthen vessels for cooking
+meat, plates of many colours and dimensions, _jarros_ (jugs), _alcuzas_
+(vials), _cantaros castellanos_ (Castilian water-pitchers), _cantaros
+moriscos_ (Moorish water-pitchers[64]), _morteros_ (mortars),
+_lebrillos_ (earthen tubs), _candiles_ (lamps with a green, white or
+yellow glaze), _orzas_ (gally pots), _botijas_ (narrow-necked jars), and
+_salseras_ (saucers).
+
+  [64] The watersellers' Ordinance of 1516 enacts that each of these
+       vendors shall carry a minimum load of six _cantaros_, and that the
+       cantaros themselves shall be "of the round shape, and not the
+       Moorish ones, as these have long spouts; each _cantaro_ to be
+       closed with a cork." The latter is the typical pitcher of Morocco.
+       "As we were talking, neighbours dropped in, in the familiar Eastern
+       way, and sat quiet and self-contained, occasionally drinking from
+       one of the two long-necked and porous water-jars, known as
+       'Baradas' or the 'coolers,' which stand, their wooden stoppers tied
+       to them with a palmetto cord, on each side the divan."--Cunninghame
+       Graham, _Mogreb-el-Acksa_, p. 88.
+
+The shape and colouring of many of these common articles have been
+continued till to-day, especially in Andalusia. I reproduce a photograph
+of some (Plate l.), in which the influence of the East is unmistakable.
+The smaller of the two unglazed jars is used for carrying and cooling
+water, and is made at Loja. The other, which is often used for storing
+honey, is from Guadalajara. The spherical vessel is a kind of bottle for
+_aguardiente_. It is glazed a brightish green, and is made in various
+parts of Andalusia, as are the gourd-shaped _calabazas_, which have a
+yellow glaze. The smallest vessel, or that which has a funnel-shaped and
+bulging mouth, is coated with a coarse metallic glaze coloured in white
+and blue, and proceeds from Granada.
+
+                            [Illustration: L
+                         COARSE SPANISH POTTERY
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+So is the influence of the Spanish Moors, linking the present intimately
+to the past, and handed down by early craftsmen to the moderns, and from
+Mussulmans to Christian Spaniards, maintained and kept alive, not only
+by the city ordinances I have quoted, but also by the more occult yet no
+less permanent and cogent force of local and unchronicled tradition. In
+the historic quarter of Granada which is called the Albaycin, survive a
+few _alfarerias_ to this hour (Plate lxix.). Here, on the potter's wheel
+or ranged about his yard, may yet be seen the red Granada earth that is
+believed to have inspired the vase of the Alhambra, applied to-day to
+common crockery that notwithstanding has a subtle, unfamiliar charm. And
+towards the time of sundown, when the master turns indoors to supper and
+his workmen have gone home, when the last of the red light is colouring
+the ancient city wall until it too looks like a mammoth monument of the
+potter's art of old Granada, it is a strange experience to wander
+through these desolate yards, among the files of ruddy Granadino ware
+kindling with vivid memories of the vanished Mussulmans of Spain, and
+bringing back to us that spirited old poet of the East who also sang of
+pottery:--
+
+               "Listen again. One Evening at the Close
+               Of Ramazan, ere the better Moon arose,
+                   In that old Potter's Shop I stood alone
+               With the clay Population round in Rows.
+
+               And strange to tell, among that Earthen Lot
+               Some could articulate, while others not:
+                   And suddenly one more impatient cried--
+               'Who _is_ the Potter, pray, and who the Pot?'
+
+               Then said another--'Surely not in vain
+               My substance from the common Earth was ta'en,
+                   That He who subtly wrought me into Shape
+               Should stamp me back to common Earth again.'"
+
+
+                         MOSAIC-WORK AND TILES
+
+The art of colouring and glazing earthenware was practised by various
+peoples of the ancient eastern world, and passed, in course of time,
+through Egypt to Ph[oe]nicia, Greece, and Rome, and, later still, to
+Mussulman peoples of north-western Africa.
+
+Glazed earthenware was possibly produced in Roman Spain, although the
+specimens of it which have been discovered are singularly and, indeed,
+significantly few. Their colour is commonly green or lightish yellow.
+Gestoso makes particular mention of a small jar now preserved in the
+museum of Seville, describing it as "of an ordinary shape, but finely
+made." He admits, however, that no trace of glaze exists in any of the
+broken Visigothic vessels (copied, as Saint Isidore tells us, from the
+Roman-Spanish pottery) that were found some years ago among the ruins of
+Italica. Thus it is not decided whether the Spanish potters learned to
+glaze, or whether this development of their craft remained familiar to
+the Spaniards of that period through imported objects merely.
+
+As with glazed earthenware, the origin of mosaic must be looked for in
+the East. Greece, who had doubtless borrowed it from Egypt, communicated
+it to Rome at least two centuries before the Christian era, and from
+this time the Romans used it freely in the decoration of their
+buildings. The Greek mosaic was composed exclusively of stone. The
+Romans modified this usage by the introduction of diminutive cubes of
+clay, painted and baked like porcelain; and later, in the reign of
+Claudius, dyed these cubes with various colours.
+
+Roman mosaic-work (commonly in the tessellated style and not the _opus
+sectile_) has been unearthed in many parts of the Peninsula. Such are
+the two "mosaics of the Muses," discovered at Italica on December 12th,
+1799, and June 12th, 1839;[65] other mosaics, to the number of some
+thirty, discovered from time to time among the same ruins; another,
+discovered at Majorca in 1833; that of the Calle Batitales at Lugo (the
+Roman _Lucus Augusti_), discovered in 1842; those of Palencia, Gerona,
+Merida, Milla del Rio (near Leon), Rielves (near Toledo), Duraton,
+Aguilafuente, and Paradinas (near Segovia), and Carabanchel, three miles
+from Madrid. The mosaic found at Lugo is believed to have formed part of
+a temple dedicated to Diana. The decoration is partly geometrical, and
+consists of the head of a man between two dolphins, with other fishes
+swimming along the border. Laborde describes another mosaic which
+existed, early in the nineteenth century, in a hall of the archbishop's
+palace at Valencia. "The pavement of this hall demands particular
+attention; it is formed of antique pavements, discovered in the month of
+February, 1777, three hundred paces north-east of the town of Puch,
+between Valencia and Murviedro; some were entire, others were only
+fragments. They were separated with care, and placed on the floor of
+this hall, where they are carefully preserved. They are different
+mosaics, formed by little stones of three or four lines in diameter,
+curiously enchased. They are distributed into seven squares in each of
+which medallions and divers designs have been drawn: their compartments
+are of blue on a white ground. We observe in one of these squares an
+imitation of the pavement of Bacchus, discovered at Murviedro, and of
+which there remained but very few vestiges; it was copied in a
+drawing-book which a priest of this town had preserved; it is executed
+with such art and exactness, that no difference can be observed between
+this modern work and that of the Romans. In another we see Neptune
+seated in a car, in one hand holding a whip, and in the other a trident
+and the reins of the horses by which his car is drawn: these appear to
+be galloping."
+
+  [65] The latter, which was the finer of the two, was dug out by Don Ivo
+       de la Cortina. It has subsequently been allowed to go to pieces,
+       but a coloured plate depicting it will be found in the first volume
+       of the _Museo Espanol de Antiguedades_.
+
+"In the same hall are also seen other pavements, of which only fragments
+could be preserved. Some serve for borders and ornaments to the
+preceding pavements. On these are represented a tiger, fishes, birds,
+houses, flowers, and garlands, well executed. There are particularly
+five stuck on wood and shut up in a closet; on these are birds, fruits,
+and flowers, figured in different colours, the execution of which is
+very curious; they are perhaps the most precious of the whole."
+
+The same author says elsewhere: "In digging to make a road from Valencia
+to Murviedro in 1755, at the entrance of the latter town a mosaic
+pavement was discovered; it was entire, and of such beauty that it was
+thought worthy of preservation. Ferdinand the Sixth caused it to be
+surrounded with walls; but the king's intentions were not properly
+fulfilled; the gates were suffered to remain open, and every one carried
+away some part of the pavement, which consequently soon became
+despoiled; it was rectangular, and measured twenty-four feet by
+fourteen. There are still some fragments of it in several houses at
+Murviedro. A priest of that town, Don Diego Puch, an antiquarian, took a
+drawing of it, which he afterwards had painted at Valencia on the tiles
+fabricated there, and paved an apartment of his house with them. It was
+likewise copied with the greatest exactness, with small stones perfectly
+similar, in an apartment of the library belonging to the archiepiscopal
+palace, as we have already stated."
+
+Swinburne also mentions a mosaic pavement which he saw at Barcelona,
+upon the site of what he believed to have been a temple of Neptune. In
+it were represented "two large green figures of tritons, holding a shell
+in each hand; between them a sea-horse, and on the sides a serpent and a
+dolphin."
+
+In October of 1901 a very important and beautiful mosaic was discovered
+at Italica. It is known as "the mosaic of Bacchus," the worship of which
+deity, says Senor Quintero, was probably general in Andalusia, owing to
+her wealth of vines. This mosaic was found at a depth of six feet six
+inches below the surface of the soil, and measures twenty-one feet
+square. It is believed to have formed the pavement of a Roman
+dining-chamber.
+
+Mosaic in the manner of the Greeks and Romans seems in Spain to have
+disappeared with the Visigoths. That it was known to these is told us by
+Saint Isidore:--"Pavimenta originem apud graecos habent elaboratae arte
+picturae, litostrata parvulis crustis ac tesselis tinctis in varios
+colores."[66]
+
+  [66] _Tessela_ and _crusta_ are defined by him as follows: "Tesselae
+       sunt e quibus domicilia sternuntur a tesseris nominata, id est
+       quadratis lapillis, per diminutionem."
+
+       "Crustae sunt tabulae marmoris. Unde et marmorari parietes et
+       constati dicuntur. Qui autem marmora secandi in crustas rationem
+       excogitaverunt non constat. Fiunt autem arena et ferro serraque in
+       praetenui linea premente arenas, tractuque ipse secante: sed
+       crassior arena plus erodet marmoris. Nam tenuis fabricis et
+       polituris accomodata est."
+
+                           [Illustration: LI
+                           DOOR OF THE MIHRAB
+              (_Showing mosaic-work. Cordova Cathedral_)]
+
+It is impossible to affirm with any confidence that glazed earthenware,
+whether in the form of tiles or other objects, was manufactured by the
+Spanish Moors during the Cordovese Caliphate, or the period of the
+kinglings of Taifa. No trace of it has been discovered among the scanty
+ruins of Medina Az-zahara[67] and Az-zahira--ancient palaces of
+Cordova--or in the marvellous mosque. We know, however, that towards the
+seventh century the Arabs borrowed from Byzantium the mosaic-work of
+tessons known as _psephosis fsefysa_, and this, or something similar,
+was used, though probably to a small extent, among the Muslims of the
+Spanish Caliphate. Although, towards the middle of the thirteenth
+century, the historian Aben-Said, a native of Granada, recorded that in
+Al-Andalus "is made a kind of _mofassass_ which is called in the East
+_alfoseifesa_," remains of this elaborate product only exist to-day at
+Cordova, where patches may yet be seen lining the dome of the _mirhab_
+in the vast _aljama_ (Plate li.). The mosaic in question is stated to
+have been a gift from the Byzantine emperor to the sultan Al-Hakem, and
+was set in place by a skilled workman, a Greek, who, like the offering
+itself, proceeded from Constantinople.
+
+  [67] Among these ruins, at five miles' distance from the city, pieces
+       of common brick have come to light; but no glazed pottery of any
+       kind, whether as _foseifesa_, _azulejos_, or mosaic.
+
+During his stay at Cordova this Greek was helped by certain of the
+Sultan's slaves, who thus acquired the secrets of the craft, and
+practised it thereafter.[68]
+
+  [68] Dozy's version of _The History of Almagreb_, by Ibn-Adzari the
+       Moor; p. 253.
+
+Rodrigo Amador de los Rios contends, however, that this decoration is
+in no sense a true mosaic, but just a tempera painting executed on the
+wall and overlaid with cubes of glass. In any case, no other specimen of
+such work has been discovered in any part of the Peninsula.
+
+By the time of the Almohade invasion or very shortly after--that is,
+towards the twelfth century,--the Spanish Moors had grown acquainted
+with glazed earthenware. Indeed, the Almohades are believed by some
+authorities to have actually introduced it. Gestoso, on the contrary,
+suggests that Spain may have transmitted it to Africa. However this may
+be, the Almohades used it largely in the decoration of their homes and
+public buildings in Andalusia; first as _aliceres_ or bands composed of
+smallish pieces running round a room, and subsequently in the more
+effective and more useful form of _azulejos_ proper. The Spanish Moors
+employed the word _almofassass_ to designate both _aliceres_ and
+_azulejos_. Nevertheless, the two were not identical, although Riano
+takes them to be so. He says: "The earliest tiles or _azulejos_ made in
+Spain are composed of small pieces let into the wall, forming
+geometrical patterns." These, in fact, were _aliceres_. It is not so
+easy to define an _azulejo_. We read in Aben-Said, quoted by
+Al-Makkari: "There is another kind of work employed for paving houses.
+It is called _azzulechi_ and resembles _mofassass_. It has wonderful
+colouring, and replaces the coloured marble used by the people of the
+East to decorate their chambers."
+
+This definition is not completely clear. Those of the Christian-Spanish
+writers are not more satisfactory. Covarrubias calls these objects
+"small bricks, square and of other shapes, used for lining chambers in
+the mansions of the wealthy, or in garden paths." Nebrija calls them
+_tessela pavimenticia_, adding that they bear the name of _azulejos_
+because the earliest ones were of a blue colour--a statement which Dozy
+supports by instancing the Persian-Arabic _zaward_ or "blue stone."
+
+Gestoso resolves the question sufficiently for our purpose by showing
+that the term _azulejo_ is usually applied to square tiles of a largish
+size, the length of whose sides varies between eleven centimetres and
+eighteen centimetres, _aliceres_ being properly the smaller strips or
+pieces (technically known as _cintas_ or _verduguillos_) used in a
+bordering or frieze. Other decorative pieces of small dimensions,
+invented in the fifteenth century, were called _olambres_ or
+_olambrillas_, and served to lend variety to the red or yellow brickwork
+of a pavement or a floor.
+
+The production of _azulejos_ in Spain may thus be traced to as far back
+as the twelfth century. By far the most important centre of the craft
+was Seville. Here, from the twelfth until the fourteenth century, was
+made the glazed and decorative tiling which consisted of small pieces of
+monochrome earthenware--black, white, green, blue, or yellow--cut one by
+one, and pieced together in the manner of a true mosaic. This process,
+says Gestoso, was lengthy, difficult, and dear. In the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries the same mosaic would often take the form of a
+series of narrow, white, ribbon-like strips, with coloured interspaces.
+Specimens of this "ribbon-work tiling" exist to-day in the Patio de Las
+Doncellas of the Alcazar (Plate lii.). Towards the sixteenth century the
+Sevillano potters discovered a simpler way of making effective and
+artistic _azulejos_, which they called the _cuerda seca_ process. This
+novel method consisted in pressing a wood or metal mould upon the
+unbaked tile, in such a manner that the outline of the pattern remained
+in slight relief. This outline was next brushed over with a mixture
+of manganese and grease, which turns, in baking, very nearly black. The
+body of the pattern was then filled in with the various colours, which
+the greasy line completely separated, and thus prepared, the tile was
+rendered permanent by firing.
+
+                           [Illustration: LII
+                  MOSAIC OF THE PATIO DE LAS DONCELLAS
+                        (_Alcazar of Seville_)]
+
+This process, in which the patterns are nearly always geometrical,
+remained in general use until about the year 1550, when it began to be
+superseded by two others, known respectively as the processes of
+"cuenca" and "Pisano".
+
+The _cuenca_ tile was simple and of excellent effect. The pattern,
+stamped from a metal mould, remained in bas-relief,--a characteristic
+which caused these objects to be also known as _azulejos_ "_de
+relieve_". The shelving border of each hollow stamped into the tile thus
+formed a kind of natural barrier which kept the colour there deposited
+from mingling with its neighbours. When of a larger size, and joined in
+pairs to form between each two a single motive (_ladrillo por tabla_),
+these _azulejos_ were often employed for decorating roofs and ceilings.
+
+The tiles which bear the name of their inventor, Francesco Niculoso
+Pisano the Italian, who lived and worked for many years at Seville, date
+from about the same time as the "cuenca" _azulejos_. In the case of the
+_Pisano_ tile, there is no indentation caused by the imprint of a mould,
+the surface being merely coated with a monochrome glaze, painted upon
+and fired, the decoration thus remaining flat all over. Commonly the
+ground is white or yellow, with the colour of the pattern shaded blue,
+or black, or deepish purple. This process, which lent itself to most
+elaborate and effective schemes of ornament, remained in vogue until the
+eighteenth century, and was practised, not only by Pisano himself, but
+by a long succession of his pupils, followers, and imitators.
+
+                          [Illustration: LIII
+                      ANDALUSIAN NON-LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1480-1495. Osma Collection_)]
+
+Such were the processes in use among the _azulejo_-makers of old
+Seville. Specimens of their craftsmanship which yet survive and
+illustrate the various styles and epochs may be thus enumerated:--
+
+(1) Mosaic tile-work, such as appears in Seville at the time of the
+Almohade invasion. A fragment of this kind of work forms part of the
+collection of Senor Osma, and proceeds from the church of San Andres.
+Tiles and smaller pieces of mosaic-work, coloured in malachite green and
+white, were also found in 1899 and 1900, in the upper walls of the
+renowned Torre del Oro, or "Golden Tower," erected in the year 1220,
+and which is popularly thought to derive its venerable title from the
+sparkle of the sun upon its _azulejos_. Another piece of primitive
+mosaic, measuring rather less than a yard square, and containing
+star-shaped geometrical devices, was found in 1890 beneath the floor of
+the cathedral; while mosaics of a later age, including the more
+elaborate _laceria_ patterns that resemble ribbon, are preserved in the
+Patio de las Doncellas of the Alcazar, in the Casa de Olea, and in the
+parish churches of San Esteban, San Gil, and Omnium Sanctorum.
+
+(2) A small group of curious tiles, believed to be anterior to the reign
+of Pedro the First, has come to light some years ago, in the churches of
+San Andres and Santa Marina, and in the Claustro del Lagarto of the
+cathedral. Those of San Andres are of white earthenware, glazed in the
+same colour and stamped from a mould with the figures of two wolves in
+fairly bold relief (see tailpiece to this chapter). Traces of a glaze of
+malachite green are on the bodies of these wolves. The _azulejos_ of the
+church of Santa Marina, also discovered recently, are examined by Senor
+Osma in his pamphlet _Azulejos sevillanos del siglo xiii_ (Madrid,
+1902). They measure about three and a half inches square, and bear
+devices of a castle and an eagle, stamped in the diagonal direction of
+the tile, showing that this was fixed upon the wall in lozenge fashion.
+The tiles are bathed upon their surface with what is termed by Osma "the
+semi-transparent, caramel-coloured glaze peculiar to the pottery of
+Moorish Spain."[69] Upon this ground is stamped the decoration,--the
+eagles in the blackish purple of baked manganese, the castles without
+additional colour, so as to be distinguished only by their outline from
+the yellowish surface of the tile.
+
+  [69] According to Gestoso, the colours in use among the Almohades
+       consisted of green, black, caramel or honey, and deep purple.
+       These colours underwent no change until the sixteenth century.
