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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44391 ***
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44391-h.htm or 44391-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
+      Volume II: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44392
+      Volume III: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44393
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The signs cross and dagger have been marked as [cross]
+      and [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (Comp^a).
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece_
+_REJA_ OF THE CHOIR
+(_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME I
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+                               Dedicated
+
+                         BY SPECIAL PERMISSION
+                                   TO
+                            THEIR MAJESTIES
+                      KING ALFONSO THE THIRTEENTH
+                                  AND
+                        QUEEN VICTORIA OF SPAIN
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing these volumes, it has been my aim to give a clear and
+fairly complete account of the arts and crafts of older Spain. It seems
+to me that there is room for a work of this design and scope, and that
+there is no reason why so attractive a subject--or rather, group of
+subjects--should be perpetually ignored by persons who travel through,
+or who profess to feel an interest in, the country of the Cid and of Don
+Quixote.
+
+My account of Spanish pottery is guarded, and yet I trust acceptable.
+The study of this craft in Spain is far from definite, and fresh
+researches and discoveries may be hoped for at some future time. The
+history of Spanish arms has also suffered from unjust neglect. Perhaps
+my sketch of them may slightly compensate for this deficiency. For the
+rest, my book, which represents the well-meant assiduity of several
+years, shall speak for itself. Although I was embarrassed by too much
+material, the illustrations have been chosen with great care, and not, I
+think, inadequately. Some of the photographs were taken specially for
+this work. For the loan of others, or for kind assistance generally, I
+am indebted to Excmo. Señor Don Guillermo J. de Osma, Excmo. Señor Don
+José Villegas, and Excmo. Señor Don José Moreno Carbonero; to Señores
+Góngora and Valladar, of Granada; and to Messrs Hauser and Menet, and
+Mons. Lacoste, of Madrid.
+
+_August_, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE
+
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  GOLD, SILVER, AND JEWEL WORK                                    1-119
+
+  IRON-WORK                                                     120-159
+
+  BRONZES                                                       160-191
+
+  ARMS                                                          192-289
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                              _VOLUME ONE_
+
+
+                            GOLD AND SILVER
+
+     PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+           _Reja_ of the Choir; Seville Cathedral        _Frontispiece_
+
+        I. Treasure of Guarrazar; Royal Armoury, Madrid              22
+
+       II. The Cross of Angels; Oviedo Cathedral                     36
+
+      III. The Cross of Victory; Oviedo Cathedral                    43
+
+       IV. Moorish Casket; Gerona Cathedral                          46
+
+        V. Altar-Front in enamelled Bronze; Museum of Burgos         50
+
+       VI. "The Crucifix of the Cid"; Salamanca Cathedral            52
+
+      VII. The "Virgen de la Vega"; San Esteban, Salamanca           54
+
+     VIII. Saint James in Pilgrim's Dress; Santiago Cathedral        57
+
+       IX. Mudejar Triptych; Royal Academy of History, Madrid        60
+
+        X. The "Tablas Alfonsinas"; Seville Cathedral                62
+
+       XI. "The Cup of Saint Ferdinand"; Seville Cathedral           64
+
+      XII. Ship; Zaragoza Cathedral                                  65
+
+     XIII. Moorish Bracelets                                         77
+
+      XIV. Morisco Jewellery                                         83
+
+       XV.  Silver-Gilt Processional Cross                           85
+
+      XVI.  Gothic _Custodia_                                        95
+
+     XVII.  The _Custodia_ of Seville Cathedral                     100
+
+    XVIII.  Early Chalice and Cross in Filigree Gold                114
+
+
+                               IRON-WORK
+
+      XIX. Old Keys; Seville Cathedral                              131
+
+     XIXA. Decorative Nail-Heads; Convent of San Antonio, Toledo    134
+
+       XX. Door-Knockers                                            136
+
+      XXI. Ceremonial Maces and Lantern                             138
+
+     XXII. Iron Pulpit; Avila Cathedral                             140
+
+    XXIII. _Reja_ of Chapel Royal; Granada Cathedral                148
+
+     XXIV. The same (View from Interior)                            149
+
+      XXV. _Reja_; Casa de Pilatos, Seville                         155
+
+     XXVI. _Reja_ of the "Casa de las Conchas," Salamanca           156
+
+
+                                BRONZES
+
+    XXVII. "Meleager's Hunt"                                        164
+
+   XXVIII. A _Candil_                                               166
+
+     XXIX. A _Velón_                                                168
+
+      XXX. Bronze Lion                                              171
+
+     XXXI. Bronze Stag; Museum of Cordova                           173
+
+    XXXII. Bronze Temple; Museum of Granada                         174
+
+   XXXIII. Moorish Lamp and Mortar; Museum of Granada               176
+
+    XXXIV. Lamp of Mohammed the Third; Madrid Museum                178
+
+     XXXV. Abbot Samson's Bell; Museum of Cordova                   180
+
+    XXXVI. Bronze Crucifix                                          182
+
+   XXXVII. The Puerta del Perdón; Seville Cathedral                 184
+
+  XXXVIII. The Weathercock of the Giralda Tower                     186
+
+
+                                  ARMS
+
+    XXXIX. Crest of Jousting Helmet; Royal Armoury, Madrid          198
+
+       XL. Spanish Crossbowman; Royal Armoury, Madrid               202
+
+      XLI. The Battle of La Higueruela; El Escorial                 206
+
+     XLII. Parade Harness of Philip the Third; Royal Armoury,
+           Madrid                                                   210
+
+    XLIII. Moorish Crossbow and Stirrup; Museum of Granada          214
+
+     XLIV. Moorish Sword; Casa de los Tiros, Granada                218
+
+      XLV. Sword of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid   222
+
+     XLVI. Dagger of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid  226
+
+    XLVII. Moorish Sword                                            230
+
+   XLVIII. War Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid  234
+
+     XLIX. Jousting Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury,
+           Madrid                                                   238
+
+        L. Jousting Harness of Philip the Handsome; Royal Armoury,
+           Madrid                                                   242
+
+       LI. Moorish Buckler; Royal Armoury, Madrid                   246
+
+      LII. Armour made at Pamplona; Royal Armoury, Madrid           250
+
+     LIII. _Adarga_; Royal Armoury, Madrid                          254
+
+      LIV. Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid                    258
+
+       LV. Spanish Sword; Royal Armoury, Madrid                     262
+
+      LVI. Spanish Sword                                            266
+
+     LVII. Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid                    270
+
+    LVIII. Sword Marks                                              272
+
+      LIX. _Bridona_ Saddle; Royal Armoury, Madrid                  274
+
+       LX. Hanging _Jaeces_ for Horses                              278
+
+      LXI. Travelling Litter attributed to Charles the Fifth; Royal
+           Armoury, Madrid                                          282
+
+
+
+
+                      GOLD, SILVER, AND JEWEL WORK
+
+
+The hyperbolic language of the ancients spoke of Spain as filled
+throughout, upon her surface and beneath her soil, with precious stones
+and precious metals. Old writers--Strabo, Pliny, Aristoteles, Pomponius
+Mela, and Diodorus Siculus--declare that once upon a time a mountain
+fire, lighted by shepherds in the Pyrenees and fanned into a
+conflagration by the wind, heated the earth until the ore within her
+entrails came bubbling to the top and ran away in rivulets of molten
+gold and silver, spreading all over Spain. The indigens of Lusitania as
+they dug their fields were said to strike their implements on nuggets
+half a pound in weight. The heart of the Peninsula, between the B[oe]tis
+and the Annas rivers--that is, the country of the Oretani and the
+Bastitani--was fabled to abound in mines of gold. The traders from
+Ph[oe]nicia, we are told, discovered silver to be so abundant with the
+Turdetani that "the vilest utensils of this people were composed
+thereof, even to their barrels and their pots." Accordingly these shrewd
+Ph[oe]nicians, offering worthless trinkets in exchange, loaded their
+ships with silver to the water's edge, and even, when their cargo was
+complete, fashioned their chains and anchors of the residue.
+
+In spite of their extravagance, upon the whole these legends are not
+utterly devoid of truth. "Tradition," said so careful an authority as
+Symonds, "when not positively disproved should be allowed to have its
+full value; and a sounder historic sense is exercised in adopting its
+testimony with due caution, than in recklessly rejecting it and
+substituting guesses which the lack of knowledge renders insubstantial."
+So with the legends of the gold and silver treasure of the old-time
+Spaniards. Besides, it seems unquestionable that those fanciful
+assertions had their origin in fact. Spain stood upon the western border
+of the ancient world. Year in, year out, the sanguine sun went seething
+down into the waters at her western marge. Mariners from distant
+countries viewed those sunsets and associated them with Spain herself.
+Thus, hereabouts in the unclouded south, would gold and silver be
+suggested by the solar orb; or emerald and jacinth, pearl and amethyst
+and ruby, by the matchless colours of the seldom-failing sunset.
+
+Then, too, though not of course in fabulous amount, the precious metals
+actually existed in this land. Various of her rivers, such as the Calom
+or Darro of Granada, the Tagus, the Agneda, and the Sil, rolled down,
+together with their current, grains of gold. "Les Mores," wrote Bertaut
+de Rouen of the first of these rivers, "en tiroient beaucoup autrefois;
+mais cela a esté discontinué depuis à cause de la trop grande dépense
+qu'il y faloit faire. Il est certain que souvent on prend dans le Darro
+de petits morceaux d'or, et il y a des gens qui sont accoûtumez d'y en
+chercher."
+
+Centuries before this abbot wrote his book, the Arab author of the
+geographical dictionary known as the _Marasid Ithila_ had made a similar
+remark upon this gold-producing stream; and in the sixteenth century I
+find an Ordinance of Granada city prohibiting the townspeople from
+digging up the river-bed unless it were to look for gold.[1] Probably,
+however, and in spite of what some chroniclers suppose, the title Darro
+is not in any way connected with the Latin words _dat aurum_.
+
+  [1] _Ordenanza de la Limpieza_ (1537), Tit. 9: "We command that nobody
+      remove sand from the aforesaid river Darro unless to extract gold,
+      in which case he shall fill up the holes he made, or pay a fine of
+      fifty _maravedis_ for damaging the watercourses that enter this
+      city and the buildings of the Alhambra."
+
+"Two leagues from Guadarrama," wrote the mineralogist William Bowles,
+about the middle of the eighteenth century, "opposite the town and in
+the direction of San Ildefonso, is a deep valley where one notices a
+vein of common quartz containing some iron. Here, without the use of
+glasses, I perceived a good many grains of gold.... In Galicia grains of
+gold are found on sandy hills, and one is astonished to observe the
+wonderful works carried out by the Romans to bring the sands together,
+wash them, and extract the precious metal. Local tradition affirms that
+this precious sand was destined for the purses of three Roman
+empresses--Livia, Agrippina, and Faustina.... I know a German minister
+who employed his spare time in washing these sands and collecting the
+gold."
+
+The Romans, it is true, profited very greatly by the native wealth of
+the Peninsula. Helvius enriched the treasury with 14,732 pounds of
+Spanish silver bars and 17,023 pounds of silver money; Cornelius
+Lentulus, with 1515 pounds of gold, 20,000 pounds of bar-silver, and
+34,550 pounds in coin. Cato came back from his pro-consulship with
+five-and-twenty thousand pounds of silver bars, twelve thousand pounds
+of silver money, and four hundred pounds of gold. Seventy thousand
+pounds of coined silver fell to the share of Flaccus, while Minutius
+exhibited at his triumph eight thousand pounds of silver bars, and three
+hundred thousand pounds of silver coin.
+
+Mines of silver,[2] gold, and precious stones were also fairly numerous
+in Spain. Moorish authors wrote enthusiastically of the mines of
+precious metals in or close to the Sierra Nevada. "Even at this day,"
+said Bowles, "the Moorish mines may be distinguished from the Roman. The
+Romans made the towers of their fortresses of a round shape, in order to
+avoid as far as possible the blows of the battering-ram; and their
+miners, whether from habit or intentionally, made the mouths of their
+mines round also. The Moors, as strangers to this engine, built their
+towers square and gave a square shape also to the mouths of their
+mines. The round mouths of Roman mines are yet to be seen at Riotinto
+and other places, and the square mouths of Moorish mines in the
+neighbourhood of Linares."
+
+  [2] "I am not aware of any Spanish mine containing silver in a state of
+      absolute purity; though some, I think, would be discovered if they
+      were searched for."--Bowles: _Historia Natural de España_.
+
+Emeralds were formerly extracted from a mine at Moron, in the Sierra de
+Leyta; white sapphires and agates at Cape de Gata,[3] at the eastern
+extremity of the Gulf of Almeria; amethysts at Monte de las Guardas,
+near the port of Plata, "in a precipice (_sic_) about twenty feet in
+depth." According to Laborde, garnets have been discovered down to
+modern times "in a plain half-way on the road from Almeria to Motril.
+They are very abundant there, particularly in the bed of a ravine,
+formed by rain-torrents, at the foot of a little hill, upon which a
+great number of them are likewise found. The emeralds are in the kingdom
+of Seville, all the others in that of Granada. It has been said for some
+time that a pit in the mountain of Bujo, at Cape de Gata, contains a
+great many precious stones; but none could be found there,
+notwithstanding the prolonged and careful searches that were lately
+made."
+
+  [3] Possibly, as Bowles suggests, for Cabo de Agata--"Agate Cape." "It
+      would not be strange," he adds, "if diamonds were found at this
+      cape, since there are signs of their presence. I found white
+      sapphires, slightly clouded, together with cornelians, jaspers,
+      agates, and garnets."
+
+Silver mines exist, or have existed, at Benasque, Calzena, and Bielza,
+in Aragon; at Cuevas, near Almeria; at Almodovar del Campo; at Zalamea,
+in Extremadura; at Puerto Blanco, in Seville province; in the Sierra de
+Guadalupe; at Fuente de la Mina, near Constantina; and near Almazarron,
+in the province of Carthagena. Not far from this latter city was another
+mine, that sent to Rome a daily yield of five-and-twenty thousand
+drachmas, and was worked by forty thousand men. Twenty thousand pounds
+in weight of pure silver proceeded yearly from Asturias, Lusitania, and
+Galicia. Hannibal extracted from a Pyrenean mine three hundred pounds a
+day. The fair Himilca, wife of Hasdrubal, was owner of a silver mine at
+two leagues' distance from Linares. Laborde wrote of this mine: "It was
+reopened in the seventeenth century, when a vein five feet in breadth
+was found, from which many pieces of silver were taken; the working of
+it, however, has been neglected. It belongs to the town of Baeza."
+
+The same author, who wrote about one hundred years ago, gives curious
+and instructive notices of several other Spanish silver mines. "The
+mountains of the kingdom of Seville, on the confines of Extremadura,
+towards Guadalcanal, Alanis, Puerto Blanco, and Cazalla, which form a
+part of the extremity of the chain of Sierra Morena, contain several
+silver mines, which have been worked. There is one of these in the
+Sierra Morena, three miles from Guadalcanal, which to all appearance
+must have been very rich: there were three shafts for descending, the
+mouths of which are still to be seen: it was worked in the seventeenth
+century, and given up in 1653. It is believed that it was inundated by
+the workmen, in revenge for a new tax that was laid upon them. Another
+silver mine was also worked formerly, a league and a half from the
+other; it has a shaft, and a gallery of ancient construction; the vein
+is six feet in circumference, and is composed of spar and quartz. There
+is also a third mine, a league and a half from Guadalcanal, and half a
+league south-east of the village of Alanis, in the middle of a field; it
+is two feet wide; the Romans constructed a gallery in it, from south to
+north; a branch of it running eastward has been worked since their time:
+it originally contained pyrites and quartz, but it is by no means rich;
+there is lead at the bottom."
+
+Gold mines, or traces of them, have been found in the neighbourhood of
+Molina in Aragon, San Ildefonso in Old Castile, and Alocer in
+Extremadura; in the Sierra de Leyta; in the valley of Hecho in Aragon;
+and at Paradeseca and Ponferrada--this latter town the _Interamnium
+Flavium_ of the Romans.
+
+It is said that the chieftains of the ancient Spaniards adorned their
+robes with rude embroidery worked in gold, and that the men and women of
+all ranks wore gold and silver bracelets. These statements cannot now be
+either proved or controverted. Gold or silver objects older than the
+Roman domination have not been found abundantly in Spain. Riaño
+describes a silver bowl, conical in shape and evidently fashioned on the
+wheel, engraved with Iberian characters on one of its sides. A similar
+bowl was found in Andalusia in the seventeenth century, full of Iberian
+coins and weighing ten ounces. Gold ornaments, such as earrings, and
+_torques_ or collars for the neck, have been discovered in Galicia less
+infrequently than in the other Spanish regions, and may be seen to-day
+in private collections, in the Royal Academy of History at Madrid, and
+in the National Museum of Archæology.[4] Villa-amil y Castro has written
+fully of these _torques_ (Museo Español de Antigüedades, _Adornos de oro
+encontrados en Galicia_). In nearly every case, he says, they consist of
+a plain gold bar, C-shaped and therefore not completely closed into a
+ring, and with a knob at each extremity, as though their pattern were
+suggested by the yoke of cattle. One or two are decorated with a
+somewhat rude design extending through a portion of their length.
+
+  [4] A fresh find of _torques_ and _fibulæ_ has occurred in the spring
+      of this year at La Moureta, near Ferrol.
+
+On one of these occasions a pair of curious, kidney-shaped earrings was
+found, together with a _torque_. These earrings, apparently of later
+workmanship than the other ornament, are decorated over all their
+surface, partly with a filigree design, and partly with a fine, beadlike
+pattern executed with a small chisel or graving tool in the manner known
+in French as _fusé_, _guilloché_, or _hachié_. Their material is hollow
+gold, and when discovered they were filled with a substance resembling
+powdered charcoal, mixed with a metallic clay.
+
+These ornaments are ascribed by most authorities to an undetermined
+period somewhere previous to the Roman domination. I think, however,
+that less improbably they were produced by Spanish craftsmen in
+imitation of the Roman manner, and during the time of Roman rule in the
+Peninsula. This would account for their deficiencies of execution, and
+also for certain characteristics which they evidently share with Roman
+work.
+
+We know that Rome imposed her usages on all the peoples whom she
+subjugated. Consequently, following this universal law, the Spaniards
+would adopt, together with the lavish luxury of Rome, the Roman
+ornaments and articles of jewellery. Such were the _annulus_ or
+finger-ring; the _fibula_, a brooch or clasp for securing the cloak; the
+_torques_ or neck-ring, more or less resembling those in use among the
+Persians; and the _phalera_, a round plate of gold, silver, or other
+metal, engraved with any one of a variety of emblems, worn upon the
+breast or stomach by the persons of either sex, and very commonly
+bestowed upon the Roman soldiers in reward of military service. Then
+there were several kinds of earrings--the variously-designed
+_stalagmium_ or pendant, the _inaures_, or the _crotalium_, hung with
+pearls that brushed together as their wearer walked, and gratified her
+vanity by their rustling; and also several kinds of bracelets--the gold
+or bronze _armilla_, principally worn by men; the _periscelis_, the
+_spathalium_, and the _dextrale_, worn round the fleshy part of the
+right arm.[5]
+
+  [5] These ornaments were retained in use by the Visigoths, and find
+      their due description in the _Etymologies_ of Saint Isidore;
+      _e.g._:--
+
+     "_Inaures_ ab aurium foraminibus nuncupatae, quibus pretiosa genera
+     lapidum dependuntur."
+
+     "_Tourques_ sunt circuli aurei a collo ad pectus usque dependentes.
+     Torques autem et bullae a viris geruntur; a foeminis vero monilia et
+     catellae."
+
+     "_Fibulæ_ sunt quibus pectus foeminarum ornatur, vel pallium tenetur:
+     viris in humeris, seu cingulum in lumbris."
+
+Discoveries of Roman jewellery and gold and silver work have occurred
+from time to time in the Peninsula; for example, at Espinosa de Henares
+and (in 1840) near Atarfe, on the southern side of the volcanic-looking
+Sierra Elvira, a few miles from Granada. Riaño describes a Roman silver
+dish found in a stone quarry at Otañez, in the north of Spain. "It
+weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of
+figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical
+subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph
+who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a
+vessel; another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a
+barrel which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two
+mules. On each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and
+libations are offered. Round it is the inscription: SALVS VMERITANA, and
+at the back are engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P.
+CORNELIANI. PIII...."
+
+The same author is of opinion that in the time of the Romans "objects of
+all kinds in gold and silver were used in Spain to a very great extent,
+for, notwithstanding the destruction of ages, we still possess
+inscriptions which allude to silver statues, and a large number of
+objects in the precious metals exist in museums and private
+collections." Doubtless, in the case of articles and household utensils
+of smaller size--bowls, dishes, and the like, or ornaments for the
+person--the precious metals were made use of freely; but when we hear of
+mighty objects as also made of silver, _e.g._ principal portions of a
+building, we might do well to bear in mind a couple of old columns that
+were standing once not far from Cadiz, on a spot where in the days
+preceding history a temple sacred to the Spanish Hercules is rumoured
+to have been. Philostratus affirmed these columns to be wrought of solid
+gold and silver, mixed together yet in themselves without alloy. Strabo
+reduced them modestly to brass; but it was reserved for a curious
+Frenchman, the Père Labat, who travelled in Spain in 1705, to warn us
+what they really were. "Elles sont sur cette langue de terre, qui joint
+l'Isle de Léon à celle de Cadix; car il faut se souvenir que c'est ainsi
+qu'on appelle la partie Orientale, et la partie Occidentale de la même
+Isle. Il y a environ une lieue de la porte de Terre à ces vénérables
+restes de l'antiquité. Nous nous en approchames, croyant justifier les
+contes que les Espagnols en débitent. Mais nous fûmes étrangement
+surpris de ne pas rencontrer la moindre chose qui pût nous faire
+seulement soupçonner qu'elles fussent d'une antiquité un peu
+considérable. Nous vimes que ces deux tours rondes, qui n'ont à présent
+qu'environ vingt pieds de hauteur sur douze à quinze pieds de diamètre,
+étoient d'une maçonnerie fort commune. Leurs portes étoient bouchées, et
+nous convinmes tous qu'elles avoient été dans leur jeune tems des
+moulins à vent qu'on avoit abandonnés; il n'y a ni inscriptions, ni
+bas-reliefs, ni reste de figures quelconques. En un mot, rien qui
+méritât notre attention, ni qui recompensât la moindre partie de la
+peine que nous avions prise pour les aller voir de près. Car je les
+avois vue plus d'une fois du grand chemin, où j'avois passé, et je
+devois me contenter. Mais que ne fait-on pas quand on est curieux, et
+aussi des[oe]uvré que je l'étois alors."
+
+Many of the usages of Roman Spain descended to the Visigoths. The jewels
+of this people manifest the double influence of Rome and of Byzantium,
+and the latter influenced in its turn from Eastern sources. We learn
+from that extraordinary encyclopædia of early mediæval Spanish lore--the
+_Etymologies_ of Isidore of Beja--that the Visigothic women decked
+themselves with earrings, necklaces, and bracelets, set with precious
+stones of fabulous price. Leovigild is stated by the same writer to have
+been the first of the Visigothic princes to use the insignia of royalty.
+One of his coins (engraved in Florez) represents him with an imperial
+crown surmounted by a cross resembling that of the Byzantines. Coins of
+a similar design, and also bearing the imperial crown, were minted at
+Toledo, Cordova, or Merida, in the reigns of Chindaswint, Wamba,
+Ervigius, and Egica.
+
+But the true fountain-head of all our modern knowledge respecting the
+jewellery of Visigothic Spain is in the wonderful crosses, crowns, and
+other ornaments discovered in 1858 upon the site of some old Christian
+temple, two leagues distant from Toledo. These objects, known
+collectively as "the treasure of Guarrazar," were stumbled on by certain
+peasants after a heavy storm had washed away a quantity of earth. Some
+were destroyed upon the spot; others were sold to the Toledo
+silversmiths and melted down by these barbarians of our day; but
+fortunately the greater part remained intact, or very nearly so. There
+were in all, composed exclusively of gold and precious stones, eleven
+crowns, two crosses containing legible inscriptions, fragments such as
+the arms of a processional cross, and many single stones which time had
+doubtless separated from the crosses or the crowns.[6]
+
+  [6] There is also in the Archæological Museum at Madrid a small
+      collection of what has been described as Visigothic jewellery,
+      consisting of a handsome _phalera_, necklaces, finger-rings, and
+      earrings. Most of these objects were found at Elche in 1776. The
+      _Museo Español de Antigüedades_ published a full description by
+      Florencio Janer. Their interest is by no means as great as that of
+      the treasure of Guarrazar, nor is the date of their production
+      definitely ascertained. From various details I suspect that many
+      of them may be purely Roman.
+
+Part of this treasure passed in some mysterious way to France, and is
+now in the Cluny Museum at Paris. The rest is in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid. Paris can boast possession of nine of the crowns; Madrid, of
+two, together with a fragment of a third--this latter of a balustrade or
+basket pattern. Five of the nine crowns preserved at Paris are fashioned
+of simple hoops of gold. The most important of the five, the crown of
+Recceswinth, who ruled in Spain from 650 to 672 A.D., consists of two
+hinged semicircles of hollow gold, about a finger's-breadth across the
+interspace. It measures just over eight inches in diameter and four
+inches in depth. Both the upper and the lower rims are decorated to the
+depth of nearly half an inch with a design of four-pointed floral or
+semi-floral figures within minute circles. Amador de los Ríos has
+recognized this same design in the frieze of certain buildings at
+Toledo, and in the edges of mosaic discovered at Italica and Lugo, as
+well as in the Balearic Islands. The interstices of this design upon the
+crown are filled with a kind of red enamel or glaze, the true nature of
+which has not been definitely ascertained. Riaño calls it "a delicate
+ornamentation of _cloisonné_ work, which encloses a substance resembling
+red glass." The centre of the crown is filled with three rows of large
+stones, principally pearls and sapphires. There are also several onyxes,
+a stone which in those days was held in great esteem. The spaces between
+the rows of stones are ornamented with a somewhat rudimentary design of
+palm branches, the leaves of which appear to have been filled or
+outlined with the kind of red enamel I have spoken of.
+
+This crown is suspended by four gold chains containing each of them five
+leaf-shaped links, _percées à jour_. The chains unite at a gold rosette
+in the form of a double lily, terminated by a stoutish capital of
+rock-crystal. This in its turn is capped by another piece of crystal
+holding the final stem of gold which served as a hook for hanging up the
+crown. Suspended from the gold rosette by a long chain is a handsome
+cross, undoubtedly of more elaborate workmanship, studded with union
+pearls and monster sapphires. Amador believed this ornament to be a
+brooch. If this were so it is, of course, improperly appended here.
+Twenty-four gold chains hang from the lower border of the crown,
+concluding in pyriform sapphires of large size. Each sapphire is
+surmounted by a small, square frame of gold containing coloured glass,
+and above this, in each of three-and-twenty of the chains, is one of
+the golden letters forming the inscription, [cross] RECCESVINTHVS REX
+OFFERET.
+
+Besides this crown there are at Paris--
+
+(1) A similar though slighter crown, the body of which is studded with
+fifty-four magnificent stones. A cross, now kept apart in the same
+collection, is thought by Spanish experts to have once been pendent from
+the crown. If so, the latter was perhaps presented to the sanctuary by
+one Sonnica, probably a Visigothic magnate, and not a woman, as the
+termination of the name induced some foreign antiquaries to suppose. The
+cross is thus inscribed:--
+                                     _
+                                 IN DI
+                                  NOM
+                                  INE
+                        OFFERET   ___   SONNICA
+                                  SCE
+                                  MA
+                                  RIE
+                                  INS
+                                  ORBA
+                                  CES[7]
+
+  [7] The last word is commonly believed to be the name of a
+      place--_Sorbaces_. There has been much discussion as to its
+      meaning.
+
+(2) Three crowns of plain design consisting of hoops of gold with
+primitive _repoussé_ decoration, and, in the case of one, with precious
+stones.
+
+(3) Four crowns, each with a pendent cross. The pattern is a basket-work
+or set of balustrades of thin gold hollow plates (not, as Riaño stated,
+massive) with precious stones about the intersections of the bars or
+meshes, and others hanging from the lower rim. Three of these crowns
+have three rows or tiers of what I call the balustrade; the other crown
+has four.
+
+The custom of offering votive crowns to Christian temples was taken by
+the emperors of Constantinople from heathen peoples of the eastern
+world. In Spain this custom, introduced by Recared, outlived by many
+years the ruin of the Visigothic monarchy--survived, in fact, until the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thus in 891 Alfonso the Third
+presented to the monastery of San Adrian and Santa Natalia four crowns
+of gold and three of silver, while just a hundred years afterwards
+Ordoño the Second presented three silver crowns to the monastery of
+Samos. Other crowns were offered by the prelates and the secular
+nobility.
+
+Returning to the crowns of Guarrazar, there has been great controversy
+as to whether these were worn upon the head. Some experts think they
+must have been so worn; and in this case the rings upon the rim, through
+which the chains are passed, would seem to have been added on the
+presentation of these objects to the sanctuary. Lasteyrie, on the other
+hand, considered that the crowns were merely votive and were never meant
+for personal use, arguing that the rings were fixed about the border
+from the very moment when the crowns were made;[8] but Amador
+ingeniously replied to this by pointing out that in a few of the old
+Castilian coins--for instance, one of Sancho the Third--the crown, with
+rings about its rim, is actually upon the monarch's head. It is
+possible, adds the same authority, that these were old votive crowns
+proceeding from some church, although he thinks it still more likely
+that they were fashioned with the rings attached to them. We should
+remember, too, the hinge which serves to open and close the body of
+these crowns. It is difficult to guess the purpose of this hinge, unless
+it were to fit the crown more comfortably on the head.
+
+  [8] _Description du trésor de Guarrazar_.
+
+Of that portion of the treasure of Guarrazar which has remained at
+Madrid (Plate i.), the most important object is the votive crown of King
+Swinthila, son of Recared, and described as "one of the most illustrious
+and unlucky princes that ever occupied the throne of Atawulf." This
+crown measures nine inches in diameter by two and a half in height. It
+consists of thin gold plates united at the edge, leaving, between the
+inner and the outer side, a hollow space about a quarter of an inch
+across. The exterior is divided into a central horizontal hoop or band
+between two others, somewhat narrower, at the top and bottom, these last
+being slightly raised above the level of the third. A triple row of
+precious stones, amounting to one hundred and twenty-five pearls and
+sapphires in the entire crown, surrounds the outer surface of the same,
+the central band or zone of which contains besides, wrought in
+_repoussé_ on the hoop, a simple circular device wherein each centre is
+a sapphire or a pearl, though many of these have fallen from their
+setting. The spaces which describe these circles are superposed on what
+looks like a red enamel retaining at this moment all or nearly all its
+pristine brightness of twelve hundred years ago. This substance was
+believed by French investigators to be a coloured glass or paste,[9]
+but Amador, after protracted chemical experiments, declared it to be
+layers of cornelian. Some of these layers have fallen from their grip,
+and if the crown be stirred are heard to move within. It is worth
+remarking, too, that the fillets which form the setting of the precious
+stones were made apart and welded afterwards; nor are these settings
+uniform in shape, but tally in each instance with the outline of the
+gem.
+
+  [9] "_Ce que je puis affirmer, après l'examen le plus minutieux, c'est
+      que la matière qui fait le fond de cette riche ornementation est
+      réellement du verre._"--Lasteyrie, supported by Sommerard.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                         TREASURE OF GUARRAZAR
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The chains which served for hanging up the crown are four in number. As
+in the crown of Recceswinth, each of them is composed of four _repoussé_
+cinquefoil links adorned along their edge with small gold beads minutely
+threaded on a wire and fastened on by fusing. The chains converge into
+an ornament shaped like two lilies pointing stem to stem, so that the
+lower is inverted, although they are divided by a piece of faceted rock
+crystal.[10] Four gems are hung from either lily, and issuing from the
+uppermost of these a strong gold hook attaches to the final length of
+chain.
+
+  [10] "In Spain," said Bowles (_Hist. Nat. de Esp._, p. 498), "are found
+       two species of rock crystal. The one, occurring in clusters, are
+       transparent, six-sided, and always have their source in rocks.
+       There are great quantities all over the kingdom, and at Madrid
+       they are found near the hills of San Isidro. The other species are
+       found singly, and are rounded like a pebble. I have seen them from
+       the size of a filbert to that of my fist. Some were covered with a
+       thin, opaque integument.... The river Henares abounds with these
+       crystals, and as it passes San Fernando, at two leagues' distance
+       from Madrid, sweeps some of them along which are the size of the
+       largest ones at Strasburg, though very few are perfect."
+
+Possibly the chain and cross now hanging through the circuit of the
+crown were not originally part of it. This cross is most remarkable. It
+has four arms of equal length, gracefully curved, and is wrought of
+plates of gold in duplicate, fastened back to back by straps of gold
+along the edges. The centre holds a piece of crystal in the midst of
+pearls and gold bead work threaded on a wire of the same metal and
+attached by fusion. Several fairly large stones are hung from the
+lateral and lower arms of the cross by small gold chains.
+
+The letters hanging from Swinthila's crown are cut and punched from thin
+gold plates. Their decoration is a zigzag ornament backed by the same
+mysterious crimson substance as the circular devices on the hoop.
+Hanging from the letters are pearls, sapphires, and several imitation
+stones--particularly imitation emeralds--in paste.
+
+The cross before the letters points to a custom of that period. We find
+it also on Swinthila's coins, and those of other Visigothic kings. Of
+the letters themselves twelve have been recovered, thus:--
+
+                    [cross] SV  TI  NV  REX  OFF  T
+
+The chains, however, or fragments of them, amount to
+twenty-three--precisely (if we count the cross) the number needed to
+complete the dedication.[11]
+
+  [11] A veritable cryptogram awaited the decipherers of these legends.
+       When King Swinthila's crown was brought to light, four of the
+       letters only were in place, thus:--
+
+                 [cross] ...... I ... V . R .... F ....
+
+       Eight of the others were recovered shortly after; two more, an E
+       and L, appeared at a later date, and eight continued to be missing.
+       The inscription dangling from the crown of Recceswinth arrived at
+       Paris in this eloquent form:--
+
+                    [cross] RRCCEEFEVINSTVSETORHFEX
+
+The Royal Armoury contains another crown, a great deal smaller and less
+ornamented than Swinthila's. The body of this crown, which was presented
+by the finder to the late Queen Isabella the Second, is just a hoop of
+gold, two inches deep and five across, hinged like the more elaborate
+and larger crowns, but merely decorated with a fine gold spiral at the
+rims, a zigzag pattern in _repoussé_, and a rudely executed scale-work.
+The dedication on this cross is in the centre of the hoop, and says--
+                                             __
+                 [cross] OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM SCO STEFANO
+                                         _
+                           THEODOSIVS ABBA
+
+We do not know who Theodosius was, but Amador, judging from the simple
+decoration of this crown, believes him to have been a priest of lower
+rank, and by no means a dignitary of the Visigothic church.
+
+A votive cross also forms part of this collection, which has a simple
+sunk device along the edges and seven pendent stones, two of these
+hanging from each of the lateral arms, and three, a little larger, from
+the lower arm. The inscription, which is rough in the extreme, appears
+to be the work of some illiterate craftsman, and has been interpreted
+with difficulty:--
+                                          __
+                IN NOMINE DEI: IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET
+                               LUCETIUS E
+
+This reading gives an extra letter at the end, which may be construed as
+_Episcopus_--or anything else, according to the student's fancy.
+
+I may close my notice of this collection in the Royal Armoury at Madrid
+by drawing attention to a greenish, semi-opaque stone, three-quarters of
+an inch in height. It is engraved _en creux_ upon two facets with the
+scene of the Annunciation. The gem itself is commonly taken for an
+emerald, of which, referring to the glyptic art among the Visigoths, the
+learned Isidore remarked that "_Sculpentibus quoque gemmas nulla gratior
+oculorum refectio est._" I shall insert a sketch of the cutting on this
+stone as a tailpiece to the chapter, and here append a full description.
+"The Virgin listens standing to the Archangel Gabriel, who communicates
+to her the will of the Almighty. Before her is a jar, from which
+projects the stem of a lily, emblematic of the chaste and pure, that
+reaches to her breast. Her figure is completely out of measurement. Upon
+her head appears to be a _nimbus_ or _amiculum_; her breast is covered
+with a broad and folded _fascia_, enveloping her arms, while her tunic,
+reaching to the ground, conceals one of her feet. The angel in the
+cutting on the stone is at the Virgin's right. His attitude is that of
+one who is conveying tidings. Large wings folded upon his shoulders and
+extending nearly to the ground are fitted to his form, better drawn and
+livelier than the Virgin's. He executes his holy mission with his right
+hand lifted. His dress is a tunic in small folds, over which is a cloak
+fastened by a brooch and fitting closely. Upon his head he wears a kind
+of helmet."[12]
+
+  [12] Amador de los Ríos, _El Arte latino-bizantino en España y las
+       Coronas Visigodas de Guarrazar_, p. 121.
+
+The drawing of this design upon the stone is most bizarre and barbarous;
+for the Virgin's head is so completely disproportioned that it forms the
+one-third part of her entire person.
+
+The merit of all this Visigothic gem or gold and silver work has been
+extolled too highly by the French and Spanish archæologists.[13] It is,
+however, greatly interesting. Rudely and ponderously magnificent, it
+tells us of a people who as yet were almost wholly strangers to the true
+artistic sense. Such were the Visigoths and the Spaniards of the
+Visigothic era, of all of whom I have observed elsewhere that "serfdom
+was the distinguishing mark of the commons; arrogance, of the nobility;
+avarice, and ambition of temporal and political power, of the clergy;
+regicide and tumult, of the crown."[14] These crowns of Guarrazar
+proclaim to us in plainest language that the volume of the stones, and
+showiness and glitter of the precious metal were accorded preference of
+every other factor--the _pondus auri_ preference of the _manus
+artificis_. We gather, too, from documents and chronicles and popular
+tradition, that the Visigothic princes, as they set apart their stores
+of treasure in secluded caves or in the strong rooms of their palaces,
+were ever captivated and corrupted by the mere intrinsic worth in
+opposition to the nobler and æsthetic value of the craftsmanship.
+
+  [13] _E.g._ Sommerard: "_Une collection sans égale de joyaux les plus
+       précieux qui, par la splendeur de la matière, le mérite de
+       l'exécution, et plus encore, peut être, par leur origine
+       incontestable et par leur étonnante conservation, surpassent tout
+       ce qui possédent d'analogue les collections publiques de l'Europe
+       et les trésors les plus renommés de l'Italie_."
+
+  [14] _Toledo and Madrid_; p. 16.
+
+Thus we are told that Sisenand owned a plate of gold (no word is said of
+its design or style) five hundred pounds in weight, proceeding from the
+royal treasure of his race, and which, long years before, had been
+presented by the nobleman Accio to King Turismund. When Sisenand was
+conspiring to dethrone Swinthila, he called on Dagobert the king of
+France to come to his support, and promised him, as recompense, this
+golden plate. The French king lent his help forthwith, and then, as
+soon as Turismund was seated on the throne of Spain, despatched an
+embassy to bring the coveted vessel to his court. Sisenand fulfilled his
+word and placed the envoys in possession of the plate, but since his
+subjects, rising in rebellion, wrenched it from their power and kept it
+under custody, he compensated Dagobert by a money payment of two hundred
+thousand _sueldos_.[15]
+
+  [15] _Ajbar Machmua_. Lafuente y Alcántara's edition; p. 27, note.
+
+Innumerable narratives and legends dwell upon the treasure taken by the
+Moors on entering Spain. Such as relate the battle of the Guadalete, or
+the Lake of Janda (as it is also called by some authorities), agree that
+when the fatal day was at an end the riderless steed of Roderick was
+found imbedded in the mire, wearing a saddle of massive gold adorned
+with emeralds and rubies. According to Al-Makkari, that luckless
+monarch's boots were also made of gold studded with precious stones,
+while the Muslim victors, stripping the Visigothic dead, identified the
+nobles by the golden rings upon their fingers, those of a less exalted
+rank by their silver rings, and the slaves by their rings of copper. The
+widow of the fallen king was also famous for her stores of jewellery.
+Her name was Eila or Egilona (Umm-Asim of the Moors), but she was known
+besides as "the lady of the beautiful necklaces." After being made a
+prisoner she was given in marriage to the young prince Abd-al-Azis, who
+grew to love her very greatly, and received from her, "seeing that she
+still retained sufficient of her royal wealth," the present of a crown.
+
+Muza, on returning to the East, is said to have drawn near to Damascus
+with a train of thirty waggons full of Spanish silver, gold, and
+precious stones. Tarik ben Ziyed, marching in triumph through the land,
+secured at Cordova, Amaya, and other towns and capitals, enormous store
+of "pearls, arms, dishes, silver, gold, and other jewels in
+unprecedented number." One object, in particular, is mentioned with
+insistency by nearly all the chronicles, both Mussulman and Christian.
+Quoting from the _Pearl of Marvels_ of Ibn Alwardi, this was "the table
+which had belonged to God's prophet, Solomon (health be to both of
+them). It was of green emeralds, and nothing fairer had been ever seen
+before. Its cups were golden and its plates of precious jewels, one of
+them specked with black and white." All manner of strange things are
+said about this table, though most accounts describe it as consisting of
+a _single_ emerald. Perhaps it was of malachite, or of the bright green
+serpentine stone extracted formerly as well as nowadays from the
+Barranco de San Juan at Granada, and several other spots in Spain. Bayan
+Almoghreb says it was of gold mixed with a little silver and surrounded
+by three gold rings or collars; the first containing pearls, the second
+rubies, and the third emeralds. Al-Makkari describes it as "green, with
+its 365 feet and borders of a single emerald." Nor is it known for
+certain where this "table" fell into the hands of Tarik. Probably he
+found it in the principal Christian temple at Toledo--that is to say,
+the Basilica of Santa María. Ibn Alwardi says that in the _aula regia_,
+or palace of the Visigothic kings, the lancers of the Moorish general
+broke down a certain door, discovering "a matchless quantity of gold and
+silver plate," together with the "table." Doubtless this strong room was
+the same referred to in the following lines. "It was for ever closed;
+and each time that a Christian king began to reign he added to its door
+a new and powerful fastening. In this way as many as four and twenty
+padlocks were gathered on the door."
+
+However, the most explicit and informative of all these ancient authors
+is Ibn Hayyan, who says; "The table had its origin in the days of
+Christian rulers. It was the custom in those times that when a rich man
+died he should bequeath a legacy to the churches. Proceeding from the
+value of these gifts were fashioned tables, thrones, and other articles
+of gold and silver, whereon the clergy bore the volumes of their gospel
+when they showed them at their ceremonies. These objects they would also
+set upon their altars to invest them with a further splendour by the
+ornament thereof. For this cause was the table at Toledo, and the
+[Visigothic] monarchs vied with one another in enriching it, each of
+them adding somewhat to the offerings of his predecessor, till it
+surpassed all other jewels of its kind and grew to be renowned
+exceedingly. It was of fine gold studded with emeralds, pearls, and
+rubies, in such wise that nothing similar had ever been beheld. So did
+the kings endeavour to increase its richness, seeing that this city was
+their capital, nor did they wish another to contain more splendid
+ornaments or furniture. Thus was the table resting on an altar of the
+church, and here the Muslims came upon it, and the fame of its
+magnificence spread far abroad."
+
+Another chronicle affirms that Tarik found the "table" at a city called
+Almeida, now perhaps Olmedo. "He reached Toledo, and leaving a
+detachment there, advanced to Guadalajara and the [Guadarrama]
+mountains. These he crossed by the pass which took his name, and
+reached, upon the other side, a city called Almeida or _The Table_, for
+there had been discovered the table of Solomon the son of David, and the
+feet and borders of it, numbering three hundred and sixty-five, were of
+green emerald."
+
+In any case this venerated jewel gave considerable trouble to its
+captors. When envious Muza followed up the march of Tarik, his
+lieutenant, he demanded from him all the spoil, and in particular the
+ever-famous table. Tarik surrendered this forthwith, but after slyly
+wrenching off a leg. Muza perceived the breakage, and inquired for the
+missing piece. "I know not," said the other; "'twas thus that I
+discovered it." Muza then ordered a new leg of gold to be made for the
+table, as well as a box of palm leaves, in which it was deposited.
+"This," says Ibn Hayyan, "is known to be one of the reasons why Tarik
+worsted Muza in the dispute they had before the Caliph as to their
+respective conquests." So it proved. Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem[16] relates that
+Muza appeared before the Caliph Al-Walid and produced the table. Tarik
+interposed and said that he himself had taken it, and not the other
+leader. "Give it into my hands," the Caliph answered, "that I may see if
+any piece of it be wanting," and found, indeed, that one of its feet was
+different from the rest. "Ask Muza," interrupted Tarik, "for the missing
+foot, and if he answer from his heart, then shall his words be truth."
+Accordingly Al-Walid inquired for the foot, and Muza made reply that he
+had found the table as it now appeared; but Tarik with an air of triumph
+drew forth the missing piece which he himself had broken off, and said:
+"By this shall the Emir of the Faithful recognize that I am speaking
+truth; that I it was who found the table." And thereupon Al-Walid
+credited his words and loaded him with gifts.
+
+  [16] _Account of the Conquest of Spain_, published, with an English
+       translation and notes, by John Harris Jones. London, 1858.
+
+Comparing the statements of these writers, we may be certain that the
+"table" was a kind of desk of Visigothic or, more probably, Byzantine
+workmanship, for holding the gospels on the feast-days of the national
+church. Probably, too, seeing that a palm-leaf box was strong enough to
+keep it in, its size was inconsiderable. Its value, on the statement of
+Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, was two hundred thousand _dinares_.
+
+The sum of my remarks upon the Visigothic jewel-work is this.
+Distinguished by a coarse though costly splendour, we find in it a
+mingled Roman and Byzantine source, although it was upon the whole
+inferior to these styles, being essentially, as Amador observes, "an
+imitative and decadent art." Yet it did not succumb before the Moors,
+but lurked for refuge in the small Asturian monarchy, and later, issuing
+thence, extended through the kingdom of León into Castile. We find its
+clearest characteristics in such objects as the Cross of Angels and the
+Cross of Victory. Then, later still, it is affected and regenerated by
+the purely oriental art of the invader; and lastly, till the wave of the
+Renaissance floods the western world, by Gothic influences from across
+the Pyrenees.
+
+A similar sketch may be applied to other arts and crafts of
+Spain--particularly furniture and architecture.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+                          THE CROSS OF ANGELS
+                         _(Oviedo Cathedral)_]
+
+The pious or superstitious kings and magnates of this land have always
+taken pride in adding (at the instigation of the clergy) to the treasure
+of her churches and cathedrals. Such gifts include all kinds of
+sumptuous apparel for the priesthood; chasubles and dalmatics heavily
+embroidered with the precious metals, gold or silver crowns and crosses,
+paxes,[17] chalices and patines, paraments and baldaquinos, reliquaries
+in every shape and style and size, and figures of the Virgin--such as
+those of Lugo, Seville, Astorga, and Pamplona--consisting of elaborate
+silver-work upon a wooden frame. Visitors to Spain, from leisurely
+Rosmithal five hundred years ago to time-economizing tourists of our
+century, have been continually astonished at the prodigal richness of
+her sanctuaries. Upon this point I quote a typical extract from the
+narrative of Bertaut de Rouen. "The treasure of this church," he said of
+Montserrat, "is wonderfully precious, and particularly so by reason of
+two objects that belong to it. The first is a crown of massive gold of
+twenty pounds in weight, covered with pearls, with ten stars radiating
+from it also loaded with large pearls and diamonds of extraordinary
+value. This crown took forty years to make, and is valued at two
+millions of gold money. The second object is a gold crown entirely
+covered with emeralds, most of them of an amazing size. Many are worth
+five thousand crowns apiece. The reliquary, too, is of extraordinary
+richness, as also a service of gold plate studded with pearls, donated
+by the late emperor for use in celebrating Mass."
+
+  [17] The pax or osculatory used in celebrating High Mass is commonly,
+       says Rosell de Torres, "a plate of gold or ivory, or other metal
+       or material, according to the time and circumstances of its
+       manufacture. The priest who celebrates the Mass kisses it after
+       the _Agnus Dei_ and the prayer _ad petendam pacem_, and the
+       acolytes present it, as a sign of peace and brotherly union, to
+       all the other priests who may be present. This usage springs from
+       the kiss of peace which was exchanged, prior to receiving the
+       communion, between the early Christians in their churches. The pax
+       has commonly borne an image of the Virgin with the Holy Infant,
+       the face of Christ, or else the Agnus Dei." Its Latin name was the
+       _deosculatorium_.
+
+Similar accounts to the above exist in quantities, relating to every
+part of Spain and every period of her history.
+
+Reverting to the earlier Middle Ages, a few conspicuous objects thus
+presented to the Spanish Church require to be briefly noted here. Famous
+chalices are those of Santo Domingo de Silos (eleventh century), made to
+the order of Abbot Domingo in honour of San Sebastian, and showing the
+characteristic Asturian filigree-work; and of San Isidoro of León, made
+in 1101 by order of Urraca Fernandez, sister of the fourth Alfonso. The
+latter vessel, inscribed with the dedication of _Urraca Fredinandi_, has
+an agate cup and foot. A remarkably handsome silver-gilt chalice and
+patine (thirteenth century) belong to Toledo cathedral. The height of
+this chalice is thirteen inches, and the diameter of its bowl, which has
+a conical shape, eight and a half inches. Inside and out the bowl is
+smooth, but midway between the bowl and the foot is a massive knot or
+swelling in the stem, and on the knot the emblematic lion, eagle, bull,
+and angel are chiselled in high relief. Below the knot is a ring of
+graceful rosettes. The patine which accompanies this chalice measures
+twelve inches in diameter. It has upon it, thinly engraved within a
+slightly sunk centre with a scalloped edge, the figure of Christ upon
+the cross, between the Virgin and St John. This central group of figures
+and the border of the plate are each surrounded with a narrow strip of
+decoration.
+
+The cathedral of Valencia has a beautiful and early cup asserted to be
+the veritable Holy Grail (_greal_, _garal_, or _gradal_, in the old
+Castilian), "of which," wrote Ford with his accustomed irony, "so many
+are shown in different orthodox _relicarios_." However this may be, the
+chalice of Valencia is particularly handsome. According to Riaño it
+consists of "a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded round the
+lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These are united
+by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which are inlaid
+with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are set round
+the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires, and emeralds.
+This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the mounts are
+of a later date."
+
+A series of Spanish chalices, beginning chronologically with specimens
+which date from the early Middle Ages, and terminating with the chalice,
+made in 1712, of Santa María la Blanca of Seville, was shown in 1892 at
+the Exposición Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Among the finer or most
+curious were chalices proceeding from the parish church of Játiva, Las
+Huelgas, and Seville cathedral, and the Plateresque chalices of
+Calatayud, Granada, and Alcalá de Henares. Another chalice which is
+greatly interesting because of the date inscribed on it, is one which
+was presented to Lugo cathedral by a bishop of that diocese, Don Garcia
+Martinez de Bahamonde (1441-1470). The workmanship, though prior to the
+sixteenth century, is partly Gothic. An article by José Villa-amil y
+Castro, dealing with all these chalices, will be found in the _Boletín
+de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_ for April, 1893.
+
+A small exhibition was held at Lugo in August 1896. Here were shown
+sixteen chalices, nearly all of them of merit from the point of view of
+history or art. Such are the chalice of San Rosendo, proceeding from the
+old monastery of Celanova; the Gothic chalices of Tuy cathedral, Lugo
+cathedral, Santa María del Lucio, Santa Eulalia de Guilfrei, San Pedro
+de Puertomarín, and the Franciscan friars of Santiago; and the chalice
+and patine of Cebrero (twelfth century), in which it is said that on a
+certain occasion in the fifteenth century the wine miraculously turned
+to actual blood, and the Host to actual flesh, in order to convince a
+doubting priest who celebrated service.
+
+The Cross of Angels and the Cross of Victory--presents, respectively,
+from Alfonso the Chaste and Alfonso the Great--are now preserved at
+Oviedo, in the Camara Santa of that stately temple. The former of these
+crosses, fancied by credulous people to be the handiwork of
+angels--whence its title[18]--was made in A.D. 808. It consists of four
+arms of equal length, radiating from a central rosette (Pl. ii.). The
+core or _alma_ is of wood covered with a double plate of richly
+decorated gold, chased in the finest filigree (indicative already of the
+influence of Cordova) and thickly strewn with sapphires, amethysts,
+topazes, and cornelians. Other stones hung formerly from six small rings
+upon the lower border of the arms. The cross is thus inscribed:--
+
+               _"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei
+               Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xti
+               Hoc signo tuetur pius
+               Hoc signo vincitur inimicus._
+
+               _Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi
+               Fulmine divino intereat ipse
+               Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea
+               Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCXLVI."_
+
+  [18] This marvel is related by the Monk of Silos. A quotation from
+       another of my books is applicable here. "Last year," I wrote in
+       1902--(pp. 64, 65 of _Toledo and Madrid: Their Records and
+       Romances_)--"the young King Alfonso the Thirteenth paid a visit to
+       Oviedo cathedral, and was duly shown the relics and the jewels.
+       Among these latter was the 'Cross of the Angels.'
+
+       "'Why is it so called?' inquired the king.
+
+       "'Because,' replied the bishop of the diocese, 'it is said that the
+       angels made it to reward King Alfonso the Chaste.'
+
+       "'Well, but,' insisted the young monarch, 'what ground is there for
+       thinking so?'
+
+       "'Señor,' replied the prelate, 'none whatever. _The time for
+       traditions is passing away._'"
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                          THE CROSS OF VICTORY
+                         (_Oviedo Cathedral_)]
+
+The other cross (Pl. iii.) is more than twice as large, and measures
+just one yard in height by two feet four and a half inches in width.
+Tradition says that the primitive, undecorated wooden core of this cross
+was carried against the Moors by King Pelayo. The ornate casing, similar
+to that upon the Cross of Angels, was added later, and contains 152 gems
+and imitation gems. The following inscription tells us that this casing
+was made at the Castle of Gauzon in Asturias, in the year 828:--
+
+          _"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent
+          Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemaena Regina;
+          Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit
+          Fulmine divino intereat ipse.
+          Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est
+          Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis.
+          Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus
+          Et operatum est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri._
+                              XLII. _discurrente Era_ DCCCLXVI."
+
+These crosses are processional. Others which were used for the same
+purpose are those of San Sebastián de Serrano (Galicia), San Munio de
+Veiga, Santa María de Guillar (Lugo), San Mamed de Fisteos, and Santa
+María de Arcos. The five preceding crosses are of bronze; those of
+Baamorto and San Adriano de Lorenzana are respectively of silver, and of
+wood covered with silver plates, and all were shown at the Lugo
+exhibition I have spoken of.
+
+Besides the Cross of Victory or Pelayo, and the Cross of Angels,
+interesting objects preserved at Oviedo are a small diptych presented by
+Bishop Don Gonzalo (A.D. 1162-1175), and the _Arca Santa_ used for
+storing saintly relics. This beautiful chest, measuring three feet nine
+inches and a half in length by twenty-eight inches and a half in height,
+is considered by Riaño to be of Italian origin, and to date from between
+the tenth and twelfth centuries.
+
+Another handsome box belonging to the cathedral of Astorga was once upon
+a time the property of Alfonso the Third and his queen Jimena, whose
+names it bears--ADEFONSVS REX: SCEMENA REGINA. The workmanship is
+consequently of the close of the ninth or the beginning of the tenth
+century. The material is wood covered with _repoussé_ silver plates on
+which are figured angels and birds, together with the eagle and the ox
+as emblems of the evangelists John and Luke, whose names are also to be
+read upon the casket.
+
+Next to the sword, no object in the history of mediæval Spain was more
+profoundly popular or venerated than the _relicario_. This in its
+primitive form was just a small receptacle, such as a vase or urn of
+gold or silver, ivory or crystal, used by the laity or clergy for
+treasuring bones, or hairs, or other relics of the Virgin, or the
+Saviour, or the saints. In private families a holy tooth, or toe, or
+finger thus preserved would often, as though it were some Eastern
+talisman, accompany its credulous possessor to the battlefield.
+
+As time went on, the urn or vase was commonly replaced by chests or
+caskets made by Moorish captives, or by tranquil and respected Moorish
+residents within the territory of the Christian,[19] or wrested from
+the infidel in war and offered by the Spanish kings or nobles to their
+churches. Here they were kept on brackets, or suspended near the altar
+by a chain[20] of silver, gold, or iron. Among the Moors themselves such
+chests and caskets served, according to their richness or capacity, for
+storing perfumes, clothes, or jewels, or as a present from a bridegroom
+to his bride; and since the sparsely-furnished Oriental room contains no
+kind of wardrobe, cabinet, or chest of drawers, their use in Moorish
+parts of Spain was universal.
+
+  [19] In many towns a hearty friendship sprang up between the Spaniard
+       and the Moor. This was a natural consequence in places where the
+       vanquished had a better education than the victor. The warrior
+       population of both races might be struggling on the field at the
+       same moment that their craftsmen were fraternizing in the workshop.
+       Ferdinand the First and Alfonso the Sixth were particularly lenient
+       in their usage of the dominated Muslim. Thus, the former of these
+       princes recognised the Moorish townspeople of Sena as his vassals,
+       while those of Toledo were freely allowed by Alfonso to retain
+       their worship and their mosque.
+
+  [20]       "_Fallaron ay de marfil arquetas muy preçiadas
+             Con tantas de noblezas que non podrian ser contadas
+             Fueron para San Pedro las arquetas donadas;
+             Están en este dia en el su altar asentadas._"
+                           Poem of FERRAN GONZALVEZ (13th century).
+
+A typical Moorish casket of this kind (Plate iv.) is now in the
+cathedral of Gerona. It measures fifteen inches in length by nine
+across, fastens with a finely ornamented band and clasp of bronze, and
+is covered with thin silver-gilt plates profusely decorated with a bead
+and floral pattern superposed upon a box of non-decaying
+wood--possibly larch or cedar. A Cufic inscription along the lower
+part of the lid was formerly interpreted as follows:--
+
+"In the name of God. (May) the blessing of God, prosperity and fortune
+and perpetual felicity be (destined) for the servant of God, Alhakem,
+Emir of the Faithful, because he ordered (this casket) to be made for
+Abdul Walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished
+by the hands of Hudzen, son of Bothla."
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                             MOORISH CASKET
+                         (_Gerona Cathedral_)]
+
+It is supposed, however, that the part of this inscription which
+contains the maker's name was rendered incorrectly by Riaño, who
+followed, on this point, Saavedra, Fita, and other archæologists; and
+that the casket was made to the order of Djaudar, as a gift to the heir
+to the throne, Abulwalid Hischem, the actual workmen being two slaves,
+Bedr and Tarif. That is to say, the name Hudzen is now replaced by
+Djaudar, whom Dozy mentions in his history of the Mussulman domination
+in Spain, and who is known to have been a eunuch high in favour with
+Alhakem, Hischem's father. These princes ruled at Cordova in the latter
+half of the tenth century and the beginning of the eleventh.
+
+Spanish-Moorish caskets (_arquetas_) of ivory, silver, or inlaid work,
+are also preserved in the South Kensington Museum, the Archæological
+Museum at Madrid, and the cathedrals of Braga, Tortosa, and Oviedo.
+There is no reason to doubt that all these boxes were made in Spain,
+although an Eastern and particularly Persian influence is very
+noticeable in their scheme of decoration.
+
+Two silver caskets which were once in the church of San Isidoro at León
+are now in the Madrid Museum. The smaller and plainer of the two,
+elliptical in shape and measuring five inches in length by two inches
+and a half in depth, is covered with a leaf and stem device outlined in
+black enamel. A Cufic inscription of a private and domestic import, also
+picked out with black enamel, runs along the top. The lid is ornamented,
+like the body of the box, with leaves and stems surrounded by a Grecian
+border, and fastens with a heart-shaped clasp secured by a ring.
+
+The other, more elaborate, and larger box measures eight inches long by
+five in height. In shape it is a parallelogram, with a deeply bevelled
+rather than--as Amador describes it--a five-sided top. Bands of a simple
+winding pattern outlined in black enamel on a ground of delicate
+niello-work run round the top and body of the casket. The central band
+upon the lower part contains a Cufic inscription of slight interest.
+Some of the letters terminate in leaves. The bevelled lid is covered
+with groups of peacocks--symbolic, among Mohammedans, of eternal
+life--outlined in black enamel. These birds are eight in all, gathered
+in two groups of four about the large and overlapping hinges. Four
+leaves, trifoliate, in _repoussé_, one beneath the other, decorate the
+clasp, which opens out into a heart containing, also in _repoussé_, two
+inverted peacocks looking face to face. Between the birds this heart
+extremity is pierced for the passage of a ring.
+
+Amador de los Ríos considers that both caskets were made between the
+years 1048 and 1089.
+
+The use of coloured enamel in the manufacture of these boxes dates, or
+generally so, from somewhat later. Although the history of enamelling in
+Spain is nebulous and contradictory in the extreme, we know that caskets
+in _champlevé_ enamel on a copper ground, with figures either flat or
+hammered in a bold relief, became abundant here. Two, from the convent
+of San Marcos at León, and dating from the thirteenth century, are now
+in the Madrid Museum. Labarte says that the lids of these enamelled
+reliquaries were flat until the twelfth century, and of a gable form
+thenceforward.
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                    ALTAR-FRONT IN ENAMELLED BRONZE
+                  (_11th Century. Museum of Burgos_)]
+
+Other old objects--boxes, triptyches, statuettes, incensories,
+book-covers, crucifixes, and processional crosses--partly or wholly
+covered with enamel, belong or recently belonged to the Marquises of
+Castrillo and Casa-Torres, the Count of Valencia de Don Juan, and Señor
+Escanciano. All, or nearly all, of these are thought to have proceeded
+from Limoges (Pl. v.). _Champlevé_ enamel is also on the tiny "Crucifix
+of the Cid" (Pl. vi.) at Salamanca, as well as on the Virgin's throne in
+the gilt bronze statuette of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban in the
+same city.[21] Of this image, although it properly belongs to another
+heading of my book, I think it well to give a reproduction here (Plate
+vii.). I will also mention, in spite of its presumably foreign origin,
+the enamelled altar-front of San Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre--a small
+sanctuary constructed by a mediæval cavalier who, by an accident
+occasioned by the dark, murdered his father and mother in lieu of his
+wife.[22] This altar-front, conspicuously Byzantine in its style,
+measures four feet three inches high by seven feet five inches long, and
+is now employed as the _retablo_ of the little church which stands in
+solitary picturesqueness on the lofty mountain-top of Aralar. The
+figures, coloured in relief upon a yellowish enamel ground, are those of
+saints, and of a monarch and his queen--possibly King Sancho the Great,
+who is believed to have been the donor of the ornament. If this surmise
+be accurate, the front would date from the eleventh century.
+
+  [21] Together with the statuette of Ujué in Navarre, the Virgen de la
+       Vega of Salamanca may be classed as one of the earliest "local
+       Virgins" of this country. Sometimes these images are of wood alone,
+       sometimes of wood beneath a silver covering, sometimes, as that of
+       the Claustro de León, of stone. But whatever may be the substance,
+       the characteristics are the same:--Byzantine rigidness and
+       disproportion, the crude and primitive anatomy of artists only just
+       emerging from the dark. The Virgin and Child of Santa María la Real
+       of Hirache in Navarra may be instanced as another of the series.
+       This image dates from late in the twelfth or early in the
+       thirteenth century, although a crown and nimbus have been added
+       subsequently. It measures rather more than a yard in height, and
+       consists of wood covered with silver plates, except the hands and
+       face, which are painted. The Virgin, seated, holds the Infant with
+       her left arm; in her right hand is an apple. A kind of stole
+       bearing the following inscription in Gothic letter falls upon the
+       Infant's breast; "_Puer natus est nobis, venite adoremus. Ego sum
+       alpha et omega, primus et novissimus Dominus._" Before this
+       statuette the King Don Sancho is stated to have offered his
+       devotion.
+
+  [22] I quote this legend in Appendix A.
+
+I have said that the history of Spanish enamel-work is both confused and
+scanty. The subject in its general aspects has been studied by M.
+Roulin, whose judgments will be found in the _Revue de l'Art Ancien et
+Moderne_, and in his article, "Mobilier liturgique d'Espagne," published
+in the _Revue de l'Art Chrétien_ for 1903. M. Roulin believes the
+altar-front of San Miguel in Excelsis to be a Limoges product, not
+earlier than the first half of the thirteenth century.
+
+Ramírez de Arellano declares that no enamelling at all was done in Spain
+before the invasion of the Almohades. López Ferreiro, who as a priest
+had access to the jealously secreted archives of Santiago cathedral,
+gives us the names of Arias Perez, Pedro Martinez, Fernan Perez, and
+Pedro Pelaez, Galician enamellers who worked at Santiago in the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries. Martin Minguez says that enamelling was done
+at Gerona in the fourteenth century, and Moorish enamels were certainly
+produced at Cordova and Cuenca from comparatively early in the Middle
+Ages. A few obscure workers in enamel are mentioned by Gestoso, in his
+_Diccionario de Artistas Sevillanos_, as living at Seville in the
+fifteenth century, though, in the entries which refer to them, little is
+told us of their lives and nothing of their labours. In the sixteenth
+century we obtain a glimpse of two enamellers of Toledo--Lorenzo Marqués
+and Andrés Ordoñez, and dating from the same period the Chapter of the
+Military Orders of Ciudad Real possesses a silver-gilt _porta-paz_ with
+enamelling done at Cuenca. However, our notices of this branch of
+Spanish art have yet to be completed.
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                       "THE CRUCIFIX OF THE CID"
+                        (_Salamanca Cathedral_)]
+
+A long array of royal gifts caused, in the olden time, the treasure of
+Santiago cathedral to be the richest and most varied in the whole
+Peninsula, although at first this see was merely suffragan to Merida.
+But early in the twelfth century a scheming bishop, by name Diego
+Gelmirez, intrigued at Rome to raise his diocese to the dignity of an
+archbishopric. The means by which he proved successful in the end were
+far from irreproachable. "Gelmirez," says Ford (vol. ii. p. 666) "was a
+cunning prelate, and well knew how to carry his point; he put Santiago's
+images and plate into the crucible, and sent the ingots to the Pope."
+
+The original altar-front or parament (_aurea tabula_) was made of solid
+gold. This altar-front Gelmirez melted down to steal from it some
+hundred ounces of the precious metal for the Pope, donating in its
+stead another front of gold and silver mixed, wrought from the remaining
+treasure of the sanctuary. Aymerich tells us that the primitive frontal
+bore the figure of the Saviour seated on a throne supported by the four
+evangelists, blessing with his right hand, and holding in his left the
+Book of Life. The four-and-twenty elders (called by quaint Morales
+"gentlemen") of the apocalypse were also gathered round the throne, with
+musical instruments in their hands, and golden goblets filled with
+fragrant essences. At either end of the frontal were six of the
+apostles, three above and three beneath, separated by "beautiful
+columns" and surrounded by floral decoration. The upper part was thus
+inscribed:--
+
+                  HANC TABULAM DIDACUS PRÆSUL JACOBITA
+                                SECUNDUS
+                   TEMPORE QUINQUENNI FECIT EPISCOPI
+                  MARCAS ARGENTI DE THESAURO JACOBENSI
+                   HIC OCTOGINTA QUINQUE MINUS NUMERA.
+
+And the lower part:--
+
+               REX ERAT ANFONSUS GENER EJUS DUX RAIMUNDUS
+                  PRÆSUL PRÆFATUS QUANDO PEREGIT OPUS.
+
+This early altar-front has disappeared like its predecessor; it is
+not known precisely at what time; but both Morales and Medina saw and
+wrote about it in the sixteenth century.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                        THE "VIRGEN DE LA VEGA"
+                             (_Salamanca_)]
+
+Another ornament which Aymerich describes, namely, the _baldaquino_ or
+_cimborius_, has likewise faded from the eyes of the profane, together
+with three bronze caskets covered with enamel, and stated by Morales to
+have contained the bones of Saints Silvestre, Cucufate, and Fructuoso.
+One of these caskets was existing in the seventeenth century.
+
+The silver lamps were greatly celebrated. Ambrosio de Morales counted
+"twenty or more"; but Zepedano made their total mount to fifty-one. The
+French invasion brought their number down to three. Three of the oldest
+of these lamps had been of huge dimensions, particularly one, a present
+from Alfonso of Aragon, which occupied the centre. The shape of it, says
+Aymerich, was "like a mighty mortar." Seven was the number of its beaks,
+symbolic of the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; and each beak contained a
+lamplet fed with oil of myrtles, acorns, or olives.
+
+All kinds of robberies and pilferings have thus been perpetrated with
+the once abundant wealth of Santiago.[23] The jealous care which keeps
+the copious archives inaccessible to all the outside world is in itself
+of sinister significance. It has transpired, furthermore, that many of
+the bishops have "exchanged," or simply stolen, portions of the holy
+property. Besides these clerical dilapidations, a cartload, weighing
+half a ton, was carried off by Marshal Ney, though some was subsequently
+handed back, "because the spoilers feared the hostility of the
+_Plateros_, the silversmiths who live close to the cathedral, and by
+whom many workmen were employed in making little graven images,
+teraphims and lares, as well as medallions of Santiago, which pilgrims
+purchase."[24]
+
+  [23] A recent instance, not devoid of humour, is as follows. About three
+       years ago, a silly rogue removed and carried off the crown from
+       Santiago's head; but since the actual jewel is only worn on solemn
+       festivals, his prize turned out to be a worthless piece of tin. An
+       odd removal of the treasure of another Spanish church was noted by
+       the traveller Bowles. "The curate of the place, a worthy fellow who
+       put me up in his house, assured me that a detachment of a legion of
+       locusts entered the church, ate up the silk clothes upon the
+       images, and gnawed the varnish on the altars." Perhaps these
+       adamantine-stomached insects have assailed, from time to time, the
+       gold and silver plate of Santiago.
+
+  [24] Ford, _Handbook_, vol. ii. p. 671. I briefly notice, in Appendix B,
+       the Santiago jet-work, also practised by these craftsmen.
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                     SAINT JAMES IN PILGRIM'S DRESS
+      (_Silver-gilt statuette; 15th Century. Santiago Cathedral_)]
+
+Among the gifts of value which this temple yet preserves are the ancient
+processional cross presented by the third Alfonso in the year of
+grace 874,[25] and the hideous fourteenth-century reliquary shaped to
+represent the head of James Alfeo, and containing (as it is believed)
+this very relic (Pl. viii.). I make a reservation here, because the
+Chapter have forbidden the reliquary to be opened. In either case,
+whether the head be there or not, heads of the same apostle are affirmed
+to be at Chartres, Toulouse, and other places. Similarly, discussing
+these Hydra-headed beings of the Bible and the hagiology, Villa-amil y
+Castro (_El Tesoro de la Catedral de Santiago_, published in the _Museo
+Español de Antigüedades_) recalls to us the ten authenticated and
+indubitable mazzards of Saint John the Baptist.
+
+  [25] To lend my censures further cogency, I leave this statement as I
+       set it down some weeks ago; since when, on picking up a Spanish
+       newspaper, I read the following telegram:--
+
+                      "THEFT IN SANTIAGO CATHEDRAL
+
+                                 "SANTIAGO, _May 7th, 1906_ (9.15 _p.m._).
+
+       "This morning, when the canon in charge of the Chapel of the Relics
+       unlocked the door, he was surprised to observe that some of these
+       were lying in confusion on the floor. Fearing that a theft had been
+       committed, he sent for the dean and others of the clergy, who had
+       examination made, and found the following objects to be missing:--
+
+       _"A gold cross, presented by King Alfonso the Great, when he
+       attended the consecration of this temple in the year 874._
+
+       "Another cross, of silver, dating from the fifteenth century--a
+       present from Archbishop Spinola.
+
+       "An aureole of the fifteenth century, studded with precious stones
+       belonging to a statuette of the apostle Santiago.
+
+       "The authorities were summoned and at once began their search.
+
+       "They find that two of the thick iron bars of the skylight in the
+       ceiling of the cloister have been filed through. This cloister has
+       a skylight which opens upon the chapel.
+
+       "They have also found, upon the roof, a knotted rope. This rope was
+       only long enough to reach a cornice in the chapel wall. _The wall
+       itself affords no sign that anybody has attempted to descend by
+       it._"
+
+The head-shaped reliquary is of beaten silver with enamelled visage, and
+the hair and beard gilt.[26] The workmanship is French. The cross, which
+hung till recently above the altar of the Relicario, but which now
+requires to be placed upon the lengthy list of stolen wealth, was not
+unlike the Cross of Angels in the Camara Santa at Oviedo, and had a
+wooden body covered with gold plates in finely executed filigree,
+studded with precious stones and cameos. Not many days ago, the wooden
+core, divested of the precious metal and the precious stones, was found
+abandoned in a field.