+
+The _azulejos_ of the Claustro del Lagarto of the cathedral are three in
+number, and were found in 1888. Two of them are stamped with a castle of
+a single tower described within a shield, and the third with a Greek
+cross. These are considered by Osma to be the only tiles existing at
+this moment which date from the latter third of the thirteenth century.
+In fact, he places their manufacture between the years 1252 and 1269.
+
+                           [Illustration: LIV
+                             _CUENCA_ TILES
+                        (_Alcazar of Seville_)]
+
+(3) _Cuerda seca_ tiles. Handsome _zocalos_ or dadoes of these tiles are
+in the Casa de los Pinelos, and in the chapels of the palaces of the
+Dukes of Alba and Medinaceli. Gestoso attributes them to the end of the
+fifteenth century or the beginning of the sixteenth. Detached _cuerda
+seca_ tiles are preserved in the municipal museum of archaeology, while a
+fine pair (Plate liii.) of this class of _azulejos_ belongs to Senor
+Osma, who considers they were made between 1480 and 1495. They are thus
+coeval with the no less interesting dish of the time of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, of which a reproduction is given opposite page 190.
+
+(4) _Cuenca_ tiles. Quantities of these, dating from the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, may yet be seen in many parts of Seville; for
+instance, in her churches or her convents, in her superb Alcazar, or in
+the mansions of her old nobility. Probably the most remarkable of all
+are those in the gardens of the Alcazar, and lining the walls of the
+Pavilion of Charles the Fifth. The devices on these polychrome
+_azulejos_ (16th century; Plate liv.) are very numerous, including men
+and animals, centaurs and other monsters, the Pillars of Hercules, and
+imitations of elaborate dress fabrics.
+
+(5) _Pisano_ tiles. Although some facts have been unearthed concerning
+the Italian Francesco Niculoso Pisano, we do not know precisely in what
+year he came to Seville, or in what year he died. Davillier thought it
+probable that he had studied at Faenza or at Caffagiolo. At all events,
+it was Pisano who broadly launched the art of the Sevillian potters on
+the stream of the Renaissance.[70] I have stated that the tiles which
+bear his name are painted on a white or yellow ground. Consequently
+their surface is flat, without the ridges and depressions of the
+_cuenca_ or the _cuerda seca_ methods. We find _Pisano_ tiles applied to
+various objects, such as tombs, altars, friezes, and archivolts. This
+artist, says Gestoso, further introduced the use of two new
+colours,--violet and rose. Several of his best productions are still
+intact, including the doorway of the church of the monastery of Santa
+Paula (in which he was assisted by a Spanish master, Pedro Millan), and
+the altar of the Catholic Sovereigns in the Alcazar. Both these
+masterpieces were executed in the year 1504, and bear Pisano's
+signature. The doorway of Santa Paula is described by Gestoso as
+consisting of a single body of masonry, distinct from that of the
+building itself, though resting against it, and constructed of bricks
+of uniform size, which show us, by their perfect symmetry, how skilful
+were the masons of that time, with whom the Moorish craftsmanship was
+yet a living power. The doorway is formed by a series of concentric
+Gothic arches resting on slender pillars. The space which forms the
+outer archivolt is most remarkable. Upon a ground of _azulejos_ which
+copy the colour of the brickwork, we see a number of Plateresque designs
+of exquisite beauty, painted in white and blue, with occasional touches
+of other colours. Among the devices are chimeras, war-trophies, volutes,
+chaplets, parapegms, antelopes, masks, and others which are
+characteristic of the Florentine Renaissance. Upon this ground, and
+enclosed by circular garlands in high relief, consisting of polychrome
+fruits and flowers, are seven medallions containing figures of male and
+female saints, except the one which is upon the keystone, and which
+represents the birth of Christ. In this medallion the figures are
+enamelled in white upon a cobalt-blue ground, recalling, as also do the
+garlands, the work of the celebrated della Robbia.[71] In the rest of
+the medallions the figures are glazed in brilliant colours. In the
+three medallions upon the left, beginning with the lowest one, we see,
+upon the first, Saint Helen; upon the second, two saints in monkish
+dress; and upon the third, Saint Peter and Saint Paul. On the medallions
+of the other side are another saint dressed as a monk, San Cosme, San
+Damian, and San Roque. The spaces on either side of the archivolt are
+covered with tiles which represent a landscape. In each of the upper
+angles is an angel holding a large tablet with IHS in ornamental Gothic
+character upon a black ground. These letters, and also the angels and
+the frames of the tablets, are enamelled in gold. Beneath each tablet is
+an angel standing with extended wings upon a bracket of lustred
+earthenware, and holding an open book. The brickwork of the door is
+closed by a plain impost supporting a small battlement covered with
+_cuenca_ tiles, and crowned with a cornice of flamboyant ornaments
+alternating with the heads of cherubs glazed in white, and with a white
+marble cross in the centre. The tympanum is embellished by a superb
+shield carved in high relief upon white marble with the arms of Castile,
+Leon, Aragon, and Sicily, surmounted by a royal crown and the eagle with
+the nimbus. Beside this shield are two smaller ones of _azulejos_
+painted with the yoke and sheaf of arrows, and the motto T[=A]TO
+M[=O]TA. The ground on which are executed these three shields occupies
+the whole tympanum, and is covered with Plateresque devices including
+two tablets, on one of which we read the letters S.P.Q.R., and on the
+other, PISANO. Above the first of these tablets is another of an oval
+shape, bearing the word NICULOSO. Lastly, at the base of the archivolt,
+and on the left-hand side of the spectator, is a very small rectangular
+tablet with this inscription:--
+
+                                NICVLOSO
+
+                              FRANCISCO-I-
+
+                              TALIANO-MEF
+
+                           ECIT INELAGNO DEI
+
+                                . 154 .
+
+  [70] Gestoso says that florid Gothic and Renaissance motives are found
+       occasionally in the older _cuenca_ tiles. This was, however, quite
+       exceptional.
+
+  [71] A plaque belongs to Senor Gestoso which proceeds from the
+       demolished Mudejar church of San Miguel at Seville. It measures
+       fifteen inches high by ten wide, and is decorated with a
+       representation, in bas-relief, of the Coronation of the Virgin. The
+       eyebrows, eyelids, and lips of the figures are executed in cobalt
+       upon a thick layer of white glaze, and strongly recall the method
+       of Lucca della Robbia. Gestoso considers that this plaque was made
+       in the latter part of the fourteenth century. If so, it is
+       antecedent to the work of della Robbia (whose _Resurrection_ upon
+       one of the doors of the Duomo of Florence dates from 1438) by a
+       good many years. A similar example, also by an unknown hand and
+       representing the Coronation, is in the chapel of the Sagrario of
+       Seville Cathedral.
+
+The altar in the Alcazar of the same city, and which is known as that of
+the Catholic Sovereigns (Plate lv.), is entirely covered with "Pisano"
+_azulejos_ measuring sixteen centimetres square. Imbedded in the centre
+is a picture, also of painted tiles, representing the visit of the
+Virgin to Saint Elizabeth. This picture measures five feet in height by
+three feet eight inches in breadth. Beneath it is the figure of a
+patriarch resting his head upon his hand. Boughs with large flowers
+issue from his breast, and among the flowers are half-length figures of
+the prophets, together with those of Jesus and the Virgin, the whole of
+this decoration forming a frame to the central picture. The rest of the
+altar is profusely decorated with designs in the Renaissance style,
+consisting of vases, animals, genii, and the emblems of Ferdinand and
+Isabella. In the centre of the tiling which forms the altar-front is a
+circular picture made of _azulejos_ surrounded by a garland of fruits
+and laurel leaves, and representing the Annunciation, garland and
+picture being supported by two monsters with the tails of dragons and
+the upper parts of women. Large flaming torches rest between the
+out-stretched arms of the monsters, and round about or springing from
+them are flowers, animals, cornucopias, and other decoration. The
+entire _retablo_ is painted lightish blue and white upon a yellow
+ground, except the larger picture and its decorative border, which is of
+a deeper blue. A small tablet beneath the Virgin's feet contains the
+words NICULOSO FRANCESCO ITALIANO ME FECIT, and on the pilaster
+represented on the left hand of the same picture is added the date,
+1504. As Gestoso, Davillier, and others have remarked, it is evident
+that while the rest of the altar is pure Renaissance-Plateresque, the
+pictures copied on the tiles are of a northern school. Probably they
+were designed for Niculoso by one of the various German or Flemish
+masters who at that time were resident in Seville.
+
+                           [Illustration: LV
+                    ALTAR OF THE CATHOLIC SOVEREIGNS
+                        (_Alcazar of Seville_)]
+
+Another altar which was formerly in the same palace, but which has
+disappeared, was also painted by this craftsman. It was described by
+Cean Bermudez as containing scenes from the life of the Virgin, the
+Trinity, and the two Saints John, and bore the same date as the altar
+which is yet existing, namely, 1504.
+
+Among the other works of Niculoso are the altar of the church of
+Tentudia, the tomb of Inigo Lopez in the church of Santa Ana in the
+quarter of Triana, and a tile-picture representing, similarly to the
+one which forms the centre of the altar in the Alcazar, the Virgin's
+visit to Saint Elizabeth. This picture formerly belonged to the kings of
+Portugal, and is now in the museum of Amsterdam.[72]
+
+  [72] Certain _azulejos_, signed by Niculoso and dated 1500, were
+       formerly existing in the palace of the Counts of El Real de
+       Valencia in the city of this name. These tiles were executed in
+       relief, and proved that Niculoso did not work exclusively in the
+       Italian style.
+
+Such were the decorative _azulejos_ which made the potteries of Seville
+famous throughout Europe, and which are known to have been exported to
+Italy, Portugal, and even England.[73] The names of several hundred
+mediaeval and post-mediaeval makers of these Seville tiles have been
+exhumed and published by Gestoso.
+
+  [73] In Portugal, tiles which Gestoso believes to have been made at
+       Seville, exist in Coimbra cathedral, the church of San Roque at
+       Lisbon, and the two palaces of Cintra. In our own country, Seville
+       tiles are stated by Marryat and Demmin to line the walls of the
+       Mayor's Chapel at Bristol, whither they were doubtless conveyed by
+       one of the numerous English merchants who traded between Spain and
+       England, and who are known to have made their home at Seville in
+       the sixteenth century. Another tile of Seville workmanship,
+       proceeding from Haccombe Church, Devonshire, is in the British
+       Museum.
+
+The general title of the Spanish potter was _ollero_, a comprehensive
+term which reaches from the most ambitious _azulejero_ to the maker of
+the meanest kitchen-ware. The _olleros_ of older Seville produced for
+centuries, not only glazed and coloured tiling by the processes already
+indicated, but countless other objects such as brims of wells,
+apothecary's jars, baptismal fonts, and dishes of every shape and size.
+They used a general mark (the tower of the Giralda) to stamp their
+pottery; but private marks are nearly always absent. The facts that have
+appeared in recent years concerning these artificers are seldom
+interesting. The mere mention of a name is meaningless, or even
+perplexing, seeing that a Moor or Mudejar would frequently assume the
+name and surname of a Christian. Nevertheless, Gestoso has brought to
+light important notices concerning one or two, and in particular a
+document dating from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, relating to a
+celebrated potter of that period named Fernan Martinez Guijarro. This
+document, which is dated 1479, describes Martinez as "a very great
+master in the art of making _azulejos_, fonts, and all the things
+pertaining to his trade, insomuch that none other in all this kingdom is
+like unto him," and subsequently, "considering him to be so excellent a
+craftsman that persons come hither from Portugal and other parts to
+purchase and to carry off his ware." It is further stated that Martinez
+Guijarro was in wealthy circumstances ("hombre rrico e de mucha rrenta e
+fasyenda"). His _talleres_ or workshops were in the _barrio_ of Triana,
+and included (as we learn from one of the documents copied by the same
+investigator) a separate department for the manufacture or storage of
+lustred ware.
+
+Unfortunately, even Gestoso is unable to point to any piece of tiling or
+other pottery now existing, as being unquestionably executed by this
+master.
+
+Another Sevillian potter of exceptional merit was Cristobal de Augusta,
+who worked in the latter half of the sixteenth century, and left his
+name upon the _azulejo_ dadoes of the Halls of Charles the Fifth in the
+Alcazar. The style of these most brilliant tiles is pure Renaissance,
+and forms a worthy continuation of the splendid work of Niculoso.
+Augusta, indeed, is termed in the Archives of the Alcazar "master of
+making tiles in the Pisano manner" (_del pisano_).[74] Some tilemakers
+of little note succeeded him, but even the names of these are carefully
+recorded by Gestoso.
+
+  [74] The _pisano_ process is believed by Gestoso to have succumbed
+       before the _cuenca_. He says he is aware of no _pisano_ tiling
+       which can be dated from as late as the second half of the
+       seventeenth century.
+
+Seville was thus the principal centre of the craft of decorative
+tile-making. _Azulejos_ were also made at Barcelona and other towns in
+Cataluna, at Talavera de la Reina, Burgos, Toledo, Granada, and
+Valencia, in several towns of Aragon, and probably at Cordova. Riano
+quotes a letter written about the year 1422, from the wife of the
+Admiral of Castile to the abbess of the nunnery of Santo Domingo at
+Toledo, requesting that a number of _azulejos_ be sent to her. "She
+alludes, in the same letter, to painted tiles, and says she was
+expecting a master potter from Seville to place the tiles in their
+proper places. This shows us" (continues Riano) "that it was only in the
+province of Andalusia that the art was known of cutting these tiles into
+geometrical sections and mosaic patterns."
+
+The meaning of this passage is obscure. Riano speaks of painted tiles
+and _azulejos_ as though they were distinct objects, and yet they are
+essentially the same. Again, if only Andalusia was able to produce such
+tiles, why did the Almirante's wife order them from Toledo? Perhaps the
+faulty English of Riano's handbook is responsible, but, as it stands,
+this passage tells us practically nothing. In any case, abundant
+evidence exists to show that large quantities of Mudejar and
+Renaissance tiles were manufactured at Toledo. In general appearance,
+they are similar to those of Seville.
+
+Ramirez de Arellano believes that decorative tiles were manufactured at
+Cordova in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and quotes, in proof
+of this, the names of "maestros de hacer vidriado" or makers of glazed
+ware, who resided at this ancient capital. One of these craftsmen was
+Alonso Rodriguez the younger, who, on June 7th, 1574, sold to a canon of
+the cathedral ten thousand white and green tiles of a common kind
+(_ladrillos_), probably employed for roofing. The price was three ducats
+the thousand. On April 10th, 1598, Juan Sanchez engaged to supply the
+same temple with the same quantity of glazed tiles (_tejas_) for
+roofing, coloured white, green, and yellow, at sixteen _maravedis_ each
+tile.
+
+_Azulejos_ were certainly made at Granada in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, and probably earlier.
+
+                           [Illustration: LVI
+                            THE GATE OF WINE
+           (_Showing polychrome tiling. Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+In a passage of the Alhambra palace leading from the Patio de la Alberca
+to the Cuarto Dorado, a space was laid bare not many years ago,
+containing the original _mostagueras_ or small tiles used for flooring,
+glazed in two colours; and in the same building, although in
+constantly diminishing quantities, are large numbers of tiles which date
+from the time of the Spanish Moors. There has been a good deal of
+discussion as to whether the roofs of the Alhambra were originally
+covered with decorative tiles. Swinburne (who must not, however, be
+taken as the safest of authorities) wrote that "in Moorish times the
+building was covered with large painted and glazed tiles, of which some
+few are yet to be seen."
+
+Indifferent Renaissance tiles, made in the reign of Philip the Fifth,
+are still preserved in parts of the Alhambra.
+
+Excellent polychrome _cuerda seca_ tiles (fourteenth century), in white,
+green, yellow, blue, and black, are over the horseshoe archway of the
+Gate of Wine of the Alhambra (Plate lvi.). According to Gomez
+Moreno,[75] they were manufactured here, as were the Moorish _azulejos_,
+yellow, black, white, violet, and sky-blue, in the Mirador de
+Daraxa.[76] The archives of the Moorish palace also state that towards
+the close of the sixteenth century Antonio Tenorio, whose pottery was
+situated in the Secano, and consequently within a stone's-throw of the
+Casa Real, made several sets of _azulejos_ for the Hall of the
+Abencerrajes. Good Morisco tiles, dating from the same period and
+wrought by craftsmen such as Gaspar Hernandez, Pedro Tenorio, and the
+members of the Robles family, are in the Sala de Comares, and in one of
+the rooms of the Casa de los Tiros.
+
+  [75] _Guia de Granada_; pp. 35, 36.
+
+  [76] Pure red is the rarest of the colours employed in Moorish
+       tile-work. It is, however, found in a single part of the Alhambra;
+       namely, among the superb tile-decoration of the Torre de la
+       Cautiva.
+
+       Gestoso says that red was practically unknown among the Seville
+       potters. Sometimes, however, in coats of arms, a space that should
+       have properly been gules was left uncoloured in the actual making
+       of the tile, and painted red with oil-colour after firing.
+
+From the thirteenth century until the eighteenth, excellent _azulejos_
+were made in Cataluna. Specimens of every period exist in the
+collections of Don Francisco Rogent and Don Jose Font y Guma, of
+Barcelona, and Don Luis Santacana, of Martorell. The tiles belonging to
+these gentlemen proceed from the cathedral and other temples of
+Barcelona, and from the monasteries or castles of Poblet, Santas Creus,
+Montserrat, Marmella, San Miguel de Ervol, Centellas, Torre Pallaresa,
+San Miguel del Fay, and Vallpellach.[77]
+
+  [77] Coloured plates of Catalan and other Spanish _azulejos_ are
+       published with Garcia Llanso's text in the _Historia General del
+       Arte_; Vol. II.
+
+Another region which has long been celebrated for its _azulejeria_ is
+the kingdom of Valencia. Even in the eighteenth century, when this craft
+was generally in a state of great decadence, Valencian tiles were
+thoroughly well made, although the patterns on them were defective.
+Laborde pronounced them "the best executed and most elegant in Europe,"
+and further said of this locality; "the painted earthenware tiles or
+_azulejos_ are used in the country, but only a small part of them; a
+great many are sent into the interior of Spain as well as to Cadiz,
+where they are shipped for Spanish America, and to Marseilles, whence
+they are conveyed into Africa."
+
+The same writer inserts an interesting account of the manufacture of
+these _azulejos_. "It is at Valencia that the tiles of earthenware are
+made, with which they incrust walls and pave apartments: those tiles are
+of a clayey earth, which is found in the territories of Quarte near
+Valencia; they harden the earth long after soaking it in water; the
+tiles are formed in moulds, and are dried in the sun; they are then
+beaten with a piece of square wood of the dimensions of which they are
+wanted. They are then put into the oven, where they undergo a slight
+baking. As soon as they are done they are glazed, and are afterwards
+painted in water colours with whatever subject is intended to be
+represented. The tiles are then replaced in the oven so as not to touch
+one another, and that the action of the fire may penetrate them all
+equally: as the colours change by baking, the workmen apply them anew in
+proportion to the changes that take place; the red alone alters
+entirely. The varnish with which they are glazed is made with lead, tin,
+and white sand. These three substances are ground in a mill to powder,
+which is mixed with water, to form a paste, and baked in the oven; it is
+again pounded and put into the oven, where it crystallises: being once
+more reduced to powder and diluted with water, it becomes varnish. There
+are two kinds of it; one is whiter than the other, though the same
+materials are used: the mode of mixing alone makes the difference; the
+whiter, the clearer the tiles. It takes a certain number of tiles to
+form a picture: they are of different dimensions; the smallest are three
+inches nine lines, the largest seven inches nine lines. The price varies
+according to the size of the tile, the beauty of the varnish, and the
+variety of the drawings: the lowest price is eight pesos (25s.) a
+thousand, and the highest 100 pesos or L15, 12_s._ 6_d._ There is a
+considerable demand for them; they are superior both in beauty and
+strength to those used in Holland."
+
+                          [Illustration: LVII
+                     TILES OF THE DECADENT PERIOD]
+
+Bourgoing, author of the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_, described, in
+1789, the same product in the following terms: "L'industrie des
+Valenciens tire d'ailleurs parti de toutes les productions de leur sol.
+Il contient une espece de terre dont ils font ces carreaux de faience
+coloree, connus sous le nom d'_Azulejos_, et qu'on ne fabrique qu'a
+Valence. On en pave les appartements, et on en revet leurs lambris; on y
+peint les sujets les plus compliques, tels par exemple qu'un bal masque,
+une fete de taureaux. La couleur rouge est la seule qui ne puisse etre
+fixee sur cette espece de faience; elle s'altere entierement par la
+cuisson."[78]
+
+  [78] Vol. iii., p. 56.
+
+For the amusement of my readers, I insert an illustration of common
+Spanish tiles of the decadent period (Plate lvii.), displaying
+considerable liveliness combined with reckless ignorance of
+draughtsmanship. A class of these degenerate tiles, made in large
+quantities at Seville in the eighteenth century, is known as _azulejos
+de monteria_ or "hunting-tiles," since episodes of the chase form one
+of the favourite themes of their design.
+
+Although it passed through a long period of prostration, embracing the
+greater part of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, at no time has
+the manufacture of decorative Spanish tiles succumbed completely. Of
+recent years it has revived surprisingly at Seville, Barcelona, and
+Segovia; and at the first of these cities the older _azulejos_, and
+particularly those in the _cuenca_ style, are imitated to perfection.
+
+In the cheapest kinds of modern tiling, such as is used for corridors
+and kitchens, a common device is a series of repeated curves and dots
+which evidently has its source in Arabic lettering. Indeed, the
+ornamental and attractive written characters of the Spanish Moors,
+rendered familiar to their rivals through long centuries of intercourse,
+seem to have constantly found favour with the Christian Spaniards. The
+_fuero_ of Jaca, dated A.D. 1064, tells us that a Christian prince of
+Spain, Don Sancho Ramirez, was accustomed to write his signature in
+Arabic lettering. Meaningless inscriptions in the same language, and
+evidently executed by a Christian hand, are engraved on objects in the
+Royal Armoury; and Senor Osma describes in an interesting pamphlet
+(_Los letreros ornamentales en la ceramica morisca del Siglo XV._) how,
+in the pottery of older Spain, a word in Arabic such as _alafia_
+("prosperity" or "blessing") would often be corrupted by Morisco
+craftsmen into a motive of a purely ornamental character, and which
+would only in this sense be comprehended and appreciated by the
+Christian.[79]
+
+  [79] _Alafia_ is written in Neshki, [Illustration], which word, says
+       Senor Osma, by suppressing the diacritical points and prolonging
+       some of the lines, was converted by the potter into the
+       conventional and exclusively decorative device:--
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+                    HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED POTTERY
+
+Probably no pottery in the world possesses greater loveliness or
+interest than the celebrated, yet even to this day mysterious, lustred
+ware of Moorish Spain. Our knowledge of the early history of this ware
+is still imperfect. In modern times, attention was first drawn to the
+lustre process by M. Riocreux, of the Sevres Museum. In spite, however,
+of the subsequent monographs and researches of Davillier and other
+authorities, the origin of lustred pottery is yet a problem which awaits
+solution. Until some years ago it was believed to have had its source in
+Persia, where many specimens have been discovered in the form of tiles
+and other objects; but this belief was afterwards shaken by Fouquet, who
+unearthed at Fostat in Egypt, in the year 1884, specimens of lustred
+ware which are known to date from the eleventh century. Saladin, too,
+affirms that he has seen upon the mosque of Kairuan lustred plaques with
+inscriptions recording them to have been presented, between A.D. 864 and
+875, by the emir Ibrahim Ahmed-ibn-el-Aglab.
+
+Whatever these facts may signify, it appears from a statement by the
+geographer Edrisi that lustred ware was made in Spain as early as the
+twelfth century. "Here," said the writer, speaking of Calatayud, "is
+produced the gold-coloured pottery which is exported to all countries."
+The next allusion to it is by the traveller Ibn-Batutah, who visited
+certain parts of Spain in the middle of the fourteenth century. "At
+Malaga," he wrote, "is made the beautiful golden pottery which is
+exported to the farthest countries." These passages refer respectively
+to Aragon and Andalusia. The same ware was produced in Murcia. Ibn-Said,
+quoted by Al-Makkari, mentions the "glazed and gilded porcelain" of
+Murcia, Malaga, and Almeria, calling it "strange and admirable." It was
+also manufactured, probably in larger quantities than in any other part
+of Spain, in many towns and villages of the kingdom of Valencia, such as
+Carcer, Alaquaz, Moncada, Quarte, Villalonga, Traiguera, and Manises. In
+the _Excellencies of the Kingdom of Valencia_, written by Eximenes and
+published in 1499, we find it stated that "surpassing everything else is
+the ware of Manises, gilded and painted with such mastery that all the
+world is enamoured thereof, insomuch that the pope, the cardinals, and
+princes send for it, astonished that objects of such excellence can be
+made of earth."[80]
+
+  [80] "_Sobre tot es la bellessa de la obra de manizes daurada e
+       maestriuolment pintada que ja tot lo mon ha enamorat ent[=a]t que
+       lo papa, e los cardenals e lo princeps del mon per special gracia
+       la requeren e stan marauellats que d'terra se puxa fer obra axi
+       excellent e noble._"
+
+Other writers on the same locality, such as Diago and Escolano, author
+of the _Historia de la insigne y coronada ciudad y reino de Valencia_
+(Valencia, 1610, 1611), confirm this eulogy of Eximenes. According to
+Escolano, Valencian ware was "of such loveliness that in return for that
+which the Italians send us from Pisa, we send them boatloads of it from
+Manises." One of the most recent of authorities on lustred ware remarks
+that "in the fifteenth century ornamental vases in the (Spanish-Moorish)
+wares appear to have been commanded from Spain by wealthy Florentines,
+as is evident from the Medici arms and impresa in fig. 40; others
+bearing the Florentine lily (fig. 41) seem to have been ordered from the
+same city." The illustrations to which the author of this monograph[81]
+refers, depict a vase and a boccale, both in lustred ware, and which it
+is extremely probable were manufactured at Manises.
+
+  [81] Wallis, _The Oriental Influence on Italian Ceramic Art_. London;
+       1900.
+
+The same ware was also possibly made in Cataluna, where pieces of it
+have been found among the ruins of the village of Las Casas. _La
+Alhambra_, a small magazine which is published at Granada, contains, in
+the number dated September 30th, 1901, an account of these fragments by
+their finder, Joaquin Vilaplana.
+
+Some years ago the Balearic Islands were also thought to have produced
+this pottery. One of the earliest and most fervent champions of this
+theory, now definitely shown to be erroneous, was Baron Davillier. This
+gentleman, in some respects an excellent authority on Spanish ceramics,
+relied too strongly on certain assurances made him by a Senor Bover, and
+ended by declaring that in the museums of Paris and London he had
+himself seen lustred plates which bore the arms of Ynca in the
+Balearics, proving them to have been manufactured at that town.
+
+However, a Majorcan archaeologist, named Alvaro Campaner, refuted one by
+one Davillier's points of argument, and showed beyond all question that
+both the plates of Ynca and the arms which decorated them were simply
+nonexistent, and that the term _Majolica_, deriving from _Majorica_,
+applies to pottery in general, and not with any preference to lustred
+ware. Campaner also suggested very ingeniously that the word _Majolica_
+was probably applied by the Italians to Catalan or Valencian pottery
+conveyed to Italy in vessels themselves belonging to the Balearics, and
+which were in the habit of completing their cargoes in the ports of
+Barcelona and Valencia, and he added that this suggestion is supported
+by the fact that specimens of lustred ware are far more often met with
+on the Balearic coast than in the towns and villages of the interior. It
+is only fair to state that Davillier frankly and fully recognized the
+value of Campaner's refutation.
+
+As to the methods of producing lustred pottery, the chemical
+investigations practised by Riocreux, Brogniart, Carand, and others,
+have shown that the metals used to produce the characteristic reflex
+which gives the ware its name were copper and silver, entering into the
+composition of an extremely thin glaze extended over the surface of the
+pottery, and employed, sometimes together, and sometimes separately. It
+is obvious that the lustre produced by copper would be deeper, redder,
+and less delicate than that produced by silver, while varying gradations
+would be obtainable by the mixture of both metals. It is also beyond
+doubt that the oldest specimens of this pottery extant to-day are those
+which contain the palest and most pearly lustre, and consequently the
+largest quantity of the costlier metal. In those of later date there is
+an evident inferiority, both in colour, lustre, and design. In fact, two
+separate, or nearly separate, epochs of this branch of Spanish pottery
+are pointed out by Senor Melida, who gives the name of _Mudejar_ to
+lustred objects manufactured at an earlier time by Moorish artists
+working in the cities captured by the Christians, and that of _Morisco_
+to the second or inferior class produced by Morisco craftsmen after the
+reconquest, and distinguished by the coarser and degenerate lustre,
+colouring, and draughtsmanship.
+
+The rarest and most beautiful examples of this ware are naturally those
+which belong to the former class, and consist of various kinds of plates
+and other objects in which elaborate devices such as lions, antelopes,
+and shields of heraldry, often combined with foliage and inscriptions in
+Gothic lettering, are coloured in bistre or pale blue,[82] and rendered
+doubly beautiful by the delicate nacreous lustre.
+
+  [82] In lustred pottery these colours, and particularly blue, are far
+       the commonest. It has been found that other colours, such as green
+       and black, were ill adapted to the lustre process.
+
+In nearly every case it is extremely difficult to determine with any
+certainty the date of manufacture of these objects, as well as the
+locality. Wallis says he is aware of "no example of Spanish lustre
+pottery antecedent to those in the class to which the large Palermo jar
+belongs, and they are not likely to be much earlier than the end of the
+fourteenth century. Happily the celebrated plaque (Plate lviii.)
+formerly belonging to Fortuny, and now in the possession of Excmo Sr.
+Don G. J. de Osma, furnishes an early date, which, according to its
+owner, is between May 1408 and November 1417. Those who know the
+original will remember that it is no less remarkable for the quality of
+its golden lustre than for the grace and elegance of its fanciful
+Oriental design." It is also believed by Senor Osma that this plaque was
+manufactured in the kingdom of Granada; _i.e._ either at Granada or
+Malaga.
+
+                          [Illustration: LVIII
+                    HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED PLAQUE
+                (_Early 15th Century. Osma Collection_)]
+
+A specimen of Spanish lustred ware more celebrated even than Fortuny's
+plaque is the "vase of the Alhambra" (Plate lix.), which rests to-day in
+a corner of the Sala de las Dos Hermanas. The history of this mighty jar
+is interesting. Popular superstition affirms it to have been discovered,
+filled to the brim with gold, by the Marquis of Mondejar, first of the
+Christian governors of the fortress of Granada. Exposed for many years
+to every stress of weather and to every mutilation at the hands of
+passers-by, it stood, in company with other vases of enormous size,
+upon a rampart which is now the garden terrace known as the Adarves.
+Several of the older travellers have described these vessels or alluded
+to them. Marmol wrote of them as far back as the sixteenth century,
+while the journal of Bertaut de Rouen contains the following
+notice;--"Sur la premiere terrasse par ou l'on entre, et d'ou l'on a de
+la peine a regarder en bas sans estre eblouy, il y a deux fontaines
+jaillissantes, et tout du long des murs du chasteau, des espaliers
+d'orangers et de grenadiers, avec de grands vases de terre peinte, aussi
+belle que la porcelaine, ou il n'y avoit pour lors, sinon quelques
+fleurs en quelques-uns: mais ou l'on dit que le Marquis de Mondejar
+trouva quantite d'or que les Mores avaient cache dans la terre, quand il
+y fut estably par Ferdinand." The priest Echeverria, who forged the
+relics of the ancient Alcazaba of Granada,[83] was careful to repeat
+this fable in the twenty-sixth chapter of his _Paseos por Granada_. The
+first edition of this work was published in 1764, under the assumed name
+of Joseph Romero Yranzo. There were then two vases and part of a third,
+all "lacerated, peeled, and maltreated." The Englishman Swinburne wrote
+in 1776 that below the Towers of the Bell, "on the south-side, on a slip
+of terrace, is the governor's garden, a very pleasant walk, full of fine
+orange and cypress trees and myrtle hedges, but quite abandoned. The
+view it commands is incomparable. Two large vases enamelled with gold
+and azure foliages and characters are the only ornaments left: these
+were taken out of the vaults under the royal apartments." In the second
+edition of Echeverria's _Paseos_, which was republished in 1814, it is
+added in a footnote that only a single vase remained, "in a room that
+overlooks the Court of Myrtles." Lozano, however, in his _Antiguedades
+Arabes_, mentions two vases as existing at the same period. Argote de
+Molina (_Nuevos Paseos por Granada_, published about 1808) describes,
+together with the wretchedly executed marble statues in the Sala de las
+Ninfas, the "two or three great porcelain jars whereof some pieces only
+now remain," and reminds us that according to the old tradition these
+statues looked continually towards the vases, which were full of
+treasure. Argote, nevertheless, takes Echeverria sharply to task for his
+absurdities upon this theme; and Washington Irving, a diligent gleaner
+in Echeverria's somewhat scanty field, makes use of the same material
+for his well-known story.
+
+  [83] I have fully described these forgeries in Chapters II and III of
+       _Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies, and Impressions_.
+
+                           [Illustration: LIX
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE
+                         (_Alhambra, Granada_)]
+
+In the time of Owen Jones the one surviving vase, now standing with a
+wooden rail before it in a corner of the Hall of the Two Sisters, still
+occupied the "room that looks upon the Court of Myrtles." Jones wrote of
+it in 1842:--"This beautiful vase was discovered, it is said, full of
+gold in one of the subterranean chambers of the Casa Real. It is at
+present to be seen in a small chamber of the Court of the Fish-pond, in
+which are deposited the archives of the palace. It is engraved in the
+Spanish work by Lozano, _Antiguedades Arabes de Espana_, with another of
+the same size, which was broken a few years ago, and the pieces sold to
+a passing traveller. The vase is executed in baked clay, with enamelled
+colours and gold similar to the mosaics."
+
+A more precise description is the following. The vase, which measures
+four feet six inches in height by eight feet two inches and a half in
+circumference, is of common earthenware painted with intricate devices
+fired after painting. This was a difficult operation in a vessel of such
+size; and here, in consequence, the colours have slightly run and
+mingled. Besides these technical flaws, the belly of the vase is broken
+clean in half, and one of the handles is missing. The shape is
+amphoraic, with a moderate downward curve. About the middle, surrounded
+by leaf and stem and geometrical devices effectively intertwined, are
+two antelopes. The vase is coloured blue and caramel upon a delicate
+yellow ground, and has a faint metallic lustre.[84] An Arabic
+inscription is repeated several times, and consists of the words
+"Felicity" and "Welcome."
+
+  [84] This lustre is faint but quite distinguishable, and Rada y Delgado
+       was clearly in error in supposing that there is none.
+
+This vase is believed to date from the fourteenth century; and if we
+judge from the colour and composition of the earth employed, it appears
+probable that it was made at Granada. Together with the other vases
+which have disappeared,[85] it was doubtless meant to serve as a
+receptacle for water, and for decorating the chambers of the palace,
+where it would rest in amphora-fashion on a perforated stand, while
+smaller vases containing flowers would fill the niches which may yet
+be seen in various inner walls of the Alhambra. The belief of Argote[86]
+and many other writers that these niches were intended to receive the
+slippers of the Moors is utterly unfounded.
+
+  [85] The lost jar mentioned by Owen Jones, of which a drawing has been
+       made, was of the same shape as the one which now remains; but in
+       its decoration were included the arms of the Nasrite dynasty of
+       Granada. It is this circumstance which has induced Gomez Moreno to
+       suppose that these vases were the work of Granadino artists.
+
+  [86] "_Los nichos para chinelas_," as he calls them, in describing the
+       Sala de Comares.
+
+Until quite recently all published illustrations of the great _jarron de
+la Alhambra_ were inaccurate, and as a rule grotesquely so. Among the
+very worst are those inserted in the handbooks of Riano and Contreras. I
+am glad to be able to reproduce an excellent photograph, which both
+corrects the atrocious cuts I have observed elsewhere, and relieves me
+from giving a prolix and possibly a wearisome description of the
+decoration on the vase.
+
+                           [Illustration: LX
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED VASE
+                           (_Madrid Museum_)]
+
+Several other lustred vases of large size are still preserved in Spain
+and other countries. One, proceeding from a Sicilian church, is in the
+museum of Palermo. Wallis, who inserts an illustration, describes it as
+"amphora-shaped, with two large flat handles; pear-shaped body, long
+neck, ribbed at lower part, canellated above, moulded lip. Whitish body,
+tin glaze. Ornament painted in gold lustre on white ground, the pattern
+in parts almost obliterated. Hispano-Moresque. Height, one metre,
+seventeen centimetres."
+
+Another of these great vases belonged to the painter Fortuny, and was
+sold at his death to Prince Basilewsky, for thirty thousand francs. It
+was found by Fortuny at the village of Salar, near Granada, and
+purchased by him at a low price. "The neck and mouth resemble those of
+the Alhambra vase. The ornamentation is distributed about the body of
+the vase in four zones; one of the two central zones has tangent
+circles, and the other an inscription."
+
+                           [Illustration: LXI
+                             LUSTRED TILES
+                          (_Osma Collection_)]
+
+Another large lustred vase is in the museum of Madrid (Plate lx.). It
+was found by a labourer at Hornos in the province of Jaen, and passed
+into the hands of the village priest, who placed it in his church to
+support the font of holy water. In course of time a dealer in
+antiquities, by name Amat, happened to pass that way, observed the vase,
+and made an offer for it to the _padre_. This latter at first refused,
+but subsequently, stimulated by an ignorant though well-intentioned and
+disinterested zeal for bettering the temple, he stipulated that if the
+dealer provided a new support of marble for the font, and paid for white
+washing the church, he might bear off the coveted _jarron_.
+Fulfilling these conditions at all speed, he mounted the precious vessel
+on an ass, and briskly strode away. When he had gone a little distance
+the villagers, missing their cherished vase, though unaware, of course,
+of its artistic worth, swarmed angrily about the purchaser, flourished
+their knives and sticks at him, and pelted him with stones. At this he
+called upon the mayor for protection; the mayor provided him with two
+armed men for bodyguard, and, thus defended, the indomitable dealer
+reached Madrid and sold his jar to government for fifteen hundred
+dollars. Its present value is estimated at not less than thirty
+thousand.[87]
+
+  [87] J. R. Melida, _Jarrones arabigos de loza vidriada_; published in
+       the _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursionistas_.