+
+  [26] This form of reliquary was not uncommon. Morales, in his _Viaje
+       Sacro_, describes another one, also preserved at Santiago, saying
+       that it was a bust of silver, life-size and gilded to the breast,
+       "with a large diadem of rays and many stones, both small and great,
+       all or most of them of fine quality, though not of the most
+       precious." Other bust-reliquaries belong, or have belonged, to the
+       Cathedrals of Burgos and Toledo.
+
+Visitors to the shrine of Santiago seldom fail to have their curiosity
+excited by the monster "smoke-thrower" (_bota-fumeiro_) or incensory,
+lowered (much like the deadly sword in Poe's exciting tale) on each
+_fiesta_ by a batch of vigorous Gallegos from an iron frame fixed into
+the pendentives of the dome. "The calmest heart," says Villa-amil,
+"grows agitated to behold this giant vessel descending from the apex of
+the nave until it almost sweeps the ground, wreathed in dense smoke and
+spewing flame." Ford seems to have been unaware that the real purpose of
+this metal monster was not to simply scent the holy precincts, but to
+cover up the pestilential atmosphere created by a horde of verminous,
+diseased, and evil-smelling pilgrims, who, by a usage which is now
+suppressed, were authorized to pass the night before the services within
+the actual cathedral wall.
+
+The original _bota-fumeiro_, resembling, in Oxea's words, "a silver
+boiler of gigantic bulk," was lost or stolen in the War of Spanish
+Independence. It was replaced by another of iron, and this, in 1851, by
+the present apparatus of white metal.
+
+Striking objects of ecclesiastical _orfebrería_ were produced in Spain
+throughout the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. Among the finest
+are the triptych-reliquary of Seville cathedral known as the _Alfonsine
+Tables_; the _retablo_ and _baldaquino_ of the cathedral of Gerona; the
+silver throne, preserved in Barcelona cathedral, of Don Martin of
+Aragon; and the _guión_, at Toledo, of Cardinal Mendoza.
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                            MUDEJAR TRIPTYCH
+           (_Interior of one leaf of the door. 14th Century.
+                  Royal Academy of History, Madrid_)]
+
+Triptych-reliquaries, which had gradually expanded from the diptych
+form--three leaves or panels thus replacing two,--were generally used in
+Spain from the eleventh century, and varied in dimensions from a few
+inches in height and width to several yards. We find them in the Gothic,
+Mudejar,[27] Romanic, or Renaissance styles--wrought either in a single
+style of these, or in effective combination of some two or more. The
+Academy of History at Madrid possesses a richly ornamented Mudejar
+triptych (Plate ix.) proceeding from the Monasterio de Piedra. It is
+inferior, notwithstanding, to the _Tablas Alfonsinas_,[28] "a
+specimen of Spanish silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition
+to the new style, and the progress in the design of the figures owing to
+the Italian Renaissance."[29] In or about the year 1274, this splendid
+piece of sacred furniture was made by order of the learned king, to hold
+the relics of certain saints and of the Virgin Mary. The maker is
+thought by Amador to have been one "Master George," a craftsman held in
+high esteem by the father of Alfonso and the conqueror of Seville,
+Ferdinand the Third. Romanic influence is abundant in this triptych,
+showing that, although exposed to constant changes from abroad, the
+Spanish mediæval crafts adhered upon the whole with singular tenacity to
+primitive tradition.
+
+  [27] The Mudejares were the Mussulmans who submitted, in the conquered
+       cities, to the Spanish-Christian rule. The word _Mudejar_ is of
+       modern growth, nor can its derivation be resolved with certainty.
+       From the thirteenth century onwards, and formed by the fusion of
+       the Christian and the Saracenic elements, we find Mudejar influence
+       copiously distributed through every phase of Spanish life and art,
+       and even literature.
+
+  [28] Amador prefers to call these Tables "the triptych of the learned
+       king," in order to distinguish them by this explicit title from the
+       _Astronomical Tables_ prepared by order of the same monarch.
+
+  [29] Riaño, _Spanish Arts_, p. 16.
+
+The triptych is of larch, or some such undecaying wood, and measures,
+when the leaves are opened wide, forty inches over its entire breadth,
+by twenty-two in height. Linen is stretched upon the wood, and over that
+the silver-gilt _repoussé_ plates which form the principal adornment of
+the reliquary. "The outside is decorated with twelve medallions
+containing the arms of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in
+which are repeated alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi
+and the Annunciation of the Virgin, also in _repoussé_. In the centres
+are eagles, allusive, it is possible, to Don Alfonso's claim to be
+crowned Emperor.... The ornamentation which surrounds the panels belongs
+to the sixteenth century" (Riaño). The arms here spoken of contain the
+crowned lion and the castle of three towers; and the interesting fact is
+pointed out by Amador that the diminutive doors and windows of these
+castles show a strongly pointed Gothic arch. The sixteenth-century
+bordering to the panels is in the manner known as Plateresque.[30] The
+clasps are also Plateresque, and prove, together with the border,
+that the triptych was restored about this time.
+
+  [30] So named because the silversmiths (_plateros_) of this country used
+       it in their monstrances (_custodias_) and in many other objects or
+       utensils of religious worship. The most refined and erudite of
+       Spanish silver-workers, Juan de Arfe, thus referred to it in
+       rhyme:--
+
+                      _"Usaron desta obra los plateros
+                      Guardando sus preceptos con zelo;
+                      Pusiéronle en los puntos postrimeros
+                      De perfección mi abuelo."_
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                        THE "TABLAS ALFONSINAS"
+         (_View of Interior; 13th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+Inside (Plate x.), it consists of fifteen compartments, "full of minute
+ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules covered
+with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an inscription of
+enamelled gold, _cloisonné_. Several good cameos with sacred subjects
+appear near the edge of the side leaves" (Riaño). These cameos,
+handsomely engraved with figures of the Virgin and other subjects of
+religious character, are fairly well preserved; but the designs upon
+enamel are almost obliterated. Eight precious stones, set in as rude a
+style as those upon the ancient crowns and crosses of the Visigoths,
+have also fallen out, or been removed, from the interior.
+
+The _retablo_ of Gerona cathedral and its baldachin date from the
+fourteenth century. "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with silver
+plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and canopies;
+each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is introduced
+in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels. Each panel
+has a cinq-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and pinnacles on either
+side. The straight line of the top is broken by three niches, which
+rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre is the Blessed
+Virgin with our Lord; on the right, San Narciso; and on the left, St
+Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of saints, subjects
+from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from the life of our
+Lord."[31]
+
+  [31] Street, _Gothic Architecture in Spain_.
+
+San Narciso is patron of the city of Gerona; which explains the presence
+of his image here. From the treasury of the same cathedral was stolen,
+during the War of Spanish Independence, a magnificent altar-front of
+wrought gold and mosaic, a gift of Countess Gisla, wife of Ramón
+Berenguer, count-king of Barcelona. It had in the centre a bas-relief
+medallion representing the Virgin, another medallion with a portrait of
+the donor, and various saints in niches, interworked with precious
+stones.
+
+The great armchair of Don Martin, called by Baron Davillier a "beau
+faudesteuil gothique," which possibly served that monarch as a throne,
+and was presented by him to the cathedral of Barcelona, dates from the
+year 1410. The wooden frame is covered with elaborately chiselled plates
+in silver-gilt. This most imposing object is carried in procession
+through the streets upon the yearly festival of Corpus Christi.
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                       "THE CUP OF SAN FERNANDO"
+                  (_13th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                                  SHIP
+                 (_15th Century. Zaragoza Cathedral_)]
+
+The _guión de Mendoza_, now in Toledo cathedral, is a handsome
+later-Gothic silver-gilt cross, and is the same which was raised upon
+the Torre de la Vela at Granada on January 2nd, 1492, when the fairest
+and most storied city in all Spain surrendered formally to Ferdinand and
+Isabella. Many other interesting crosses, of the character known as
+processional, are still preserved in various parts of the Peninsula, at
+South Kensington, and elsewhere. The more remarkable are noticed under
+various headings of this book. Their workmanship is generally of the
+fifteenth or the sixteenth century.
+
+The Seo or cathedral of Zaragoza possesses a handsome ship (Plate xii.),
+presented to this temple, towards the end of the fifteenth century, by
+the Valencian corsair, Mosén Juan de Torrellas. The hull is a large
+shell resting on a silver-gilt dragon of good design, with a large
+emerald set in the middle of its forehead, and a ruby for each eye.
+Ships of this kind were not uncommon on a Spanish dining table of the
+time, or in the treasuries of churches and cathedrals. Toledo owns
+another of these vessels (in both senses of the word), which once
+belonged to Doña Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+Hitherto I have confined my notice almost wholly to the treasure of the
+Spanish temples. Turning from ecclesiastical to secular life, we find,
+all through the Middle Ages, the humbler classes kept by constant penury
+and war aloof from every form of luxury. Jewellery and gold and silver
+work were thus essentially the perquisite or, so to speak, the privilege
+of princes, nobles, and the Church. The mediæval kings and magnates of
+this land were smitten inveterately with a passion for display, and
+chronicles and inventories of the time contain instructive details of
+the quantities of gems and precious metals employed by them to decorate
+their persons and their palaces. The richness of their bedsteads will be
+noticed under Furniture. Quantities of jewellery and plate belonged to
+every noble household. For instance, the testament of the Countess of
+Castañeda (A.D. 1443) includes the mention of "a gilded cup and cover to
+the same; a silver vessel and its lid, the edges gilt, and in the centre
+of both lid and vessel the arms of the said count, my lord; a silver
+vessel with a foot to it; a diamond ring; a silver vessel with gilt
+edges and the arms of the count, companion to the other vessels; a
+jasper sweetmeat-tray with silver-gilt handles and feet; four coral
+spoons; a gilt enamelled cup and lid; a small gilt cup and lid; two
+large silver porringers; two French cups of white silver; two large
+plates of eight marks apiece; two middling-sized silver vessels; two
+silver-gilt barrels with silver-gilt chains."[32]
+
+  [32] Count of Clonard.
+
+On each occasion of a court or national festivity, the apparel of the
+great was ponderous with gold and silver fringe, or thickly strewn with
+pearls--the characteristic _aljofar_ or _aljofar_-work (Arabic _chawar_,
+small pearls), for which the Moors were widely famed. Towards the
+thirteenth century unmarried Spanish women of high rank possessed
+abundant stores of bracelets, earrings, necklaces, gold chains, rings,
+and gem-embroidered pouches for their money. Their waist-belts, too,
+were heavy with gold and silver, and _aljofar_.[33] The poem of the
+Archpriest of Hita (1343) mentions two articles of jewellery for female
+wear called the _broncha_ and the _pancha_. The former was an ornament
+for the throat; the other, a plate or medal which hung to below the
+waist. An Arabic document quoted by Casiri, and dating from the reign
+of Henry the First of Castile, specifies as belonging to an aristocratic
+lady of that time, "Egyptian shirts of silk and linen, embroidered
+shirts, Persian shirts with silk embroidery, Murcian gold necklaces,
+ear-pendants of the same metal, set with gems; finger-rings and
+bracelets, waist-belts of skins, embroidered with silk and precious
+stones; cloaks of cloth of gold, embroidered mantles of the same,
+coverings for the head, and kerchiefs."
+
+  [33] _Ibid_.
+
+For all the frequency with which they framed and iterated sterile and
+exasperating sumptuary pragmatics for their people, the Spanish kings
+themselves went even beyond the nobles in their craze for ostentatious
+luxury. Upon the day when he was crowned at Burgos, Alfonso the Eleventh
+"arrayed himself in gold and silver cloth bearing devices of the castle
+and the lion, in which was much _aljofar_-work, as well as precious
+stones innumerable; rubies, emeralds, and sapphires." Even the bit and
+saddle of the monarch's charger were "exceeding precious on this day,
+for gems and gold and silver covered all the saddle-bows, and the sides
+of the saddle and its girths, together with the headstall, were
+curiously wrought of gold and silver thread."
+
+Similar relations may be found at every moment of the history of
+mediæval Spain. Another instance may be quoted from the reign of
+Ferdinand and Isabella. When these sovereigns visited Barcelona in 1481,
+the queen was dressed as follows:--"She advanced riding upon a fine
+mule, and seated on cushions covered with brocade, rising high above the
+saddle. Her robe was of gold thread and jewel-work, with a rich brocade
+skirt. Upon her head she wore a crown of gold adorned with richest
+diamonds, pearls, rubies, balas rubies, and other stones of passing
+price." During the same visit, a royal tournament was given in the Plaza
+del Born, in presence of the aristocracy and wealthy townspeople, "the
+counts, viscounts, deputies, councillors, _caballeros_, _gentiles
+hombres_, burgesses, and others without number." Ferdinand, who "with
+virtue and benignity" had deigned to break a lance or two in tourneying
+with the Duke of Alburquerque, the Count of Benavente, and several
+gentlemen of Cataluña, was wearing "over his harness a jacket all of
+gold brocade. His horse's coverings and poitral also were of thread of
+gold, richly devised and wrought, and of exceeding majesty and beauty.
+And on his helm he wore a crown of gold, embellished with many pearls
+and other stones; and above the crown a figure of a large gold bat,
+which is the emblem of the kings of Aragon and counts of Barcelona, with
+white and sanguine bars upon the scutcheon.[34] The queen and the
+cardinal of Spain were in a window of the house of Mossen Guillem
+Pujades, conservator of the realm of Sicily. Her highness wore a robe of
+rich gold thread with a collar of beautiful pearls; and the trappings of
+her mule were of brocade."[35]
+
+  [34] Four pallets gules, on a field or; which were the arms of Cataluña
+       and subsequently of Aragon.
+
+  [35] _Archives of the Crown of Aragon._
+
+Eleven years later the youthful prince, Don Juan, son of these rulers,
+appeared before the citizens of Barcelona dressed in "a robe of
+beautiful brocade that almost swept the ground, and a doublet of the
+same material; the sleeves of the robe thickly adorned with fine pearls
+of large size." He carried, too, "a gold collar of great size and beauty,
+wrought of large diamonds, pearls, and other stones."[36]
+
+  [36] _Ibid_.
+
+It was an ancient usage with the people of Barcelona to present a silver
+service to any member of the royal family who paid a visit to their
+capital. The service so presented to Ferdinand the Catholic cost the
+corporation a sum of more than twelve hundred pounds of Catalan money,
+and included "a saltcellar made upon a rock. Upon the rock is a castle,
+the tower of which contains the salt.... Two silver ewers, gilt within
+and containing on the outside various enamelled devices in the centre,
+together with the city arms. Also a silver-gilt lion upon a rustic
+palisade of tree-trunks, holding an inscription in his right paw, with
+the arms of the city, a flag, and a crown upon his head. This object
+weighs thirty-four marks."[37] The service offered on the same occasion
+to Isabella, though less in weight, was more elaborately wrought, and
+cost on this account considerably more. It included "two silver ewers,
+gilt within and enamelled without, bearing the city arms, and chiselled
+in the centre with various designs of foliage. Also a silver saltcellar,
+with six small towers, containing at the foot three pieces of
+enamel-work with the arms of the city in relief. This saltcellar has its
+lid and case, with a pinnacle upon the lid, and is of silver-gilt inside
+and out."[38]
+
+  [37] Sanpere y Miquel, _Revista de Ciencias Históricas_, art. _La
+       Platería catalana en los siglos XIV. y XV._, vol. i. p. 441.
+
+  [38] _Ibid_.
+
+From about the fifteenth century the goldsmiths and the silversmiths of
+Barcelona enjoyed considerable fame. Among their names are those of
+Lobarolla, Roig, Berni, Belloch, Planes, Mellar, Corda, Fábregues,
+Farrán, Perot Ximenis, Rafel Ximenis, Balagué, and Antonio de Valdés.
+Riaño quotes the names of many more from Cean's dictionary. The most
+important facts relating to these artists were brought to light some
+years ago by Baron Davillier, who based the greater part of his research
+upon the _Libros de Pasantía_ or silversmiths' examination-books (filled
+with excellent designs for jewel-work) of Barcelona. These volumes,
+formerly kept in the college of San Eloy, are now the property of the
+Provincial Deputation of this city.
+
+The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of Seville also possesses
+four of its old examination-books, of which the earliest dates from
+1600. Gestoso, in his _Dictionary of Sevillian Artificers_ describes the
+actual ceremony of examination for a silversmith or goldsmith. Once in
+every year the members of the guild assembled in their chapel of the
+convent of San Francisco. Here and upon this day the candidate was
+closely questioned, to begin with, as to his "purity of blood"--that is,
+his freedom from contamination by relationship with any Moor or Hebrew.
+When it was duly and precisely ascertained that he, his parents, and his
+grandparents were uniformly "old Christians," untainted with the "wicked
+race of Moors, Jews, heretics, mulattoes, and renegades," and that
+neither he nor his ancestors had ever been put on trial by the
+Inquisition or by any other tribunal, "whether publicly or secretly," he
+was permitted to proceed to his examination proper.[39] The formula of
+this was simple. The candidate was summoned before the board of
+examiners, consisting of the Padre Mayor or patriarch of the guild, and
+the two _veedores_ or inspectors, the one of gold-work, the other of
+silver-work. The book of drawings was then placed upon the table, and a
+ruler was thrust at haphazard among its leaves. Where the ruler chanced
+to fall, the candidate was called upon to execute the corresponding
+drawing to the satisfaction of his judges.
+
+  [39] Gestoso mentions that Juan de Luna, a silversmith of Seville, was
+       turned into the gutter from the workshop where he was employed,
+       solely because his father had been punished as a Morisco by the
+       Inquisition (_Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. i.
+       p. lvi.).
+
+Riaño lays too slight a stress upon the Moorish and Morisco jewellery of
+Spain. Although the use of gold and silver ornaments is forbidden by
+the Koran, the Muslim, wherever his vanity or his bodily comfort is
+involved, tramples his Bible underfoot almost as regularly, tranquilly,
+and radically as the Christians do their own. The Moors of Spain were
+not at all behind their oriental brethren in displaying precious stones
+and metals on their persons or about their homes. Al-Jattib tells us
+that the third Mohammed offered to the mosque of the Alhambra columns
+with capitals and bases of pure silver. Or who does not recall the
+Caliphate of Cordova; the silver lamp that measured fifty palms across,
+fitted with a thousand and fifty-four glass lamplets, and swinging by a
+golden chain from the cupola of the entrance to the _mirhab_ in the vast
+_mezquita_; the silver candlesticks and perfume-burners in the same
+extraordinary temple; the precious stones and metals employed in mighty
+quantities to decorate the palaces of Az-zahyra and Az-zahra?--
+
+               "A wilderness of building, sinking far
+               And self-withdrawn into a wondrous depth,
+               Far sinking into splendour without end!
+               Fabric it seemed of diamond and of gold,
+               With alabaster domes and silver spires,
+               And blazing terrace upon terrace, high
+               Uplifted."
+
+In brief, just as the prelates of the Christian Church habitually
+precede the Christian laity in trampling underfoot the elemental
+doctrine of Our Lord, so were the most exalted and responsible of all
+the Mussulmans--that is, their sultans--indefatigably foremost in
+neglect of the Koranic law.
+
+The Spanish sultans wore a ring of gold containing one large stone (such
+as an emerald, or ruby, or turquoise), on which was cut the royal seal
+and signature. Such was the ring belonging to Boabdil el Chico, worn by
+him on the very day of the surrender of his capital, and by his hand
+presented to a Spanish nobleman, the Count of Tendilla, governor-elect
+of the Alhambra. According to Rodriguez de Ardila, the following
+inscription was upon the stone:--"_La Ala ile Ala, abahu Tabiu. Aben Abi
+Abdalá_," meaning, "_There is no God but God; this is the seal of Aben
+Abi Abdalá._" Ardila, who was the author of a history of the Counts of
+Tendilla (which still remains in manuscript), adds that he saw the ring,
+although, as Eguilaz observes, two words of the inscription are
+inaccurately rendered.
+
+Among the Moors of Spain the use of signet rings was general. The stone
+employed was commonly cornelian, richly mounted and inscribed in various
+ways, as with the owner's name, his name together with a date, or the
+name of the town of which he was a native. In other instances we meet
+with pious phrases or quotations from the Koran; or perhaps a talismanic
+figure, such as the open eye to guard the wearer from the dreaded _mal
+de ojo_; or the open hand that still surmounts the gateway of the Tower
+of Justice at Granada.[40]
+
+  [40] An article by Señor Saavedra on these inscribed jewels and signets
+       of Mohammedan Spain will be found in the _Museo Español de
+        Antigüedades_.
+
+Undoubtedly, too, the Moorish sultans of this country owned enormous
+hoards of silver, gold, and precious stones. Al-Makkari says that the
+treasure of the Nasrite rulers of Granada included quantities of pearls,
+turquoises, and rubies; pearl necklets; earrings "surpassing those of
+Mary the Copt" (Mohammed's concubine); swords of the finest temper,
+embellished with pure gold; helmets with gilded borders, studded with
+emeralds, pearls, and rubies; and silvered and enamelled belts.
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+                           MOORISH BRACELETS]
+
+The Moorish women of this country, and in particular the
+Granadinas,[41] were passionately fond of jewellery. Ornaments which
+once belonged to them are sometimes brought to light in Andalusia,
+Murcia, or Valencia, including pendants, rings, necklaces, and _axorcas_
+or bangles for the ankle or the wrist, and bracelets for the upper
+portion of the arm. The National Museum contains a small collection of
+these objects, dating from the time of the Moriscos, and including a
+handsome necklace terminating in a double chain, with ball and pyramid
+shaped ornaments about the centre, a square-headed finger-ring with four
+green stones and a garnet, and a hollow bracelet filled with a substance
+that appears to be mastic, similar to those which are reproduced in
+Plate xiii.
+
+  [41] "As to the ornaments and jewels of the ladies of Granada, these
+       wear at present necklaces of rich design, bracelets, rings (upon
+       their ankles), and earrings of pure gold; together with quantities
+       of silver and of precious stones upon their shoes. I say this of
+       the middle class; for ladies of the aristocracy and of the older
+       noble families display a vast variety of gems, such as rubies,
+       chrysolites, emeralds, and pearls of great value. The ladies of
+       Granada are commonly fair to look upon, shapely, of good stature,
+       with long hair, teeth of a shining white, and perfumed breath,
+       gracefully alert in their movements, and witty and agreeable in
+       conversation. But unfortunately at this time their passion for
+       painting themselves and for arraying themselves in every kind of
+       jewellery and costly stuffs has reached a pitch that is no longer
+       tolerable."--Al-Jattib, in _The Splendour of the New Moon
+       concerning the Nasrite Sultans of Granada_.
+
+These jewels, I repeat, are of Morisco workmanship, and therefore date
+from later than the independent empire of the Spanish Moors.
+Nevertheless, the geometrical or filigree design was common both to
+Moorish and Morisco art. As I observed in my description of the
+casket-reliquaries, we note continually the influence of these motives
+on the arts of Christian Spain. The Ordinances relative to the
+goldsmiths and the silversmiths of Granada, cried at various times
+between 1529 and 1538, whether "in the silversmiths' street of the
+Alcaycería, that has its opening over against the scriveners'"; or in
+"the street of the Puente del Carbon, before the goldsmiths' shops"; or
+"in the street of the Zacatin, where dwell the silversmiths," prove also
+that for many years after the Reconquest the character and nomenclature
+of this kind of work continued to be principally and traditionally
+Moorish.
+
+Firstly, the Ordinances complain that the goldsmiths of Granada now
+employ a base and detrimental standard of the precious metals,
+especially in the bracelets or _manillas_ of the women. The goldsmiths
+answer in their vindication that equally as poor a standard is employed
+at Seville, Cordova, and Toledo. These city laws herewith establish
+twenty carats as a minimum fineness for the gold employed in making
+ornaments. The makers, also, are ordered to impress their private stamp
+or seal on every article, or in default to pay a fine of ten thousand
+_maravedis_. A copy of each stamp or seal to be deposited in the city
+chest. The _alamín_ or inspector of this trade to test and weigh all
+gold and silver work before it is exposed for sale.
+
+We learn from the same source that the gold bracelets were sometimes
+smooth, and sometimes "covered over with devices" (_cubiertos de
+estampas por cima_). The technical name of these was _albordados_. The
+silver bracelets were also either smooth, or stamped, or twisted in a
+cord (_encordados_). Bangles for the ankle, upper arm, and wrist are
+mentioned as continuing to be generally worn, while one of the
+Ordinances complains that "Moorish _axorcas_ are often sold that are
+hollow, and filled with chalk and mastic, so that before they can be
+weighed it is necessary to rid them of such substances by submitting
+them to fire, albeit the fire turns them black."
+
+The weapons and war-harness of the Spanish Moors were often exquisitely
+decorated with the precious stones or metals. Splendid objects of this
+kind have been preserved, and will be noticed in their proper chapter.
+
+The ruinous and reckless measure known to Spain's eternal shame as the
+Expulsion of the Moriscos, deprived this country of a great--perhaps the
+greatest--part of her resources. Fonseca estimates this loss, solely in
+the quantity of coin conveyed away, at two million and eight hundred
+thousand _escudos_, adding that a single Morisco, Alami Delascar de
+Aberique, bore off with him one hundred thousand ducats.[42] To make
+this matter worse, the Moriscos, just before they went on board their
+ships, fashioned from scraps of tin, old nails, and other refuse,
+enormous stores of counterfeit coin, and slyly sold this rubbish to the
+simple Spaniards in return for lawful money of the land. In the course
+of a few days, and in a single quarter of Valencia, more than three
+hundred thousand ducats of false coin were thus passed off upon the
+Christians. Besides this exportation of good Spanish money, the cunning
+fugitives removed huge quantities of jewellery and plate. Chains,
+_axorcas_, rings, _zarcillos_, and gold _escudos_ were taken from the
+bodies of many of the Morisco women who were murdered by the Spanish
+soldiery; but the greater part of all this treasure found its way to
+Africa. In his work _Expulsión justificada de los Moriscos_ (1612),
+Aznar de Cardona says that the Morisco women carried "divers plates upon
+the breast, together with necklaces and collars, earrings and
+bracelets." It is recorded, too, that the Moriscos, as they struggled in
+the country regions to avenge themselves upon their persecutors, did
+unlimited damage to the ornaments and fittings of the churches. "This
+people," says Fonseca, "respected not our temples or the holy images
+that in them were; nor yet the chalices and other objects they
+encountered in our sacristies. Upon the contrary, they smashed the
+crosses, burned the saints, profaned the sacred vestments, and committed
+such acts of sacrilege as though they had been Algerian Moors, or Turks
+of Constantinople."
+
+  [42] There was, however, from long before this time a prohibition to
+       export from Spain the precious metals, in any form, whether as
+       objects of plate or as coined money. The penalty for a repetition
+       of this offence was death. Another law prohibited all foreigners
+       who were resident in Spain, not excluding the Moriscos, from buying
+       gold or silver in the bar (_Suma de Leyes_, p. 46). It was also
+       forbidden to sell the jewels or other objects of value belonging to
+       a place of worship (_ibid_. p. 87).
+
+Legends of hidden Moorish and Morisco wealth are still extant in many
+parts of Spain. The Abbé Bertaut de Rouen[43] and Swinburne among
+foreigners, or Spaniards such as the gossiping priest Echeverría, who
+provided Washington Irving with the pick of his _Tales of the Alhambra_,
+have treated copiously of this fascinating and mysterious theme. The
+Siete Suelos Tower at Granada is particularly favoured with traditions
+of this kind. Peasants of the Alpujarras still declare that piles of
+Moorish money lie secreted in the lofty buttresses of Mulhacen and the
+Veleta, while yet another summit of this snowy range bears the
+suggestive title of the Cerro del Tesoro, where, almost within the
+memory of living men, a numerous party, fitted and commissioned by the
+State, explored with feverish though unlucky zeal the naked cliffs and
+sterile crannies of the lonely mountain.[44]
+
+  [43] This entertaining and inquisitive tourist describes, in 1659, a
+       wondrous cavern in the south of Spain, "ou l'on conte que les Mores
+       ont caché leurs trésors en s'en retournant en Afrique, et ou
+       personne n'ose aborder de peur des esprits que l'on dit que l'on y
+       voit souvent. Mais comme il commencait a se faire nuit, je n'eus
+       pas le loisir de m'y amuser beaucoup." With this our author shelved
+       his curiosity, and prudently retired.
+
+  [44] Leonard Williams. _Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies, and
+       Impressions_, p. 90.
+
+Reducing all these fables to the terms of truth, Moorish and Morisco
+jewellery and coin are sometimes brought to light on Spanish soil. Such
+finds occur, less seldom than elsewhere, within the provinces of
+Seville, Cordova, Granada, and Almeria (Plate xiv.), but since they are
+neither frequent nor considerable, although the likeliest ground for
+them is being disturbed continually, we may conclude that nearly all the
+Muslim wealth accumulated here slipped from the clumsy if ferocious
+fingers of the mother-country, and found its way, concealed upon the
+bodies of her persecuted offspring, to the shores of Africa.[45]
+
+  [45] Ford was more hopeful as to the preservation of this wealth in
+       Spain. "No doubt much coin is buried in the Peninsula, since the
+       country has always been invaded and torn by civil wars, and there
+       never has been much confidence between Spaniard and Spaniard;
+       accordingly the only sure, although unproductive, investment for
+       those who had money, was gold or silver, and the only resource to
+       preserve that, was to hide it."--_Handbook_, vol. ii. p. 682.
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                           MORISCO JEWELLERY
+                 (_Found in the Province of Granada_)]
+
+Sometimes, too, an early gold or silver object would be melted down and
+modernized into another and a newer piece of plate. This was a fairly
+common usage with the silversmiths themselves, or with an ignorant or
+stingy brotherhood or chapter. Thus, the following entry occurs in the
+_Libro de Visita de Fábrica_ belonging to the parish church of Santa
+Ana, Triana, Seville. In the year 1599 "the large cross of silver-gilt,
+together with its _mançana_ and all the silver attaching thereto, was
+taken to the house of Zubieta the silversmith, and pulled to pieces. It
+weighed 25 marks and 4 _ochavas_ of silver, besides 5 marks and 2 ounces
+and 4 _ochavas_ of silver which was the weight of the three lamps
+delivered to Zubieta in the time of Juan de Mirando, aforetime steward
+of this church. It is now made into a silver-gilt cross."[46]
+
+  [46] Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. ii. p. 360.
+
+A similar instance may be quoted from a document of Cordova, published
+by Ramírez de Arellano in his relation of a visit to the monastery of
+San Jerónimo de Valparaiso. In the year 1607 Gerónimo de la Cruz, a
+Cordovese silversmith, agreed with the prior of this monastery to make
+for the community a silver-gilt _custodia_. For this purpose he received
+from the prior, doubtless a man of parsimonious spirit and a boor in his
+appreciativeness of art, eight pairs of vinegar cruets, four of whose
+tops were missing; a silver-gilt chalice and its patine; a _viril_ with
+two angels and four pieces on the crown of it; a small communion cup;
+some silver candlesticks; four spoons and a fork, also of silver; and a
+silver-gilt salt-cellar. The total value of these objects was 1826
+_reales_; and all of them were tossed, in Ford's indignant phrase, into
+the "sacrilegious melting-pot," in order to provide material for the new
+_custodia_.
+
+                            [Illustration: XV
+                     SILVER-GILT PROCESSIONAL CROSS
+         (_Made by Juan de Arfe in_ 1592. _Burgos Cathedral_)]
+
+The gold and silver work of Christian Spain attained, throughout the
+fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries, a high degree of excellence
+(Plates xv., xvi., etc.). The best of it was made at Seville, Barcelona,
+Toledo, and Valladolid. Objects of great artistic worth were also
+produced at Burgos, Palencia, León, Cuenca, Cordova, and Salamanca. I
+have already mentioned some of the principal _orfebreros_ of Barcelona.
+Juan Ruiz of Cordova, whom Juan de Arfe applauds as "the first
+silversmith who taught the way to do good work in Andalusia," was also,
+in this region, the first to turn the precious metals on the lathe. A
+famous silversmith of Seville was Diego de Vozmediano, whom we find
+living there in 1525. Toledo, too, could boast, among an army of
+distinguished gold and silver smiths (Riaño gives the names of no fewer
+than seventy-seven), Cristóbal de Ordas, Juan Rodríguez de Babria, and
+Pedro Hernandez, _plateros_, respectively, to Charles the Fifth, to
+Philip the Second, and to the queen-dowager of Portugal; and also the
+silversmith and engraver upon metals, Pedro Angel, whose praise is sung
+by Lope de Vega in the prologue to his _auto_ called _The Voyage of the
+Soul_:--
+
+               "_Y es hoy Pedro Angel un divino artífice
+                 con el buril en oro, plata, ó cobre._"
+
+By far the greater part of all Toledo's gold and silver work was made
+for service in her mighty temple. Such were the statue of Saint Helen,
+presented by Philip the Second; the crown of the Virgen del Sagrario,
+wrought by Hernando de Carrión and Alejo de Montoya; the bracelets or
+_ajorcas_ made for the image of the same Madonna by Julián Honrado; and
+the exquisite chests carved in 1569 and 1598 by Francisco Merino from
+designs by the two Vergaras, father and son, as reliquaries for the
+bones of San Eugenio and Santa Leocadia, patrons of this ancient
+capital.[47] A magnificent silver lamp was also, in 1565, offered by the
+chapter of the cathedral to the church of Saint Denis in France, in
+gratitude for the surrender of the bones of San Eugenio to the city of
+his birth. These and other objects of Toledan gold and silver work are
+stated to be "worthy of comparison with the very best of what was then
+produced in Germany, Italy, and France."[48]
+
+  [47] A full description of these chests will be found in Cean Bermudez,
+       vol. iii. pp. 135-137.
+
+  [48] Rada y Delgado, in his reply to the Count of Cedillo's address in
+       the Royal Academy of History. For particulars of the silver lamp,
+       which was made by Marcos and Gonzalo Hernandez, Toledanos, and by
+       Diego Dávila, see Zarco del Valle, _Documentos Inéditos para la
+       Historia de las Bellas Artes en España_, vol. lv. p. 580.
+
+Baron Davillier also held a high opinion of the Spanish _orfebreros_ of
+this time. After remarking that the Italian influence was powerful among
+the Spaniards in the sixteenth century, and more particularly for some
+fifty years at Barcelona, he says: "A cette époque les _plateros_
+espagnols pouvaient rivaliser sans désavantage avec les Italiens, les
+Français, les Flamands, et les Allemands."
+
+The same authority also says that the Spanish _plateros_ of this period
+were skilled enamellers on gold and silver, and quotes some entries from
+French inventories of the time in which we read of cups, salt-cellars,
+washing-basins, and other objects executed or enamelled "à la mode
+d'Espagne."[49]
+
+  [49] _Recherches sur l'Orfévrerie en Espagne_, pp. 61 _et seq._
+
+As we have seen, the exodus of the Moriscos lost to Spain a great
+proportion of her total wealth, although, conjointly with this loss, new
+wealth flowed into her in marvellous abundance from the New World.[50]
+Thus, the silver-mines of Potosi, discovered in 1545, sent over to the
+mother-country, between that year and 1633, no less than eight hundred
+and forty-five millions of _pesos_. And yet this mighty influx of new
+riches cannot be said, except in the artistic sense, to have enriched
+the nation. She had renounced the service of the most industrious and,
+in many instances, the most ingenious of her native craftsmen; while on
+the other hand the Christians, with but limited exceptions, were far too
+proud and far too indolent to set their hand to any form of manual
+exercise; just as (I much regret to add) a great proportion of them are
+this very day. Foreign artificers in consequence (particularly after the
+royal pragmatic of 1623 encouraging their immigration), attracted by the
+treasure fleets that anchored in the bay of Cadiz, came trooping into
+Spain and filled their pockets from the national purse, fashioning, in
+return for money which they husbanded and sent abroad, luxurious gold
+and silver objects that were merely destined to stagnate within her
+churches and cathedrals.
+
+  [50] Ulloa, _Memorias Sevillanas_, vol. i. p. 199.
+
+Riaño and Baron de la Vega de Hoz extract from Cean Bermudez a copious
+list of silversmiths who worked in Spain all through the Middle Ages.
+This long array of isolated names and dates is neither interesting nor
+informative. Newer and more attractive notices have been discovered
+subsequently. Thus, in the National Library at Madrid, Don Manuel G.
+Simancas has disinterred quite recently the copy made by a Jesuit of a
+series of thirteenth-century accounts relating to various craftsmen of
+the reign of Sancho the Fourth ("the Brave"). Two of them are concerning
+early _orfebreros_:--
+
+"Juan Yanez. By letters of the king and queen to Johan Yanez, goldsmith,
+brother of Ferran García, scrivener to the king; for three chalices
+received from him by the king, CCCCLXXVIII _maravedis_."
+
+The second entry says:--
+
+"Bartolomé Rinalt. And he paid Bartolomé Rinalt for jewels which the
+queen bought from him to present to Doña Marina Suarez, nurse of the
+Infante Don Pedro, MCCCL _maravedis_."[51]
+
+  [51] _Libro de diferentes Cuentas y gasto de la Casa Real en el Reynado
+       de Don Sancho IV. Sacado de un tomo original en folio que se guarda
+       en la Librería de la Santa Iglesia de Toledo._ Años de 1293-1294.
+       Por el P. Andres Marcos Burriel de la Comp^a de Jesus.
+
+Among Spain's gold and silver craftsmen of the fifteenth century we
+find the names of Juan de Castelnou, together with his son Jaime, who
+worked at Valencia; of Lope Rodríguez de Villareal, Ruby, and Juan
+Gonzalez, all three of whom worked at Toledo; and of Juan de Segovia, a
+friar of Guadalupe. Papers concerning Juan Gonzalez, and dated 1425,
+1427, and 1431, are published among the _Documentos Inéditos_ of Zarco
+del Valle. One of Segovia's masterpieces was a silver salt-cellar in the
+form of a lion tearing open a pomegranate--clearly allusive to the
+conquest of Granada from the Moors. Upon their visiting the monastery,
+Ferdinand and Isabella saw and, as was natural, conceived a fancy for
+this salt-cellar; and so, whether from inclination or necessity, the
+brotherhood induced them to accept it.
+
+Sixteenth-century _plateros_ of renown were Juan Donante, Mateo and
+Nicolás (whose surnames are unknown)--all three of whom worked at
+Seville; and Duarte Rodríguez and Fernando Ballesteros, natives of that
+city. In or about the year 1524 were working at Toledo the silversmiths
+Pedro Herreros and Hernando de Valles, together with Diego Vazquez,
+Andres Ordoñez, Hernando de Carrión, Diego de Valdivieso, Juan Domingo
+de Villanueva, Diego Abedo de Villandrando, Juan Tello de Morata,
+Francisco de Reinalte, Hans Belta, and Francisco Merino. Several of
+these men were natives of Toledo.
+
+Among the silversmiths of sixteenth-century Cordova were Diego de Alfaro
+and his son Francisco, Francisco de Baena, Alonso Casas, Alonso del
+Castillo, Luis de Cordoba, Sebastián de Cordoba, Cristóbal de Escalante,
+Juan Gonzalez, Diego Fernandez, Diego Hernandez Rubio (son of Sebastián
+de Cordoba), Rodrigo de León, Gómez Luque, Ginés Martinez, Melchor de
+los Reyes (silversmith and enameller), Andrés de Roa, Pedro de Roa,
+Alonso Sanchez, Jerónimo Sanchez de la Cruz, Martin Sanchez de la Cruz
+(Jerónimo's son), Pedro Sanchez de Luque, Alonso de Sevilla, Juan
+Urbano, and Lucas de Valdés.
+
+Not much is told us of the lives and labours of these artists. The best
+reputed of them as a craftsman was Rodrigo de León, who stood next after
+Juan Ruiz, _el Sandolino_. Ramírez de Arellano, from whom I have
+collected these data, publishes a number of León's agreements or
+contracts, which from their length and dryness I do not here repeat. In
+1603 we find him official silversmith to the cathedral, under the title
+of "_platero de martillo_ ("silversmith of hammered work") _de la obra
+de la catedral desta ciudad_."
+
+Francisco de Alfaro, although a Cordovese by birth, resided commonly at
+Seville. In 1578 he received 446,163 _maravedis_ for making four silver
+candlesticks for use in celebrating divine service. These candlesticks
+are still in the cathedral.
+
+Sebastián de Cordoba was one of the foremost artists of his age. He died
+in 1587, leaving, together with other children, a son, Diego, who also
+won some reputation as a silversmith. Ramírez de Arellano publishes a
+full relation of the property which Sebastián de Cordoba bequeathed at
+his decease, as well as of the money which was owing to him. Among the
+former, or the "movable effects," we read of "Isabel, a Morisco woman,
+native of the kingdom of Granada; her age thirty-four years, a little
+less or more." The same inventory includes a curious and complete
+account of all the tools and apparatus in Sebastián's workshop.
+
+But the quaintest notice of them all, though it does not apprise us of
+his merit as a silversmith, is that concerning Cristóbal de Escalante.
+Cristóbal suffered, we are told, from "certain sores produced by humours
+in his left leg; wherefore the said leg undergoes a change and swells."
+He therefore makes a contract with one Juan Jiménez, "servant in the
+Royal Stables of His Majesty the King," and duly examined as a herbalist
+("licensed," in the actual phrase, "to remedy this kind of ailments"),
+who is to heal his leg "by means of the divine will of the cure." As
+soon as Cristóbal shall be thoroughly well, "in so much that his ailing
+leg shall be the other's equal in the fatness and the form thereof," he
+is to pay Jiménez five-and-fifty _reales_, "having already given him ten
+_reales_ on account."
+
+Probably, as Señor Ramírez de Arellano facetiously supposes, Cristóbal,
+after such a course of treatment, would be lame for all his life. At any
+rate, he died in 1605, though whether from the gentle handling of the
+stableman and herbalist is not recorded in these entries.
+
+Still keeping to the sixteenth century, in other parts of Spain we find
+the silversmiths Baltasar Alvarez and Juan de Benavente, working at
+Palencia; Alonso de Dueñas at Salamanca; and Juan de Orna at Burgos,
+about the same time that the foreigners Jacomi de Trezzo and Leo Leoni
+were engaged at the Escorial. Cuenca, too, boasted three excellent
+silver-workers in the family of Becerril, mentioned by Juan de Arfe in
+company with other craftsmen of the time of the Renaissance.[52]
+Stirling says of Cuenca and the Becerriles: "They made for the cathedral
+its great _custodia_, which was one of the most costly and celebrated
+pieces of church plate in Spain. They began it in 1528, and, though
+ready for use in 1546, it was not finished till 1573. It was a
+three-storied edifice, of a florid classical design, crowned with a
+dome, and enriched with numberless groups and statues, and an inner
+shrine of jewelled gold; it contained 616 marks of silver, and cost
+17,725-1/2 ducats, a sum which can barely have paid the ingenious
+artists for the labour of forty-five years. In the War of Independence,
+this splendid prize fell into the hands of the French General
+Caulaincourt, by whom it was forthwith turned into five-franc pieces,
+bearing the image and superscription of Napoleon."[53]
+
+  [52]         "_Con estos fué mi padre en seguimiento
+               Joan Alvarez tambien el Salmantino,
+               Becerril, que tambien fué deste cuento,
+               Juan de Orna, y Juan Ruiz el Vandolino._"
+
+  [53] _Annals of the Artists of Spain_, vol. i. pp. 161, 162.
+
+A more reliable notice says that this _custodia_ was begun by Alonso
+Becerril and finished by his brother Francisco. The third member of
+this family of artists, Cristóbal, who flourished towards the end of the
+sixteenth century, was Francisco's son.
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                           GOTHIC _CUSTODIA_
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+Towards the close of the Gothic and during the earlier phases of the
+Renaissance movement in this country, enormous quantities of gold and
+silver began to be employed in making these _custodias_ or monstrances
+of her temples; so that the fifteenth century may well be called, in
+Spanish craftsmanship, the "age of the _custodia_." A century ago the
+reverend Townsend, loyal to the Low Church prejudices of his day, spoke
+of this object with something of a sneer as "the depository of the Host,
+or, according to the ideas of a Catholic, the throne of the Most High,
+when, upon solemn festivals, He appears to command the adoration of
+mankind." Riaño's description is more technical. "The name of
+_custodia_," he says, "is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or
+ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of
+temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which
+is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus
+Christi day (Plate xvi.). In order to distinguish these objects one from
+another, the name of _viril_ is given to the object which holds the
+consecrated Host; it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem
+and mount ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are
+generally objects of the greatest importance, both from their artistic
+and intrinsic value." A third description of the monstrance, written in
+quaint and antiquated Spanish verse by Juan de Arfe, is truthfully if
+not melodiously translated into English rhyme by Stirling:--
+
+               "Custodia is a temple of rich plate,
+               Wrought for the glory of our Saviour true,
+               Where, into wafer transubstantiate,
+               He shows his Godhead and his Manhood too,
+               That holiest ark of old to imitate,
+               Fashioned by Bezaleel, the cunning Jew,
+               Chosen of God to work His sov'ran will,
+               And greatly gifted with celestial skill."[54]
+
+  [54] _Op. cit._, p. 159, note.
+
+Notwithstanding that the monstrance of Toledo, surmounted by a cross of
+solid gold, turns the scale at ten thousand nine hundred ounces, and
+that of Avila at one hundred and forty pounds, the weight of nearly all
+of these _custodias_ is far exceeded by the value of their workmanship.
+The style employed in their construction is the Gothic, the Renaissance,
+or the two combined. _Custodias_ of the eastern parts of Spain are more
+affected than the others by Italian influence, noticeable both in
+decorative motives which recall the Florentine, and in the use, together
+with the silver-work, of painting and enamels. In other parts of Spain
+the dominating influence is the later Gothic. Among the former or
+Levantine class of monstrances, the most important are those of
+Barcelona, Vich, Gerona, and Palma de Mallorca; and of the others, those
+of Cordova, Cadiz, Sahagún, Zamora, Salamanca, and Toledo--this last,
+according to Bertaut de Rouen, "à la manière d'un clocher percé à jour,
+d'ouvrage de filigrane, et plein de figures." _Custodias_ in the purest
+classic or Renaissance style are those of Seville, Valladolid, Palencia,
+Avila, Jaen, Madrid, Segovia, Zaragoza, Santiago, and Orense.
+
+Juan de Arfe y Villafañe, who may be called the Cellini of Spain's
+_custodia_-makers, was born at León in 1535. He was the son of Antonio
+de Arfe, and grandson of Enrique de Arfe, a German who had married a
+Spanish wife and made his home in Spain. The family of Juan, including
+his brother Antonio, were all distinguished craftsmen, and he himself
+informs us that his grandfather excelled in Gothic _platería_, as may
+be judged from the _custodias_, by Enrique's hand, of Cordova, León,
+Toledo, and Sahagún, and many smaller objects, such as incensories,
+crosiers, and paxes.
+
+The father of Juan, Antonio de Arfe, worked in silver in the Renaissance
+or Plateresque styles, and executed in the florid manner the _custodias_
+of Santiago de Galicia and Medina de Rioseco; but the training and
+tastes of Juan himself were sternly classical. His work in consequence
+has a certain coldness, largely atoned for by its exquisite correctness
+of design and unimpeachable proportions. Arfe's ideal in these matters
+may readily be judged of from his written verdict on the Greco-Roman
+architecture. "The Escorial," he says, in the preface to his description
+of the _custodia_ of Seville cathedral, "_because it follows the rules
+of ancient art_, competes in general perfection, size, or splendour with
+the most distinguished buildings of the Asiatics, Greeks, and Romans,
+and displays magnificence and truth in all its detail."
+
+In point of versatility Juan de Arfe was a kind of Spanish Leonardo. His
+book, _De Varia Conmensuración_, etc., published in 1585, is divided
+into four parts, and deals, the first part with the practice of
+geometry, the second with human anatomy, the third with animals, and
+the fourth with architecture and silver-work for use in churches.
+
+[Illustration: IOAN DE ARFE]
+
+This book is prefaced by the portrait of the author, given above. It
+shows us--what he really was--a quiet, cultured, gentle-hearted man.
+Indeed, while Arfe was studying anatomy at Salamanca, it gave him pain
+to lacerate the bodies even of the dead. "I was witness," he records,
+"to the flaying of several pauper men and women whom the law had
+executed; but these experiments, besides being horrible and cruel, I saw
+to be of little service to my studies in anatomy."
+
+Arfe's workmanship of the _custodia_ of Avila cathedral, which he began
+in 1564 and terminated in 1571, won for him an early and extended fame.
+He also made the _custodia_ of Burgos (brutally melted during the
+Spanish War of Independence), and those of Valladolid (finished in
+1590), Lugo, Osma, and the Hermandad del Santísimo at Madrid. The
+_custodia_ of Palencia is also thought by some to be his handiwork.
+
+But Arfe's crowning labour was the Greco-Roman _custodia_ of Seville
+cathedral (Plate xvii.). The chapter of this temple selected his design
+in 1580, and nominated the licentiate Pacheco to assist him with the
+statuettes. Pacheco also carried out his portion of the task with skill
+and judgment. A rare pamphlet, written by Arfe and published at Seville
+in 1587, gives a minute description of the whole _custodia_. In Appendix
+C, I render this description into English, together with a similarly
+detailed notice of the _custodia_ (1513 A.D.) of Cordova. This last,
+which we have seen to be the work of Juan de Arfe's grandfather,
+Enrique, is not to be surpassed for fairy grace and lightness, seeming,
+in the eloquent metaphor of a modern writer, "to have been conceived in
+a dream, and executed with the breath."
+
+                           [Illustration: XVII
+                    _CUSTODIA_ OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL
+                (_By Juan de Arfe. Late 16th Century_)]
+
+Spain in the seventeenth century had reached the lowest depth of her
+decadence and impoverishment; and yet we find that century an age--to
+quote a Spanish term--of "gallantries and pearls," in which a craze for
+reckless luxury continued to prevail in every quarter. Narratives
+innumerable inform us of the life and doings of that prodigal court and
+prodigal aristocracy; their ruinous and incessant festivals; the
+fortunes that were thrown away on furniture, and jewels, and costume.
+True, we are told by Bertaut de Rouen that, except upon their numerous
+holidays, the costume of the Spanish men was plain enough. This author,
+who calls them otherwise "debauched and ignorant," says that their
+clothes were all of "méchante frise," and adds that they continually
+took snuff, "dont ils ont toujours les narines pleines, ce qui fait
+qu'ils n'ont que des mouchoirs de laine, de toile grise, et peinte comme
+de la toile de la Chine." The same traveller, attending an ordinary
+reception in the royal palace at Madrid, was unable to distinguish the
+nobles from the lower orders, except that, by the privilege peculiar to
+this country, the former kept their hats on in the presence of the
+sovereign. Even of Philip himself he says: "Le Roy d'Espagne estoit
+debout avec un habit fort simple et fort ressemblant à tous ses
+portraits"; alluding, probably, to those of Philip the Fourth by
+Velazquez, in which the monarch wears a plain cloth doublet.
+
+But when the Spaniard dressed himself for any scene of gala show, his
+spendthrift inclinations swelled into a positive disease. The women,
+too, squandered enormous sums on finery. The Marchioness of Liche, said
+to have been the loveliest Española of that day, is spoken of by Bertaut
+as wearing "un corps de brocard d'argent avec de grandes basques à leur
+mode, la jupe d'une autre étoffe avec grand nombre de pierreries, et
+cela luy fetoit fort bien." An anonymous manuscript of the period,
+published by Gayangos in the _Revista de España_ for 1884, describes the
+_fiestas_ celebrated at Valladolid in 1605, in honour of the English
+ambassador and his retinue. In this relation the Duke of Lerma is quoted
+as possessing a yearly income of three hundred thousand _cruzados_,
+besides "as much again in jewellery and furniture, and gold and silver
+services." At the state banquets which were given at that wasteful
+court, even the pies and tarts were washed with gold or silver; and at a
+single feast the dishes of various kinds of fare amounted to two
+thousand and two hundred. At the banquet given by the Duke of Lerma,
+three special sideboards were constructed to sustain the weight of four
+hundred pieces of silver, "all of them of delicate design and
+exquisitely wrought of silver, gold, and enamel, together with
+innumerable objects of glass and crystal of capricious form, with
+handles, lids, and feet of finest gold."
+
+The whole of Spain's nobility was congregated at these festivals,
+"richly attired with quantities of pearls and oriental gems," while
+everybody, young and old alike, wore "diamond buttons and brooches on
+cloaks and doublets," feather plumes with costly medals, gold chains
+with emeralds, and other ornaments. The ladies of the aristocracy were
+also "clothed in costliest style, as well as loaded with diamonds and
+pearls and hair-ornaments of pearls and gold, such as the women of
+Castile lay by for these solemnities."
+
+The Spanish churches, too, continued to be veritable storehouses of
+treasure. The manuscript published by Gayangos says that in 1605 the
+church of La Merced at Valladolid had its altars "covered with beautiful
+gold and silver vessels, of which there are a great many in the whole of
+Castilla la Vieja, and particularly here at Valladolid." Bertaut de
+Rouen's notice of the shrine of Montserrat in Cataluña has been inserted
+previously. In 1775 Swinburne wrote of the same temple:--"In the
+sacristy and passages leading to it are presses and cupboards full of
+relics and ornaments of gold, silver, and precious stones; they pointed
+out to us, as the most remarkable, two crowns for the Virgin and her
+Son, of inestimable value, some large diamond rings, an excellent cameo
+of Medusa's head, the Roman emperors in alabaster, the sword of Saint
+Ignatius, and the chest that contains the ashes of a famous brother,
+John Guarin, of whom they relate the same story as that given in the
+_Spectator_ of a Turkish santon and the Sultan's daughter.... Immense is
+the quantity of votive offerings to this miraculous statue; and as
+nothing can be rejected or otherwise disposed of, the shelves are
+crowded with the most whimsical _ex votos_, viz., silver legs, fingers,
+breasts, earrings, watches, two-wheeled chaises, boats, carts, and
+such-like trumpery."
+
+Many pragmatics from the Crown vainly endeavoured to suppress or
+mitigate the popular extravagance. Such was the royal letter of 1611,
+which forbade, among the laity, the wearing of "gold jewels with
+decoration or enamel in relief, or points with pearls or other stones."
+Smaller jewels, of the kind known as _joyeles_ and _brincos_,[55] were
+limited to a single stone, together with its pearl pendant. The
+jewellery of the women was exempted from these laws, though even here
+were certain limitations. Rings for the finger might, however, bear
+enamel-work, or any kind of stone. Enamel was also allowed in gold
+buttons and chains for the men's caps, as well as in the badges worn by
+the knights of the military orders.
+
+  [55] _Brinco_ (_brincar_, to jump or spring). These jewels were so
+       called from their vibrating as the wearer walked. The Balearic
+       Islands were famous for their manufacture; and the late Marquis of
+       Arcicollar possessed a case of valuable examples, most of which
+       proceeded from this locality.
+
+"It is forbidden," continues this pragmatic, "to make any object of
+gold, silver, or other metal with work in relief, or the likeness of a
+person; nor shall any object be gilt, excepting drinking vessels, and
+the weight of these shall not exceed three marks. All other silver
+shall be flat and plain, without gilding; but this does not apply to
+objects intended for religious worship."
+
+"All niello-work is prohibited, as are silver brasiers and buffets."[56]
+
+  [56] _Suma de Leyes_, 1628, p. 116 (2).
+
+What I may call the private jewel-work of Spain, largely retains
+throughout its history the characteristic lack of finish of all the
+Visigothic treasure found at Guarrazar. From first to last, until
+extinguished or absorbed by foreign influences two centuries ago, it
+strives to compensate in ponderous and bulky splendour for what it lacks
+in delicacy, elegance, and taste. It is just the jewellery we should
+expect to find among a military people who once upon a time possessed
+great riches simultaneously with little education, and who, from this
+and other causes, such as the strenuous opposition of the national
+church to pagan sentiments expressed in fleshly form, were never
+genuinely or profoundly art-loving. Long residence and observation in
+their midst induce me to affirm that as a race the Spaniards are and
+always have been hostile, or at least indifferent, to the arts; and that
+their most illustrious artists have made their power manifest and raised
+themselves to eminence despite the people--not, as in Italy, on the
+supporting shoulders of the people.
+
+Dazzle and show monopolized, and to a great extent monopolize still, the
+preference of this race. The Spanish breast-ornaments of the seventeenth
+century, preserved at South Kensington and reproduced by Riaño on pages
+37 and 39 of his handbook, are strongly reminiscent of the Visigothic
+ornaments. Who would imagine that a thousand years had come and gone
+between the execution of the new and of the old? As late as the reign of
+Charles the Second the culture of a Spanish lady of high birth was
+little, if at all, superior to a savage's. "False stones enchant them,"
+wrote Countess d'Aulnoy. "Although they possess many jewels of
+considerable value and the finest quality, it is their whim to carry on
+their person wretched bits of glass cut in the coarsest fashion, just
+like those which pedlars in my country sell to country girls who have
+seen nobody but the village curate, and nothing but their flocks of
+sheep. Dames of the aristocracy adorn themselves with these pieces of
+glass, that are worth nothing at all; yet they purchase them at high
+prices. When I asked them why they like false diamonds, they told me
+they prefer them to the genuine as being larger. Indeed, they sometimes
+wear them of the bigness of an egg." Even where the stones were real,
+the Spanish taste in setting and in wearing them was no less execrable.
+The Countess says: "the ladies here possess great stores of beautiful
+precious stones, and do not wear, like Frenchwomen, a single article of
+jewellery, but nine or ten together, some of diamonds, others of rubies,
+pearls, emeralds, and turquoises, wretchedly mounted, since they are
+almost wholly covered with the gold. When I inquired the cause of this,
+they told me the jewels were so made because the gold was as beautiful
+as the gems. I suppose, however, the real reason is the backwardness of
+the craftsmen, who can do no better work than this, excepting Verbec,
+who has no lack of skill, and would turn out excellent jewels if he took
+the trouble to finish them."
+
+"In the neck of their bodices the ladies fasten pins profusely set with
+precious stones. Hanging from the pin, and fastened at the lower end to
+the side of their dress, is a string of pearls or diamonds. They wear no
+necklace, but bracelets on their wrists and rings on their fingers, as
+well as long earrings of so great a weight that I know not how they can
+support them. Hanging from these earrings they display whatever finery
+they may fancy. I have seen some ladies who wore good-sized watches
+hanging from their ears, strings of precious stones, English keys of
+dainty make, and little bells. They also wear the _agnus_, together with
+little images about their neck and arms, or in their hair. They dress
+their hair in various ways, and always go with it uncovered, using many
+hairpins in the form of coloured flies or butterflies of diamonds,
+emeralds, and rubies."
+
+Book-worm authorities, addicted to "dry bones" of letters, are prone
+just now to doubt this visit of Countess d'Aulnoy to the capital of
+Spain. But if such patient doubters will compare her narrative with
+those of other foreigners, _e.g._ Bertaut de Rouen, or the manuscript
+description of Valladolid, written by a Portuguese, and now in the
+British Museum library, their scepticism will--or should--be done away
+with on the moment. The letters of the countess make it plain by copious
+inner testimony that she actually performed her Spanish visit; and
+though from time to time she over-colours or misreads the truth, it was
+the very usages of Spain that were absurd and out of joint, and not,
+except in isolated instances, the sprightly and observant Frenchwoman's
+account of them.[57]
+
+  [57] But on the other hand I much suspect that the following passage in
+       Alvarez de Colmenar's _Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal_
+       (vol. iii. p. 326) is stolen from Countess d'Aulnoy. "Elles ne
+       portent point de colier, mais en échange elles ont des bracelets,
+       des bagues, et des pendans d'oreille, plus gros que tous ceux qu'on
+       voit en Hollande. Telle est la diversité des gouts des nations
+       différentes, en matière de beauté. Il y en a même quelques-unes,
+       qui attachent quelque beau joli bijou à leurs pendans d'oreilles,
+       quelque ornement de pierreries, par exemple, ou d'autres choses
+       semblables, selon leur quantité ou leur pouvoir."
+
+Elsewhere the Countess says: "Utensils of common metal are not employed
+here, but only those of silver or of ware. I hear that a little while
+ago, upon the death of the Duke of Alburquerque, six weeks were needed
+to make out an inventory of his gold and silver services. His house
+contained fourteen hundred dozen plates, five hundred large dishes, and
+seven hundred of a smaller size, with all the other pieces in
+proportion, and forty silver ladders for climbing his sideboard, made in
+grades like an altar in a spacious hall."
+
+These statements have been proved in later years. Dating from 1560, an
+inventory of the ducal house of Alburquerque was found not many years
+ago. In it we find the detailed list of gold and silver; cups and
+dishes, bowls and basins, plates and salt-cellars, trenchers, wine and
+water flagons, sauce-spoons, salad-spoons, conserve-spoons, and
+innumerable other articles. Here, too, we find, upon the mighty
+sideboard mounted by its forty silver stairs, such objects as the
+following:--
+
+"A gold cup with festoon-work above and beneath, wrought with leaves in
+relief. At the top of the foot there issue some leaves that fall down
+over a small gold staple, and below this, about the narrowest part of
+the foot, are leaves in relief and several dolphins. The broad part of
+the foot is decorated with festoons. The lid of this cup is wrought with
+leaves in relief, and on the crest thereof is a lion, crowned. The cup
+weighs three hundred and fifty-one _castellanos_ and a half."
+
+"A Castilian jar from which my lord the duke was wont to drink, weighing
+two marks and five ounces."[58]
+
+  [58] The mark was a standard of eight ounces, and was divided into fifty
+       _castellanos_.
+
+"A cup with a high foot, gilt all over, with the figure of a woman in
+its midst, and decorated in four places in the Roman manner."
+
+"A flagon of white silver, flat beneath the stem, with a screw-top
+surmounted by a small lion; for cooling water."
+
+"A small silver dish, of the kind they call meat-warmers."
+
+"A large silver seal for sealing provisions, with the arms of my lord
+the duke, Don Francisco."
+
+"A large silver vessel, embossed, with a savage on top."
+
+"A gold horse, enamelled in white upon a gold plate enamelled in green
+and open at the top; also a wolf, upon another gold plate enamelled in
+green, with lettering round about it; also a green enamelled lizard upon
+blue enamel; and a gold toothpick with four pieces enamelled in green,
+white, and rose; also a small gold column enamelled in black and rose."
+
+"A silver lemon-squeezer, gilt and chiselled, with white scroll-work
+about the mesh thereof, through which the lemon-juice is strained."
+
+"A large round silver salt-cellar, in two halves, gilt all over, with
+scales about the body, and two thick twisted threads about the flat
+part. One side of it is perforated."
+
+Among the property of the duchess, Doña Mencía Enriquez, we find "a
+small gold padlock, which opens and closes by means of letters"; two
+gold bangles; a gold necklace consisting of forty-two pieces "enamelled
+with some B's";[59] a gold signet ring with the duchess's arms; and "a
+gold and niello box with relics, for wearing round the neck." Also,
+resting on a table covered with silver plates, "a box of combs; the said
+box wrought in gold upon blue leather, containing five combs, a
+looking-glass, a little brush, and other fittings; girt with a cord in
+gold and blue silk."
+
+  [59] For Beltran de la Cueva, ancestor of this family.
+
+The seventeenth century and a race of native Spanish kings declined and
+passed away together. A dynasty of France succeeded to the throne of
+Spain, and with the foreigner came a fresh reactionary movement towards
+the neo-classic art, coupled with the canons of French taste. Henceforth
+a century of slow political reform goes hand in hand with slow
+suppression of the salient parts of Spanish character. Madrid transforms
+or travesties herself into a miniature Versailles, and national arts and
+crafts belong henceforward to a Frenchified society which found its
+painter in Goya, just as the preceding and eminently Spanish society had
+found its painter in Velazquez.
+
+Another of the causes of the falling-off in Spanish _orfebrería_ at this
+time, is stated to have been the craftsmen's overwhelming tendency to
+substitute the slighter though venerable and beautiful gold or silver
+filigree (Plate xviii.), for more artistic and ambitious, if less showy
+work in massive metal. Thus, in 1699, a supplementary chapter of the
+Ordinances of Seville complained in bitter phrases of this tendency,
+denouncing it as "a source of fraud and detriment to the republic," and
+deploring that "of the last few years we have forsaken our goodly usages
+of older times, in the matter of the drawings entrusted to the
+candidates who come before us for examination."
+
+In the same year the goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of Seville
+enacted that none of its members were to work in filigree, unless they
+were qualified to execute the other work as well. Such efforts to
+suppress this evil were not new. More than a century before, on April
+15th, 1567, the inspectors of the guild had entered the shop of Luis de
+Alvarado, silversmith, and seized some filigree earrings "of the work
+that is forbidden," breaking these objects on the spot, and imposing a
+fine of half-a-dozen ducats on the peccant or oblivious Alvarado.[60]
+
+  [60] Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. ii. p. 134.
+
+The modern gold and silver work of Spain is thus exempted from a lengthy
+notice, seeing that its typical and national characteristics have
+succumbed, or very nearly so. I may, however, mention the giant silver
+candelabra in the cathedral of Palma de Mallorca, which were made at
+Barcelona, between 1704 and 1718, by Juan Matons and three of his
+assistants. They measure eight feet high by four feet and a quarter
+across, weigh more than eight thousand ounces, and cost 21,942 pounds,
+15 _sueldos_, and 11 _dineros_ of Majorcan money. The State seized them
+during the Napoleonic wars, in order to melt them down for money; but
+the chapter of the cathedral bought them back for eleven thousand
+dollars.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+             EARLY CHALICE AND CROSS IN FILIGREE GOLD-WORK
+                   (_Church of Saint Isidore, León_)]
+
+During this century Riaño mentions several factories of silver articles
+established at Madrid, including that of Isaac and Michael Naudin (1772)
+and the Escuela de Platería (1778), protected by Charles the Third; but
+since the work of these was purely in the French or English manner, they
+call for no particular notice. The principal objects they produced were
+"inkstands, dishes, dinner-services, chocolate-stands, cruets, knives
+and forks, together with buckles, needle-cases, brooches, snuff-boxes,
+frames for miniatures, and similar trinkets."
+
+Early in the nineteenth century Laborde wrote that "the fabrication of
+articles of gold and silver might become an important object in a
+country where these metals abound; but it is neglected, and the demand
+is almost entirely supplied from foreign markets. What little they do in
+this branch at home is usually very ill executed, and exorbitantly dear.
+Madrid, however, begins to possess some good workmen; encouragement
+would increase their number and facilitate the means of improvement; but
+manual labour is there excessively dear. Hence the Spaniards prefer
+foreign articles of this kind, which, notwithstanding the expense of
+carriage, the enormous duties that they pay, and the profits of the
+merchants, are still cheaper than those made at home."
+
+Several of the inherent characteristics of the national _orfebrería_ may
+yet be noticed somewhat faintly in the ornaments and jewels of the
+Spanish peasants, though even these are being discarded. A century ago
+Laborde described the dress of the Mauregata women, near Astorga, in the
+kingdom of León. "They wear large earrings, a kind of white turban, flat
+and widened like a hat, and their hair parted on the forehead. They have
+a chemise closed over the chest, and a brown corset buttoned, with
+large sleeves opening behind. Their petticoats and veils are also brown.
+Over all they wear immense coral necklaces, which descend from the neck
+to the knee; they twist them several times round the neck, pass them
+over the shoulders, where a row is fastened, forming a kind of bandage
+over the bosom. Then another row lower than this; in short, a third and
+fourth row at some distance from each other. The last falls over the
+knee, with a large cross on the right side. These necklaces or chaplets
+are ornamented with a great many silver medals, stamped with the figure
+of saints. They only wear these decorations when not working, or on
+festivals."
+
+I have a manuscript account in French of Spanish regional costumes at
+the same period. The dress of the peasant women of Valencia is thus
+described: "Elle se coiffe toujours en cheveux, de la manière appelée
+_castaña_, et elle y passe une aiguille en argent que l'on nomme
+_rascamoño_; quelque fois elle se pare d'un grand peigne (_peineta_) en
+argent doré. Son cou este orné d'une chaine d'or ou d'argent (_cadena
+del cuello_) à laquelle est suspendue une croix ou un reliquaire." This
+was the Valencian peasant's dress for every day. On festivals the same
+woman would adorn her ears with "pendants (_arracadas_) de pierres
+fausses; mais lorsque la jardinière est riche, elles sont fines. Une
+relique (_relicario_) dans un petit médaillon en argent, est suspendue à
+son cou; ainsi qu'un chapelet très mince (_rosario_) en argent doré."
+
+The peasant women of Iviza, in the Balearics, are described in the same
+manuscript as wearing "un collier en verre, quelque fois en argent, et
+rarement en or"; while Laborde wrote of Minorca, another of these
+islands, that "the ladies are always elegantly adorned; their ornaments
+consist of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, and chaplets. _The
+peasants wear these also._" Of the women of Barcelona he said: "Silk
+stockings are very common in every class; and their shoes are
+embroidered with silk, gold, silver, pearls, and spangles."
+
+But Spain, like Italy or Switzerland, or many another country, is
+throwing off her regional costumes, of which these various jewels form a
+prominent and even an essential feature. More rarely now we come across
+the gold and seed-pearl necklaces of Salamanca, the Moorish filigree
+silver-work of Cordova, the silver-gilt necklaces of Santiago, and the
+heavy _arracadas_, hung with emeralds and sapphires, of Cataluña.
+Murcia, nevertheless, retains her Platería, a street of venerable aspect
+and associations, where to this hour the oriental-looking silver
+pendants of the neighbourhood are made and trafficked in.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                               IRON-WORK
+
+
+The ancient iron mines of Spain were no less celebrated than her mines
+of silver and of gold. Nevertheless, the history of Spanish iron-work
+begins comparatively late. Excepting certain swords and other weapons
+which require to be noticed under _Arms_, and owing to the commonness
+and cheapness of this metal, as well as to the ease with which it
+decomposes under damp, few of the earliest Spanish objects made of iron
+have descended to our time.[61] Even Riaño pays but little notice to
+this craft in the Peninsula before the second half of the fifteenth
+century. Henceforth, he says, "it continued to progress in the
+sixteenth, and produced, undoubtedly, at that period works which were
+unrivalled in Europe."
+
+  [61] A small collection, formed by Don Emilio Rotondo, of primitive iron
+       rings, bracelets, brooches, and other ornaments, is preserved in
+       the Schools of Aguirre at Madrid. Villa-amil y Castro
+       (_Antigüedades prehistóricas y célticas_, and _Castros y Mamoas de
+       Galicia_, published in the _Museo Español de Antigüedades_),
+       describes some iron objects of uncertain use discovered in Galicia,
+       together with spear-heads and other weapons or pieces of weapons
+       which will be noticed under _Arms_, and also an object which he
+       says may once have been a candlestick, or else a kind of flute. All
+       these are probably pre-Roman. Dating from the Roman period are an
+       iron ploughshare and some sickles, discovered at Ronda in
+       Andalusia, and now in the Madrid Museum. Góngora, however
+       (_Antigüedades prehistóricas de Andalucía_), inclines to think that
+       previous to the Roman conquest the occupants of Betica were
+       ignorant of this metal, though not of gold, from which they
+       fashioned diadems and other articles of wear. See also Caballero
+       Infante, _Aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados en el pueblo
+       de Santiponce_, Seville, 1898.
+
+The decorative iron-work of Spain may suitably be dealt with in three
+classes: railings, screens, or pulpits of churches, chapels, and
+cathedrals; balconies and other parts or fittings applied to public or
+private buildings of a non-ecclesiastical character; and smaller, though
+not necessarily less attractive or important objects, such as knockers,
+locks and keys, and nail-heads.
+
+The last of these divisions, as embracing Spanish-Moorish craftsmanship,
+shall have, as far as order is concerned, our preferential notice.
+
+Surely, in the whole domain of history, no object has a grander
+symbolism than the key. In mediæval times the keys of cities, castles,
+towns, and fortresses were held to be significant of ownership, or
+vigilance, or conquest. Especially was this the case in Spain--a nation
+incessantly engaged in war. Probably in no country in the world has the
+ceremony of delivering up this mark of tenure of a guarded and defended
+place occurred so often as here. Do we not read of it in stirring
+stanzas of her literature? Do we not find it in her paintings, on her
+stone and metal _rilievi_, or carved in wood upon the stalls of her
+cathedrals? Therefore the key, just like the sword, seemed, in the warm
+imagination of the Spaniards, to be something almost sacred. The
+legislative codes of Old Castile are most minute in their relation of
+its venerated attributes. Nor were the Spanish Muslims less alive to its
+importance than their foe, taking it also for an emblem of their own,
+and planting it in lordly eminence upon their gates and towers of
+Cordova, and Seville, and Granada. For what was Tarik's Mountain but the
+key of the narrow gate that led to their enchanted land, as sunny as,
+and yet less sultry than, their sandy home; truly a land of promise to
+the fiery children of the desert, panting for the paradise that smiled
+at them across the storied strip of emerald and sapphire water?