+
+One of the earliest and most interesting notices relating to the
+preparation of this lustred ware is contained in a description by one of
+the royal archers, named Henry Cock, of the progress, performed in 1585,
+of Philip the Second from the court of Spain to Zaragoza.[88] Cock wrote
+of Muel, in Aragon:--"Almost all the inhabitants of this village are
+potters, and all the earthenware sold at Zaragoza is made in the
+following manner. The vessels are first fashioned to the required shape
+from a certain substance extracted from the earth of this locality. They
+are next baked in a specially constructed oven, and when removed from
+this are varnished with white varnish and polished, after which they are
+washed with a mixture of twenty-five pounds of lead, three or four
+pounds of tin, and as many pounds of a certain sand which is found
+there. All these ingredients are mixed into a paste resembling ice,
+which is broken small, pounded like flour, and kept in powder. This
+powder is mixed with water, the dishes are passed through it, and after
+being rebaked they keep their lustre. Next, in order to gild the
+pottery, they take the strongest vinegar mixed with about two _reales_
+of powdered silver, vermilion, and red ochre, and a little wire. When
+all is thoroughly mixed they paint the patterns on the dishes with a
+feather, bake them again, and their gold colour is now quite permanent.
+I was told all this by the potters themselves."[89]
+
+  [88] _Relacion del viaje hecho por Felipe II. en 1585._ Madrid, 1876.
+
+  [89] The village of Muel continued to be a centre of this craft.
+       Townsend, who travelled in Spain in 1786 and 1787, wrote of
+       it:--"There are many potters, who turn their own wheels, not by
+       hand, but with their feet, by means of a larger wheel concentric
+       with that on which they mould the clay, and nearly level with the
+       floor."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXII
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection_)]
+
+Another most interesting account of the manufacture of lustred ware
+was discovered in manuscript by Riano in the British Museum, and,
+although it belongs to a later date (1785), is well worth quoting fully.
+It consists of a report upon the later gilded pottery of Manises, and
+was drawn up by order of the Count of Floridablanca:--
+
+"After the pottery is baked, it is varnished with white and blue, the
+only colours used besides the gold lustre; the vessels are again baked;
+if the objects are to be painted with gold colour, this can only be put
+on the white varnish, after they have gone twice through the oven. The
+vessels are then painted with the said gold colour and are baked a third
+time, with only dry rosemary for fuel.
+
+"The white varnish used is composed of lead and tin, which are melted
+together in an oven made on purpose; after these materials are
+sufficiently melted, they become like earth, and when in this state the
+mixture is removed and mixed with an equal quantity in weight of sand:
+fine salt is added to it, it is boiled again, and when cold, pounded
+into powder. The only sand which can be used is from a cave at
+Benalguacil, three leagues from Manises. In order that the varnish
+should be fine, for every _arroba_, twenty-five pounds of lead, six to
+twelve ounces of tin must be added, and half a bushel of finely-powdered
+salt: if a coarse kind is required, it is sufficient to add a very small
+quantity of tin, and three or four _cuartos_ worth of salt, which in
+this case must be added when the ingredient is ready for varnishing the
+vessel.
+
+"Five ingredients enter into the composition of the gold colour: copper,
+which is better the older it is; silver, as old as possible; sulphur;
+red ochre; and strong vinegar, which are mixed in the following
+proportions: of copper three ounces, of red ochre twelve ounces, of
+silver one _peseta_ (about a shilling), sulphur three ounces, vinegar a
+quart; three pounds (of twelve ounces) of the earth or scoriae, which is
+left after this pottery is painted with the gold colour, is added to the
+other ingredients.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXIII
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection_)]
+
+"They are mixed in the following manner: a small portion of sulphur in
+powder is put into a casserole with two small bits of copper, between
+them a coin of one silver _peseta_; the rest of the sulphur and copper
+is then added to it. When this casserole is ready, it is placed on the
+fire, and is made to boil until the sulphur is consumed, which is
+evident when no flame issues from it. The preparation is then taken
+from the fire, and when cold is pounded very fine; the red ochre and
+scoriae are then added to it; it is mixed up by hand and again pounded
+into powder. The preparation is placed in a basin and mixed with enough
+water to make a sufficient paste to stick on the sides of the basin; the
+mixture is then rubbed on the vessel with a stick; it is therefore
+indispensable that the water should be added very gradually until the
+mixture is in the proper state.
+
+"The basin ready prepared must be placed in an oven for six hours. At
+Manises it is customary to do so when the vessels of common pottery are
+baked; after this the mixture is scratched off the sides of the basin
+with some iron instrument; it is then removed from there and broken up
+into small pieces, which are pounded fine in a hand-mortar with the
+quantity of vinegar already mentioned, and after having been well ground
+and pounded together for two hours the mixture is ready for decorating.
+It is well to observe that the quantity of varnish and gold-coloured
+mixture which is required for every object can only be ascertained by
+practice."
+
+Nevertheless, the gilded ware of the kingdom of Valencia had by this
+time deteriorated very greatly. Formerly, from as far back as the reign
+of Jayme the Conqueror, the other towns or villages of this region which
+produced the lustred and non-lustred pottery were Jativa, Paterna,
+Quarte, Villalonga, Alaqua, Carcer, and Moncada. Early in the fourteenth
+century fourteen potteries were working in the town of Biar, and
+twenty-three at Traiguera. Manises, however, maintained the lead for
+many years. The notices of Eximenes and other writers concerning the
+pottery of this town have been already quoted. The same ware is
+mentioned in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by Diago (1613),
+Francisco Javier Borrell, Beuter, and Martin de Viciana. Marineus
+Siculus, the chronicler of Ferdinand and Isabella, adds that similar or
+identical pottery ("_desta misma arte_") was made in Murcia, whose
+manufacture of it had been praised in earlier times by Ibn-Said. Toledo
+also manufactured gilded ware with blue or bistre colouring. Garcia
+Llanso says that in the sixteenth century this capital produced plates
+which contain the arms of Spain in the centre, the rest of the plate
+being completely covered with minute geometrical or floral
+ornamentation.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXIV
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                  (_A.D. 1460-1480. Osma Collection_)]
+
+It is certain that during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
+large quantities of lustred pottery were produced in many parts of
+Andalusia, Castile, Aragon, and Valencia. The oldest and most valuable
+specimens of this pottery are those which have the palest and most
+purely golden lustre, combined with blue or bluish decoration in the
+form of animals, coats of arms, or foliage. The lustred ware of Manises
+began to deteriorate about the time of the expulsion of the Moriscos,
+when the leaves and fronds of a clean gold tone upon a lightish ground
+are replaced by commoner and coarser patterns, and the gold itself by
+the coppery lustre which is still employed.
+
+After the seventeenth century the further decline of this once famous
+industry may be traced from the accounts of travellers. Towards the
+middle of this century Bowles wrote that "two leagues from the capital
+(Valencia) is a fair-looking town of only four streets, whose occupants
+are nearly all potters. They make a _copper-coloured_ ware of great
+beauty, _used for common purposes and for decorating the houses of the
+working-people of the province_. They make this ware of an argillaceous
+earth resembling in its colour and composition that portion of the soil
+of Valencia which produces native mercury.... The objects they fashion
+of this earth possess a glitter and are very inexpensive, since I
+purchased half a dozen plates for a _real_. Nevertheless, _this is not
+the ware which has the highest reputation in the kingdom of Valencia_.
+The factory which the Count of Aranda has established at Alcora is not
+surpassed in Europe, and is ahead of many in fineness of substance,
+hardness of the varnish, and elegance of form. It would be perfect of
+its kind if the varnish did not crack and peel off so easily."
+
+According to Laborde, early in the nineteenth century Manises contained
+two potteries "of considerable extent, which employ seventy workmen. The
+people occupied in these possess the art of producing a gold _bronze_
+colour which they carefully keep a secret, never communicating it to any
+person." Elsewhere in the same book Laborde is more explicit. "Manises
+is a village situated a league and a quarter north of Valencia. It is
+seen on the left coming from New Castile. It is noted for its
+manufactories of earthen ware, which employ thirty kilns, and occupy a
+great part of the inhabitants. The women are employed in forming the
+designs and applying the colours. There are two large manufactories of a
+superior kind, the earthen ware of which is tolerably fine, of a
+beautiful white, and a moderate price. They also make here vases
+worked with a great degree of delicacy."
+
+                           [Illustration: LXV
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                (_Late 15th Century. Osma Collection_)]
+
+"The society of these workmen possess the secret of the composition of a
+colour which in the fire takes the tint and brightness of a beautiful
+gilt _bronze_. It has been unsuccessfully attempted to be imitated; the
+heads of the society compose the colour themselves, and distribute it to
+the masters who take care of it; it is a liquid of the colour of Spanish
+tobacco, but a little deeper."
+
+The quantity of Hispano-Moresque lustred pottery preserved in the public
+and private collections of various countries is far from small, although
+to classify it according to the place and date of its production is
+nearly always a matter of extreme difficulty.
+
+Among the earliest specimens are the vase of the Alhambra, those which
+are now in the museums of Palermo and Madrid, that which belonged to
+Fortuny, and the plaque which once was also his, and now forms part of
+the Osma collection. Lustred Spanish tiles are scarce. A few exist at
+Seville[90] and Granada, chiefly in altar-fronts, along the archivolts
+of doorways, or, with heraldic motives, on the inner walls of houses of
+the aristocracy. Invariably, says Gestoso, such tiles are coloured with
+combinations of white, blue, and gold, since in the lustre process other
+colours--black, or green, or deepish yellow--proved unsatisfactory.
+Other lustred tiles of exquisite beauty are owned by Senor Osma, (Plate
+lxi.), and seem to have even gained in brilliance by the centuries that
+have passed over them. Riano gives a list of the specimens of this
+pottery which are at South Kensington, consisting of bowls, vases, and
+plates. One of the vases is particularly beautiful. It dates from the
+fifteenth century, and is described by Fortnum as having "a spherical
+body on a trumpet-shaped base, with a neck of elongated funnel form,
+flanked by two large wing-shaped handles perforated with circular holes.
+The surface, except the mouldings, is entirely covered with a
+diaper-pattern of ivy or briony leaves, tendrils, and small flowers in
+brownish lustre and blue on the white ground."
+
+  [90] No direct proof has been found that lustred ware was ever made at
+       Seville; but a document copied by Gestoso, and which I have already
+       mentioned (p. 152), records that the famous _ollero_ of the time of
+       Ferdinand and Isabella, named Fernan Martinez Guijarro, reserved a
+       department ("_tiendas del dorado_") of his premises for making or
+       for storing lustred pottery.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXVI
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE
+                (_Late 15th Century. Osma Collection_)]
+
+Through the courtesy of Senor Osma I am able to give illustrations of
+a few of the finest specimens of lustred ware in his magnificent
+collection (Plates lxii.-lxvi.). The three small vessels facing pages
+176, 178, and 180 are of Valencian workmanship, and date, according to
+their owner, from between 1460 and 1480. The two plates are also
+Valencian. The one with a bull in the centre dates from between 1480 and
+1500; and that which has a greyhound from slightly earlier--say 1470 to
+1490.
+
+
+POTTERY OF SEVILLE, PUENTE DEL ARZOBISPO, TALAVERA DE LA REINA, TOLEDO,
+AND BARCELONA; POROUS WARE; PORCELAIN OF ALCORA AND THE ROYAL FACTORY OF
+                            THE BUEN RETIRO.
+
+We have seen that Seville was an early and important centre of the
+potter's craft in Spain. Her potteries were celebrated even with the
+Romans, and probably have at no moment been inactive. Fifty, established
+in the suburb of Triana, were mentioned in the sixteenth century by
+Pedro de Medina, and documents which tell of many more have recently
+been discovered by Gestoso. The excellence of the Seville tiles has been
+described in a preceding section of this chapter. Their production
+still continues upon a large scale; and the ware of the Cartuja factory,
+which reached the zenith of its fame towards the end of the eighteenth
+century, is considered by Jacquemart and other authorities to rival with
+the Italian wares of Savona.
+
+Pottery made in other parts of the Peninsula--particularly that of
+Talavera de la Reina--is known to have been imitated by the Seville
+potters with embarrassing perfection. In the case of the so-called "loza
+de Puente del Arzobispo," it is the Seville ware itself which seems to
+have been imitated. Puente del Arzobispo is a small village near Toledo.
+Mendez wrote of it in the seventeenth century:--"Fine pottery is
+manufactured in about eight kilns, which produce more than 40,000 ducats
+yearly." "In 1755," says Riano, "thirteen pottery kilns existed at this
+place; they still worked in 1791, but their productions were very
+inferior in artistic merit."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXVII
+                     HISPANO-MORESQUE LUSTRED WARE]
+
+Not many years ago the name of Puente del Arzobispo was connected by
+Baron Davillier with certain polychrome non-lustred plates and other
+vessels which are greatly esteemed for their rarity, and of which a few
+specimens exist in the South Kensington and other museums, as well as in
+one or two private collections, such as that of Senor Osma.
+
+Gestoso says that the usual diameter of these plates is either
+twenty-three centimetres or forty-two centimetres. "Their decoration,
+betraying at a glance the Saracenic influence, consists of leaves and
+flowers, together with animals of a more or less fantastic character:
+lions, rabbits, and birds. In other specimens the centre is occupied by
+a heart, fleurs-de-lis, or other fancy devices, or yet, in some few
+cases, with the head of a man or woman. These central designs are
+surrounded with leaves and flowers. The draughtsmanship upon these
+plates is of the rudest, and the process of their colouring was as
+follows. The figures were drawn upon the unfired surface in manganese
+ink mixed with a greasy substance; and after this the aqueous enamel or
+glaze was allowed to drop from a hogshair brush into the spaces which
+the black had outlined."
+
+This will be recognized as the _cuerda seca_ process, so extensively
+employed in making Seville tiles. Nevertheless, judging by certain marks
+upon this pottery, Baron Davillier declared it to proceed from Puente
+del Arzobispo. The marks in question consist in one or two examples of
+what appears to be the letters A.P. or P.A.[91] Davillier, however,
+affirmed that he had seen a plate fully inscribed as follows:--
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+  [91] These, says Senor Osma, are doubtful in every case, and are only
+       found on plates which bear the figure of a lion. Two plates in this
+       gentleman's possession are thus marked [Illustration], and another
+       [Illustration].
+
+The existence of this plate is now discredited; at least, no trace of it
+can be discovered at this day. Upon the other hand, Gestoso points to
+various objects manufactured by the _cuerda seca_ method, and which
+undoubtedly proceed from Seville. Among them are three shields, one of
+which, containing the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella, is of exceptional
+interest, for it is accompanied by an inscribed slab, evidently coeval
+with the shield itself, recording it to have been made in the year 1503,
+and by Jeronimo Suarez. This shield and slab were removed from a
+courtyard of the old Alhondiga to Seville Museum, where they now remain.
+Of the two other shields, one belongs to Senor Osma, and the second,
+which is still at Seville, adorns the tomb of Don Leon Enriquez in the
+church of Santa Paula; and since it is unquestionable that all these
+_cuerda seca_ shields, as well as quantities of _cuerda seca_ tiles,
+were made at Seville, Gestoso prudently suggests that we should
+designate as "_cuerda seca_ ware" that pottery which has hitherto passed
+as specially belonging to Puente del Arzobispo. In fact, towards the end
+of the fifteenth century this pottery is found extending northward from
+Seville to Toledo, and Senor Osma assures me that Toledo specimens are
+of a somewhat later manufacture than those which were produced at
+Seville. One of the rarest and most interesting _cuerda seca_ plates in
+this gentleman's collection is reproduced herewith (lxviii.). No other
+plate of similar pattern is known to exist. Its date may be placed
+between 1480 and 1495, and it gives a curious illustration of the
+masculine headdress and headwear in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+The pottery of Talavera de la Reina was at one time much esteemed. The
+earliest mention of it, says Riano, occurs in 1560, in a manuscript
+history of this town, while another notice, dated 1576, says that here
+was produced "fine white glazed earthenware and other pottery, which
+supplied the country, part of Portugal, and India." More explicit are
+the observations of Father Alonso de Ajofrin, who wrote, in 1651, a
+history of Talavera. He says that "her pottery is as good as that of
+Pisa, while quantities of _azulejos_ are made here to adorn the front of
+altars, churches, gardens, alcoves, saloons, and bowers, and large and
+small specimens of every kind. Two hundred workmen work at eight
+separate kilns. Four other kilns produce the commoner kinds of ware. Red
+porous clay vessels and drinking-cups are baked in two other kilns in a
+thousand shapes to imitate birds and other creatures; also
+_brinquinos_ for the use of ladies, so deliciously flavoured that after
+drinking the water they contained, they eat the cup in which it was
+brought them."
+
+                         [Illustration: LXVIII
+                                  DISH
+       (_Andalusian non-lustred ware in the_ Cuerda seca _style.
+                   A.D. 1480-1495. Osma Collection_)]
+
+The following most interesting notice relating to this town is also
+quoted by Riano: "The earthenware pottery made here has reached a great
+perfection; it is formed of white and red clay. Vases, cups, _bucaros_
+and _brinquinos_ are made of different kinds, dishes and table centres,
+and imitations of snails, owls, dogs, and every kind of fruits, olives,
+and almonds. These objects are painted with great perfection, and the
+imitations of porcelain brought from the Portuguese Indies are most
+excellent. Everyone is surprised that in so small a town such excellent
+things should be made. The varnish used for the white pottery is made
+with tin and sand, and is now found to be more acceptable than coloured
+earthenware; so much so, that persons of importance who pass by this
+town, although they have in their houses dinner-services of silver, buy
+earthenware made at Talavera, on account of its excellence. The sand
+which was used to make the white varnish was brought from Hita, and is
+now found at Mejorada, near Talavera. This sand is as fine and soft as
+silk.
+
+"The red pottery made at Talavera is much to be commended, for besides
+the great variety of objects, and the different medals which they place
+upon them, they have invented some small _brinquinos_ of so small and
+delicate a kind, that the ladies wear them. Rosaries are also made of
+the same material. A certain scent is added in the manufacture of this
+pottery which excites the appetite and taste of the women, who eat the
+pottery so frequently that it gives great trouble to their confessors to
+check this custom."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXIX
+                    AN _ALFARERIA_ OR POTTER'S YARD
+                              (_Granada_)]
+
+This porous pottery for keeping water cool had been imported from
+America, and was chiefly made in Andalusia, Portugal, and Extremadura.
+It is still produced at Andujar and elsewhere. Nearly all travellers in
+Spain describe it, and insist upon the curious circumstance that it was
+eaten by the Spanish women. "I have mentioned elsewhere," wrote Countess
+d'Aulnoy, "the longing many women feel to chew this clay, which often
+obstructs their bodies internally. Their stomachs swell, and grow as
+hard as stone, while their skin turns yellow as a quince. I also felt a
+curiosity to taste this ware, that is so highly yet so undeservedly
+esteemed; but I would devour a grindstone rather than put it in my mouth
+again. Nevertheless, if one wants to be agreeable to the Spanish ladies,
+one has to present them with some _bucaros_, which they themselves call
+_barros_, and which, as many deem, possess such numerous and admirable
+qualities, since they claim for the clay that it cures sickness, and
+that a drinking vessel made of it betrays the presence of a poison. I
+possess one which spoils the taste of wine, but greatly improves water.
+This liquid seems to boil and tremble when it is thrown into the cup in
+question; but after a little while the vessel empties--so porous is the
+clay of which it is composed--and then it has a fragrant odour."
+
+Similar accounts are given by travellers of a later time. "I wish,"
+wrote Swinburne, "I could contrive a method of carrying you some of the
+fine earthen jars, called _buxaros_, which are made in Andalusia. They
+are remarkably convenient for water-drinkers, as they are light, smooth,
+and handy; being not more than half-baked, they are very porous, and the
+outside is kept moist by the water's filtering through; though placed in
+the sun, the water in the pots remains as cold as ice. The most
+disagreeable circumstance attending them is, that they emit a smell of
+earth refreshed by a sudden shower after a long drought."[92]
+
+  [92] _Travels through Spain_; p. 305. Swinburne could have been no
+       lover of nature to speak in such terms of the smell of earth.