+
+So was it that both Moors and Spaniards made their keys of fortresses
+and citadels almost into an object of their worship. In hearing or in
+reading of such keys, the mind at once recurs to those of Seville (Plate
+xix.), two in number, famed throughout the world of mediæval art, and
+stored among the holiest relics in the sacristy of her cathedral. The
+larger is of silver, in the style now known as Mudejar, and dates from
+the second half of the thirteenth century. The length is rather more
+than eight inches, and the whole key is divided into five compartments,
+ornamented in enamels and in gold. Castles, ships, and lions adorn the
+thicker portion of the stem between the barrel proper and the handle;
+and on the rim of the latter is this inscription, in Hebrew
+characters:--
+
+"_The King of Kings will open; the king of all the land shall
+enter._"[62]
+
+  [62] Riaño's reading was, "_the King of the whole Earth will enter_."
+       But is not this contradicted by the other inscription on the same
+       key?
+
+The wards are also beautifully carved into the following legend,
+distributed in two rows, one superposed upon the other, of two words
+and of ten letters apiece:--
+
+               "_Dios abrirá; Rey entrará._"
+               "_God will open; the king shall enter._"
+
+The iron key is purely Moorish, smaller than its fellow, and measures
+just over six inches. Like the other, it consists of five divisions, and
+the wards are in the form of an inscription in African Cufic characters,
+which Gayangos and other Arabists have variously interpreted. Five of
+the commonest readings are as follows:--
+
+(1) "_May Allah permit that the rule (of Islam) last for ever in this
+city._"
+
+(2) "_By the grace of God may (this key) last for ever._"
+
+(3) "_May peace be in the King's mansion._"
+
+(4) "_May God grant us the boon of the preservation of the city._"
+
+(5) "_To God (belongs) all the empire and the power._"
+
+Our earliest tidings of this iron key are from the Jesuit Bernal, who
+wrote in the seventeenth century. It was not then the property of the
+cathedral chapter, for Ortiz de Zúñiga says that it belonged, in the
+same century, to a gentleman of Seville named Don Antonio Lopez de Mesa,
+who had inherited it from his father. Tradition declares that both this
+key and its companion were laid at the feet of Ferdinand the Third by
+Axataf, governor of Seville, when the city capitulated to the Christian
+prince on November 23rd, 1248. But Ortiz is careful to inform us that he
+neither countenances nor rejects the popular notion that the iron key
+was thus delivered as the token of surrender, "although," he says, "the
+owners of it are strongly of this judgment." What we do know is that on
+June 16th, 1698, the iron key was presented to the cathedral by Doña
+Catalina Basilia Domonte y Pinto, niece of the Señor Lopez de Mesa
+aforesaid; and that the chapter forthwith accepted it with solemn
+gratitude as "one of the keys delivered by the Moors to the Rey Santo on
+the conquest of the city," ordering it to be guarded in a special box.
+
+Such is the popular fancy still accepted by the Sevillanos. However,
+Amador de los Ríos has sifted out a good deal of the truth, showing that
+the iron and the silver key are wrought in different styles, and were
+intended for a different purpose. He places the iron instrument among
+the "keys of conquered cities," and its silver neighbour among the "keys
+of honour, or of dedication"; and he declares as certain (although the
+reasons he adduces do not quite convince me) that this iron key is
+actually the one which figured in the ceremony of surrender. The other
+he considers to have been a gift from the Sevillians to the tenth
+Alfonso, son of Ferdinand the saint and conqueror, as a loyal and a
+grateful offering in return for his protection of their industries and
+commerce. However this may be, the decorative aspect of the larger key,
+together with the choice material of which it is made, appears to prove
+that it was not associated with the rigours of a siege, but served in
+some way as a symbol of prosperity and peace. It was a common custom at
+a later age for Spanish cities to present their sovereign, when he came
+among them, with a richly ornamented key. Such keys were offered to
+Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second when, in 1526 and 1570,
+respectively, they visited Seville; while Riaño reminds us that "even in
+the present day the ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the
+foreign princes who stay at the royal palace of Madrid." Similarly, as
+an ordinary form of salutation, does the well-bred Spaniard place his
+house at your disposal.
+
+Five Moorish keys--one of bronze and four of iron--are in the Museum of
+Segovia, and bear, as Amador observes, a general resemblance to the iron
+key of Seville. The wards of four of them are shaped into the following
+inscriptions: the first key, "_In Secovia_ (Segovia)"; the second,
+"(_This_) _key was curiously wrought at Medina Huelma, God protect
+her_"; the third, "_Open_"; and the fourth, "_This work is by
+Abdallah._"
+
+The first and smallest of these keys informs us, therefore, that it was
+manufactured at Segovia. The third key is that which is of bronze, and
+bears the word "_Open_," probably addressed to Allah. The second, which
+is also the largest and the most artistic and ornate, belonged, we read
+upon its wards, to Huelma, a fortress-town upon the frontiers of the
+kingdom of Granada. This town was wrested from the Moors on April 20th,
+1438, by Iñigo Lopez de Mendoza, first Marquis of Santillana, who
+possibly sent this key to Castile as a present to his sovereign, Juan
+the Second, in company with the usual papers of capitulation.
+
+Other Moorish keys are scattered over Spain in various of her public and
+private collections, though none are so remarkable as those of Seville
+and Segovia. The town of Sepúlveda possesses seven early iron keys,
+several of which are Moorish. Others are at Burgos, Valencia, Palma,
+Jaen, and Granada. At the last-named city the following key, dating
+undoubtedly from the period of the Muslim domination, was discovered, in
+1901, among the débris of the Palace of Seti Meriem.[63]
+
+  [63] _La Alhambra_ (from which this sketch is taken) for September 30th,
+       1901; article on the Palace of Seti Meriem, by F. de Paula
+       Valladar.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Keys of awe-inspiring magnitude are still preferred among the Spaniards
+to a handier and slighter instrument, this people seeming to believe
+that the bigger the key the more inviolable is the custody which it
+affords--a theory not at all upheld by modern experts in this venerable
+craft. Perhaps this singular and local preference is derived from
+Barbary. At any rate it still obtains across the Strait. "Our host,"
+wrote Mr Cunninghame Graham in _Mogreb-El-Acksa_, "knocks off great
+pieces from a loaf of cheap French sugar with the key of the house,
+drawing it from his belt and hammering lustily, as the key weighs about
+four ounces, and is eight or nine inches long." Of such a length are
+nearly all the house-keys of contemporary Spain; and with this apparatus
+bulging in his belt the somnolent _sereno_ or night-watchman of this
+sleepy, unprogressive, Latino-Mussulmanic land prowls to this hour along
+the starlit streets of Barcelona, Seville, or Madrid.
+
+The city Ordinances of Granada form a valuable and interesting link
+between the Spanish-Moorish craftsmanship and that of Spaniards
+Christian-born. The _Ordenanzas de Cerrageros_, or Locksmiths'
+Ordinances, though not voluminous, are curious and informative beyond
+the rest, and show us that a general rascality was prevalent in Granada
+after her reconquest from the Moor. Locksmiths were forbidden now to
+make a lock the impression of which was put into their hands in wax,
+even if the order should be sweetened by "a quantity of maravedis,"
+since the effect of such commissions, whose very secrecy betrayed
+illicit and improper ends in view, was stated to be "very greatly
+perilous and mischief-making."
+
+Another Ordinance reveals the Christian locksmiths of Granada as arrant
+scoundrels, almost as troublesome to deal with as the pestering little
+shoeblacks of to-day. "Word is brought us," groaned the aldermen, "how
+many locksmiths, foreigners that dwell within this city as well as
+naturals that go up and down our thoroughfares, in taking locks and
+padlocks to repair, do, at the same time that they set the keys in
+order, contrive to fit them with new wards inferior to the older ones,
+so as to be able to open and close them with the keys they have
+themselves in store, wherein is grave deceitfulness, seeing that the
+aforesaid locks and padlocks may be opened in such wise without a key at
+all."[64]
+
+  [64] _Ordenanzas de Granada_, p. 191.
+
+If we except the vast dimensions of the common keys of houses, this
+branch of Spanish craftsmanship has now no quality to point it from the
+rest of Europe, having become, in Riaño's words, "simply practical and
+useful." Laborde observed in 1809 that "locks and various iron utensils
+are made in divers places. Locksmiths are numerous at Vega de Ribadeo in
+Galicia, at Helgoivar in Biscay, at Vergara in Guipuscoa, at Solsona and
+Cardona in Catalonia. Different kinds of iron goods are manufactured at
+Vergara, Solsona, and Cardona. The articles made of iron and steel at
+Solsona are in high estimation, notwithstanding they are destitute of
+taste and elegance, badly finished, and worse polished; and can by no
+means be put in competition with similar articles introduced from other
+countries."[65]
+
+  [65] Those of my readers who have visited Spain will probably have seen
+       the inlaid iron-work of Eibar and Toledo. The objects chiefly
+       manufactured in this style are brooches, bracelets, scarf and hat
+       pins, photograph frames, jewel and trinket boxes, watches, and
+       cigarette cases. The workmanship is often elaborate and costly, nor
+       can it be denied that the red or greenish gold has an effective
+       look against the jet-black surface of the polished or unpolished
+       iron. Upon the other hand, the taste displayed in the design is
+       seldom good; while in a climate with the slightest tendency to
+       damp, the iron is apt to rust and tarnish, and the fine inlay to
+       loosen.
+
+Iron nails with ornamented heads and decorative door-knockers are other
+objects which reveal the influence of Mohammedan Spain. A number of
+artistic Spanish nails are in the South Kensington Museum. "Some doors,"
+says Riaño, "still exist at the Alhambra, Granada, covered with enormous
+heads of nails of a half-spherical form with embossed pattern. These
+same nails are constantly to be found on old Spanish houses, to which
+are added in the angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order" (Pl.
+xix.A). In the same city, though not precisely in the Alhambra, I
+have seen upon the doors of private houses nails of a decorative kind
+which appear to consist of a single piece, but which are really formed
+of two--an ornamental boss perforated through its centre, and the nail
+proper, which fastens through it to the woodwork of the door behind.
+Thus, when the nail is hammered tight upon the boss, the effect is
+naturally that of a single piece of metal. Similar nails are on the door
+of Tavera's hospital at Toledo.
+
+                          [Illustration: XIX_a_
+                         DECORATIVE NAIL-HEADS
+                  (_Convent of San Antonio, Toledo_)]
+
+The _Ordenanzas_ of Granada tell us minutely of the nails which were
+produced there in the sixteenth century. They were denominated
+_cabriales_, _costaneros_, _palmares_, _bolayques_, _vizcainos_,
+sabetinos, and _moriscos_; of all of which I can only find that the
+_cabriales_ and _costaneros_ were used for beams and rafters, and the
+_moriscos_ for fixing horse-shoes. In Spain the custom of fastening down
+the decorative coverings of chairs or benches dates from comparatively
+late; and it was probably with this innovation that iron-workers began
+to exercise their ingenuity upon the heads of nails.
+
+Towards the close of the Middle Ages the city of Segovia was celebrated
+for her locks and keys, her knockers, and her _rejas_. In 1892,
+collections of iron objects, chiefly manufactured in this town, were
+shown by the duke of Segovia, Don Nicolás Duque, and Don Adolfo Herrera
+at the Exposición Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Segovia still preserves
+an old door covered with extraordinary iron spikes, that once belonged
+to the castle of Pedraza; many curious balconies, such as that in a
+first floor of the Calle del Carmen; and the grilles--proceeding from
+the old cathedral--of the chapel of the Cristo del Consuelo and the
+chapel of the Piedad.
+
+Another interesting collection of early decorative Spanish iron,
+belonging to the well-known painter, Señor Rusiñol, is kept at the town
+of Sitjes, in Cataluña. The late Marquis of Arcicollar possessed a
+number of specimens of Spanish manufactured iron of the later Middle
+Ages, such as boxes, candelabra, locks, nails, door-knockers,
+_braseros_, and a rare and curious iron desk (fourteenth century), with
+leather fittings.
+
+The collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan included four
+door-knockers of Spanish iron, dating from late in the fifteenth century
+or early in the sixteenth. I give a reproduction of these knockers (Pl.
+xx.). The two which occupy the centre are evidently from a sacred
+building; while the other pair are just as evidently _señoriales_, and
+belonged to a noble house. In the former pair, the clumsy carving of the
+saints, Peter and James, is attributed by Serrano Fatigati to the native
+coarseness of the iron.
+
+                            [Illustration: XX
+                             DOOR-KNOCKERS
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+Proceeding from the same collection are a pair of ceremonial maces and a
+ceremonial lantern, which I also reproduce (Pl. xxi.), since the Spanish
+writer from whom I have just quoted pronounces them to be "excellent
+specimens of the iron-work of our country at the close of the Middle
+Ages." He says that, as we notice in the pinnacles, they show a tendency
+to copy architectural detail, and are otherwise characteristic of the
+period. Towards the fourteenth century the file replaced the hammer, and
+the sheet of iron was substituted for the bar. These objects, dating
+from the fifteenth century, duly reveal this change. Also, as was usual
+at the time, they are composed of separate pieces stoutly riveted. In
+the knockers with the figures of the saints "we notice the partial use
+of the chisel, which became general in the sixteenth century, at the
+same time that iron objects were loaded with images, forms of animals,
+and other capricious figures. These may be said to belong to a period
+of transition, culminating in the _rejas_."[66]
+
+  [66] Serrano Fatigati, in the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+       Excursiones_.
+
+The Madrid Museum contains a sixteenth-century cross of _repoussé_ iron,
+in the Greek form, and which is certainly of Spanish make. According to
+Villa-amil, it formerly had a gilded border and was painted black, which
+leads this writer to suppose that it was used at funerals. Iron crosses
+may be seen occasionally on churches and on other public buildings, and
+Stirling has inserted cuts of several in his _Annals of the Artists of
+Spain_. Crosses of large size were sometimes planted on the highway.
+Such was the elaborate but ugly iron cross, measuring three yards in
+height, made by Sebastian Conde in 1692 for the Plazuela de la
+Cerrajeriá in Seville, and now preserved in her Museum.
+
+The iron balustrade or _verja_ of the marble tomb of Cardinal Cisneros
+is finely wrought in Plateresque-Renaissance, with elaborate designs of
+gryphons, foliage, urns, birds, masks, sheep's heads, swans, coats of
+arms, dolphins, and other ornament in great profusion. The craftsman was
+Nicolás de Vergara the elder. Lesser in size, though not less
+striking in its execution, is the railing, by Francisco de Villalpando,
+which surrounds the _Altar de Prima_ in the choir of Toledo Cathedral.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                      CEREMONIAL MACES AND LANTERN
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+"Iron pulpits," says Riaño, "have been made in Spain with great
+success." He mentions five: two in Avila Cathedral (Plate xxii.); two at
+Seville; and one at the church of San Gil at Burgos. The latter is
+described by Street, who says: "It is of very late date, end of the
+fifteenth century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. The
+support is of iron, resting on stone, and the staircase modern. The
+framework at the angles, top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the
+iron-work is laid. The traceries are cut out of two plates of iron, laid
+one over the other, and the iron-work is in part gilded, but I do not
+think that this is original. The canopy is of the same age and
+character, and the whole effect is very rich at the same time that it is
+very novel. I saw other pulpits, but none so old as this."
+
+The iron pulpits of Salamanca, "covered with bas-reliefs representing
+the Evangelists and subjects taken from the Acts of the Apostles and the
+apocalypse," were made at the same time as the _reja_ by Fray Francisco
+de Zalamea or Salamanca, Fray Juan, and other artists. The two at Avila
+are stationed one on either side of the Capilla Mayor, and are of gilded
+iron, hexagonal in form, and measuring about ten feet in height.
+Gryphons or other beasts support the pulpit on its stem or column. The
+body of each pulpit bears the arms of the cathedral, namely, the _Agnus
+Dei_, a lion, and a castle--the whole surmounted by a crown--and is
+divided lengthways by a central band into a double tier, closed by a
+richly decorated cornice at the upper and the lower border. Otherwise
+the pulpits are quite dissimilar. In one the decorative scheme is almost
+purely geometrical, while in the other it consists of foliage, birds and
+beasts, and niches containing statuettes of saints. The stair-railings
+are modern; but the primitive carving still adorns the end of every
+step.[67]
+
+  [67] For a detailed account of these pulpits see Villa-amil y Castro's
+       article in the _Museo Español de Antigüedadess_.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXII
+                              IRON PULPIT
+                          (_Avila Cathedral_)]
+
+We do not know who was the maker of these pulpits. Some believe him to
+have been a certain Juan Francés, to whom our notice will again be
+called as figuring among the earliest masters of this eminently Spanish
+craft, and who, on strongish evidence, is thought to be the author of
+the _rejas_ in the same cathedral which enclose the choir, and the
+front and sides of the Capilla Mayor. This is the only reason for
+supposing him to have made the pulpits also. One of these, however, is
+in the Flamboyant, and the other in the Renaissance style; so it may
+well be doubted whether both were produced by the same hand, or even at
+exactly the same period.[68]
+
+  [68] Payments made to "Master Juan Francés" are recorded by Zarco del
+       Valle, _Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes
+       en España_, pp. 320, 321.
+
+It is, however, in the _rejas_ that the craftsmanship of older Spain
+attains its loftiest pinnacle. They consist, says Banister Fletcher, of
+"rich and lofty grilles in hammered and chiselled iron ... strongly
+characteristic of the national art. The formality of the long and
+vertical bars is relieved by figures beaten in _repoussé_, in
+duplicates, attached back to back, and by crestings and traceries
+adapted to the material, and freely employed. Few things in Spain are
+more original and artistic."[69]
+
+  [69] _History of Architecture_, p. 303. They possess, too, the
+       advantage, from their ponderous solidity and fixedness, that most
+       of them are still extant and in the best of preservation, although
+       Napoleon's Vandals rooted up the chapel _rejas_ of the Church of
+       Santo Domingo at Granada, and turned them into bullets; just as
+       their general, Sebastiani, threw down the tower of San Jerónimo to
+       make a trumpery bridge across the trickling stream of the Genil.
+       Scores of thousands of such crimes, not to forget the blowing up
+       of the gate and tower of the Siete Suelos, were perpetrated by the
+       French all over Spain; yet Washington Irving, in a strangely
+       infelicitous passage of his _Tales of the Alhambra_, congratulates
+       the invaders for their reverential treatment of the noblest
+       monuments of Spanish art!
+
+The _reja_ generally was not, as many have supposed, of late invention.
+It existed from the earliest days of Christianity; but it was only in
+the Gothic and Renaissance ages that Spain converted it into a vehicle
+for decorative art. The growth of these ornamental _rejas_ may be traced
+in cities of Old Castile, together with Seville, Salamanca, Cuenca, and
+Toledo. Spain, it is idle to observe, was at no moment so appreciative
+of her craftsmen as was Italy, so that our information as to mediæval
+Spanish craftsmen and the process of their lives and labours is, upon
+the whole, deplorably deficient. Nevertheless, among the oldest of her
+artists known in Spanish as _rejeros_, or (a finer and more venerable
+term) _"reja_-masters"--_maestros de rexas_--appears Juan Francés,
+working in 1494 in Toledo Cathedral and, in the same capacity (for he
+seems to have been an armourer besides, and to have held the title of
+"master-maker of iron arms in Spain")[70] at Alcalá de Henares, as well
+as, in 1505, at Osma, in whose cathedral he made the _rejas_ of the
+choir and high chapel.[71]
+
+  [70] So, in Spain, does war appear to have been connected even with the
+       peaceful _reja_. Similarly, in 1518, the contractors for the grille
+       of the Chapel Royal of Granada were Juan Zagala and Juan de
+       Cubillana, "master-artillerymen to their highnesses." Valladar,
+       _Guía de Granada_, 1st ed., p. 302, note.
+
+  [71] A quaint but somewhat tautological and prosy letter
+       concerning matters of his craft, addressed by Francés to the
+       cardinal-archbishop of Toledo, is published in the _Museo Español
+       de Antigüedades_, article _Los Púlpitos de la Catedral de Avila_,
+       by Villa-amil y Castro. The _reja_ of the presbytery at Burgo de
+       Osma is thus inscribed: "_Izo esta obra maestre Joan Francés
+       maestre mayor._" The top consists of repetitions of a shield
+       containing five stars and supported by angels, lions, and gryphons.
+       Two iron pulpits project from the lower part of the grille, and a
+       swan of the same metal, with extended wings, rests upon either
+       pulpit.
+
+Although the craftsman's name has rarely been recorded, we know that
+excellent _rejería_ was made at Barcelona in the fifteenth century. Also
+dating from the fifteenth century, and therefore prior to the
+Plateresque, is the _reja_, ornamented with leaves and figures of
+centaurs and other creatures, mythical and real, enclosing the sepulchre
+of the Anayas in the old cathedral of Salamanca. During the first
+quarter of the sixteenth century much work in decorative _rejería_ was
+completed in Seville Cathedral by Fernando Prieto, Fray Francisco de
+Salamanca,[72] Sancho Muñoz, Diego de Adrobo, and others (_vide_
+Frontispiece). Taught by these, while yet belonging to a slightly later
+time, and linking in this way the riper and decadent Gothic with the new
+Renaissance and the Plateresque, were Pedro de Andino, Antonio de
+Palencia, and Juan Delgado. Rosell observes that without doubt these
+artists, excepting only Juan Francés--the pioneer of them all--were
+Spanish-born; and they in their turn were succeeded by other Spaniards
+who worked most regularly at Toledo; such as Bartolomé Rodriguez, Luis
+de Peñafiel, and Francisco de Silva.
+
+  [72] A Dominican friar, summoned to Seville in 1518, to make her
+       cathedral _rejas_. He also made the pulpits of the high altar in
+       1531, and was working in this city as late as 1547. Account-sheets
+       penned by his hand were still extant a century ago, and Cean
+       conveys to us some knowledge of Fray Francisco, receiving as the
+       wages of his labour, now a score or so of ducats, now a bushel or
+       two of corn. The friar, whom the canons spoke of with affection for
+       his many virtues, seems to have been a handy man, seeing that
+       between his spells of _reja_-making he put the clock of the Giralda
+       into trim, and built an alarum apparatus to rouse the cathedral
+       bell-ringer at early morning.
+
+       For the sums paid to Fray Francisco and to Sancho Muñoz for their
+       work, see Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. ii.
+       pp. 365 _et seq._
+
+An excellent _rejero_ named Hernando de Arenas completed the grille of
+Cuenca Cathedral in 1557. Three years before, a Cordovese, Fernando de
+Valencia, had made the intricate Renaissance _reja_ of the Chapel of the
+Asunción in the mosque of that most ancient capital--a noble piece of
+work, which still exists. Other _rejeros_ who were either natives of, or
+who resided in, this city were Pedro Sanchez, Alonso Perez, Pedro
+Sanchez Cardenosa, Francisco Lopez, Juan Martinez Cano, and Diego de
+Valencia.
+
+One of these men, Alonso Perez, a native of Jaen, contracted, on April
+13th, 1576, to make the _rejas_ of the Capilla Mayor in the church of
+the convent of the Trinity at Cordova. He was to finish them within one
+year, at a cost of fifty-one _maravedis_ for every pound of iron, of
+sixteen ounces to the pound. Ramírez de Arellano, who has extracted
+these notices of Cordovese artists from the city archives[73], says that
+the _reja_ in question is no longer standing; but a document of the time
+informs us that it was of an elaborate character, and carried
+architraves, cornices, and the usual decorative detail of the Spanish
+Renaissance.
+
+  [73] Consult his valuable studies, _Artistas exhumados_, published in
+       various numbers of the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+       Excursionistas_.
+
+In 1593 Pedro Sanchez agreed to make, within four years, a grille for
+the old chapel of the Concepción, also in Cordova, at a cost of
+forty-nine maravedis for every pound of iron that the finished _reja_
+should contain; and a year later the same artist signed a contract for
+what is thought to be his masterpiece--the _reja_ of the chapel of the
+Holy Cross, in the nave of the _sagrario_ of the same temple. The
+stipulated time was two years only; but the cost amounted in this
+instance to one hundred maravedis for every pound of the completed
+_reja_.
+
+Marvels of power and of patience are among the _rejas_ of this land. In
+them, obedient to the genius of the craftsman, the ponderous metal
+assumes the gossamer lightness of the finest gauze, now seeming to be
+breathed rather than built across the entrance to some side-chapel, now
+tapering skyward till we fancy it to melt away, like vapour, on the
+surface of the lofty roof. Such are the screens--which here demand a
+brief description--of Toledo and Palencia and Granada; that of Cuenca,
+where Arenas plied his master-hand; and, first in merit of them all,
+the peerless _reja_, royal in magnificence and faultless taste, that
+closes in at Burgos the no less royal-looking chapel of a Count of Haro,
+sometime Constable of all Castile.
+
+The _reja_ of the Capilla Mayor of Toledo Cathedral is twenty-one feet
+high by forty-six in breadth. "Armies of workmen," wrote Méndez Silva,
+referring to this screen and to its neighbour, that of the _coro_, "were
+toiling at them for ten years, nor would their cost have been greater
+had they been of founded silver." The cost of which he speaks was more
+than a quarter of a million _reales_, although the workmen's daily wage
+was only two _reales_ and a half, or, in the case of the particularly
+skilled, four _reales_.
+
+The author of this admirable screen was Francisco de Villalpando, whose
+plans and estimate were approved by Cardinal Tavera in 1540. "The _reja_
+consists of two tiers resting on different kinds of marble. Attic
+columns ornamented with handsome _rilievi_ and terminated by bronze
+caryatides, divide these tiers into several spaces. The upper tier is
+formed by seven columns of ornate pattern, containing, on a frieze of
+complicated tracery, figures of animals and angels, and other
+delicately drawn and executed objects in relief. Upon the cornice are
+coats of arms, angels, and other decoration; and in the centre, the
+imperial arms of Charles the Fifth, together with a large crucifix
+pendent from a massive gilded chain. On the frieze of the second tier
+are the words, ADORATE DOMINUM IN ATRIO SANCTO EJUS KALENDAS APRILIS
+1548, and on the inner side, PLUS ULTRA." [74]
+
+  [74] Rosell y Torres; _La Reja de la Capilla del Condestable en la
+       Catedral de Burgos_, published in the _Museo Español de
+       Antigüedades_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                         _REJA_ OF CHAPEL ROYAL
+                         (_Granada Cathedral_)]
+
+The other of the larger _rejas_ in this temple--that of the choir--is
+not inferior in a great degree to Villalpando's masterpiece. It was made
+by "Maestre" Domingo (de Céspedes),[75] who, in his estimate of June
+18th, 1540, engaged to finish it at a total cost of 5000 ducats, "he to
+be given the necessary gold and silver for the plating" (_Archives of
+Toledo Cathedral_, quoted by Rosell). This Maestre Domingo was
+aided by his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo, and both of them, says de la
+Rada y Delgado, were probably natives of Toledo.[76] In the same city
+they also made the _rejas_ for the Baptismal Chapel, and for the chapels
+of the Reyes Viejos and Reyes Nuevos.
+
+  [75] He is called Domingo de Céspedes by Cean Bermudez, although, as
+       Zarco del Valle remarks, the surname does not appear in any of the
+       documents relating to this craftsman which are yet preserved in the
+       archives of Toledo cathedral. These documents merely tell us that
+       Domingo was his Christian name, that his own signature was _Maestre
+       Domingo_, and that he and Fernando Bravo were required to find
+       surety to the value of 375,000 _maravedis_ for the faithful and
+       expert performance of their work, which they were to complete
+       within two years, receiving for it the sum of six thousand ducats.
+
+  [76] Conde de Cedillo, _Toledo en el Siglo XVI_. Reply to the Count's
+       address, by J. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXIV
+                         _REJA_ OF CHAPEL ROYAL
+               (_View from interior. Granada Cathedral_)]
+
+Excellent Plateresque _rejas_ are those of the Capilla Mayor and Coro of
+Palencia Cathedral--the latter from the hand of Gaspar Rodriguez of
+Segovia, who finished it in 1571 at a cost of 3400 ducats. In the same
+city is the _reja_ of the chapel of Nuestra Señora la Blanca, finished
+in 1512 by Juan Relojero, a Palencian, who received for his labour
+25,000 _maravedis_ and a load and a half of wheat.
+
+The noble and colossal gilt and painted[77] _reja_ of the Chapel Royal
+of Granada Cathedral was wrought between the years 1518 and 1523 by one
+Master Bartholomew, whose name is near the keyhole. This was a person of
+obscure life though mighty powers as a craftsman. We know that he
+resided at Jaen, and, from a document which still remains,[78] that he
+petitioned Charles the Fifth for payment (sixteen hundred ducats) of
+this grille, because the clergy had continually refused to liquidate it.
+He made, besides the work I herewith describe, the _reja_ of the
+presbytery for Seville cathedral,[79] and possibly, as Sentenach
+suggests, the iron tenebrarium, ten feet high by five across, for the
+cathedral of Jaen.
+
+  [77] The painting of a _reja_ was commonly executed by the
+       "image-painter" (_pintor de imaginería_). As the term implies, it
+       was this artist's business to gild or colour sacred furniture,
+       such as altars, panels, images, and decorative doors and ceilings.
+
+  [78] Archives of Simancas. _Descargos de las R.C._; _Legajo 23 prov._
+       Valladar, _Guía de Granada_ (1st ed.), p. 302, note.
+
+  [79] "To Master Bartholomew, _rexero_, twenty gold ducats for the days
+       he took in travelling from Jaen, and for those on which he was at
+       work upon the _reja_ of the high altar here in Seville." On
+       March 18th, 1524, the same craftsman was paid 13,125 _maravedis_
+       for making the "samples and other things belonging to the _reja_
+       of the high altar."--_Libro de Fábrica_ of Seville Cathedral.
+       Gestoso, _Sevilla Monumental y Artística_, and _Diccionario de
+       Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. xi. p. 362.
+
+The _reja_ of the Chapel Royal of Granada, "of two faces, the finest
+that was ever made of this material," [80] has three tiers. "The first
+tier contains six Corinthian pilasters and a broad frieze covered with
+Plateresque ornamentation, as are the pedestals on which the pilasters
+rest. In the second tier are the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella within
+a garland supported by two lions, and other crowns together with the
+yoke and arrows;[81] all intertwined with stems, leaves, and little
+angels of an exquisite effect. Before the pilasters of this tier and of
+the one immediately above it are figures of the apostles on Gothic
+brackets--a style we also notice on the fastening of the gate and on the
+twisted railing; but every other detail of the grille is Plateresque.
+Upon the top are scenes of martyrdoms and of the life of Christ, the
+whole surmounted by a decorative scheme of leaves and candelabra, and,
+over this, a crucifix together with the figures of the Virgin and Saint
+John. The designing of the figures is only moderately good, but all
+remaining detail and the craftsmanship are admirable" [82] (Plates
+xxiii. and xxiv.).
+
+  [80] Pedraza, _Historia de Granada_ (1636), p. 40.
+
+  [81] The yoke and sheaf of arrows were the emblems of these princes--the
+       yoke, of Ferdinand; the arrows, of his queen. Shields of their
+       reign, whether employed in architecture or on title-pages, almost
+       invariably include these emblems and the well-known motto,
+       _Tanto Monta_.
+
+  [82] Gómez Moreno, _Guía de Granada_, p. 291.
+
+Last on my list of Spanish _reja_-makers I place the greatest and most
+honoured of them all--Cristóbal de Andino, who, as a modern writer has
+expressed it, "uttered the last word in the matter of giving shape to
+iron." Cristóbal, son of Pedro de Andino--himself an artist of no mean
+capacity--excelled in architecture, sculpture, _rejería_, and probably
+in silver-work as well. "Good craftsmen," wrote his contemporary, Diego
+de Sagredo, "and those who wish their work to breathe the spirit of
+authority and pass without rebuke, should follow--like your
+fellow-townsman, Cristóbal de Andino--ancient precepts, in that his
+works have greater elegance and beauty than any others that I witnessed
+heretofore. If this (you think) be not the case, look at that _reja_ he
+is making for my lord the Constable, which _reja_ is well known to be
+superior to all others of this kingdom."
+
+Such is the _reja_ thought, both then and now, to be the finest ever
+made. The style is pure Renaissance. Two tiers of equal height consist
+of four-and-twenty ornamented rails or balusters disposed, above,
+between four columns; below, between four pilasters. An attic is upon
+the cornice, and contains two central, semi-naked, kneeling figures
+which support a large, crowned shield. This is surmounted by a bust of
+God the Father, enclosed in a triangular frame, and raising the hand to
+bless. On either side of the attic are S-shaped crests sustaining
+circular medallions with the likenesses, in bold relief, of Christ and
+Mary. Along the friezes are the legends; EGO SUM ALPHA ET [Greek:
+omega]; EGO SUM LUX VERA; and ECCE ANCILLA DOMINI, together with the
+words, referring to the artist, AB ANDINO, and the date A.D. MDXXIII.
+The decorative scheme is spirited and delicate at once, whether we
+observe it on the railing, pilasters, and columns, or on the horizontal
+parts and members of the _reja_. The attic which surmounts the double
+tier and cornice is finally surmounted by a gilt Saint Andrew's cross;
+and the entire screen is lavishly painted and gilded throughout.
+
+Here is a thing--almost a being--created out of iron, so intensely
+lovely that the eye would wish to contemplate it to the end of time;
+and, as we linger in its presence, if perchance the dead are privileged
+to hear their earthly praises echoed in the silence of the tomb, surely
+from his marble sepulchre Cristóbal de Andino listens to such praises at
+this hour. For yonder, in the neighbouring parish church of San Cosmé,
+beside a wife devoted and well-loved the great artificer is laid to
+rest, where Latin words (although of idle purport while the _reja_ of
+the Constable remains) are deep engraved to thus remind us of his
+worth:--
+
+               CHRISTOPHORUS ANDINO EGREGIUS
+               ARTIFEX ET IN ARCHITECTURA OMNIUM
+               SUI SECULI FACILE PRINCEPS
+               MONUMENTUM SIBI PONENDUM LE
+               GAVIT ET CATERINA FRIAS EJUS
+               UXOR HONESTISSIMA STATIM MARITI
+               VOTIS ET SUIS SATISFACIENDUM B
+               ENIGNE CHRISTIANEQUE CURAVIT URNAM CU
+               JUS LAPIDES SOLUM AMBORUM OSSA TEGUNT
+               SED ADMONET ETIAM CERTIS ANNUI HE
+               BDOMADE CUJUSQUE DIEBUS SACRIFICIA
+               PRO EIS ESSE PERPETUO FACIENDA
+
+But if these splendid _rejas_ of her temples constitute to-day a special
+glory of this nation, her private balconies and window-gratings were in
+former times, though from profaner motives, almost or quite as notable.
+Between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries, few of the
+foreigners who visited Spain omitted to record their admiration of these
+balconies, crowded upon a holiday with pretty women. "Il y avoit," wrote
+Bertaut de Rouen in 1659, "autant de foule à proportion qu'à Paris; et
+mesme ce qu'il y avoit de plus beau, c'estoit que comme il y avoit des
+balcons à toutes les fenestres et qu'elles estoient occupées par
+toutes les dames de la ville, cela faisoit un plus bel effet que les
+échaffauts que l'on fait dans les rues de Paris en semblables
+rencontres."
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                                 _REJA_
+                     (_Casa de Pilatos, Seville_)]
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga, in his queer _Pincigraphia_, or "Description and
+Natural and Moral History of Valladolid," written earlier in the same
+century, and published twenty years ago by Gayangos from a manuscript in
+the British Museum, is more plain-spoken than the Frenchman on the
+various merits and peculiarities of the Spanish balconies and _rejas_.
+"All of these churches have the most beautiful iron balustrades and iron
+open-work doors (_cancelas_) that can be found in Europe, for nowhere is
+iron worked so skilfully as here in Valladolid. These objects are made
+by the Moriscos with turned balusters, foliage, boughs, fruits,
+war-material, trophies, and other contrivances, which afterwards they
+gild and silver into the very likeness of these metals. I say the same
+of window-balconies; for nearly every window has its balcony. There are
+in Valladolid houses up which one might clamber to the very roof from
+balcony to balcony, as though these were a hand-ladder. So too from
+balcony to balcony (for the distance from one to other is never greater
+than a palm's breadth) one might climb round the whole Plaza. By reason
+of this, we Portuguese were wont to say that if there were as many
+thieves or lovers in Valladolid as in Portugal, verily both one and
+other of this kind of folks would have but little need of hand-ladders.
+Yet here the thieves content themselves with stealing by the light of
+day, while as for the women (crafty creatures that they are!), they
+perpetrate their thefts away from home; and, having all the day at their
+disposal, prefer to thieve while daylight lasts, rather than pass the
+night uncomfortably. To this I heard a lady of Castile declare, when one
+of my friends, a Portuguese, petitioned her for leave to speak with her
+at night across her _reja_: 'That would be tantamount to passing from
+one _hierro_ to another _yerro_;[83] and in my house (which is also your
+worship's) it would not look well for you to seem a window-climbing
+thief.'"
+
+  [83] _Hierro_ means _iron_; _yerro_, a _fault, faux pas_. Thus glossed,
+       the somewhat feeble pleasantry or pun is able to explain itself.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXVI
+                  _REJA_ OF THE _CASA DE LAS CONCHAS_
+                             (_Salamanca_)]
+
+It is curious, in the foregoing narrative, to read of Morisco craftsmen
+working as late as 1600, and as far north as Castile. Perhaps the notice
+of Moriscos doing Spanish iron-work may be traced to certain
+Ordinances of Granada, published about three-quarters of a century
+before. On October 14th, 1522, the councillors of that town confabulated
+very lengthily and seriously as to the damage caused by "balconies and
+_rejas_ in the streets, fixed in the basements and the lower rooms of
+houses, or projecting portals which extend beyond the level of the wall.
+For we have witnessed, and do witness daily, numerous mishaps to
+wayfarers, alike on horseback and on foot, whether by day or night,
+because the highways, narrow in themselves, are rendered yet more narrow
+by such balconies and _rejas_. Whereas in winter persons seeking to
+escape the filth by keeping to the wall are thwarted, or at night-time
+injured, by these _rejas_. Or yet in summer, when the waters swell, and
+conduits burst and overflow the middle of the street, then neither can
+they keep the middle of the way, nor pass aside (by reason of the
+balconies aforesaid) to its edges."
+
+Having regard to all these grievances, the councillors decreed that
+"none of whatsoever order or condition shall dare henceforth to place,
+or cause to be placed, about the lower floors or entrance of their
+dwelling, _rejas_ or iron balconies, or anything projecting much or
+little from the level of the wall. But all projections shall be set
+three yards, not any less, above the street. If not so much, they shall
+be set within the wall, on pain of a fine of ten thousand _maravedis_,
+and five thousand _maravedis_ to the mason and the carpenter that shall
+repair their fixing. Further, we order that all balconies and _rejas_
+now at a height of less than the aforesaid three yards be taken away
+within three days from the crying in public of these Ordinances."[84]
+
+  [84] These laws affecting balconies were not, or not as time went on,
+       restricted to Granada. "Nobody," prescribes the general Spanish
+       code in force in 1628, "shall make a balcony or oversailing part
+       to fall upon the street, nor yet rebuild or repair any that shall
+       fall."--Pradilla, _Suma de Todas las Leyes Penales, Canonicas,
+       Civiles, y destos Reynos_.
+
+For this deplorable state of things a double influence was to blame;
+namely, the oriental narrowness of the street, and also the elaborate
+ornamentation, proceeding very largely from a northern Gothic and
+non-Spanish source, of these annoying yet impressive gratings. Some of
+them, sweeping the very soil, and boldly and fantastically curved, may
+yet be seen at Toro. Those of Granada are no more. Indeed, not only have
+the _rejas_ of the Spanish private house long ceased to show the
+decorative cunning of the craftsman, but even in their present
+unartistic form are largely limited to Andalusia. Yet even thus, they
+seem to guard a typical and national air, mixed with a subtle,
+semi-Mussulmanic poetry. Across them, while the term of courtship lasts,
+the lover whispers with his mistress, oblivious of the outer world,
+fixing his gaze within, until his sultaness emerges from the gloom, and
+holds his hand, and looks into his eyes, and listens to his vow.
+Therefore, in "April's ivory moonlight," beneath the velvet skies of
+Andalusia, one always is well pleased to pass beside these children of
+romantic Spain, warming the frigid iron with the breath of youth, and
+hope, and happiness, and telling to each other a secret that is known
+unto us all--at once the sweetest and the saddest, the newest and the
+oldest story of all stories.
+
+
+
+
+                                BRONZES
+
+
+The earliest objects of bronze discovered in this country are
+comparatively few. As in other parts of Europe, they consist mostly of
+weapons, such as spear-heads and hatchets (which will be noticed under
+_Arms_), or bracelets, necklaces, and clasps or brooches. Earrings
+(_inaures_), brooches (_fibulæ_), and other objects of a similar purpose
+dating from the Roman period have been discovered in Galicia, while
+plates of the same alloy[85] which imitate a shell were used as personal
+ornaments by the men and women of the ancient Spanish tribes.
+
+  [85] Le Hon reminds us, in _L'homme fossile_, that before the Iron Age
+       all bronzes of our western world contained one part of tin to nine
+       of copper.
+
+The province of Palencia is a fertile field for archæological discovery.
+Here have been found some curious clasps, intended, it would seem, to
+represent the old Iberian mounted warrior, sometimes brandishing the
+typical Iberian lance. The following is a sketch in outline of an
+object of this kind, fashioned as clumsily and crudely as the cheapest
+wooden plaything of our time:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Two parts--the figure of the horseman, and a four-wheeled stand on which
+the warrior's steed is resolutely set--compose this comical antiquity.
+The rider's only article of clothing is a helmet; while the horse,
+without a saddle or a bridle, is completely nude. This toy, or table
+ornament, or whatever it may be, was found not far from Badajoz, where
+other prehistoric bronzes are preserved in the museum of the
+province;[86] and Mr E. S. Dodgson says that in possession of an
+Englishman at Comillas he has seen another bronze rider of primitive
+workmanship, with the head of a wild boar under his left arm. Those who
+are interested in the meaning of these early bronzes should consult
+an article, _El jinete ibérico_, by Señor Mélida, published in Nos.
+90-92 of the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_.
+
+  [86] See Romero de Castilla, _Inventarios de los objetos recogidos en
+       el Museo Arqueológico de la Comisión de Monumentos de Badajoz_.
+       Badajoz, 1896. Plate xxvii. represents another of these objects.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                           "MELEAGER'S HUNT"
+                     (_Primitive Spanish Bronze_)]
+
+We know that the use of Roman lamps grew to be general in this land--a
+fact which justifies my noticing the specimens preserved in the museum
+of Madrid; and more particularly so because their shape and general
+character have been perpetuated through the Spanish Moors and Christians
+of the Middle Ages till this very moment.
+
+The Roman lamp, shaped somewhat like a boat by reason of the _rostrum_
+or beakish receptacle for the wick, consisted of an earthenware or metal
+vessel with a circular or oblong body and a handle, together with at
+least one hole for pouring in the oil. The commonest material was
+earthenware, and next to this, bronze. The lamp was either suspended by
+a chain or chains, or else was rested on a stand. Plato and Petronius
+tell us that the stand was borrowed from the rustic makeshift of a
+stick, or the stout stem of a plant, thrust into the ground. As time
+went on, the stem or stick in imitative metal-work was rendered more or
+less artistic and ornate. But there was more than a single kind of
+lampstand. The _lychnuchus_ ([Greek: lychnouchos]), invented by the
+Greeks, held various lamps suspended from its branches, while, on the
+other hand, the Roman _candelabrum_ supported but a solitary lamp upon
+the disc or platform at its top extremity.[87] The island of Egina was
+famed for the production of these discs, and Pliny tells us that the
+decorated stem or _scapus_ was chiefly manufactured at Tarentum.
+
+  [87] Undoubtedly the use of the Roman _candelabrum_ was continued by the
+       Spanish Visigoths. "_Candelabrum_," says Saint Isidore, "_a
+       candelis dictum, quasi candela feram, quod candelam ferat_"
+       (_Originum_, book xx., chap. x.). The Spanish word _candela_ is
+       loosely used to-day for almost any kind of light or fire, or even
+       for a match; but an ordinary candle is generally called a _vela_ or
+       _bugía_ (_bougie_).
+
+The Roman lampstands also varied in their height. When the stem was long
+they stood upon the ground--a fashion we have seen revived in recent
+years, and even where electricity replaces oil. When, on the contrary,
+the stem was short, the stand was known as a _candelabrum humile_, and
+rested on a table or a stool.
+
+The Madrid Museum contains a remarkable bronze lamp in the form of an
+ass's head adorned with flowers and with ivy. The ass is holding in its
+mouth the _rostrum_ for the wick. The hole for the oil is shaped like a
+flower with eleven petals, under one of which is the monogram M[dagger]R.
+The back of this lamp consists of an uncouth human male figure, in a
+reclining posture, wearing a Phrygian cap and holding the ass's head
+between his legs.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVIII
+                               A _CANDIL_
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+Other lamps of bronze, including several of an interesting character,
+are in the same collection. One of these represents a sea-deity; another
+has its handle shaped like a horse's head and neck; and in a third the
+orifice for the oil is heart-shaped, while the handle terminates in the
+head of a swan.
+
+There is also a series of three pensile lamps--two in the likeness of
+the head and neck of a griffin, and the third in that of a theatrical
+mask; as well as a candelabrum fourteen inches high, terminating beneath
+in three legs with lions' claws (foreshadowing or repeating oriental
+motives), and above in a two-handled vessel on which to place the lamp.
+This vessel supports at present a fine _lucerna_ in the form of a
+peacock.
+
+Probably no people in the world have kept extant, or rather, kept alive,
+their oldest forms of pottery or instruments for giving light more
+steadfastly or more solicitously than the Spaniards. Their iron
+_candil_[88] and brass _velón_ of nowadays (Pls. xxviii. and
+xxix.)--the one of these the primitive lamp that hangs; the other, the
+primitive lamp that rests upon a table or the ground--are borrowed with
+but a minimum of alteration from the lighting apparatus of the ancient
+Greeks and Romans, and possess, for all their coarse and cheap and
+unpretentious workmanship, a subtle interest and elegance attributable
+only to the inspiration of antiquity.
+
+  [88] "A small open lamp with a beak, and a hook to hang it, within which
+       is another of the same make that contains oil and a wick to give
+       light, commonly used in kitchens, stables, and inns."--Fathers
+       Connelly and Higgins, _Spanish-English and English-Spanish
+       Dictionary_. Swinburne wrote of these _candiles_:--"The Spaniards
+       delight in wine that tastes strong of the pitched skin, and of oil
+       that has a rank smell and taste; indeed, the same oil feeds their
+       lamp, swims in their pottage, and dresses their salad; in inns the
+       lighted lamp is frequently handed down to the table, that each man
+       may take the quantity he chooses."
+
+                           [Illustration: XXIX
+                               A _VELÓN_
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+More than the shape of these old objects seems to have passed to modern
+Spain--if any phase at all of Spanish life can ever justly be accounted
+modern. The ancients had an almost superstitious reverence for a lighted
+lamp, and were accustomed to declare that "_lucerna, cum extinguitur,
+vocem emittit, quasi necata_"; "a lamp, on being put out, utters
+a sound as though it were being murdered." Now, it may be a
+coincidence--although I cannot but regard it as distinctly more than a
+coincidence--that even at this day a large proportion of the
+Andalusian people are markedly averse to blowing out a kindled match;
+nor do they think it of good augury to be in a room where three
+lights--candles, matches, or whatever they may be--are simultaneously
+aflame. I have noticed, too, that, whether from utter carelessness or
+whether from ancestral superstition handed down from Rome, one rarely
+sees upon the staircase or the doorstep of a Spanish public building a
+vesta that has been (if I may be allowed the term) extinguished
+_artificially_.[89]
+
+  [89] Perhaps it is not foreign to my theme to add that the current name
+       in Spanish for an oil lamp is _quinqué_, from Quinquet, the
+       Parisian chemist who invented the _tuyau-cheminée_ a hundred and
+       odd years ago. The same word passes also into Spanish slang,
+       "_tener quinqué_"--_i.e._ to be quick-witted and perceptive.
+
+In the Madrid Museum are several military bronze _signa_ which were
+found in Spain and date from the Roman era, as well as a _vexillum_, or
+one of the T-shaped frames on which the warriors of that people used to
+hang their standards. One of these _signa_ is in the form of a wild
+boar; another in that of a saddled and bridled horse. Beneath this
+latter is the word VIVA and a cross, which shows that the object dates
+from a period not earlier than the reign of Constantine.
+
+It is strange--or rather, would be strange in any country that had been
+less constantly afflicted both with civil and external warfare--that
+hardly anything remains of all the bronze artistic objects manufactured
+by the Spanish Moors. Poets of this race have sung of gold and silver
+fountains, door-knockers, and statues that adorned the buildings of
+Cordova. In many of these instances the hyperbolic gold and silver of
+the writers would undoubtedly be bronze. Al-Makkari quotes an Arab poet
+who extols in passionate terms Almanzor's dazzling mansion of Az-zahyra.
+"Lions of metal," sang this poet, "bite the knockers of thy doors, and
+as those doors resound appear to be exclaiming _Allahu akbar_" ("God is
+great"). Another bard describes the fountains of the same enchanted
+palace. "The lions who repose majestically in this home of princes,
+instead of roaring, allow the waters to fall in murmuring music from
+their mouths. _Their bodies seem to be covered with gold_, and in their
+mouths crystal is made liquid.
+
+"Though in reality these lions are at rest, they seem to move and, when
+provoked, to grow enraged. One would imagine that they remembered their
+carnage of past days, and bellowing turned once more to the attack.
+
+"When the sun is reflected from their _bronze_ surface, they seem to be
+of fire, with tongues of flame that issue from their mouths.
+
+"Nevertheless, when we observe them to be vomiting water, one would
+think this water to be swords which melt without the help of fire, and
+are confounded with the crystal of the fountain."
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                              BRONZE LION
+                 (_Found in the Province of Palencia_)]
+
+Figures in bronze, of eagles, peacocks, swans, stags, dragons, lions,
+and many other creatures were set about in garden and in hall, to
+decorate these splendid palaces of ancient Cordova.
+
+A specimen of this class of objects is a bronze lion of small dimensions
+(Plate xxx.) found not many years ago in the province of Palencia, and
+believed to date from the reign of Al-Hakem the Second of Cordova. It
+belonged for some time to the painter Fortuny--a diligent and lucky
+hunter of antiquities,--and was subsequently purchased in 1875 by M.
+Piot. The modelling and decoration of this beast, especially the
+mannered and symmetrical curls which are supposed to form its mane, are
+quite conventional and strongly reminiscent of Assyrian art, such as
+pervades the various lions rudely wrought in stone and still existing at
+Granada; whether the celebrated dozen that support and guard the
+fountain in the courtyard of the Moorish palace,[90] or else the
+greater pair of grinning brutes proceeding from the ruins of the palace
+of Azaque (miscalled the Moorish Mint), which may be noticed squatting
+with their rumps towards the road, beside the garden entrance to the
+Carmen de la Mezquita.
+
+  [90] Swinburne fell into a comical error concerning these. "In the
+       centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions _muzzled_, their
+       fore-parts smooth, their hind-parts rough, which bear upon their
+       backs an enormous bason, out of which a lesser rises."--_Travels
+       through Spain_, p. 180.
+
+This little bronze lion measures about twelve inches high by fourteen
+inches long. The legs and part of the body are covered with a pattern
+representing flowers. The mane is described by comma-shaped marks. The
+tail, bent not ungracefully along the animal's back, is decorated with a
+kind of plait through nearly all its length. The eyes are now two
+cavities, but seem in other days to have contained two coloured stones
+or gems. Upon the back and flanks is a Cufic inscription which says,
+"_Perfect blessing. Complete happiness._"
+
+                           [Illustration: XXXI
+                              BRONZE STAG
+                    (_Moorish. Museum of Cordova._)]
+
+Mussulman historians have described, in terms of cloying praise, the
+"red gold animals contrived with subtle skill and spread with precious
+stones" which Abderrahman placed at Cordova upon the fountains of his
+palaces. "Rivers of water issued from the mouth of every animal, and
+fell into a jasper basin." The words "red gold" are patently an oriental
+term for bronze. In view of this, and of the fact that the lion of
+Palencia is hollow-bellied, with his mouth wide open for ejecting water,
+and with a tail of cunning craftsmanship, which would avail, on being
+rotated, to produce or check the current of the "liquid crystal," we may
+conclude that it was intended both to form a part of, and to decorate a
+Moorish fountain of old days, and is the kind of beast "with precious
+stones for eyes" so often and so ecstatically lauded by the Muslim
+writers.
+
+Similar to the foregoing object, and dating from about the same period,
+is a small bronze stag (Pl. xxxi.) in the provincial museum of Cordova.
+It is believed to proceed originally from the famous palace (tenth
+century) of Az-zahra, and used to be kept, some centuries ago, in the
+convent of San Jerónimo de Valparaiso.
+
+The museum of Granada contains some interesting Moorish bronzes, found
+on the site of the ancient city of Illiberis, abandoned by its occupants
+on their removal to Granada at the beginning of the eleventh century.
+The most remarkable of these discoveries are pieces of a fountain, a
+small temple (Plate xxxii.), an _almirez_ or mortar (Plate xxxiii.),
+similar to one (not mentioned by Riaño) which was discovered at Monzón,
+and a few lamps. The fragments of a fountain end in the characteristic
+Assyrian-looking lions' heads, with lines in regular zones to represent
+the eyes and other features. One of the lamps (Pl. xxxiii.) is far
+superior to the rest. Notwithstanding Riaño's assertion that all of
+these antiquities are "incomplete and mutilated," this lamp is well
+preserved, and still retains, secured by a chain, the little metal
+trimming-piece or _emunctorium_ of the Romans. The small bronze temple
+is sometimes thought (but this hypothesis seems rather fanciful) to be a
+case, or part of a case, designed for keeping jewellery. The height of
+it is two-and-twenty inches, and the form hexagonal, "with twelve small
+columns supporting bands of open work, frescoes, cupola, and turrets; in
+the angles are birds" (Riaño).
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                             BRONZE TEMPLE
+                    (_Moorish. Museum of Granada_)]
+
+The most important object in this substance now extant in any part of
+Spain is probably the huge and finely decorated lamp of Mohammed the
+Third of Granada (Pl. xxxiv.), called sometimes "the lamp of Oran,"
+from a mistaken belief that it had formed part of the booty yielded by
+this city after her capture in 1509 by Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros.
+
+The material of this lamp is bronze, possibly provided by the bells of
+Christian churches taken and pillaged by the Moors. It has four parts or
+tiers of varying shape, delicately wrought in open-work, and reaching a
+height of nearly seven feet in all. The third and largest tier,
+corresponding to the shade, is in the form of a truncated pyramid, and
+shows a different design on each of its four sides. The lamp bears
+several inscriptions, interrupted here and there through breakage of the
+metal. The longest of these legends is interpreted as follows:--
+
+"In the name of God the Merciful. (May) the blessing of God be on our
+lord Mohammed and his kin; health and peace. (This lamp) was ordered (to
+be made) by our Lord the egregious sultan, the favoured, the victorious,
+the just, the happy, the conqueror of cities, and the extreme boundary
+of just conduct among the servants (of God); the emir of the Mussulmans
+Abu-Abdillah, son of our lord the emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah,
+son of our lord Al-Galib-Billah, the conqueror through God's
+protection, the emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah; (may) God aid him
+(praised be God)." Here is a breakage and a corresponding gap in the
+inscription, which continues, "beneath it, lighted by my light for its
+magnificence and the care of its _xeque_, with righteous purpose and
+unerring certainty. And this was in the month of Rabié the first
+blessed, in the year 705.[91] May (God) be praised."
+
+  [91] September 20th to October 19th, A.D. 1305.
+
+The history of this lamp has been explored with scholarly care by
+Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos, whose monograph will be found in the _Museo
+Español de Antigüedades_. He says that the lamp was formerly suspended
+from the ceiling of the chapel of San Ildefonso in the university of
+Alcalá de Henares. Here, too, he has discovered entries which relate to
+it in two separate inventories, dated 1526 and 1531, from which we
+gather that the lamp, excepting the lowest part or tier, which probably
+proceeded from Oran, was brought to Alcalá by Cardinal Cisneros from the
+mosque of the Alhambra of Granada.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIII
+                        MOORISH LAMP AND MORTAR
+                         (_Museum of Granada_)]
+
+All of the lamp (continues Amador) that properly belongs to it, is the
+open-work shade, together with the graduated set of spheres which we
+now observe on top.[92] The lowest part is clearly an inverted bell,
+from which project four decorative pieces. This is believed by Amador to
+be a Spanish bell, dating from the fifteenth century, designed for
+striking with a hammer, and proceeding from some monastery or convent
+plundered by the Moors. Indeed, one of the two inventories discovered at
+Alcalá mentions "a bell with a hole in it, _which used to belong to a
+Moorish lamp_," thus countenancing the widespread supposition that the
+lamps of the mosque of Cordova were made of the Christian bells of
+Compostela, which the fierce Almanzor caused to be conveyed upon the
+aching backs of Christian captives to the Moorish court and capital of
+Andalusia.
+
+  [92] These spheres recall the four great gilded globes of bronze,
+       tapering from the bottom to the top, that crowned in olden days the
+       Giralda tower of Seville. According to the _Crónica General_ the
+       glitter of these globes "de tan grande obra, é tan grandes, que no
+       se podríen hacer otras tales," could be distinguished at a distance
+       of eight leagues. On August 24th, 1395, when Seville was assailed
+       by a frightful tempest accompanied by an earthquake, the metal rod
+       which pierced and held the globes was snapped, and the globes
+       themselves were dashed into a myriad pieces on the _azotea_, scores
+       of yards below.
+
+It is probable, therefore, that the lamp of the third Mohammed of
+Granada is now composed of two lamps, and that the primitive
+arrangement of its parts was altered by the ignorant. Eight chains
+would formerly suspend it, in the following order of its tiers or
+stages, from the dome of the _mezquita_. First and uppermost would come
+the shade; then, next to this, the set of tapering spheres; and, last
+and lowest, the saucer or _platillo_, which has disappeared. Further,
+and as Koranic law prescribed, the lamp would hold two lights--one to be
+kindled on the saucer, and the other underneath the shade.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Other articles of Spanish-Moorish ornamented bronze are thimbles,
+buckets, and the spherical perfume-burners which were used to roll upon
+the stone or marble pavement of a dwelling. Moorish thimbles, conical
+and uncouthly large, are not uncommonly met with at Granada. I have one,
+of which the above is an outline sketched to size.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIV
+                       LAMP OF MOHAMMED THE THIRD
+                           (_Madrid Museum_)]
+
+Sometimes these Moorish thimbles are inscribed in Cufic lettering
+with phrases such as--"(May) the blessing of God and every kind of
+happiness (be destined for the owner of this thimble)"; or else the
+maker's name--"The work of Saif"; or a single word--"Blessing."
+
+The thimbles from which I quote these legends are in the National
+Museum. The same collection includes a very finely wrought bronze bucket
+or _acetre_ (Latin _situlus_; Arabic _as-setl_, the utensil for drawing
+water for a bath). The outside is covered with delicate ornamentation,
+varied with inscriptions of no great interest, invoking Allah's blessing
+on the owner or employer of the bucket, which is thought by Amador to be
+of Granadino workmanship, and to date from about the middle of the
+fourteenth century.
+
+Not many specimens remain of early mediæval Spanish bronzes wrought by
+Christian hands. Riaño, who admits that "we can hardly trace any bronze
+of this period other than cathedral bells," mentions as probably
+proceeding from abroad the altar-fronts and statuettes, in gilt
+enamelled bronze, of Salamanca and elsewhere,[93] and gives a short
+description of the bell, about six inches high (Pl. xxxv.), known as the
+Abbot Samson's, now in Cordova Museum. This object bears an early date
+(875 A.D.), and is inscribed, "_Offert hoc munus Samson abbatis in domum
+Sancti Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era_ D.C.C.C.C.XIII."
+
+  [93] See p. 50.
+
+It is curious that Riaño should make no mention of Spanish bronze
+processional crosses. In my chapter on gold, silver, and jewel work I
+mentioned those belonging to churches in the north of Spain. A bronze
+crucifix (Plate xxxvi.), believed to date from the beginning of the
+twelfth century, and proceeding from the monastery of Arbós, in the
+province of León, is now in the possession of Don Felix Granda Builla.
+It is undoubtedly of Spanish make, and probably was carried in
+processions. The style is pure Romanic, and the drawing of the ribs,
+extremities, and limbs is typically primitive. The _sudarium_ is secured
+by the belt or _parazonium_. The feet, unpierced, rest on a
+_supedaneum_.
+
+A bronze Renaissance parish cross of the sixteenth century, once hidden
+in a village of Asturias, was bought some thirty years ago by the museum
+of Madrid. The body of the cross is wood, covered on both sides with
+bronze plates wrought with figures of the Saviour as the holy infant and
+as full-grown man, and also with a figure of the Virgin. These
+figures were formerly painted, and traces of the colour yet remain. The
+cross was also silvered. The rest of the ornamentation consists of
+vases, flowers, and other subjects proper to Renaissance art.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXXV
+                          ABBOT SAMSON'S BELL
+                  (_9th Century. Museum of Cordova_)]
+
+A similar cross belongs to the parish church of San Julian de Recaré, in
+the province of Lugo, while San Pedro de Donas, near Santiago in
+Galicia, possesses a processional cross of bronze, pierced along the
+edges in a pattern of trefoils and _fleurs-de-lis_, but otherwise
+undecorated.
+
+Sometimes in Spanish bronze we find the handiwork of Moors and
+Christians picturesquely intermingled, as in the gates of Toledo
+cathedral (1337), and the Puertas del Perdón--forming the principal
+entrance to the Court of Orange Trees--of the mosque of Cordova, made of
+wood and covered with bronze plating decorated with irregular hexagons
+and Gothic and Arabic inscriptions. The knockers contain a scroll and
+flowers, and on the scroll the words, _Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel_.
+The gate of the same name of Seville cathedral (Pl. xxxvii.) is similar
+in workmanship, and is considered by Riaño to be a good example of
+Moresque bronze-work.
+
+While speaking of these doors, we should remember that Moorish
+craftsmen were employed to decorate or to repair the mosque of Cordova
+long after it had been converted to the worship of the Christians. When
+he was acting as viceroy in the year 1275, the Infante Don Fernando
+confirmed a letter of his father, King Alfonso, remitting tolls and
+taxes that would otherwise be leviable upon four Moors who worked in the
+cathedral. The Infante's confirmation, after recording that "one (of the
+four Moors) is dead and the other blind, in such wise that he can work
+no more," consents to the engagement of another two, Famet and Zahec by
+name, to fill their places, and who also are hereby exempted from the
+payment of all dues. Five years afterwards this privilege was
+reconfirmed by King Alfonso, and we are further told on this occasion
+that two of the Moorish four were _albañís_, or masons, and the others
+_añaiares_, or carpenters. As time progressed, the situation of the
+vanquished and humiliated Mussulmans grew more irksome. On October 25th,
+1320, the Infante Don Sancho, who had usurped the throne, proclaimed, in
+ratification of a letter issued by his father, that all the Moorish
+carpenters, masons, sawyers, and other workmen and artificers of Cordova
+must work in the cathedral (presumably without a wage) for two days
+in every year.[94]
+
+  [94] _Libro de las Tablas_, pp. 17, 18. See Madrazo, _Cordova_, pp. 273
+       _et seq._
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXVI
+                            BRONZE CRUCIFIX
+                           (_12th Century_)]
+
+In the latter half of the sixteenth century, Bartolomé Morel, a
+Sevillano, produced some notable work in bronze.[95] Three objects by
+his hand--namely, the choir lectern and the tenebrarium of Seville
+cathedral, and the weathercock or _Giraldillo_ which crowns the
+celebrated tower of the same enormous temple--are specially
+distinguished for their vigour and effectiveness.
+
+  [95] In documents which relate to him (see Gestoso's _Dictionary of
+       Sevillian Artificers_) Morel is often called an _artillero_. His
+       father, Juan Morel, was also a founder of cannon, and signed a
+       contract in 1564 to cast two bronze pieces or _tiros_, with the
+       royal arms on them.
+
+The least important of these objects is the choir lectern, for which
+Morel was paid six hundred ducats. The decoration is of statuettes and
+_rilievi_, well designed and better executed. The tenebrarium, aptly
+defined by Amador as "an article of church furniture intended to make a
+show of light,"[96] is more ambitious and original. "It was designed
+and made by Morel in the year 1562. Juan Giralte, a native of Flanders,
+and Juan Bautista Vazquez helped him to make the statues at the head of
+this candelabrum, and Pedro Delgado, another noted sculptor of Seville,
+worked at the foot of it. It is eight and a half yards high, and the
+triangular head is three yards across. Upon this upper part are fifteen
+statues, representing the Saviour, the apostles, and two other disciples
+or evangelists. In the vacant space of the triangle is a circle adorned
+with leaves, and in the centre of this circle is a bust of the Virgin in
+relief, and, lower down, the figure of a king. All of this part is of
+bronzed wood, and rests upon four small bronze columns. The remainder of
+the candelabrum is all of this material, and the small columns are
+supported by four caryatides, resting upon an order of noble design
+decorated with lions' heads, scrolls, pendants, and other ornamentation,
+the whole resting upon a graceful border enriched with harpies."
+
+  [96] The efficacy of light in illuminating, or may be in dazzling and
+       confounding, Christian worshippers is too self-evident to call for
+       illustration. The symbolic meaning of church candles is, however,
+       neatly indicated by the wise Alfonso in his compilation of the
+       seven _Partidas_. "Because three virtues dwell in candles, namely,
+       wick, wax, and flame, so do we understand that persons three dwell
+       in the Trinity--Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; and we may understand
+       three other things that dwell in Jesus Christ; to wit, body, soul,
+       and godhead. Hence the twelve lighted candles manifested to each
+       quarter of the church exhibit unto us the twelve apostles who
+       preached the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ through all the earth,
+       and manifesting truest wisdom illumined all the world."
+
+This description of the Seville tenebrarium is translated from Cean
+Bermudez, and is the one most commonly quoted, though Amador complains
+that it is not precise, and fails to dwell upon the symbolism of this
+mighty mass of bronze.[97] Thus, what Cean affirms to be the bust of a
+king is declared by Amador to be the head of a pope, probably Saint
+Gregory the Great. Metal, as Cean remarks, is not employed throughout.
+In order to preserve its balance, the upper part of the tenebrarium,
+containing the triangle which is said by some to symbolize "the divinity
+of Jesus as God the triple and the one," is merely wood bronzed over.
+Amador adds that the foot and stem are intended to represent "the people
+of Israel in their perfidy and ingratitude." He also says that the
+statue in the centre of the triangle is that of Faith, and that which
+crowns the entire tenebrarium, of the Virgin Mary.
+
+  [97] The English rendering of Cean's description inserted by Riaño is
+       inaccurate throughout.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXVII
+                        THE _PUERTA DEL PERDÓN_
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+Morel, like Brunelleschi, was an architect as well as a craftsman in
+bronze.[98] He completed this tenebrarium in 1562, and the chapter of
+the cathedral were so contented with it that instead of paying him the
+stipulated price, namely, eight hundred ducats, they added of their own
+accord a further two hundred and fifty. They also commissioned him to
+make a handsome case to keep it in; but the case has disappeared, and
+the naked tenebrarium now stands in the Sacristy of Chalices of the
+cathedral.[99] It is still used at the Matin service during the last
+three days of Holy Week, and still, in the _Oficio de Tinieblas_, the
+custom is observed of extinguishing the fifteen tapers, one by one, at
+the conclusion of each psalm.
+
+  [98] As architect, he made a monument (which exists no longer) for the
+       festivals of Holy Week at Seville.
+
+  [99] In 1565 Juan del Pozo, an ironsmith, received one hundred _reales_
+       "on account of an engine which he made of iron for moving the
+       tenebrarium of the cathedral, and other heavy things."--Gestoso,
+       _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. i. p. 313.
+
+The title of the object which surmounts the famed Giralda tower of
+Seville is properly "the Statue of Faith, the triumph of the Church"
+(Pl. xxxviii.); but it is known in common language as the Giraldillo
+(weathercock), which name has passed into the word Giralda, now applied
+to all the tower. The populace of Seville also call it, in the _argot_
+of their cheerful town, the _muñeco_ or "doll," the "Victory," and the
+"Santa Juana."
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXVIII
+                  THE WEATHERCOCK OF THE GIRALDA TOWER
+                  (_16th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+This statue, made of hollow bronze, rotates upon an iron rod piercing
+the great bronze globe which lies immediately beneath the figure's feet.
+The globe is nearly six feet in diameter. The figure itself represents a
+Roman matron wearing a flowing tunic partly covering her legs and arms.
+Sandals are secured to her feet by straps. Upon her head she wears a
+Roman helmet crested by a triple plume. In her right hand she holds the
+semicircular Roman standard of the time of Constantine, which points the
+direction of the wind and causes the figure to revolve, excepting when
+the air is very faint, in which case it is caught by two diminutive
+banners springing from the large one.[100] So huge are the proportions
+of this metal lady that the medal on her breast contains a life-size
+head which represents an angel.
+
+  [100] The statue, which looks so tiny from the street, measures nearly
+        fourteen feet in height, and weighs more than two thousand two
+        hundred pounds. The banner alone weighs close upon four hundred
+        pounds. The figure was raised into its place in 1568, in which
+        year I find that eighteen Moriscos were paid seventy-eight
+        _reales_ between them all for doing the work of carriage (Gestoso,
+        _Diccionario_). Gestoso also mentions a large bronze plate made
+        by Morel for the pavement of the cathedral, and which has
+        disappeared. It weighed 2269 pounds, or about the same as the
+        weathercock of the Giralda, and Morel was paid for it the sum of
+        289,361 _maravedis_.
+
+The Spanish Moors were also well acquainted with the use of
+weathercocks. During the reign, in the eleventh century, of the Zirite
+kingling of Granada, Badis ben Habbus, a weathercock of strange design
+surmounted his _alcázar_. The historian Marmol wrote in the sixteenth
+century that it was still existing on a little tower, and consisted of a
+horseman in Moorish dress, with a long lance and his shield upon his
+arm, the whole of bronze, with an inscription on the shield which says:
+"Badis ben Habbus declares that in this attitude should the Andalusian
+be discovered (at his post)."
+
+Not many other objects in this substance can be instanced as the work of
+Spanish craftsmen of the sixteenth and succeeding centuries, or of the
+later-Gothic age immediately preceding. Among them are the pulpits of
+Santiago cathedral, made by Celma, an Aragonese, in 1563; the
+choir-screen (1574-1579) in the cathedral of Zaragoza, made by Juan
+Tomás Cela, also a native of Aragon; the gilt lecterns of Toledo
+cathedral, which are the work of Nicolás Vergara and his son; the Gothic
+lectern of the mosque of Cordova; the choir-lectern (1557) of Cuenca,
+made by Hernando de Arenas, who will also be remembered as having made
+the _reja_ of the same cathedral; and the octagonal gilt-bronze pulpits
+of Toledo, wrought by Francisco de Villalpando, as are the bas-reliefs
+(1564) upon the door of Lions, executed by the same craftsman from
+designs by Berruguete.
+
+These last-named pulpits are associated with a legend. Within this
+temple, once upon a time, rested the metal sepulchre of the great Don
+Alvaro de Luna, so constructed by his orders that upon the touching of a
+secret spring the statue of the Constable himself would rise into a
+kneeling posture throughout the celebration of the mass. His lifelong
+and relentless foe, the Infante Enrique of Aragon, tore up the tomb in
+1449; and from its fragments, superstition says, were made these
+pulpits.
+
+Spanish Renaissance door-knockers in bronze are often curious. Fifteen
+large bronze rings adorned with garlands, heads of lions and of eagles,
+or with the pair of columns and the motto PLUS OULTRE of Charles the
+Fifth, were formerly upon the pilasters of the roofless, semi-ruined
+palace of that emperor at Granada. Removed elsewhere for greater
+safety,[101] they will now be found among the couple of dozen
+curiosities preserved in a chamber of the Moorish royal residence of the
+Alhambra.
+
+  [101] Spaniards have a very scanty confidence in one another's honesty,
+        as well as in the competence of their police. Often, at Madrid,
+        and at this day, the porter of a house, as soon as it is dark,
+        unscrews the knockers from the downstairs door, and guards them
+        in his _conciergerie_ until the morning.
+
+Herewith I end my sketch of Spanish bronzes, without delaying to
+describe the tasteless _transparente_ behind the altar of Toledo
+cathedral, or the neo-classic, Frenchified productions of the reign of
+Charles the Third, such as the table-mountings of the Buen Retiro, or
+trifles from the silver factory of Antonio Martinez. At the Escorial,
+the shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa Forma and the altar-front of the
+pantheon of the kings of Spain, wrought by Fray Eugenio de la Cruz, Fray
+Juan de la Concepción, and Fray Marcos de Perpignan, are meritorious
+objects of their time. But the history of Spanish bronzes properly ends
+with the Renaissance. This material, possibly from its cost, has not at
+any time been greatly popular in Spain. Wood, plain or painted, was
+preferred to bronze in nearly all her statuary. Her mediæval and
+Renaissance _reja_ and _custodia_ makers can challenge all the world. So
+can her potters, armourers, leather-workers, and wood-carvers. But if
+we look for masterpieces in the art of shaping bronze, our eyes must
+turn to Italy, where, to astonish modern men, the powers of a Donatello
+or Ghiberti vibrate across all ages in the bas-reliefs of Saint Anthony
+at Padua, or in the gates of the Baptistery of Florence.
+
+
+
+
+                                  ARMS
+
+
+Lovers of the old-time crafts approach a fertile field in Spanish arms;
+for truly with this warworn land the sword and spear, obstinately
+substituted for the plough, seem to have grown well-nigh into her
+regular implements of daily bread-winning; and from long before the age
+of written chronicle her soil was planted with innumerable weapons of
+her wrangling tribesmen.
+
+The history of these ancient Spanish tribes is both obscure and
+complicated. If Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy, and other authors may be
+credited, the Celtic race invaded the Peninsula some seven centuries
+before the Christian era, crossing the river Ebro, founding settlements,
+and fusing with the natives into the composite people known henceforward
+as the Celtiberians. Thus strengthened, they extended over nearly all
+the land, and occupied, by a dominative or assimilative policy, the
+regions corresponding to the modern Andalusia, Portugal, Galicia, and
+the flat and central elevations of Castile.
+
+These Spanish tribes were ever quarrelling, and knew, in Strabo's words,
+"no entertainment save in horsemanship and in the exercise of arms."
+Quantities of their weapons have been found all over Spain, such as the
+heads of spears and arrows, or the blades of daggers, hatchets, knives,
+and swords. With these Iberian tribesmen, as with other peoples of the
+ancient world, the truly prehistoric age is that of stone; hence they
+advanced to bronze, and finally to iron. Beuter, the historian of
+Valencia, wrote in 1534 that near to the town of Cariñena, in Aragon, on
+digging out some earthen mounds the excavators came upon enormous bones,
+flint lance and arrow heads, and knives the size of half an ordinary
+sword; all these in company with "many skulls transfixed by the said
+stones." In the collection at Madrid, formed by Don Emilio Rotondo y
+Nicolau, these primitive Spanish weapons number several thousands; and
+many more are in the National Museum.[102]
+
+  [102] According to Tubino, the existence of a prehistoric age of stone
+        was not suspected in Spain until the year 1755, when Mann y
+        Mendoza affirmed that a state of society had existed in the
+        Peninsula before the age of metals. Since then the Celtic remains
+        of Spain and Portugal have been investigated by many scientists,
+        including Assas, Mitjana, Murguía, and Casiano de Prado, who
+        discovered numbers of these weapons. Towards the middle of last
+        century Casiano de Prado, aided by the Frenchmen Verneuil and
+        Lartet, explored the neighbourhood of San Isidro on the
+        Manzanares, and found large quantities of arms and implements of
+        stone. Valuable service in the cause of prehistoric Spanish
+        archæology has also been performed by Vilanova, Torrubia, and
+        Machado.
+
+Discoveries of ancient Spanish arms of bronze occur less often and in
+smaller quantities than those of stone or iron. Bronze hatchets,
+principally of the straight-edged class (_à bords droites_) have been
+found in Galicia and certain other provinces. Villa-amil y Castro
+describes a bronze dagger of curious workmanship, which was found in
+Galicia in 1869. The point of the blade is missing. If this were
+included, the length of the weapon would be about six inches.
+
+Other examples, now in the Madrid Museum, include two swords, two
+daggers, and two arrowheads. The swords, sharp-pointed, narrow in the
+blade, and used by preference for thrusting, were found not far from
+Calatayud--the ancient town renowned, as Roman Bilbilis, for weapons of
+incomparable temper. The daggers were probably used for fighting hand to
+hand.
+
+At the time of the Roman invasion we find, of course, the Spaniards
+using iron weapons. I shall not tax the patience of my readers by
+enumerating all these weapons. Their names are many, and the comments
+and descriptions of old authors which refer to them are constantly at
+variance. Nevertheless, the sword most popular with the Celtiberians at
+the period of the Roman conquest seems to have been a broad, two-handed
+weapon with a point and double edge, and therefore serviceable both for
+cutting and for thrusting. Another of the Celtiberian swords, called the
+_falcata_, was of a sickle shape. It terminated in the kind of point we
+commonly associate with a scimitar, and which is found to-day in Spanish
+knives produced at Albacete. One of these swords, in good condition, is
+in the National Museum. It has a single edge, upon the concave side of
+the blade, and measures rather less than two feet. Other weapons in
+common use among the Celtiberians were an iron dart--the _sannion_ or
+_soliferrea_; the javelin; the lance--a weapon so immemorially old in
+Spain that patriotic writers trace its origin to the prehistoric town of
+Lancia in Asturias; and the _trudes_ or _bidente_, a crescent blade
+mounted upon a pole, mentioned by Strabo and Saint Isidore, and
+identical with the cruel weapon used until about a quarter of a
+century ago for houghing coward cattle in the bull-ring.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIX
+                        CREST OF JOUSTING HELMET
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Thus, when the Romans entered Spain the natives of this country were
+experienced in the use of arms, and made their own from such materials
+as their own soil yielded. Their tempering was excellent, for Diodorus
+Siculus tells us that they had already discovered the secret of burying
+the metal in order that the moisture of the earth might eat away its
+baser portions. Besides the ancient Bilbilis in Aragon, a Spanish city
+famous for her faultless tempering of implements and weapons was Toledo.
+Martial,[103] the most illustrious son of Bilbilis, has sung the praises
+of the one; less celebrated poets, such as Gracio Falisco, of the
+other.[104] Even the armourers of Rome were found to be less skilful and
+successful swordsmiths than the Spaniards;[105] and so, before the
+second Punic War, the model or the models of the Spanish sword had been
+adopted by the Roman army.
+
+  [103] "_Gerone qui ferrum gelat._" This river, the purity and coldness
+        of whose waters lent, or so it is supposed, its virtues to the
+        steel, rolls past the walls of Calatayud, and is called in later
+        ages the Jalon.
+
+  [104] "_Imo Toletano præcingant ilia cultro._"
+
+  [105] "_Romani patriis gladiis depositis Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium
+        assumpserunt ... sed ferri bonitatem et fabrica solertiam imitari
+        non potuerunt._"--Suidas.
+
+Various of the native peoples of Iberia were distinguished by a special
+instrument or mode of fighting. Strabo says that the Iberians as a
+general rule employed two lances and a sword. Those of Lusitania were
+especially adroit in hurling darts. Each of their warriors kept a number
+of these darts contained within his shield. Upon the head they wore a
+helmet of a primitive pattern strapped beneath the chin. This helmet,
+called the _bacula_, protected all the wearer's face, and had a mitred
+shape, with three red feathers on the crest. Together with these arms,
+the Lusitanians used a copper-headed lance and the typical form of
+Celtiberian sword. More singular and celebrated in their mode of
+fighting were the Balearic islanders, who carried, through persistent
+exercise, the art of slinging stones and leaden plummets to the utmost
+limit of perfection. The beaches of these islands, we are told,
+abounded, then as now, in small, smooth pebbles, "weapons of Nature's
+own contrivance," rarely suited to the sling.[106] These slings were of
+three patterns, severally designed for near, far, and middling
+distances. The lead or stone projectile sometimes weighed a pound.
+Accordingly--so strenuous was their zeal to be unrivalled in the
+practice of this arm--even as little children the Baleares went without
+their dinner, till, with the formidable _funda_ in their hand, they
+struck the stick their parents planted for them in the soil. Pliny and
+Polybius, notwithstanding, state that the sling itself was not
+indigenous in this region, but imported from Ph[oe]nicia. However this
+may be, the islanders within a little time contributed to swell the
+power of the Roman legions.
+
+  [106] _Descripciones de las Islas Pithiusas y Baleares._ Madrid, 1787.
+
+The Visigoths continued using many of the Roman or Ibero-Roman arms.
+Nevertheless, the solid armour of the Romans, such as their greaves and
+thigh-pieces and breastplates, was now replaced by primitive chain-mail
+resembling scales of fishes. According to Saint Isidore, Procopius, and
+other writers, the favourite weapons of the Spanish Visigoths were the
+sword or _spatha_, long, broad-bladed, with a double edge; the hatchet,
+the bow, the sling, the lance, the scythe, the mace, the _pilum_ or
+javelin (used extensively in Spain throughout the Middle Ages),[107] the
+_dolon_, a dagger which concealed itself within a wooden staff, and
+took the name of "treacherous" or "wily" from this circumstance; and the
+_conto_, a keenly pointed pike. We also find among the military engines
+of the Visigoths the _balista_, for hurling stones and darts of large
+size, and the _ariete_ or battering-ram, constructed from a gnarled and
+powerful tree-trunk braced with iron and suspended by a cable. Their
+defensive body-armour consisted of a coat of mail composed of bronze or
+iron scales, and called the _lóriga_ or _perpunte_. This was worn above
+the _thorachomachus_, a kind of tunic made of felt, in order to shield
+the body from the roughness of the mail. Upon their heads they wore an
+ample helmet.
+
+  [107] A javelin made throughout of iron was found in Spain some years
+        ago, completely doubled up, so as to admit of its being thrust
+        into a burial urn. The javelin in question is now in the Madrid
+        museum, and a similar weapon may be seen in the provincial museum
+        of Granada.
+
+A fragment of stone carving preserved in Seville museum shows us two
+Visigothic Spanish warriors who wear a tunic and helmet of a simple
+pattern, and carry a two-edged sword and a large shield. García Llansó
+says, however, that the nobles of this people wore close-fitting mail
+tunics covered with steel scales, a kind of bronze bassinet, tight
+breeches, and high boots, and carried, besides the sword which was slung
+from their belts, a large, oval shield.[108]
+
+  [108] _Historia General del Arte_: García Llansó; _Armas_, pp. 439, 440.
+
+                           [Illustration: XL
+                          SPANISH CROSSBOWMAN
+             (_Late 15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+From about the time of the Moorish invasion, the changes in the arms and
+armour of the Spaniards coincided in the main with those in other parts
+of western Europe. Nevertheless, as late as the eleventh century the
+Spanish sword retained the characteristic which had endeared it to the
+Roman legionaries--namely, a hilt of small dimensions and a broad and
+shortish blade. In course of time the blade grows narrower and begins to
+taper towards the point. The _quillons_ or crossbars (Spanish
+_arriaces_, from the Arabic _arrias_, a sword-hilt) were originally
+straight or semicircular, and ended in a knob (_manzana_, literally
+"apple"; Latin _pomum_, English _pommel_). Thus, in the _Poem of the
+Cid_ we find the verse:--
+
+           "_Las manzanas é los arriaces todos de oro son._"
+
+Throughout these early times the scabbard was of wood lined with leather
+or with velvet, and strengthened and adorned with leather bands; but
+when the owner was of high estate, it often bore enamels in the
+_cloisonné_ style; that is, with patches of the coloured, vitreous
+substance bordered and fastened in by metal wire. In Spain this style,
+undoubtedly of foreign origin, was superseded in the thirteenth century
+by _champlevé_ enamelling, in which the enamel lies within a hollowed
+ground.
+
+Spanish mediæval weapons down to the fourteenth century are specified in
+the _fuero_ of Cáceres and other documents contemporary with their use.
+Next always in importance to the sword we find the hatchet, lance,
+crossbow, and mace. Montaner's _Chronicle of the Kings of Aragon_ tells
+us that the sovereign, mace in hand, dealt one of his enemies "such a
+blow upon his iron hat that his brains came oozing out at his ears."
+Covarrubias mentions a dart-shaped missile called the _azcona_--a word
+which some authorities derive from the Arabic, and others from the
+Basque _gascona_, an arm employed by the natives of Gascony. The former
+derivation seems the likelier. The _fuero_ of Cáceres mentions the
+_tarágulo_, described by the Count of Clonard as a kind of dagger; and
+at the close of the thirteenth century appears in Spain the poniard,
+which was called among the Germans _Panzerbrecher_, or "breaker of
+cuirasses," and among the French the _misericorde_.
+
+The _fuero_ of Cáceres tells us, furthermore, what was the regular
+equipment of the Spanish foot and mounted soldier of that period. "Each
+horseman shall go forth to battle with a shield, a lance, a sword, and
+spurs; and he that carries not all these shall pay each time five sheep
+wherewith to feed the soldiers.... Each mounted man or pawn that
+trotteth not or runneth not to quit his town or village as he hears the
+call,--the first shall have his horse's tail cut off; the other shall
+have his beard clipped."
+
+Defensive arms included various kinds of coverings for the head; the
+_lóriga_ or covering for the body, the _cálcias_ or covering for the
+legs, and the shield.
+
+The _lóriga_ (Latin _lorica_) was the ordinary hauberk or shirt of mail,
+such as was worn all over military Europe, made of rings or scales sewed
+strongly on a linen or leather under-tunic consisting of a single piece,
+and reaching to the knee. The _Gran Conquista de Ultramar_ of Alfonso el
+Sabio also informs us that it was tied at certain openings known as
+_ventanas_ ("windows"), and that the collar of the tunic was called the
+_gorguera_. The resistance of the Spanish _lóriga_ to a pointed weapon
+does not seem to have been great, for the Chronicle of the Monk of Silos
+says that at the siege of Viseo the arrows of the Moorish bowmen went
+through the triple _lórigas_ of their foe.
+
+Towards the twelfth century the custom arose of wearing over the coat of
+mail a loose, sleeveless frock (the _Waffenrock_ of Germany), woven of
+linen or some other light material, painted or embroidered with the
+owner's arms. As the Count of Clonard observes, it is clearly this kind
+of frock that is referred to in the following passage of the _Leyes de
+Partida_: "For some (of the knights) placed upon the armour carried by
+themselves and by their horses,[109] signs that were different one from
+another, in order to be known thereby; while others placed them on their
+heads, or on their helmets."
+
+  [109] The horse was also covered with a _lóriga_, on which, from about
+        the twelfth century, were thrown the decorative trappings of
+        _cendal_ or thin silk, painted or embroidered with the warrior's
+        arms.
+
+                           [Illustration: XLI
+                      THE BATTLE OF LA HIGUERUELA
+            (_Wall painting. Hall of Battles, El Escorial_)]
+
+The Normans used a form of hauberk with attached mail-stockings. In
+Spain we find in lieu of this leg-covering, the Roman _cálcia_ (Latin
+_caliga_), extending from the foot to just below the thigh, and
+subsequently called the _brafonera_.[110] This was, in fact, a separate
+mail-stocking, made of closely interlacing steel rings, and worn above
+the leather boots or _trebuqueras_.
+
+  [110]        "_Calzó las brafoneras que eran bien obradas
+                Con sortijas de acero, sabet bien enlazadas;
+                Asi eran presas é bien trabadas,
+                Que semejaban calzas de las tiendas taiadas._"
+                                                     _Poem of the Cid._
+
+The Spanish _escudo_ or shield was usually made of wood covered with
+leather, and painted with the arms or the distinguishing emblem of its
+lord. Sometimes it was made of parchment. Thus the Chronicle of the Cid
+informs us that this hero after death was equipped with "a painted
+parchment helm and with a shield in the same wise." Another form of
+Spanish shield, the _adarga_ (_atareca_, _atarca_; Arabic _ad-darka_, to
+hold upon the arm), of which I shall subsequently notice specimens in
+the Royal Armoury, was commonly in the shape of a rough oval or of a
+heart, and made of various folds of leather sewn and glued together. The
+Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh speaks of a certain famine which broke
+out among the Spanish troops, and caused them such privation that "they
+chewed the leather of their shields."[111]
+
+  [111] Count of Clonard, _op. cit._
+
+The battle headgear of this people passed through many changes. "The
+helmet of the eighth century," says the Count of Clonard, "was the same
+which had been used by the Cantabrians and Vascones before the general
+peace proclaimed by Augustus Cæsar. Helmets of this design are engraved
+upon the medals (reproduced by Florez) of the imperial legate Publius
+Carisius. They covered the entire head and face, leaving only two holes
+for the eyes, as we see upon the carved stone fragments in relief at the
+door of the church of San Pedro de Villanueva, representing the struggle
+of King Froila with a bear."
+
+Another form of helmet which the Spaniards began to use about this time
+was the _almofar_ (Arabic _al-mejfar_), made of iron scales. It covered
+all the head, with the exception of the eyes, nose, and mouth, and
+corresponds to the _camail_ of the Normans. Beneath it was worn the
+linen _cofia_, a kind of bag or cap in which the warrior gathered up his
+hair. After about another century a round or conical iron helmet
+(_capacete_), fitted with cheek-pieces, was superposed on the _almofar_
+and fastened round the chin with straps. The _capacete_ of a noble was
+often adorned with precious stones and coronets of pure gold, while a
+spike projecting from the top was tipped with a large carbuncle, in
+order to catch and to reflect the flashing sunbeams.
+
+The substitution for this spike of multiform and multicolor figures or
+devices dates from a later age. The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh
+describes as something altogether novel and surprising, the crests upon
+the helmets of the foreign knights who flocked, in 1343, to Algeciras to
+aid the cause of Christianity against the Moor. "All of them," says this
+narrative, "placed their helmets at the door of their dwellings,
+supporting them on stout and lofty staves; and the figures on the
+helmets were of many kinds. On some was the figure of a lion; on others
+that of a wolf, or ass's head, or ox, or dog, or divers other beasts;
+while others bore the likeness of the heads of men; faces, beards, and
+all. Others, too, had wings as those of eagles or of crows; and so,
+between these various kinds there were in all as many as six hundred
+helmets."
+
+This brings us to the celebrated helmet or _cimera_ (Plate xxxix.), now
+in the Royal Armoury of Madrid, believed till recently to have belonged
+to Jayme the First, conqueror of Palma and Valencia, and the greatest,
+both in spirit and in stature, of the old-time kings of Aragon.
+
+Such part of this interesting helmet as is left consists of two pieces,
+one of them resting loosely on the other. Baron de las Cuatro Torres
+infers, from a detail which will presently be noted, that the lower of
+these two pieces is not original; and his opinion was shared by the
+Count of Valencia de Don Juan, who, notwithstanding, thought the
+spurious part to be coeval with the actual crest. The upper part
+consists of a fragment of a helm, made, like some flimsy theatre
+property, of linen, card, and parchment, and surmounted with the figure
+of the mythical monster known in the Lemosin language as the
+_drac-pennat_, or winged dragon, which formed, conjointly with the royal
+crown, the emblem or device of all the Aragonese sovereigns from Pedro
+the Fourth to Ferdinand the Second.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLII
+                   PARADE HARNESS OF PHILIP THE THIRD
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+There is, however, no reason to doubt the helmet's authenticity. It is
+known to have remained for centuries at Palma, in the Balearics, where
+it was worn upon the day of Saint Sylvester in each year, by a person
+who walked in the procession of the _Standart_ to celebrate the capture
+of the city by Don Jayme. This would explain the lower piece contrived
+and added to the crest itself, in order to adjust the incomplete and
+upper portion to the subsequent wearer's head. The helmet as originally
+made was meant for tourneying only, and is therefore fashioned, not of
+metal, but of the frail theatrical materials I have stated. Copper and
+wood, says Viollet-le-Duc, were also used in making these objects. The
+earliest wearer of the helm cannot have been Don Jayme. Baron de las
+Cuatro Torres remarks that on an Aragonese coin of the reign of Pedro
+the Fourth, the monarch is wearing on his head something which looks
+identical with this _cimera_.[112] Demay has further told us that the
+vogue of such _cimeras_, whose principal purpose was to distinguish
+seigniories, lasted from 1289 till the introduction of movable visors at
+the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century. The
+present helmet, therefore, probably belonged to Don Pedro the Fourth of
+Aragon ("the Ceremonious"), and was made at some time in his
+reign--that is, between 1335 and 1387. A document has been discovered in
+which this monarch's son, Don Martin of Aragon, commands that year by
+year his own helmet, "_nostram emprissiam sive cimbram_," together with
+the banner of Jayme the Conqueror, is to be publicly exhibited in
+commemoration of the capture of Majorca. Therefore we may conclude from
+these important facts that here is the crest of a tourneying helmet
+which belonged either to Don Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, or else to
+either of, or possibly both, his sons, Don Juan and Don Martin.
+
+  [112] _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_; Nos. 16 and 17.
+
+The changes which occur in Spanish arms and armour between the
+fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries keep pace, upon the whole, with
+those in other parts of Europe. It is, however, opportune to notice how
+the Spanish armies of this time were organized. Their regular cavalry
+consisted of: (1) the force directly mustered by the king and under his
+immediate leadership; (2) the mounted burghers who defrayed the whole or
+part of their expenses, being in certain instances assisted by a stipend
+which had been created by municipal and local _fueros_; (3) the knights
+belonging to the military orders; and (4) the barons, together with the
+men these last were called upon, obedient to the summons of the royal
+_mandadero_ (messenger), to mount, equip, provision, and bring to war
+with them. Such was the heavy cavalry of later mediæval Spain. A lighter
+class, said by the Count of Clonard to have been recruited from the
+southern regions of the land, was known as _alfaraces_, _almogávares_,
+or _omes de la gineta_.
+
+These latter lived in frugal fashion. Water was their only drink; bread
+and the roots of plants their only food. Their clothing, too, was of the
+slightest, consisting merely of a shirt, high boots, and a kind of net
+upon the head. They wore no armour, and carried as their only weapons an
+_azagaya_ and a lance. Their principal value was in skirmishing.
+
+The infantry were also of two kinds. The first, collective or
+stipendiary, was levied by the towns and cities, and from them received
+its maintenance. The second was the _almogávares_, who served for
+scouting, like their mounted comrades of the same denomination. The
+stipendiary or regular troops proceeded chiefly from the northern
+provinces--Alava, Guipúzcoa, the Asturias, and the mountains of León,
+and carried commonly the lance, sword, sling, crossbow, and the
+_azagaya_--this last a dart-shaped missile borrowed from the Berber
+tribesmen,--the ancient Moorish _azgaya_, the modern _assagai_ or
+_assegai_ of Zululand.[113]
+
+  [113] One of these weapons may be seen in the Royal Armoury (No. I. 95).
+        It is made of iron covered with leather, and has a laurel-shaped
+        blade with sharpened edges. The other end consists of two
+        projecting pieces of the metal, shaped to resemble the plumes of
+        an arrow. The length of this arm is 5 feet 8 inches.
+
+In a country which was plunged in ruinous and almost unremitting
+internecine strife; which was (and is) inherently averse to commerce or
+to agriculture; and where the bulk of all the national wealth was either
+locked away in churches and in convents, or in the coffers of great
+nobles who were frequently as wealthy as, or even wealthier than, the
+Crown, the armour of the common mediæval Spanish soldier consisted of
+the plain and necessary parts and nothing more. The aristocracy, upon
+the other hand, often adorned their battle-harness with the finest gold
+and silver work, and studded it with precious stones. Even the esquires
+would sometimes imitate their masters in this costly mode. "We command,"
+said Juan the First in one of his pragmatics dating from the end of the
+fourteenth century, "that no shield-bearer shall carry cloth of gold or
+any manner of gold ornament upon his trappings, scarf, or saddle; or
+on his badge or arms, excepting only on the edges of his bassinet and
+his cuisses, together with the bit and poitral of his horse, which may
+be gilded."
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIII
+                      MOORISH CROSSBOW AND STIRRUP
+                         (_Museum of Granada_)]
+
+It is also evident from Royal Letters of this time, that the kings of
+Spain depended very largely for the flower of their forces on the
+private fortune or resources of the Spanish noblemen or even commoners;
+nor did they ever hesitate to turn these means of other people to their
+own particular good. The Ordinance of Juan the First, dated Segovia,
+1390, commands that, "Every man who possesses 20,000 _maravedis_ and
+upward shall have his proper set of harness, habergeons and
+scale-pieces, and lappet-piece, cuisses and vantbrasses, bassinet,
+camail, and war-cap[114] with its gorget; or else a helmet, together
+with sword and dagger, glaive and battle-axe. And whoso possesses 3000
+_maravedis_ and upward shall have his lance and javelin and shield, his
+lappet-piece and coat of mail, and iron bassinet without a camail, and a
+_capellina_, together with his sword, _estoque_, and knife. And whoso
+has between 2000 and 3000 _maravedis_ shall have his lance and sword or
+_estoque_ and knife, or a bassinet or _capellina_, together with a
+shield. And whoso has from 600 to 2000 _maravedis_ shall have a crossbow
+with its nut and cord and stirrup, quiver and strap, and three dozen
+shafts. And whoso has from 400 to 600 _maravedis_ shall have a lance, a
+javelin, and a shield. And whoso has 400 _maravedis_ shall have a
+javelin and a lance."
+
+  [114] _Capellina_. The Count of Clonard says that this was in the shape
+        of half a lemon, and fitted with a visor with a cutting edge.
+
+The wealthier classes responded lavishly to this command. Describing the
+battle of Olmedo and the forces of Don Alvaro de Luna sent against the
+Navarrese, the chronicle of the Constable declares that among his entire
+host could hardly have been found a single cavalier whose horse was not
+covered with trappings, and its neck with mail. "For some there were
+that carried divers figures painted on the aforesaid trappings, and
+others that bore upon their helmets jewels that were a token from their
+mistresses. And others carried gold or silver bells suspended from their
+horses' necks by thick chains; or plates upon their helmets studded with
+precious stones, or small targes richly garnished with strange figures
+and devices. Nor was there less variety in the crests upon their
+helmets; for some bore likenesses of savage beasts, and others plumes of
+various colours; while others carried but a plume or two upon their
+helmet crest, like unto those upon the forehead of their horses."
+
+The fifteenth century is often called in Spain her golden age of
+arms--not in the sense that she invented anything new relating to this
+craft, but that her warriors were more fully and more frequently
+equipped with what had been imported from elsewhere. As in the case of
+crested helmets, foreign initiative brought about the substitution of
+plate or German armour--developed from the chain armour and the coat of
+mail--for the earlier sets of disconnected pieces. Possibly, as a
+chronicle which describes the Englishmen and Gascons who were present at
+the siege of Lerma in 1334 would seem to indicate, it was in consequence
+of this direct association with the foreigner that the older form of
+Spanish harness yielded to the new. However this may be, plate armour
+certainly appeared in Spain at some time in the fourteenth century, and
+grew in vogue throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.
+Suits of armour worn by Spanish pikemen and crossbowmen of this period
+may be profitably studied in the Royal Armoury (Plate xl.); and the same
+harness is reproduced in the choir-stalls of Toledo cathedral, carved by
+Maestre Rodrigo in 1495. It is also useful to consult the prolix
+description of the _Passo Honroso_ (1433) of Suero de Quiñones, held at
+the bridge of Orbigo, as well as the painting of the battle of La
+Higueruela (Plate xli.) in the Sala de las Batallas of the Escorial. We
+find from these authoritative sources that Spanish harness then
+consisted of the war-hat or _capacete_, with its _barbote_ or piece to
+cover the mouth and cheeks, and fringe of mail (_mantillos_) to protect
+the neck: the _coracina_ or korazin of tinned steel plates;[115] the
+coat of mail; armlets and gauntlets; leg-pieces with closed greaves; and
+steel-pointed mail shoes.
+
+  [115] The following armourers' marks are stamped on various korazins in
+        the Royal Armoury, made in Aragon and dating from the fifteenth
+        century:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Spanish man-at-arms of the sixteenth century is well described by
+Martin de Eguiluz, in his book, _Milicia, Discursos, y Regla Militar_.
+"The man is mounted and bears a lance. His head is covered with a
+visored helmet. He wears a double breastplate, of which the outer piece
+is called _volante_. His thighs are guarded by cuisses, his legs by
+greaves, and his feet by shoes of mail or iron. His horse's face, neck,
+breast, and haunches are covered with iron or with doubled leather.
+These coverings are called _bardas_, and the horses protected by them
+_bardados_, of which each man-at-arms is called upon to possess two."
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIV
+                             MOORISH SWORD
+                    (_Casa de los Tiros, Granada_)]
+
+These plainer sets of war-harness for horses were made in Spain. The
+costlier bards, whether for war or tournament, were made in Italy and
+Germany, and often match the outfit of the rider in the splendour and
+luxuriance of their decoration. Striking examples of these bards are in
+the Royal Armoury, including one (Plate xlii.) which formerly belonged
+to Philip the Third. Probably it is the same referred to in the
+manuscript account of Valladolid from which I have already quoted
+curious notices of other crafts. Speaking of the Duke of Lerma in 1605,
+this narrative says; "He rode a beautiful horse with richly decorated
+arms and gold-embroidered bard, fringed, and with medallions in relief.
+The trappings, reaching to the ground, were of black velvet covered with
+silver plates as large as dinner-plates, and others of a smaller size
+that represented arms and war-trophies, all of them gilt, and studded
+with precious stones. I heard say that this armour which the Duke now
+wore, had once belonged to the Emperor, and is now the King's."[116]
+
+  [116] My theory that this harness and the one in the Royal Armoury are
+        the same is strengthened by the official inventory, which
+        specifies "a band of gold and silver, striped, and with devices
+        in relief, studded with lapis lazuli, and yellow gems and luminous
+        crystals." The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that this fine
+        outfit, except the portions which are represented in the plate,
+        was mutilated and dispersed in later years, and that he has
+        discovered fragments in the museums of Paris and Vienna, and in
+        the collection of Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild.
+
+The crossbow was an arm of great importance from about the eleventh
+century until the seventeenth, and Spain, throughout the latter of these
+centuries, was celebrated for their manufacture. Roquetas, a Catalan,
+"master-maker of crossbows," constructed them of steel, so skilfully and
+finely that they could be carried concealed inside the sleeve of a coat,
+and discharged without awaking the suspicion of the victim. A letter of
+René of Anjou, quoted by the Count of Valencia de Don Juan, also refers
+to the skill of the Catalans in making crossbows, and mentions one of
+these weapons constructed by "Saracen," of Barcelona, "who refuses to
+teach his craft to Christians." The letter further states that this arm
+was of a curious shape, and that, "despite its small dimensions, it
+carries to a greater distance than any other I have yet possessed."
+
+A handsome Moorish crossbow, inlaid with bronze (Plate xliii.), exists
+in the provincial museum of Granada. The Royal Armoury has no example of
+the rare form of crossbow fitted with wheeled gear, but all the commoner
+kinds employed for hunting or for war are represented here, including
+those with the _armatoste_ or goat's-foot lever, stirruped crossbows,
+and those which have the _torno_ or windlass (French _cranequin_).
+Demmin appends the following note to an illustration in his handbook of
+a crossbow with a goat's-foot lever fixed to the stock:--"A similar
+weapon in ironwood, sixteenth century, belonged to Ferdinand the First,
+proved by the inscription on the bow: DOM FERNANDO REI DE ROMANO,
+followed by four Golden Fleeces. It bears the name of the Spanish
+armourer Juan Deneinas. This valuable crossbow once belonged to M.
+Spengel, at Munich, but it is at present in the collection of the Count
+of Nieuwerkerke."
+
+There is also in the Royal Armoury a crossbow of the scarcer kind known
+in Spanish as _ballestas de palo_, in which the gaffle is not of steel,
+but put together from slips of springy woods, including yew. The wings
+are tipped with horn, and traces of heraldic and Renaissance decoration,
+painted on parchment, yet remain upon the weapon. Other portions are
+inlaid. Except for the erasure of the painting, this arm is splendidly
+preserved, and still retains its double cord, nut, and pins, together
+with the separate lever.
+
+Another interesting crossbow in this armoury belonged to Charles the
+Fifth, who used it for the chase. It has a _verja_ or yard of steel
+engraved with the letter C four times repeated and surmounted by a
+crown, and bears the inscription, PRO · IMPERATORE · SEMPER · AVGVSTO ·
+PLVS · VLTRA ·, together with · IV DE LA FVETE ·, for Juan de la
+Fuente, the name of a celebrated maker of these parts of a crossbow. The
+shaft (_tablero_), ornamented in bone and iron, is from the hand of
+another master, Juan Hernandez, whose signature is IO: HRZ. The Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan supposed that this was the one crossbow which
+Charles took with him to the rustic solitude of Yuste, and which is
+mentioned in a document at Simancas as "a crossbow with its gear and
+gaffles (it is in His Majesty's possession, but he has not paid for
+it)."
+
+                           [Illustration: XLV
+                       SWORD OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+                    (_Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+Hitherto I have traced the war-equipment of the Spanish Christians only.
+In the early period of Mohammedan rule, the conquerors used a simple
+dress for war, consisting of the _capacete_ or _almofar_ for the head,
+secured by a chain beneath the chin and covered by a piece of cloth
+called _schasch_, hanging to just below the shoulders; a wide sleeveless
+tunic; a shirt of mail; tight breeches, and leather shoes. Their weapons
+were the lance and sword. The foot-soldiery wore the _djobba_, a
+tight-sleeved tunic of white wool, bound to the body by a scarf, and
+leather shoes, and carried as their arms a _capacete_ of beaten iron,
+without a crest or cheek-pieces; a large round shield with its
+projecting umbo; and either a lance, or a double-edged and double-handed
+sword. Such are the details represented in the _Codex of the
+Apocalypse_, preserved in the cathedral of Gerona. As time progressed,
+the weapons and defensive armour of these Spanish Moors grew more
+luxurious and ornate, being often decorated with enamels, precious
+stones, or inlaid metals such as silver, gold, and bronze. Prominent
+centres of this industry were Murcia, Zaragoza, and Toledo, which are
+even said to have surpassed Damascus. Andalusia, too, was celebrated for
+her gold-inlaid cuirasses and coats of mail; while, according to El
+Idrisi, the town of Jativa enjoyed a widespread fame for every kind of
+decorative armour.[117]
+
+  [117] _Historia General del Arte_: García Llansó; _Armas_; pp. 440, 441.
+
+The military outfit of the Spanish Moors was, therefore, much the same
+as that of Christian Spain. Toledo under Muslim rule continued to be
+famous for her swords. Moorish Seville, Ronda, and Valencia were also
+favourably known for weapons, household knives, and scissors. Cutlery in
+the Moorish style is still produced in certain parts of eastern Spain,
+and in his _History of the Mohammedan Dynasties_ of this country,
+Gayangos tells us of a knife which bore upon one side of the blade the
+inscription in Arabic characters, "_With the help of God I will inflict
+death upon thy adversary_," and upon the other side, in Castilian, the
+words, "_Knife-factory of Antonio Gonzalez. Albacete, 1705._"
+
+The primitive Spanish-Moorish sword was an arm of moderate breadth used
+both for cutting and for thrusting. As time went on, this people
+gradually adopted swords of Spanish make or pattern, such as the
+ponderous _brandimartes_ and _montantes_ made for wielding with both
+hands. The Granadino writer Aben Said complains that the adoption of the
+arms, and even of the costume of the Spanish Christians, was prevalent
+at Granada in the thirteenth century. "Sultans and soldiers alike," he
+said, "dress in the manner of the Christians, even to their arms and
+armour, crimson cloaks, standards, and saddlery. They wield in battle a
+shield and a long lance,[118] which serves them to attack with; nor do
+they seem to care for Arab bows or maces, but prefer to use the Frankish
+ones."
+
+  [118] This weapon can have been no other than the typical Iberian lance.
+
+Nevertheless, the warriors of Granada carried several weapons which were
+not of Christian origin. The tribe of the Beni-Merines brought across
+from Africa a kind of sword called often in the Christian chronicles the
+_espada gineta_, used principally, as we gather from its name, by those
+addicted to the Moorish mode of horsemanship, or riding with short
+stirrups. The use of it extended later to the Christian Spaniards, and
+it is said to have contributed in later times to the victory of the
+Spanish army at Pavia. Other swords in use among the Granadinos were the
+_alfange_, the _chifarra_, the _chifarote_, and the _nammexi_. The last
+of these is described in an old dictionary of the Valencian and
+Castilian languages as a kind of scimitar, although Quatremère and
+Fleischer believe it to have been a dagger.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVI
+                       DAGGER OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+                    (_Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+Another author who describes the arms and armour of the Granadinos is
+Al-Jattib, who says in his _Splendour of the New Moon_; "There are in
+Granada two kinds of soldiery--those of Al-Andalus and those of Africa.
+Their leader is a prince of royal blood, or some exalted personage at
+court. Formerly they used the Christian arms; that is, ample coats of
+mail, heavy shields, thick iron helmets, lances with broad points, and
+insecure saddles.... Now they have discarded that equipment, and are
+beginning to use short cuirasses, light helmets, Arab saddles, leather
+shields, and thin lances." Of the African troops the same historian
+adds; "Their weapons for attacking are spears, either short or long,
+which they propel by pressing with the finger. These arms they call
+_marasas_; but for daily exercise they use the European bow."
+
+Descriptions of the Spanish-Moorish swords inserted in the chronicles
+and poems of the Middle Ages, together with the few examples that have
+been preserved until our time, enable us to form an accurate idea of the
+shape and decoration of these weapons generally. Those of the sultans
+and the Muslim aristocracy were, as a rule, profusely ornamented, either
+with precious stones or with enamels, or else with delicate and lavish
+damascening, or with the characteristic Oriental _ataujía_-work of gold
+and silver inlay. Inscriptions, too, were freely used upon the hilt or
+scabbard. Thus we are told that the great Almanzor kept for daily use a
+sword which bore the legend; "_Strive in warfare till ye win great
+victories. Battle with the infidels till ye win them over to Islam_";
+and similar inscriptions may be quoted in great number. But four or five
+of these magnificent arms have proved superior to the ravages of time,
+and naturally tell us more than any weapons whose renown survives in
+written records merely. Among such extant Spanish-Moorish swords are two
+attributed respectively to Aliatar and Abindarraez; two others which are
+known to have belonged to the last ill-fated monarch of the Moors of
+Spain, Boabdil el Chico; and another, considered to have also been
+Boabdil's property, now in possession of the Marquises of Campotejar,
+owners of the Generalife and of the Casa de los Tiros at Granada.
+
+The "sword of Aliatar," preserved in the Museum of Artillery at Madrid,
+is said to have been wrested from the clenched hand of that warrior,
+father-in-law of Boabdil and governor of Loja, as his corpse was swept
+away down stream after the rout of the Moorish expedition at Lucena.
+This arm is richly damascened as well as decorated with the
+characteristic _ataujía_. The centre of the hilt is made of ivory, and
+the pommel and crossbars--which latter terminate in elephants' heads
+with slightly upturned trunks--of damascened and inlaid iron, ornamented
+here and there with _ataujía_. Part of the blade--probably about an
+eighth--is broken off. The sheath has disappeared.
+
+An idle superstition has attributed the so-called "sword of Abindarraez"
+to the hero of the well-known sixteenth-century romance entitled _The
+Abencerraje and the Beautiful Jarifa._ This weapon, which for many years
+was in possession of the Narvaez family, belongs at present to the
+Marquis of La Vega de Armijo. The decoration is not particularly rich,
+and part of it is worn away; but the narrow blade is still engraved
+with figures or portraits from the story which has given the sword its
+name.
+
+The sword (Pl. xliv.) belonging to the Marquises of Campotejar, and
+which is preserved in the Casa de los Tiros at Granada, bears some
+resemblance to the "sword of Aliatar," and has about the same
+dimensions. Although it is commonly believed that Boabdil was the
+original owner of this sword, Gómez Moreno considers that more probably
+it belonged to one of the Moorish princes of Almería. The handle and
+crossbars, as well as the shape of the sheath, are silver-gilt, covered
+with minute arabesque ornamentation forming leaves and stems, and
+further decorated with enamel. The sheath is of Morocco leather worked
+with silver thread. The crossbars, curving abruptly down,[119] terminate
+in elephants' trunks boldly upturned towards the pommel. The blade is
+stamped with a Toledo mark consisting of Castilian letters and a
+pomegranate.
+
+  [119] In the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, this characteristically
+        eastern downward curve of the crossbars grew to be popular even
+        with the Christian Spaniards, as we observe from the swords of
+        Ferdinand himself, preserved in the Royal Armoury at Madrid, and
+        the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of Granada.
+
+But the most important, interesting, and beautiful specimens of
+Spanish-Moorish arms preserved to-day are those which were captured from
+Boabdil at the battle of Lucena (1482), when the monarch was made
+prisoner by the young Alcaide de los Donceles, Don Diego Fernandez de
+Cordova. A manuscript _History of the House of Cordova_, quoted by
+Eguilaz Yanguas,[120] says that upon the day in question, irretrievably
+disastrous to the Moorish cause in Spain, Boabdil carried "a short,
+silver-handled sword, a damascened dagger, and a lance and buckler of
+great strength" (Plates xlv. and xlvi.). These arms, together with
+another and a larger sword (_montante_ or _estoque real_) for wielding
+with both hands, and certain articles of Boabdil's clothing, continued
+in the captor's family for centuries, and were, some years ago,
+presented by the Marquises of Villaseca, his direct descendants, to the
+National Museum of Artillery.
+
+  [120] _Las Pinturas de la Alhambra_, p. 15.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVII
+                             MOORISH SWORD
+                   (_Hilt and upper part of sheath_)]
+
+The smaller or _gineta_ sword[121] is handsomer and more important
+than the large _estoque_. The crossbars, as we find so often in weapons
+of this character and date, are bent abruptly down, and then curve up in
+a design of dragons' heads--the well-known emblem of the Nasrite sultans
+of Granada. Part of the handle is of solid gold adorned with crimson,
+white, and blue enamel distributed about the top and bottom of the hilt,
+the pommel, and the _arriaces_ or crossbars. The centre of the hilt
+consists of ivory, richly carved. On either side of it are two octagonal
+intersecting figures, bearing upon one side, in semi-Cufic characters,
+the words, "_Achieve thy aim_," and on the other, "_in preserving his_
+(_i.e._ the owner's) _life_." Round the upper border of the ivory is
+carved the sentence; "_In the name of God; the power belongs to Him, and
+there is no Divinity but He. Happiness proceeds from God alone_"; and
+round the lower border, "_The marvellous belongs to God. Assuredly at
+the outset the ignorant do not know their God; seeing that error is
+their custom._"
+
+  [121] The Count of Valencia de Don Juan states that seven
+        Hispano-Moresque _gineta_ swords are known to exist to-day: the
+        one vwhich is here described, and those belonging to the Marquises
+        of Viana and Pallavicino, Baron de Sangarrén, the Duke of Dino,
+        Señor Sánchez Toscano, the archæological museum at Madrid, the
+        museum of Cassel in Germany, and the national library at Paris, A
+        _gineta_ sword in the Madrid Armoury popularly attributed to
+        Boabdil can never have belonged to him. The hilt is modern, and
+        the blade proceeds from Barbary.
+
+Other inscriptions of a sacred character, combined with delicate
+_ataujía_-work, are on the pommel and the upper portion of the hilt; but
+it has been remarked that, although the entire decoration is amazingly
+elaborate and rich, these inscriptions nowhere indicate that the weapon
+belonged to a personage of royal blood.
+
+The sheath of this most sumptuous arm is also lavishly adorned with
+silver and enamel on a purple leather ground. The blade is of a later
+date than either sheath or hilt, and bears the letter S, believed to be
+the mark of Alonso Sahagun the elder, of Toledo. The total length of
+this weapon is thirty-nine inches; and Gayangos declares that it was
+worn suspended by a belt between the shoulders.[122]
+
+  [122] A number of Moorish swords are mentioned in the inventory,
+        compiled in 1560, of the Dukes of Alburquerque. One is
+        particularly interesting. It is described as "a Moorish _gineta_
+        sword which belongs to the Count of Monteagudo, and is pawned for
+        six thousand _maravedis_. The sheath is of bay leather, worked in
+        gold thread. The chape and fittings are of silver, decorated with
+        green, blue, purple, and white enamel. There are two serpents'
+        heads upon the fitting, together with the figure of a monster
+        worked in gold thread on a little plate, and two large scarlet
+        tassels: the little plate has three ends of the same enamel and a
+        silver-gilt buckle." A note at the margin adds; "The chape is
+        wanting, and is owed us by the Marquis of Comares, who lost it at
+        the cane-play at Madrid."
+
+        The two serpents' heads formed part of the arms of the Alahmar
+        sultans of Granada; so that from this and from the richness of
+        this weapon we may infer that it had once belonged to Mussulman
+        royalty. The same inventory describes "a Moorish scimitar with
+        gilded hilt; the cross and pommel, and a great part of the
+        scimitar itself, being of gilded _ataujía_ work. The sheath is
+        green inside, and black and gilt upon the face; and hanging from
+        the hilt is a gold and purple cord with a button and a black
+        tassel."
+
+The large _montante_ which belonged to the same ill-fated monarch has a
+cylindrical hilt, narrower in the centre of the handle than at either
+end. This hilt is made of steel inlaid with _lacería_ or network
+ornament in ivory. In a small shield within the decoration of the
+pommel, appear the words "_To God_"; and in the centre of the handle,
+the familiar motto of the Nasrite sultans of Granada; "_The only
+Conqueror is God._"
+
+Part of the blade is broken off. That which is left is broad and
+straight, with two grooves (one of which extends about three inches
+only) on each side, and bears an oriental mark consisting of five
+half-moons. The sheath is of brown Morocco decorated with a small gilt
+pattern forming shells and flowers. The mouth and chape are silver-gilt.
+
+In beautiful and skilful craftsmanship Boabdil's dagger or _gumía_
+matches with his swords. The handle is of steel inlaid in ivory with
+floral patterns, and terminates in a large sphere, similarly decorated.
+The blade has a single edge, and is exquisitely damascened in gold
+designs which cover more than half of all its surface. Along one side we
+read the inscription; "_Health, permanent glory, lasting felicity,
+permanent glory, lasting felicity, and lasting and permanent glory
+belong to God_"; and on the other side, "_It was made by Reduan._"
+
+The sheath of this little arm is made of crimson velvet richly
+embroidered with gold thread, and hanging from it is a large tassel of
+gold cord and crimson silk. The chape and mouth are silver-gilt,
+profusely decorated, and the latter of these pieces is embellished with
+circular devices of a lightish green enamel, in addition to the chasing.
+
+The small, plain knife, also preserved among the spoil, was carried in
+this sheath, together with the dagger.[123]
+
+  [123] To-day the craft of finely decorating arms is not forgotten in
+        Morocco. "A silversmith advanced to show a half-completed
+        silver-sheathed and hafted dagger, engraved with pious sentences,
+        as, "God is our sufficiency and our best bulwark here on earth,"
+        and running in and out between the texts a pattern of a rope with
+        one of the strands left out, which pattern also ran round the
+        cornice of the room we sat in, and round the door, as it runs
+        round the doors in the Alhambra and the Alcazar, and in thousands
+        of houses built by the Moors, and standing still, in Spain. The
+        dagger and the sheath were handed to me for my inspection, and on
+        my saying that they were beautifully worked, the Caid said keep
+        them, but I declined, not having anything of equal value to give
+        in return."--Cunninghame Graham; _Mogreb-El-Acksa_, p. 234.
+
+                         [Illustration: XLVIII
+                    WAR HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The Royal Armoury at Madrid is often thought by foreigners[124] to
+contain a representative collection of the arms, offensive and
+defensive, used by the Spanish people through all their mediæval and
+post-mediæval history. This is not so. Although it is the choicest and
+the richest gallery in Europe, the Armería Real was formed almost
+entirely from the _cámaras de armas_ or private armouries of Charles the
+Fifth and of his son, and is, as Mélida describes it, "a splendid
+gallery of royal arms," dating, with very few exceptions, from the
+sixteenth century.
+
+  [124] _E.g._, by Townsend, who wrote of it, with ill-informed
+        enthusiasm, as "an epitome of Spanish history." Swinburne's notice
+        of the same armoury is also curious: "At the bottom of the
+        palace-yard is an old building, called the Armeria, containing a
+        curious assortment of antique arms and weapons, kept in a manner
+        that would have made poor Cornelius Scriblerus swoon at every
+        step; no notable housemaid in England has her fire-grates half so
+        bright as these coats of mail; they show those of all the heroes
+        that dignify the annals of Spain; those of Saint Ferdinand,
+        Ferdinand the Catholic, his wife Isabella, Charles the Fifth, the
+        great Captain Gonsalo, the king of Granada, and many others. Some
+        suits are embossed with great nicety. The temper of the sword
+        blades is quite wonderful, for you may lap them round your waist
+        like a girdle. The art of tempering steel in Toledo was lost about
+        seventy years ago, and the project of reviving and encouraging it
+        is one of the favourite schemes of Charles the Third, who has
+        erected proper works for it on the banks of the Tagus."
+
+The greater part of its contents were made within a limited interval, as
+well as not produced in Spain. Such are the glittering and gorgeous
+harnesses constructed for the actual use of Charles the Fifth by
+celebrated German and Italian armourers, ponderous suits for jousting or
+parade, or lighter suits for combat in the field, whether on foot or
+horseback (Plate xlviii.), fashioned, chiselled, and inlaid by craftsmen
+such as the Negroli and Piccini of Milan, Bartolommeo Campi of Pesaro,
+or Kollman of Augsburg, bombastically called, by a Spanish poet in the
+mode of Gongora, "the direct descendant of Vulcanus."
+
+This German and Italian armour, with its multitude of accessorial
+pieces,[125] falls outside the province of a book on Spanish arts and
+crafts. Nevertheless, I reproduce, as being too little known outside
+Madrid, the sumptuous jousting harness (Plate xlix.), of Charles the
+Fifth, made for the emperor when he was a lad of only eighteen years by
+Kollman Helmschmied of Augsburg.[126] Laurent Vital, describing the
+royal jousts at Valladolid in 1518, relates that "après marchait le Roy
+bien gorgiasement monté et armé d'un fin harnais d'Alemaigne, plus
+reluisant que d'argent brunti." This is the very harness told of by the
+chronicler. The helmet turns the scale at forty pounds; the entire suit
+at two hundred and fifty-three pounds; and the length of the lance
+exceeds eleven feet.
+
+  [125] Throughout this time, the full equipment of the knight consisted
+        of no less than four complete suits, for tournament or battle, or
+        for foot or mounted fighting, together with their lances, swords,
+        and targes. The Alburquerque inventory describes in detail a
+        complete set ("all of it kept in a box") of war and tourneying
+        harness belonging to the duke. Although the warriors of that day
+        were short of stature, their muscular strength is undeniable, for
+        one of their lances has to be lifted nowadays by several men. When
+        the author of _Mogreb-El-Acksa_ wrote contemptuously of the
+        "scrofulous champions tapping on each other's shields," he was
+        perhaps, forgetful for a moment of this fact.
+
+  [126] The Count of Valencia de Don Juan has found, from documents at
+        Simancas, that in the year 1525 Kollman visited Toledo to measure
+        Charles for armour. It is also certain, adds the Count, that, in
+        order to produce this armour of a perfect fit, Kollman first
+        moulded Charles' limbs in wax, and then transferred the moulds to
+        lead. In a budget of accounts which coincides with Kollman's visit
+        to Toledo appears the following item: "Pour trois livres de cire
+        et de plomb pour faire les patrons que maître Colman, armoyeur,
+        a fait"--followed by details of the cost.
+
+There is, however, also in this armoury a jousting harness (Plate l.)
+formerly the property of Philip the First of Spain, a part of which,
+including the cuirass, is known to be of Spanish make. The cuirass in
+question bears the mark of a Valencia armourer, and the harness
+generally dates from about the year 1500, at which time Gachard tells us
+in his _Chroniques Belges_ that Philip was learning to joust "à la mode
+d'Espaigne." Besides the enormous helmet and the Spanish-made cuirass,
+covered with gold brocade, this ornament includes a tourneying lance
+with a blunt three-pointed head,[127] and a curious form of rest, said
+by the Count of Valencia de Don Juan to be peculiar to the Spaniards and
+Italians. This rest is stuffed with cork, on which, just as the fray
+began, the iron extremity of the lance was firmly driven. Another
+interesting detail is the _cuja_, fastened to the right side of the
+cuirass, and also stuffed with cork, made use of to support the lance
+upon its passage over to the rest. Nor in this instance was the _cuja_ a
+superfluous device, seeing that the lance is over fifteen feet in
+length.
+
+  [127] This, in the later Middle Ages, was a favourite form of tourneying
+        lance.
+
+These are the principal portions of the harness. The seemingly
+insufficient protection for the arms is explained by the fact that the
+solid wooden shield completely covered the fighter's left arm, while
+the right would be defended by the shield-like disc or _arandela_ of the
+lance.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIX
+                 JOUSTING HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Spanish shields and swords of great antiquity and interest are also in
+this armoury. The oldest of the shields dates from the twelfth century,
+and proceeds from the monastery of San Salvador de Oña, Burgos. The
+material is a wood resembling cedar, although much eaten by moth, and is
+covered on both sides with parchment bearing traces of primitive
+painting of a non-heraldic character. Inside the shield, this decoration
+consisted of a black ground crossed diagonally by a broad red band, and
+outside, of a red ground covered with rhomboid figures, some in gilt and
+some in colour. Such figures were a popular pattern at this time and on
+this class of objects. The general stoutness of this shield shows that
+it was meant for war. It still retains the strap which slung it from the
+warrior's neck, as well as fragments of the braces--made of buffalo
+leather covered with crimson velvet--for the hand.
+
+Another shield, proceeding from the same monastery, dates from the
+thirteenth century. The material, here again, is wood and parchment; but
+in this hundred years formal heraldic ornament had superseded fancy or
+conventional devices. Accordingly, this shield is painted with a
+blazon, now much worn, of which, however, enough remains to show that it
+consisted once upon a time of four black chaperons crowned with gold
+_fleurs-de-lis_ upon a gold ground--said to have been the arms of Don
+Rodrigo Gomez, Count of Bureba.
+
+The _scut_, or polished metal shield, with painted blazonry or other
+decoration, was limited to Aragon and Cataluña.[128]
+
+  [128] _Historia General del Arte; Armas_, by García Llansó; p. 445.
+
+Among the smaller and more modern shields preserved in this collection
+are two wooden bucklers dating from the sixteenth century. One is in the
+Spanish-Moorish style and of a convex shape, with iron bordering and
+umbo, and a lining of yellow brocade. The other, of the Christian
+Spaniards, is small and lined with painted parchment, and was intended,
+so the inventory says, "for going about at night."[129]
+
+  [129] "Dès que le soir arrive, on ne va point n'y à Madrid ny ailleurs,
+        sans cotte de maille et sans _broquet_ qui est une
+        rondache."--Bertaut de Rouen, _Voyage d'Espagne_ (1659 A.D.),
+        p. 294.
+
+        The arms of Spaniards promenading after dark were even fixed by
+        law. The _Suma de Leyes_ of 1628 ordains that after ten o'clock
+        nobody is to carry arms at all unless he also bears a lighted
+        torch or lantern. No arquebus, on pain of a fine of ten thousand
+        _maravedis_, may have a barrel less than a yard long. Nobody may
+        carry a sword or rapier the length of whose blade exceeds a yard
+        and a quarter, or wear a dagger unless a sword accompanies it.
+        Sometimes these prohibitions extended even to seasons of the year.
+        In 1530 an Ordinance of Granada proclaims that from the first of
+        March until the last day of November nobody may carry a hatchet,
+        sickle, or dagger, "except the dagger which is called a
+        _barazano_, of a palm in length, even if the wearer be a
+        shepherd." The penalty for infringement of this law was a fine of
+        ten thousand _maravedis_; but labourers who worked upon a farm
+        were exempted from the prohibition.
+
+        Swinburne wrote from Cataluña, in 1775, that "amongst other
+        restrictions, the use of slouched hats, white shoes, and large
+        brown cloaks is forbidden. Until of late they durst not carry any
+        kind of knife; but in each public house there was one chained to
+        the table, for the use of all comers."
+
+There is also a richly gilt and silvered buckler of the seventeenth
+century, made at Eugui in Navarre, and covered with a scene--decadent
+in design and workmanship--which represents the judgment of Paris.
+Defensive armour, chiefly of a highly decorative kind, was made all
+through this century at the capital of Navarre, Pamplona. The Royal
+Armoury contains a Pamplonese parade harness (Plate lii.), offered as a
+gift to Philip the Third, as well as six diminutive sets of armour made
+to his order for the youthful princes Don Felipe, Don Fernando, and Don
+Carlos.
+
+The _adarga_ was a kind of targe used by the light cavalry, and had its
+origin in Africa. Those which were stored in the palace of the Nasrite
+sultans of Granada are described by Al-Makkari as "solid, without pores,
+soft to the touch, and famed for their imperviousness." The material was
+strong leather, such as cowhide, often embroidered with a scutcheon or
+with arabesques. Two Spanish-made _adargas_ in this armoury are
+particularly handsome. One is of Moorish craftsmanship, and dates from
+the end of the fifteenth century. The other (Plate liii.), apparently
+the work of a Spanish Christian and dating from a century later, is
+embroidered in silver thread and coloured silk with arabesque devices
+and also with four coats of arms, one of which belongs to the noble
+family of Fernández de Cordova. The dimensions of this shield are a yard
+in height by thirty inches in breadth.
+
+                            [Illustration: L
+                JOUSTING HARNESS OF PHILIP THE HANDSOME
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+There also are preserved in this collection a shield (late sixteenth
+century) adorned by Mexican Indians with a most elaborate "mosaic of
+feather-work," and a number of Spanish _adargas_ of the same period, for
+playing the _juego de cañas_ or "game of canes." The armoury contained
+in former days as many as forty-two _adargas_; but the fire of 1884
+completely destroyed sixteen and badly damaged twenty-three,
+obliterating their heraldic and other decoration. A yet more sinister
+event befell on December 1st, 1808, when the Spanish mob, exasperated by
+the French, broke in and seized three hundred swords, not one of which
+was afterwards recovered. Mention of these disasters leads me to recall
+the quantity of beautiful or historic military gear that Spain has lost
+through many tribulations and vicissitudes. Formerly her noble families
+had excellent collections in their palaces or castles. Such were the
+private armouries of the Dukes of Pastrana at Guadalajara, and of the
+Dukes of Alburquerque at Cuéllar Castle, near Segovia. Bertaut de Rouen
+describes the first as "une des plus belles qui se voyent pour un
+seigneur particulier. Il y a quantité d'armes anciennes, et l'on y void
+une épée qui s'allonge et s'accourcit quand on veut, de deux pieds et
+demy."[130] The Cuéllar armoury was pulled to pieces by Philip the
+Fourth to arm his troops against the French. "Send me," he wrote to the
+Duke from Madrid, in a letter dated April 16th, 1637, "all your pistols,
+carbines, harness for horses, breastplates and other arms for mounted
+fighting"; and the loyal nobleman complied upon the spot, despatching
+more than five hundred pieces, many of which were doubtless of the
+greatest interest.[131]
+
+  [130] _Voyage d'Espagne_, p. 199.
+
+  [131] Gonzalo de la Torre de Trassierra; Articles on Cuéllar published
+        in the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_.
+
+Had I the erudition and the time, I would attempt to write, as it
+deserves to be written, an introduction to the history of Spanish
+swords. Of all the objects mentioned in these volumes, here is the most
+inherently symbolic of the Spanish character and history. The Spanish
+Moors and Spanish Christians spoke of it as something superhuman. "Once
+the sword is in the hand of man," observed, in solemn tones, the Wise
+Alfonso, "he hath it in his power to raise or lower it, to strike with
+it, or to abandon it." The Spanish Mussulmans talked of putting "clothes
+and breeches" on a sword that had a sheath, as though it were a
+breathing person; while a Spaniard of the time of Gongora would often
+use such language as the following: "Truly in point of look there is as
+great a difference between a costly sword and a _Toledan Loyalty_ or
+_Soldier's Dream_, as between a marquis and a muleteer, or a washerwoman
+and the Infanta. Yet every sword is virtually an hidalgo. Does not the
+basest of our Toledanas, even to the _perrillos_ and _morillos_, which
+have no core, and cost a dozen _reales_ merely, afford a chivalrous
+lesson to its wearer, as it bids him _no me saques sin razon, ni me
+envaines sin honor_?[132] The horse and the sword," he continued, taking
+a magnificently damascened rapier, and stroking it caressingly, "are the
+noblest friends of man, albeit the nobler is the sword; for the horse at
+times is obstinate or faint-hearted, but the sword is ready continually.
+The sword, moreover, possesses the chiefest of all virtues--justice, or
+the power of dividing right and wrong; a soul of iron, which is
+strength; and, last and greatest, the Cross, which is the symbol of the
+blessed Catholic Faith."[133]
+
+  [132] "Draw me not without a cause, nor sheathe me without honour." A
+        sword with this inscription is in the Royal Armoury--(G. 71 of
+        the official catalogue).
+
+  [133] Leonard Williams; _Toledo and Madrid: their Records and Romances_;
+        p. 102.
+
+Notices of early Spanish sword-makers are far from common. Don Manuel G.
+Simancas quotes the following, dated in the thirteenth century:--
+
+"_Master Almerique._ By letters of the King and Queen, to Master
+Almerique, for making the (sword) blades for the King; out of the MCC
+_maravedis_ of his salary he received CCCC _maravedis_."
+
+"_Master Enrique._ By letters of the King and Queen, to Master Enrique,
+for making the swords, MCCCC, (of which) he received CCCCXII
+_maravedis_."
+
+Other entries of the same period relate to Juan Ferrández, armourer, who
+received a sum for making coverings for arms and saddles; and to Master
+Jacomin, who was paid three gold _doblas_, or sixty-three _maravedis_,
+for making a breastplate.
+
+In the inventory (1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque occurs a very
+curious notice which seems to show that mediæval Spanish swords were
+manufactured even in the rural districts. The entry runs; "an old
+grooved sword of a broad shape, bearing the words _Juanes me fezió_
+("John made me"). In the middle of the same a P within a parted wave,
+with Portuguese fittings, varnished, black silk hilt and fringes, and
+double straps of black leather, with varnished ends and buckles and
+black leather sheath. _Juan de Lobinguez made this sword at Cuéllar._"
+
+                           [Illustration: LI
+                            MOORISH BUCKLER
+              (_Osier and metal. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The Spanish guilds of armourers enjoyed high favour,[134] since the
+examination for admission to this craft was very strict, as well as
+fenced about with curious prohibitions. Thus at Seville, "no Moor, Jew,
+black man, or other person such as the law debars, shall set up a shop
+for making and selling defensive arms, or undergo examination in this
+craft."[135] The penalty for infringement of this law was confiscation
+of the arms, together with a fine of twenty thousand _maravedis_.
+
+  [134] In the Corpus Christi festival at Granada the banner which
+        preceded all the rest was that of the armourers and knife-makers,
+        followed by that of the silk-mercers. _Ordenanzas de Granada_;
+        tit. 126.
+
+  [135] _Armourers' Ordinances of Seville_, extant in ms. (quoted by
+        Gestoso; _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_; vol. I.,
+        p. xxxvi).
+
+Throughout these times the armourer's and the gilder's crafts are found
+in closest union; just as the armourer's craft would often alternate
+with that of the goldsmith or the silversmith. At Seville, the Ordinance
+of 1512 prescribed that every candidate who came to be examined must
+make "a set of horse harness, complete with stirrups, headstalls, spurs,
+poitral, and the fittings of a sword; and he must silver several of
+these pieces and blue them with fine blue; and make of iron, and gild
+the spurs and fittings of the sword. Thus shall he make, and gild, and
+silver the aforesaid pieces."
+
+Equally severe and comprehensive are the swordsmiths' Ordinances (1527
+to 1531) of Granada. The aspirant to the title of _oficial_ "shall mount
+a sword for wear with ordinary clothes, fitted in black, together with
+its straps, and fringed and corded hilt; besides a sword gilded a low
+gold, together with its straps and other parts, all of a single colour.
+Also he shall fit a velvet-scabbarded, silver-hilted sword, and a
+two-handed sword, fully decorated, with the knife attaching to the same,
+one-edged and with a smooth hilt; also a sword whose scabbard shall be
+fitted with knives numbering not less than three; and a hilt of
+_lacería_ (network ornament); and another sword in a white sheath, with
+woven hilt; and another of a hand and a half."[136]
+
+  [136] "_De mano y media_"; _i.e._ for wielding either with one hand or
+        both. Specimens of this kind of sword existing at Madrid will be
+        described immediately.
+
+The Royal Armoury at Madrid contains an excellent collection of these
+weapons. Among the earliest known to be of Spanish make are two which
+date from the thirteenth century. One of them (Plate liv., No. 1), with
+fittings of a later time, is frequently miscalled the "Cid's Colada,"
+and seems to have been confounded with the genuine weapon of that hero
+which was acquired in the thirteenth century by one of the sovereigns of
+Castile, and which has probably disappeared.
+
+The blade of this remarkable sword has two edges and tapers gradually to
+the point. Part of the blade is slightly hollowed, and bears, extending
+through about a quarter of the hollow or _canal_, the following
+inscription or device:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This is believed by some authorities to represent the words SI, SI, NO,
+NON ("Yes, yes, no, no"); and by others to be a purely meaningless and
+decorative pattern. The weapon, in any case, is in the best of
+preservation, and is especially interesting from the fact that engraved
+blades dating from this early period are very seldom met with. The Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan believes this weapon to be the same _Lobera_
+which belonged to Ferdinand the Third, and aptly quotes the following
+passage from the chronicle. When Ferdinand, conqueror of Seville, was
+lying on his death-bed in that capital, surrounded by his children, he
+gave his blessing to his younger son, the Infante Don Manuel, and
+addressed him in these words. "I can bequeath no heritage to you; but I
+bestow upon you my sword Lobera, that is of passing worth, and wherewith
+God has wrought much good to me." If the Count's surmise be accurate,
+another passage which he quotes from the work _Nobleza y Lealtad_,
+written by the twelve councillors of Ferdinand, fully explains the
+legend on the blade. "_Sennor, el tu si sea asi, e el tu non, sea non;
+que muy gran virtud es al Príncipe, ó á otro qualquier ome ser
+verdadero, e grand seguranza de sus vasallos, e de sus cosas._"[137]
+
+  [137] "Señor, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay be nay; for of great
+         virtue is it in the prince, or any man, to be a speaker of the
+         truth, and of great security to his vassals and to his property."
+
+I said that the chiselled and gilded iron fittings to the blade are of a
+later period. They date from the earlier part of the sixteenth century,
+and are the work of Salvador de Avila, of Toledo.
+
+                           [Illustration: LII
+                        ARMOUR MADE AT PAMPLONA
+                (_17th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The other sword in this collection, and which also belongs to the
+thirteenth century, has a long, broad blade with two edges and a central
+groove, thinly engraved with circles (Pl. liv., No. 3, and Pl. lv.). The
+crossbars are of silver-gilt, engraved with _ataurique_, curving towards
+the blade and terminating in trefoils. A shield midway between them
+bears the arms of Castile upon one side, and those of León upon the
+other. The grip is of wood, covered with silver plates with decorated
+borders, and the pommel is of iron, also covered with ornamental plates
+of silver-gilt. Formerly this arm was studded with precious stones, but
+all of these excepting one have disappeared.
+
+The scabbard is of wood lined with sheepskin, and is covered with a
+series of five silver-gilt plates, profusely decorated with
+Hispano-Moresque _lacería_, studded with various kinds of gems. These
+gems upon the scabbard amounted once upon a time to seventy-six, which
+sum, through pilfering or accident (probably the former, since the
+finest stones are gone), has been diminished by one-half. An inventory,
+made in the reign of Philip the Second, states that the inner side of
+the sheath, now wholly worn away, was covered with lions and castles,
+and that the belt was of broad orange-coloured cloth, with silver
+fittings.
+
+This sword has been absurdly attributed to the nephew of Charlemagne,
+who lived not less than half a thousand years before its date of
+manufacture. The Count of Valencia de Don Juan thought that it may have
+been the property of a Spanish monarch of the thirteenth
+century,--perhaps Alfonso the Learned, or Ferdinand the Third, Alfonso's
+father. Ferdinand, we know, possessed a sword which he delivered with
+due ceremony to his elder son, the Infante Don Fernando, upon his
+leading out a force against the town of Antequera. This sword the
+chronicler Alvar García de Santa María described as having "a sheath in
+pieces, with many precious stones."
+
+Of even greater interest than the foregoing weapon is the great
+two-handed and two-edged _estoque_ or ceremonial sword of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, which measures forty-two inches in length. The fittings are of
+iron, gilded and engraved. The crossbars, terminating in small
+half-moons, with the concave side directed outward, are inscribed with
+the well-known motto of the Catholic sovereigns, TANTO MONTA, and with
+a supplication to the Virgin, MEMENTO MEI O MATER DEI MEI. The pommel is
+a flat disc, suggestive in its outline of a Gothic cross, and bears upon
+one side the figure of Saint John together with the yoke, emblem of
+Ferdinand the Catholic, and upon the other the sheaf of arrows, emblem
+of his consort Isabella. The hilt is covered with red velvet bound with
+wire.
+
+The sheath of this most interesting sword--affirmed by the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan to have been used by Ferdinand and Isabella, and
+subsequently by Charles the Fifth, in the ceremony of conferring
+knighthood, and also, during the Hapsburg monarchy, to have been carried
+by the master of the horse before the king upon his formal visit to a
+city of his realm--is made of wood covered with crimson silk, bearing in
+"superposed" embroidery the arms of Spain posterior to the conquest of
+Granada, together with a repetition of the emblems of the Catholic
+sovereigns (Plate liv., No. 2).
+
+In the same collection are two other swords which probably belonged to
+Ferdinand the Catholic. One of them (Pl. lvii., No. 1), has a discoid
+pommel and a gilded iron handle. The flat crossbars grow wider and bend
+down towards the blade, and on the hilt we read the words PAZ COMIGO
+NVNCA VEO, Y SIEMPRE GVERA DESEO ("Never does peace attend me, and
+always do I yearn for war").
+
+This sword has been attributed to Isabella. The evidence for this belief
+is slight, although the Count of Valencia de Don Juan discovered that in
+the year 1500 Isabella was undoubtedly the possessor of certain weapons
+and armour which she sometimes actually wore. Among these objects were
+several Milanese breastplates, a small dagger with a gold enamelled hilt
+in the shape of her emblem of the sheaf of arrows, and two swords, one
+fitted with silver and enamel, and the other with iron.
+
+The other sword, which probably belonged to Ferdinand the Catholic, is
+of the kind known as "of a hand and a half" (_de mano y media_; see p.
+248, _note_), and also of the class denominated _estoques de arzón_, or
+"saddle-bow swords," being commonly slung from the forepart of the
+saddle upon the left side of the rider. Ferdinand, however, had reason
+to be chary of this usage, for Lucio Marineo Sículo affirms that at the
+siege of Velez-Málaga the sword which he was wearing thus suspended,
+jammed at a critical moment of the fray, and very nearly caused his
+death. Sículo adds that after this experience Ferdinand invariably wore
+his sword girt round his person, just as he wears it in the carving on
+the choir-stalls of Toledo.
+
+                          [Illustration: LIII
+                                _ADARGA_
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The Royal Armoury contains another sword improperly attributed both to
+Ferdinand the Third and Ferdinand the Catholic. It dates from the
+fifteenth century, and has a blade of unusual strength intended to
+resist plate armour. This blade, which has a central ridge continued to
+the very point, is very broad towards the handle, tapers rapidly, and
+measures thirty-two inches. At the broader end, and on a gilded ground
+embellished with concentric circles, are graven such legends as:--
+
+"The Lord is my aid. I will not fear what man may do to me, and will
+despise my enemies. Superior to them, I will destroy them utterly."
+
+"Make me worthy to praise thee, O sweet and blessed Virgin Mary."