+
+Laborde, who wrote a few years later, seems to have copied some of his
+information from Bowles. "The Murcians," he said, "use in their houses
+little jars called _Bucaros_, the same as those which in some parts of
+Andalusia are called Alcarrazas.[93] They have handles open at the top,
+are smaller at the bottom than above, and bulge in the middle; they are
+slight, porous, smooth, and half-baked; they are made of a peculiar kind
+of clay. When water is put into them, they emit a smell like that sent
+up by the earth after a shower of rain in summer. The water makes its
+way very slowly through the pores, and keeps them constantly moist on
+the outside; they are used to cool water for drinking. The windows and
+balconies of all the houses have large iron rings, with a flat surface,
+on which they are placed at night, and the water, oozing incessantly,
+becomes very cool.[94] In Andalusia some of these jars are white, and
+others red; in Murcia they have only white ones. They appear to be in
+every respect of the same nature as the evaporating vases of Africa,
+Egypt, Syria, and India, of which so much has been said by travellers,
+and on which the learned have made so many dissertations."
+
+  [93] One of the prettiest of the popular Spanish _coplas_ has the
+       _alcarraza_ for its theme;--
+
+               "Alcarraza de tu casa
+               chiquilla, quisiera ser,
+               para besarte los labios
+               cuando fueras a beber."
+
+       "Dearest, I would be the _alcarraza_ in your house; so should I
+       kiss your lips each time you drank from me."
+
+  [94] Laborde's translator adds: "These jars are very common in Jamaica;
+       they are of different sizes, from a pint to three pints. A number
+       of them are ranged at night in the balconies, to furnish a supply
+       of cool water. Coolers of a similar kind have been lately
+       introduced in England."
+
+The same vessels are noticed by Ford in his description of a Spanish
+_posada_. "Near the staircase downstairs, and always in a visible place,
+is a gibbous jar, _tinaja_, of the ancient classical amphora shape,
+filled with fresh water; and by it is a tin or copper utensil to take
+water out with, and often a row of small pipkins, made of a red porous
+clay,[95] which are kept ready filled with water, on, or rather in, a
+shelf fixed to the wall, and called _la tallada, el taller_. These
+pots, _alcarrazas_, from the constant evaporation, keep the water
+extremely cool. They are of various shapes, many, especially in Valencia
+and Andalusia, being of the unchanged identical form of those similar
+clay drinking-vessels discovered at Pompeii. They are the precise
+_trulla_. Martial speaks both of the colour and the material of those
+made at Saguntum, where they still are prepared in great quantities;
+they are not unlike the _ckool'lehs_ of Egypt, which are made of the
+same material and for the same purposes, and represent the ancient
+Canobic [Greek: statika]. They are seldom destined to be placed on the
+table; their bottoms being pointed and conical, they could not stand
+upright. This singular form was given to the _vasa futilia_, or cups
+used at the sacrifices of Vesta, which would have been defiled had they
+touched the ground. As soon, therefore, as they are drunk off, they are
+refilled and replaced in their holes on the shelf, as is done with
+decanters in our butlers' pantries."[96]
+
+  [95] "Those of the finest quality," adds Ford, "are called _Bucaros_;
+       the best come from South America--the form is more elegant, the
+       clay finer, and often sweet-scented; many women have a trick of
+       biting, even eating bits of them."
+
+  [96] _Handbook_; Vol. I., p. 26.
+
+I am only aware of one author who derides the statement that this porous
+clay was eaten by the Spanish women. According to Bowles, who certainly
+describes and comments on it with intelligence and scholarship, the
+neighbourhood of Andujar contains "large quantities of the white argil
+of which are made the jars or _alcarrazas_ which serve in many parts of
+Spain for cooling water in the summer-time. In other parts of Andalusia
+is found a red variety of this clay, employed in making the vessels
+known as _bucaros_, which serve to freshen the water as well as for
+drinking it out of--a thing the Spanish ladies love greatly. Both the
+white _alcarrazas_ and the _bucaros_ as red as the blood of a bull are
+thin, porous, smooth, and half-baked. When filled with water they emit a
+pleasant smell like that of dry earth rained upon in summer, and as the
+water filters through the outer surface, remain continually damp." The
+same writer adds that at that time (1752) the _bucaros_ proceeding from
+the Indies were of finer workmanship, and had a more agreeable smell
+than those of Spanish manufacture. "In the Encyclopaedia," he continues,
+"and in the Dictionary of Natural History, we read that Spanish ladies
+are for ever chewing _bucaro_, and that the hardest penance their
+confessors can inflict upon them is to deprive them for a single day of
+this enjoyment." Bowles, however, quotes these observations in a
+scornful tone, and deprecates the habit of "believing writers who
+without inquiring into things, concoct and publish novels to divert the
+populace and rid them of their money."
+
+Turning our attention once again to the finer kinds of Talavera ware,
+Gestoso adduces proofs that this as well as Chinese porcelain was
+faultlessly and freely imitated in the potteries of Seville. Here,
+therefore, is a source of fresh confusion; and probably a great
+proportion of the polychrome ware which goes by the name of Talaveran is
+really of Sevillian origin. It is further known that at one period,
+which seems to begin with the second half of the sixteenth century,
+potters who were natives of Talavera were hired to work in Seville.
+
+                           [Illustration: LXX
+                             TALAVERA VASE]
+
+It has not been ascertained when Talavera herself grew celebrated for
+this industry. Garcia Llanso supposes that at first, before it felt the
+influence of Italy and France, her pottery was partly Mudejar, and
+vestiges of oriental art survive in fairly late examples. The
+characteristic colour-scheme was either blue on white, or else the
+decoration is more variegated. Riano says:--"Although we find by the
+remarks we have quoted from contemporary authors that earthenware of
+every description was made at Talavera, the specimens which are more
+generally met with may be divided into two groups, which are painted on
+a white ground, either in blue, or in colours, in the manner of Italian
+maiolica. The most important examples which have reached us consist of
+bowls of different sizes, dishes, vases (Plate lxx.), _tinajas_,
+holy-water vessels, medicine jars, and wall decoration. Blue oriental
+china was imitated to a vast extent: the colouring was successful, but
+the design was an imitation of the baroque school of the time, and the
+figures, landscapes, and decoration follow the bad taste so general in
+Spain in the eighteenth century. The imitations of Italian maiolica are
+effective. The colours most commonly used are manganese, orange, blue,
+and green."
+
+Talavera maintained her reputation for pottery till nearly the middle of
+the eighteenth century, supporting more than six hundred workmen
+employed in eight large potteries.[97] From then onwards the trade
+declined, and by the close of the same century was practically dead,
+owing, Larruga tells us, to the constantly increasing cost of prime
+materials. Nevertheless, the Crown made efforts to revive the craft, and
+met with some success till 1777, in which year four establishments
+(locally known as _barrerias_) for making common pottery were opened in
+the same town, and speedily crushed their rivals. "The potteries of
+Talavera," wrote Laborde soon after this, "were greatly celebrated for
+many years, and supplied a lucrative and important branch of commerce.
+They are evidently on the decline. The manufactories are reduced to
+seven or eight. These productions no longer exhibit the same delicacy of
+execution. Their designs are also lamentably defective. The material
+employed in them is a certain earth which is found near Calera, three
+leagues from Talavera."
+
+  [97] "On y fait," wrote Alvarez de Colmenar, "des ouvrages vernisses
+       d'une facon ingenieuse, avec des peintures variees de bon gout; on
+       estime ces ouvrages autant que ceux de Pise et des Indes
+       Orientales, et on en fournit plusieurs provinces. Ce negoce rend
+       plus de cinquante mille ducats par an."--_Annales d'Espagne et de
+       Portugal_; Vol. II., p. 187. This work is dated 1740, but my copy
+       is reprinted from another edition published earlier in the century.
+
+The older Talavera ware, decorated, as a rule, with horses, birds,
+hunting-scenes, or coats of arms, is seldom met with nowadays. Although
+it is not particularly choice, the drawing is firm, and the colouring
+vigorous and agreeable.
+
+I have said that pottery continued to be made in Aragon, at Muel,
+Villafeliche, and other places. In course of time these local
+industries were also suffered to decay. Laborde says that early in the
+nineteenth century the Villafeliche factory employed thirty-eight
+workmen. "The ware is of a very inferior sort. This article might be
+carried to a greater extent. In several parts of the province, earth is
+found of an excellent quality for earthenware, particularly in Zaragoza
+and in Tauste; the latter affords the best, which is very fine, and of
+three colours, and would answer for the making of porcelain."
+
+In the eighteenth century Toledo, upon the initiative of Don Ignacio
+Velasco, produced good imitations of Genoese ware, while other kinds of
+pottery were made at Teruel, Valladolid, Jaen, Zamora, Segovia, Puente
+del Arzobispo, and in the Balearic Islands. Another region which
+continued to be a most important centre of the potter's craft was
+Cataluna, where it had always been encouraged by this thrifty and
+art-loving people. As early as the year 1257 two potters occupied a
+place upon the municipal council of Barcelona, while the potters' guild
+was strictly regulated from the beginning of the fourteenth century.[98]
+At the same time two whole streets in the centre of the town, as well
+as others in the suburbs, were occupied by potters. The ancient names of
+these streets are yet retained in the Calles Escudillers, Escudillers
+Blancs (white varnished pottery), Obradors (where many of the potteries
+were situated), and Tallers (_i.e._ the potteries for producing common
+ware).
+
+  [98] For a sketch of the origin and growth of the Spanish trade guilds,
+       see Appendix H.
+
+The pottery of Cataluna generally was largely exported to Sicily,
+Alexandria, and other parts. Among the places in this region which
+produced it were Tarragona, Tortosa, and Villafranca. In 1528 the
+municipal council of the capital herself forbade, as a protective
+measure, the introduction into Barcelona of local pottery made at
+Malgrat, La Selva, and other towns and villages of this neighbourhood.
+In 1546 the Portuguese Barreyros declared in his work _Chorografia de
+algunos lugares_ that the Barcelona ware surpassed all other classes
+made in Spain, including the Valencian. She continued to produce good
+pottery all through the sixteenth century, and excellent common ware
+until considerably later.[99]
+
+  [99] _Historia General del Arte._--Vol. II.: _Ceramica_, by Garcia
+       Llanso.
+
+About the beginning of the eighteenth century Laborde mentioned as
+working centres of this craft "manufactories of delf-ware at Aviles,
+Gijon, Oviedo, Nava, and Cangas de Onis, in the Asturias; at Segovia in
+Old Castile; at Puente del Arzobispo and Talavera de la Reina in New
+Castile; at Seville in the kingdom of that name; at Villafeliche in
+Aragon; at Onda, Alcora, and Manises, in the kingdom of Valencia; at San
+Andero in Biscay; and at Tortosa in Cataluna.... The most important of
+these potteries is the one at Alcora, the delf of which is tolerably
+fine, though not of the first quality. No china is made, except at
+Alcora and Madrid: that of the former place is very common, and
+inconsiderable as to quantity. The china manufactured at Madrid is
+beautiful, and without exaggeration may be considered as equalling that
+of Sevres. It is a royal pottery; but it is impossible to give any
+description of its state, because admission to the interior of the
+manufactory is strictly prohibited."
+
+Ricord states in his pamphlet relative to Valencian industries that in
+1791 factories of high-class pottery were working in the kingdom of
+Valencia, at Onda, Alcora, Ribesalves, Manises, Eslida, and Bechi; and
+of common ware at San Felipe, Morella, Manises, Murviedro, Alicante,
+Moncada, Orihuela, Segorbe, and other towns and villages of this
+locality. In all, there were throughout the province eighty-seven of
+these latter potteries, besides two hundred and twenty tileries, and
+four factories of artistic tiles or _azulejos_ established at Valencia.
+The yearly output of these _azulejerias_ was 150,000 tiles, 20,000 of
+which were exported to Andalusia and Castile.
+
+Although the pottery of Alcora only achieved distinction at a later age,
+this craft had long been practised in the neighbourhood. This
+circumstance induced the Count of Aranda to found here, in 1726, a large
+factory for producing costly and artistic ware. Riano obtained
+permission to examine the archives of the family of Aranda, with their
+mass of documents relating to this enterprise. His notice of Alcora ware
+is therefore most complete and valuable, and has been copied, frequently
+without acknowledgment, by almost every writer on the subject.
+
+It appears from these archives that the cost of building and opening the
+factory of Alcora amounted to about L10,000. The works were placed
+beneath the supervision of Don Joaquin Joseph de Sayas, at the same time
+that a Frenchman named Ollery was engaged at a good salary and brought
+from Moustiers to act as principal draughtsman. A couple of years later
+Count Aranda paid Ollery the high compliment of saying that "the fine
+and numerous models which he has designed, have contributed to make my
+manufacture the first in Spain." He seems to have retired in 1737, when
+the Count rewarded him with a yearly pension of five hundred francs
+besides the amount of his salary, "for his especial zeal in the
+improvement of the manufactory, and his great skill in directing the
+construction of every kind of work." Riano adds that from this date
+until the manufacture of porcelain in 1764, only Spanish artists worked
+at Alcora.
+
+The products of this factory continued to improve, and reached, in
+course of time, a yearly total of about three hundred thousand objects.
+The ordinances, which are dated between 1732 and 1733, tell us that "in
+these works of ours no pottery should be made except the very finest,
+similar to the Chinese, and of as fine an earth. The models and wheels
+should be perfect, the drawing first-rate, the varnish and colours
+excellent, and the pottery light and of the highest quality, for it is
+our express wish that the best pottery should only be distinguished
+from that of an inferior kind by the greater or less amount of painting
+which covers it."
+
+Not less interesting are certain communications, copied by Riano, which
+passed in 1746 between the Spanish Tribunal of Commerce and the Count of
+Aranda, in which it is stated that "the perfection of the earthenware of
+Alcora consists in the excellent models which have been made by
+competent foreign artists, as well as in the quality of the earth and
+the recipes brought at great cost from abroad." We learn from the same
+document that "from the earliest period of the manufacture, pyramids
+with figures of children, holding garlands of flowers and baskets of
+fruits on their heads, were made with great perfection; also brackets,
+centre and three-cornered tables, large objects, some as large as five
+feet high, to be placed upon them, chandeliers, cornucopias, statues of
+different kinds, and animals of different sorts and sizes. The entire
+ornamentation of a room has also been made here; the work is so perfect
+that nothing in Spain, France, Italy, or Holland could equal it in
+merit."
+
+It is not necessary to follow in close detail all the modifications and
+vicissitudes (extending over quite a hundred years) which affected the
+Alcora factory. I therefore only take some general notices from Riano.
+In 1750 Count Aranda transferred the works to a private company, which
+remained in possession of them until 1766. In 1741 a Frenchman named
+Francois Haly was engaged for ten years, and with a yearly salary of
+rather more than a thousand francs, under the following conditions:--
+
+"That the travelling expenses of his wife and children should be given
+him, and that his salary should be paid as soon as he made before the
+Director and two competent judges the different kinds of porcelain which
+he had undertaken to make." Haly agreed to surrender his recipes, and it
+was promised him that he should have two modellers and one painter
+working by his side, and that if in one year his porcelain were
+satisfactory, the Count would make him a present of a thousand
+_tornoises_.[100]
+
+  [100] Riano; _Handbook_; pp. 182, 183.
+
+Porcelain was first produced at Alcora towards the middle of the
+eighteenth century. A contract was drawn up on March 24th, 1764, with a
+German called John Christian Knipfer, who had already worked there in
+the pottery section. By the original agreement, which exists in the
+archives, we find he was to prepare works of "porcelain and painting
+similar to those made at Dresden, during a period of six years, under
+the following conditions:--
+
+"That the said Knipfer obliges himself to make and teach the apprentices
+the composition and perfection of porcelain paste, its varnishes, and
+colours, and whatever he may know at the present time, or discover
+during this period of six years; he is not to prevent the Director of
+the Works from being present at all the essays made.
+
+"The said Knipfer offers to make and varnish porcelain, and to employ
+gold and silver in its decoration, and in that of the ordinary wares;
+likewise the colours of crimson, purple, violet, blues of different
+shades, yellow, greens, browns, reds, and black.
+
+"That Knipfer will give up an account of his secrets, and the management
+and manner of using them, in order that in all times the truth of what
+he has asserted may be verified."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXI
+               ORNAMENT IN PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO]
+
+In 1774 a Frenchman named Francois Martin was engaged to make "hard
+paste porcelain, Japanese faience, English paste (pipeclay), and
+likewise to mould and bake it: the necessary materials to be provided
+by the Count of Aranda." Riano says that the combined assistance of
+Knipfer and Martin went far to better the products of the factory.
+
+Martin died in 1786, and Knipfer left soon afterwards. A Frenchman was
+now engaged, whose services proved also beneficial to the works. This
+was Pierre Cloostermans, "a skilful man, well versed in the manufacture
+of porcelain pastes, as well as in painting and decorating them."
+Cloostermans, however, was much molested by the envy of the Spanish
+workmen at Alcora, as well as by their typical intolerance in matters of
+religion, although the Count, his master, behaved towards him with the
+utmost kindness. Under his supervision, the quality of Alcora ware was
+notably improved. Figures and groups of many kinds were attempted, and
+even Wedgwood jasper ware was creditably imitated. In 1789, among other
+pottery that was sent to Madrid were "two hard paste porcelain cups,
+adorned with low relief in the English style." The most important one
+was moulded by Francisco Garces, the garlands and low reliefs by Joaquin
+Ferrer, sculptor, the flowers on the covers by an apprentice, helped by
+Cloostermans.
+
+Dated in the same year (1789), Riano quotes an interesting letter from
+the Count of Aranda to Don Pedro Abadia, his steward. "I wish," he said,
+"to export the porcelain of my manufactory, but chiefly in common
+objects, such as cups of different kinds, tea and coffee services, etc.
+These may be varied in form and colour, the principal point being that
+the paste should bear hot liquids, for we Spaniards above everything
+wish that nothing we buy should ever break. By no means let time be
+wasted in making anything that requires much loss of time. The chief
+object is that the pastes should be of first-rate excellence and
+durability."
+
+In 1793 Cloostermans was driven from the country by political
+disturbances; but he was allowed to return in 1795, and resumed his
+duties at the factory. All through these years Alcora continued to make
+most excellent pottery. Essays were made with foreign earths, as well as
+with the best that could be found in Spain. About this time kaolin was
+discovered in Cataluna, and the Count was particularly anxious that this
+native product should be utilised at Alcora. "The kaolin of Cataluna,"
+he wrote in 1790, "may be good or bad, but it is acknowledged to be
+kaolin, and if we do not employ it I must close my works."
+
+The Count of Aranda and Pierre Cloostermans both died in 1798, and in
+1800 the Duke of Hijar became the manager and proprietor of the
+potteries. "Two hundred workmen were employed, and pottery of every
+description was made, common earthenware, pipeclays in imitation of the
+English ones, and porcelain in small quantities; common wares were made
+in large quantities; the pipeclays were pronounced superior to the
+English in brilliancy, but were so porous that they were easily stained.
+A large number of snuff-boxes and other small objects belong to this
+period."--(Riano.)
+
+In the early years of the nineteenth century Alcora ware deteriorated
+not a little. This decline was further aggravated by the French
+invasion; and although an attempt was subsequently made to revive the
+industry by bringing craftsmen from the porcelain factory of Madrid, it
+suffered fresh relapses and produced henceforward little but the
+commonest kinds of ware. "This system," says Riano, "continued until
+1858, when the Duke of Hijar sold the manufactory to Don Ramon Girona,
+who brought over English workmen from Staffordshire in order to improve
+the wares. Many imitations of the older styles have also been made at
+Alcora of late years."
+
+Riano appends instructive tables, which I copy in Appendix I, of every
+kind of pottery manufactured at Alcora. He also believes that a great
+deal of pottery which was formerly thought to proceed from French or
+English factories is really of Alcora make, including "a great quantity
+of objects of white pipeclay porcelain which have been found of late
+years in Spain. They have hitherto been classified by amateurs as Leeds
+pottery. We find, in papers relating to Alcora, that a decided
+distinction is made between white and straw-coloured pottery. This
+indication may be sufficient to distinguish it from English wares."
+
+The celebrated Royal Porcelain Factory of the Buen Retiro at Madrid,
+formerly situated in the public gardens of that name and popularly known
+as the "Fabrica de la China," was founded in 1759 by Charles the Third,
+who erected a vast edifice for this purpose, and filled it with a
+multitude of workmen and their families, including two hundred and
+twenty-five persons whom he brought over from his other factory of
+Capo-di-Monte in Italy. He also transferred a great part of the
+material.[101] The cost of the new works amounted to eleven and a half
+millions of _reales_, and they were terminated in 1764. The cost of
+keeping up the factory is stated by Larruga to have amounted to three
+millions of _reales_ yearly. The first directors were Juan Tomas
+Bonicelli and Domingo Bonicelli, and the first modellers-in-chief and
+superintendents, possessing the secrets of the fabrication
+(_secretistas_), were Cayetano Schepers and Carlos Gricci.
+
+  [101] On September 11th, 1759, the king wrote to his Secretary of
+        State, Richard Wall:--"The workmen and utensils of the Royal
+        Porcelain Manufactory of Capo-di-Monte must also be sent from
+        Naples to Alicante, in the vessels prepared for this purpose, in
+        order to proceed from Alicante to Madrid. The necessary
+        conveyances are to be provided, and the expenses to be charged to
+        his Majesty's account."
+
+Riano says that every kind of porcelain was made at the Buen Retiro,
+"hard and soft paste, white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and
+modelled in the style of Capo-di-Monte." A great many objects existed
+imitating the blue jasper ware of Wedgwood, and they also made flowers,
+coloured and biscuit, groups (Pl. lxxi.), and single figures, and
+painted porcelain of different kinds. Great quantities of tiles for
+pavements were also made there, which may still be seen at the Casa del
+Labrador at Aranjuez: they are mentioned in the accounts which exist at
+the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We find in these same
+accounts interesting details of the objects made monthly. In January,
+1808, a large number of figures were made, including 151 heads for the
+table centre which was made for the king, 306 objects ornamented with
+paintings, 2506 tiles, 577 objects of less artistic importance, such as
+dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens which exist are in the
+Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the palaces of Madrid and
+Aranjuez, of which the walls are completely covered with China plaques
+and looking-glasses, modelled in the most admirable manner with figures,
+fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is covered with a bold
+ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in high relief, painted
+with colours and gold with the most exquisite details. The figures unite
+the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese decoration. The chandelier
+is in the same style (Plate lxxii.). Upon a vase on the wainscot to the
+right of the entrance door is the following inscription:--
+
+                                 JOSEPH
+
+                                 GRICCI
+
+                             DELINEAV^{it}
+
+                                   ET
+
+                               SCUL^{it}
+
+                                 1763.
+
+This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the
+roof we find,
+
+                                 "ANO
+
+                                 1765;
+
+probably the year the work was terminated."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXII
+            ROOM DECORATED WITH PORCELAIN OF THE BUEN RETIRO
+                     (_Royal Palace of Aranjuez_)]
+
+The earliest mark upon the Buen Retiro porcelain was a blue
+fleur-de-lis, to which were subsequently added the letter M and a royal
+crown. Still later, in the reign of Charles the Fourth, the mark used
+was a fleur-de-lis with two crossed C's.
+
+The object of the Buen Retiro Factory was almost wholly to supply the
+Crown with costly ware, and would-be visitors were jealously excluded.
+Townsend wrote in 1786: "I tried to obtain admission to the china
+manufacture, which is likewise administered on the king's account, but
+his Majesty's injunctions are so severe, that I could neither get
+introduced to see it, nor meet with anyone who had ever been able to
+procure that favour for himself. I was the less mortified upon this
+occasion, because from the specimens which I have seen, both in the
+palace at Madrid and in the provinces, it resembles the manufacture of
+Sevres, which I had formerly visited in a tour through France."
+
+Laborde also complained that the factory was "wholly inaccessible: all
+entrance to it is interdicted, and its existence is only ascertained by
+the exhibition which is made of its productions in the royal palace."
+The same writer refers to another class of work which was produced here,
+namely, stone mosaic. "The process by which stone is wrought into
+pictures is as delicate as it is curious: a selection is made from
+marble fragments of various shades and dimensions, which are found, by
+judicious assimilation, to produce no bad resemblance to painting." Jean
+Francois de Bourgoing, French Minister at Madrid, was lucky enough, in
+1782, to penetrate into the factory and view the process. "Le Monarque
+actuel," he wrote, "a etabli dans leur interieur une fabrique de
+porcelaine, dont l'entree est jusqu'a present interdite a tout le monde.
+On veut sans doute que ses essais se perfectionnent dans le silence,
+avant de les exposer aux regards des curieux. Ses productions ne peuvent
+encore se voir que dans les Palais du Souverain, ou dans quelques Cours
+d'Italie, auxquelles il les envoie en presens. On travaille dans le meme
+edifice a certains ouvrages de marqueterie, qui sont encore peu connus
+en Europe. J'y penetrai un jour, sous les auspices d'un etranger
+distingue en faveur duquel le Roi avoit leve la prohibition rigoureuse,
+qui en exclut tout le monde. Je suis temoin de la patience and de
+l'adresse avec lesquelles on taille and on rapproche divers petits
+morceaux de marbre colore, pour en former des tableaux assez compliques,
+qui en faisant a-peu-pres le meme effet que la peinture, ont sur elle
+l'avantage de braver par leur couleur immortelles les ravages du temps,
+qui n'epargnent pas les plus belles productions de cet art."[102]
+
+  [102] _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_; Vol. I., pp. 232, 233.
+
+This factory was not long-lived. Until 1803 it followed the styles of
+the older establishment at Capo-di-Monte, uniting neo-classic motives
+with the manner of Baroque. In that year it began to produce porcelain
+imitating that of Sevres, and two Frenchmen, Vivien and Victor Perche,
+were brought from Paris to superintend this change. "Among the finest
+specimens of this period," says Riano, "are a splendid clock and four
+vases, two metres high, with porcelain flowers, which exist in one of
+the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases are placed in the
+four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with large biscuit
+figures. A large number of vases of Retiro china exist at the royal
+palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and the Escorial. They are often finely
+mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers. The blue of the
+imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the biscuit work so fine
+as the English. Gold is often added to these specimens."
+
+                         [Illustration: LXXIII
+                   PORCELAIN OF THE MONCLOA FACTORY]
+
+Nevertheless, this manufacture was by now decadent. It had suffered
+severely from the death of Charles the Third, and upon the French
+invasion in 1808 was seized by the enemy and occupied by them for
+several months. During the reign of the "_intruso_," Joseph Buonaparte,
+porcelain was still produced to some extent; but by the time of the
+Peninsular campaign the works had practically ceased. "Near this
+quarter," wrote Ford, describing the Retiro gardens, towards the middle
+of last century, "was _La China_, or the royal porcelain manufactory,
+that was destroyed by the invaders, and made by them into a
+fortification, which surrendered, with two hundred cannon, August 14th,
+1812, to the Duke. It was blown up October 30th, by Lord Hill, when the
+misconduct of Ballesteros compelled him to evacuate Madrid. Now _La
+China_ is one of the standing Spanish and _afrancesado_ calumnies
+against us, as it is stated that we, the English, destroyed this
+manufactory from commercial jealousy, because it was a rival to our
+potteries. 'What can be done (as the Duke said) with such libels but
+despise them. There is no end of the calumnies against me and the army,
+and I should have no time to do anything else if I were to begin either
+to refute or even to notice them?' (Disp., Oct. 16, 1813.) These china
+potsherds and similar inventions of the enemy shivered against his iron
+power of conscious superiority.
+
+"The real plain _truth_ is this. The French broke the _ollas_, and
+converted this Sevres of Madrid into a Bastile, which, and not the
+pipkins, was destroyed by the English, who now, so far from dreading any
+Spanish competition, have actually introduced their system of pottery;
+and accordingly very fair china is now made at Madrid and Seville, and
+by English workmen. At the latter place a convent, also converted by
+Soult into a citadel, is now made a hardware manufactory by our
+countryman, Mr Pickman. Ferdinand the Seventh, on his restoration,
+re-created _La China_, removing the workshops and warerooms to La
+Moncloa, once a villa of the Alva family on the Manzanares."
+
+This factory of La Moncloa was founded in 1816, and it continued working
+until 1849. A specimen of the Moncloa ware is reproduced in Plate
+lxxiii.
+
+Outside the royal palaces of Spain, the Buen Retiro porcelain is scarce.
+The choicest collections which are not the property of the Crown belong,
+or have belonged till recently, to the Marquis of Arcicollar, the Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan, and Don Francisco Laiglesia.
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                                 GLASS
+
+
+Small vessels of uncoloured glass, belonging to the Celtic
+period, have been discovered in Galicia; so that the origin of this
+industry in Spain is possibly pre-Roman. After the conquest glass was
+made here by the Romans,[103] who built their ovens with a celebrated
+argil (potter's earth) extracted from the neighbourhood of Valencia or
+Tortosa. The Roman glass was doubtless imitated by the native Spaniards:
+at least we know from observations by Saint Isidore that this substance
+was quite familiar to the Visigoths. "Olim fiebat et in Italia, et per
+Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima pila mola qua terebatur."
+The same author speaks with admiration of coloured glass-work imitating
+precious stones. "Tingitur etiam multis modis, ita ut hyacinthos,
+saphirosque et virides imitetur et oniches vel aliarum gemmarum
+colores"; and again; "Fingunt enim eas ex diverso genere nigro, candido,
+minioque colore. Nam pro lapide pretiosissimo smaragdo quidam vitrum
+arte inficiunt, et fallit oculos sub dolo quadam falsa irriditas
+quoadusque non est qui probet simulatum et arguat: sic et alia alio
+atque alio modo. Neque enim est sine fraude ulla vita mortalium." We
+gather from these statements that coloured glass in imitation of the
+genuine precious stone was freely manufactured by the Visigoths. Such
+imitations, justifying by their excellence Saint Isidore's assertion
+that "vera a falsis discernere magna difficultas est," may still be seen
+upon the crowns and other ornaments discovered at Guarrazar (see Vol.
+I., pp. 15-29), as well as upon triptyches and weapons. Indeed, a taste
+for imitation jewels forms an inherent trait of Spanish character, and
+is discoverable at all moments of the national history. Travellers have
+constantly observed it, and the remarks, already quoted, of Countess
+d'Aulnoy, are confirmed by other authors. "In the broken banks south of
+the river," wrote Swinburne of the Manzanares at Madrid, "are found
+large quantities of pebbles, called Diamonds of Saint Isidro. They cut
+them like precious stones, and ladies of the first fashion wear them in
+their hair as pins, or on their fingers as rings. They have little or no
+lustre, and a very dead glassy water. The value of the best rough stone
+does not exceed a few pence."
+
+  [103] "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenae
+        temperantur."--Pliny, Bk. xxxvi; Chap. 66.
+
+        The chief centres of glass-making were Tarragona, several towns of
+        Betica (Andalusia), and the Balearic Islands.
+
+It is chiefly in the form of imitation gems that specimens of the
+earliest Spanish glass have been preserved until our time,[104] although
+the characteristic of old Roman glass which is known in Italian as the
+_lattocinio_ or "milk-white" ornament, in the form of a thread or line
+carried all over the surface of a vessel, remains until this day a
+common feature of the glass of Spain, besides being found in
+Spanish-Moorish glass-work.
+
+  [104] The distinction which Riano attempts to draw between glass and
+        glass paste is unsatisfactory. He remarks, too, that the
+        manufacture of glass _may_ have existed in Spain at an earlier
+        period than the last three centuries, but continues: "The earliest
+        mention of glass-works in Spain will be found in Pliny, who, while
+        explaining the proceedings which were employed in this industry,
+        says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and Spain."
+
+Rico y Sinobas says that the rules for cutting glass by means of a
+diamond or _naife_ (as it was once called) are embodied in a treatise
+titled _El Lapidario_, originally written (perhaps in the fourth, fifth,
+or sixth century) in Hebrew, and which was brought to Spain some two or
+three hundred years later. This treatise was translated into Arabic by
+one Abolais, who lived at some time previous to the thirteenth century,
+and subsequently (in the year 1248, and by command of Alfonso the
+Learned) into the Castilian language.
+
+Mixed up with a great deal of fabulous and fantastic matter, this
+treatise contains instructive and interesting notices of the composition
+and the colouring of old glass, including that of Spain. One of such
+notices is the following. "Of the eleventh degree of the sign of
+Sagittarius is the glass stone, containing a substance which is a body
+in itself (sand), and another which is added to it (salt), and when they
+clean these substances and draw them from the fire, they make between
+the two a single body. The stone thus made (glass) has many colours.
+Sometimes it is white (and this is nobler and better than the others),
+or sometimes it is red, or green, or _xade_ (a dark, burnt colour), or
+purple. It is a stone which readily melteth in the fire, but which, when
+drawn therefrom, turneth again to its former substance: and if it be
+drawn from the flame unseasonably, and without cooling it little by
+little, it snappeth asunder. And it receiveth readily whatever colour
+be placed upon it. And if an animal be hurt therewith, it openeth as
+keen a wound as though it were of iron."
+
+The treatise also describes a stone called _ecce_, which was used in
+glassmaking, saying that it was found in Spain, "in a mountain, not of
+great height, which overlooks the town of Arraca, and is called
+Secludes. And the stone is of an intense black colour, spotted with
+yellow drops. It is shiny and porous, brittle, and of light weight ...
+and if it be ground up with honey, and the glass be smeared with it and
+submitted to the fire, it dyes the glass of a beautiful gold colour, and
+makes it stronger than it was before, so that it does not melt so
+readily, or snap asunder with such ease."
+
+I have said that the power of a diamond to cut glass is referred to in
+the same work, which further tells us that this gem "breaketh all other
+kind of stones, boring holes in them or cutting them, and no other stone
+is able to bruise it; nay more, it powdereth all other stones if it be
+rubbed upon them ... and such as seek to cut or perforate those other
+stones take portions of a diamond, small and slender and sharp-pointed,
+and mount them on slips of silver or of copper, and with them make the
+holes or cuttings they require. Thus do they grave and carve intaglios."
+
+All these branches of glassmaking were therefore practised by the
+Spaniards from an early period of their history. This people were also
+familiar with the use of emery powder, of talc applied to covering
+windows, and of rock crystal. We read in the translation of Abolais that
+crystal at that time was "found in many parts, albeit the finest is that
+of Ethiopia. The substance which composes it is frozen water, petrified.
+And the proof of this is that when it is broken, small grains are
+discovered to be within, that made their entry as it was becoming stone
+(crystallizing); or again, in some of it is found what seems to be clear
+water. And it possesses two qualities in which it is distinct from every
+other stone: for when crystal is heated it receiveth any colouring that
+is applied to it, and is wrought with greater ease, besides being melted
+by fire; insomuch that it can be made into any shape desired; and if
+this shape be round, and the stone be set in the sun, it burneth
+anything inflammable that be set before it: yet does it not effect this
+by any virtue of its own, but by _the clearness of its substance_, and
+by the sunbeams which beat upon it, and by the roundness of its form."
+
+We seem to foreshadow here, clearly enough, the application of this
+substance to making glasses to assist the sight, especially when the
+author of the treatise adds that on looking through the crystal, the
+human eye discovers "details of the greatest beauty, and things that are
+secreted from the simple (_i.e._ the unaided) vision."
+
+Rico y Sinobas (who possessed a fine collection of antique glass,
+Spanish and non-Spanish) inclined to think that in the time of the
+Romans the finest and strongest glass, as well as the costliest and the
+most sought after, was that which was manufactured in Spain. In early
+times the chief centres of Spanish glass-making were situated in the
+heart of the Peninsula (where now is New Castile), in the neighbourhood
+of Tortosa, and in certain districts lying between the Pyrenees and the
+coast of Cataluna, though subsequently the practice of this craft
+extended through the kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, and the valleys of
+Olleria, Salinas, Busot, and the Rio Almanzora, forming a zone which
+reached from Cape Creus to Cape Gata. Other regions in which the craft
+was introduced, apparently at a later epoch, were those of the
+Mediterranean littoral, Cuenca, Toledo, Avila, Segovia, and other parts
+of New Castile, as far as the slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama. In the
+rest of the Peninsula there is not the slightest indication (excepting
+an obscure reference by Strabo, to vessels and receptacles of _wax_)
+that glass was made during the Roman domination of the country, either
+in Andalusia, Lusitania (Portugal), or in the northern regions of
+Cantabria.
+
+Rico y Sinobas has described a Spanish glass-oven of those primitive
+times. He says that such as were used for making objects of a fair size
+consisted of three compartments resting one upon the other; the lowest
+cylindrical, to hold the fire and ashes, the next with a domed top, for
+concentrating the heat, and the third and uppermost, which also had a
+domed top, for holding the pieces of glass that were set to cool by slow
+degrees. The wall of the oven contained a number of openings, which
+served, according to the level at which they were situated, for
+controlling the fire, adjusting the crucibles, or extracting, by means
+of metal rods, the lumps of molten glass, previously to submitting them
+to the action of the blowpipe. The dimensions of such of these
+primitive ovens as have been found in Spain or Italy, are nine feet in
+height by six feet in diameter, and the material of which they are built
+is argil, of a kind insensible to heat, and carefully freed by washing
+from all foreign, soluble, or inflammable substances. The crucibles,
+which were fitted in the oven two, four, or at most six at a time, were
+of this argil also, wrought and purified with even greater care. Ovens
+and crucibles of a smaller size were used for making diminutive objects
+such as beads and imitation precious stones.[105]
+
+  [105] Rico y Sinobas, _Del Vidrio y de sus artifices en Espana
+        (Almanaque del Museo de la Industria_, 1870).
+
+Almeria was probably the most important centre of Spanish-Moorish
+glass-making, and is mentioned in connection with this craft by
+Al-Makkari. The oriental shape of the older vessels which were made in
+this locality is still preserved in certain objects such as jars, bowls,
+flasks, and _aguardiente_-bottles, which are still manufactured, or were
+so until quite recently, throughout a region extending from Almeria to
+the slopes of the Alpujarra. "All these objects," says Riano, "are
+decorated with a serrated ornamentation of buttons, trellis-work, and
+the lines to which I have already alluded, which were placed there
+after the object was made, in the Roman style. The paste is generally of
+a dark green colour, and when we find these same features in vessels of
+clear white glass, we may affirm that they are contemporary imitations
+made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are very seldom to be met with in
+the provinces of Almeria and Granada, and are generally found at Toledo
+and other localities; it is, moreover, a common condition of oriental
+art that its general form complies with a geometrical tracery, and we
+never find, as in Italian works of art, forms and capricious
+ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the general lines,
+and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole."