+
+The handle is of iron, with traces of gilded decoration, and corded with
+black silk. The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that no reliable
+information can be found concerning this fine arm. Its length and
+general design would allow of its being used with one hand or with
+both, and either slung from the saddle-bow or round the middle of a
+warrior on foot.
+
+Another handsome sword, wrongly attributed by the ignorant to Alfonso
+the Sixth, is kept at Toledo, in the sacristy of the cathedral. The
+scabbard is adorned with fourteenth-century enamel in the _champlevé_
+style. Baron de las Cuatro Torres considers that this sword belonged to
+the archbishop Don Pedro Tenorio (see p. 269), and adduces his proofs in
+the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_ for March 1897. The
+prelate in question, appointed to command an army sent against Granada,
+was, like so many of the Spanish mediæval clerics, of a warlike temper,
+and "exchanged with great alacrity his rochet for his harness, and his
+mitre for his helm."
+
+One of the most ridiculous and barefaced forgeries in the Royal Armoury
+is a sixteenth-century sword which has inscribed upon its blade the name
+of the redoubtable Bernardo del Carpio. The Count of Valencia de Don
+Juan says he remembers to have met with other blades of later mediæval
+make, engraved with such legends as "belonging to Count
+Fernán-Gonzalez," or even "Recaredus Rex Gothorum," while others in
+this armoury are ascribed, without the least authority of fact or common
+sense, to García de Paredes, Alvaro de Sande, and Hernando de Alarcón.
+Others, again, with less extravagance, though not on solid proof, are
+said to have belonged to Hernán Cortés, the Count of Lemos, and Diego
+Hurtado de Mendoza.
+
+Some, upon the other hand, belonged undoubtedly to celebrated Spanish
+warriors of the olden time. Such are the swords of the Count of Coruña,
+of Gonzalo de Córdova, and of the conqueror of Peru, Francisco Pizarro.
+The first of these weapons (Pl. lvii., No. 4) has a superb hilt carved
+in the style of the Spanish Renaissance, with crossbars curving down, a
+_pas d'âne_, and a Toledo blade of six _mesas_ ("tables") or surfaces,
+grooved on both sides, and ending in a blunt point. The armourer's mark,
+which seems to represent a _fleur-de-lis_ four times repeated, is that
+of the swordsmith Juan Martinez, whose name we read upon the blade,
+together with the words IN TE DOMINE SPERAVI, and on the other side, in
+Spanish, PARA DON BERNARDINO XVAREZ DE MENDOZA, CONDE DE CORVÑA.
+
+The sword of "the great captain," Gonzalo de Córdova (1453-1515), is
+not of Spanish make (Plate lvii., No. 3). It has a straight blade with
+bevelled edges. The pommel and _quillons_ are decorated with Renaissance
+carving, and the bars, which are of gilded iron, grow wider at their end
+and curve towards the blade. The pommel, of gilded copper, is spherical,
+and bears, upon one side, a scene which represents a battle, together
+with the words GONSALVI AGIDARI VICTORIA DE GALLIS AD CANNAS. Upon the
+other side are carved his arms. Other inscriptions in Latin are also on
+the pommel and the blade.
+
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan believed that this sword was a present
+to Gonzalo from the corporation of some Italian town, and that it
+replaced, as an _estoque real_, or sword of ceremony, the state sword
+(see p. 252) of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+                           [Illustration: LIV
+                             SPANISH SWORDS
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Pizarro's sword remained in possession of his descendants, the Marquises
+of La Conquista, until as recently as 1809, in which year this family
+presented it to a Scotch officer named John Downie, who had fought in
+the Peninsular War against the French. Downie, in turn, bequeathed it to
+his brother Charles, lieutenant-colonel in the Spanish army, from
+whom it passed into the hands of Ferdinand the Seventh. The appearance
+of this sword is not remarkable. It has a stout, four-surfaced blade,
+with a powerful _recazo_ or central ridge, engraved with the Christian
+name of Mateo Duarte, a swordsmith who was living at Valencia in the
+middle of the sixteenth century. The hilt is of blued (_pavonado_)
+steel, inlaid with leaves and other ornament in gold. The pommel is a
+disc; the _quillons_ are straight, or very nearly so, and there is a
+_pas d'âne_ (Plate lvii., No. 2).
+
+The sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries are famous as the epoch of
+the Spanish rapier. Toledo, as the world is well aware, enjoyed an
+undisputed name for the production of these weapons. Within this ancient
+and historic capital generations of artists bequeathed, from father to
+son, and son to grandson, the secret (if there were a secret) of the
+tempering of these matchless arms; nor have Toledo blades deteriorated
+to this day. Many an idle superstition seeks to justify the talent and
+dexterity of these swordsmiths; though probably the key to all their
+skill was merely in the manual cunning, based on constant practice, of
+the craftsman, as well as in the native virtues of the water of the
+Tagus.
+
+In one of my books I have described the workshop of an armourer of
+Toledo in the sixteenth century. "After a few moments we entered the
+Calle de las Armas, which struck me as having grown a good deal
+narrower; and my companion, pausing beside an open doorway topped with a
+sign depicting a halberd and a sword, invited me to enter. Two or three
+steps led downwards to a dark, damp passage, and at the end of this was
+a low but very large room, blackened by the smoke from half a dozen
+forges. The walls were hung with a bewildering variety of arms and parts
+of armour--gauntlets and cuirasses; morions, palettes, and
+lobster-tails; partisans and ranseurs; halberds, bayonets, and
+spontoons; as well as swords and daggers without number. Several anvils,
+with tall, narrow buckets filled with water standing beside them, were
+arranged about the stone-paved floor; and beside each forge was a large
+heap of fine, white sand.
+
+"The showers of sparks, together with a couple of ancient-looking lamps
+whose flames shook fitfully to and fro in the vibration, showed thirty
+or forty workmen busily engaged; and what with the clanging of the
+hammers, the roaring of the bellows, and the strident hissing of the hot
+metal as it plunged into the cold water, the racket was incessant.
+
+"My cicerone surveyed the discordant scene with all the nonchalance of
+lifelong custom, daintily eluding the columns of scalding steam, or
+screening his _chambergo_ from the sparks. Finding, however, that I was
+powerless to understand the remarks he kept addressing to me, he finally
+held up his finger and gave the signal to cease work; upon which the
+_oficial_ handed him a bundle of papers which I took to be accounts, and
+the men, doffing their leathern aprons, and hanging them in a corner,
+filed eagerly away.
+
+"'It is quite simple,' said my companion, as though divining the query I
+was about to put to him; 'and indeed, I often wonder why we are so
+famous. They say it is the water; but any water will do. Or else they
+say it is the sand; and yet this sand, though clean and pure, is just
+the same as any other. Look! The blade of nearly all our swords is
+composed of three pieces--two strips of steel, from Mondragón in
+Guipúzcoa, and an iron core. This latter is the _alma_, or soul. The
+three pieces are heated and beaten together; and when they grow red-hot
+and begin to throw out sparks, they are withdrawn from the fire, and a
+few handfuls of sand are thrown over them. The welding of the pieces is
+then continued on the anvil; and, finally, the file is brought to bear
+on all unevennesses, and the weapon passes on to the temperer, the
+grinder, and the burnisher.'
+
+"'It is in the tempering that we have earned our principal renown,
+although this process is quite as simple as the rest. Upon the
+forge--see, here is one still burning--a fire is made in the form of a
+narrow trench, long enough to receive four-fifths of the length of the
+weapon. As soon as the metal reaches a certain colour' (I thought I
+noted a mischievous twinkle in the armourer's eyes, as though this
+_certain colour_ were the key to all our conversation), 'I take these
+pincers, and, grasping the portion which had remained outside the fire,
+drop the weapon so, point downwards, into the bucket of water. Any curve
+is then made straight by beating upon the concave side, and the part
+which had been previously kept outside the trench of fire returns to the
+forge and is duly heated. The entire blade is next smeared with mutton
+fat, and rested against the wall to cool, point upwards. There is
+nothing more except the finishing. Your sword is made.'"[138]
+
+  [138] _Toledo and Madrid: their Records and Romances_; pp. 99-101.
+
+                           [Illustration: LV
+                                 SWORD
+                (_13th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The following passage from Bowles' _Natural History of Spain_, written
+in 1752, is also of especial interest here:--"At a league's distance
+from Mondragón is a mine of varnished, or, as miners term it, frozen
+iron. It lies in the midst of soft red earth, and produces natural
+steel--a very curious circumstance, seeing that, as I am assured, there
+is no other mine of this description in the kingdom. A tradition exists
+that the iron from this mine was used for making the swords, so
+celebrated for their tempering, presented by Doña Catalina, daughter of
+the Catholic Sovereigns, to her husband, Henry the Eighth of England. A
+few of these swords are yet extant in Scotland, where the natives call
+them _André Ferrara_,[139] and esteem them greatly. The famous
+sword-blades of Toledo, and the Perrillo blades of Zaragoza, which are
+still so highly valued, as well as others made elsewhere, are said to
+have been forged from the iron of this mine, which yields forty per
+cent. of metal. It is, however, somewhat hard to melt. With a little
+trouble it is possible to secure excellent steel, because this mine,
+like many another, possesses in itself the quality of readily taking
+from the coal of the forge the spirit which is indispensable for making
+first-rate swords; but without cementation I do not think it would serve
+for making good files or razors."
+
+  [139] Andrés Ferrara was a well-known armourer of Zaragoza.
+
+"The swords of which I spoke as being so famed were generally either of
+a long shape, for wearing with a ruff; or broad, and known as the
+_arzón_, for use on horseback. It is probable that when the ruff was
+suddenly abandoned at the beginning of this century, large quantities of
+ready-fitted swords began to be imported from abroad, of such a kind as
+was demanded by the novel clothing. This would account for the decline
+and the eventual collapse of our factories, and the loss of our art of
+tempering swords. Concerning the mode of executing this, opinions
+differ. It is said by some that the blades were tempered in winter only,
+and that when they were withdrawn for the last time from the furnace,
+the smiths would shake them in the air at great speed three times on a
+very cold day. Others say that the blades were heated to a
+cherry-colour, then plunged for a couple of seconds into a deep jar
+filled with oil or grease, and changed forthwith to another vessel of
+lukewarm water, after which they were set to cool in cold water; all
+these operations being performed at midwinter. Others, again, declare
+that the blades were forged from the natural iron of Mondragón by
+placing a strip of ordinary iron along their core so as to give them
+greater elasticity; and that they were then tempered in the ordinary
+manner, though always in the winter. Such are the prevailing theories
+about the iron swords of Mondragón, which are, in truth, of admirable
+quality."
+
+Magnificent examples of Toledo sword-blades, produced while her craft
+was at the zenith of its fame--that is, throughout the sixteenth and the
+seventeenth centuries--are in the Royal Armoury (Pl. lvii., Nos. 5, 6,
+7). Among them are a series of _montantes_ made for tournament or war,
+and a superb blade, dated 1564, forged for Philip the Second by Miguel
+Cantero. The Count of Valencia de Don Juan considered this to be one of
+the finest weapons ever tempered; adding that the sword-blades of the
+city of the Tagus were held in such esteem all over Europe that he had
+seen, in numerous museums of the Continent, weapons professing to be
+Toledo-made, in which the blade and mark are evidently forged; bearing,
+for instance, _Ernantz_ for Hernandez, _Johanos_ for Juanes, and _Tomas
+Dailae_ for Tomás de Ayala.
+
+It is generally agreed that the changes in the national costume,
+together with the importation of a lighter make of sword from France,
+were directly responsible for the decline of the Toledo sword-blades
+early in the eighteenth century. However, this decline was only
+temporary. Townsend wrote in 1786: "From the Alcazar we went to visit
+the royal manufactory of arms, with which I was much pleased. The steel
+is excellent, and so perfectly tempered, that in thrusting at a target,
+the swords will bend like whalebone, and yet cut through a helmet
+without turning their edge. This once famous manufacture had been
+neglected, and in a manner lost, but it is now reviving."
+
+Laborde endorsed these praises subsequently: "Within a few years the
+fabrication of swords has been resumed at Toledo; the place allotted to
+this object is a handsome edifice, a quarter of a league distant from
+the city, which commands the banks of the Tagus. This undertaking has
+hitherto been prosperous; the swords are celebrated for the excellence
+of their blades, which are of finely tempered steel."
+
+                           [Illustration: LVI
+                               OLD SWORD
+            (_Erroneously attributed to the Cid. Collection
+                      of the Marquis of Falces_)]
+
+The modern small-arms factory of Toledo, situated on the right bank of
+the Tagus, a mile from the city walls, had, in fact, been opened in
+1783, when the same industry was also reviving at Vitoria, Barcelona,
+and elsewhere. Toledo worthily maintains to-day her ancient and
+illustrious reputation for this craft. The Tagus still supplies its
+magic water for the tempering, while part of the prime material of the
+steel itself proceeds from Solingen and Styria, and the rest from Trubia
+and Malaga.
+
+Cutlery continued to be made in Spain all through the eighteenth
+century. Colmenar says that the knives of Barcelona were considered
+excellent. According to Laborde, cutlery was made at Solsona and Cardona
+in Cataluña, at Mora in New Castile, and at Albacete in Murcia. "The
+cutlery of Solsona is in great repute; but the largest quantity is made
+at Albacete. In the latter place are about twenty-eight working cutlers,
+each of whom employs five or six journeymen, who respectively
+manufacture annually six or seven thousand pieces, amounting in the
+whole to about one hundred and eighty thousand pieces."[140]
+
+  [140] Vol. iv. p. 358.
+
+
+                                FIREARMS
+
+Cannon of a primitive kind were used in Spain comparatively early. A
+large variety of names was given to these pieces, such as _cerbatanas_,
+_ribadoquines_, _culebrinas_, _falconetes_, _pasavolantes_, _lombardas_
+or _bombardas_, and many more; but the oldest, commonest, and most
+comprehensive name of all was _trueno_, "thunder," from the terrifying
+noise of the discharge. This word was used for both the piece and the
+projectile. The Count of Clonard quotes Pedro Megía's _Silva de Varias
+Lecciones_ to show that gunpowder was known in Spain as early as the
+eleventh century. "Thunders" of some description seem to have been used
+at the siege of Zaragoza in 1118; and a Moorish author, writing in 1249,
+describes in fearsome terms "the horrid noise like thunder, vomiting
+fire in all directions, destroying everything, reducing everything to
+ashes." Al-Jattib, the historian of Granada, wrote at the beginning of
+the fourteenth century that the sultan of that kingdom used at the siege
+of Baza "a mighty engine, applying fire thereto, prepared with naphtha
+and with balls." The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh describes in a
+quaint and graphic passage the crude artillery of that period, and the
+panic it occasioned. At the siege of Algeciras in 1342, "the Moors that
+were within the city threw many 'thunders' at the (Christian) host,
+together with mighty balls of iron, to such a distance that several
+overpassed the army, and some did damage to our host. Also, by means of
+'thunders' they threw arrows exceeding great and thick, so that it was
+as much as a man could do to lift them from the ground. And as for the
+iron balls these 'thunders' hurled, men were exceedingly afraid thereof;
+for if they chanced to strike a limb they cut it off as clean as with a
+knife, and though the wound were but a slight one, yet was the man as
+good as dead; nor was any chirurgery that might avail him, both because
+the balls came burning hot, like flame, and because the powder which
+discharged them was of such a kind that any wound it made was surely
+mortal; and such was the violence of these balls, that they went through
+a man, together with all his armour."
+
+Towards the close of the same century the testament of Don Pedro Tenorio
+(see p. 256), the bellicose archbishop of Alcalá de Henares, who
+ruled that diocese from 1376 to 1399, contains the following
+passage:--"_Item_. We bought crossbows and bassinets both for foot and
+horse, together with shields, pikes, javelins, darts, lombards, hemp,
+powder, and other munitions for the castles of our Church; of which
+munitions we stored the greater quantity at Talavera and at Alcalá de
+Henares, purposing to deposit them at Cazorla and in the castles of
+Canales and of Alhamin, which we are now repairing after they were
+thrown down by the King Don Pedro, and for the tower of Cazorla, which
+we are now erecting. And it is our will that all of these munitions be
+for the said castles and tower; and that no one lay his hand on them, on
+pain of excommunication, excepting only the bishop elected and confirmed
+who shall succeed us; and he shall distribute them as he holds best
+among the aforesaid castles. And all the best of these munitions shall
+be for the governorship of Cazorla, as being most needed there to
+overthrow the enemies of our faith; and we have duly lodged the shields
+and crossbows, parted from the rest, upon the champaign of Toledo;
+whither should arrive more shields from Valladolid, that all together
+may be carried to Cazorla."
+
+                          [Illustration: LVII
+                             SPANISH SWORDS
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The article from which I quote this passage adds that the palace of the
+archbishop at Alcalá de Henares was fortified with cannon until the
+beginning of the nineteenth century.[141]
+
+  [141] Escudero de la Peña; _Claustros, Escalera, y Artesonados del
+        Palacio Arzobispal de Alcalá de Henares_; published in the _Museo
+        Español de Antigüedades_.
+
+Cannon are mentioned with increasing frequency throughout the fifteenth
+century; and in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella we read of lombards
+of enormous size, which had to be dragged across the Andalusian hills
+and plains by many scores of men and beasts; which frequently stuck fast
+and had to be abandoned on the march; and which, even in the best of
+circumstances, could only be discharged some twice or thrice a day.
+
+In reading documents and chronicles of older Spain, it is easy to
+confound the early forms of cannon with the engines similar to those
+employed by the Crusaders in the Holy Land, and built for hurling stones
+or arrows of large size. Such engines were the _trabuco_, the
+_almajanech_ or _almojaneque_, the _algarrada_, and the _fundíbalo_ or
+Catalan _fonevol_. Beuter, in his _Chronicle of Spain and of Valencia_,
+describes the latter as "a certain instrument which has a sling made
+fast to an extremity of wood ... made to revolve so rapidly that the
+arm, on being released, projects the stone with such a force as to
+inflict much harm, even in distant places, whither could reach no
+missile slung by the hand of man."
+
+Turning to portable Spanish firearms, we find that the precursor of the
+arquebus, musket, and rifle seems to have been a weapon which was
+introduced about the middle of the fifteenth century, and called the
+_espingarda_. Alfonso de Palencia says it was employed against the
+rebels of Toledo in 1467; and the Chronicle of Don Alvaro de Luna
+relates that when this nobleman was standing beside Don Iñigo
+d'Estúñiga, upon a certain occasion in 1453, "a man came out in his
+shirt and set fire to an _espingarda_, discharging the shot thereof
+above the heads of Don Alvaro and of Iñigo d'Estúñiga, but wounding an
+esquire."
+
+                          [Illustration: LVIII
+         MARKS OF TOLEDAN ARMOURERS (15TH-17TH CENTURIES), FROM
+                 SWORDS IN THE ROYAL ARMOURY AT MADRID]
+
+As time advanced, portable firearms of first-rate quality were made
+throughout the northern Spanish provinces, and also in Navarra,
+Cataluña, Aragon, and Andalusia. The inventory of the Dukes of
+Alburquerque mentions, in 1560, "four flint arquebuses of Zaragoza
+make ... another arquebus of Zaragoza, together with its fuse," and
+"arquebuses of those that are made within this province" (_i.e._ of
+Segovia). Cristóbal Frisleva, of Ricla in Aragon, and Micerguillo of
+Seville were celebrated makers of this arm; but probably these and all
+the other Spanish masters of this craft derived their skill from foreign
+teaching, such as that of the brothers Simon and Peter Marckwart (in
+Spanish the name is spelt _Marcuarte_,) who were brought to Spain by
+Charles the Fifth.[142]
+
+  [142] The brothers Marckwart, or possibly one or other of them, are
+        believed to have stamped their arquebuses with a series of small
+        sickles, thus:
+
+        [Illustration]
+
+The Royal Armoury contains some finely decorated guns, made for the
+kings of Spain at the close of the seventeenth century and early in the
+eighteenth, by Juan Belen, Juan Fernandez, Francisco Baeza y Bis, and
+Nicolás Bis. The last-named, pupil of Juan Belen, was a German; but all
+these gunsmiths lived and worked at Madrid. Nicolás was arquebus-maker
+to Charles the Second from 1691, and afterwards held the same post from
+Philip the Fifth. He died in 1726, and the Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+says that in 1808--that is, before it was plundered by the mob--the
+Royal Armoury contained no fewer than fifty-three weapons of his
+manufacture. One of the guns which bear his mark, and still exist, is
+inscribed with the words, "I belong to the Queen our lady" (Isabel
+Farnese, first wife of Philip the Fifth), combined with the arms of León
+and Castile, and of the Bourbon family. This weapon was used, or
+intended to be used, for hunting.
+
+Diego Esquivel, another gunsmith of Madrid, was also famous early in the
+eighteenth century, as, later on, were Manuel Sutil, José Cano,
+Francisco Lopez, Salvador Cenarro, Isidro Soler (author of a
+_Compendious History of the Arquebus-makers of Madrid_), Juan de Soto,
+and Sebastián Santos.
+
+Swinburne wrote from Cataluña in 1775; "the gun-barrels of Barcelona are
+much esteemed, and cost from four to twenty guineas, but about five is
+the real value; all above is paid for fancy and ornament; they are made
+out of the old shoes of mules."
+
+                           [Illustration: LIX
+                            _BRIDONA_ SADDLE
+                (_15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Until 1793, the smaller firearms of the Spanish army were made at
+Plasencia in Guipúzcoa. In that year the government factory, where
+hand-labour alone continued to be used till 1855, was removed to Oviedo.
+To-day this factory employs about five hundred workmen. In 1809 Laborde
+wrote that "firearms, such as fusees, musquets, carbines, and pistols
+are manufactured at Helgoivar, Eybor, and Plasencia; at Oviedo,
+Barcelona, Igualada, and at Ripoll; the arms made at the latter city
+have long had a distinguished reputation. Seven hundred and sixty-five
+gunsmiths, it is estimated, find employment in the factories of
+Guipúzcoa."
+
+Both Townsend and the foregoing writer give a good account of Spanish
+cannon at this time. According to Laborde, "two excellent founderies for
+brass cannon are royal establishments at Barcelona and Seville; in the
+latter city copper cannon are cast, following the method recommended by
+M. Maritz. Iron ordnance are made at Lierganez and Cavada." Townsend
+wrote of Barcelona, in 1786; "The foundery for brass cannon is
+magnificent, and worthy of inspection. It is impossible anywhere to see
+either finer metal, or work executed in a neater and more perfect
+manner. Their method of boring was, in the present reign, introduced by
+Maritz, a Swiss. Near two hundred twenty-four pounders are finished
+every year, besides mortars and field-pieces."
+
+
+                          SADDLERY AND COACHES
+
+Probably no relic of the former of these crafts in Spain is older or
+more curious than the iron bit (Plate lvii., No. 8), inlaid with silver
+dragons' heads and crosses, and attributed, from cruciform monograms
+which also decorate it, to the Visigothic King Witiza (who died in 711),
+or sometimes to the conqueror of Toledo, Alfonso the Sixth (eleventh
+century). The spurs or _acicates_ (Plate lvii., No. 9) of Ferdinand the
+Third of Castile, who conquered Seville from the Moors, are also
+treasured in the Royal Armoury, and bear upon an iron ground remains of
+gold and silver decoration representing castles. The Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan believed these spurs to be authentic, because they are
+identical with the ones which Ferdinand wears in his equestrian seal,
+preserved among the National Archives of France, and dating from the
+year 1237.
+
+Saddles of various kinds were used in Spain throughout the Middle Ages.
+Among them were the ordinary travelling-saddle or _silla de barda_
+(Arabic _al-bardá_); saddles _de palafrén_,[143] the _silla de la
+guisa_, or _de la brida_ or _bridona_, for riding with long stirrups,
+and consequently the antithesis of the _gineta_ saddle;[144] or saddles
+made for use exclusively in war, on which the rider was accustomed to
+make the sign of the cross before or after mounting, such as the
+_lidona_, _gallega_ ("_siellas gallegas_" are mentioned in the _Poem of
+the Cid_), and _corsera_ or _cocera_ (Arabic _al-corsi_), or else the
+_silla de conteras_, "whose hindmost bow," according to the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan, "terminated in converging pieces to protect the
+wearer's thighs."
+
+  [143] An old account copied into a book (see p. 89, _note_) in the
+        National Library at Madrid, and dating from the reign of Sancho
+        the Fourth, states that Pedro Ferrández, saddler, received a
+        certain sum for making various saddles, including two "_de
+        palafrés_, wrought in silk with the devices of the king."
+
+  [144] "In mediæval Spain, good riders were often designated as 'Ginete
+        en ambas sillas,' that is, accustomed to either saddle, _i.e._
+        the Moorish and the Christian, and I now understand why
+        chroniclers have taken the trouble to record the fact. Strangely
+        enough, the high-peaked and short-stirruped saddle does not cross
+        the Nile, the Arabs of Arabia riding rather flat saddles with an
+        ordinary length of leg. The Arab saddle of Morocco, in itself, is
+        perhaps the worst that man has yet designed; but, curiously
+        enough, from it was made the Mexican saddle, perhaps the most
+        useful for all kinds of horses and of countries that the world has
+        seen." Cunninghame Graham: _Mogreb-El-Acksa_, p. 66. The same
+        writer naïvely adds the following footnote to the words _Ginete en
+        ambas sillas_. "This phrase often occurs in Spanish chronicles,
+        after along description of a man's virtues, his charity, love of
+        the church, and kindness to the poor, and it is apparently
+        inserted as at least as important a statement as any of the
+        others. In point of fact, chronicles being written for posterity,
+        it is the most important."
+
+A saddle known as the _silla de rua_, or "street saddle," was generally
+used in Spain throughout the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. It
+was intended, not for war, but promenade and show, and therefore richly
+decorated. The Royal Armoury has nineteen of these saddles, all of which
+are Spanish-made. In the same collection is a plain _bridona_ saddle
+(Plate lix.), with iron stirrups and two gilt-metal bells, such as were
+commonly used in tournaments or other festivals. This saddle has been
+erroneously ascribed to the thirteenth century. It dates from the
+beginning of the fifteenth century, and proceeds from Majorca.
+
+                           [Illustration: LX
+                      HANGING _JAECES_ FOR HORSES]
+
+The old belief that one of the saddles in this armoury, whose bows are
+chased with a design in black and gilt of leaves and pilgrim's shells,
+was once upon a time the Cid Campeador's, has been exploded recently.
+The saddle in question is known to be Italian, dates from the sixteenth
+century, and bears the arms of a town in the duchy of Montferrato.
+
+The inventory (1560) of the dukes of Alburquerque mentions some curious
+saddles, including one "_de la brida_, of blue velvet, with the bows
+painted gold, and on the front bow a cannon with its carriage, and on
+the hind bow another cannon with flames of fire." Among the rest were "a
+_gineta_ saddle of red leather, used by my lord the duke," together with
+saddles of bay leather, of dark brown leather, of "smooth leather with
+trappings of blue cloth," of Cordova leather, and "a date-coloured
+_gineta_-saddle, complete."
+
+The same inventory specifies innumerable smaller articles of harness,
+such as stirrups, spurs, reins, headstalls, and poitrals or
+breast-leathers. Many of these pieces were richly ornamented; _e.g._,
+"some silver headstalls of small size, enamelled in blue, with gilt
+supports of iron,"[145] as well as "some silver headstalls, gilded and
+enamelled green and rose, with shields upon the temples." Others of
+these headstalls were made of copper, and nearly all were
+colour-enamelled.
+
+  [145] As I have stated in another chapter, the precious stones and
+        metals were continually employed in arms and harness, both of
+        Spanish Moors and Spanish Christians. In 1062 Pedro Ruderiz
+        bequeathed to the Monastery of Arlanza all his battle harness,
+        together with his silver bit (_frenum argenteum_). Thousands of
+        such bequests have been recorded. The Chronicle of Alfonso the
+        Eleventh says that after the victory of the Rio Salado, this
+        monarch found among his spoil "many swords with gold and silver
+        fittings, and many spurs, all of enamelled gold and silver....
+        And all this spoil was gathered by the king into his palaces
+        of Seville (_i.e._ the Alcázar), the doubloons in one part, and
+        the swords in another part." The testament (sometimes considered
+        to be a forgery) of Pedro the Cruel mentions "my sword in the
+        Castilian manner, that I caused to be made here in Seville with
+        gems and with _aljofar_." In 1409 Yusuf, King of Granada,
+        presented Juan the Second and the Infante Don Enrique with
+        silver-fitted swords. Referring to a later age, Davillier
+        discovered at Simancas a detailed list of weapons sumptuously
+        decorated with gold and coloured enamels, made for Philip the
+        Second by Juan de Soto, "_orfebrero de su Alteza_." _Recherches_,
+        pp. 149-151.
+
+The stirrups included "two Moorish stirrups of gilded tin, for a woman's
+use";[146] "some large Moorish stirrups, gilt, with two silver plates
+upon their faces, enamelled gold, green, and blue, and eight nails on
+either face"; "some other Moorish stirrups, wrought inside with
+_ataujía_-work in gold, and outside with plates of copper enamelled in
+green, blue, and white; the handles gilt, with coverings of red
+leather"; and "some silver stirrups with three bars upon the floor
+thereof, round-shaped in the manner of an urinal, with open sides
+consisting of two bars, a flower within a small shield on top, and, over
+this, the small face of a man."
+
+  [146] The women of mediæval Spain had few amusements besides riding.
+        Another--though owing to the temperate climate it must have been
+        on few occasions--was skating, since this inventory mentions
+        "two pairs of skates, for a man, for travelling over ice. Two
+        pairs of skates, for the same purpose, for a woman." This entry
+        almost matches in its quaintness with the "irons for mustaches,"
+        or the "triggers for extracting teeth," set forth in Spanish
+        documents such as the _Tassa General_ of 1627.
+
+The many sets of reins included several of Granada make, coloured in
+white, red, and bay; while one of the most elaborate of the poitrals was
+of "red leather, embroidered with gold thread, with fringes of
+rose-coloured silk, buckles, ends, and rounded knobs; the whole of
+copper enamelled green, and blue, and white."
+
+Small but attractive accessories to these handsome sets of mediæval
+Spanish harness were the decorative medals (Plate lx.) hung from the
+horse's breast in tourneying or in war. In France these medals were
+known as _annelets volants_, _branlants_, or _pendants_; although in
+Spain, where it is probable that they were used more widely than in
+other countries, they have no definite name. The term _jaeces_ is
+sometimes applied to them; but _jaez_ properly means the entire harness
+for a horse, and the word is thus employed by classic Spanish authors,
+such as Tirso de Molina. A recent term, invented by a living writer, is
+_jaeces colgantes_, or "hanging _jaeces_."
+
+These ornaments, which had their origin among the Romans and Byzantines,
+are figured in certain of the older Spanish codices such as the
+_Cántigas de Santa Maria_. In Christian Spain, however, their vogue was
+greatest in the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. They
+disappeared altogether in the sixteenth century; and among the Spanish
+Moors their use, though not unknown, was always quite exceptional.
+
+The mottoes and devices on these little plates are very varied.
+Sometimes the motto has an amorous, sometimes a religious import.
+Sometimes the vehicle of the motto is Latin, sometimes Spanish,
+sometimes French. Sometimes the device contains, or is composed of, a
+blazon, and commonly there is floral or other ornament. A collection of
+nearly three hundred of these medals belonged to the late Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan, all of which were probably made in Spain. The
+material as a rule is copper, adorned with _champlevé_ enamelling, and
+the colours often used to decorate and relieve the interspaces of the
+gilded metal are red, blue, black, white, and green.
+
+                           [Illustration: LXI
+                           TRAVELLING LITTER
+      (_Attributed to Charles the Fifth. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+According to Florencio Janer, coaches were not known in Spain until the
+middle of the sixteenth century. Before that time the usual conveyance
+was the litter. The Madrid Armoury contains an object which is thought
+to have been the campaigning-litter of Charles the Fifth (Plate lxi.).
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan also inclined to this belief from the
+circumstance that an engraving exists in the British Museum which
+represents a German litter of the sixteenth century, identical in all
+respects with this one. Probably, however, these litters were the same
+all over Europe. The inventory of the Dukes of Alburquerque includes, in
+1560, a "cowhide litter, black, lined with black serge; also poles
+stained black, and harness for mules." This, together with other
+travelling gear, belonged to "my lady the duchess"; and it is worth
+noting that the litter attributed to Charles, though cased with a
+protective covering of whitish canvas, is also of black leather and
+lined with black serge, besides being evidently built for carriage by
+two mules. The interior contains a small armchair rising some inches
+only from the floor, and which, requiring him to keep his legs
+continually outstretched, could hardly fail to prove excruciatingly
+uncomfortable to the traveller.
+
+Mendez Silva says that the precise date of the introduction of coaches
+into Spain was 1546, and other writers do not greatly differ from him.
+The Alburquerque inventory includes "two four-wheeled coaches," as well
+as "a triumphal car with four wheels, its body painted with red and gold
+stripes." Vanderhamen, who says that the first coach ever seen in Spain
+was brought here by a servant of Charles the Fifth in 1554, adds that
+within a little time their use became "a hellish vice that wrought
+incalculable havoc to Castile." Certainly this vehicle for many years
+was far from popular among the Spaniards, and was assailed with special
+vehemence by all who lacked the income to support one. The Duke of
+Berganza is said to have remarked that "God had fashioned horses for the
+use of men, and men had fashioned coaches for the use of women"; while a
+priest, Tomás Ramón, declared that it was "a vast disgrace to see
+bearded men, with rapiers at their side, promenading in a coach." Even
+the governing powers thought fit to interfere. In 1550, 1563, and 1573
+the Cortes demanded the total prohibition of these modish yet detested
+vehicles, while the Cortes of 1578 decreed four horses as the statutory
+and invariable number for a private carriage. A further law enacted in
+1611 that coaches must be strictly private property, and not, on pain of
+rigorous chastisement, be lent or hired by their owner;[147] while the
+owner, to own or use a coach at all, required a special licence from the
+Crown.
+
+  [147] This prohibition was not inopportune. Swinburne wrote towards the
+        end of the eighteenth century; "Having occasion one day for a
+        coach to carry us about, the stable-boy of our inn offered his
+        services, and in a quarter of an hour brought to the door a coach
+        and four fine mules, with two postillions and a lacquey, all in
+        flaming liveries; we found they belonged to a countess, who, like
+        the rest of the nobility, allows her coachman to let out her
+        equipage when she has no occasion for it; it cost us about nine
+        shillings, which no doubt was the perquisite of the servants."
+
+Some curious facts relating to these vehicles in older Spain are
+instanced by Janer. In the seventeenth century a Spanish provincial town
+would normally contain a couple of hundred coaches. Among such boroughs
+was Granada. Here, in 1615, the authorities, backed by nearly all the
+citizens, protested that the coaches ploughed the highway into muddy
+pits and channels, and gave occasion, after nightfall, to disgraceful
+and immoral scenes.[148] After a while the protest grew so loud that the
+use of coaches in this capital was totally suppressed. One of the first
+persons to employ a coach in Granada had been the Marquis of Mondejar;
+and yet, in spite of his extensive influence, this nobleman, each time
+he wished to drive abroad, required to sue for licence from the town
+authorities, and these, in making out the written permit, took care to
+specify the streets through which he was allowed to pass.
+
+  [148] Towns still exist in Spain where vehicles are not allowed to
+        proceed at more than a walking-pace through any of the streets.
+        One of such towns is Argamasilla de Alba (of _Don Quixote_ fame),
+        where I remember to have read a notice to this effect, painted,
+        by order of the mayor, on a house-wall of the principal
+        thoroughfare.
+
+Assailed by numerous pragmatics,[149] chiefly of a sumptuary tenor and
+repeated at spasmodic intervals until as late as 1785, the private coach
+became at last an undisputed adjunct to the national life of Spain.
+Doubtless the use by royalty of gala-coaches or _carrozas_ went far to
+sanction and extend their vogue. However, I will not describe these
+lumbering, uncouth, and over-ornamented gala-carriages (some of which
+were made in Spain) belonging to the Spanish Crown, but quote the
+following pragmatic, dated 1723, as aptly illustrative of the progress
+of this industry, and other industries akin to it, in the Peninsula:--
+
+"In order to restrain the immoderate use of coaches, state-coaches,
+_estufas_, litters, _furlones_,[150] and calashes, we order that from
+this time forth no one of these be decorated with gold embroidery or any
+kind of silk containing gold, nor yet with bands or fringes that have
+gold or silver points; but only with velvets, damasks, and other simple
+silken fabrics made within this realm and its dependencies, or else in
+foreign countries that have friendly commerce with us. Also, the fringes
+and galloons shall be of silk alone; and none, of whatsoever dignity and
+degree, shall cause his coach, state-coach, etc., to be decorated with
+the fringes that are known as net-work, tassel-pointed, or bell-pointed;
+but only with undecorated, simple fringes, or with those of Santa
+Isabel; nor shall the breadth of either kind of these exceed four
+fingers. Also, he shall not cause his coach, state-coach, etc., to be
+overlaid with any gilt or silvered work, or painted with any manner of
+design--meaning by such, historic scenes, marines, landscapes, flowers,
+masks, knots of the pattern known as coulicoles, coats of arms, war
+devices, perspectives, or any other painting, except it imitate marble,
+or be marbled over of one single colour chosen at the owner's fancy; and
+further, we allow in every coach, state-coach, etc., only a certain
+moderate quantity of carving. And this our order and pragmatic shall
+begin to rule upon the day it is made public; from which day forth no
+person shall construct, or buy, or bring from other countries, coaches
+or _estufas_ that infringe our law herein expressed; wherefore we order
+the _alcaldes_ of this town, our court and capital, to make a register
+of all such vehicles that each house contains, without excepting any.
+Nevertheless, considering that if we should prohibit very shortly those
+conveyances that now be lawful, the owners would be put to great
+expense, we grant a period of two years wherein they may consume or rid
+themselves thereof; upon the expiration of which term our law shall be
+again made public, and thenceforward all, regardless of their quality
+and rank, shall be compelled to pay obedience to the same. Also we
+order that no person make or go abroad in hand-chairs fitted with
+brocade, or cloth of gold or silver, or yet with any silk containing
+gold and silver; nor shall the lining be embroidered or adorned with any
+of the stuffs aforesaid; but the covering of the chair, inside and out,
+shall only be of velvet, damask, or other unmixed silk, with a plain
+fringe of four fingers' breadth and button-holes of the same silk, and
+not of silver, gold, or thread, or any covering other than those
+aforesaid; but the columns of such chairs may be adorned with silken
+trimmings nailed thereto. And we allow, as in the case of coaches, a
+period of two years for wearing out the hand-chairs now in use.... Also,
+we order that the coverings of coaches, _estufas_, litters, calashes,
+and _furlones_ shall not be made of any kind of silk, or yet the harness
+of horses or mules for coaches and travelling litters; and that the said
+coaches, gala-coaches, _estufas_, litters, calashes, and _furlones_
+shall not be back-stitched (_pespuntados_), even if they should be of
+cowhide or of cordwain (goatskin); nor shall they contain any fitting of
+embroidered leather."
+
+  [149] A royal degree of 1619 disposed that "every one who sows and tills
+        twenty-five _fanegas_ of land each year, may use a coach."
+
+  [150] The _estufa_ (literally _stove_) was a form of family-coach. The
+        _furlon_ is described in an old dictionary as "a coach with four
+         seats and hung with leather curtains."
+
+
+
+
+                               PRINTED BY
+
+                      NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,
+
+                               EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as an misprint.
+
+The text decoration above IV DE LA FVETE has been omitted on page 222.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. xii: Old Keys; Seville Cathedral    126 -> 131
+  p. 11: for securing the cloak; the _torquis_ -> _torques_
+  p. 12: _Fibulae_ -> _Fibulæ_
+  p. 17: Amador de los Rios -> Ríos
+  p. 28: Amador de los Rios -> Ríos
+  p. 28: de joyaux les plus precieux -> précieux
+  p. 65: is generally of the fifteeenth -> fifteenth
+  p. 70: He carried, too, a -> "a
+  p. 72: The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths -> silversmiths'
+  p. 82: Mores ont caché leurs tresors -> trésors
+  p. 90: a friar of Guadelupe -> Guadalupe
+  p. 91: Juan González -> Gonzalez
+  p. 93: As soon as Cristobal -> Cristóbal
+  p. 94: fué deste cuento, Jan -> Juan
+  p. 102: et cela luy feioit -> fetoit
+  p. 105: pearls or other stones. -> stones."
+  p. 123: in the _Museo Español de Antigüedades_ -> Antigüedades_)
+  p. 140: Museo Español de Antiguedades -> Antigüedades
+  p. 143: Museo Español de Antiguedades -> Antigüedades
+  p. 176: the emir of the Mussulmans Abi-Abdillah -> Abu-Abdillah
+  p. 180: D.C.C.C.C.XIII. -> D.C.C.C.C.XIII."
+  p. 181: and the Puertas del Perdon -> Perdón
+  p. 188: consisted of "a -> a !!!
+  p. 205: among the Germans _panzerbrecher_ -> _Panzerbrecher_
+  p. 206: frock (the _waffenrock_ -> _Waffenrock_
+  p. 220: which specifies "a bard -> band
+  p. 222: It has a _verga_ -> _verja_
+  p. 229: as well as the chape -> shape
+  p. 232: button and a black tassel. -> tassel."
+  p. 244: published in the _Boletin -> _Boletín
+  p. 262: and the burnisher. -> burnisher.
+  p. 264: making good files or razors. -> making good files or razors."
+  p. 273: of Segovia). Cristobal -> Cristóbal
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44391 ***
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44391 ***</div>
+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I
+(of 3), by Leonard Williams</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm">Volume II</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm">Volume III</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm
+      <a href="">
+      </a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="422" height="600"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF THE CHOIR<br />
+(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;"><br /><br />The World of Art Series</span></p>
+
+<h1>The Arts and Crafts<br />
+of Older Spain</h1>
+
+<p class="title">BY<br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 150%;">LEONARD WILLIAMS</span><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy, of<br />
+the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the<br />
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts; Author<br />
+Of &ldquo;The Land of the Dons&rdquo;; &ldquo;Toledo and<br />
+Madrid&rdquo;; &ldquo;Granada,&rdquo; etc.</span><br /><br />
+
+<i>IN THREE VOLUMES, ILLUSTRATED</i><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">VOLUME I</span><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_05.jpg" width="100" height="99"
+        alt="title-symbol"
+        title="title-symbol" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">CHICAGO<br />
+A. C. McCLURG &amp; CO.</span><br />
+EDINBURGH: T. N. FOULIS<br />
+1908<br /><br /><br />
+AMERICAN EDITION<br />
+Published October 10, 1908<br /><br /><br />
+Dedicated<br />
+<br />
+BY SPECIAL PERMISSION<br />
+TO<br />
+THEIR MAJESTIES<br /><br />
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">KING ALFONSO THE THIRTEENTH</span><br />
+AND<br />
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">QUEEN VICTORIA OF SPAIN</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>In preparing these volumes, it has been my aim
+to give a clear and fairly complete account of the
+arts and crafts of older Spain. It seems to me
+that there is room for a work of this design and
+scope, and that there is no reason why so attractive
+a subject&mdash;or rather, group of subjects&mdash;should
+be perpetually ignored by persons who travel
+through, or who profess to feel an interest in,
+the country of the Cid and of Don Quixote.</p>
+
+<p>My account of Spanish pottery is guarded, and
+yet I trust acceptable. The study of this craft in
+Spain is far from definite, and fresh researches
+and discoveries may be hoped for at some future
+time. The history of Spanish arms has also
+suffered from unjust neglect. Perhaps my sketch
+of them may slightly compensate for this deficiency.
+For the rest, my book, which represents
+the well-meant assiduity of several years, shall
+speak for itself.</p>
+
+<p>Although I was embarrassed by too much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+material, the illustrations have been chosen with
+great care, and not, I think, inadequately. Some
+of the photographs were taken specially for this
+work. For the loan of others, or for kind assistance
+generally, I am indebted to Excmo. Señor
+Don Guillermo J. de Osma, Excmo. Señor Don
+José Villegas, and Excmo. Señor Don José
+Moreno Carbonero; to Señores Góngora and
+Valladar, of Granada; and to Messrs Hauser
+and Menet, and Mons. Lacoste, of Madrid.</p>
+
+<p><i>August</i>, 1907.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE</h2>
+
+<table summary="TOC" cellpadding="4">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGES</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#GOLD_SILVER_AND_JEWEL_WORK"><span class="smcap">Gold, Silver, and Jewel Work</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">1&ndash;119</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#IRON-WORK"><span class="smcap">Iron-Work</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">120&ndash;159</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#BRONZES"><span class="smcap">Bronzes</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">160&ndash;191</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#ARMS"><span class="smcap">Arms</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">192&ndash;289</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><i>VOLUME ONE</i></p>
+
+<table summary="LOI" cellpadding="2">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">GOLD AND SILVER</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">PLATE</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i> of the Choir; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">I.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Treasure of Guarrazar; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_22.jpg">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">II.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Cross of Angels; Oviedo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_36.jpg">36</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">III.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Cross of Victory; Oviedo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_42.jpg">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Casket; Gerona Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_46.jpg">46</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">V.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Altar-Front in enamelled Bronze; Museum of Burgos</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_50.jpg">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Crucifix of the Cid&rdquo;; Salamanca Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_52.jpg">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Virgen de la Vega&rdquo;; San Esteban, Salamanca</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_54.jpg">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Saint James in Pilgrim's Dress; Santiago Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_57.jpg">57</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Mudejar Triptych; Royal Academy of History, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_60.jpg">60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">X.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Tablas Alfonsinas&rdquo;; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_62.jpg">62</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Cup of Saint Ferdinand&rdquo;; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_64.jpg">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ship; Zaragoza Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_65.jpg">65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Bracelets</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_77.jpg">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Morisco Jewellery</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_83.jpg">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Silver-Gilt Processional Cross</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_85.jpg">85</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Gothic <i>Custodia</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_95.jpg">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The <i>Custodia</i> of Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_100.jpg">100</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Early Chalice and Cross in Filigree Gold</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_114.jpg">114</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">IRON-WORK</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Old Keys; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_131.jpg">131</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIX<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Decorative Nail-Heads; Convent of San Antonio, Toledo</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_134.jpg">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door-Knockers</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_136.jpg">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ceremonial Maces and Lantern</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_138.jpg">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Iron Pulpit; Avila Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_140.jpg">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i> of Chapel Royal; Granada Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_148.jpg">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The same (View from Interior)</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_149.jpg">149</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i>; Casa de Pilatos, Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_155.jpg">155</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i> of the &ldquo;Casa de las Conchas,&rdquo; Salamanca</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_156.jpg">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">BRONZES</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;Meleager's Hunt&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_165.jpg">164</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Candil</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_166.jpg">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Velón</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_168.jpg">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Lion</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_171.jpg">171</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Stag; Museum of Cordova</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_173.jpg">173</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Temple; Museum of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_174.jpg">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Lamp and Mortar; Museum of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_176.jpg">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Lamp of Mohammed the Third; Madrid Museum</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_179.jpg">178</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Abbot Samson's Bell; Museum of Cordova</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_180.jpg">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Crucifix</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_182.jpg">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Puerta del Perdón; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_184.jpg">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Weathercock of the Giralda Tower</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_186.jpg">186</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">ARMS</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Crest of Jousting Helmet; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_198.jpg">198</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XL.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Crossbowman; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_202.jpg">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Battle of La Higueruela; El Escorial</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_206.jpg">206</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Parade Harness of Philip the Third; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_210.jpg">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Crossbow and Stirrup; Museum of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_214.jpg">214</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Sword; Casa de los Tiros, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_219.jpg">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Sword of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_222.jpg">222</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Dagger of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_226.jpg">226</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Sword</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_230.jpg">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">War Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_234.jpg">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Jousting Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_238.jpg">238</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">L.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Jousting Harness of Philip the Handsome; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_242.jpg">242</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Buckler; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_246.jpg">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Armour made at Pamplona; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_250.jpg">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Adarga</i>; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_254.jpg">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_258.jpg">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Sword; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_262.jpg">262</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Sword</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_266.jpg">266</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_270.jpg">270</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Sword Marks</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_272.jpg">272</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Bridona</i> Saddle; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_274.jpg">274</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hanging <i>Jaeces</i> for Horses</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_278.jpg">278</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Travelling Litter attributed to Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_282.jpg">282</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="GOLD_SILVER_AND_JEWEL_WORK" id="GOLD_SILVER_AND_JEWEL_WORK">GOLD, SILVER, AND JEWEL WORK</a></h2>
+
+<p>The hyperbolic language of the ancients spoke
+of Spain as filled throughout, upon her surface and
+beneath her soil, with precious stones and precious
+metals. Old writers&mdash;Strabo, Pliny, Aristoteles,
+Pomponius Mela, and Diodorus Siculus&mdash;declare
+that once upon a time a mountain fire, lighted
+by shepherds in the Pyrenees and fanned into a
+conflagration by the wind, heated the earth until
+the ore within her entrails came bubbling to the
+top and ran away in rivulets of molten gold and
+silver, spreading all over Spain. The indigens
+of Lusitania as they dug their fields were said to
+strike their implements on nuggets half a pound
+in weight. The heart of the Peninsula, between
+the B&oelig;tis and the Annas rivers&mdash;that is, the
+country of the Oretani and the Bastitani&mdash;was
+fabled to abound in mines of gold. The traders
+from Ph&oelig;nicia, we are told, discovered silver to
+be so abundant with the Turdetani that &ldquo;the
+vilest utensils of this people were composed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+thereof, even to their barrels and their pots.&rdquo;
+Accordingly these shrewd Ph&oelig;nicians, offering
+worthless trinkets in exchange, loaded their ships
+with silver to the water's edge, and even, when
+their cargo was complete, fashioned their chains
+and anchors of the residue.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of their extravagance, upon the whole
+these legends are not utterly devoid of truth.
+&ldquo;Tradition,&rdquo; said so careful an authority as
+Symonds, &ldquo;when not positively disproved should
+be allowed to have its full value; and a sounder
+historic sense is exercised in adopting its testimony
+with due caution, than in recklessly rejecting it
+and substituting guesses which the lack of
+knowledge renders insubstantial.&rdquo; So with the
+legends of the gold and silver treasure of the old-time
+Spaniards. Besides, it seems unquestionable
+that those fanciful assertions had their origin in
+fact. Spain stood upon the western border of the
+ancient world. Year in, year out, the sanguine
+sun went seething down into the waters at her
+western marge. Mariners from distant countries
+viewed those sunsets and associated them with
+Spain herself. Thus, hereabouts in the unclouded
+south, would gold and silver be suggested by the
+solar orb; or emerald and jacinth, pearl and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+amethyst and ruby, by the matchless colours of
+the seldom-failing sunset.</p>
+
+<p>Then, too, though not of course in fabulous
+amount, the precious metals actually existed in
+this land. Various of her rivers, such as the
+Calom or Darro of Granada, the Tagus, the
+Agneda, and the Sil, rolled down, together with
+their current, grains of gold. &ldquo;Les Mores,&rdquo;
+wrote Bertaut de Rouen of the first of these
+rivers, &ldquo;en tiroient beaucoup autrefois; mais cela
+a esté discontinué depuis à cause de la trop
+grande dépense qu'il y faloit faire. Il est certain
+que souvent on prend dans le Darro de petits
+morceaux d'or, et il y a des gens qui sont
+accoûtumez d'y en chercher.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Centuries before this abbot wrote his book, the
+Arab author of the geographical dictionary known
+as the <i>Marasid Ithila</i> had made a similar remark
+upon this gold-producing stream; and in the
+sixteenth century I find an Ordinance of Granada
+city prohibiting the townspeople from digging up
+the river-bed unless it were to look for gold.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+Probably, however, and in spite of what some
+chroniclers suppose, the title Darro is not in
+any way connected with the Latin words <i>dat
+aurum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Two leagues from Guadarrama,&rdquo; wrote the
+mineralogist William Bowles, about the middle of
+the eighteenth century, &ldquo;opposite the town and
+in the direction of San Ildefonso, is a deep valley
+where one notices a vein of common quartz containing
+some iron. Here, without the use of
+glasses, I perceived a good many grains of
+gold&hellip;. In Galicia grains of gold are found
+on sandy hills, and one is astonished to observe
+the wonderful works carried out by the Romans
+to bring the sands together, wash them, and
+extract the precious metal. Local tradition
+affirms that this precious sand was destined for
+the purses of three Roman empresses&mdash;Livia,
+Agrippina, and Faustina&hellip;. I know a German
+minister who employed his spare time in washing
+these sands and collecting the gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Romans, it is true, profited very greatly
+by the native wealth of the Peninsula. Helvius
+enriched the treasury with 14,732 pounds of
+Spanish silver bars and 17,023 pounds of silver
+money; Cornelius Lentulus, with 1515 pounds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+gold, 20,000 pounds of bar-silver, and 34,550
+pounds in coin. Cato came back from his pro-consulship
+with five-and-twenty thousand pounds
+of silver bars, twelve thousand pounds of silver
+money, and four hundred pounds of gold.
+Seventy thousand pounds of coined silver fell to
+the share of Flaccus, while Minutius exhibited
+at his triumph eight thousand pounds of silver
+bars, and three hundred thousand pounds of
+silver coin.</p>
+
+<p>Mines of silver,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> gold, and precious stones
+were also fairly numerous in Spain. Moorish
+authors wrote enthusiastically of the mines of
+precious metals in or close to the Sierra Nevada.
+&ldquo;Even at this day,&rdquo; said Bowles, &ldquo;the Moorish
+mines may be distinguished from the Roman.
+The Romans made the towers of their fortresses
+of a round shape, in order to avoid as far as
+possible the blows of the battering-ram; and
+their miners, whether from habit or intentionally,
+made the mouths of their mines round also. The
+Moors, as strangers to this engine, built their
+towers square and gave a square shape also to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+the mouths of their mines. The round mouths of
+Roman mines are yet to be seen at Riotinto and
+other places, and the square mouths of Moorish
+mines in the neighbourhood of Linares.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Emeralds were formerly extracted from a
+mine at Moron, in the Sierra de Leyta; white
+sapphires and agates at Cape de Gata,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> at the
+eastern extremity of the Gulf of Almeria;
+amethysts at Monte de las Guardas, near the
+port of Plata, &ldquo;in a precipice (<i>sic</i>) about twenty
+feet in depth.&rdquo; According to Laborde, garnets
+have been discovered down to modern times &ldquo;in
+a plain half-way on the road from Almeria to
+Motril. They are very abundant there, particularly
+in the bed of a ravine, formed by
+rain-torrents, at the foot of a little hill, upon
+which a great number of them are likewise
+found. The emeralds are in the kingdom
+of Seville, all the others in that of Granada.
+It has been said for some time that a pit in
+the mountain of Bujo, at Cape de Gata, contains
+a great many precious stones; but none<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+could be found there, notwithstanding the prolonged
+and careful searches that were lately
+made.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Silver mines exist, or have existed, at Benasque,
+Calzena, and Bielza, in Aragon; at Cuevas, near
+Almeria; at Almodovar del Campo; at Zalamea,
+in Extremadura; at Puerto Blanco, in Seville
+province; in the Sierra de Guadalupe; at Fuente
+de la Mina, near Constantina; and near Almazarron,
+in the province of Carthagena. Not far
+from this latter city was another mine, that sent
+to Rome a daily yield of five-and-twenty thousand
+drachmas, and was worked by forty thousand men.
+Twenty thousand pounds in weight of pure silver
+proceeded yearly from Asturias, Lusitania, and
+Galicia. Hannibal extracted from a Pyrenean
+mine three hundred pounds a day. The fair
+Himilca, wife of Hasdrubal, was owner of a silver
+mine at two leagues' distance from Linares.
+Laborde wrote of this mine: &ldquo;It was reopened
+in the seventeenth century, when a vein five feet
+in breadth was found, from which many pieces
+of silver were taken; the working of it, however,
+has been neglected. It belongs to the town of
+Baeza.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author, who wrote about one hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+years ago, gives curious and instructive notices
+of several other Spanish silver mines. &ldquo;The
+mountains of the kingdom of Seville, on the
+confines of Extremadura, towards Guadalcanal,
+Alanis, Puerto Blanco, and Cazalla, which form a
+part of the extremity of the chain of Sierra Morena,
+contain several silver mines, which have been
+worked. There is one of these in the Sierra
+Morena, three miles from Guadalcanal, which to
+all appearance must have been very rich: there
+were three shafts for descending, the mouths of
+which are still to be seen: it was worked in the
+seventeenth century, and given up in 1653. It is
+believed that it was inundated by the workmen,
+in revenge for a new tax that was laid upon them.
+Another silver mine was also worked formerly, a
+league and a half from the other; it has a shaft,
+and a gallery of ancient construction; the vein is
+six feet in circumference, and is composed of spar
+and quartz. There is also a third mine, a league
+and a half from Guadalcanal, and half a league
+south-east of the village of Alanis, in the middle
+of a field; it is two feet wide; the Romans constructed
+a gallery in it, from south to north; a
+branch of it running eastward has been worked
+since their time: it originally contained pyrites<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+and quartz, but it is by no means rich; there is
+lead at the bottom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gold mines, or traces of them, have been found
+in the neighbourhood of Molina in Aragon,
+San Ildefonso in Old Castile, and Alocer in
+Extremadura; in the Sierra de Leyta; in the
+valley of Hecho in Aragon; and at Paradeseca
+and Ponferrada&mdash;this latter town the <i>Interamnium
+Flavium</i> of the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the chieftains of the ancient
+Spaniards adorned their robes with rude embroidery
+worked in gold, and that the men and
+women of all ranks wore gold and silver bracelets.
+These statements cannot now be either proved
+or controverted. Gold or silver objects older
+than the Roman domination have not been found
+abundantly in Spain. Riaño describes a silver
+bowl, conical in shape and evidently fashioned
+on the wheel, engraved with Iberian characters
+on one of its sides. A similar bowl was found
+in Andalusia in the seventeenth century, full
+of Iberian coins and weighing ten ounces. Gold
+ornaments, such as earrings, and <i>torques</i> or collars
+for the neck, have been discovered in Galicia
+less infrequently than in the other Spanish regions,
+and may be seen to-day in private collections,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+in the Royal Academy of History at Madrid,
+and in the National Museum of Archæology.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+Villa-amil y Castro has written fully of these
+<i>torques</i> (Museo Español de Antigüedades, <i>Adornos
+de oro encontrados en Galicia</i>). In nearly every
+case, he says, they consist of a plain gold bar,
+C-shaped and therefore not completely closed
+into a ring, and with a knob at each extremity, as
+though their pattern were suggested by the yoke
+of cattle. One or two are decorated with a somewhat
+rude design extending through a portion of
+their length.</p>
+
+<p>On one of these occasions a pair of curious,
+kidney-shaped earrings was found, together with a
+<i>torque</i>. These earrings, apparently of later workmanship
+than the other ornament, are decorated
+over all their surface, partly with a filigree design,
+and partly with a fine, beadlike pattern executed
+with a small chisel or graving tool in the manner
+known in French as <i>fusé</i>, <i>guilloché</i>, or <i>hachié</i>.
+Their material is hollow gold, and when discovered
+they were filled with a substance resembling
+powdered charcoal, mixed with a metallic
+clay.</p>
+
+<p>These ornaments are ascribed by most authorities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+to an undetermined period somewhere
+previous to the Roman domination. I think,
+however, that less improbably they were produced
+by Spanish craftsmen in imitation of the Roman
+manner, and during the time of Roman rule in
+the Peninsula. This would account for their
+deficiencies of execution, and also for certain
+characteristics which they evidently share with
+Roman work.</p>
+
+<p>We know that Rome imposed her usages on all
+the peoples whom she subjugated. Consequently,
+following this universal law, the Spaniards would
+adopt, together with the lavish luxury of Rome,
+the Roman ornaments and articles of jewellery.
+Such were the <i>annulus</i> or finger-ring; the <i>fibula</i>,
+a brooch or clasp for securing the cloak; the
+<i>torgues</i> or neck-ring, more or less resembling
+those in use among the Persians; and the <i>phalera</i>,
+a round plate of gold, silver, or other metal,
+engraved with any one of a variety of emblems,
+worn upon the breast or stomach by the persons
+of either sex, and very commonly bestowed upon
+the Roman soldiers in reward of military service.
+Then there were several kinds of earrings&mdash;the
+variously-designed <i>stalagmium</i> or pendant, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+<i>inaures</i>, or the <i>crotalium</i>, hung with pearls that
+brushed together as their wearer walked, and
+gratified her vanity by their rustling; and also
+several kinds of bracelets&mdash;the gold or bronze
+<i>armilla</i>, principally worn by men; the <i>periscelis</i>,
+the <i>spathalium</i>, and the <i>dextrale</i>, worn round
+the fleshy part of the right arm.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>Discoveries of Roman jewellery and gold and
+silver work have occurred from time to time in the
+Peninsula; for example, at Espinosa de Henares
+and (in 1840) near Atarfe, on the southern side
+of the volcanic-looking Sierra Elvira, a few miles
+from Granada. Riaño describes a Roman silver
+dish found in a stone quarry at Otañez, in the
+north of Spain. &ldquo;It weighs thirty-three ounces,
+and is covered with an ornamentation of figures
+in relief, some of which are gilt, representing
+an allegorical subject of the source of medicinal
+waters. In the upper part is a nymph who pours<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects
+it in a vessel; another gives a cup of it to a sick
+man; another fills with it a barrel which is placed
+in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two
+mules. On each side of the fountain are altars on
+which sacrifices and libations are offered. Round
+it is the inscription: <span class="smcap">SALVS VMERITANA</span>, and at the
+back are engraved, in confused characters, the
+words: <span class="smcap">L. P. CORNELIANI. PIII</span>&hellip;.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author is of opinion that in the time
+of the Romans &ldquo;objects of all kinds in gold and
+silver were used in Spain to a very great extent,
+for, notwithstanding the destruction of ages, we
+still possess inscriptions which allude to silver
+statues, and a large number of objects in the
+precious metals exist in museums and private
+collections.&rdquo; Doubtless, in the case of articles
+and household utensils of smaller size&mdash;bowls,
+dishes, and the like, or ornaments for the person&mdash;the
+precious metals were made use of freely; but
+when we hear of mighty objects as also made of
+silver, <i>e.g.</i> principal portions of a building, we
+might do well to bear in mind a couple of old
+columns that were standing once not far from Cadiz,
+on a spot where in the days preceding history a
+temple sacred to the Spanish Hercules is rumoured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+to have been. Philostratus affirmed these columns
+to be wrought of solid gold and silver, mixed
+together yet in themselves without alloy. Strabo
+reduced them modestly to brass; but it was reserved
+for a curious Frenchman, the Père Labat,
+who travelled in Spain in 1705, to warn us what
+they really were. &ldquo;Elles sont sur cette langue de
+terre, qui joint l'Isle de Léon à celle de Cadix;
+car il faut se souvenir que c'est ainsi qu'on appelle
+la partie Orientale, et la partie Occidentale de la
+même Isle. Il y a environ une lieue de la porte
+de Terre à ces vénérables restes de l'antiquité.
+Nous nous en approchames, croyant justifier les
+contes que les Espagnols en débitent. Mais nous
+fûmes étrangement surpris de ne pas rencontrer
+la moindre chose qui pût nous faire seulement
+soupçonner qu'elles fussent d'une antiquité un peu
+considérable. Nous vimes que ces deux tours
+rondes, qui n'ont à présent qu'environ vingt pieds
+de hauteur sur douze à quinze pieds de diamètre,
+étoient d'une maçonnerie fort commune. Leurs
+portes étoient bouchées, et nous convinmes tous
+qu'elles avoient été dans leur jeune tems des
+moulins à vent qu'on avoit abandonnés; il n'y a
+ni inscriptions, ni bas-reliefs, ni reste de figures
+quelconques. En un mot, rien qui méritât notre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+attention, ni qui recompensât la moindre partie de
+la peine que nous avions prise pour les aller voir
+de près. Car je les avois vue plus d'une fois du
+grand chemin, où j'avois passé, et je devois me
+contenter. Mais que ne fait-on pas quand on est
+curieux, et aussi des&oelig;uvré que je l'étois alors.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Many of the usages of Roman Spain descended
+to the Visigoths. The jewels of this people
+manifest the double influence of Rome and of
+Byzantium, and the latter influenced in its turn
+from Eastern sources. We learn from that extraordinary
+encyclopædia of early mediæval Spanish
+lore&mdash;the <i>Etymologies</i> of Isidore of Beja&mdash;that the
+Visigothic women decked themselves with earrings,
+necklaces, and bracelets, set with precious stones
+of fabulous price. Leovigild is stated by the same
+writer to have been the first of the Visigothic
+princes to use the insignia of royalty. One of
+his coins (engraved in Florez) represents him
+with an imperial crown surmounted by a cross
+resembling that of the Byzantines. Coins of a
+similar design, and also bearing the imperial crown,
+were minted at Toledo, Cordova, or Merida, in
+the reigns of Chindaswint, Wamba, Ervigius, and
+Egica.</p>
+
+<p>But the true fountain-head of all our modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+knowledge respecting the jewellery of Visigothic
+Spain is in the wonderful crosses, crowns, and
+other ornaments discovered in 1858 upon the site
+of some old Christian temple, two leagues distant
+from Toledo. These objects, known collectively
+as &ldquo;the treasure of Guarrazar,&rdquo; were stumbled
+on by certain peasants after a heavy storm had
+washed away a quantity of earth. Some were
+destroyed upon the spot; others were sold to the
+Toledo silversmiths and melted down by these
+barbarians of our day; but fortunately the greater
+part remained intact, or very nearly so. There
+were in all, composed exclusively of gold and
+precious stones, eleven crowns, two crosses containing
+legible inscriptions, fragments such as the
+arms of a processional cross, and many single
+stones which time had doubtless separated from
+the crosses or the crowns.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Part of this treasure passed in some mysterious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+way to France, and is now in the Cluny Museum
+at Paris. The rest is in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid. Paris can boast possession of nine of the
+crowns; Madrid, of two, together with a fragment
+of a third&mdash;this latter of a balustrade or basket
+pattern. Five of the nine crowns preserved at
+Paris are fashioned of simple hoops of gold. The
+most important of the five, the crown of Recceswinth,
+who ruled in Spain from 650 to 672 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>,
+consists of two hinged semicircles of hollow gold,
+about a finger's-breadth across the interspace. It
+measures just over eight inches in diameter and
+four inches in depth. Both the upper and the
+lower rims are decorated to the depth of nearly
+half an inch with a design of four-pointed floral
+or semi-floral figures within minute circles.
+Amador de los Ríos has recognized this same
+design in the frieze of certain buildings at
+Toledo, and in the edges of mosaic discovered
+at Italica and Lugo, as well as in the Balearic
+Islands. The interstices of this design upon the
+crown are filled with a kind of red enamel or
+glaze, the true nature of which has not been
+definitely ascertained. Riaño calls it &ldquo;a delicate
+ornamentation of <i>cloisonné</i> work, which encloses
+a substance resembling red glass.&rdquo; The centre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+of the crown is filled with three rows of large
+stones, principally pearls and sapphires. There are
+also several onyxes, a stone which in those days
+was held in great esteem. The spaces between
+the rows of stones are ornamented with a somewhat
+rudimentary design of palm branches, the leaves
+of which appear to have been filled or outlined
+with the kind of red enamel I have spoken of.</p>
+
+<p>This crown is suspended by four gold chains
+containing each of them five leaf-shaped links,
+<i>percées à jour</i>. The chains unite at a gold rosette
+in the form of a double lily, terminated by a stoutish
+capital of rock-crystal. This in its turn is capped
+by another piece of crystal holding the final stem
+of gold which served as a hook for hanging up
+the crown. Suspended from the gold rosette by
+a long chain is a handsome cross, undoubtedly of
+more elaborate workmanship, studded with union
+pearls and monster sapphires. Amador believed
+this ornament to be a brooch. If this were so it
+is, of course, improperly appended here. Twenty-four
+gold chains hang from the lower border of
+the crown, concluding in pyriform sapphires of
+large size. Each sapphire is surmounted by a
+small, square frame of gold containing coloured
+glass, and above this, in each of three-and-twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+of the chains, is one of the golden letters forming
+the inscription, &#9769; <span class="smcap">RECCESVINTHVS REX OFFERET</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Besides this crown there are at Paris&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) A similar though slighter crown, the body
+of which is studded with fifty-four magnificent
+stones. A cross, now kept apart in the same
+collection, is thought by Spanish experts to have
+once been pendent from the crown. If so, the
+latter was perhaps presented to the sanctuary by
+one Sonnica, probably a Visigothic magnate, and
+not a woman, as the termination of the name
+induced some foreign antiquaries to suppose.
+The cross is thus inscribed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="cross">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">IN D<span style="text-decoration: overline;">I</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">NOM</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">INE</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">OFFERET</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">SONNICA</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span style="text-decoration: overline;">SCE</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">MA</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">RIE</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">INS</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">ORBA</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">CES<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>(2) Three crowns of plain design consisting of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+hoops of gold with primitive <i>repoussé</i> decoration,
+and, in the case of one, with precious stones.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Four crowns, each with a pendent cross.
+The pattern is a basket-work or set of balustrades
+of thin gold hollow plates (not, as Riaño stated,
+massive) with precious stones about the intersections
+of the bars or meshes, and others hanging
+from the lower rim. Three of these crowns have
+three rows or tiers of what I call the balustrade;
+the other crown has four.</p>
+
+<p>The custom of offering votive crowns to
+Christian temples was taken by the emperors of
+Constantinople from heathen peoples of the
+eastern world. In Spain this custom, introduced
+by Recared, outlived by many years the ruin of
+the Visigothic monarchy&mdash;survived, in fact, until
+the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thus in 891
+Alfonso the Third presented to the monastery
+of San Adrian and Santa Natalia four crowns of
+gold and three of silver, while just a hundred
+years afterwards Ordoño the Second presented
+three silver crowns to the monastery of Samos.
+Other crowns were offered by the prelates and
+the secular nobility.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the crowns of Guarrazar, there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+has been great controversy as to whether these
+were worn upon the head. Some experts think
+they must have been so worn; and in this case
+the rings upon the rim, through which the chains
+are passed, would seem to have been added on
+the presentation of these objects to the sanctuary.
+Lasteyrie, on the other hand, considered that the
+crowns were merely votive and were never meant
+for personal use, arguing that the rings were
+fixed about the border from the very moment
+when the crowns were made;<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> but Amador
+ingeniously replied to this by pointing out that
+in a few of the old Castilian coins&mdash;for instance,
+one of Sancho the Third&mdash;the crown, with rings
+about its rim, is actually upon the monarch's
+head. It is possible, adds the same authority,
+that these were old votive crowns proceeding
+from some church, although he thinks it still
+more likely that they were fashioned with the
+rings attached to them. We should remember,
+too, the hinge which serves to open and close the
+body of these crowns. It is difficult to guess
+the purpose of this hinge, unless it were to fit the
+crown more comfortably on the head.</p>
+
+<p>Of that portion of the treasure of Guarrazar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+which has remained at Madrid (Plate <a href="#img_22.jpg">i</a>.), the
+most important object is the votive crown of King
+Swinthila, son of Recared, and described as &ldquo;one
+of the most illustrious and unlucky princes that ever
+occupied the throne of Atawulf.&rdquo; This crown
+measures nine inches in diameter by two and a
+half in height. It consists of thin gold plates
+united at the edge, leaving, between the inner and
+the outer side, a hollow space about a quarter
+of an inch across. The exterior is divided into
+a central horizontal hoop or band between two
+others, somewhat narrower, at the top and bottom,
+these last being slightly raised above the level of the
+third. A triple row of precious stones, amounting
+to one hundred and twenty-five pearls and
+sapphires in the entire crown, surrounds the outer
+surface of the same, the central band or zone of
+which contains besides, wrought in <i>repoussé</i> on
+the hoop, a simple circular device wherein each
+centre is a sapphire or a pearl, though many of
+these have fallen from their setting. The spaces
+which describe these circles are superposed on
+what looks like a red enamel retaining at this
+moment all or nearly all its pristine brightness of
+twelve hundred years ago. This substance was
+believed by French investigators to be a coloured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+glass or paste,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> but Amador, after protracted
+chemical experiments, declared it to be layers of
+cornelian. Some of these layers have fallen from
+their grip, and if the crown be stirred are heard
+to move within. It is worth remarking, too, that
+the fillets which form the setting of the precious
+stones were made apart and welded afterwards;
+nor are these settings uniform in shape, but tally
+in each instance with the outline of the gem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_22.jpg" width="436" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_22.jpg" id="img_22.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">TREASURE OF GUARRAZAR<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chains which served for hanging up the
+crown are four in number. As in the crown of
+Recceswinth, each of them is composed of four
+<i>repoussé</i> cinquefoil links adorned along their edge
+with small gold beads minutely threaded on a
+wire and fastened on by fusing. The chains converge
+into an ornament shaped like two lilies
+pointing stem to stem, so that the lower is inverted,
+although they are divided by a piece of
+faceted rock crystal.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Four gems are hung from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+either lily, and issuing from the uppermost of
+these a strong gold hook attaches to the final
+length of chain.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the chain and cross now hanging
+through the circuit of the crown were not originally
+part of it. This cross is most remarkable.
+It has four arms of equal length, gracefully curved,
+and is wrought of plates of gold in duplicate,
+fastened back to back by straps of gold along the
+edges. The centre holds a piece of crystal in
+the midst of pearls and gold bead work threaded
+on a wire of the same metal and attached by
+fusion. Several fairly large stones are hung from
+the lateral and lower arms of the cross by small
+gold chains.</p>
+
+<p>The letters hanging from Swinthila's crown are
+cut and punched from thin gold plates. Their
+decoration is a zigzag ornament backed by the
+same mysterious crimson substance as the circular
+devices on the hoop. Hanging from the letters
+are pearls, sapphires, and several imitation stones&mdash;particularly
+imitation emeralds&mdash;in paste.</p>
+
+<p>The cross before the letters points to a custom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+of that period. We find it also on Swinthila's
+coins, and those of other Visigothic kings. Of the
+letters themselves twelve have been recovered,
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:center;">&#9769;  SV  TI  NV  REX  OFF  T</p>
+
+<p>The chains, however, or fragments of them,
+amount to twenty-three&mdash;precisely (if we count
+the cross) the number needed to complete the
+dedication.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury contains another crown, a
+great deal smaller and less ornamented than
+Swinthila's. The body of this crown, which was
+presented by the finder to the late Queen Isabella
+the Second, is just a hoop of gold, two inches
+deep and five across, hinged like the more
+elaborate and larger crowns, but merely decorated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+with a fine gold spiral at the rims, a zigzag
+pattern in <i>repoussé</i>, and a rudely executed scale-work.
+The dedication on this cross is in the
+centre of the hoop, and says&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:center;">&#9769; OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM S<span style="text-decoration: overline;">CO</span> STEFANO<br />
+THEODOSIVS ABB<span style="text-decoration: overline;">A</span></p>
+
+<p>We do not know who Theodosius was, but
+Amador, judging from the simple decoration of
+this crown, believes him to have been a priest
+of lower rank, and by no means a dignitary of
+the Visigothic church.</p>
+
+<p>A votive cross also forms part of this collection,
+which has a simple sunk device along the edges
+and seven pendent stones, two of these hanging
+from each of the lateral arms, and three, a little
+larger, from the lower arm. The inscription,
+which is rough in the extreme, appears to be the
+work of some illiterate craftsman, and has been
+interpreted with difficulty:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:center;">IN NOMINE DEI: IN NOMINE S<span style="text-decoration: overline;">CI</span> OFFERET<br />
+LUCETIUS E</p>
+
+<p>This reading gives an extra letter at the end,
+which may be construed as <i>Episcopus</i>&mdash;or anything
+else, according to the student's fancy.</p>
+
+<p>I may close my notice of this collection in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+Royal Armoury at Madrid by drawing attention
+to a greenish, semi-opaque stone, three-quarters
+of an inch in height. It is engraved <i>en creux</i>
+upon two facets with the scene of the Annunciation.
+The gem itself is commonly taken for an
+emerald, of which, referring to the glyptic art
+among the Visigoths, the learned Isidore remarked
+that &ldquo;<i>Sculpentibus quoque gemmas nulla gratior
+oculorum refectio est.</i>&rdquo; I shall insert a sketch of
+the cutting on this stone as a tailpiece to the
+chapter, and here append a full description.
+&ldquo;The Virgin listens standing to the Archangel
+Gabriel, who communicates to her the will of
+the Almighty. Before her is a jar, from which
+projects the stem of a lily, emblematic of the
+chaste and pure, that reaches to her breast.
+Her figure is completely out of measurement.
+Upon her head appears to be a <i>nimbus</i> or
+<i>amiculum</i>; her breast is covered with a broad and
+folded <i>fascia</i>, enveloping her arms, while her
+tunic, reaching to the ground, conceals one of her
+feet. The angel in the cutting on the stone is at
+the Virgin's right. His attitude is that of one
+who is conveying tidings. Large wings folded
+upon his shoulders and extending nearly to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+ground are fitted to his form, better drawn and
+livelier than the Virgin's. He executes his holy
+mission with his right hand lifted. His dress is
+a tunic in small folds, over which is a cloak
+fastened by a brooch and fitting closely. Upon
+his head he wears a kind of helmet.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>The drawing of this design upon the stone is
+most bizarre and barbarous; for the Virgin's head
+is so completely disproportioned that it forms the
+one-third part of her entire person.</p>
+
+<p>The merit of all this Visigothic gem or gold and
+silver work has been extolled too highly by the
+French and Spanish archæologists.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> It is, however,
+greatly interesting. Rudely and ponderously
+magnificent, it tells us of a people who as yet
+were almost wholly strangers to the true artistic
+sense. Such were the Visigoths and the Spaniards
+of the Visigothic era, of all of whom I have
+observed elsewhere that &ldquo;serfdom was the distinguishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+mark of the commons; arrogance, of
+the nobility; avarice, and ambition of temporal and
+political power, of the clergy; regicide and tumult,
+of the crown.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> These crowns of Guarrazar proclaim
+to us in plainest language that the volume of
+the stones, and showiness and glitter of the precious
+metal were accorded preference of every other
+factor&mdash;the <i>pondus auri</i> preference of the <i>manus
+artificis</i>. We gather, too, from documents and
+chronicles and popular tradition, that the Visigothic
+princes, as they set apart their stores of treasure in
+secluded caves or in the strong rooms of their
+palaces, were ever captivated and corrupted by the
+mere intrinsic worth in opposition to the nobler
+and æsthetic value of the craftsmanship.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we are told that Sisenand owned a plate
+of gold (no word is said of its design or style)
+five hundred pounds in weight, proceeding from
+the royal treasure of his race, and which, long
+years before, had been presented by the nobleman
+Accio to King Turismund. When Sisenand was
+conspiring to dethrone Swinthila, he called on
+Dagobert the king of France to come to his
+support, and promised him, as recompense, this
+golden plate. The French king lent his help<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+forthwith, and then, as soon as Turismund was
+seated on the throne of Spain, despatched an
+embassy to bring the coveted vessel to his court.
+Sisenand fulfilled his word and placed the envoys
+in possession of the plate, but since his subjects,
+rising in rebellion, wrenched it from their power
+and kept it under custody, he compensated
+Dagobert by a money payment of two hundred
+thousand <i>sueldos</i>.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>Innumerable narratives and legends dwell
+upon the treasure taken by the Moors on entering
+Spain. Such as relate the battle of the
+Guadalete, or the Lake of Janda (as it is also
+called by some authorities), agree that when the
+fatal day was at an end the riderless steed of
+Roderick was found imbedded in the mire,
+wearing a saddle of massive gold adorned with
+emeralds and rubies. According to Al-Makkari,
+that luckless monarch's boots were also made of
+gold studded with precious stones, while the
+Muslim victors, stripping the Visigothic dead,
+identified the nobles by the golden rings upon
+their fingers, those of a less exalted rank by
+their silver rings, and the slaves by their rings
+of copper. The widow of the fallen king was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+also famous for her stores of jewellery. Her
+name was Eila or Egilona (Umm-Asim of the
+Moors), but she was known besides as &ldquo;the
+lady of the beautiful necklaces.&rdquo; After being
+made a prisoner she was given in marriage to
+the young prince Abd-al-Azis, who grew to love
+her very greatly, and received from her, &ldquo;seeing
+that she still retained sufficient of her royal
+wealth,&rdquo; the present of a crown.</p>
+
+<p>Muza, on returning to the East, is said to
+have drawn near to Damascus with a train of
+thirty waggons full of Spanish silver, gold, and
+precious stones. Tarik ben Ziyed, marching in
+triumph through the land, secured at Cordova,
+Amaya, and other towns and capitals, enormous
+store of &ldquo;pearls, arms, dishes, silver, gold, and
+other jewels in unprecedented number.&rdquo; One
+object, in particular, is mentioned with insistency
+by nearly all the chronicles, both Mussulman
+and Christian. Quoting from the <i>Pearl of
+Marvels</i> of Ibn Alwardi, this was &ldquo;the table
+which had belonged to God's prophet, Solomon
+(health be to both of them). It was of green
+emeralds, and nothing fairer had been ever seen
+before. Its cups were golden and its plates of
+precious jewels, one of them specked with black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+and white.&rdquo; All manner of strange things are
+said about this table, though most accounts
+describe it as consisting of a <i>single</i> emerald.
+Perhaps it was of malachite, or of the bright
+green serpentine stone extracted formerly as well
+as nowadays from the Barranco de San Juan
+at Granada, and several other spots in Spain.
+Bayan Almoghreb says it was of gold mixed
+with a little silver and surrounded by three gold
+rings or collars; the first containing pearls, the
+second rubies, and the third emeralds. Al-Makkari
+describes it as &ldquo;green, with its 365 feet and
+borders of a single emerald.&rdquo; Nor is it known
+for certain where this &ldquo;table&rdquo; fell into the hands
+of Tarik. Probably he found it in the principal
+Christian temple at Toledo&mdash;that is to say, the
+Basilica of Santa María. Ibn Alwardi says that
+in the <i>aula regia</i>, or palace of the Visigothic kings,
+the lancers of the Moorish general broke down
+a certain door, discovering &ldquo;a matchless quantity
+of gold and silver plate,&rdquo; together with the
+&ldquo;table.&rdquo; Doubtless this strong room was the same
+referred to in the following lines. &ldquo;It was for
+ever closed; and each time that a Christian king
+began to reign he added to its door a new and
+powerful fastening. In this way as many as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+four and twenty padlocks were gathered on the
+door.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>However, the most explicit and informative of
+all these ancient authors is Ibn Hayyan, who says;
+&ldquo;The table had its origin in the days of Christian
+rulers. It was the custom in those times that
+when a rich man died he should bequeath a legacy
+to the churches. Proceeding from the value of
+these gifts were fashioned tables, thrones, and
+other articles of gold and silver, whereon the
+clergy bore the volumes of their gospel when
+they showed them at their ceremonies. These
+objects they would also set upon their altars to
+invest them with a further splendour by the
+ornament thereof. For this cause was the table
+at Toledo, and the [Visigothic] monarchs vied
+with one another in enriching it, each of them
+adding somewhat to the offerings of his predecessor,
+till it surpassed all other jewels of its
+kind and grew to be renowned exceedingly. It
+was of fine gold studded with emeralds, pearls,
+and rubies, in such wise that nothing similar had
+ever been beheld. So did the kings endeavour
+to increase its richness, seeing that this city was
+their capital, nor did they wish another to contain
+more splendid ornaments or furniture. Thus was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+the table resting on an altar of the church, and
+here the Muslims came upon it, and the fame of
+its magnificence spread far abroad.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another chronicle affirms that Tarik found the
+&ldquo;table&rdquo; at a city called Almeida, now perhaps
+Olmedo. &ldquo;He reached Toledo, and leaving a
+detachment there, advanced to Guadalajara and
+the [Guadarrama] mountains. These he crossed
+by the pass which took his name, and reached,
+upon the other side, a city called Almeida or <i>The
+Table</i>, for there had been discovered the table of
+Solomon the son of David, and the feet and
+borders of it, numbering three hundred and sixty-five,
+were of green emerald.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In any case this venerated jewel gave considerable
+trouble to its captors. When envious Muza
+followed up the march of Tarik, his lieutenant,
+he demanded from him all the spoil, and in
+particular the ever-famous table. Tarik surrendered
+this forthwith, but after slyly wrenching
+off a leg. Muza perceived the breakage, and
+inquired for the missing piece. &ldquo;I know not,&rdquo;
+said the other; &ldquo;'twas thus that I discovered it.&rdquo;
+Muza then ordered a new leg of gold to be made
+for the table, as well as a box of palm leaves, in
+which it was deposited. &ldquo;This,&rdquo; says Ibn Hayyan,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+&ldquo;is known to be one of the reasons why Tarik
+worsted Muza in the dispute they had before
+the Caliph as to their respective conquests.&rdquo;
+So it proved. Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> relates that
+Muza appeared before the Caliph Al-Walid and
+produced the table. Tarik interposed and said
+that he himself had taken it, and not the other
+leader. &ldquo;Give it into my hands,&rdquo; the Caliph
+answered, &ldquo;that I may see if any piece of it be
+wanting,&rdquo; and found, indeed, that one of its feet
+was different from the rest. &ldquo;Ask Muza,&rdquo; interrupted
+Tarik, &ldquo;for the missing foot, and if he
+answer from his heart, then shall his words be
+truth.&rdquo; Accordingly Al-Walid inquired for the
+foot, and Muza made reply that he had found
+the table as it now appeared; but Tarik with
+an air of triumph drew forth the missing piece
+which he himself had broken off, and said: &ldquo;By
+this shall the Emir of the Faithful recognize that
+I am speaking truth; that I it was who found
+the table.&rdquo; And thereupon Al-Walid credited his
+words and loaded him with gifts.</p>
+
+<p>Comparing the statements of these writers, we
+may be certain that the &ldquo;table&rdquo; was a kind of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+desk of Visigothic or, more probably, Byzantine
+workmanship, for holding the gospels on the
+feast-days of the national church. Probably, too,
+seeing that a palm-leaf box was strong enough to
+keep it in, its size was inconsiderable. Its value,
+on the statement of Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, was
+two hundred thousand <i>dinares</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The sum of my remarks upon the Visigothic
+jewel-work is this. Distinguished by a coarse
+though costly splendour, we find in it a mingled
+Roman and Byzantine source, although it was
+upon the whole inferior to these styles, being
+essentially, as Amador observes, &ldquo;an imitative
+and decadent art.&rdquo; Yet it did not succumb before
+the Moors, but lurked for refuge in the small
+Asturian monarchy, and later, issuing thence, extended
+through the kingdom of León into Castile.
+We find its clearest characteristics in such objects
+as the Cross of Angels and the Cross of Victory.
+Then, later still, it is affected and regenerated by the
+purely oriental art of the invader; and lastly, till the
+wave of the Renaissance floods the western world,
+by Gothic influences from across the Pyrenees.</p>
+
+<p>A similar sketch may be applied to other arts
+and crafts of Spain&mdash;particularly furniture and
+architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_36.jpg" width="320" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_36.jpg" id="img_36.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE CROSS OF ANGELS<br />
+(<i>Oviedo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The pious or superstitious kings and magnates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+of this land have always taken pride in adding (at
+the instigation of the clergy) to the treasure of her
+churches and cathedrals. Such gifts include all
+kinds of sumptuous apparel for the priesthood;
+chasubles and dalmatics heavily embroidered with
+the precious metals, gold or silver crowns and
+crosses, paxes,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> chalices and patines, paraments
+and baldaquinos, reliquaries in every shape and
+style and size, and figures of the Virgin&mdash;such
+as those of Lugo, Seville, Astorga, and Pamplona&mdash;consisting
+of elaborate silver-work upon a
+wooden frame. Visitors to Spain, from leisurely
+Rosmithal five hundred years ago to time-economizing
+tourists of our century, have been
+continually astonished at the prodigal richness
+of her sanctuaries. Upon this point I quote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+a typical extract from the narrative of Bertaut de
+Rouen. &ldquo;The treasure of this church,&rdquo; he said
+of Montserrat, &ldquo;is wonderfully precious, and particularly
+so by reason of two objects that belong
+to it. The first is a crown of massive gold of
+twenty pounds in weight, covered with pearls,
+with ten stars radiating from it also loaded with
+large pearls and diamonds of extraordinary value.
+This crown took forty years to make, and is valued
+at two millions of gold money. The second
+object is a gold crown entirely covered with
+emeralds, most of them of an amazing size. Many
+are worth five thousand crowns apiece. The
+reliquary, too, is of extraordinary richness, as also
+a service of gold plate studded with pearls,
+donated by the late emperor for use in celebrating
+Mass.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Similar accounts to the above exist in quantities,
+relating to every part of Spain and every period
+of her history.</p>
+
+<p>Reverting to the earlier Middle Ages, a few
+conspicuous objects thus presented to the Spanish
+Church require to be briefly noted here. Famous
+chalices are those of Santo Domingo de Silos
+(eleventh century), made to the order of Abbot
+Domingo in honour of San Sebastian, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+showing the characteristic Asturian filigree-work;
+and of San Isidoro of León, made in 1101 by
+order of Urraca Fernandez, sister of the fourth
+Alfonso. The latter vessel, inscribed with the
+dedication of <i>Urraca Fredinandi</i>, has an agate
+cup and foot. A remarkably handsome silver-gilt
+chalice and patine (thirteenth century) belong
+to Toledo cathedral. The height of this chalice
+is thirteen inches, and the diameter of its bowl,
+which has a conical shape, eight and a half inches.
+Inside and out the bowl is smooth, but midway
+between the bowl and the foot is a massive knot
+or swelling in the stem, and on the knot the
+emblematic lion, eagle, bull, and angel are
+chiselled in high relief. Below the knot is a ring
+of graceful rosettes. The patine which accompanies
+this chalice measures twelve inches in
+diameter. It has upon it, thinly engraved within
+a slightly sunk centre with a scalloped edge, the
+figure of Christ upon the cross, between the
+Virgin and St John. This central group of
+figures and the border of the plate are each
+surrounded with a narrow strip of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral of Valencia has a beautiful and
+early cup asserted to be the veritable Holy Grail
+(<i>greal</i>, <i>garal</i>, or <i>gradal</i>, in the old Castilian), &ldquo;of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+which,&rdquo; wrote Ford with his accustomed irony, &ldquo;so
+many are shown in different orthodox <i>relicarios</i>.&rdquo;
+However this may be, the chalice of Valencia is
+particularly handsome. According to Riaño it
+consists of &ldquo;a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully
+moulded round the lip. The base is formed
+of another inverted sardonyx. These are united
+by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by
+handles, which are inlaid with delicate arabesque
+in black enamel. Oriental pearls are set round
+the base and stem, which alternate with rubies,
+sapphires, and emeralds. This chalice is a work
+of the Roman imperial epoch, and the mounts
+are of a later date.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A series of Spanish chalices, beginning chronologically
+with specimens which date from the
+early Middle Ages, and terminating with the
+chalice, made in 1712, of Santa María la Blanca
+of Seville, was shown in 1892 at the Exposición
+Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Among the finer
+or most curious were chalices proceeding from the
+parish church of Játiva, Las Huelgas, and Seville
+cathedral, and the Plateresque chalices of Calatayud,
+Granada, and Alcalá de Henares. Another
+chalice which is greatly interesting because of
+the date inscribed on it, is one which was presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+to Lugo cathedral by a bishop of that diocese,
+Don Garcia Martinez de Bahamonde (1441&ndash;1470).
+The workmanship, though prior to the sixteenth
+century, is partly Gothic. An article by José
+Villa-amil y Castro, dealing with all these chalices,
+will be found in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad
+Española de Excursiones</i> for April, 1893.</p>
+
+<p>A small exhibition was held at Lugo in August
+1896. Here were shown sixteen chalices, nearly
+all of them of merit from the point of view of
+history or art. Such are the chalice of San
+Rosendo, proceeding from the old monastery
+of Celanova; the Gothic chalices of Tuy
+cathedral, Lugo cathedral, Santa María del
+Lucio, Santa Eulalia de Guilfrei, San Pedro
+de Puertomarín, and the Franciscan friars of
+Santiago; and the chalice and patine of Cebrero
+(twelfth century), in which it is said that on a
+certain occasion in the fifteenth century the wine
+miraculously turned to actual blood, and the Host
+to actual flesh, in order to convince a doubting
+priest who celebrated service.</p>
+
+<p>The Cross of Angels and the Cross of Victory&mdash;presents,
+respectively, from Alfonso the Chaste
+and Alfonso the Great&mdash;are now preserved at
+Oviedo, in the Camara Santa of that stately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+temple. The former of these crosses, fancied by
+credulous people to be the handiwork of angels&mdash;whence
+its title<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>&mdash;was made in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 808. It consists
+of four arms of equal length, radiating from
+a central rosette (Pl. <a href="#img_36.jpg">ii</a>.). The core or <i>alma</i> is of
+wood covered with a double plate of richly decorated
+gold, chased in the finest filigree (indicative
+already of the influence of Cordova) and thickly
+strewn with sapphires, amethysts, topazes, and
+cornelians. Other stones hung formerly from six
+small rings upon the lower border of the arms.
+The cross is thus inscribed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>&ldquo;Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei<br />
+Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xti<br />
+Hoc signo tuetur pius<br />
+Hoc signo vincitur inimicus.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi<br />
+Fulmine divino intereat ipse<br />
+Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea<br />
+Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCXLVI.&rdquo;</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_42.jpg" width="374" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_42.jpg" id="img_42.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE CROSS OF VICTORY<br />
+(<i>Oviedo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other cross (Pl. <a href="#img_42.jpg">iii</a>.) is more than twice as
+large, and measures just one yard in height by two
+feet four and a half inches in width. Tradition
+says that the primitive, undecorated wooden core of
+this cross was carried against the Moors by King
+Pelayo. The ornate casing, similar to that upon
+the Cross of Angels, was added later, and contains
+152 gems and imitation gems. The following
+inscription tells us that this casing was made
+at the Castle of Gauzon in Asturias, in the year
+828:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>&ldquo;Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent<br />
+Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemaena Regina;<br />
+Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit<br />
+Fulmine divino intereat ipse.<br />
+Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est<br />
+Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis.<br />
+Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus<br />
+Et operatum est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri.</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10%;">XLII. <i>discurrente Era</i> DCCCLXVI.&rdquo;</span></p>
+
+<p>These crosses are processional. Others which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+were used for the same purpose are those of San
+Sebastián de Serrano (Galicia), San Munio de
+Veiga, Santa María de Guillar (Lugo), San Mamed
+de Fisteos, and Santa María de Arcos. The five
+preceding crosses are of bronze; those of Baamorto
+and San Adriano de Lorenzana are respectively
+of silver, and of wood covered with silver plates,
+and all were shown at the Lugo exhibition I have
+spoken of.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Cross of Victory or Pelayo, and the
+Cross of Angels, interesting objects preserved at
+Oviedo are a small diptych presented by Bishop
+Don Gonzalo (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1162&ndash;1175), and the <i>Arca Santa</i>
+used for storing saintly relics. This beautiful
+chest, measuring three feet nine inches and a half
+in length by twenty-eight inches and a half in
+height, is considered by Riaño to be of Italian
+origin, and to date from between the tenth and
+twelfth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Another handsome box belonging to the cathedral
+of Astorga was once upon a time the
+property of Alfonso the Third and his queen
+Jimena, whose names it bears&mdash;<span class="smcap">ADEFONSVS REX:
+SCEMENA REGINA</span>. The workmanship is consequently
+of the close of the ninth or the beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+of the tenth century. The material is wood
+covered with <i>repoussé</i> silver plates on which are
+figured angels and birds, together with the eagle
+and the ox as emblems of the evangelists John
+and Luke, whose names are also to be read upon
+the casket.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the sword, no object in the history of
+mediæval Spain was more profoundly popular or
+venerated than the <i>relicario</i>. This in its primitive
+form was just a small receptacle, such as a vase or
+urn of gold or silver, ivory or crystal, used by the
+laity or clergy for treasuring bones, or hairs, or
+other relics of the Virgin, or the Saviour, or the
+saints. In private families a holy tooth, or toe,
+or finger thus preserved would often, as though
+it were some Eastern talisman, accompany its
+credulous possessor to the battlefield.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on, the urn or vase was commonly
+replaced by chests or caskets made by Moorish
+captives, or by tranquil and respected Moorish
+residents within the territory of the Christian,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+or wrested from the infidel in war and offered
+by the Spanish kings or nobles to their churches.
+Here they were kept on brackets, or suspended
+near the altar by a chain<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> of silver, gold, or iron.
+Among the Moors themselves such chests and
+caskets served, according to their richness or
+capacity, for storing perfumes, clothes, or jewels,
+or as a present from a bridegroom to his bride;
+and since the sparsely-furnished Oriental room
+contains no kind of wardrobe, cabinet, or chest
+of drawers, their use in Moorish parts of Spain
+was universal.</p>
+
+<p>A typical Moorish casket of this kind (Plate <a href="#img_46.jpg">iv</a>.)
+is now in the cathedral of Gerona. It measures
+fifteen inches in length by nine across, fastens
+with a finely ornamented band and clasp of
+bronze, and is covered with thin silver-gilt plates
+profusely decorated with a bead and floral pattern
+superposed upon a box of non-decaying wood&mdash;possibly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+larch or cedar. A Cufic inscription along
+the lower part of the lid was formerly interpreted
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the name of God. (May) the blessing of
+God, prosperity and fortune and perpetual felicity
+be (destined) for the servant of God, Alhakem,
+Emir of the Faithful, because he ordered (this
+casket) to be made for Abdul Walid Hischem,
+heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished
+by the hands of Hudzen, son of Bothla.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_46.jpg" width="500" height="322"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_46.jpg" id="img_46.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH CASKET<br />
+(<i>Gerona Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is supposed, however, that the part of this
+inscription which contains the maker's name was
+rendered incorrectly by Riaño, who followed, on
+this point, Saavedra, Fita, and other archæologists;
+and that the casket was made to the order
+of Djaudar, as a gift to the heir to the throne,
+Abulwalid Hischem, the actual workmen being
+two slaves, Bedr and Tarif. That is to say, the
+name Hudzen is now replaced by Djaudar, whom
+Dozy mentions in his history of the Mussulman
+domination in Spain, and who is known to have
+been a eunuch high in favour with Alhakem,
+Hischem's father. These princes ruled at Cordova
+in the latter half of the tenth century and the
+beginning of the eleventh.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish-Moorish caskets (<i>arquetas</i>) of ivory,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+silver, or inlaid work, are also preserved in the
+South Kensington Museum, the Archæological
+Museum at Madrid, and the cathedrals of Braga,
+Tortosa, and Oviedo. There is no reason to
+doubt that all these boxes were made in Spain,
+although an Eastern and particularly Persian
+influence is very noticeable in their scheme of
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Two silver caskets which were once in the
+church of San Isidoro at León are now in the
+Madrid Museum. The smaller and plainer of
+the two, elliptical in shape and measuring five
+inches in length by two inches and a half in depth,
+is covered with a leaf and stem device outlined in
+black enamel. A Cufic inscription of a private
+and domestic import, also picked out with black
+enamel, runs along the top. The lid is ornamented,
+like the body of the box, with leaves and stems
+surrounded by a Grecian border, and fastens with
+a heart-shaped clasp secured by a ring.</p>
+
+<p>The other, more elaborate, and larger box
+measures eight inches long by five in height. In
+shape it is a parallelogram, with a deeply bevelled
+rather than&mdash;as Amador describes it&mdash;a five-sided
+top. Bands of a simple winding pattern outlined
+in black enamel on a ground of delicate niello-work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+run round the top and body of the casket.
+The central band upon the lower part contains a
+Cufic inscription of slight interest. Some of the
+letters terminate in leaves. The bevelled lid is
+covered with groups of peacocks&mdash;symbolic, among
+Mohammedans, of eternal life&mdash;outlined in black
+enamel. These birds are eight in all, gathered in
+two groups of four about the large and overlapping
+hinges. Four leaves, trifoliate, in <i>repoussé</i>, one
+beneath the other, decorate the clasp, which opens
+out into a heart containing, also in <i>repoussé</i>, two
+inverted peacocks looking face to face. Between
+the birds this heart extremity is pierced for the
+passage of a ring.</p>
+
+<p>Amador de los Ríos considers that both caskets
+were made between the years 1048 and 1089.</p>
+
+<p>The use of coloured enamel in the manufacture
+of these boxes dates, or generally so, from somewhat
+later. Although the history of enamelling
+in Spain is nebulous and contradictory in the
+extreme, we know that caskets in <i>champlevé</i> enamel
+on a copper ground, with figures either flat or
+hammered in a bold relief, became abundant here.
+Two, from the convent of San Marcos at León, and
+dating from the thirteenth century, are now in the
+Madrid Museum. Labarte says that the lids of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+these enamelled reliquaries were flat until the
+twelfth century, and of a gable form thenceforward.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_50.jpg" width="500" height="329"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_50.jpg" id="img_50.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">ALTAR-FRONT IN ENAMELLED BRONZE<br />
+(<i>11th Century. Museum of Burgos</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other old objects&mdash;boxes, triptyches, statuettes,
+incensories, book-covers, crucifixes, and processional
+crosses&mdash;partly or wholly covered with
+enamel, belong or recently belonged to the
+Marquises of Castrillo and Casa-Torres, the Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan, and Señor Escanciano.
+All, or nearly all, of these are thought to have proceeded
+from Limoges (Pl. <a href="#img_50.jpg">v</a>.). <i>Champlevé</i> enamel
+is also on the tiny &ldquo;Crucifix of the Cid&rdquo; (Pl. <a href="#img_52.jpg">vi</a>.) at
+Salamanca, as well as on the Virgin's throne in
+the gilt bronze statuette of the Virgin de la Vega
+at San Esteban in the same city.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Of this image,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+although it properly belongs to another heading of
+my book, I think it well to give a reproduction here
+(Plate <a href="#img_54.jpg">vii</a>.). I will also mention, in spite of its
+presumably foreign origin, the enamelled altar-front
+of San Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre&mdash;a
+small sanctuary constructed by a mediæval cavalier
+who, by an accident occasioned by the dark,
+murdered his father and mother in lieu of his
+wife.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> This altar-front, conspicuously Byzantine
+in its style, measures four feet three inches high
+by seven feet five inches long, and is now employed
+as the <i>retablo</i> of the little church which
+stands in solitary picturesqueness on the lofty
+mountain-top of Aralar. The figures, coloured in
+relief upon a yellowish enamel ground, are those
+of saints, and of a monarch and his queen&mdash;possibly
+King Sancho the Great, who is believed to have
+been the donor of the ornament. If this surmise
+be accurate, the front would date from the eleventh
+century.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the history of Spanish enamel-work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+is both confused and scanty. The subject
+in its general aspects has been studied by M.
+Roulin, whose judgments will be found in the
+<i>Revue de l'Art Ancien et Moderne</i>, and in his
+article, &ldquo;Mobilier liturgique d'Espagne,&rdquo; published
+in the <i>Revue de l'Art Chrétien</i> for 1903. M.
+Roulin believes the altar-front of San Miguel in
+Excelsis to be a Limoges product, not earlier than
+the first half of the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Ramírez de Arellano declares that no enamelling
+at all was done in Spain before the invasion of the
+Almohades. López Ferreiro, who as a priest had
+access to the jealously secreted archives of Santiago
+cathedral, gives us the names of Arias Perez,
+Pedro Martinez, Fernan Perez, and Pedro Pelaez,
+Galician enamellers who worked at Santiago in
+the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Martin
+Minguez says that enamelling was done at Gerona
+in the fourteenth century, and Moorish enamels
+were certainly produced at Cordova and Cuenca
+from comparatively early in the Middle Ages.
+A few obscure workers in enamel are mentioned
+by Gestoso, in his <i>Diccionario de Artistas Sevillanos</i>,
+as living at Seville in the fifteenth century,
+though, in the entries which refer to them, little
+is told us of their lives and nothing of their labours.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+In the sixteenth century we obtain a glimpse of
+two enamellers of Toledo&mdash;Lorenzo Marqués and
+Andrés Ordoñez, and dating from the same
+period the Chapter of the Military Orders of
+Ciudad Real possesses a silver-gilt <i>porta-paz</i>
+with enamelling done at Cuenca. However, our
+notices of this branch of Spanish art have yet
+to be completed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_52.jpg" width="323" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_52.jpg" id="img_52.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">&ldquo;THE CRUCIFIX OF THE CID&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Salamanca Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A long array of royal gifts caused, in the
+olden time, the treasure of Santiago cathedral
+to be the richest and most varied in the
+whole Peninsula, although at first this see was
+merely suffragan to Merida. But early in the
+twelfth century a scheming bishop, by name
+Diego Gelmirez, intrigued at Rome to raise his
+diocese to the dignity of an archbishopric. The
+means by which he proved successful in the
+end were far from irreproachable. &ldquo;Gelmirez,&rdquo;
+says Ford (vol. ii. p. 666) &ldquo;was a cunning
+prelate, and well knew how to carry his point; he
+put Santiago's images and plate into the crucible,
+and sent the ingots to the Pope.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The original altar-front or parament (<i>aurea
+tabula</i>) was made of solid gold. This altar-front
+Gelmirez melted down to steal from it some
+hundred ounces of the precious metal for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+Pope, donating in its stead another front of gold
+and silver mixed, wrought from the remaining
+treasure of the sanctuary. Aymerich tells us
+that the primitive frontal bore the figure of the
+Saviour seated on a throne supported by the four
+evangelists, blessing with his right hand, and
+holding in his left the Book of Life. The four-and-twenty
+elders (called by quaint Morales &ldquo;gentlemen&rdquo;)
+of the apocalypse were also gathered round
+the throne, with musical instruments in their hands,
+and golden goblets filled with fragrant essences.
+At either end of the frontal were six of the apostles,
+three above and three beneath, separated by
+&ldquo;beautiful columns&rdquo; and surrounded by floral decoration.
+The upper part was thus inscribed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="title"><span class="smcap">HANC TABULAM DIDACUS PRÆSUL JACOBITA<br />
+SECUNDUS<br />
+TEMPORE QUINQUENNI FECIT EPISCOPI<br />
+MARCAS ARGENTI DE THESAURO JACOBENSI<br />
+HIC OCTOGINTA QUINQUE MINUS NUMERA.</span></p>
+
+<p>And the lower part:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="title"><span class="smcap">REX ERAT ANFONSUS GENER EJUS DUX RAIMUNDUS<br />
+PRÆSUL PRÆFATUS QUANDO PEREGIT OPUS.</span></p>
+
+<p>This early altar-front has disappeared like its predecessor;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+it is not known precisely at what time;
+but both Morales and Medina saw and wrote
+about it in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_54.jpg" width="368" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_54.jpg" id="img_54.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE &ldquo;VIRGEN DE LA VEGA&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Salamanca</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another ornament which Aymerich describes,
+namely, the <i>baldaquino</i> or <i>cimborius</i>, has likewise
+faded from the eyes of the profane, together with
+three bronze caskets covered with enamel, and
+stated by Morales to have contained the bones of
+Saints Silvestre, Cucufate, and Fructuoso. One
+of these caskets was existing in the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The silver lamps were greatly celebrated.
+Ambrosio de Morales counted &ldquo;twenty or
+more&rdquo;; but Zepedano made their total mount to
+fifty-one. The French invasion brought their
+number down to three. Three of the oldest
+of these lamps had been of huge dimensions,
+particularly one, a present from Alfonso of
+Aragon, which occupied the centre. The shape
+of it, says Aymerich, was &ldquo;like a mighty mortar.&rdquo;
+Seven was the number of its beaks, symbolic of
+the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; and each
+beak contained a lamplet fed with oil of myrtles,
+acorns, or olives.</p>
+
+<p>All kinds of robberies and pilferings have thus
+been perpetrated with the once abundant wealth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+of Santiago.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The jealous care which keeps the
+copious archives inaccessible to all the outside
+world is in itself of sinister significance. It has
+transpired, furthermore, that many of the bishops
+have &ldquo;exchanged,&rdquo; or simply stolen, portions of the
+holy property. Besides these clerical dilapidations,
+a cartload, weighing half a ton, was carried
+off by Marshal Ney, though some was subsequently
+handed back, &ldquo;because the spoilers feared the
+hostility of the <i>Plateros</i>, the silversmiths who live
+close to the cathedral, and by whom many workmen
+were employed in making little graven
+images, teraphims and lares, as well as medallions
+of Santiago, which pilgrims purchase.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_57.jpg" width="271" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_57.jpg" id="img_57.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SAINT JAMES IN PILGRIM'S DRESS<br />
+(<i>Silver-gilt statuette; 15th Century.<br />
+Santiago Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the gifts of value which this temple yet
+preserves are the ancient processional cross presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+by the third Alfonso in the year of grace
+874,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> and the hideous fourteenth-century reliquary
+shaped to represent the head of James Alfeo, and
+containing (as it is believed) this very relic (Pl. <a href="#img_57.jpg">viii</a>.).
+I make a reservation here, because the Chapter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+have forbidden the reliquary to be opened. In
+either case, whether the head be there or not,
+heads of the same apostle are affirmed to be at
+Chartres, Toulouse, and other places. Similarly,
+discussing these Hydra-headed beings of the Bible
+and the hagiology, Villa-amil y Castro (<i>El Tesoro
+de la Catedral de Santiago</i>, published in the
+<i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>) recalls to us the
+ten authenticated and indubitable mazzards of
+Saint John the Baptist.</p>
+
+<p>The head-shaped reliquary is of beaten silver
+with enamelled visage, and the hair and beard gilt.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
+The workmanship is French. The cross, which
+hung till recently above the altar of the Relicario,
+but which now requires to be placed upon the
+lengthy list of stolen wealth, was not unlike the
+Cross of Angels in the Camara Santa at Oviedo,
+and had a wooden body covered with gold plates
+in finely executed filigree, studded with precious
+stones and cameos. Not many days ago, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+wooden core, divested of the precious metal and
+the precious stones, was found abandoned in a field.</p>
+
+<p>Visitors to the shrine of Santiago seldom fail
+to have their curiosity excited by the monster
+&ldquo;smoke-thrower&rdquo; (<i>bota-fumeiro</i>) or incensory,
+lowered (much like the deadly sword in Poe's exciting
+tale) on each <i>fiesta</i> by a batch of vigorous
+Gallegos from an iron frame fixed into the pendentives
+of the dome. &ldquo;The calmest heart,&rdquo; says
+Villa-amil, &ldquo;grows agitated to behold this giant
+vessel descending from the apex of the nave until
+it almost sweeps the ground, wreathed in dense
+smoke and spewing flame.&rdquo; Ford seems to have
+been unaware that the real purpose of this metal
+monster was not to simply scent the holy precincts,
+but to cover up the pestilential atmosphere created
+by a horde of verminous, diseased, and evil-smelling
+pilgrims, who, by a usage which is now suppressed,
+were authorized to pass the night before the
+services within the actual cathedral wall.</p>
+
+<p>The original <i>bota-fumeiro</i>, resembling, in Oxea's
+words, &ldquo;a silver boiler of gigantic bulk,&rdquo; was lost
+or stolen in the War of Spanish Independence.
+It was replaced by another of iron, and this, in
+1851, by the present apparatus of white metal.</p>
+
+<p>Striking objects of ecclesiastical <i>orfebrería</i> were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+produced in Spain throughout the thirteenth and
+the fourteenth centuries. Among the finest are the
+triptych-reliquary of Seville cathedral known as
+the <i>Alfonsine Tables</i>; the <i>retablo</i> and <i>baldaquino</i>
+of the cathedral of Gerona; the silver throne,
+preserved in Barcelona cathedral, of Don Martin
+of Aragon; and the <i>guión</i>, at Toledo, of Cardinal
+Mendoza.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_60.jpg" width="445" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_60.jpg" id="img_60.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MUDEJAR TRIPTYCH<br />
+(<i>Interior of one leaf of the door. 14th Century.<br />
+Royal Academy of History, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Triptych-reliquaries, which had gradually expanded
+from the diptych form&mdash;three leaves or
+panels thus replacing two,&mdash;were generally used in
+Spain from the eleventh century, and varied in
+dimensions from a few inches in height and width
+to several yards. We find them in the Gothic,
+Mudejar,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Romanic, or Renaissance styles&mdash;wrought
+either in a single style of these, or in
+effective combination of some two or more. The
+Academy of History at Madrid possesses a richly
+ornamented Mudejar triptych (Plate <a href="#img_60.jpg">ix</a>.) proceeding
+from the Monasterio de Piedra. It is inferior,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+notwithstanding, to the <i>Tablas Alfonsinas</i>,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> &ldquo;a
+specimen of Spanish silversmiths' work which
+illustrates the transition to the new style, and the
+progress in the design of the figures owing to the
+Italian Renaissance.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> In or about the year 1274,
+this splendid piece of sacred furniture was made
+by order of the learned king, to hold the relics of
+certain saints and of the Virgin Mary. The
+maker is thought by Amador to have been
+one &ldquo;Master George,&rdquo; a craftsman held in
+high esteem by the father of Alfonso and the
+conqueror of Seville, Ferdinand the Third.
+Romanic influence is abundant in this triptych,
+showing that, although exposed to constant
+changes from abroad, the Spanish mediæval
+crafts adhered upon the whole with singular
+tenacity to primitive tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The triptych is of larch, or some such undecaying
+wood, and measures, when the leaves are
+opened wide, forty inches over its entire breadth,
+by twenty-two in height. Linen is stretched upon
+the wood, and over that the silver-gilt <i>repoussé</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+plates which form the principal adornment of the
+reliquary. &ldquo;The outside is decorated with twelve
+medallions containing the arms of Castile and
+Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are
+repeated alternately the subjects of the Adoration
+of the Magi and the Annunciation of the Virgin,
+also in <i>repoussé</i>. In the centres are eagles,
+allusive, it is possible, to Don Alfonso's claim
+to be crowned Emperor&hellip;. The ornamentation
+which surrounds the panels belongs to the
+sixteenth century&rdquo; (Riaño). The arms here
+spoken of contain the crowned lion and the castle
+of three towers; and the interesting fact is pointed
+out by Amador that the diminutive doors and
+windows of these castles show a strongly pointed
+Gothic arch. The sixteenth-century bordering to
+the panels is in the manner known as Plateresque.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+The clasps are also Plateresque, and prove,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+together with the border, that the triptych was
+restored about this time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_62.jpg" width="500" height="290"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_62.jpg" id="img_62.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE &ldquo;TABLAS ALFONSINAS&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>View of Interior; 13th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Inside (Plate <a href="#img_62.jpg">x</a>.), it consists of fifteen compartments,
+&ldquo;full of minute ornamentation, among which
+are set a large number of capsules covered with rock
+crystal containing relics, each one with an inscription
+of enamelled gold, <i>cloisonné</i>. Several good
+cameos with sacred subjects appear near the edge
+of the side leaves&rdquo; (Riaño). These cameos, handsomely
+engraved with figures of the Virgin and
+other subjects of religious character, are fairly well
+preserved; but the designs upon enamel are almost
+obliterated. Eight precious stones, set in as rude
+a style as those upon the ancient crowns and
+crosses of the Visigoths, have also fallen out, or
+been removed, from the interior.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>retablo</i> of Gerona cathedral and its
+baldachin date from the fourteenth century.
+&ldquo;The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with
+silver plates, and divided vertically into three
+series of niches and canopies; each division has a
+subject, and a good deal of enamelling is introduced
+in various parts of the canopies and grounds
+of the panels. Each panel has a cinq-foiled arch
+with a crocketed gablet and pinnacles on either
+side. The straight line of the top is broken by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+three niches, which rise in the centre and at either
+end. In the centre is the Blessed Virgin with
+our Lord; on the right, San Narciso; and on the
+left, St Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain
+figures of saints, subjects from the life of the
+Blessed Virgin, and subjects from the life of our
+Lord.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>San Narciso is patron of the city of Gerona;
+which explains the presence of his image here.
+From the treasury of the same cathedral was
+stolen, during the War of Spanish Independence,
+a magnificent altar-front of wrought gold and
+mosaic, a gift of Countess Gisla, wife of Ramón
+Berenguer, count-king of Barcelona. It had in
+the centre a bas-relief medallion representing the
+Virgin, another medallion with a portrait of the
+donor, and various saints in niches, interworked
+with precious stones.</p>
+
+<p>The great armchair of Don Martin, called by
+Baron Davillier a &ldquo;beau faudesteuil gothique,&rdquo;
+which possibly served that monarch as a throne, and
+was presented by him to the cathedral of Barcelona,
+dates from the year 1410. The wooden frame is
+covered with elaborately chiselled plates in silver-gilt.
+This most imposing object is carried in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+procession through the streets upon the yearly
+festival of Corpus Christi.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_64.jpg" width="500" height="347"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_64.jpg" id="img_64.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">&ldquo;THE CUP OF SAN FERNANDO&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>13th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_65.jpg" width="319" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_65.jpg" id="img_65.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SHIP<br />
+(<i>15th Century. Zaragoza Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>guión de Mendoza</i>, now in Toledo cathedral,
+is a handsome later-Gothic silver-gilt cross, and is
+the same which was raised upon the Torre de la
+Vela at Granada on January 2nd, 1492, when the
+fairest and most storied city in all Spain surrendered
+formally to Ferdinand and Isabella. Many other
+interesting crosses, of the character known as processional,
+are still preserved in various parts of
+the Peninsula, at South Kensington, and elsewhere.
+The more remarkable are noticed under
+various headings of this book. Their workmanship
+is generally of the fifteenth or the sixteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The Seo or cathedral of Zaragoza possesses a
+handsome ship (Plate <a href="#img_65.jpg">xii</a>.), presented to this temple,
+towards the end of the fifteenth century, by the
+Valencian corsair, Mosén Juan de Torrellas. The
+hull is a large shell resting on a silver-gilt dragon of
+good design, with a large emerald set in the middle
+of its forehead, and a ruby for each eye. Ships of
+this kind were not uncommon on a Spanish dining
+table of the time, or in the treasuries of churches
+and cathedrals. Toledo owns another of these
+vessels (in both senses of the word), which once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+belonged to Doña Juana, daughter of Ferdinand
+and Isabella.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto I have confined my notice almost
+wholly to the treasure of the Spanish temples.
+Turning from ecclesiastical to secular life, we find,
+all through the Middle Ages, the humbler classes
+kept by constant penury and war aloof from every
+form of luxury. Jewellery and gold and silver
+work were thus essentially the perquisite or, so to
+speak, the privilege of princes, nobles, and the
+Church. The mediæval kings and magnates of
+this land were smitten inveterately with a passion
+for display, and chronicles and inventories of the
+time contain instructive details of the quantities of
+gems and precious metals employed by them to
+decorate their persons and their palaces. The
+richness of their bedsteads will be noticed under
+Furniture. Quantities of jewellery and plate belonged
+to every noble household. For instance, the
+testament of the Countess of Castañeda (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1443)
+includes the mention of &ldquo;a gilded cup and cover to
+the same; a silver vessel and its lid, the edges gilt,
+and in the centre of both lid and vessel the arms
+of the said count, my lord; a silver vessel with a
+foot to it; a diamond ring; a silver vessel with
+gilt edges and the arms of the count, companion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+to the other vessels; a jasper sweetmeat-tray with
+silver-gilt handles and feet; four coral spoons; a
+gilt enamelled cup and lid; a small gilt cup and
+lid; two large silver porringers; two French cups
+of white silver; two large plates of eight marks
+apiece; two middling-sized silver vessels; two
+silver-gilt barrels with silver-gilt chains.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<p>On each occasion of a court or national festivity,
+the apparel of the great was ponderous with gold
+and silver fringe, or thickly strewn with pearls&mdash;the
+characteristic <i>aljofar</i> or <i>aljofar</i>-work (Arabic
+<i>chawar</i>, small pearls), for which the Moors were
+widely famed. Towards the thirteenth century
+unmarried Spanish women of high rank possessed
+abundant stores of bracelets, earrings, necklaces,
+gold chains, rings, and gem-embroidered pouches
+for their money. Their waist-belts, too, were
+heavy with gold and silver, and <i>aljofar</i>.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The
+poem of the Archpriest of Hita (1343) mentions two
+articles of jewellery for female wear called the
+<i>broncha</i> and the <i>pancha</i>. The former was an ornament
+for the throat; the other, a plate or medal
+which hung to below the waist. An Arabic document
+quoted by Casiri, and dating from the reign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+of Henry the First of Castile, specifies as belonging
+to an aristocratic lady of that time, &ldquo;Egyptian
+shirts of silk and linen, embroidered shirts, Persian
+shirts with silk embroidery, Murcian gold necklaces,
+ear-pendants of the same metal, set with
+gems; finger-rings and bracelets, waist-belts of
+skins, embroidered with silk and precious stones;
+cloaks of cloth of gold, embroidered mantles of
+the same, coverings for the head, and kerchiefs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For all the frequency with which they framed
+and iterated sterile and exasperating sumptuary
+pragmatics for their people, the Spanish kings
+themselves went even beyond the nobles in their
+craze for ostentatious luxury. Upon the day when
+he was crowned at Burgos, Alfonso the Eleventh
+&ldquo;arrayed himself in gold and silver cloth bearing
+devices of the castle and the lion, in which was
+much <i>aljofar</i>-work, as well as precious stones
+innumerable; rubies, emeralds, and sapphires.&rdquo;
+Even the bit and saddle of the monarch's charger
+were &ldquo;exceeding precious on this day, for gems
+and gold and silver covered all the saddle-bows,
+and the sides of the saddle and its girths, together
+with the headstall, were curiously wrought of gold
+and silver thread.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Similar relations may be found at every moment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+of the history of mediæval Spain. Another instance
+may be quoted from the reign of Ferdinand
+and Isabella. When these sovereigns visited
+Barcelona in 1481, the queen was dressed as
+follows:&mdash;&ldquo;She advanced riding upon a fine mule,
+and seated on cushions covered with brocade,
+rising high above the saddle. Her robe was of gold
+thread and jewel-work, with a rich brocade skirt.
+Upon her head she wore a crown of gold adorned
+with richest diamonds, pearls, rubies, balas rubies,
+and other stones of passing price.&rdquo; During the
+same visit, a royal tournament was given in
+the Plaza del Born, in presence of the aristocracy
+and wealthy townspeople, &ldquo;the counts, viscounts,
+deputies, councillors, <i>caballeros</i>, <i>gentiles hombres</i>,
+burgesses, and others without number.&rdquo; Ferdinand,
+who &ldquo;with virtue and benignity&rdquo; had
+deigned to break a lance or two in tourneying
+with the Duke of Alburquerque, the Count of
+Benavente, and several gentlemen of Cataluña,
+was wearing &ldquo;over his harness a jacket all of gold
+brocade. His horse's coverings and poitral also
+were of thread of gold, richly devised and wrought,
+and of exceeding majesty and beauty. And on
+his helm he wore a crown of gold, embellished
+with many pearls and other stones; and above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+the crown a figure of a large gold bat, which is
+the emblem of the kings of Aragon and counts of
+Barcelona, with white and sanguine bars upon the
+scutcheon.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The queen and the cardinal of Spain
+were in a window of the house of Mossen Guillem
+Pujades, conservator of the realm of Sicily. Her
+highness wore a robe of rich gold thread with a
+collar of beautiful pearls; and the trappings of
+her mule were of brocade.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p>Eleven years later the youthful prince, Don Juan,
+son of these rulers, appeared before the citizens of
+Barcelona dressed in &ldquo;a robe of beautiful brocade
+that almost swept the ground, and a doublet of the
+same material; the sleeves of the robe thickly
+adorned with fine pearls of large size.&rdquo; He carried,
+too, &ldquo;a gold collar of great size and beauty, wrought
+of large diamonds, pearls, and other stones.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was an ancient usage with the people of
+Barcelona to present a silver service to any
+member of the royal family who paid a visit to
+their capital. The service so presented to Ferdinand
+the Catholic cost the corporation a sum of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+more than twelve hundred pounds of Catalan
+money, and included &ldquo;a saltcellar made upon a
+rock. Upon the rock is a castle, the tower of
+which contains the salt&hellip;. Two silver ewers,
+gilt within and containing on the outside various
+enamelled devices in the centre, together with the
+city arms. Also a silver-gilt lion upon a rustic
+palisade of tree-trunks, holding an inscription in
+his right paw, with the arms of the city, a flag,
+and a crown upon his head. This object weighs
+thirty-four marks.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The service offered on the
+same occasion to Isabella, though less in weight,
+was more elaborately wrought, and cost on this
+account considerably more. It included &ldquo;two
+silver ewers, gilt within and enamelled without,
+bearing the city arms, and chiselled in the centre
+with various designs of foliage. Also a silver
+saltcellar, with six small towers, containing at the
+foot three pieces of enamel-work with the arms of
+the city in relief. This saltcellar has its lid and
+case, with a pinnacle upon the lid, and is of silver-gilt
+inside and out.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>From about the fifteenth century the goldsmiths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+and the silversmiths of Barcelona enjoyed considerable
+fame. Among their names are those of
+Lobarolla, Roig, Berni, Belloch, Planes, Mellar,
+Corda, Fábregues, Farrán, Perot Ximenis, Rafel
+Ximenis, Balagué, and Antonio de Valdés. Riaño
+quotes the names of many more from Cean's dictionary.
+The most important facts relating to these
+artists were brought to light some years ago by
+Baron Davillier, who based the greater part of
+his research upon the <i>Libros de Pasantía</i> or silversmiths'
+examination-books (filled with excellent
+designs for jewel-work) of Barcelona. These
+volumes, formerly kept in the college of San
+Eloy, are now the property of the Provincial
+Deputation of this city.</p>
+
+<p>The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of
+Seville also possesses four of its old examination-books,
+of which the earliest dates from 1600.
+Gestoso, in his <i>Dictionary of Sevillian Artificers</i>
+describes the actual ceremony of examination for
+a silversmith or goldsmith. Once in every year
+the members of the guild assembled in their
+chapel of the convent of San Francisco. Here
+and upon this day the candidate was closely
+questioned, to begin with, as to his &ldquo;purity of
+blood&rdquo;&mdash;that is, his freedom from contamination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+by relationship with any Moor or Hebrew.
+When it was duly and precisely ascertained that
+he, his parents, and his grandparents were uniformly
+&ldquo;old Christians,&rdquo; untainted with the
+&ldquo;wicked race of Moors, Jews, heretics, mulattoes,
+and renegades,&rdquo; and that neither he nor his ancestors
+had ever been put on trial by the Inquisition
+or by any other tribunal, &ldquo;whether publicly
+or secretly,&rdquo; he was permitted to proceed to his
+examination proper.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The formula of this was
+simple. The candidate was summoned before the
+board of examiners, consisting of the Padre Mayor
+or patriarch of the guild, and the two <i>veedores</i> or inspectors,
+the one of gold-work, the other of silver-work.
+The book of drawings was then placed
+upon the table, and a ruler was thrust at haphazard
+among its leaves. Where the ruler chanced to fall,
+the candidate was called upon to execute the corresponding
+drawing to the satisfaction of his judges.</p>
+
+<p>Riaño lays too slight a stress upon the Moorish
+and Morisco jewellery of Spain. Although the
+use of gold and silver ornaments is forbidden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+by the Koran, the Muslim, wherever his vanity
+or his bodily comfort is involved, tramples his
+Bible underfoot almost as regularly, tranquilly,
+and radically as the Christians do their own.
+The Moors of Spain were not at all behind their
+oriental brethren in displaying precious stones
+and metals on their persons or about their homes.
+Al-Jattib tells us that the third Mohammed
+offered to the mosque of the Alhambra columns
+with capitals and bases of pure silver. Or who
+does not recall the Caliphate of Cordova; the
+silver lamp that measured fifty palms across, fitted
+with a thousand and fifty-four glass lamplets, and
+swinging by a golden chain from the cupola of
+the entrance to the <i>mirhab</i> in the vast <i>mezquita</i>;
+the silver candlesticks and perfume-burners in the
+same extraordinary temple; the precious stones
+and metals employed in mighty quantities to decorate
+the palaces of Az-zahyra and Az-zahra?&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;A wilderness of building, sinking far</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And self-withdrawn into a wondrous depth,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Far sinking into splendour without end!</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Fabric it seemed of diamond and of gold,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">With alabaster domes and silver spires,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And blazing terrace upon terrace, high</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Uplifted.&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>In brief, just as the prelates of the Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+Church habitually precede the Christian laity in
+trampling underfoot the elemental doctrine of Our
+Lord, so were the most exalted and responsible
+of all the Mussulmans&mdash;that is, their sultans&mdash;indefatigably
+foremost in neglect of the Koranic
+law.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish sultans wore a ring of gold containing
+one large stone (such as an emerald, or
+ruby, or turquoise), on which was cut the royal
+seal and signature. Such was the ring belonging
+to Boabdil el Chico, worn by him on the very
+day of the surrender of his capital, and by his hand
+presented to a Spanish nobleman, the Count of
+Tendilla, governor-elect of the Alhambra. According
+to Rodriguez de Ardila, the following
+inscription was upon the stone:&mdash;&ldquo;<i>La Ala ile
+Ala, abahu Tabiu. Aben Abi Abdalá</i>,&rdquo; meaning,
+&ldquo;<i>There is no God but God; this is the seal
+of Aben Abi Abdalá.</i>&rdquo; Ardila, who was the
+author of a history of the Counts of Tendilla
+(which still remains in manuscript), adds that he
+saw the ring, although, as Eguilaz observes,
+two words of the inscription are inaccurately
+rendered.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Moors of Spain the use of signet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+rings was general. The stone employed was
+commonly cornelian, richly mounted and inscribed
+in various ways, as with the owner's name, his
+name together with a date, or the name of the
+town of which he was a native. In other instances
+we meet with pious phrases or quotations from
+the Koran; or perhaps a talismanic figure, such
+as the open eye to guard the wearer from the
+dreaded <i>mal de ojo</i>; or the open hand that still
+surmounts the gateway of the Tower of Justice at
+Granada.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly, too, the Moorish sultans of this
+country owned enormous hoards of silver, gold,
+and precious stones. Al-Makkari says that the
+treasure of the Nasrite rulers of Granada included
+quantities of pearls, turquoises, and rubies;
+pearl necklets; earrings &ldquo;surpassing those of
+Mary the Copt&rdquo; (Mohammed's concubine); swords
+of the finest temper, embellished with pure gold;
+helmets with gilded borders, studded with emeralds,
+pearls, and rubies; and silvered and enamelled
+belts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_77.jpg" width="343" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_77.jpg" id="img_77.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH BRACELETS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Moorish women of this country, and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+particular the Granadinas,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> were passionately fond
+of jewellery. Ornaments which once belonged to
+them are sometimes brought to light in Andalusia,
+Murcia, or Valencia, including pendants,
+rings, necklaces, and <i>axorcas</i> or bangles for the
+ankle or the wrist, and bracelets for the upper
+portion of the arm. The National Museum contains
+a small collection of these objects, dating from
+the time of the Moriscos, and including a handsome
+necklace terminating in a double chain, with ball
+and pyramid shaped ornaments about the centre,
+a square-headed finger-ring with four green stones
+and a garnet, and a hollow bracelet filled with a
+substance that appears to be mastic, similar to
+those which are reproduced in Plate xiii.</p>
+
+<p>These jewels, I repeat, are of Morisco workmanship,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+and therefore date from later than the
+independent empire of the Spanish Moors.
+Nevertheless, the geometrical or filigree design
+was common both to Moorish and Morisco art.
+As I observed in my description of the casket-reliquaries,
+we note continually the influence of
+these motives on the arts of Christian Spain.
+The Ordinances relative to the goldsmiths and the
+silversmiths of Granada, cried at various times
+between 1529 and 1538, whether &ldquo;in the silversmiths'
+street of the Alcaycería, that has its
+opening over against the scriveners'&rdquo;; or in &ldquo;the
+street of the Puente del Carbon, before the goldsmiths'
+shops&rdquo;; or &ldquo;in the street of the Zacatin,
+where dwell the silversmiths,&rdquo; prove also that for
+many years after the Reconquest the character
+and nomenclature of this kind of work continued
+to be principally and traditionally Moorish.</p>
+
+<p>Firstly, the Ordinances complain that the
+goldsmiths of Granada now employ a base
+and detrimental standard of the precious metals,
+especially in the bracelets or <i>manillas</i> of the
+women. The goldsmiths answer in their vindication
+that equally as poor a standard is employed at
+Seville, Cordova, and Toledo. These city laws<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+herewith establish twenty carats as a minimum
+fineness for the gold employed in making ornaments.
+The makers, also, are ordered to impress
+their private stamp or seal on every article, or in
+default to pay a fine of ten thousand <i>maravedis</i>. A
+copy of each stamp or seal to be deposited in the
+city chest. The <i>alamín</i> or inspector of this trade
+to test and weigh all gold and silver work before
+it is exposed for sale.</p>
+
+<p>We learn from the same source that the gold
+bracelets were sometimes smooth, and sometimes
+&ldquo;covered over with devices&rdquo; (<i>cubiertos de estampas
+por cima</i>). The technical name of these was
+<i>albordados</i>. The silver bracelets were also either
+smooth, or stamped, or twisted in a cord (<i>encordados</i>).
+Bangles for the ankle, upper arm, and
+wrist are mentioned as continuing to be generally
+worn, while one of the Ordinances complains that
+&ldquo;Moorish <i>axorcas</i> are often sold that are hollow,
+and filled with chalk and mastic, so that before
+they can be weighed it is necessary to rid them
+of such substances by submitting them to fire,
+albeit the fire turns them black.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The weapons and war-harness of the Spanish
+Moors were often exquisitely decorated with the
+precious stones or metals. Splendid objects of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+this kind have been preserved, and will be noticed
+in their proper chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The ruinous and reckless measure known to
+Spain's eternal shame as the Expulsion of the
+Moriscos, deprived this country of a great&mdash;perhaps
+the greatest&mdash;part of her resources.
+Fonseca estimates this loss, solely in the quantity
+of coin conveyed away, at two million and eight
+hundred thousand <i>escudos</i>, adding that a single
+Morisco, Alami Delascar de Aberique, bore off
+with him one hundred thousand ducats.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> To
+make this matter worse, the Moriscos, just before
+they went on board their ships, fashioned from
+scraps of tin, old nails, and other refuse, enormous
+stores of counterfeit coin, and slyly sold
+this rubbish to the simple Spaniards in return
+for lawful money of the land. In the course of
+a few days, and in a single quarter of Valencia,
+more than three hundred thousand ducats of false<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+coin were thus passed off upon the Christians.
+Besides this exportation of good Spanish money,
+the cunning fugitives removed huge quantities
+of jewellery and plate. Chains, <i>axorcas</i>, rings,
+<i>zarcillos</i>, and gold <i>escudos</i> were taken from the
+bodies of many of the Morisco women who were
+murdered by the Spanish soldiery; but the greater
+part of all this treasure found its way to Africa.
+In his work <i>Expulsión justificada de los Moriscos</i>
+(1612), Aznar de Cardona says that the Morisco
+women carried &ldquo;divers plates upon the breast,
+together with necklaces and collars, earrings and
+bracelets.&rdquo; It is recorded, too, that the Moriscos,
+as they struggled in the country regions to avenge
+themselves upon their persecutors, did unlimited
+damage to the ornaments and fittings of the
+churches. &ldquo;This people,&rdquo; says Fonseca, &ldquo;respected
+not our temples or the holy images
+that in them were; nor yet the chalices and
+other objects they encountered in our sacristies.
+Upon the contrary, they smashed the crosses,
+burned the saints, profaned the sacred vestments,
+and committed such acts of sacrilege as
+though they had been Algerian Moors, or Turks
+of Constantinople.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Legends of hidden Moorish and Morisco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+wealth are still extant in many parts of Spain.
+The Abbé Bertaut de Rouen<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> and Swinburne
+among foreigners, or Spaniards such as the gossiping
+priest Echeverría, who provided Washington
+Irving with the pick of his <i>Tales of the Alhambra</i>,
+have treated copiously of this fascinating and
+mysterious theme. The Siete Suelos Tower at
+Granada is particularly favoured with traditions of
+this kind. Peasants of the Alpujarras still declare
+that piles of Moorish money lie secreted in the
+lofty buttresses of Mulhacen and the Veleta, while
+yet another summit of this snowy range bears the
+suggestive title of the Cerro del Tesoro, where,
+almost within the memory of living men, a
+numerous party, fitted and commissioned by the
+State, explored with feverish though unlucky zeal
+the naked cliffs and sterile crannies of the lonely
+mountain.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>Reducing all these fables to the terms of truth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+Moorish and Morisco jewellery and coin are sometimes
+brought to light on Spanish soil. Such
+finds occur, less seldom than elsewhere, within
+the provinces of Seville, Cordova, Granada, and
+Almeria (Plate <a href="#img_83.jpg">xiv</a>.), but since they are neither
+frequent nor considerable, although the likeliest
+ground for them is being disturbed continually,
+we may conclude that nearly all the Muslim
+wealth accumulated here slipped from the clumsy
+if ferocious fingers of the mother-country, and
+found its way, concealed upon the bodies of her
+persecuted offspring, to the shores of Africa.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_83.jpg" width="365" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_83.jpg" id="img_83.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MORISCO JEWELLERY<br />
+(<i>Found in the Province of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sometimes, too, an early gold or silver object
+would be melted down and modernized into
+another and a newer piece of plate. This was a
+fairly common usage with the silversmiths themselves,
+or with an ignorant or stingy brotherhood
+or chapter. Thus, the following entry occurs in
+the <i>Libro de Visita de Fábrica</i> belonging to the
+parish church of Santa Ana, Triana, Seville. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+the year 1599 &ldquo;the large cross of silver-gilt,
+together with its <i>mançana</i> and all the silver attaching
+thereto, was taken to the house of Zubieta the
+silversmith, and pulled to pieces. It weighed 25
+marks and 4 <i>ochavas</i> of silver, besides 5 marks and
+2 ounces and 4 <i>ochavas</i> of silver which was the
+weight of the three lamps delivered to Zubieta in
+the time of Juan de Mirando, aforetime steward
+of this church. It is now made into a silver-gilt
+cross.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>A similar instance may be quoted from a
+document of Cordova, published by Ramírez de
+Arellano in his relation of a visit to the monastery
+of San Jerónimo de Valparaiso. In the year
+1607 Gerónimo de la Cruz, a Cordovese silversmith,
+agreed with the prior of this monastery to
+make for the community a silver-gilt <i>custodia</i>. For
+this purpose he received from the prior, doubtless
+a man of parsimonious spirit and a boor in his
+appreciativeness of art, eight pairs of vinegar
+cruets, four of whose tops were missing; a silver-gilt
+chalice and its patine; a <i>viril</i> with two angels
+and four pieces on the crown of it; a small
+communion cup; some silver candlesticks; four
+spoons and a fork, also of silver; and a silver-gilt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+salt-cellar. The total value of these objects was 1826
+<i>reales</i>; and all of them were tossed, in Ford's indignant
+phrase, into the &ldquo;sacrilegious melting-pot,&rdquo;
+in order to provide material for the new <i>custodia</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_85.jpg" width="323" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_85.jpg" id="img_85.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SILVER-GILT PROCESSIONAL CROSS<br />
+(<i>Made by Juan de Arfe in</i> 1592. <i>Burgos Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gold and silver work of Christian Spain
+attained, throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries, a high degree of excellence
+(Plates <a href="#img_85.jpg">xv</a>., <a href="#img_95.jpg">xvi</a>., etc.). The best of it was
+made at Seville, Barcelona, Toledo, and Valladolid.
+Objects of great artistic worth were also
+produced at Burgos, Palencia, León, Cuenca,
+Cordova, and Salamanca. I have already mentioned
+some of the principal <i>orfebreros</i> of Barcelona.
+Juan Ruiz of Cordova, whom Juan de Arfe applauds
+as &ldquo;the first silversmith who taught the way to do
+good work in Andalusia,&rdquo; was also, in this region,
+the first to turn the precious metals on the lathe.
+A famous silversmith of Seville was Diego de
+Vozmediano, whom we find living there in 1525.
+Toledo, too, could boast, among an army of distinguished
+gold and silver smiths (Riaño gives the
+names of no fewer than seventy-seven), Cristóbal
+de Ordas, Juan Rodríguez de Babria, and Pedro
+Hernandez, <i>plateros</i>, respectively, to Charles the
+Fifth, to Philip the Second, and to the queen-dowager
+of Portugal; and also the silversmith<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+and engraver upon metals, Pedro Angel, whose
+praise is sung by Lope de Vega in the prologue to
+his <i>auto</i> called <i>The Voyage of the Soul</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0;">&ldquo;<i>Y es hoy Pedro Angel un divino artífice<br />
+con el buril en oro, plata, ó cobre.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>By far the greater part of all Toledo's gold and
+silver work was made for service in her mighty
+temple. Such were the statue of Saint Helen,
+presented by Philip the Second; the crown of
+the Virgen del Sagrario, wrought by Hernando de
+Carrión and Alejo de Montoya; the bracelets or
+<i>ajorcas</i> made for the image of the same Madonna
+by Julián Honrado; and the exquisite chests
+carved in 1569 and 1598 by Francisco Merino
+from designs by the two Vergaras, father and son,
+as reliquaries for the bones of San Eugenio and
+Santa Leocadia, patrons of this ancient capital.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
+A magnificent silver lamp was also, in 1565, offered
+by the chapter of the cathedral to the church of
+Saint Denis in France, in gratitude for the surrender
+of the bones of San Eugenio to the city of
+his birth. These and other objects of Toledan
+gold and silver work are stated to be &ldquo;worthy of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+comparison with the very best of what was then
+produced in Germany, Italy, and France.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>Baron Davillier also held a high opinion of the
+Spanish <i>orfebreros</i> of this time. After remarking
+that the Italian influence was powerful among the
+Spaniards in the sixteenth century, and more particularly
+for some fifty years at Barcelona, he says:
+&ldquo;A cette époque les <i>plateros</i> espagnols pouvaient
+rivaliser sans désavantage avec les Italiens, les
+Français, les Flamands, et les Allemands.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same authority also says that the Spanish
+<i>plateros</i> of this period were skilled enamellers on
+gold and silver, and quotes some entries from
+French inventories of the time in which we read
+of cups, salt-cellars, washing-basins, and other
+objects executed or enamelled &ldquo;à la mode
+d'Espagne.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>As we have seen, the exodus of the Moriscos
+lost to Spain a great proportion of her total wealth,
+although, conjointly with this loss, new wealth
+flowed into her in marvellous abundance from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+New World.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Thus, the silver-mines of Potosi,
+discovered in 1545, sent over to the mother-country,
+between that year and 1633, no less than eight
+hundred and forty-five millions of <i>pesos</i>. And yet
+this mighty influx of new riches cannot be said,
+except in the artistic sense, to have enriched the
+nation. She had renounced the service of the
+most industrious and, in many instances, the most
+ingenious of her native craftsmen; while on the
+other hand the Christians, with but limited exceptions,
+were far too proud and far too indolent to
+set their hand to any form of manual exercise;
+just as (I much regret to add) a great proportion of
+them are this very day. Foreign artificers in consequence
+(particularly after the royal pragmatic
+of 1623 encouraging their immigration), attracted
+by the treasure fleets that anchored in the bay of
+Cadiz, came trooping into Spain and filled their
+pockets from the national purse, fashioning, in
+return for money which they husbanded and sent
+abroad, luxurious gold and silver objects that were
+merely destined to stagnate within her churches
+and cathedrals.</p>
+
+<p>Riaño and Baron de la Vega de Hoz extract
+from Cean Bermudez a copious list of silversmiths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+who worked in Spain all through the Middle
+Ages. This long array of isolated names and
+dates is neither interesting nor informative.
+Newer and more attractive notices have been
+discovered subsequently. Thus, in the National
+Library at Madrid, Don Manuel G. Simancas has
+disinterred quite recently the copy made by a
+Jesuit of a series of thirteenth-century accounts
+relating to various craftsmen of the reign of
+Sancho the Fourth (&ldquo;the Brave&rdquo;). Two of them
+are concerning early <i>orfebreros</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Juan Yanez. By letters of the king and
+queen to Johan Yanez, goldsmith, brother of
+Ferran García, scrivener to the king; for three
+chalices received from him by the king,
+<span class="smcap">CCCCLXXVIII</span> <i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The second entry says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Bartolomé Rinalt. And he paid Bartolomé
+Rinalt for jewels which the queen bought from
+him to present to Doña Marina Suarez, nurse of
+the Infante Don Pedro, MCCCL <i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among Spain's gold and silver craftsmen of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+the fifteenth century we find the names of Juan
+de Castelnou, together with his son Jaime, who
+worked at Valencia; of Lope Rodríguez de
+Villareal, Ruby, and Juan Gonzalez, all three of
+whom worked at Toledo; and of Juan de Segovia,
+a friar of Guadalupe. Papers concerning Juan
+Gonzalez, and dated 1425, 1427, and 1431, are
+published among the <i>Documentos Inéditos</i> of
+Zarco del Valle. One of Segovia's masterpieces
+was a silver salt-cellar in the form of a lion tearing
+open a pomegranate&mdash;clearly allusive to the conquest
+of Granada from the Moors. Upon their
+visiting the monastery, Ferdinand and Isabella
+saw and, as was natural, conceived a fancy for
+this salt-cellar; and so, whether from inclination
+or necessity, the brotherhood induced them to
+accept it.</p>
+
+<p>Sixteenth-century <i>plateros</i> of renown were Juan
+Donante, Mateo and Nicolás (whose surnames
+are unknown)&mdash;all three of whom worked at
+Seville; and Duarte Rodríguez and Fernando
+Ballesteros, natives of that city. In or about the
+year 1524 were working at Toledo the silversmiths
+Pedro Herreros and Hernando de Valles,
+together with Diego Vazquez, Andres Ordoñez,
+Hernando de Carrión, Diego de Valdivieso, Juan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+Domingo de Villanueva, Diego Abedo de Villandrando,
+Juan Tello de Morata, Francisco de
+Reinalte, Hans Belta, and Francisco Merino.