+
+None of the original Moorish glass of the Alhambra has survived till
+nowadays. Most of it was destroyed by the explosion, in the year 1590,
+of a powder factory which lay immediately beneath the palace and beside
+the river Darro. In the Alhambra archives, particular mention is made of
+the circular glass windows or "eyes," only the corresponding holes of
+which remain, in the baths of the same palace. This glass, which may
+have been in colour, was also destroyed by the explosion, as were the
+windows, "painted in colour with fancy devices and Arabic lettering,"
+of the Sala de Embajadores,[106] those of the Hall of the Two Sisters,
+and certain windows, "painted with many histories and royal arms,"
+belonging to the church of the Alhambra.
+
+  [106] Oliver, _Granada y sus monumentos arabes_.
+
+Excellent glass, reported by some authors to have equalled that of
+Venice, was made at Barcelona from as early as the thirteenth century.
+An inventory of the Crown of Aragon, dated A.D. 1389 and quoted by
+Garcia Llanso, mentions as manufactured here, glass sweetmeat-vessels,
+cups, and silver-mounted tankards blazoned with the royal arms. The
+guild of Barcelona glassmakers was founded in 1455, and later in the
+same century Jeronimo Paulo wrote that "glass vessels of varying quality
+and shape, and which may well compete with the Venetian, are exported to
+Rome and other places." Similar statements are made by Marineus Siculus
+and Gaspar Barreyros.
+
+Other centres of Spanish glass-making were Caspe in Aragon, Seville,
+Valencia,[107] Pinar de la Vidriera, Royo Molino (near Jaen,) El
+Recuenco (Guadalajara), Cebreros (Avila), Medina del Campo, Venta del
+Cojo, Venta de los Toros de Guisando, and Castiel de la Pena in Castile.
+The glass-works of Castiel de la Pena were founded by the intelligent
+and indefatigable Hernando de Zafra, secretary to the Catholic
+sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. "It has been calculated," says
+Riano, "that about two tons of sand were used at these glass-works every
+month."
+
+  [107] The inventory (A.D. 1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque mentions "a
+        white box with four small bottles of Valencia glass containing
+        ointment for the hands." Other objects specified in this inventory
+        are "a large glass cup, with two lizards for handles, and two more
+        lizards on the cover"; "three glass cocoanuts, partly coloured and
+        with gold blown into them, together with their covers"; and "a
+        large glass cup, of Barcelona, blown with gold." The value of
+        these cups, if they existed now, would not be less than two or
+        three hundred pounds apiece.
+
+More important than the foregoing was the famous factory of a village in
+Toledo province called Cadalso, or sometimes, from the nature of its
+only industry, Cadalso (or Cadahalso) de los Vidrios. The glass made
+here is mentioned in terms of high praise by various writers of the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, such as Marineus Siculus and Mendez
+Silva. The former of these authors says in his work upon the _Memorable
+Things of Spain_: "Glass was produced in several towns of Castile, the
+most important being that of Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom."
+Ewers and bottles of Cadalso glass are mentioned in the Alburquerque
+inventory. Mendez Silva says that the number of ovens was originally
+three, and that their coloured glass was equal to Venetian (Plate
+lxxiv.). This was towards the middle of the seventeenth century. Larruga
+tells us that by the end of the eighteenth this local industry was
+languishing. One of the three ovens had been abandoned. The other two
+produced inferior glass, as well as in diminished quantities.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXIV
+                        VESSELS OF SPANISH GLASS
+                      (_South Kensington Museum_)]
+
+The glass of Cataluna maintained its ancient reputation all through the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and part of the seventeenth, and at
+this time was still compared with the Venetian by observant travellers
+(Plate lxxv.). Besides the capital, the principal glass-works in this
+province were at Almatret, Moncada, Cervello, and Mataro. In 1489 a
+Barcelonese, by name Vicente Sala, and his sons applied to the City
+Council for leave to construct an oven at Moncada "in order to pursue
+the craft of glass-making, _lo qual a present aci se obre axi bellament
+e suptil com en part del mon_ (seeing that the glass we manufacture in
+this neighbourhood competes with any in the world for subtlety and
+beauty)."
+
+A document is extant from which we learn that the City Councillors of
+Barcelona made strenuous efforts to prevail upon Ferdinand the Catholic
+to abolish a certain monopoly or other form of exclusive privilege which
+he had conceded to a local glass-maker. The result of this appeal is not
+recorded. In 1503 Ferdinand presented his consort with two hundred and
+seventy-four glass objects made at Barcelona, and Philip the Second
+possessed a hundred and nineteen pieces proceeding from the same
+locality.
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXV
+                        VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS
+                    (_From Drawings by the Author_)]
+
+An important development of this craft was the manufacture of coloured
+glass for churches and cathedrals. In the Peninsula, the earliest
+introducers of this branch of glass-making were principally natives of
+Germany, France, and Flanders, who came to Spain at the beginning of the
+fifteenth century.[108] Many of the oldest windows executed by these
+foreigners, or by the Spaniards who were taught by them, are still
+existing in the cathedrals of Leon, Toledo, Burgos, Barcelona, and
+the Seo of Zaragoza. Leon has several windows which date from as far
+back as the thirteenth century, and in which the glass is in small
+pieces, arranged as though it were mosaic. Some of the later and larger
+windows in the same cathedral are thirty-five feet high, and one, dating
+from the sixteenth century, is believed to have been presented to this
+temple by Mary of England, prior to her marriage with Philip the Second.
+
+  [108] Before this time, however, Aymerich had written, in or about the
+        year 1100, that sixty large windows in Santiago cathedral were
+        closed by glass, which probably was coloured. We also hear of
+        Francisco Socoma, who made or fitted windows of coloured glass at
+        Palma, in the island of Majorca, in 1380, and of Guillermo de
+        Collivella, who, in 1391, fitted at Lerida the glass which had
+        been coloured for the cathedral of that town by Juan de San-Amat.
+
+It was, however, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that the custom
+became general, in Spain as in other lands, of colouring the surface of
+white glass by partial fusing--a process which is mentioned in the
+treatise of Abolais, to which I have referred repeatedly. Between the
+eleventh and the thirteenth centuries the coloured windows of Spanish
+temples were still composed of pieces of glass united in the manner of
+mosaic, forming ornamental patterns of stars and similar devices; but
+subsequently to this period the decorative themes are said to be painted
+_en caballete_, and consist of figures, or the representation of scenes
+from Scripture. In Spain, and dating from the twelfth century, the
+workshops for preparing this coloured glass were commonly situated
+within the precincts of important temples, such as Toledo cathedral, or
+else, as was the case at Burgos, in separate buildings and
+_dependencias_. Here, in the square ovens characteristic of that age,
+and before it was mounted in the ponderous leaden frame, the glass was
+coloured with exquisite solicitude and patience by the hand of the
+master-craftsman, sometimes with a colour upon one of its surfaces
+alone, sometimes with the same colour upon both, or sometimes with a
+different colour upon either surface. The cartoons from which such
+windows were constructed, and which were often designed by painters of
+renown, were usually three in number. The first contained, upon a
+reduced scale, a coloured outline of the window; the second, drawn to
+the exact scale of the window as it was to be, was composed of all the
+pieces cut out and numbered according to the various colours; and the
+third, also of the projected size of the window, was kept complete, to
+serve as a pattern in case the window should suffer any accident, and
+require to be restored or mended. Not one of these cartoons is known to
+be preserved to-day, but Rico y Sinobas points out that from the strong
+and simple character of their colouring and outline, the illuminated
+illustrations of Spanish thirteenth century manuscripts, such as the
+_Cantigas_, and the _Book of Chess_ of Alfonso the Learned, may well
+have been utilized for, or else be copied from, glass windows of that
+period.
+
+As soon as the cartoon was finished, the window-painter traced it upon
+the surface of the glass. This was in square pieces, fitted conveniently
+together, with sufficient space between the pieces to allow the passage
+of the leads. Before being laid upon the glass and being submitted to
+the fixing action of fire, the colours were mixed with honey, urine,
+vinegar, and other fluids or substances which served as mediums to
+attach the colour to the glass. Thus prepared, and in the form of
+powder, the colours were allowed to dry for two or three days before the
+glass was placed in the oven. Yellow, which was the strongest colour,
+and that which penetrated deepest beneath the surface of the glass, was
+made from certain combinations of silver and nitrate of potash, while
+oxides or other forms of copper, lead, iron, tin, silver, and manganese,
+were used for making black, white, red, green, blue, purple, violet, or
+flesh-colour. These colours penetrated the glass to the depth of about
+half a millimetre; but sometimes, after the colour had been applied,
+the craftsman would submit the glass to friction by a wooden polisher or
+wheel, thus giving it an appearance of greater clearness and
+transparency at any spot he might desire.
+
+Among the artists who produced the coloured windows of Leon cathedral
+were Master Joan de Arge (A.D. 1424), Master Baldovin, and Rodrigo de
+Ferreras. Those of Toledo date from early in the fifteenth century, and
+were made by Albert of Holland, Vasco Troya, Luis Pedro Frances, Juan de
+Campos, and others, including the eminent Dolfin, who, according to
+Cean, began to work here in 1418, by order of the archbishop, Don Sancho
+de Rojas. The documents collected and published for the first time by
+Zarco del Valle tell us that on March 22nd, 1424, Dolfin received from
+Alfonso Martinez, treasurer and superintendent of works, two hundred
+gold florins and certain other moneys on account of his total payment of
+four hundred gold florins for "the eighth window he is making for the
+head of the cathedral." Other certificates of payment relating to
+Maestre Dolfin (as he always signed himself) are included in the same
+collection. By 1427 he was "defunct, God pardon him!" and the windows
+he had left unfinished were terminated by his assistant Lois
+(Louis).[109]
+
+  [109] _Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes en
+        Espana_, p. 282 _et seq._
+
+In 1458, and also at Toledo, a friar named Pablo began to repair the
+painted windows of the _crucero_. His pay was fixed by the "abbot and
+superintendent of works" at fifty _maravedis_ each day, and that of "his
+lads, Ximeno and Juanico," at one half of this amount. Other artists
+engaged in the same work were Pablo (not the friar just referred to),
+Peter, a German, and "Master Henry," who was also German. Pablo received
+authority to purchase ten and a half _quintales_ and thirteen pounds of
+coloured Flemish glass, at two thousand _maravedis_ for each _quintal_.
+By a contract dated 1485 (he died between 1487 and 1493), Master Henry
+was handed by the cathedral authorities a sum of 150,000 _maravedis_ "to
+proceed to Flanders or any other part he may desire, and where good
+glass is to be found, white, blue, green, scarlet, purple, yellow, or
+blackish (_prieto_), equal in thickness to the sample which he bears,
+and bring us thence such quantity as he has need of for the windows of
+our cathedral."
+
+It is evident from this notice that Spain was then unable to produce
+the finest quality of glass. With such as he brought with him from
+abroad, Henry engaged to fashion "every kind of figure, image, scroll,
+and other object whatsoever be commanded him, according to the place it
+is to fill; the colours of the glass to be well mingled and
+distributed." He was also to make "the leaden casings stout and deep, so
+as to embrace and hold the glass aforesaid, that it may resist the air
+and wind." In return for this, he was to be supplied with an erected
+scaffolding, with all the chalk and iron he might require, and with the
+proper number of assistants, receiving, in payment of his labour, one
+hundred and fifteen _maravedis_ for every square palm of glass the
+preparation of which should satisfy the superintendent and examiners of
+works.
+
+One of the witnesses to this document was Henry's wife, Maria Maldonada,
+who came forward to affix her signature "with the license and pleasure
+of the aforesaid Master Enrique, her husband."
+
+In 1433, Master Juan (perhaps the same as Joan de Arge, already
+mentioned) began to work at the windows of Burgos, where, later in this
+century, he was succeeded by Juan de Valdivieso and Diego de
+Santillana. We learn from the _Documentos Ineditos_ (pp. 159, 160) that
+Santillana lived at Burgos, and that, on May 31st, 1512, he contracted
+to make three "historical windows" for the monastery of San Francisco,
+at a price of ninety-five _maravedis_ for each palm of glass, this to be
+"of good colours and shades," and "measured by the Burgos standard." Two
+other contracts are preserved, signed by the same craftsman and both
+relating to Palencia. By one of them Santillana is to receive for six
+"storied windows," the subjects of which are specified, ninety-five
+_maravedis_ the palm, besides the scaffolding and his house and coals.
+
+Arnao de Flandes (Arnold of Flanders) was appointed master glass-painter
+to Burgos cathedral in 1512. Other glass-painters who worked here in the
+sixteenth century were Francisco de Valdivieso, Gaspar Cotin, Juan de
+Arce, his son Juan and grandson Pedro, and, in the seventeenth century,
+Valentin Ruiz, Francisco Alonso, Simon Ruiz, and Francisco Alcalde. Most
+of the windows made by all these men have been destroyed by time and
+weather, and have been replaced by barren panes of white; but a few fine
+specimens of the original work may yet be seen in the chapels of the
+Presentation, the Constable, and San Jeronimo. Perhaps the most
+remarkable of any is the rose-window, above the Puerta del
+Sarmental.[110]
+
+  [110] In the monastery of Miraflores, near this city, the queen of
+        Ferdinand the Catholic built, at her expense, a rich pantheon to
+        guard the ashes of her parents and her brother. The coloured glass
+        was made by Simon of Cologne. One day, while visiting Miraflores,
+        Isabella noticed upon the windows of this sanctuary the shield of
+        a gentleman named Martin de Soria. Furious at the liberty thus
+        taken with a fabric of her own, "afferte mihi gladium" she called
+        in Latin to one of her attendants, and, raising the sword, dashed
+        the offending window into a thousand pieces, crying that in that
+        spot she would allow no arms but those of her father.
+
+Other good cathedral windows prior to the sixteenth century are those of
+Avila, which date from about the year 1497, and were executed by Diego
+de Santillana, Juan de Valdivieso, and other artists; those of the Seo
+of Zaragoza, by the Catalans Terri and Jayme Romeu (1447); and some at
+Barcelona, painted in 1494 by Gil Fontanet.
+
+It is, however, in the sixteenth century that Spanish ecclesiastical
+window-glass attains its highest grade of excellence.[111] Dating from
+this century are windows in Toledo cathedral, painted in 1503 by Vasco
+de Troya, in 1509 by Alejo Jimenez, in 1513 by Gonzalo de Cordoba (these
+are considered by competent judges to be the finest of any), in 1515 by
+Juan de la Cuesta, in 1522 by Juan Campos, in 1525 by Albert of Holland,
+in 1534 by Juan de Ortega, and in 1542 by Nicolas Vergara the
+elder.[112] In 1537 Ortega was engaged to repair the damaged or broken
+panes at a yearly salary of 11,250 _maravedis_. Where the panes were
+wanting, he was to replace them by new ones painted by his hand,
+receiving, for each _palmo_ of new glass so painted, an extra payment of
+ninety _maravedis_.[113]
+
+  [111] Senor Lazaro, who has recently made at Madrid windows for Leon
+        cathedral imitating those of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+        centuries, remarks that with the sixteenth century the process
+        grew more complicated, patterns composed with pieces of a single
+        colour being replaced by glass containing a variety of tints. He
+        has also discovered the following usage of the older Spanish
+        craftsmen: "By way of furnishing a key to their arrangement, all
+        the pieces used to be marked with the point of a diamond, and
+        this mark indicates the tone the glass requires for such and such
+        a part of the design. The signs most often employed were three,
+        namely X, L, and V, for red, blue and yellow respectively,
+        intermediate tones being shown by combinations of these
+        letters--XL, LV, XV, with "lines of unities" placed before or
+        after to indicate the necessary gradation in the tone."
+
+  [112] This artist painted a series of magnificent windows representing
+        scenes from the life of San Pedro Nolasco, for the convent of La
+        Piedad, at Valencia.
+
+  [113] Zarco del Valle, _Documentos Ineditos, etc._, pp. 339 _et seq._
+
+In the same century the windows of Seville cathedral, begun some years
+previously (Cean says in 1504) by Micer Cristobal Aleman ("Master
+Christopher the German"), were continued by Masters Jacobo, Juan Juan
+Vivan, Juan Bernai, Bernardino de Gelandia, Juan Jaques, Arnold of
+Flanders (1525), Arnao de Vergara (1525), Charles of Bruges, (1557), and
+Vicente Menandro (1557).[114] In 1562 Diego de Valdivieso, and in 1570
+Pedro de Valdivieso and Gerald of Holland, painted windows for Cuenca
+cathedral. In 1542 the same work was done at Palencia by Diego de
+Salcedo, and in 1533 George of Burgundy, "master in the art of glass,"
+then resident at Burgos, proceeded to the same town and engaged to
+renew the cathedral windows at a cost of a hundred _maravedis_ for every
+palm of coloured glass, and fifty for every palm of plain.[115]
+
+  [114] According to Cean (_La Catedral de Sevilla_), Menandro painted in
+        1560 the conversion of Saint Paul on a window in the Chapel of
+        Santiago, in 1567 another window with the scene of the
+        Annunciation, over the gate of San Miguel, and in 1569 the
+        companion to it, representing the Visitation, over the Puerta del
+        Bautismo. "In all these windows," wrote Cean, prejudiced, as was
+        customary in his day, in favour of the strictly classic style,
+        "the drawing, pose, and composition are good, _although_ in the
+        draperies and figures we observe the influence of Germany."
+
+        In Cean's own time--that is, towards the close of the eighteenth
+        century--the coloured windows of Seville Cathedral amounted to
+        ninety-three, five of which were circular, and the rest with the
+        pointed Gothic arch. The dimensions of the latter are twenty-eight
+        feet high by twelve feet broad, and the subjects painted on them
+        include the likenesses of prophets, patriarchs, martyrs,
+        confessors, and virgins, or scenes from the New Testament, such as
+        the rising of Lazarus, Christ driving the merchants from the
+        temple, the Last Supper, and the
+        anointing by Mary Magdalene.
+
+  [115] Zarco del Valle, _Documentos Ineditos_, p. 159
+
+In 1544, sixty-two windows in the nave of Segovia cathedral were filled
+with painted glass prepared chiefly at Valladolid and Medina del Campo,
+though some was brought from Flanders. The remaining windows were left
+unfilled till 1676, in which year a canon of the cathedral, named Tomas
+de la Plaza Aguirre, succeeded in rediscovering a formula for the
+practise of this craft, and the panes yet needed were made and coloured
+at Valdequemada by Juan Danis, under Plaza Aguirre's supervision.
+Thirty-three additional windows were completed from this factory.
+According to Lecea y Garcia, the chapter of Segovia cathedral possess,
+or possessed for many years, two curious manuscripts relating severally
+to _The painting of glass windows_, by Francisco Herranz, and
+_Glass-making_, by Juan Danis--the same who owned and worked the factory
+at Valdequemada. These interesting treatises were examined by Bosarte,
+who has described them. He says that the one on glass-making consisted
+of twenty-three sheets of clear writing, and the one on glass-painting
+of eight sheets; both manuscripts being in quarto size. The latter
+contained, distributed beside the text, sketches of the various
+instruments required for this craft. The other and longer monograph
+consisted of the following chapters:--(1) How to draw upon glass. (2)
+How to cut glass. (3) How to paint and shade glass. (4) Of the
+substances and ingredients for painting glass. (5) How to give a
+flesh-colour to glass. (6) How to give a yellow or golden colour to
+white or pale blue glass, but no other. (7) How to fire glass. (8) How
+to make the glass-oven.