+Several of these men were natives of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>Among the silversmiths of sixteenth-century
+Cordova were Diego de Alfaro and his son Francisco,
+Francisco de Baena, Alonso Casas, Alonso del
+Castillo, Luis de Cordoba, Sebastián de Cordoba,
+Cristóbal de Escalante, Juan Gonzalez, Diego
+Fernandez, Diego Hernandez Rubio (son of
+Sebastián de Cordoba), Rodrigo de León, Gómez
+Luque, Ginés Martinez, Melchor de los Reyes
+(silversmith and enameller), Andrés de Roa,
+Pedro de Roa, Alonso Sanchez, Jerónimo Sanchez
+de la Cruz, Martin Sanchez de la Cruz (Jerónimo's
+son), Pedro Sanchez de Luque, Alonso de Sevilla,
+Juan Urbano, and Lucas de Valdés.</p>
+
+<p>Not much is told us of the lives and labours of
+these artists. The best reputed of them as a
+craftsman was Rodrigo de León, who stood next
+after Juan Ruiz, <i>el Sandolino</i>. Ramírez de
+Arellano, from whom I have collected these data,
+publishes a number of León's agreements or
+contracts, which from their length and dryness I
+do not here repeat. In 1603 we find him official
+silversmith to the cathedral, under the title of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+&ldquo;<i>platero de martillo</i> (&ldquo;silversmith of hammered
+work&rdquo;) <i>de la obra de la catedral desta ciudad</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Francisco de Alfaro, although a Cordovese by
+birth, resided commonly at Seville. In 1578 he
+received 446,163 <i>maravedis</i> for making four silver
+candlesticks for use in celebrating divine service.
+These candlesticks are still in the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Sebastián de Cordoba was one of the foremost
+artists of his age. He died in 1587, leaving,
+together with other children, a son, Diego, who
+also won some reputation as a silversmith.
+Ramírez de Arellano publishes a full relation
+of the property which Sebastián de Cordoba
+bequeathed at his decease, as well as of the money
+which was owing to him. Among the former, or
+the &ldquo;movable effects,&rdquo; we read of &ldquo;Isabel, a
+Morisco woman, native of the kingdom of Granada;
+her age thirty-four years, a little less or more.&rdquo;
+The same inventory includes a curious and
+complete account of all the tools and apparatus in
+Sebastián's workshop.</p>
+
+<p>But the quaintest notice of them all, though it
+does not apprise us of his merit as a silversmith,
+is that concerning Cristóbal de Escalante.
+Cristóbal suffered, we are told, from &ldquo;certain sores
+produced by humours in his left leg; wherefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+the said leg undergoes a change and swells.&rdquo; He
+therefore makes a contract with one Juan Jiménez,
+&ldquo;servant in the Royal Stables of His Majesty
+the King,&rdquo; and duly examined as a herbalist
+(&ldquo;licensed,&rdquo; in the actual phrase, &ldquo;to remedy this
+kind of ailments&rdquo;), who is to heal his leg &ldquo;by
+means of the divine will of the cure.&rdquo; As soon as
+Cristóbal shall be thoroughly well, &ldquo;in so much
+that his ailing leg shall be the other's equal in the
+fatness and the form thereof,&rdquo; he is to pay Jiménez
+five-and-fifty <i>reales</i>, &ldquo;having already given him ten
+<i>reales</i> on account.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Probably, as Señor Ramírez de Arellano facetiously
+supposes, Cristóbal, after such a course of
+treatment, would be lame for all his life. At
+any rate, he died in 1605, though whether from
+the gentle handling of the stableman and herbalist
+is not recorded in these entries.</p>
+
+<p>Still keeping to the sixteenth century, in other
+parts of Spain we find the silversmiths Baltasar
+Alvarez and Juan de Benavente, working at Palencia;
+Alonso de Dueñas at Salamanca; and
+Juan de Orna at Burgos, about the same time that
+the foreigners Jacomi de Trezzo and Leo Leoni
+were engaged at the Escorial. Cuenca, too,
+boasted three excellent silver-workers in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+family of Becerril, mentioned by Juan de Arfe in
+company with other craftsmen of the time of the
+Renaissance.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Stirling says of Cuenca and the
+Becerriles: &ldquo;They made for the cathedral its
+great <i>custodia</i>, which was one of the most costly
+and celebrated pieces of church plate in Spain.
+They began it in 1528, and, though ready for use
+in 1546, it was not finished till 1573. It was a
+three-storied edifice, of a florid classical design,
+crowned with a dome, and enriched with numberless
+groups and statues, and an inner shrine of
+jewelled gold; it contained 616 marks of silver,
+and cost 17,725&frac12; ducats, a sum which can barely
+have paid the ingenious artists for the labour of
+forty-five years. In the War of Independence,
+this splendid prize fell into the hands of the
+French General Caulaincourt, by whom it was
+forthwith turned into five-franc pieces, bearing the
+image and superscription of Napoleon.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p>A more reliable notice says that this <i>custodia</i>
+was begun by Alonso Becerril and finished by
+his brother Francisco. The third member of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+this family of artists, Cristóbal, who flourished
+towards the end of the sixteenth century, was
+Francisco's son.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_95.jpg" width="350" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_95.jpg" id="img_95.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">GOTHIC <i>CUSTODIA</i><br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the Gothic and during the
+earlier phases of the Renaissance movement in
+this country, enormous quantities of gold and
+silver began to be employed in making these
+<i>custodias</i> or monstrances of her temples; so that
+the fifteenth century may well be called, in
+Spanish craftsmanship, the &ldquo;age of the <i>custodia</i>.&rdquo;
+A century ago the reverend Townsend, loyal to
+the Low Church prejudices of his day, spoke of
+this object with something of a sneer as &ldquo;the
+depository of the Host, or, according to the ideas
+of a Catholic, the throne of the Most High, when,
+upon solemn festivals, He appears to command
+the adoration of mankind.&rdquo; Riaño's description is
+more technical. &ldquo;The name of <i>custodia</i>,&rdquo; he says,
+&ldquo;is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance
+or ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is
+exposed, but also to a sort of temple or tabernacle,
+of large size, made also of silver, inside which
+is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession
+on Corpus Christi day (Plate <a href="#img_95.jpg">xvi</a>.). In
+order to distinguish these objects one from another,
+the name of <i>viril</i> is given to the object which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+holds the consecrated Host; it is generally made
+of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount
+ornamented with precious stones. The small
+tabernacles are generally objects of the greatest
+importance, both from their artistic and intrinsic
+value.&rdquo; A third description of the monstrance,
+written in quaint and antiquated Spanish verse
+by Juan de Arfe, is truthfully if not melodiously
+translated into English rhyme by Stirling:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Custodia is a temple of rich plate,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Wrought for the glory of our Saviour true,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Where, into wafer transubstantiate,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">He shows his Godhead and his Manhood too,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">That holiest ark of old to imitate,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Fashioned by Bezaleel, the cunning Jew,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Chosen of God to work His sov'ran will,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And greatly gifted with celestial skill.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding that the monstrance of Toledo,
+surmounted by a cross of solid gold, turns the
+scale at ten thousand nine hundred ounces, and
+that of Avila at one hundred and forty pounds,
+the weight of nearly all of these <i>custodias</i> is far exceeded
+by the value of their workmanship. The
+style employed in their construction is the Gothic,
+the Renaissance, or the two combined. <i>Custodias</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+of the eastern parts of Spain are more affected
+than the others by Italian influence, noticeable
+both in decorative motives which recall the
+Florentine, and in the use, together with the
+silver-work, of painting and enamels. In other
+parts of Spain the dominating influence is the
+later Gothic. Among the former or Levantine
+class of monstrances, the most important are those
+of Barcelona, Vich, Gerona, and Palma de Mallorca;
+and of the others, those of Cordova, Cadiz,
+Sahagún, Zamora, Salamanca, and Toledo&mdash;this
+last, according to Bertaut de Rouen, &ldquo;à la
+manière d'un clocher percé à jour, d'ouvrage de
+filigrane, et plein de figures.&rdquo; <i>Custodias</i> in the
+purest classic or Renaissance style are those of
+Seville, Valladolid, Palencia, Avila, Jaen, Madrid,
+Segovia, Zaragoza, Santiago, and Orense.</p>
+
+<p>Juan de Arfe y Villafañe, who may be called
+the Cellini of Spain's <i>custodia</i>-makers, was born
+at León in 1535. He was the son of Antonio de
+Arfe, and grandson of Enrique de Arfe, a German
+who had married a Spanish wife and made his
+home in Spain. The family of Juan, including
+his brother Antonio, were all distinguished craftsmen,
+and he himself informs us that his grandfather
+excelled in Gothic <i>platería</i>, as may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+judged from the <i>custodias</i>, by Enrique's hand, of
+Cordova, León, Toledo, and Sahagún, and many
+smaller objects, such as incensories, crosiers, and
+paxes.</p>
+
+<p>The father of Juan, Antonio de Arfe, worked
+in silver in the Renaissance or Plateresque styles,
+and executed in the florid manner the <i>custodias</i> of
+Santiago de Galicia and Medina de Rioseco; but
+the training and tastes of Juan himself were sternly
+classical. His work in consequence has a certain
+coldness, largely atoned for by its exquisite correctness
+of design and unimpeachable proportions.
+Arfe's ideal in these matters may readily be judged
+of from his written verdict on the Greco-Roman
+architecture. &ldquo;The Escorial,&rdquo; he says, in the
+preface to his description of the <i>custodia</i> of Seville
+cathedral, &ldquo;<i>because it follows the rules of ancient
+art</i>, competes in general perfection, size, or splendour
+with the most distinguished buildings of
+the Asiatics, Greeks, and Romans, and displays
+magnificence and truth in all its detail.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In point of versatility Juan de Arfe was a kind
+of Spanish Leonardo. His book, <i>De Varia Conmensuración</i>,
+etc., published in 1585, is divided
+into four parts, and deals, the first part with the
+practice of geometry, the second with human<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+anatomy, the third with animals, and the fourth
+with architecture and silver-work for use in
+churches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_99.jpg" width="322" height="400"
+        alt="IOAN DE ARFE"
+        title="IOAN DE ARFE" />
+        <a name="img_99.jpg" id="img_99.jpg"></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>This book is prefaced by the portrait of the
+author, given above. It shows us&mdash;what he
+really was&mdash;a quiet, cultured, gentle-hearted
+man. Indeed, while Arfe was studying anatomy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+at Salamanca, it gave him pain to lacerate the
+bodies even of the dead. &ldquo;I was witness,&rdquo; he
+records, &ldquo;to the flaying of several pauper men
+and women whom the law had executed; but
+these experiments, besides being horrible and
+cruel, I saw to be of little service to my studies
+in anatomy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Arfe's workmanship of the <i>custodia</i> of Avila
+cathedral, which he began in 1564 and terminated
+in 1571, won for him an early and extended fame.
+He also made the <i>custodia</i> of Burgos (brutally
+melted during the Spanish War of Independence),
+and those of Valladolid (finished in 1590), Lugo,
+Osma, and the Hermandad del Santísimo at
+Madrid. The <i>custodia</i> of Palencia is also thought
+by some to be his handiwork.</p>
+
+<p>But Arfe's crowning labour was the Greco-Roman
+<i>custodia</i> of Seville cathedral (Plate <a href="#img_100.jpg">xvii</a>.).
+The chapter of this temple selected his design in
+1580, and nominated the licentiate Pacheco to assist
+him with the statuettes. Pacheco also carried out
+his portion of the task with skill and judgment. A
+rare pamphlet, written by Arfe and published at
+Seville in 1587, gives a minute description of the
+whole <i>custodia</i>. In Appendix C, I render this
+description into English, together with a similarly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+detailed notice of the <i>custodia</i> (1513 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>) of
+Cordova. This last, which we have seen to be
+the work of Juan de Arfe's grandfather, Enrique,
+is not to be surpassed for fairy grace and lightness,
+seeming, in the eloquent metaphor of a modern
+writer, &ldquo;to have been conceived in a dream, and
+executed with the breath.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_100.jpg" width="347" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_100.jpg" id="img_100.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>CUSTODIA</i> OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL<br />
+(<i>By Juan de Arfe. Late 16th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Spain in the seventeenth century had reached
+the lowest depth of her decadence and impoverishment;
+and yet we find that century an age&mdash;to
+quote a Spanish term&mdash;of &ldquo;gallantries and pearls,&rdquo;
+in which a craze for reckless luxury continued to
+prevail in every quarter. Narratives innumerable
+inform us of the life and doings of that prodigal
+court and prodigal aristocracy; their ruinous and
+incessant festivals; the fortunes that were thrown
+away on furniture, and jewels, and costume. True,
+we are told by Bertaut de Rouen that, except
+upon their numerous holidays, the costume of the
+Spanish men was plain enough. This author, who
+calls them otherwise &ldquo;debauched and ignorant,&rdquo;
+says that their clothes were all of &ldquo;méchante frise,&rdquo;
+and adds that they continually took snuff, &ldquo;dont
+ils ont toujours les narines pleines, ce qui fait qu'ils
+n'ont que des mouchoirs de laine, de toile grise, et
+peinte comme de la toile de la Chine.&rdquo; The same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+traveller, attending an ordinary reception in the
+royal palace at Madrid, was unable to distinguish
+the nobles from the lower orders, except that, by
+the privilege peculiar to this country, the former
+kept their hats on in the presence of the sovereign.
+Even of Philip himself he says: &ldquo;Le Roy d'Espagne
+estoit debout avec un habit fort simple et fort
+ressemblant à tous ses portraits&rdquo;; alluding, probably,
+to those of Philip the Fourth by Velazquez,
+in which the monarch wears a plain cloth
+doublet.</p>
+
+<p>But when the Spaniard dressed himself for any
+scene of gala show, his spendthrift inclinations
+swelled into a positive disease. The women, too,
+squandered enormous sums on finery. The
+Marchioness of Liche, said to have been the
+loveliest Española of that day, is spoken of by
+Bertaut as wearing &ldquo;un corps de brocard d'argent
+avec de grandes basques à leur mode, la jupe
+d'une autre étoffe avec grand nombre de pierreries,
+et cela luy fetoit fort bien.&rdquo; An anonymous
+manuscript of the period, published by Gayangos
+in the <i>Revista de España</i> for 1884, describes the
+<i>fiestas</i> celebrated at Valladolid in 1605, in honour
+of the English ambassador and his retinue. In
+this relation the Duke of Lerma is quoted as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+possessing a yearly income of three hundred
+thousand <i>cruzados</i>, besides &ldquo;as much again in
+jewellery and furniture, and gold and silver services.&rdquo;
+At the state banquets which were given
+at that wasteful court, even the pies and tarts
+were washed with gold or silver; and at a single
+feast the dishes of various kinds of fare amounted
+to two thousand and two hundred. At the banquet
+given by the Duke of Lerma, three special
+sideboards were constructed to sustain the weight
+of four hundred pieces of silver, &ldquo;all of them of
+delicate design and exquisitely wrought of silver,
+gold, and enamel, together with innumerable objects
+of glass and crystal of capricious form, with
+handles, lids, and feet of finest gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The whole of Spain's nobility was congregated
+at these festivals, &ldquo;richly attired with quantities
+of pearls and oriental gems,&rdquo; while everybody,
+young and old alike, wore &ldquo;diamond buttons and
+brooches on cloaks and doublets,&rdquo; feather plumes
+with costly medals, gold chains with emeralds,
+and other ornaments. The ladies of the aristocracy
+were also &ldquo;clothed in costliest style, as
+well as loaded with diamonds and pearls and
+hair-ornaments of pearls and gold, such as the
+women of Castile lay by for these solemnities.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish churches, too, continued to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+veritable storehouses of treasure. The manuscript
+published by Gayangos says that in 1605 the
+church of La Merced at Valladolid had its altars
+&ldquo;covered with beautiful gold and silver vessels,
+of which there are a great many in the whole of
+Castilla la Vieja, and particularly here at Valladolid.&rdquo;
+Bertaut de Rouen's notice of the shrine
+of Montserrat in Cataluña has been inserted
+previously. In 1775 Swinburne wrote of the
+same temple:&mdash;&ldquo;In the sacristy and passages
+leading to it are presses and cupboards full of
+relics and ornaments of gold, silver, and precious
+stones; they pointed out to us, as the most remarkable,
+two crowns for the Virgin and her Son,
+of inestimable value, some large diamond rings,
+an excellent cameo of Medusa's head, the Roman
+emperors in alabaster, the sword of Saint Ignatius,
+and the chest that contains the ashes of a famous
+brother, John Guarin, of whom they relate the
+same story as that given in the <i>Spectator</i> of a
+Turkish santon and the Sultan's daughter&hellip;.
+Immense is the quantity of votive offerings to this
+miraculous statue; and as nothing can be rejected
+or otherwise disposed of, the shelves are crowded
+with the most whimsical <i>ex votos</i>, viz., silver legs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+fingers, breasts, earrings, watches, two-wheeled
+chaises, boats, carts, and such-like trumpery.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Many pragmatics from the Crown vainly
+endeavoured to suppress or mitigate the popular
+extravagance. Such was the royal letter of 1611,
+which forbade, among the laity, the wearing of
+&ldquo;gold jewels with decoration or enamel in relief,
+or points with pearls or other stones.&rdquo; Smaller
+jewels, of the kind known as <i>joyeles</i> and <i>brincos</i>,<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>
+were limited to a single stone, together with its
+pearl pendant. The jewellery of the women was
+exempted from these laws, though even here were
+certain limitations. Rings for the finger might,
+however, bear enamel-work, or any kind of stone.
+Enamel was also allowed in gold buttons and
+chains for the men's caps, as well as in the badges
+worn by the knights of the military orders.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;It is forbidden,&rdquo; continues this pragmatic, &ldquo;to
+make any object of gold, silver, or other metal
+with work in relief, or the likeness of a person;
+nor shall any object be gilt, excepting drinking
+vessels, and the weight of these shall not exceed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+three marks. All other silver shall be flat and
+plain, without gilding; but this does not apply to
+objects intended for religious worship.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;All niello-work is prohibited, as are silver
+brasiers and buffets.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>What I may call the private jewel-work of
+Spain, largely retains throughout its history the
+characteristic lack of finish of all the Visigothic
+treasure found at Guarrazar. From first to last,
+until extinguished or absorbed by foreign influences
+two centuries ago, it strives to compensate in
+ponderous and bulky splendour for what it lacks
+in delicacy, elegance, and taste. It is just the
+jewellery we should expect to find among a military
+people who once upon a time possessed great
+riches simultaneously with little education, and
+who, from this and other causes, such as the
+strenuous opposition of the national church to
+pagan sentiments expressed in fleshly form, were
+never genuinely or profoundly art-loving. Long
+residence and observation in their midst induce
+me to affirm that as a race the Spaniards are and
+always have been hostile, or at least indifferent, to
+the arts; and that their most illustrious artists
+have made their power manifest and raised themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+to eminence despite the people&mdash;not, as in
+Italy, on the supporting shoulders of the people.</p>
+
+<p>Dazzle and show monopolized, and to a great
+extent monopolize still, the preference of this
+race. The Spanish breast-ornaments of the
+seventeenth century, preserved at South Kensington
+and reproduced by Riaño on pages 37 and 39
+of his handbook, are strongly reminiscent of the
+Visigothic ornaments. Who would imagine that
+a thousand years had come and gone between the
+execution of the new and of the old? As late as
+the reign of Charles the Second the culture of a
+Spanish lady of high birth was little, if at all,
+superior to a savage's. &ldquo;False stones enchant
+them,&rdquo; wrote Countess d'Aulnoy. &ldquo;Although
+they possess many jewels of considerable value
+and the finest quality, it is their whim to carry on
+their person wretched bits of glass cut in the
+coarsest fashion, just like those which pedlars in
+my country sell to country girls who have seen
+nobody but the village curate, and nothing but
+their flocks of sheep. Dames of the aristocracy
+adorn themselves with these pieces of glass, that
+are worth nothing at all; yet they purchase them
+at high prices. When I asked them why they
+like false diamonds, they told me they prefer them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+to the genuine as being larger. Indeed, they
+sometimes wear them of the bigness of an egg.&rdquo;
+Even where the stones were real, the Spanish
+taste in setting and in wearing them was no less
+execrable. The Countess says: &ldquo;the ladies here
+possess great stores of beautiful precious stones,
+and do not wear, like Frenchwomen, a single
+article of jewellery, but nine or ten together, some
+of diamonds, others of rubies, pearls, emeralds,
+and turquoises, wretchedly mounted, since they are
+almost wholly covered with the gold. When I
+inquired the cause of this, they told me the jewels
+were so made because the gold was as beautiful
+as the gems. I suppose, however, the real reason
+is the backwardness of the craftsmen, who can do
+no better work than this, excepting Verbec, who
+has no lack of skill, and would turn out excellent
+jewels if he took the trouble to finish them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the neck of their bodices the ladies fasten
+pins profusely set with precious stones. Hanging
+from the pin, and fastened at the lower end to
+the side of their dress, is a string of pearls or
+diamonds. They wear no necklace, but bracelets
+on their wrists and rings on their fingers, as well
+as long earrings of so great a weight that I know
+not how they can support them. Hanging from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+these earrings they display whatever finery they
+may fancy. I have seen some ladies who wore
+good-sized watches hanging from their ears, strings
+of precious stones, English keys of dainty make,
+and little bells. They also wear the <i>agnus</i>, together
+with little images about their neck and
+arms, or in their hair. They dress their hair in
+various ways, and always go with it uncovered,
+using many hairpins in the form of coloured
+flies or butterflies of diamonds, emeralds, and
+rubies.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Book-worm authorities, addicted to &ldquo;dry bones&rdquo;
+of letters, are prone just now to doubt this visit of
+Countess d'Aulnoy to the capital of Spain. But
+if such patient doubters will compare her narrative
+with those of other foreigners, <i>e.g.</i> Bertaut de
+Rouen, or the manuscript description of Valladolid,
+written by a Portuguese, and now in the British
+Museum library, their scepticism will&mdash;or should&mdash;be
+done away with on the moment. The letters
+of the countess make it plain by copious inner
+testimony that she actually performed her Spanish
+visit; and though from time to time she over-colours
+or misreads the truth, it was the very
+usages of Spain that were absurd and out of
+joint, and not, except in isolated instances, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+sprightly and observant Frenchwoman's account
+of them.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere the Countess says: &ldquo;Utensils of
+common metal are not employed here, but only
+those of silver or of ware. I hear that a little
+while ago, upon the death of the Duke of Alburquerque,
+six weeks were needed to make out an
+inventory of his gold and silver services. His
+house contained fourteen hundred dozen plates,
+five hundred large dishes, and seven hundred of a
+smaller size, with all the other pieces in proportion,
+and forty silver ladders for climbing his sideboard,
+made in grades like an altar in a spacious hall.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These statements have been proved in later
+years. Dating from 1560, an inventory of the
+ducal house of Alburquerque was found not many
+years ago. In it we find the detailed list of gold
+and silver; cups and dishes, bowls and basins,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+plates and salt-cellars, trenchers, wine and water
+flagons, sauce-spoons, salad-spoons, conserve-spoons,
+and innumerable other articles. Here,
+too, we find, upon the mighty sideboard mounted
+by its forty silver stairs, such objects as the
+following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A gold cup with festoon-work above and
+beneath, wrought with leaves in relief. At
+the top of the foot there issue some leaves
+that fall down over a small gold staple, and
+below this, about the narrowest part of the foot,
+are leaves in relief and several dolphins. The
+broad part of the foot is decorated with festoons.
+The lid of this cup is wrought with leaves
+in relief, and on the crest thereof is a lion,
+crowned. The cup weighs three hundred and
+fifty-one <i>castellanos</i> and a half.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A Castilian jar from which my lord the duke
+was wont to drink, weighing two marks and five
+ounces.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A cup with a high foot, gilt all over, with the
+figure of a woman in its midst, and decorated in
+four places in the Roman manner.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A flagon of white silver, flat beneath the stem,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+with a screw-top surmounted by a small lion; for
+cooling water.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A small silver dish, of the kind they call meat-warmers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A large silver seal for sealing provisions, with
+the arms of my lord the duke, Don Francisco.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A large silver vessel, embossed, with a savage
+on top.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A gold horse, enamelled in white upon a gold
+plate enamelled in green and open at the top;
+also a wolf, upon another gold plate enamelled in
+green, with lettering round about it; also a green
+enamelled lizard upon blue enamel; and a gold
+toothpick with four pieces enamelled in green,
+white, and rose; also a small gold column enamelled
+in black and rose.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A silver lemon-squeezer, gilt and chiselled,
+with white scroll-work about the mesh thereof,
+through which the lemon-juice is strained.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A large round silver salt-cellar, in two halves,
+gilt all over, with scales about the body, and two
+thick twisted threads about the flat part. One
+side of it is perforated.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Among the property of the duchess, Doña
+Mencía Enriquez, we find &ldquo;a small gold padlock,
+which opens and closes by means of letters&rdquo;; two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+gold bangles; a gold necklace consisting of forty-two
+pieces &ldquo;enamelled with some B's&rdquo;;<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> a gold
+signet ring with the duchess's arms; and &ldquo;a gold
+and niello box with relics, for wearing round the
+neck.&rdquo; Also, resting on a table covered with silver
+plates, &ldquo;a box of combs; the said box wrought in
+gold upon blue leather, containing five combs, a
+looking-glass, a little brush, and other fittings;
+girt with a cord in gold and blue silk.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The seventeenth century and a race of native
+Spanish kings declined and passed away together.
+A dynasty of France succeeded to the throne
+of Spain, and with the foreigner came a fresh
+reactionary movement towards the neo-classic art,
+coupled with the canons of French taste. Henceforth
+a century of slow political reform goes
+hand in hand with slow suppression of the salient
+parts of Spanish character. Madrid transforms or
+travesties herself into a miniature Versailles, and
+national arts and crafts belong henceforward to a
+Frenchified society which found its painter in
+Goya, just as the preceding and eminently Spanish
+society had found its painter in Velazquez.</p>
+
+<p>Another of the causes of the falling-off in
+Spanish <i>orfebrería</i> at this time, is stated to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+been the craftsmen's overwhelming tendency to
+substitute the slighter though venerable and
+beautiful gold or silver filigree (Plate <a href="#img_114.jpg">xviii</a>.), for
+more artistic and ambitious, if less showy work
+in massive metal. Thus, in 1699, a supplementary
+chapter of the Ordinances of Seville
+complained in bitter phrases of this tendency,
+denouncing it as &ldquo;a source of fraud and
+detriment to the republic,&rdquo; and deploring that
+&ldquo;of the last few years we have forsaken our
+goodly usages of older times, in the matter of the
+drawings entrusted to the candidates who come
+before us for examination.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the same year the goldsmiths' and the
+silversmiths' guild of Seville enacted that none
+of its members were to work in filigree, unless
+they were qualified to execute the other work as
+well. Such efforts to suppress this evil were not
+new. More than a century before, on April 15th,
+1567, the inspectors of the guild had entered the
+shop of Luis de Alvarado, silversmith, and seized
+some filigree earrings &ldquo;of the work that is forbidden,&rdquo;
+breaking these objects on the spot, and
+imposing a fine of half-a-dozen ducats on the
+peccant of obvious Alvarado.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>The modern gold and silver work of Spain is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+thus exempted from a lengthy notice, seeing that
+its typical and national characteristics have succumbed,
+or very nearly so. I may, however,
+mention the giant silver candelabra in the
+cathedral of Palma de Mallorca, which were made
+at Barcelona, between 1704 and 1718, by Juan
+Matons and three of his assistants. They measure
+eight feet high by four feet and a quarter across,
+weigh more than eight thousand ounces, and cost
+21,942 pounds, 15 <i>sueldos</i>, and 11 <i>dineros</i> of
+Majorcan money. The State seized them during
+the Napoleonic wars, in order to melt them down
+for money; but the chapter of the cathedral bought
+them back for eleven thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_114.jpg" width="394" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_114.jpg" id="img_114.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">EARLY CHALICE AND CROSS IN FILIGREE GOLD-WORK<br />
+(<i>Church of Saint Isidore, León</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>During this century Riaño mentions several
+factories of silver articles established at Madrid,
+including that of Isaac and Michael Naudin (1772)
+and the Escuela de Platería (1778), protected by
+Charles the Third; but since the work of these was
+purely in the French or English manner, they call
+for no particular notice. The principal objects they
+produced were &ldquo;inkstands, dishes, dinner-services,
+chocolate-stands, cruets, knives and forks, together
+with buckles, needle-cases, brooches, snuff-boxes,
+frames for miniatures, and similar trinkets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Early in the nineteenth century Laborde wrote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+that &ldquo;the fabrication of articles of gold and silver
+might become an important object in a country
+where these metals abound; but it is neglected,
+and the demand is almost entirely supplied from
+foreign markets. What little they do in this branch
+at home is usually very ill executed, and exorbitantly
+dear. Madrid, however, begins to possess
+some good workmen; encouragement would
+increase their number and facilitate the means
+of improvement; but manual labour is there
+excessively dear. Hence the Spaniards prefer
+foreign articles of this kind, which, notwithstanding
+the expense of carriage, the enormous duties that
+they pay, and the profits of the merchants, are
+still cheaper than those made at home.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Several of the inherent characteristics of the
+national <i>orfebrería</i> may yet be noticed somewhat
+faintly in the ornaments and jewels of the
+Spanish peasants, though even these are being
+discarded. A century ago Laborde described the
+dress of the Mauregata women, near Astorga,
+in the kingdom of León. &ldquo;They wear large
+earrings, a kind of white turban, flat and widened
+like a hat, and their hair parted on the forehead.
+They have a chemise closed over the chest, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+a brown corset buttoned, with large sleeves opening
+behind. Their petticoats and veils are also
+brown. Over all they wear immense coral necklaces,
+which descend from the neck to the knee;
+they twist them several times round the neck,
+pass them over the shoulders, where a row is
+fastened, forming a kind of bandage over the
+bosom. Then another row lower than this; in
+short, a third and fourth row at some distance
+from each other. The last falls over the knee,
+with a large cross on the right side. These
+necklaces or chaplets are ornamented with a great
+many silver medals, stamped with the figure of
+saints. They only wear these decorations when
+not working, or on festivals.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I have a manuscript account in French of
+Spanish regional costumes at the same period.
+The dress of the peasant women of Valencia is
+thus described: &ldquo;Elle se coiffe toujours en
+cheveux, de la manière appelée <i>castaña</i>, et elle y
+passe une aiguille en argent que l'on nomme
+<i>rascamoño</i>; quelque fois elle se pare d'un grand
+peigne (<i>peineta</i>) en argent doré. Son cou este
+orné d'une chaine d'or ou d'argent (<i>cadena del
+cuello</i>) à laquelle est suspendue une croix ou un
+reliquaire.&rdquo; This was the Valencian peasant's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+dress for every day. On festivals the same
+woman would adorn her ears with &ldquo;pendants
+(<i>arracadas</i>) de pierres fausses; mais lorsque la
+jardinière est riche, elles sont fines. Une relique
+(<i>relicario</i>) dans un petit médaillon en argent,
+est suspendue à son cou; ainsi qu'un chapelet
+très mince (<i>rosario</i>) en argent doré.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The peasant women of Iviza, in the Balearics,
+are described in the same manuscript as wearing
+&ldquo;un collier en verre, quelque fois en argent, et
+rarement en or&rdquo;; while Laborde wrote of Minorca,
+another of these islands, that &ldquo;the ladies are
+always elegantly adorned; their ornaments consist
+of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, and chaplets.
+<i>The peasants wear these also.</i>&rdquo; Of the women of
+Barcelona he said: &ldquo;Silk stockings are very
+common in every class; and their shoes are
+embroidered with silk, gold, silver, pearls, and
+spangles.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But Spain, like Italy or Switzerland, or many
+another country, is throwing off her regional
+costumes, of which these various jewels form a
+prominent and even an essential feature. More
+rarely now we come across the gold and seed-pearl
+necklaces of Salamanca, the Moorish filigree
+silver-work of Cordova, the silver-gilt necklaces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+of Santiago, and the heavy <i>arracadas</i>, hung with
+emeralds and sapphires, of Cataluña. Murcia,
+nevertheless, retains her Platería, a street of
+venerable aspect and associations, where to this
+hour the oriental-looking silver pendants of the
+neighbourhood are made and trafficked in.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_119.jpg" width="150" height="123"
+        alt="end of chapter"
+        title="end of chapter" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Ordenanza de la Limpieza</i> (1537), Tit. 9: &ldquo;We command
+that nobody remove sand from the aforesaid river Darro unless to
+extract gold, in which case he shall fill up the holes he made, or
+pay a fine of fifty <i>maravedis</i> for damaging the watercourses that
+enter this city and the buildings of the Alhambra.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> &ldquo;I am not aware of any Spanish mine containing silver in a
+state of absolute purity; though some, I think, would be discovered
+if they were searched for.&rdquo;&mdash;Bowles: <i>Historia Natural de España</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Possibly, as Bowles suggests, for Cabo de Agata&mdash;&ldquo;Agate Cape.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;It would not be strange,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;if diamonds were found
+at this cape, since there are signs of their presence. I found white
+sapphires, slightly clouded, together with cornelians, jaspers, agates,
+and garnets.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> A fresh find of <i>torques</i> and <i>fibulæ</i> has occurred in the spring of
+this year at La Moureta, near Ferrol.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> These ornaments were retained in use by the Visigoths, and
+find their due description in the <i>Etymologies</i> of Saint Isidore; <i>e.g.</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Inaures</i> ab aurium foraminibus nuncupatae, quibus pretiosa
+genera lapidum dependuntur.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Tourques</i> sunt circuli aurei a collo ad pectus usque dependentes.
+Torques autem et bullae a viris geruntur; a foeminis vero monilia
+et catellae.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Fibulæ</i> sunt quibus pectus foeminarum ornatur, vel pallium
+tenetur: viris in humeris, seu cingulum in lumbris.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> There is also in the Archæological Museum at Madrid a small
+collection of what has been described as Visigothic jewellery, consisting
+of a handsome <i>phalera</i>, necklaces, finger-rings, and earrings.
+Most of these objects were found at Elche in 1776. The <i>Museo
+Español de Antigüedades</i> published a full description by Florencio
+Janer. Their interest is by no means as great as that of the
+treasure of Guarrazar, nor is the date of their production definitely
+ascertained. From various details I suspect that many of them
+may be purely Roman.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The last word is commonly believed to be the name of a place&mdash;<i>Sorbaces</i>.
+There has been much discussion as to its meaning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Description du trésor de Guarrazar</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Ce que je puis affirmer, après l'examen le plus minutieux, c'est
+que la matière qui fait le fond de cette riche ornementation est
+réellement du verre.</i>&rdquo;&mdash;Lasteyrie, supported by Sommerard.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> &ldquo;In Spain,&rdquo; said Bowles (<i>Hist. Nat. de Esp.</i>, p. 498), &ldquo;are found
+two species of rock crystal. The one, occurring in clusters, are transparent,
+six-sided, and always have their source in rocks. There are
+great quantities all over the kingdom, and at Madrid they are found
+near the hills of San Isidro. The other species are found singly, and
+are rounded like a pebble. I have seen them from the size of a
+filbert to that of my fist. Some were covered with a thin, opaque
+integument&hellip;. The river Henares abounds with these crystals,
+and as it passes San Fernando, at two leagues' distance from
+Madrid, sweeps some of them along which are the size of the largest
+ones at Strasburg, though very few are perfect.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> A veritable cryptogram awaited the decipherers of these legends.
+When King Swinthila's crown was brought to light, four of the letters
+only were in place, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">&#9769; ...... I ... V.R .... F ....</p>
+
+<p>Eight of the others were recovered shortly after; two more, an E
+and L, appeared at a later date, and eight continued to be missing.
+The inscription dangling from the crown of Recceswinth arrived at
+Paris in this eloquent form:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">&#9769; RRCCEEFEVINSTVSETORHFEX</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Amador de los Ríos, <i>El Arte latino-bizantino en España y las
+Coronas Visigodas de Guarrazar</i>, p. 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Sommerard: &ldquo;<i>Une collection sans égale de joyaux les plus
+précieux qui, par la splendeur de la matière, le mérite de l'exécution,
+et plus encore, peut être, par leur origine incontestable et par leur
+étonnante conservation, surpassent tout ce qui possédent d'analogue
+les collections publiques de l'Europe et les trésors les plus renommés
+de l'Italie</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <i>Toledo and Madrid</i>; p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Ajbar Machmua</i>. Lafuente y Alcántara's edition; p. 27, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Account of the Conquest of Spain</i>, published, with an English
+translation and notes, by John Harris Jones. London, 1858.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The pax or osculatory used in celebrating High Mass is
+commonly, says Rosell de Torres, &ldquo;a plate of gold or ivory, or other
+metal or material, according to the time and circumstances of its
+manufacture. The priest who celebrates the Mass kisses it after
+the <i>Agnus Dei</i> and the prayer <i>ad petendam pacem</i>, and the acolytes
+present it, as a sign of peace and brotherly union, to all the other
+priests who may be present. This usage springs from the kiss of peace
+which was exchanged, prior to receiving the communion, between the
+early Christians in their churches. The pax has commonly borne
+an image of the Virgin with the Holy Infant, the face of Christ, or
+else the Agnus Dei.&rdquo; Its Latin name was the <i>deosculatorium</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> This marvel is related by the Monk of Silos. A quotation from
+another of my books is applicable here. &ldquo;Last year,&rdquo; I wrote in
+1902&mdash;(pp. 64, 65 of <i>Toledo and Madrid: Their Records and
+Romances</i>)&mdash;&ldquo;the young King Alfonso the Thirteenth paid a visit to
+Oviedo cathedral, and was duly shown the relics and the jewels.
+Among these latter was the &lsquo;Cross of the Angels.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;Why is it so called?&rsquo; inquired the king.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;Because,&rsquo; replied the bishop of the diocese, &lsquo;it is said that the
+angels made it to reward King Alfonso the Chaste.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;Well, but,&rsquo; insisted the young monarch, &lsquo;what ground is there
+for thinking so?&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;Señor,&rsquo; replied the prelate, &lsquo;none whatever. <i>The time for
+traditions is passing away.</i>&rsquo;&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> In many towns a hearty friendship sprang up between the
+Spaniard and the Moor. This was a natural consequence in
+places where the vanquished had a better education than the
+victor. The warrior population of both races might be struggling
+on the field at the same moment that their craftsmen were fraternizing
+in the workshop. Ferdinand the First and Alfonso the Sixth
+were particularly lenient in their usage of the dominated Muslim.
+Thus, the former of these princes recognised the Moorish townspeople
+of Sena as his vassals, while those of Toledo were freely
+allowed by Alfonso to retain their worship and their mosque.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Fallaron ay de marfil arquetas muy preçiadas</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Con tantas de noblezas que non podrian ser contadas</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Fueron para San Pedro las arquetas donadas;</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Están en este dia en el su altar asentadas.</i>&rdquo;</span>
+</div></div></div></div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 0; margin-left: 50%;"><span class="i0">Poem of <span class="smcap">Ferran Gonzalvez</span> (13th century).</span></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Together with the statuette of Ujué in Navarre, the Virgen de
+la Vega of Salamanca may be classed as one of the earliest &ldquo;local
+Virgins&rdquo; of this country. Sometimes these images are of wood
+alone, sometimes of wood beneath a silver covering, sometimes, as
+that of the Claustro de León, of stone. But whatever may be the
+substance, the characteristics are the same:&mdash;Byzantine rigidness
+and disproportion, the crude and primitive anatomy of artists only
+just emerging from the dark. The Virgin and Child of Santa
+María la Real of Hirache in Navarra may be instanced as
+another of the series. This image dates from late in the twelfth or
+early in the thirteenth century, although a crown and nimbus have
+been added subsequently. It measures rather more than a yard
+in height, and consists of wood covered with silver plates, except
+the hands and face, which are painted. The Virgin, seated, holds
+the Infant with her left arm; in her right hand is an apple. A kind of
+stole bearing the following inscription in Gothic letter falls upon the
+Infant's breast; &ldquo;<i>Puer natus est nobis, venite adoremus. Ego
+sum alpha et omega, primus et novissimus Dominus.</i>&rdquo; Before this
+statuette the King Don Sancho is stated to have offered his devotion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> I quote this legend in Appendix A.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> A recent instance, not devoid of humour, is as follows. About
+three years ago, a silly rogue removed and carried off the crown
+from Santiago's head; but since the actual jewel is only worn on
+solemn festivals, his prize turned out to be a worthless piece of tin.
+An odd removal of the treasure of another Spanish church was noted
+by the traveller Bowles. &ldquo;The curate of the place, a worthy fellow
+who put me up in his house, assured me that a detachment of a legion
+of locusts entered the church, ate up the silk clothes upon the images,
+and gnawed the varnish on the altars.&rdquo; Perhaps these adamantine-stomached
+insects have assailed, from time to time, the gold and
+silver plate of Santiago.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Ford, <i>Handbook</i>, vol. ii. p. 671. I briefly notice, in Appendix B,
+the Santiago jet-work, also practised by these craftsmen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> To lend my censures further cogency, I leave this statement as
+I set it down some weeks ago; since when, on picking up a Spanish
+newspaper, I read the following telegram:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">&ldquo;<span class="smcap">Theft in Santiago Cathedral</span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right;">&ldquo;<span class="smcap">Santiago</span>, <i>May 7th, 1906</i> (9.15 <i>p.m.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This morning, when the canon in charge of the Chapel of the
+Relics unlocked the door, he was surprised to observe that some of
+these were lying in confusion on the floor. Fearing that a theft
+had been committed, he sent for the dean and others of the clergy,
+who had examination made, and found the following objects to be
+missing:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>&ldquo;A gold cross, presented by King Alfonso the Great, when he
+attended the consecration of this temple in the year 874.</i></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Another cross, of silver, dating from the fifteenth century&mdash;a
+present from Archbishop Spinola.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;An aureole of the fifteenth century, studded with precious stones
+belonging to a statuette of the apostle Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The authorities were summoned and at once began their search.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;They find that two of the thick iron bars of the skylight in the
+ceiling of the cloister have been filed through. This cloister has a
+skylight which opens upon the chapel.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;They have also found, upon the roof, a knotted rope. This rope
+was only long enough to reach a cornice in the chapel wall. <i>The
+wall itself affords no sign that anybody has attempted to descend
+by it.</i>&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> This form of reliquary was not uncommon. Morales, in his <i>Viaje
+Sacro</i>, describes another one, also preserved at Santiago, saying
+that it was a bust of silver, life-size and gilded to the breast, &ldquo;with
+a large diadem of rays and many stones, both small and great, all
+or most of them of fine quality, though not of the most precious.&rdquo;
+Other bust-reliquaries belong, or have belonged, to the Cathedrals
+of Burgos and Toledo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The Mudejares were the Mussulmans who submitted, in the
+conquered cities, to the Spanish-Christian rule. The word <i>Mudejar</i>
+is of modern growth, nor can its derivation be resolved with
+certainty. From the thirteenth century onwards, and formed by the
+fusion of the Christian and the Saracenic elements, we find Mudejar
+influence copiously distributed through every phase of Spanish life
+and art, and even literature.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Amador prefers to call these Tables &ldquo;the triptych of the
+learned king,&rdquo; in order to distinguish them by this explicit title
+from the <i>Astronomical Tables</i> prepared by order of the same
+monarch.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Riaño, <i>Spanish Arts</i>, p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> So named because the silversmiths (<i>plateros</i>) of this country
+used it in their monstrances (<i>custodias</i>) and in many other objects
+or utensils of religious worship. The most refined and erudite of
+Spanish silver-workers, Juan de Arfe, thus referred to it in
+rhyme:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>&ldquo;Usaron desta obra los plateros</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Guardando sus preceptos con zelo;</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Pusiéronle en los puntos postrimeros</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>De perfección mi abuelo.&rdquo;</i></span>
+</div></div></div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Street, <i>Gothic Architecture in Spain</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Count of Clonard.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Four pallets gules, on a field or; which were the arms of
+Cataluña and subsequently of Aragon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Archives of the Crown of Aragon.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Sanpere y Miquel, <i>Revista de Ciencias Históricas</i>, art. <i>La
+Platería catalana en los siglos XIV. y XV.</i>, vol. i. p. 441.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Gestoso mentions that Juan de Luna, a silversmith of Seville,
+was turned into the gutter from the workshop where he was
+employed, solely because his father had been punished as a Morisco
+by the Inquisition (<i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. i.
+p. lvi.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> An article by Señor Saavedra on these inscribed jewels and
+signets of Mohammedan Spain will be found in the <i>Museo Español
+de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> &ldquo;As to the ornaments and jewels of the ladies of Granada, these
+wear at present necklaces of rich design, bracelets, rings (upon their
+ankles), and earrings of pure gold; together with quantities of silver
+and of precious stones upon their shoes. I say this of the middle
+class; for ladies of the aristocracy and of the older noble families
+display a vast variety of gems, such as rubies, chrysolites, emeralds,
+and pearls of great value. The ladies of Granada are commonly
+fair to look upon, shapely, of good stature, with long hair, teeth of a
+shining white, and perfumed breath, gracefully alert in their movements,
+and witty and agreeable in conversation. But unfortunately
+at this time their passion for painting themselves and for arraying
+themselves in every kind of jewellery and costly stuffs has reached
+a pitch that is no longer tolerable.&rdquo;&mdash;Al-Jattib, in <i>The Splendour
+of the New Moon concerning the Nasrite Sultans of Granada</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> There was, however, from long before this time a prohibition to
+export from Spain the precious metals, in any form, whether as
+objects of plate or as coined money. The penalty for a repetition
+of this offence was death. Another law prohibited all foreigners
+who were resident in Spain, not excluding the Moriscos, from buying
+gold or silver in the bar (<i>Suma de Leyes</i>, p. 46). It was also forbidden
+to sell the jewels or other objects of value belonging to a
+place of worship (<i>ibid</i>. p. 87).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> This entertaining and inquisitive tourist describes, in 1659, a
+wondrous cavern in the south of Spain, &ldquo;ou l'on conte que les
+Mores ont caché leurs trésors en s'en retournant en Afrique, et ou
+personne n'ose aborder de peur des esprits que l'on dit que l'on y
+voit souvent. Mais comme il commencait a se faire nuit, je n'eus
+pas le loisir de m'y amuser beaucoup.&rdquo; With this our author
+shelved his curiosity, and prudently retired.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Leonard Williams. <i>Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies,
+and Impressions</i>, p. 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Ford was more hopeful as to the preservation of this wealth in
+Spain. &ldquo;No doubt much coin is buried in the Peninsula, since the
+country has always been invaded and torn by civil wars, and there
+never has been much confidence between Spaniard and Spaniard;
+accordingly the only sure, although unproductive, investment for
+those who had money, was gold or silver, and the only resource to
+preserve that, was to hide it.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Handbook</i>, vol. ii. p. 682.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. ii. p. 360.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> A full description of these chests will be found in Cean Bermudez,
+vol. iii. pp. 135&ndash;137.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Rada y Delgado, in his reply to the Count of Cedillo's address
+in the Royal Academy of History. For particulars of the silver lamp,
+which was made by Marcos and Gonzalo Hernandez, Toledanos,
+and by Diego Dávila, see Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos Inéditos
+para la Historia de las Bellas Artes en España</i>, vol. lv. p. 580.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> <i>Recherches sur l'Orfévrerie en Espagne</i>, pp. 61 <i>et seq</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Ulloa, <i>Memorias Sevillanas</i>, vol. i. p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> <i>Libro de diferentes Cuentas y gasto de la Casa Real en el
+Reynado de Don Sancho IV. Sacado de un tomo original en folio
+que se guarda en la Librería de la Santa Iglesia de Toledo.</i> Años
+de 1293&ndash;1294. Por el P. Andres Marcos Burriel de la Comp<sup>a</sup> de
+Jesus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Con estos fué mi padre en seguimiento</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Joan Alvarez tambien el Salmantino,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Becerril, que tambien fué deste cuento,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Juan de Orna, y Juan Ruiz el Vandolino.</i>&rdquo;</span>
+</div></div></div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>Annals of the Artists of Spain</i>, vol. i. pp. 161, 162.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 159, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Brinco</i> (<i>brincar</i>, to jump or spring). These jewels were so
+called from their vibrating as the wearer walked. The Balearic
+Islands were famous for their manufacture; and the late Marquis
+of Arcicollar possessed a case of valuable examples, most of which
+proceeded from this locality.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>Suma de Leyes</i>, 1628, p. 116 (2).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> But on the other hand I much suspect that the following passage
+in Alvarez de Colmenar's <i>Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal</i> (vol.
+iii. p. 326) is stolen from Countess d'Aulnoy. &ldquo;Elles ne portent
+point de colier, mais en échange elles ont des bracelets, des bagues,
+et des pendans d'oreille, plus gros que tous ceux qu'on voit en
+Hollande. Telle est la diversité des gouts des nations différentes,
+en matière de beauté. Il y en a même quelques-unes, qui attachent
+quelque beau joli bijou à leurs pendans d'oreilles, quelque ornement
+de pierreries, par exemple, ou d'autres choses semblables, selon leur
+quantité ou leur pouvoir.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> The mark was a standard of eight ounces, and was divided into
+fifty <i>castellanos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> For Beltran de la Cueva, ancestor of this family.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. ii. p. 134.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="IRON-WORK" id="IRON-WORK">IRON-WORK</a></h2>
+
+<p>The ancient iron mines of Spain were no less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+celebrated than her mines of silver and of gold.
+Nevertheless, the history of Spanish iron-work
+begins comparatively late. Excepting certain
+swords and other weapons which require to be
+noticed under <i>Arms</i>, and owing to the commonness
+and cheapness of this metal, as well as to
+the ease with which it decomposes under damp,
+few of the earliest Spanish objects made of iron
+have descended to our time.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> Even Riaño pays<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+but little notice to this craft in the Peninsula
+before the second half of the fifteenth century.
+Henceforth, he says, &ldquo;it continued to progress
+in the sixteenth, and produced, undoubtedly,
+at that period works which were unrivalled in
+Europe.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The decorative iron-work of Spain may suitably
+be dealt with in three classes: railings, screens,
+or pulpits of churches, chapels, and cathedrals;
+balconies and other parts or fittings applied to
+public or private buildings of a non-ecclesiastical
+character; and smaller, though not necessarily less
+attractive or important objects, such as knockers,
+locks and keys, and nail-heads.</p>
+
+<p>The last of these divisions, as embracing
+Spanish-Moorish craftsmanship, shall have, as far
+as order is concerned, our preferential notice.</p>
+
+<p>Surely, in the whole domain of history, no
+object has a grander symbolism than the key.
+In mediæval times the keys of cities, castles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+towns, and fortresses were held to be significant
+of ownership, or vigilance, or conquest. Especially
+was this the case in Spain&mdash;a nation incessantly
+engaged in war. Probably in no
+country in the world has the ceremony of delivering
+up this mark of tenure of a guarded
+and defended place occurred so often as here.
+Do we not read of it in stirring stanzas of her
+literature? Do we not find it in her paintings,
+on her stone and metal <i>rilievi</i>, or carved in
+wood upon the stalls of her cathedrals? Therefore
+the key, just like the sword, seemed, in
+the warm imagination of the Spaniards, to be
+something almost sacred. The legislative codes
+of Old Castile are most minute in their relation
+of its venerated attributes. Nor were the Spanish
+Muslims less alive to its importance than their
+foe, taking it also for an emblem of their own,
+and planting it in lordly eminence upon their
+gates and towers of Cordova, and Seville, and
+Granada. For what was Tarik's Mountain but
+the key of the narrow gate that led to their
+enchanted land, as sunny as, and yet less
+sultry than, their sandy home; truly a land
+of promise to the fiery children of the desert,
+panting for the paradise that smiled at them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+across the storied strip of emerald and sapphire
+water?</p>
+
+<p>So was it that both Moors and Spaniards
+made their keys of fortresses and citadels almost
+into an object of their worship. In hearing or in
+reading of such keys, the mind at once recurs to
+those of Seville (Plate <a href="#img_134.jpg">xix</a>.), two in number, famed
+throughout the world of mediæval art, and stored
+among the holiest relics in the sacristy of her
+cathedral. The larger is of silver, in the style now
+known as Mudejar, and dates from the second half
+of the thirteenth century. The length is rather
+more than eight inches, and the whole key is
+divided into five compartments, ornamented in
+enamels and in gold. Castles, ships, and lions
+adorn the thicker portion of the stem between
+the barrel proper and the handle; and on the
+rim of the latter is this inscription, in Hebrew
+characters:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>The King of Kings will open; the king of all the
+land shall enter.</i>&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>The wards are also beautifully carved into the
+following legend, distributed in two rows, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+superposed upon the other, of two words and of
+ten letters apiece:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Dios abrirá; Rey entrará.</i>&rdquo;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>God will open; the king shall enter.</i>&rdquo;</span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>The iron key is purely Moorish, smaller than
+its fellow, and measures just over six inches.
+Like the other, it consists of five divisions, and
+the wards are in the form of an inscription in
+African Cufic characters, which Gayangos and
+other Arabists have variously interpreted. Five
+of the commonest readings are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) &ldquo;<i>May Allah permit that the rule (of Islam) last for
+ever in this city.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(2) &ldquo;<i>By the grace of God may (this key) last for ever.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(3) &ldquo;<i>May peace be in the King's mansion.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(4) &ldquo;<i>May God grant us the boon of the preservation of
+the city.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(5) &ldquo;<i>To God (belongs) all the empire and the power.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Our earliest tidings of this iron key are from
+the Jesuit Bernal, who wrote in the seventeenth
+century. It was not then the property of the
+cathedral chapter, for Ortiz de Zúñiga says
+that it belonged, in the same century, to a gentleman
+of Seville named Don Antonio Lopez de
+Mesa, who had inherited it from his father.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+Tradition declares that both this key and its
+companion were laid at the feet of Ferdinand
+the Third by Axataf, governor of Seville, when
+the city capitulated to the Christian prince on
+November 23rd, 1248. But Ortiz is careful to
+inform us that he neither countenances nor rejects
+the popular notion that the iron key was thus
+delivered as the token of surrender, &ldquo;although,&rdquo;
+he says, &ldquo;the owners of it are strongly of this
+judgment.&rdquo; What we do know is that on June
+16th, 1698, the iron key was presented to the
+cathedral by Doña Catalina Basilia Domonte y
+Pinto, niece of the Señor Lopez de Mesa aforesaid;
+and that the chapter forthwith accepted it
+with solemn gratitude as &ldquo;one of the keys
+delivered by the Moors to the Rey Santo on the
+conquest of the city,&rdquo; ordering it to be guarded
+in a special box.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the popular fancy still accepted by the
+Sevillanos. However, Amador de los Ríos has
+sifted out a good deal of the truth, showing that
+the iron and the silver key are wrought in
+different styles, and were intended for a different
+purpose. He places the iron instrument among
+the &ldquo;keys of conquered cities,&rdquo; and its silver
+neighbour among the &ldquo;keys of honour, or of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+dedication&rdquo;; and he declares as certain (although
+the reasons he adduces do not quite convince me)
+that this iron key is actually the one which figured
+in the ceremony of surrender. The other he considers
+to have been a gift from the Sevillians to
+the tenth Alfonso, son of Ferdinand the saint
+and conqueror, as a loyal and a grateful offering
+in return for his protection of their industries and
+commerce. However this may be, the decorative
+aspect of the larger key, together with the choice
+material of which it is made, appears to prove
+that it was not associated with the rigours of a
+siege, but served in some way as a symbol of
+prosperity and peace. It was a common custom
+at a later age for Spanish cities to present their
+sovereign, when he came among them, with a
+richly ornamented key. Such keys were offered
+to Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second
+when, in 1526 and 1570, respectively, they
+visited Seville; while Riaño reminds us that
+&ldquo;even in the present day the ceremony is still
+kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes
+who stay at the royal palace of Madrid.&rdquo; Similarly,
+as an ordinary form of salutation, does the
+well-bred Spaniard place his house at your
+disposal.</p>
+
+<p>Five Moorish keys&mdash;one of bronze and four of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+iron&mdash;are in the Museum of Segovia, and bear,
+as Amador observes, a general resemblance to
+the iron key of Seville. The wards of four of
+them are shaped into the following inscriptions:
+the first key, &ldquo;<i>In Secovia</i> (Segovia)&rdquo;; the second,
+&ldquo;(<i>This</i>) <i>key was curiously wrought at Medina
+Huelma, God protect her</i>&rdquo;; the third, &ldquo;<i>Open</i>&rdquo;;
+and the fourth, &ldquo;<i>This work is by Abdallah.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The first and smallest of these keys informs
+us, therefore, that it was manufactured at Segovia.
+The third key is that which is of bronze, and
+bears the word &ldquo;<i>Open</i>,&rdquo; probably addressed to
+Allah. The second, which is also the largest
+and the most artistic and ornate, belonged, we
+read upon its wards, to Huelma, a fortress-town
+upon the frontiers of the kingdom of Granada.
+This town was wrested from the Moors on April
+20th, 1438, by Iñigo Lopez de Mendoza, first
+Marquis of Santillana, who possibly sent this key
+to Castile as a present to his sovereign, Juan the
+Second, in company with the usual papers of
+capitulation.</p>
+
+<p>Other Moorish keys are scattered over Spain
+in various of her public and private collections,
+though none are so remarkable as those of Seville<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+and Segovia. The town of Sepúlveda possesses
+seven early iron keys, several of which are
+Moorish. Others are at Burgos, Valencia, Palma,
+Jaen, and Granada. At the last-named city the
+following key, dating undoubtedly from the period
+of the Muslim domination, was discovered, in
+1901, among the débris of the Palace of Seti
+Meriem.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_131.jpg" width="400" height="78"
+        alt="iron key"
+        title="iron key" />
+        <a name="img_131.jpg" id="img_131.jpg"></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Keys of awe-inspiring magnitude are still preferred
+among the Spaniards to a handier and
+slighter instrument, this people seeming to believe
+that the bigger the key the more inviolable is
+the custody which it affords&mdash;a theory not at all
+upheld by modern experts in this venerable
+craft. Perhaps this singular and local preference
+is derived from Barbary. At any rate it still
+obtains across the Strait. &ldquo;Our host,&rdquo; wrote Mr
+Cunninghame Graham in <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i>,
+&ldquo;knocks off great pieces from a loaf of cheap
+French sugar with the key of the house, drawing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+it from his belt and hammering lustily, as the
+key weighs about four ounces, and is eight or
+nine inches long.&rdquo; Of such a length are nearly
+all the house-keys of contemporary Spain; and
+with this apparatus bulging in his belt the somnolent
+<i>sereno</i> or night-watchman of this sleepy,
+unprogressive, Latino-Mussulmanic land prowls
+to this hour along the starlit streets of Barcelona,
+Seville, or Madrid.</p>
+
+<p>The city Ordinances of Granada form a valuable
+and interesting link between the Spanish-Moorish
+craftsmanship and that of Spaniards
+Christian-born. The <i>Ordenanzas de Cerrageros</i>,
+or Locksmiths' Ordinances, though not voluminous,
+are curious and informative beyond the rest,
+and show us that a general rascality was prevalent
+in Granada after her reconquest from the
+Moor. Locksmiths were forbidden now to make
+a lock the impression of which was put into their
+hands in wax, even if the order should be
+sweetened by &ldquo;a quantity of maravedis,&rdquo; since the
+effect of such commissions, whose very secrecy
+betrayed illicit and improper ends in view, was
+stated to be &ldquo;very greatly perilous and mischief-making.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another Ordinance reveals the Christian locksmiths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+of Granada as arrant scoundrels, almost
+as troublesome to deal with as the pestering
+little shoeblacks of to-day. &ldquo;Word is brought
+us,&rdquo; groaned the aldermen, &ldquo;how many locksmiths,
+foreigners that dwell within this city as well as
+naturals that go up and down our thoroughfares,
+in taking locks and padlocks to repair, do, at the
+same time that they set the keys in order, contrive
+to fit them with new wards inferior to the older ones,
+so as to be able to open and close them with the
+keys they have themselves in store, wherein is
+grave deceitfulness, seeing that the aforesaid locks
+and padlocks may be opened in such wise without
+a key at all.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>If we except the vast dimensions of the common
+keys of houses, this branch of Spanish
+craftsmanship has now no quality to point it from
+the rest of Europe, having become, in Riaño's
+words, &ldquo;simply practical and useful.&rdquo; Laborde
+observed in 1809 that &ldquo;locks and various iron
+utensils are made in divers places. Locksmiths
+are numerous at Vega de Ribadeo in Galicia, at
+Helgoivar in Biscay, at Vergara in Guipuscoa, at
+Solsona and Cardona in Catalonia. Different kinds
+of iron goods are manufactured at Vergara, Solsona,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+and Cardona. The articles made of iron and
+steel at Solsona are in high estimation, notwithstanding
+they are destitute of taste and elegance,
+badly finished, and worse polished; and can by
+no means be put in competition with similar
+articles introduced from other countries.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>Iron nails with ornamented heads and decorative
+door-knockers are other objects which reveal
+the influence of Mohammedan Spain. A number
+of artistic Spanish nails are in the South Kensington
+Museum. &ldquo;Some doors,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;still
+exist at the Alhambra, Granada, covered with
+enormous heads of nails of a half-spherical form
+with embossed pattern. These same nails are constantly
+to be found on old Spanish houses, to which
+are added in the angles pieces of iron of a most
+artistic order&rdquo; (Pl. <a href="#img_134.jpg">xix</a>.<span class="smcap">a</span>). In the same city, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+not precisely in the Alhambra, I have seen upon
+the doors of private houses nails of a decorative
+kind which appear to consist of a single piece,
+but which are really formed of two&mdash;an ornamental
+boss perforated through its centre, and the
+nail proper, which fastens through it to the woodwork
+of the door behind. Thus, when the nail is
+hammered tight upon the boss, the effect is naturally
+that of a single piece of metal. Similar nails
+are on the door of Tavera's hospital at Toledo.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_134.jpg" width="387" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_134.jpg" id="img_134.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">DECORATIVE NAIL-HEADS<br />
+(<i>Convent of San Antonio, Toledo</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Ordenanzas</i> of Granada tell us minutely
+of the nails which were produced there in the
+sixteenth century. They were denominated <i>cabriales</i>,
+<i>costaneros</i>, <i>palmares</i>, <i>bolayques</i>, <i>vizcainos</i>,
+sabetinos, and <i>moriscos</i>; of all of which I can
+only find that the <i>cabriales</i> and <i>costaneros</i> were
+used for beams and rafters, and the <i>moriscos</i> for
+fixing horse-shoes. In Spain the custom of
+fastening down the decorative coverings of chairs
+or benches dates from comparatively late; and
+it was probably with this innovation that iron-workers
+began to exercise their ingenuity upon
+the heads of nails.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the Middle Ages the city
+of Segovia was celebrated for her locks and keys,
+her knockers, and her <i>rejas</i>. In 1892, collections<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+of iron objects, chiefly manufactured in this town,
+were shown by the duke of Segovia, Don Nicolás
+Duque, and Don Adolfo Herrera at the Exposición
+Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Segovia still
+preserves an old door covered with extraordinary
+iron spikes, that once belonged to the castle of
+Pedraza; many curious balconies, such as that in
+a first floor of the Calle del Carmen; and the
+grilles&mdash;proceeding from the old cathedral&mdash;of
+the chapel of the Cristo del Consuelo and the
+chapel of the Piedad.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting collection of early decorative
+Spanish iron, belonging to the well-known
+painter, Señor Rusiñol, is kept at the town
+of Sitjes, in Cataluña. The late Marquis of
+Arcicollar possessed a number of specimens of
+Spanish manufactured iron of the later Middle
+Ages, such as boxes, candelabra, locks, nails,
+door-knockers, <i>braseros</i>, and a rare and curious
+iron desk (fourteenth century), with leather
+fittings.</p>
+
+<p>The collection of the late Count of Valencia de
+Don Juan included four door-knockers of Spanish
+iron, dating from late in the fifteenth century or
+early in the sixteenth. I give a reproduction of
+these knockers (Pl. <a href="#img_136.jpg">xx</a>.). The two which occupy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+the centre are evidently from a sacred building;
+while the other pair are just as evidently <i>señoriales</i>,
+and belonged to a noble house. In the former
+pair, the clumsy carving of the saints, Peter and
+James, is attributed by Serrano Fatigati to the
+native coarseness of the iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_136.jpg" width="500" height="250"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_136.jpg" id="img_136.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">DOOR-KNOCKERS<br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Proceeding from the same collection are a pair
+of ceremonial maces and a ceremonial lantern,
+which I also reproduce (Pl. <a href="#img_138.jpg">xxi</a>.), since the Spanish
+writer from whom I have just quoted pronounces
+them to be &ldquo;excellent specimens of the iron-work
+of our country at the close of the Middle Ages.&rdquo;
+He says that, as we notice in the pinnacles, they
+show a tendency to copy architectural detail, and
+are otherwise characteristic of the period. Towards
+the fourteenth century the file replaced the
+hammer, and the sheet of iron was substituted for
+the bar. These objects, dating from the fifteenth
+century, duly reveal this change. Also, as was
+usual at the time, they are composed of separate
+pieces stoutly riveted. In the knockers with
+the figures of the saints &ldquo;we notice the partial
+use of the chisel, which became general in the
+sixteenth century, at the same time that iron
+objects were loaded with images, forms of animals,
+and other capricious figures. These may be said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+to belong to a period of transition, culminating in
+the <i>rejas</i>.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Madrid Museum contains a sixteenth-century
+cross of <i>repoussé</i> iron, in the Greek form,
+and which is certainly of Spanish make. According
+to Villa-amil, it formerly had a gilded border
+and was painted black, which leads this writer
+to suppose that it was used at funerals. Iron
+crosses may be seen occasionally on churches and
+on other public buildings, and Stirling has inserted
+cuts of several in his <i>Annals of the Artists of
+Spain</i>. Crosses of large size were sometimes
+planted on the highway. Such was the elaborate
+but ugly iron cross, measuring three yards in
+height, made by Sebastian Conde in 1692 for
+the Plazuela de la Cerrajeriá in Seville, and now
+preserved in her Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_138.jpg" width="388" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_138.jpg" id="img_138.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">CEREMONIAL MACES AND LANTERN<br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The iron balustrade or <i>verja</i> of the marble
+tomb of Cardinal Cisneros is finely wrought in
+Plateresque-Renaissance, with elaborate designs
+of gryphons, foliage, urns, birds, masks, sheep's
+heads, swans, coats of arms, dolphins, and other
+ornament in great profusion. The craftsman was
+Nicolás de Vergara the elder. Lesser in size,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+though not less striking in its execution, is the
+railing, by Francisco de Villalpando, which surrounds
+the <i>Altar de Prima</i> in the choir of Toledo
+Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Iron pulpits,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;have been made
+in Spain with great success.&rdquo; He mentions five:
+two in Avila Cathedral (Plate <a href="#img_140.jpg">xxii</a>.); two at
+Seville; and one at the church of San Gil at
+Burgos. The latter is described by Street, who
+says: &ldquo;It is of very late date, end of the fifteenth
+century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration.
+The support is of iron, resting on stone, and the
+staircase modern. The framework at the angles,
+top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the iron-work
+is laid. The traceries are cut out of two
+plates of iron, laid one over the other, and the
+iron-work is in part gilded, but I do not think
+that this is original. The canopy is of the same
+age and character, and the whole effect is very
+rich at the same time that it is very novel. I saw
+other pulpits, but none so old as this.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The iron pulpits of Salamanca, &ldquo;covered with
+bas-reliefs representing the Evangelists and
+subjects taken from the Acts of the Apostles and
+the apocalypse,&rdquo; were made at the same time as
+the <i>reja</i> by Fray Francisco de Zalamea or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+Salamanca, Fray Juan, and other artists. The
+two at Avila are stationed one on either side
+of the Capilla Mayor, and are of gilded iron,
+hexagonal in form, and measuring about ten feet
+in height. Gryphons or other beasts support the
+pulpit on its stem or column. The body of each
+pulpit bears the arms of the cathedral, namely,
+the <i>Agnus Dei</i>, a lion, and a castle&mdash;the whole
+surmounted by a crown&mdash;and is divided lengthways
+by a central band into a double tier, closed
+by a richly decorated cornice at the upper and the
+lower border. Otherwise the pulpits are quite
+dissimilar. In one the decorative scheme is almost
+purely geometrical, while in the other it consists
+of foliage, birds and beasts, and niches containing
+statuettes of saints. The stair-railings are modern;
+but the primitive carving still adorns the end of
+every step.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_140.jpg" width="383" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_140.jpg" id="img_140.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IRON PULPIT<br />
+(<i>Avila Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We do not know who was the maker of these
+pulpits. Some believe him to have been a certain
+Juan Francés, to whom our notice will again be
+called as figuring among the earliest masters of
+this eminently Spanish craft, and who, on strongish
+evidence, is thought to be the author of the <i>rejas</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+in the same cathedral which enclose the choir, and
+the front and sides of the Capilla Mayor. This
+is the only reason for supposing him to have
+made the pulpits also. One of these, however,
+is in the Flamboyant, and the other in the
+Renaissance style; so it may well be doubted
+whether both were produced by the same hand,
+or even at exactly the same period.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in the <i>rejas</i> that the craftsmanship
+of older Spain attains its loftiest pinnacle.
+They consist, says Banister Fletcher, of &ldquo;rich
+and lofty grilles in hammered and chiselled iron &hellip; strongly
+characteristic of the national art.
+The formality of the long and vertical bars is
+relieved by figures beaten in <i>repoussé</i>, in duplicates,
+attached back to back, and by crestings
+and traceries adapted to the material, and
+freely employed. Few things in Spain are
+more original and artistic.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>The <i>reja</i> generally was not, as many have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+supposed, of late invention. It existed from the
+earliest days of Christianity; but it was only in
+the Gothic and Renaissance ages that Spain
+converted it into a vehicle for decorative art.
+The growth of these ornamental <i>rejas</i> may be
+traced in cities of Old Castile, together with
+Seville, Salamanca, Cuenca, and Toledo. Spain,
+it is idle to observe, was at no moment so
+appreciative of her craftsmen as was Italy, so
+that our information as to mediæval Spanish
+craftsmen and the process of their lives and
+labours is, upon the whole, deplorably deficient.