+
+Windows were painted in the cathedral of Palma de Mallorca by Sebastian
+Dangles in 1566 and by Juan Jorda in 1599, in that of Malaga by Octavio
+Valerio in 1579, and in those of Tarragona and Avila respectively, by
+Juan Guasch in 1571, and by Pierre de Chiberri in 1549. This craftsman
+was undoubtedly a foreigner. The following entry which concerns him is
+quoted by Rosell de Torres from the _Libro de Fabrica_ of Segovia
+cathedral: "By order of the Canon Juan Rodriguez, on the twelfth day of
+August, I paid to Pierre de Chiberri, master-maker of window-glass, the
+sum of 56,560 _maravedis_, 34,960 for the casings of seven large
+windows with their side-windows--in all twenty-one casings--besides ten
+casings for the windows of the lower chapels, containing altogether
+MMMCCCCXCVI palms, amounting at ten _maravedis_ the palm to the
+aforesaid 34,960 maravedis: also 19,125 _maravedis_ for CCCLXXII palms
+of glass for the said chapels at a _real_ and a half each palm, plus
+2476 _maravedis_ for certain glass which had yet to be measured because
+it was in the skylights. The total sum amounts to the aforesaid 56,560
+_maravedis_."[116]
+
+  [116] Isidoro Rosell de Torres, _Las Vidrieras pintadas en Espana_
+        (published in the _Museo Espanol de Antiguedades_).
+
+During the seventeenth century, glass-work of various kinds continued to
+be produced upon a large scale at Barcelona, Mataro, Gerona, Cuenca,
+Toledo, Valmaqueda, and Seville. In 1680 the Duke of Villahermosa
+established a glass factory at San Martin de Valdeiglesias, and placed
+it under the direction of a native of Namur named Diodonet Lambot, aided
+by various other artists from the Netherlands. In 1683 Lambot was
+succeeded by Santiago Vandoleto, who proved incompetent, and caused, in
+1692, the total stoppage of the factory.
+
+I have said that glass was made at Medina del Campo, in the province of
+Valladolid. Pinheiro da Veiga's _Pincigraphia_, written at the beginning
+of the seventeenth century, contains an interesting notice of this
+glassware. "Really, the glass-work of Valladolid is most beautiful, and
+worth going to see if only for the pleasure of its contemplation. There
+are objects of considerable size, such as (glass) pitchers of every form
+and colour. Others are called _penados_, and are of a syphon shape,
+pouring out water in small quantities.[117] Besides this there are all
+manner of cunningly contrived retorts such as we never see in Lisbon,
+and yet in Valladolid their cost is only moderate.... The principal
+shops for selling these and porcelain are two in number, and the prices
+are the same as in Portugal."
+
+  [117] "_Penado._ A narrow-mouthed vessel that affords the liquor with
+        scantiness and difficulty." Connelly and Higgins' Dictionary;
+        A.D. 1798.
+
+Two very important Spanish glass factories were founded in the
+eighteenth century. The first, which was under Crown protection, was
+established by Don Juan Goyeneche in the year 1720 at a place called
+Nuevo Baztan, in the province of Toledo. The royal privilege allowed
+this factory to produce "all articles of glass up to a height of twenty
+inches, working and polishing the same, embellishing, and coating them
+with metal; to make looking-glasses and similar ornaments, glass vessels
+of all descriptions, white glass for window-panes, and glass objects of
+any kind or shape, whether already known to us, or that may be invented
+in the future."
+
+The factory of Nuevo Baztan continued working for some years, and turned
+out excellent glass for exportation to America and other parts; but it
+was killed eventually by the rising price of fuel, and above all by
+competition from abroad. "When the foreigners," says Larruga in his
+_Memorias politicas y economicas_, "saw that the factory was in full
+swing, they conspired to bring about its ruin, and begged their
+ambassadors to communicate against it with the ministers; but finding
+this of no avail, and recognising the importance to themselves of
+overthrowing this manufacture, they decided to sell glassware at a price
+at which it would be impossible to sell the products of Nuevo Baztan.
+The amount of this reduction was the one-third part of the entire value.
+By this means the foreigners made it impossible for the factory to
+support itself, since the objects it produced were laid away and found
+no purchaser for years. This, and the cost of the wood required to keep
+the ovens burning day and night, not excepting feast-days (for to stop
+the fires for a moment would have meant the spoiling of the oven),
+induced the downfall of this celebrated factory, as soon as the fuel of
+all the neighbouring forests had been consumed."
+
+Nevertheless, upon the closing of these works, one of the experts who
+had been employed there, a Catalan named Ventura Sit, attracted by the
+forests of Valsain and the excellent and abundant sand obtainable in
+this locality--principally from near the villages of Espirdo and Bernuy
+de Porreros--decided to open another glass-works at La Granja. Here is
+the royal summer residence of San Ildefonso, and Sit was fortunate
+enough to secure at the outset--that is, in 1728--the firm protection of
+Philip the Fifth and of his consort, Isabel Farnese. Instructed by the
+sovereigns to make some mirrors, he produced these objects of a moderate
+size at first, increasing it, after the year 1734, to a maximum length
+of 145 inches by 85 in breadth. Larruga says that these mirrors were the
+largest produced anywhere at that time, and they continued to be made
+until very nearly the end of the century. They are often referred to in
+the narratives of travellers. Swinburne wrote in 1776: "Not far from
+Carthagena is a place called Almazaron, where they gather a fine red
+earth called Almagra, used in the manufactures of Saint Ildephonso, for
+polishing looking-glasses. In Seville, it is worked up with the tobacco,
+to give it a colour, fix its volatility, and communicate to it that
+softness which constitutes the principal merit of Spanish snuff."
+
+Describing the royal palace at Madrid, the same author says that the
+walls of the great audience-chamber "are incrustated with beautiful
+marble, and all round hung with large plates of looking-glass in rich
+frames. The manufactory of glass is at Saint Ildefonso, where they cast
+them of a very great size; but I am told they are apt to turn out much
+rougher and more full of flaws than those of France."
+
+According to Townsend (1786), "The glass manufacture is here carried to
+a degree of perfection unknown in England. The largest mirrors are made
+in a brass frame, one hundred and sixty-two inches long, ninety-three
+wide, and six deep, weighing near nine tons. These are designed wholly
+for the royal palaces, and for presents from the king. Yet even for such
+purposes the factory is ill-placed, and proves a devouring monster in a
+country where provisions are dear, fuel scarce, and carriage exceedingly
+expensive."
+
+Laborde wrote of the same factory a few years later: "There is also a
+glass-house, in which bottles are wrought of a superior quality; and
+white glasses, which are carved with much ingenuity (Plates lxxvi. and
+lxxvii.). Near this glass-house has been founded a manufactory for
+mirrors, in a large and well-arranged edifice. There are two furnaces,
+and a considerable number of stoves, in which the plates are left to
+cool after they have been precipitated. They are of all dimensions, and
+the largest that have yet been fabricated. They are sometimes from a
+hundred, a hundred and thirty, or a hundred and thirty-five inches in
+height, to fifty, sixty, or sixty-five inches in breadth: they are
+expanded in the hand. The process for polishing them is performed by a
+machine;[118] they are then transported to Madrid, for the purpose of
+being metallised. It is not uncommon to see tables of bronze, on which
+mirrors are extended, a hundred and sixty inches in length, and ninety
+in breadth."
+
+  [118] This machine was invented by a Catalan named Pedro Fronvila.
+
+These tables are described by Bowles: "The largest measures a hundred
+and forty-five inches in length by eighty-five in breadth, and weighs
+four hundred and five _arrobas_. The smallest measures a hundred and
+twenty inches in length, and seventy-five in breadth, and weighs three
+hundred and eighty _arrobas_."
+
+                          [Illustration: LXXVI
+                 GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO]
+
+The best account of any is contained in the _Nouveau Voyage en Espagne_
+(1789) of Bourgoing. This author wrote: "A cote de cette Fabrique
+naissante de premiere necessite" (_i.e._ the royal linen factory at La
+Granja) "il y en a une de luxe qui remonte au regne de Philippe V; c'est
+une Manufacture de glaces, la seule qu'il y ait en Espagne. On s'etoit
+d'abord borne a une Verrerie qui subsiste encore, et donne des
+bouteilles d'une assez bonne qualite, et des verres blancs qu'on y
+cisele avec assez d'adresse. J'en ai rapporte quelques-uns ou l'on a
+grave des chiffres, des lettres, et jusqu'a de jolis paysages. Cette
+Verrerie etoit un acheminement a une entreprise plus brillante. La
+Manufacture de glaces de Saint Ildephonse est comparable aux plus beaux
+etablissements de ce genre; on en peut voir les dessins dans les
+Planches de l'Encyclopedie. L'edifice est vaste et tres bien distribue;
+il contient deux fourneaux et une vingtaine de fours ou l'on fait
+refroidir lentement les glaces apres les avoir coulees. On y en coule
+dans toutes les dimensions depuis les carreaux de vitres jusqu'aux plus
+grands trumeaux. Elles sont moins blanches et peut-etre moins bien
+polies que celles de Venise et de St-Gobin; mais nulle part on n'en a
+encore coule d'aussi grandes. L'operation du coulage s'y fait avec
+beaucoup de precision et d'ensemble. Monseigneur Comte d'Artois eut la
+curiosite d'y assister; la glace qu'on y coula devant lui avoit, autant
+que je puis m'en souvenir, cent trente-trois pouces de long, sur
+soixante-cinq de large, et l'on m'a assure qu'il y en avoit encore de
+plus grandes. On les degrossit a mains d'hommes dans une longue galerie
+qui est attenante a la Fabrique, et il y a a un quart de lieue une
+machine que l'eau fait mouvoir, et ou on acheve de les polir; on les
+porte ensuite a Madrid pour les etamer. Le Roi consacre les plus belles
+a la parure de ses appartements; il en fait des cadeaux aux Cours qui
+ont des relations intimes avec lui. En 1783, S.M.C. en fit joindre
+quelques-unes aux presens qu'il envoyoit a la Porte Ottomane, avec
+laquelle elle venoit de conclure un traite. C'est une idee agreable pour
+un cosmopolite tolerant, de penser qu'en depit des prejuges de religion
+et de politique qui divisoient autrefois les Nations, la main des arts a
+etabli entr'elles un echange de jouissances d'un bout de l'Europe a
+l'autre, et que les beautes du serrail se mirent dans les glaces coulees
+a Saint-Ildefonse, tandis que les tapis de Turquie sont foules par des
+pieds Francois. Ce qui sort d'ailleurs de la Manufacture de
+Saint-Ildefonse est vendu, pour le compte du Roi, a Madrid et dans les
+provinces; mais on sent bien que ce profit est trop mince pour couvrir
+les frais d'un etablissement aussi considerable qui, le bois excepte,
+est eloigne de toutes les matieres premieres qu'il employe, qui est
+situe fort avant dans l'interieur des terres, au sein des montagnes, et
+loin de toute riviere navigable; aussi doit il etre compte parmi ces
+fondations de luxe qui prosperent a l'ombre du Trone, et qui ajoutent a
+son eclat."[119]
+
+  [119] Vol. I., pp. 144-147.
+
+A few more details are added by Swinburne: "Below the town is the
+manufactory of plate-glass belonging to the crown, carried on under the
+direction of Mr Dowling; two hundred and eighty men are employed. The
+largest plate they have made is one hundred and twenty-six Spanish
+inches long; the small pieces are sold in looking-glasses all over the
+kingdom; but I am told the king makes no great profit by it; however, it
+is a very material point to be able to supply his subjects with a good
+commodity, and to keep in the country a large sum of money that
+heretofore went out annually to purchase it from strangers. They also
+make bottles and drinking-glasses (Plates lxxvi., lxxvii.); and are now
+busy erecting very spacious new furnaces to enlarge the works. To
+provide fuel for the fires, they have put the pinewoods under proper
+regulations and stated falls; twenty-seven mule-loads of fir-wood are
+consumed every day; and four loads cost the king, including all the
+expenses of cutting and bringing down from the mountains, about forty
+reals."
+
+                         [Illustration: LXXVII
+                 GLASS OF THE FACTORY OF SAN ILDEFONSO]
+
+In 1736, the first factory which had been established at San Ildefonso
+was nearly destroyed by fire; but the damage was repaired, and the
+factory placed under state control. Its finances were at no time
+prosperous. In 1762 Charles the Third granted a privilege reserving to
+it the exclusive sale of glass within a radius of twenty leagues from
+Madrid and Segovia; but the sales did not improve. In spite of this, the
+monarch, a few years later, erected a new and costly factory from
+designs by Villanueva and Real. There were two departments in this ample
+building. One, for the manufacture of the plainest glass, was
+directed by a Hanoverian, named Sigismund Brun; and the other, devoted
+to smaller and more elaborate articles, by Eder, a Swede. "The greater
+number of the objects made at these important works were of transparent,
+colourless glass, possessing a marked French style, and were either
+richly engraved and cut, or gilded, or sometimes (though less often)
+they were made of coloured and enamelled glass. At this time, too, were
+manufactured mirrors for the royal palaces, as well as candlesticks and
+chandeliers of great beauty, following the Venetian method, and
+embellished with coloured flowers."[120]
+
+  [120] Brenosa and Castellarnau; _Guide to San Ildefonso_ (1884), p. 53.
+        Rico y Sinobas observes that in the objects produced at the
+        factory of La Granja, the glass itself is inferior to the
+        engraving or cutting with which it is adorned. This leads him to
+        infer that the foreigners brought over by the kings of Spain to
+        superintend the factory, were cutters and engravers of glass,
+        rather than skilled glass-makers. He also draws attention to the
+        fact that the Spanish monarchs chose these foreign craftsmen from
+        too limited a class, entrusting the most important posts at all
+        the royal factories to Frenchmen who were stated to descend from
+        the old nobility of their native country. In this manner the
+        progress and welfare of the craft itself was sacrificed to an
+        insane prejudice in favour of the aristocratic origin of the
+        craftsman.
+
+In spite of all these efforts, the works at the dawn of the nineteenth
+century were in a moribund condition. In 1829 they passed into the
+hands of private persons, who also failed to make them pay, and
+subsequently, owing to the ineptitude of Spanish governments and the
+severity of foreign competition, have definitely closed their doors.
+
+"In Catalonia," wrote Laborde, towards the year 1800, "are two glass
+houses; but the glass blown in them is dark, and destitute of lustre.
+Aragon has four, one at Alfamen, one at Penalva, one at Utrillas, and
+one at Jaulin, which is the largest; but the quality of the glass is not
+superior to that of Catalonia. The glass-house at Utrillas produces both
+flint and common glass. Glass houses are also established at Pajarejo
+and at Recuenco in Castile, which manufacture the most beautifully white
+and transparent glass."
+
+In 1791 there were six glass-ovens in the kingdom of Valencia, situated
+at Valencia, Alicante, Salines, Olleria, and Alcira. They turned out
+2100 pieces in this year, some of which were exported to Castile and
+Aragon.[121]
+
+  [121] Ricord; _Noticia de las varias y diferentes Producciones del
+        Reyno de Valencia, etc.: segun el estado que tenian en el
+        ano 1791._ Valencia, 1793.
+
+Early in the eighteenth century the glass of Barcelona was praised by
+Alvarez de Colmenar ("Il s'y fait de belles verreries"), and we know
+that all through this period her _forns de vidre_ continued to produce
+good work, including holy-water vessels of uncoloured glass relieved
+with blue or with the fine white _latticinio_, the local _arruixadors_
+or _borrachas_, and the typical _porron_. The former of these vessels is
+of small size, and has several spouts. Commonly it is filled with
+scented water for gallants to sprinkle on girls at dances in the public
+square. The _porron_ invariably excites the curiosity of
+foreigners,[122] and is often thought to be of purely Spanish origin.
+This is not so. Upon a Roman lampstand in Naples museum is a figure of
+Bacchus riding on a tiger and "holding in his hand the horn from which
+the ancients drank, using it as, among some other peoples, do the modern
+Catalans--that is, not placing the vessel in their mouth, but holding it
+aloft and thus imbibing it; a method which requires no small amount of
+practice." In fact, there is reason to believe that the _porron_ is
+derived from a similar vessel in use among the ancient Persians, who
+poured their liquor from it into the hollow of the hand, and thence
+imbibed it in the fashion called, in Cataluna and Valencia, _al gallet_.
+For just as a certain class of American displays his marksmanship in
+spitting, so does the Catalan who is accomplished in the art, amuse
+himself and others by causing the ruby wine to spout from his _porron_
+on to the very apex of his nose, continuing from this point, in the form
+of a fine and undulating rivulet, over his upper lip and down his
+throat.
+
+  [122] "The mode of drinking in this country is singular; they hold a
+        broad-bottom'd glass bottle at arm's length, and let the liquor
+        spout out of a long neck upon their tongue; from what I see,
+        their expertness at this exercise arises from frequent practise;
+        for the Catalans drink often and in large quantities, but as yet
+        I have not seen any of them intoxicated."--Swinburne.
+
+Windows of Spanish houses were seldom glazed until about one hundred
+years ago. When Bertaut de Rouen travelled here in 1659, this fact
+impressed him disagreeably. Even in the royal palace at Madrid he found
+that there were chambers "qui n'ont point du tout de fenestres, ou qui
+n'en ont qu'une petite, et d'ou le jour ne vient que d'enhaut, le verre
+estant fort rare en Espagne, et la pluspart des fenestres des maisons
+n'ayant pas de vitres." In 1787, Arthur Young was no less horrified at
+the glassless condition of the houses in Cataluna. "Reach Scullo; the
+inn so bad that our guide would not permit us to enter it, so he went to
+the house of the Cure. A scene followed so new to English eyes, that we
+could not refrain from laughing very heartily. Not a pane of glass in
+the whole town, but our reverend host had a chimney in his kitchen; he
+ran to the river to catch trout; a man brought us some chickens which
+were put to death on the spot.... This town and its inhabitants are, to
+the eye, equally wretched, the smoke-holes instead of chimneys, the
+total want of glass windows--the cheerfulness of which, to the eye, is
+known only by the want."
+
+However, as an exception to this doleful rule, the town of Poeblar had
+"some good houses with glass windows, and we saw a well-dressed young
+lady gallanted by two monks."
+
+
+
+
+                              PRINTED BY
+
+                      NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,
+
+                              EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as an misprint.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. x: LIX -> LIX.
+  p. 20: Mr Cunninghame Graham -> Mr.
+  p. 23: avec leurs enfans -> enfants
+  p. 32: feu. L'hote -> L'hotel
+  p. 33: choses est regle -> regle
+  p. 39: fort peuplee autresfois -> autrefois
+  p. 71: pp. 161, 162 -> pp. 161, 162.
+  p. 72: Leon Cathedral_ -> Leon Cathedral_)
+  p. 96: peintures variees de bon gout -> gout
+  p. 98: on the cover. -> on the cover."
+  p. 104: (see Vol. I. Plate xi.) -> (see Vol. I., Plate xi.)
+  p. 132: appear to be galloping. -> galloping."
+  p. 139: and "Pisano." -> and "Pisano".
+  p. 139: "_de relieve_." -> "_de relieve_".
+  p. 159: les plus compliques -> compliques
+  p. 159: qu'un bal masque -> masque
+  p. 169: the journal of Bertant -> Bertaut
+  p. 180: Quarte, Vilallonga -> Villalonga
+  p. 183: degree of delicacy. -> delicacy."
+  p. 188: says Senor Osmo -> Osma
+  p. 188: and another [Illustration] -> [Illustration].
+  p. 213: style of Capo-di-Monte. -> Capo-di-Monte."
+  p. 225: in France and Spain. -> Spain."
+  p. 228: albeit the the -> albeit the
+  p. 236: VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS -> LXXV VESSELS OF CATALAN GLASS
+  p. 254: GLASS OF THE -> LXXVI GLASS OF THE
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN,
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