+Nevertheless, among the oldest of her artists
+known in Spanish as <i>rejeros</i>, or (a finer and
+more venerable term) <i>&ldquo;reja</i>-masters&rdquo;&mdash;<i>maestros
+de rexas</i>&mdash;appears Juan Francés, working in
+1494 in Toledo Cathedral and, in the same
+capacity (for he seems to have been an armourer
+besides, and to have held the title of &ldquo;master-maker<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+of iron arms in Spain&rdquo;)<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> at Alcalá de
+Henares, as well as, in 1505, at Osma, in whose
+cathedral he made the <i>rejas</i> of the choir and high
+chapel.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p>Although the craftsman's name has rarely been
+recorded, we know that excellent <i>rejería</i> was
+made at Barcelona in the fifteenth century. Also
+dating from the fifteenth century, and therefore
+prior to the Plateresque, is the <i>reja</i>, ornamented
+with leaves and figures of centaurs and other
+creatures, mythical and real, enclosing the
+sepulchre of the Anayas in the old cathedral of
+Salamanca. During the first quarter of the sixteenth
+century much work in decorative <i>rejería</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+was completed in Seville Cathedral by Fernando
+Prieto, Fray Francisco de Salamanca,<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Sancho
+Muñoz, Diego de Adrobo, and others (<i>vide</i>
+Frontispiece). Taught by these, while yet belonging
+to a slightly later time, and linking in
+this way the riper and decadent Gothic with
+the new Renaissance and the Plateresque, were
+Pedro de Andino, Antonio de Palencia, and Juan
+Delgado. Rosell observes that without doubt
+these artists, excepting only Juan Francés&mdash;the
+pioneer of them all&mdash;were Spanish-born; and
+they in their turn were succeeded by other
+Spaniards who worked most regularly at Toledo;
+such as Bartolomé Rodriguez, Luis de Peñafiel,
+and Francisco de Silva.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent <i>rejero</i> named Hernando de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+Arenas completed the grille of Cuenca Cathedral
+in 1557. Three years before, a Cordovese,
+Fernando de Valencia, had made the intricate
+Renaissance <i>reja</i> of the Chapel of the Asunción
+in the mosque of that most ancient capital&mdash;a
+noble piece of work, which still exists. Other
+<i>rejeros</i> who were either natives of, or who resided
+in, this city were Pedro Sanchez, Alonso
+Perez, Pedro Sanchez Cardenosa, Francisco
+Lopez, Juan Martinez Cano, and Diego de
+Valencia.</p>
+
+<p>One of these men, Alonso Perez, a native of
+Jaen, contracted, on April 13th, 1576, to make
+the <i>rejas</i> of the Capilla Mayor in the church of
+the convent of the Trinity at Cordova. He was
+to finish them within one year, at a cost of fifty-one
+<i>maravedis</i> for every pound of iron, of sixteen
+ounces to the pound. Ramírez de Arellano, who
+has extracted these notices of Cordovese artists
+from the city archives<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>, says that the <i>reja</i> in
+question is no longer standing; but a document
+of the time informs us that it was of an elaborate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+character, and carried architraves, cornices,
+and the usual decorative detail of the Spanish
+Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>In 1593 Pedro Sanchez agreed to make, within
+four years, a grille for the old chapel of the
+Concepción, also in Cordova, at a cost of forty-nine
+maravedis for every pound of iron that the
+finished <i>reja</i> should contain; and a year later the
+same artist signed a contract for what is thought
+to be his masterpiece&mdash;the <i>reja</i> of the chapel of
+the Holy Cross, in the nave of the <i>sagrario</i> of
+the same temple. The stipulated time was two
+years only; but the cost amounted in this instance
+to one hundred maravedis for every pound of the
+completed <i>reja</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Marvels of power and of patience are among
+the <i>rejas</i> of this land. In them, obedient to the
+genius of the craftsman, the ponderous metal
+assumes the gossamer lightness of the finest
+gauze, now seeming to be breathed rather than
+built across the entrance to some side-chapel,
+now tapering skyward till we fancy it to melt
+away, like vapour, on the surface of the lofty
+roof. Such are the screens&mdash;which here demand
+a brief description&mdash;of Toledo and Palencia and
+Granada; that of Cuenca, where Arenas plied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+his master-hand; and, first in merit of them all,
+the peerless <i>reja</i>, royal in magnificence and faultless
+taste, that closes in at Burgos the no less
+royal-looking chapel of a Count of Haro, sometime
+Constable of all Castile.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>reja</i> of the Capilla Mayor of Toledo
+Cathedral is twenty-one feet high by forty-six in
+breadth. &ldquo;Armies of workmen,&rdquo; wrote Méndez
+Silva, referring to this screen and to its neighbour,
+that of the <i>coro</i>, &ldquo;were toiling at them for ten
+years, nor would their cost have been greater had
+they been of founded silver.&rdquo; The cost of which
+he speaks was more than a quarter of a million
+<i>reales</i>, although the workmen's daily wage was
+only two <i>reales</i> and a half, or, in the case of the
+particularly skilled, four <i>reales</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The author of this admirable screen was
+Francisco de Villalpando, whose plans and
+estimate were approved by Cardinal Tavera in
+1540. &ldquo;The <i>reja</i> consists of two tiers resting on
+different kinds of marble. Attic columns ornamented
+with handsome <i>rilievi</i> and terminated
+by bronze caryatides, divide these tiers into
+several spaces. The upper tier is formed by
+seven columns of ornate pattern, containing, on
+a frieze of complicated tracery, figures of animals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+and angels, and other delicately drawn and
+executed objects in relief. Upon the cornice are
+coats of arms, angels, and other decoration; and
+in the centre, the imperial arms of Charles the
+Fifth, together with a large crucifix pendent from
+a massive gilded chain. On the frieze of the
+second tier are the words, <span class="smcap">ADORATE DOMINUM IN
+ATRIO SANCTO EJUS KALENDAS APRILIS 1548</span>, and
+on the inner side, <span class="smcap">PLUS ULTRA</span>.&rdquo; <a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_148.jpg" width="375" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_148.jpg" id="img_148.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF CHAPEL ROYAL<br />
+(<i>Granada Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other of the larger <i>rejas</i> in this temple&mdash;that
+of the choir&mdash;is not inferior in a great
+degree to Villalpando's masterpiece. It was made
+by &ldquo;Maestre&rdquo; Domingo (de Céspedes),<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> who, in
+his estimate of June 18th, 1540, engaged to
+finish it at a total cost of 5000 ducats, &ldquo;he to be
+given the necessary gold and silver for the
+plating&rdquo; (<i>Archives of Toledo Cathedral</i>, quoted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+by Rosell). This Maestre Domingo was aided
+by his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo, and both of
+them, says de la Rada y Delgado, were probably
+natives of Toledo.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> In the same city they also
+made the <i>rejas</i> for the Baptismal Chapel, and
+for the chapels of the Reyes Viejos and Reyes
+Nuevos.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_149.jpg" width="394" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_149.jpg" id="img_149.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF CHAPEL ROYAL<br />
+(<i>View from interior. Granada Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Excellent Plateresque <i>rejas</i> are those of the
+Capilla Mayor and Coro of Palencia Cathedral&mdash;the
+latter from the hand of Gaspar Rodriguez of
+Segovia, who finished it in 1571 at a cost of 3400
+ducats. In the same city is the <i>reja</i> of the chapel
+of Nuestra Señora la Blanca, finished in 1512 by
+Juan Relojero, a Palencian, who received for his
+labour 25,000 <i>maravedis</i> and a load and a half
+of wheat.</p>
+
+<p>The noble and colossal gilt and painted<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> <i>reja</i>
+of the Chapel Royal of Granada Cathedral was
+wrought between the years 1518 and 1523 by
+one Master Bartholomew, whose name is near
+the keyhole. This was a person of obscure life<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+though mighty powers as a craftsman. We know
+that he resided at Jaen, and, from a document
+which still remains,<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> that he petitioned Charles
+the Fifth for payment (sixteen hundred ducats)
+of this grille, because the clergy had continually
+refused to liquidate it. He made, besides the
+work I herewith describe, the <i>reja</i> of the presbytery
+for Seville cathedral,<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> and possibly, as
+Sentenach suggests, the iron tenebrarium, ten
+feet high by five across, for the cathedral of Jaen.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>reja</i> of the Chapel Royal of Granada, &ldquo;of
+two faces, the finest that was ever made of this
+material,&rdquo; <a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> has three tiers. &ldquo;The first tier
+contains six Corinthian pilasters and a broad
+frieze covered with Plateresque ornamentation, as
+are the pedestals on which the pilasters rest. In
+the second tier are the arms of Ferdinand and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+Isabella within a garland supported by two lions,
+and other crowns together with the yoke and
+arrows;<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> all intertwined with stems, leaves, and
+little angels of an exquisite effect. Before the
+pilasters of this tier and of the one immediately
+above it are figures of the apostles on Gothic
+brackets&mdash;a style we also notice on the fastening
+of the gate and on the twisted railing; but every
+other detail of the grille is Plateresque. Upon
+the top are scenes of martyrdoms and of the life
+of Christ, the whole surmounted by a decorative
+scheme of leaves and candelabra, and, over this, a
+crucifix together with the figures of the Virgin and
+Saint John. The designing of the figures is only
+moderately good, but all remaining detail and the
+craftsmanship are admirable&rdquo; <a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> (Plates <a href="#img_148.jpg">xxiii</a>. and
+<a href="#img_149.jpg">xxiv</a>.).</p>
+
+<p>Last on my list of Spanish <i>reja</i>-makers I place
+the greatest and most honoured of them all&mdash;Cristóbal
+de Andino, who, as a modern writer
+has expressed it, &ldquo;uttered the last word in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+matter of giving shape to iron.&rdquo; Cristóbal, son
+of Pedro de Andino&mdash;himself an artist of no
+mean capacity&mdash;excelled in architecture, sculpture,
+<i>rejería</i>, and probably in silver-work as well.
+&ldquo;Good craftsmen,&rdquo; wrote his contemporary,
+Diego de Sagredo, &ldquo;and those who wish their
+work to breathe the spirit of authority and pass
+without rebuke, should follow&mdash;like your fellow-townsman,
+Cristóbal de Andino&mdash;ancient precepts,
+in that his works have greater elegance and
+beauty than any others that I witnessed heretofore.
+If this (you think) be not the case, look at that
+<i>reja</i> he is making for my lord the Constable,
+which <i>reja</i> is well known to be superior to all
+others of this kingdom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such is the <i>reja</i> thought, both then and now,
+to be the finest ever made. The style is pure
+Renaissance. Two tiers of equal height consist
+of four-and-twenty ornamented rails or balusters
+disposed, above, between four columns; below,
+between four pilasters. An attic is upon the
+cornice, and contains two central, semi-naked,
+kneeling figures which support a large, crowned
+shield. This is surmounted by a bust of God the
+Father, enclosed in a triangular frame, and
+raising the hand to bless. On either side of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+attic are S-shaped crests sustaining circular
+medallions with the likenesses, in bold relief, of
+Christ and Mary. Along the friezes are the
+legends; <span class="smcap">EGO SUM ALPHA ET</span> &#937;; <span class="smcap">EGO SUM LUX
+VERA</span>; and <span class="smcap">ECCE ANCILLA DOMINI</span>, together with the
+words, referring to the artist, <span class="smcap">AB ANDINO</span>, and the
+date <span class="smcap">A.D. MDXXIII.</span> The decorative scheme is
+spirited and delicate at once, whether we observe
+it on the railing, pilasters, and columns, or on
+the horizontal parts and members of the <i>reja</i>.
+The attic which surmounts the double tier and
+cornice is finally surmounted by a gilt Saint
+Andrew's cross; and the entire screen is lavishly
+painted and gilded throughout.</p>
+
+<p>Here is a thing&mdash;almost a being&mdash;created
+out of iron, so intensely lovely that the eye
+would wish to contemplate it to the end of
+time; and, as we linger in its presence, if perchance
+the dead are privileged to hear their
+earthly praises echoed in the silence of the
+tomb, surely from his marble sepulchre Cristóbal
+de Andino listens to such praises at this hour.
+For yonder, in the neighbouring parish church
+of San Cosmé, beside a wife devoted and well-loved
+the great artificer is laid to rest, where
+Latin words (although of idle purport while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+<i>reja</i> of the Constable remains) are deep engraved
+to thus remind us of his worth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="noindent" style="margin-left: 10%;">
+<span class="smcap">CHRISTOPHORUS ANDINO EGREGIUS<br />
+ARTIFEX ET IN ARCHITECTURA OMNIUM<br />
+SUI SECULI FACILE PRINCEPS<br />
+MONUMENTUM SIBI PONENDUM LE<br />
+GAVIT ET CATERINA FRIAS EJUS<br />
+UXOR HONESTISSIMA STATIM MARITI<br />
+VOTIS ET SUIS SATISFACIENDUM B<br />
+ENIGNE CHRISTIANEQUE CURAVIT URNAM CU<br />
+JUS LAPIDES SOLUM AMBORUM OSSA TEGUNT<br />
+SED ADMONET ETIAM CERTIS ANNUI HE<br />
+BDOMADE CUJUSQUE DIEBUS SACRIFICIA<br />
+PRO EIS ESSE PERPETUO FACIENDA</span></p>
+
+<p>But if these splendid <i>rejas</i> of her temples
+constitute to-day a special glory of this nation,
+her private balconies and window-gratings were
+in former times, though from profaner motives,
+almost or quite as notable. Between the sixteenth
+and the eighteenth centuries, few of the
+foreigners who visited Spain omitted to record
+their admiration of these balconies, crowded upon
+a holiday with pretty women. &ldquo;Il y avoit,&rdquo;
+wrote Bertaut de Rouen in 1659, &ldquo;autant de
+foule à proportion qu'à Paris; et mesme ce qu'il
+y avoit de plus beau, c'estoit que comme il y
+avoit des balcons à toutes les fenestres et qu'elles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+estoient occupées par toutes les dames de la ville,
+cela faisoit un plus bel effet que les échaffauts
+que l'on fait dans les rues de Paris en semblables
+rencontres.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_155.jpg" width="355" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_155.jpg" id="img_155.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i><br />
+(<i>Casa de Pilatos, Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pinheiro da Veiga, in his queer <i>Pincigraphia</i>,
+or &ldquo;Description and Natural and Moral History
+of Valladolid,&rdquo; written earlier in the same century,
+and published twenty years ago by Gayangos
+from a manuscript in the British Museum, is
+more plain-spoken than the Frenchman on the
+various merits and peculiarities of the Spanish
+balconies and <i>rejas</i>. &ldquo;All of these churches have
+the most beautiful iron balustrades and iron open-work
+doors (<i>cancelas</i>) that can be found in Europe,
+for nowhere is iron worked so skilfully as here
+in Valladolid. These objects are made by the
+Moriscos with turned balusters, foliage, boughs,
+fruits, war-material, trophies, and other contrivances,
+which afterwards they gild and silver
+into the very likeness of these metals. I say
+the same of window-balconies; for nearly every
+window has its balcony. There are in Valladolid
+houses up which one might clamber to
+the very roof from balcony to balcony, as
+though these were a hand-ladder. So too from
+balcony to balcony (for the distance from one to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+other is never greater than a palm's breadth)
+one might climb round the whole Plaza. By
+reason of this, we Portuguese were wont to say
+that if there were as many thieves or lovers in
+Valladolid as in Portugal, verily both one and
+other of this kind of folks would have but little
+need of hand-ladders. Yet here the thieves content
+themselves with stealing by the light of day,
+while as for the women (crafty creatures that
+they are!), they perpetrate their thefts away
+from home; and, having all the day at their
+disposal, prefer to thieve while daylight lasts,
+rather than pass the night uncomfortably. To
+this I heard a lady of Castile declare, when one of
+my friends, a Portuguese, petitioned her for leave
+to speak with her at night across her <i>reja</i>: &lsquo;That
+would be tantamount to passing from one <i>hierro</i>
+to another <i>yerro</i>;<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> and in my house (which is
+also your worship's) it would not look well for
+you to seem a window-climbing thief.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_156.jpg" width="373" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_156.jpg" id="img_156.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF THE <i>CASA DE LAS CONCHAS</i><br />
+(<i>Salamanca</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is curious, in the foregoing narrative, to read
+of Morisco craftsmen working as late as 1600, and
+as far north as Castile. Perhaps the notice of
+Moriscos doing Spanish iron-work may be traced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+to certain Ordinances of Granada, published
+about three-quarters of a century before. On
+October 14th, 1522, the councillors of that town
+confabulated very lengthily and seriously as to
+the damage caused by &ldquo;balconies and <i>rejas</i>
+in the streets, fixed in the basements and the
+lower rooms of houses, or projecting portals which
+extend beyond the level of the wall. For we
+have witnessed, and do witness daily, numerous
+mishaps to wayfarers, alike on horseback and on
+foot, whether by day or night, because the
+highways, narrow in themselves, are rendered
+yet more narrow by such balconies and <i>rejas</i>.
+Whereas in winter persons seeking to escape
+the filth by keeping to the wall are thwarted, or
+at night-time injured, by these <i>rejas</i>. Or yet in
+summer, when the waters swell, and conduits
+burst and overflow the middle of the street, then
+neither can they keep the middle of the way, nor
+pass aside (by reason of the balconies aforesaid)
+to its edges.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Having regard to all these grievances, the
+councillors decreed that &ldquo;none of whatsoever
+order or condition shall dare henceforth to
+place, or cause to be placed, about the lower
+floors or entrance of their dwelling, <i>rejas</i> or iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+balconies, or anything projecting much or little
+from the level of the wall. But all projections
+shall be set three yards, not any less, above the
+street. If not so much, they shall be set within
+the wall, on pain of a fine of ten thousand
+<i>maravedis</i>, and five thousand <i>maravedis</i> to the
+mason and the carpenter that shall repair their
+fixing. Further, we order that all balconies and
+<i>rejas</i> now at a height of less than the aforesaid
+three yards be taken away within three days
+from the crying in public of these Ordinances.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>For this deplorable state of things a double
+influence was to blame; namely, the oriental
+narrowness of the street, and also the elaborate
+ornamentation, proceeding very largely from a
+northern Gothic and non-Spanish source, of these
+annoying yet impressive gratings. Some of them,
+sweeping the very soil, and boldly and fantastically
+curved, may yet be seen at Toro. Those of
+Granada are no more. Indeed, not only have the
+<i>rejas</i> of the Spanish private house long ceased<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+to show the decorative cunning of the craftsman,
+but even in their present unartistic form are
+largely limited to Andalusia. Yet even thus, they
+seem to guard a typical and national air, mixed
+with a subtle, semi-Mussulmanic poetry. Across
+them, while the term of courtship lasts, the lover
+whispers with his mistress, oblivious of the outer
+world, fixing his gaze within, until his sultaness
+emerges from the gloom, and holds his hand,
+and looks into his eyes, and listens to his vow.
+Therefore, in &ldquo;April's ivory moonlight,&rdquo; beneath
+the velvet skies of Andalusia, one always is well
+pleased to pass beside these children of romantic
+Spain, warming the frigid iron with the breath of
+youth, and hope, and happiness, and telling to
+each other a secret that is known unto us all&mdash;at
+once the sweetest and the saddest, the newest and
+the oldest story of all stories.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> A small collection, formed by Don Emilio Rotondo, of primitive
+iron rings, bracelets, brooches, and other ornaments, is preserved
+in the Schools of Aguirre at Madrid. Villa-amil y Castro (<i>Antigüedades
+prehistóricas y célticas</i>, and <i>Castros y Mamoas de Galicia</i>,
+published in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>), describes some
+iron objects of uncertain use discovered in Galicia, together with
+spear-heads and other weapons or pieces of weapons which will
+be noticed under <i>Arms</i>, and also an object which he says may
+once have been a candlestick, or else a kind of flute. All
+these are probably pre-Roman. Dating from the Roman period
+are an iron ploughshare and some sickles, discovered at Ronda
+in Andalusia, and now in the Madrid Museum. Góngora, however
+(<i>Antigüedades prehistóricas de Andalucía</i>), inclines to think
+that previous to the Roman conquest the occupants of Betica
+were ignorant of this metal, though not of gold, from which they
+fashioned diadems and other articles of wear. See also Caballero
+Infante, <i>Aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados en el pueblo
+de Santiponce</i>, Seville, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Riaño's reading was, &ldquo;<i>the King of the whole Earth will
+enter</i>.&rdquo; But is not this contradicted by the other inscription on
+the same key?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> <i>La Alhambra</i> (from which this sketch is taken) for September
+30th, 1901; article on the Palace of Seti Meriem, by F. de Paula
+Valladar.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>Ordenanzas de Granada</i>, p. 191.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Those of my readers who have visited Spain will probably
+have seen the inlaid iron-work of Eibar and Toledo. The objects
+chiefly manufactured in this style are brooches, bracelets, scarf
+and hat pins, photograph frames, jewel and trinket boxes, watches,
+and cigarette cases. The workmanship is often elaborate and
+costly, nor can it be denied that the red or greenish gold has an
+effective look against the jet-black surface of the polished or unpolished
+iron. Upon the other hand, the taste displayed in the
+design is seldom good; while in a climate with the slightest tendency
+to damp, the iron is apt to rust and tarnish, and the fine inlay to
+loosen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Serrano Fatigati, in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+Excursiones</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> For a detailed account of these pulpits see Villa-amil y Castro's
+article in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Payments made to &ldquo;Master Juan Francés&rdquo; are recorded by
+Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las
+Bellas Artes en España</i>, pp. 320, 321.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <i>History of Architecture</i>, p. 303. They possess, too, the advantage,
+from their ponderous solidity and fixedness, that most of them
+are still extant and in the best of preservation, although Napoleon's
+Vandals rooted up the chapel <i>rejas</i> of the Church of Santo
+Domingo at Granada, and turned them into bullets; just as their
+general, Sebastiani, threw down the tower of San Jerónimo to
+make a trumpery bridge across the trickling stream of the Genil.
+Scores of thousands of such crimes, not to forget the blowing up of
+the gate and tower of the Siete Suelos, were perpetrated by the
+French all over Spain; yet Washington Irving, in a strangely
+infelicitous passage of his <i>Tales of the Alhambra</i>, congratulates the
+invaders for their reverential treatment of the noblest monuments
+of Spanish art!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> So, in Spain, does war appear to have been connected even with
+the peaceful <i>reja</i>. Similarly, in 1518, the contractors for the grille
+of the Chapel Royal of Granada were Juan Zagala and Juan de
+Cubillana, &ldquo;master-artillerymen to their highnesses.&rdquo; Valladar,
+<i>Guía de Granada</i>, 1st ed., p. 302, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> A quaint but somewhat tautological and prosy letter concerning
+matters of his craft, addressed by Francés to the cardinal-archbishop
+of Toledo, is published in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>,
+article <i>Los Púlpitos de la Catedral de Avila</i>, by Villa-amil
+y Castro. The <i>reja</i> of the presbytery at Burgo de Osma is thus
+inscribed: &ldquo;<i>Izo esta obra maestre Joan Francés maestre mayor.</i>&rdquo;
+The top consists of repetitions of a shield containing five stars
+and supported by angels, lions, and gryphons. Two iron pulpits
+project from the lower part of the grille, and a swan of the same
+metal, with extended wings, rests upon either pulpit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> A Dominican friar, summoned to Seville in 1518, to make her
+cathedral <i>rejas</i>. He also made the pulpits of the high altar in 1531,
+and was working in this city as late as 1547. Account-sheets
+penned by his hand were still extant a century ago, and Cean
+conveys to us some knowledge of Fray Francisco, receiving
+as the wages of his labour, now a score or so of ducats, now a
+bushel or two of corn. The friar, whom the canons spoke of with
+affection for his many virtues, seems to have been a handy man,
+seeing that between his spells of <i>reja</i>-making he put the clock of
+the Giralda into trim, and built an alarum apparatus to rouse the
+cathedral bell-ringer at early morning.</p>
+
+<p>For the sums paid to Fray Francisco and to Sancho Muñoz for
+their work, see Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. ii.
+pp. 365 <i>et seq</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Consult his valuable studies, <i>Artistas exhumados</i>, published
+in various numbers of the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+Excursionistas</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Rosell y Torres; <i>La Reja de la Capilla del Condestable
+en la Catedral de Burgos</i>, published in the <i>Museo Español de
+Antigüedades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> He is called Domingo de Céspedes by Cean Bermudez, although,
+as Zarco del Valle remarks, the surname does not appear in any of
+the documents relating to this craftsman which are yet preserved in
+the archives of Toledo cathedral. These documents merely tell us
+that Domingo was his Christian name, that his own signature was
+<i>Maestre Domingo</i>, and that he and Fernando Bravo were required
+to find surety to the value of 375,000 <i>maravedis</i> for the faithful and
+expert performance of their work, which they were to complete
+within two years, receiving for it the sum of six thousand ducats.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Conde de Cedillo, <i>Toledo en el Siglo XVI</i>. Reply to the
+Count's address, by J. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> The painting of a <i>reja</i> was commonly executed by the &ldquo;image-painter&rdquo;
+(<i>pintor de imaginería</i>). As the term implies, it was this
+artist's business to gild or colour sacred furniture, such as altars,
+panels, images, and decorative doors and ceilings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Archives of Simancas. <i>Descargos de las R.C.</i>; <i>Legajo 23
+prov.</i> Valladar, <i>Guía de Granada</i> (1st ed.), p. 302, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> &ldquo;To Master Bartholomew, <i>rexero</i>, twenty gold ducats for the
+days he took in travelling from Jaen, and for those on which he was
+at work upon the <i>reja</i> of the high altar here in Seville.&rdquo; On March
+18th, 1524, the same craftsman was paid 13,125 <i>maravedis</i> for
+making the &ldquo;samples and other things belonging to the <i>reja</i> of the
+high altar.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Libro de Fábrica</i> of Seville Cathedral. Gestoso,
+<i>Sevilla Monumental y Artística</i>, and <i>Diccionario de Artífices
+Sevillanos</i>, vol. xi. p. 362.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Pedraza, <i>Historia de Granada</i> (1636), p. 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> The yoke and sheaf of arrows were the emblems of these
+princes&mdash;the yoke, of Ferdinand; the arrows, of his queen. Shields
+of their reign, whether employed in architecture or on title-pages,
+almost invariably include these emblems and the well-known motto,
+<i>Tanto Monta</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Gómez Moreno, <i>Guía de Granada</i>, p. 291.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> <i>Hierro</i> means <i>iron</i>; <i>yerro</i>, a <i>fault, faux pas</i>. Thus glossed,
+the somewhat feeble pleasantry or pun is able to explain itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> These laws affecting balconies were not, or not as time went
+on, restricted to Granada. &ldquo;Nobody,&rdquo; prescribes the general
+Spanish code in force in 1628, &ldquo;shall make a balcony or oversailing
+part to fall upon the street, nor yet rebuild or repair any that shall
+fall.&rdquo;&mdash;Pradilla, <i>Suma de Todas las Leyes Penales, Canonicas,
+Civiles, y destos Reynos</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="BRONZES" id="BRONZES">BRONZES</a></h2>
+
+<p>The earliest objects of bronze discovered in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+country are comparatively few. As in other parts
+of Europe, they consist mostly of weapons, such as
+spear-heads and hatchets (which will be noticed
+under <i>Arms</i>), or bracelets, necklaces, and clasps or
+brooches. Earrings (<i>inaures</i>), brooches (<i>fibulæ</i>),
+and other objects of a similar purpose dating from
+the Roman period have been discovered in Galicia,
+while plates of the same alloy<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> which imitate a
+shell were used as personal ornaments by the
+men and women of the ancient Spanish tribes.</p>
+
+<p>The province of Palencia is a fertile field for
+archæological discovery. Here have been found
+some curious clasps, intended, it would seem, to
+represent the old Iberian mounted warrior, sometimes
+brandishing the typical Iberian lance. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+following is a sketch in outline of an object of
+this kind, fashioned as clumsily and crudely as the
+cheapest wooden plaything of our time:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_164.jpg" width="250" height="267"
+        alt="warrior"
+        title="warrior" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Two parts&mdash;the figure of the horseman, and a
+four-wheeled stand on which the warrior's steed
+is resolutely set&mdash;compose this comical antiquity.
+The rider's only article of clothing is a helmet;
+while the horse, without a saddle or a bridle, is
+completely nude. This toy, or table ornament,
+or whatever it may be, was found not far from
+Badajoz, where other prehistoric bronzes are
+preserved in the museum of the province;<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> and
+Mr E. S. Dodgson says that in possession of
+an Englishman at Comillas he has seen another
+bronze rider of primitive workmanship, with the
+head of a wild boar under his left arm. Those
+who are interested in the meaning of these early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+bronzes should consult an article, <i>El jinete ibérico</i>,
+by Señor Mélida, published in Nos. 90&ndash;92 of the
+<i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_165.jpg" width="359" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_165.jpg" id="img_165.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">&ldquo;MELEAGER'S HUNT&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Primitive Spanish Bronze</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We know that the use of Roman lamps grew to
+be general in this land&mdash;a fact which justifies my
+noticing the specimens preserved in the museum
+of Madrid; and more particularly so because their
+shape and general character have been perpetuated
+through the Spanish Moors and Christians
+of the Middle Ages till this very moment.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman lamp, shaped somewhat like a boat
+by reason of the <i>rostrum</i> or beakish receptacle for
+the wick, consisted of an earthenware or metal
+vessel with a circular or oblong body and a handle,
+together with at least one hole for pouring in the
+oil. The commonest material was earthenware,
+and next to this, bronze. The lamp was either
+suspended by a chain or chains, or else was rested
+on a stand. Plato and Petronius tell us that the
+stand was borrowed from the rustic makeshift of
+a stick, or the stout stem of a plant, thrust into
+the ground. As time went on, the stem or stick
+in imitative metal-work was rendered more or less
+artistic and ornate. But there was more than
+a single kind of lampstand. The <i>lychnuchus</i>
+(&#955;&#965;&#967;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#967;&#959;&#962;), invented by the Greeks, held various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+lamps suspended from its branches, while, on
+the other hand, the Roman <i>candelabrum</i> supported
+but a solitary lamp upon the disc or platform
+at its top extremity.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> The island of Egina
+was famed for the production of these discs, and
+Pliny tells us that the decorated stem or <i>scapus</i>
+was chiefly manufactured at Tarentum.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman lampstands also varied in their
+height. When the stem was long they stood upon
+the ground&mdash;a fashion we have seen revived in
+recent years, and even where electricity replaces
+oil. When, on the contrary, the stem was short,
+the stand was known as a <i>candelabrum humile</i>,
+and rested on a table or a stool.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_166.jpg" width="350" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_166.jpg" id="img_166.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">A <i>CANDIL</i><br />
+(<i>Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Madrid Museum contains a remarkable
+bronze lamp in the form of an ass's head adorned
+with flowers and with ivy. The ass is holding in
+its mouth the <i>rostrum</i> for the wick. The hole for
+the oil is shaped like a flower with eleven petals,
+under one of which is the monogram M&#8224;R. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+back of this lamp consists of an uncouth human
+male figure, in a reclining posture, wearing a
+Phrygian cap and holding the ass's head between
+his legs.</p>
+
+<p>Other lamps of bronze, including several of an
+interesting character, are in the same collection.
+One of these represents a sea-deity; another has
+its handle shaped like a horse's head and neck;
+and in a third the orifice for the oil is heart-shaped,
+while the handle terminates in the head of a swan.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a series of three pensile lamps&mdash;two
+in the likeness of the head and neck of a
+griffin, and the third in that of a theatrical mask;
+as well as a candelabrum fourteen inches high,
+terminating beneath in three legs with lions' claws
+(foreshadowing or repeating oriental motives), and
+above in a two-handled vessel on which to place
+the lamp. This vessel supports at present a fine
+<i>lucerna</i> in the form of a peacock.</p>
+
+<p>Probably no people in the world have kept
+extant, or rather, kept alive, their oldest forms of
+pottery or instruments for giving light more steadfastly
+or more solicitously than the Spaniards.
+Their iron <i>candil</i><a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> and brass <i>velón</i> of nowadays<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+(Pls. <a href="#img_166.jpg">xxviii</a>. and <a href="#img_168.jpg">xxix</a>.)&mdash;the one of these the primitive
+lamp that hangs; the other, the primitive
+lamp that rests upon a table or the ground&mdash;are
+borrowed with but a minimum of alteration from
+the lighting apparatus of the ancient Greeks and
+Romans, and possess, for all their coarse and
+cheap and unpretentious workmanship, a subtle
+interest and elegance attributable only to the
+inspiration of antiquity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_168.jpg" width="281" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_168.jpg" id="img_168.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">A <i>VELÓN</i><br />
+(<i>Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>More than the shape of these old objects seems
+to have passed to modern Spain&mdash;if any phase
+at all of Spanish life can ever justly be accounted
+modern. The ancients had an almost superstitious
+reverence for a lighted lamp, and were
+accustomed to declare that &ldquo;<i>lucerna, cum extinguitur,
+vocem emittit, quasi necata</i>&rdquo;; &ldquo;a lamp,
+on being put out, utters a sound as though it were
+being murdered.&rdquo; Now, it may be a coincidence&mdash;although
+I cannot but regard it as distinctly
+more than a coincidence&mdash;that even at this day<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+a large proportion of the Andalusian people are
+markedly averse to blowing out a kindled match;
+nor do they think it of good augury to be in a
+room where three lights&mdash;candles, matches, or
+whatever they may be&mdash;are simultaneously aflame.
+I have noticed, too, that, whether from utter carelessness
+or whether from ancestral superstition
+handed down from Rome, one rarely sees upon
+the staircase or the doorstep of a Spanish public
+building a vesta that has been (if I may be
+allowed the term) extinguished <i>artificially</i>.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Madrid Museum are several military
+bronze <i>signa</i> which were found in Spain and date
+from the Roman era, as well as a <i>vexillum</i>, or one
+of the T-shaped frames on which the warriors of
+that people used to hang their standards. One of
+these <i>signa</i> is in the form of a wild boar; another
+in that of a saddled and bridled horse. Beneath
+this latter is the word VIVA and a cross, which
+shows that the object dates from a period not
+earlier than the reign of Constantine.</p>
+
+<p>It is strange&mdash;or rather, would be strange in any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+country that had been less constantly afflicted
+both with civil and external warfare&mdash;that hardly
+anything remains of all the bronze artistic objects
+manufactured by the Spanish Moors. Poets of
+this race have sung of gold and silver fountains,
+door-knockers, and statues that adorned the buildings
+of Cordova. In many of these instances the
+hyperbolic gold and silver of the writers would
+undoubtedly be bronze. Al-Makkari quotes an
+Arab poet who extols in passionate terms
+Almanzor's dazzling mansion of Az-zahyra.
+&ldquo;Lions of metal,&rdquo; sang this poet, &ldquo;bite the
+knockers of thy doors, and as those doors resound
+appear to be exclaiming <i>Allahu akbar</i>&rdquo; (&ldquo;God is
+great&rdquo;). Another bard describes the fountains
+of the same enchanted palace. &ldquo;The lions who
+repose majestically in this home of princes, instead
+of roaring, allow the waters to fall in murmuring
+music from their mouths. <i>Their bodies seem to be
+covered with gold</i>, and in their mouths crystal is
+made liquid.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Though in reality these lions are at rest, they
+seem to move and, when provoked, to grow
+enraged. One would imagine that they remembered
+their carnage of past days, and bellowing
+turned once more to the attack.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_171.jpg" width="500" height="373"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_171.jpg" id="img_171.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">BRONZE LION<br />
+(<i>Found in the Province of Palencia</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;When the sun is reflected from their <i>bronze</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+surface, they seem to be of fire, with tongues of
+flame that issue from their mouths.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Nevertheless, when we observe them to be
+vomiting water, one would think this water to be
+swords which melt without the help of fire, and
+are confounded with the crystal of the fountain.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Figures in bronze, of eagles, peacocks, swans,
+stags, dragons, lions, and many other creatures
+were set about in garden and in hall, to decorate
+these splendid palaces of ancient Cordova.</p>
+
+<p>A specimen of this class of objects is a bronze
+lion of small dimensions (Plate <a href="#img_173.jpg">xxx</a>.) found not
+many years ago in the province of Palencia, and
+believed to date from the reign of Al-Hakem the
+Second of Cordova. It belonged for some time
+to the painter Fortuny&mdash;a diligent and lucky
+hunter of antiquities,&mdash;and was subsequently purchased
+in 1875 by M. Piot. The modelling and
+decoration of this beast, especially the mannered
+and symmetrical curls which are supposed to form
+its mane, are quite conventional and strongly reminiscent
+of Assyrian art, such as pervades the
+various lions rudely wrought in stone and still
+existing at Granada; whether the celebrated
+dozen that support and guard the fountain in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+the courtyard of the Moorish palace,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> or else the
+greater pair of grinning brutes proceeding from
+the ruins of the palace of Azaque (miscalled the
+Moorish Mint), which may be noticed squatting
+with their rumps towards the road, beside the
+garden entrance to the Carmen de la Mezquita.</p>
+
+<p>This little bronze lion measures about twelve
+inches high by fourteen inches long. The legs
+and part of the body are covered with a pattern
+representing flowers. The mane is described by
+comma-shaped marks. The tail, bent not ungracefully
+along the animal's back, is decorated
+with a kind of plait through nearly all its length.
+The eyes are now two cavities, but seem in other
+days to have contained two coloured stones or
+gems. Upon the back and flanks is a Cufic
+inscription which says, &ldquo;<i>Perfect blessing. Complete
+happiness.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mussulman historians have described, in terms
+of cloying praise, the &ldquo;red gold animals contrived
+with subtle skill and spread with precious stones&rdquo;
+which Abderrahman placed at Cordova upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+fountains of his palaces. &ldquo;Rivers of water
+issued from the mouth of every animal, and
+fell into a jasper basin.&rdquo; The words &ldquo;red gold&rdquo;
+are patently an oriental term for bronze. In
+view of this, and of the fact that the lion of
+Palencia is hollow-bellied, with his mouth wide
+open for ejecting water, and with a tail of cunning
+craftsmanship, which would avail, on being
+rotated, to produce or check the current of the
+&ldquo;liquid crystal,&rdquo; we may conclude that it was
+intended both to form a part of, and to decorate
+a Moorish fountain of old days, and is the kind
+of beast &ldquo;with precious stones for eyes&rdquo; so
+often and so ecstatically lauded by the Muslim
+writers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_173.jpg" width="389" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_173.jpg" id="img_173.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">BRONZE STAG<br />
+(<i>Moorish. Museum of Cordova.</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Similar to the foregoing object, and dating from
+about the same period, is a small bronze stag
+(Pl. <a href="#img_173.jpg">xxxi</a>.) in the provincial museum of Cordova. It
+is believed to proceed originally from the famous
+palace (tenth century) of Az-zahra, and used to be
+kept, some centuries ago, in the convent of San
+Jerónimo de Valparaiso.</p>
+
+<p>The museum of Granada contains some interesting
+Moorish bronzes, found on the site of the
+ancient city of Illiberis, abandoned by its occupants
+on their removal to Granada at the beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+of the eleventh century. The most remarkable
+of these discoveries are pieces of a fountain, a
+small temple (Plate <a href="#img_174.jpg">xxxii</a>.), an <i>almirez</i> or mortar
+(Plate <a href="#img_176.jpg">xxxiii</a>.), similar to one (not mentioned by
+Riaño) which was discovered at Monzón, and a
+few lamps. The fragments of a fountain end in
+the characteristic Assyrian-looking lions' heads,
+with lines in regular zones to represent the eyes
+and other features. One of the lamps (Pl. <a href="#img_176.jpg">xxxiii</a>.)
+is far superior to the rest. Notwithstanding
+Riaño's assertion that all of these antiquities are
+&ldquo;incomplete and mutilated,&rdquo; this lamp is well
+preserved, and still retains, secured by a chain,
+the little metal trimming-piece or <i>emunctorium</i>
+of the Romans. The small bronze temple is
+sometimes thought (but this hypothesis seems
+rather fanciful) to be a case, or part of a case,
+designed for keeping jewellery. The height of it
+is two-and-twenty inches, and the form hexagonal,
+&ldquo;with twelve small columns supporting bands of
+open work, frescoes, cupola, and turrets; in the
+angles are birds&rdquo; (Riaño).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_174.jpg" width="324" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_174.jpg" id="img_174.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">BRONZE TEMPLE<br />
+(<i>Moorish. Museum of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most important object in this substance
+now extant in any part of Spain is probably the
+huge and finely decorated lamp of Mohammed the
+Third of Granada (Pl. <a href="#img_179.jpg">xxxiv</a>.), called sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+&ldquo;the lamp of Oran,&rdquo; from a mistaken belief that
+it had formed part of the booty yielded by this
+city after her capture in 1509 by Cardinal Jimenez
+de Cisneros.</p>
+
+<p>The material of this lamp is bronze, possibly
+provided by the bells of Christian churches taken
+and pillaged by the Moors. It has four parts or
+tiers of varying shape, delicately wrought in open-work,
+and reaching a height of nearly seven feet in
+all. The third and largest tier, corresponding to
+the shade, is in the form of a truncated pyramid,
+and shows a different design on each of its four
+sides. The lamp bears several inscriptions, interrupted
+here and there through breakage of the
+metal. The longest of these legends is interpreted
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the name of God the Merciful. (May) the
+blessing of God be on our lord Mohammed and his
+kin; health and peace. (This lamp) was ordered
+(to be made) by our Lord the egregious sultan,
+the favoured, the victorious, the just, the happy,
+the conqueror of cities, and the extreme boundary
+of just conduct among the servants (of God); the
+emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah, son of our
+lord the emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah,
+son of our lord Al-Galib-Billah, the conqueror<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+through God's protection, the emir of the Mussulmans
+Abu-Abdillah; (may) God aid him (praised
+be God).&rdquo; Here is a breakage and a corresponding
+gap in the inscription, which continues, &ldquo;beneath
+it, lighted by my light for its magnificence
+and the care of its <i>xeque</i>, with righteous purpose
+and unerring certainty. And this was in the
+month of Rabié the first blessed, in the year 705.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>
+May (God) be praised.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The history of this lamp has been explored with
+scholarly care by Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos,
+whose monograph will be found in the <i>Museo
+Español de Antigüedades</i>. He says that the lamp
+was formerly suspended from the ceiling of the
+chapel of San Ildefonso in the university of Alcalá
+de Henares. Here, too, he has discovered entries
+which relate to it in two separate inventories, dated
+1526 and 1531, from which we gather that the
+lamp, excepting the lowest part or tier, which
+probably proceeded from Oran, was brought to
+Alcalá by Cardinal Cisneros from the mosque of
+the Alhambra of Granada.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_176.jpg" width="500" height="333"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_176.jpg" id="img_176.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH LAMP AND MORTAR<br />
+(<i>Moorish. Museum of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>All of the lamp (continues Amador) that
+properly belongs to it, is the open-work shade,
+together with the graduated set of spheres which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+we now observe on top.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> The lowest part is
+clearly an inverted bell, from which project four
+decorative pieces. This is believed by Amador
+to be a Spanish bell, dating from the fifteenth
+century, designed for striking with a hammer,
+and proceeding from some monastery or convent
+plundered by the Moors. Indeed, one of the two
+inventories discovered at Alcalá mentions &ldquo;a bell
+with a hole in it, <i>which used to belong to a Moorish
+lamp</i>,&rdquo; thus countenancing the widespread supposition
+that the lamps of the mosque of Cordova
+were made of the Christian bells of Compostela,
+which the fierce Almanzor caused to be conveyed
+upon the aching backs of Christian captives to the
+Moorish court and capital of Andalusia.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable, therefore, that the lamp of the
+third Mohammed of Granada is now composed
+of two lamps, and that the primitive arrangement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+of its parts was altered by the ignorant. Eight
+chains would formerly suspend it, in the following
+order of its tiers or stages, from the dome of the
+<i>mezquita</i>. First and uppermost would come the
+shade; then, next to this, the set of tapering
+spheres; and, last and lowest, the saucer or <i>platillo</i>,
+which has disappeared. Further, and as Koranic
+law prescribed, the lamp would hold two lights&mdash;one
+to be kindled on the saucer, and the other
+underneath the shade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_178.jpg" width="400" height="195"
+        alt="lamp"
+        title="lamp" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Other articles of Spanish-Moorish ornamented
+bronze are thimbles, buckets, and the spherical
+perfume-burners which were used to roll upon
+the stone or marble pavement of a dwelling.
+Moorish thimbles, conical and uncouthly large,
+are not uncommonly met with at Granada. I
+have one, of which the above is an outline
+sketched to size.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes these Moorish thimbles are inscribed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+in Cufic lettering with phrases such as&mdash;&ldquo;(May)
+the blessing of God and every kind of happiness
+(be destined for the owner of this thimble)&rdquo;; or
+else the maker's name&mdash;&ldquo;The work of Saif&rdquo;; or
+a single word&mdash;&ldquo;Blessing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_179.jpg" width="350" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_179.jpg" id="img_179.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LAMP OF MOHAMMED THE THIRD<br />
+(<i>Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The thimbles from which I quote these legends
+are in the National Museum. The same collection
+includes a very finely wrought bronze bucket or
+<i>acetre</i> (Latin <i>situlus</i>; Arabic <i>as-setl</i>, the utensil
+for drawing water for a bath). The outside is
+covered with delicate ornamentation, varied with
+inscriptions of no great interest, invoking Allah's
+blessing on the owner or employer of the bucket,
+which is thought by Amador to be of Granadino
+workmanship, and to date from about the middle
+of the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Not many specimens remain of early mediæval
+Spanish bronzes wrought by Christian hands.
+Riaño, who admits that &ldquo;we can hardly trace
+any bronze of this period other than cathedral
+bells,&rdquo; mentions as probably proceeding from
+abroad the altar-fronts and statuettes, in gilt
+enamelled bronze, of Salamanca and elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>
+and gives a short description of the bell, about
+six inches high (Pl. <a href="#img_180.jpg">xxxv</a>.), known as the Abbot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+Samson's, now in Cordova Museum. This object
+bears an early date (875 A.D.), and is inscribed,
+&ldquo;<i>Offert hoc munus Samson abbatis in domum Sancti
+Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era</i> D.C.C.C.C.XIII.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is curious that Riaño should make no mention
+of Spanish bronze processional crosses. In my
+chapter on gold, silver, and jewel work I mentioned
+those belonging to churches in the north of Spain.
+A bronze crucifix (Plate <a href="#img_182.jpg">xxxvi</a>.), believed to date
+from the beginning of the twelfth century, and
+proceeding from the monastery of Arbós, in the
+province of León, is now in the possession of Don
+Felix Granda Builla. It is undoubtedly of
+Spanish make, and probably was carried in processions.
+The style is pure Romanic, and the
+drawing of the ribs, extremities, and limbs is
+typically primitive. The <i>sudarium</i> is secured by
+the belt or <i>parazonium</i>. The feet, unpierced, rest
+on a <i>supedaneum</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_180.jpg" width="349" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_180.jpg" id="img_180.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">ABBOT SAMSON'S BELL<br />
+(<i>9th Century. Museum of Cordova</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A bronze Renaissance parish cross of the
+sixteenth century, once hidden in a village of
+Asturias, was bought some thirty years ago by
+the museum of Madrid. The body of the cross
+is wood, covered on both sides with bronze plates
+wrought with figures of the Saviour as the holy
+infant and as full-grown man, and also with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+figure of the Virgin. These figures were formerly
+painted, and traces of the colour yet remain. The
+cross was also silvered. The rest of the ornamentation
+consists of vases, flowers, and other subjects
+proper to Renaissance art.</p>
+
+<p>A similar cross belongs to the parish church of
+San Julian de Recaré, in the province of Lugo,
+while San Pedro de Donas, near Santiago in
+Galicia, possesses a processional cross of bronze,
+pierced along the edges in a pattern of trefoils
+and <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>, but otherwise undecorated.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes in Spanish bronze we find the
+handiwork of Moors and Christians picturesquely
+intermingled, as in the gates of Toledo cathedral
+(1337), and the Puertas del Perdón&mdash;forming the
+principal entrance to the Court of Orange Trees&mdash;of
+the mosque of Cordova, made of wood and
+covered with bronze plating decorated with
+irregular hexagons and Gothic and Arabic inscriptions.
+The knockers contain a scroll and
+flowers, and on the scroll the words, <i>Benedictus
+Dominus Deus Israel</i>. The gate of the same
+name of Seville cathedral (Pl. <a href="#img_184.jpg">xxxvii</a>.) is similar
+in workmanship, and is considered by Riaño to
+be a good example of Moresque bronze-work.</p>
+
+<p>While speaking of these doors, we should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+remember that Moorish craftsmen were employed
+to decorate or to repair the mosque of Cordova
+long after it had been converted to the worship
+of the Christians. When he was acting as viceroy
+in the year 1275, the Infante Don Fernando
+confirmed a letter of his father, King Alfonso,
+remitting tolls and taxes that would otherwise be
+leviable upon four Moors who worked in the
+cathedral. The Infante's confirmation, after recording
+that &ldquo;one (of the four Moors) is dead and
+the other blind, in such wise that he can work no
+more,&rdquo; consents to the engagement of another two,
+Famet and Zahec by name, to fill their places,
+and who also are hereby exempted from the
+payment of all dues. Five years afterwards this
+privilege was reconfirmed by King Alfonso, and
+we are further told on this occasion that two of
+the Moorish four were <i>albañís</i>, or masons, and the
+others <i>añaiares</i>, or carpenters. As time progressed,
+the situation of the vanquished and humiliated
+Mussulmans grew more irksome. On October
+25th, 1320, the Infante Don Sancho, who had
+usurped the throne, proclaimed, in ratification of a
+letter issued by his father, that all the Moorish
+carpenters, masons, sawyers, and other workmen
+and artificers of Cordova must work in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+cathedral (presumably without a wage) for two
+days in every year.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_182.jpg" width="342" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_182.jpg" id="img_182.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">BRONZE CRUCIFIX<br />
+(<i>12th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the latter half of the sixteenth century,
+Bartolomé Morel, a Sevillano, produced some
+notable work in bronze.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Three objects by his
+hand&mdash;namely, the choir lectern and the tenebrarium
+of Seville cathedral, and the weathercock
+or <i>Giraldillo</i> which crowns the celebrated tower of
+the same enormous temple&mdash;are specially distinguished
+for their vigour and effectiveness.</p>
+
+<p>The least important of these objects is the
+choir lectern, for which Morel was paid six
+hundred ducats. The decoration is of statuettes
+and <i>rilievi</i>, well designed and better executed.
+The tenebrarium, aptly defined by Amador as
+&ldquo;an article of church furniture intended to make
+a show of light,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> is more ambitious and original.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+&ldquo;It was designed and made by Morel in the year
+1562. Juan Giralte, a native of Flanders, and Juan
+Bautista Vazquez helped him to make the statues
+at the head of this candelabrum, and Pedro
+Delgado, another noted sculptor of Seville, worked
+at the foot of it. It is eight and a half yards high,
+and the triangular head is three yards across.
+Upon this upper part are fifteen statues, representing
+the Saviour, the apostles, and two other
+disciples or evangelists. In the vacant space of
+the triangle is a circle adorned with leaves, and in
+the centre of this circle is a bust of the Virgin in
+relief, and, lower down, the figure of a king. All
+of this part is of bronzed wood, and rests upon
+four small bronze columns. The remainder of the
+candelabrum is all of this material, and the small
+columns are supported by four caryatides, resting
+upon an order of noble design decorated with lions'
+heads, scrolls, pendants, and other ornamentation,
+the whole resting upon a graceful border enriched
+with harpies.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_184.jpg" width="366" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_184.jpg" id="img_184.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE <i>PUERTA DEL PERDÓN</i><br />
+(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This description of the Seville tenebrarium is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+translated from Cean Bermudez, and is the one
+most commonly quoted, though Amador complains
+that it is not precise, and fails to dwell upon the
+symbolism of this mighty mass of bronze.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Thus,
+what Cean affirms to be the bust of a king is
+declared by Amador to be the head of a pope,
+probably Saint Gregory the Great. Metal, as
+Cean remarks, is not employed throughout. In
+order to preserve its balance, the upper part of the
+tenebrarium, containing the triangle which is said
+by some to symbolize &ldquo;the divinity of Jesus as
+God the triple and the one,&rdquo; is merely wood
+bronzed over. Amador adds that the foot and
+stem are intended to represent &ldquo;the people of
+Israel in their perfidy and ingratitude.&rdquo; He also
+says that the statue in the centre of the triangle is
+that of Faith, and that which crowns the entire
+tenebrarium, of the Virgin Mary.</p>
+
+<p>Morel, like Brunelleschi, was an architect as
+well as a craftsman in bronze.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> He completed
+this tenebrarium in 1562, and the chapter of
+the cathedral were so contented with it that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+instead of paying him the stipulated price, namely,
+eight hundred ducats, they added of their own
+accord a further two hundred and fifty. They
+also commissioned him to make a handsome case
+to keep it in; but the case has disappeared, and
+the naked tenebrarium now stands in the Sacristy
+of Chalices of the cathedral.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> It is still used
+at the Matin service during the last three days
+of Holy Week, and still, in the <i>Oficio de
+Tinieblas</i>, the custom is observed of extinguishing
+the fifteen tapers, one by one, at the conclusion
+of each psalm.</p>
+
+<p>The title of the object which surmounts the
+famed Giralda tower of Seville is properly &ldquo;the
+Statue of Faith, the triumph of the Church&rdquo; (Pl. <a href="#img_186.jpg">xxxviii</a>.);
+but it is known in common language
+as the Giraldillo (weathercock), which name has
+passed into the word Giralda, now applied to all
+the tower. The populace of Seville also call it,
+in the <i>argot</i> of their cheerful town, the <i>muñeco</i>
+or &ldquo;doll,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Victory,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Santa Juana.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_186.jpg" width="310" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_186.jpg" id="img_186.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE WEATHERCOCK OF THE GIRALDA TOWER<br />
+(<i>16th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This statue, made of hollow bronze, rotates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+upon an iron rod piercing the great bronze globe
+which lies immediately beneath the figure's feet.
+The globe is nearly six feet in diameter. The
+figure itself represents a Roman matron wearing
+a flowing tunic partly covering her legs and arms.
+Sandals are secured to her feet by straps.
+Upon her head she wears a Roman helmet
+crested by a triple plume. In her right hand
+she holds the semicircular Roman standard
+of the time of Constantine, which points the
+direction of the wind and causes the figure to
+revolve, excepting when the air is very faint, in
+which case it is caught by two diminutive banners
+springing from the large one.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> So huge are the
+proportions of this metal lady that the medal
+on her breast contains a life-size head which
+represents an angel.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish Moors were also well acquainted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+with the use of weathercocks. During the reign,
+in the eleventh century, of the Zirite kingling
+of Granada, Badis ben Habbus, a weathercock
+of strange design surmounted his <i>alcázar</i>. The
+historian Marmol wrote in the sixteenth century
+that it was still existing on a little tower, and
+consisted of a horseman in Moorish dress, with
+a long lance and his shield upon his arm, the
+whole of bronze, with an inscription on the shield
+which says: &ldquo;Badis ben Habbus declares that in
+this attitude should the Andalusian be discovered
+(at his post).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Not many other objects in this substance can
+be instanced as the work of Spanish craftsmen of
+the sixteenth and succeeding centuries, or of the
+later-Gothic age immediately preceding. Among
+them are the pulpits of Santiago cathedral, made
+by Celma, an Aragonese, in 1563; the choir-screen
+(1574&ndash;1579) in the cathedral of Zaragoza,
+made by Juan Tomás Cela, also a native of
+Aragon; the gilt lecterns of Toledo cathedral,
+which are the work of Nicolás Vergara and his
+son; the Gothic lectern of the mosque of Cordova;
+the choir-lectern (1557) of Cuenca, made by Hernando
+de Arenas, who will also be remembered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+as having made the <i>reja</i> of the same cathedral;
+and the octagonal gilt-bronze pulpits of Toledo,
+wrought by Francisco de Villalpando, as are the
+bas-reliefs (1564) upon the door of Lions, executed
+by the same craftsman from designs by
+Berruguete.</p>
+
+<p>These last-named pulpits are associated with a
+legend. Within this temple, once upon a time,
+rested the metal sepulchre of the great Don
+Alvaro de Luna, so constructed by his orders that
+upon the touching of a secret spring the statue of
+the Constable himself would rise into a kneeling
+posture throughout the celebration of the mass.
+His lifelong and relentless foe, the Infante Enrique
+of Aragon, tore up the tomb in 1449; and from
+its fragments, superstition says, were made these
+pulpits.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish Renaissance door-knockers in bronze
+are often curious. Fifteen large bronze rings
+adorned with garlands, heads of lions and of
+eagles, or with the pair of columns and the motto
+<span class="smcap">PLUS OULTRE</span> of Charles the Fifth, were formerly
+upon the pilasters of the roofless, semi-ruined
+palace of that emperor at Granada. Removed
+elsewhere for greater safety,<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> they will now be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+found among the couple of dozen curiosities
+preserved in a chamber of the Moorish royal
+residence of the Alhambra.</p>
+
+<p>Herewith I end my sketch of Spanish bronzes,
+without delaying to describe the tasteless <i>transparente</i>
+behind the altar of Toledo cathedral, or
+the neo-classic, Frenchified productions of the
+reign of Charles the Third, such as the table-mountings
+of the Buen Retiro, or trifles from
+the silver factory of Antonio Martinez. At the
+Escorial, the shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa
+Forma and the altar-front of the pantheon of the
+kings of Spain, wrought by Fray Eugenio de la
+Cruz, Fray Juan de la Concepción, and Fray
+Marcos de Perpignan, are meritorious objects of
+their time. But the history of Spanish bronzes
+properly ends with the Renaissance. This material,
+possibly from its cost, has not at any time been
+greatly popular in Spain. Wood, plain or painted,
+was preferred to bronze in nearly all her statuary.
+Her mediæval and Renaissance <i>reja</i> and <i>custodia</i>
+makers can challenge all the world. So can her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+potters, armourers, leather-workers, and wood-carvers.
+But if we look for masterpieces in the
+art of shaping bronze, our eyes must turn to Italy,
+where, to astonish modern men, the powers of a
+Donatello or Ghiberti vibrate across all ages in
+the bas-reliefs of Saint Anthony at Padua, or in
+the gates of the Baptistery of Florence.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Le Hon reminds us, in <i>L'homme fossile</i>, that before the Iron
+Age all bronzes of our western world contained one part of tin to
+nine of copper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> See Romero de Castilla, <i>Inventarios de los objetos recogidos en
+el Museo Arqueológico de la Comisión de Monumentos de Badajoz</i>.
+Badajoz, 1896. Plate xxvii. represents another of these objects.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Undoubtedly the use of the Roman <i>candelabrum</i> was continued
+by the Spanish Visigoths. &ldquo;<i>Candelabrum</i>,&rdquo; says Saint Isidore,
+&ldquo;<i>a candelis dictum, quasi candela feram, quod candelam ferat</i>&rdquo;
+(<i>Originum</i>, book xx., chap. x.). The Spanish word <i>candela</i> is
+loosely used to-day for almost any kind of light or fire, or even for
+a match; but an ordinary candle is generally called a <i>vela</i> or
+<i>bugía</i> (<i>bougie</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> &ldquo;A small open lamp with a beak, and a hook to hang it, within
+which is another of the same make that contains oil and a wick to
+give light, commonly used in kitchens, stables, and inns.&rdquo;&mdash;Fathers
+Connelly and Higgins, <i>Spanish-English and English-Spanish
+Dictionary</i>. Swinburne wrote of these <i>candiles</i>:&mdash;&ldquo;The Spaniards
+delight in wine that tastes strong of the pitched skin, and of oil that
+has a rank smell and taste; indeed, the same oil feeds their lamp,
+swims in their pottage, and dresses their salad; in inns the lighted
+lamp is frequently handed down to the table, that each man may
+take the quantity he chooses.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Perhaps it is not foreign to my theme to add that the current
+name in Spanish for an oil lamp is <i>quinqué</i>, from Quinquet, the
+Parisian chemist who invented the <i>tuyau-cheminée</i> a hundred and
+odd years ago. The same word passes also into Spanish slang,
+&ldquo;<i>tener quinqué</i>&rdquo;&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> to be quick-witted and perceptive.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Swinburne fell into a comical error concerning these. &ldquo;In the
+centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions <i>muzzled</i>, their fore-parts
+smooth, their hind-parts rough, which bear upon their backs an
+enormous bason, out of which a lesser rises.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Travels through
+Spain</i>, p. 180.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> September 20th to October 19th, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1305.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> These spheres recall the four great gilded globes of bronze,
+tapering from the bottom to the top, that crowned in olden days the
+Giralda tower of Seville. According to the <i>Crónica General</i> the
+glitter of these globes &ldquo;de tan grande obra, é tan grandes, que no
+se podríen hacer otras tales,&rdquo; could be distinguished at a distance
+of eight leagues. On August 24th, 1395, when Seville was assailed
+by a frightful tempest accompanied by an earthquake, the metal rod
+which pierced and held the globes was snapped, and the globes
+themselves were dashed into a myriad pieces on the <i>azotea</i>, scores
+of yards below.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> See p. 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Libro de las Tablas</i>, pp. 17, 18. See Madrazo, <i>Cordova</i>, pp. 273
+<i>et seq</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> In documents which relate to him (see Gestoso's <i>Dictionary of
+Sevillian Artificers</i>) Morel is often called an <i>artillero</i>. His father,
+Juan Morel, was also a founder of cannon, and signed a contract in
+1564 to cast two bronze pieces or <i>tiros</i>, with the royal arms on them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> The efficacy of light in illuminating, or may be in dazzling and
+confounding, Christian worshippers is too self-evident to call for
+illustration. The symbolic meaning of church candles is, however,
+neatly indicated by the wise Alfonso in his compilation of the seven
+<i>Partidas</i>. &ldquo;Because three virtues dwell in candles, namely, wick,
+wax, and flame, so do we understand that persons three dwell in the
+Trinity&mdash;Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; and we may understand
+three other things that dwell in Jesus Christ; to wit, body, soul, and
+godhead. Hence the twelve lighted candles manifested to each
+quarter of the church exhibit unto us the twelve apostles who
+preached the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ through all the earth,
+and manifesting truest wisdom illumined all the world.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> The English rendering of Cean's description inserted by Riaño
+is inaccurate throughout.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> As architect, he made a monument (which exists no longer) for
+the festivals of Holy Week at Seville.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> In 1565 Juan del Pozo, an ironsmith, received one hundred
+<i>reales</i> &ldquo;on account of an engine which he made of iron for moving
+the tenebrarium of the cathedral, and other heavy things.&rdquo;&mdash;Gestoso,
+<i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. i. p. 313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> The statue, which looks so tiny from the street, measures nearly
+fourteen feet in height, and weighs more than two thousand two
+hundred pounds. The banner alone weighs close upon four
+hundred pounds. The figure was raised into its place in 1568, in
+which year I find that eighteen Moriscos were paid seventy-eight
+<i>reales</i> between them all for doing the work of carriage (Gestoso,
+<i>Diccionario</i>). Gestoso also mentions a large bronze plate made by
+Morel for the pavement of the cathedral, and which has disappeared.
+It weighed 2269 pounds, or about the same as the weathercock of
+the Giralda, and Morel was paid for it the sum of 289,361
+<i>maravedis</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Spaniards have a very scanty confidence in one another's
+honesty, as well as in the competence of their police. Often, at
+Madrid, and at this day, the porter of a house, as soon as it is dark,
+unscrews the knockers from the downstairs door, and guards them
+in his <i>conciergerie</i> until the morning.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="ARMS" id="ARMS">ARMS</a></h2>
+
+<p>Lovers of the old-time crafts approach a fertile<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+field in Spanish arms; for truly with this warworn
+land the sword and spear, obstinately
+substituted for the plough, seem to have grown
+well-nigh into her regular implements of daily
+bread-winning; and from long before the age of
+written chronicle her soil was planted with innumerable
+weapons of her wrangling tribesmen.</p>
+
+<p>The history of these ancient Spanish tribes is
+both obscure and complicated. If Pliny, Strabo,
+Ptolemy, and other authors may be credited, the
+Celtic race invaded the Peninsula some seven
+centuries before the Christian era, crossing the
+river Ebro, founding settlements, and fusing with
+the natives into the composite people known
+henceforward as the Celtiberians. Thus strengthened,
+they extended over nearly all the land, and
+occupied, by a dominative or assimilative policy,
+the regions corresponding to the modern Andalusia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+Portugal, Galicia, and the flat and central
+elevations of Castile.</p>
+
+<p>These Spanish tribes were ever quarrelling,
+and knew, in Strabo's words, &ldquo;no entertainment
+save in horsemanship and in the exercise of arms.&rdquo;
+Quantities of their weapons have been found all
+over Spain, such as the heads of spears and
+arrows, or the blades of daggers, hatchets, knives,
+and swords. With these Iberian tribesmen, as
+with other peoples of the ancient world, the truly
+prehistoric age is that of stone; hence they
+advanced to bronze, and finally to iron. Beuter,
+the historian of Valencia, wrote in 1534 that near
+to the town of Cariñena, in Aragon, on digging
+out some earthen mounds the excavators came
+upon enormous bones, flint lance and arrow heads,
+and knives the size of half an ordinary sword;
+all these in company with &ldquo;many skulls transfixed
+by the said stones.&rdquo; In the collection at Madrid,
+formed by Don Emilio Rotondo y Nicolau, these
+primitive Spanish weapons number several
+thousands; and many more are in the National
+Museum.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>Discoveries of ancient Spanish arms of bronze<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+occur less often and in smaller quantities than
+those of stone or iron. Bronze hatchets, principally
+of the straight-edged class (<i>à bords droites</i>)
+have been found in Galicia and certain other
+provinces. Villa-amil y Castro describes a bronze
+dagger of curious workmanship, which was found
+in Galicia in 1869. The point of the blade is
+missing. If this were included, the length of the
+weapon would be about six inches.</p>
+
+<p>Other examples, now in the Madrid Museum,
+include two swords, two daggers, and two arrowheads.
+The swords, sharp-pointed, narrow in the
+blade, and used by preference for thrusting, were
+found not far from Calatayud&mdash;the ancient town
+renowned, as Roman Bilbilis, for weapons of incomparable
+temper. The daggers were probably
+used for fighting hand to hand.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the Roman invasion we find, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+course, the Spaniards using iron weapons. I
+shall not tax the patience of my readers by
+enumerating all these weapons. Their names
+are many, and the comments and descriptions of
+old authors which refer to them are constantly at
+variance. Nevertheless, the sword most popular
+with the Celtiberians at the period of the Roman
+conquest seems to have been a broad, two-handed
+weapon with a point and double edge, and therefore
+serviceable both for cutting and for thrusting.
+Another of the Celtiberian swords, called the
+<i>falcata</i>, was of a sickle shape. It terminated in
+the kind of point we commonly associate with
+a scimitar, and which is found to-day in Spanish
+knives produced at Albacete. One of these
+swords, in good condition, is in the National
+Museum. It has a single edge, upon the concave
+side of the blade, and measures rather less
+than two feet. Other weapons in common use
+among the Celtiberians were an iron dart&mdash;the
+<i>sannion</i> or <i>soliferrea</i>; the javelin; the lance&mdash;a
+weapon so immemorially old in Spain that patriotic
+writers trace its origin to the prehistoric town of
+Lancia in Asturias; and the <i>trudes</i> or <i>bidente</i>, a
+crescent blade mounted upon a pole, mentioned
+by Strabo and Saint Isidore, and identical with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+the cruel weapon used until about a quarter of
+a century ago for houghing coward cattle in the
+bull-ring.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_198.jpg" width="392" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_198.jpg" id="img_198.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">CREST OF JOUSTING HELMET<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus, when the Romans entered Spain the
+natives of this country were experienced in the
+use of arms, and made their own from such
+materials as their own soil yielded. Their tempering
+was excellent, for Diodorus Siculus tells us
+that they had already discovered the secret of
+burying the metal in order that the moisture of
+the earth might eat away its baser portions.
+Besides the ancient Bilbilis in Aragon, a Spanish
+city famous for her faultless tempering of implements
+and weapons was Toledo. Martial,<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> the
+most illustrious son of Bilbilis, has sung the
+praises of the one; less celebrated poets, such
+as Gracio Falisco, of the other.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> Even the
+armourers of Rome were found to be less skilful
+and successful swordsmiths than the Spaniards;<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a>
+and so, before the second Punic War, the model<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+or the models of the Spanish sword had been
+adopted by the Roman army.</p>
+
+<p>Various of the native peoples of Iberia were
+distinguished by a special instrument or mode of
+fighting. Strabo says that the Iberians as a
+general rule employed two lances and a sword.
+Those of Lusitania were especially adroit in
+hurling darts. Each of their warriors kept a
+number of these darts contained within his shield.
+Upon the head they wore a helmet of a primitive
+pattern strapped beneath the chin. This helmet,
+called the <i>bacula</i>, protected all the wearer's face,
+and had a mitred shape, with three red feathers
+on the crest. Together with these arms, the
+Lusitanians used a copper-headed lance and the
+typical form of Celtiberian sword. More singular
+and celebrated in their mode of fighting were the
+Balearic islanders, who carried, through persistent
+exercise, the art of slinging stones and leaden
+plummets to the utmost limit of perfection. The
+beaches of these islands, we are told, abounded,
+then as now, in small, smooth pebbles, &ldquo;weapons
+of Nature's own contrivance,&rdquo; rarely suited to
+the sling.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> These slings were of three patterns,
+severally designed for near, far, and middling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+distances. The lead or stone projectile sometimes
+weighed a pound. Accordingly&mdash;so strenuous
+was their zeal to be unrivalled in the practice of
+this arm&mdash;even as little children the Baleares
+went without their dinner, till, with the formidable
+<i>funda</i> in their hand, they struck the stick their
+parents planted for them in the soil. Pliny and
+Polybius, notwithstanding, state that the sling
+itself was not indigenous in this region, but imported
+from Ph&oelig;nicia. However this may be,
+the islanders within a little time contributed to
+swell the power of the Roman legions.</p>
+
+<p>The Visigoths continued using many of the
+Roman or Ibero-Roman arms. Nevertheless, the
+solid armour of the Romans, such as their greaves
+and thigh-pieces and breastplates, was now replaced
+by primitive chain-mail resembling scales
+of fishes. According to Saint Isidore, Procopius,
+and other writers, the favourite weapons of the
+Spanish Visigoths were the sword or <i>spatha</i>, long,
+broad-bladed, with a double edge; the hatchet,
+the bow, the sling, the lance, the scythe, the
+mace, the <i>pilum</i> or javelin (used extensively in
+Spain throughout the Middle Ages),<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> the <i>dolon</i>, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+dagger which concealed itself within a wooden
+staff, and took the name of &ldquo;treacherous&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;wily&rdquo; from this circumstance; and the <i>conto</i>, a
+keenly pointed pike. We also find among the
+military engines of the Visigoths the <i>balista</i>, for
+hurling stones and darts of large size, and the
+<i>ariete</i> or battering-ram, constructed from a gnarled
+and powerful tree-trunk braced with iron and
+suspended by a cable. Their defensive body-armour
+consisted of a coat of mail composed of
+bronze or iron scales, and called the <i>lóriga</i> or
+<i>perpunte</i>. This was worn above the <i>thorachomachus</i>,
+a kind of tunic made of felt, in order
+to shield the body from the roughness of the
+mail. Upon their heads they wore an ample
+helmet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_202.jpg" width="386" height="600"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_202.jpg" id="img_202.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SPANISH CROSSBOWMAN<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A fragment of stone carving preserved in
+Seville museum shows us two Visigothic Spanish
+warriors who wear a tunic and helmet of a simple
+pattern, and carry a two-edged sword and a large
+shield. García Llansó says, however, that the
+nobles of this people wore close-fitting mail tunics
+covered with steel scales, a kind of bronze bassinet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+tight breeches, and high boots, and carried, besides
+the sword which was slung from their belts, a
+large, oval shield.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p>
+
+<p>From about the time of the Moorish invasion, the
+changes in the arms and armour of the Spaniards
+coincided in the main with those in other parts of
+western Europe. Nevertheless, as late as the
+eleventh century the Spanish sword retained the
+characteristic which had endeared it to the
+Roman legionaries&mdash;namely, a hilt of small
+dimensions and a broad and shortish blade. In
+course of time the blade grows narrower and
+begins to taper towards the point. The <i>quillons</i>
+or crossbars (Spanish <i>arriaces</i>, from the Arabic
+<i>arrias</i>, a sword-hilt) were originally straight or
+semicircular, and ended in a knob (<i>manzana</i>,
+literally &ldquo;apple&rdquo;; Latin <i>pomum</i>, English <i>pommel</i>).
+Thus, in the <i>Poem of the Cid</i> we find the verse:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">&ldquo;<i>Las manzanas é los arriaces todos de oro son.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Throughout these early times the scabbard was
+of wood lined with leather or with velvet, and
+strengthened and adorned with leather bands;
+but when the owner was of high estate, it often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+bore enamels in the <i>cloisonné</i> style; that is,
+with patches of the coloured, vitreous substance
+bordered and fastened in by metal wire. In
+Spain this style, undoubtedly of foreign origin,
+was superseded in the thirteenth century by
+<i>champlevé</i> enamelling, in which the enamel lies
+within a hollowed ground.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish mediæval weapons down to the
+fourteenth century are specified in the <i>fuero</i> of
+Cáceres and other documents contemporary with
+their use. Next always in importance to the
+sword we find the hatchet, lance, crossbow, and
+mace. Montaner's <i>Chronicle of the Kings of
+Aragon</i> tells us that the sovereign, mace in hand,
+dealt one of his enemies &ldquo;such a blow upon his
+iron hat that his brains came oozing out at his
+ears.&rdquo; Covarrubias mentions a dart-shaped
+missile called the <i>azcona</i>&mdash;a word which some
+authorities derive from the Arabic, and others
+from the Basque <i>gascona</i>, an arm employed by
+the natives of Gascony. The former derivation
+seems the likelier. The <i>fuero</i> of Cáceres
+mentions the <i>tarágulo</i>, described by the Count
+of Clonard as a kind of dagger; and at the close
+of the thirteenth century appears in Spain the
+poniard, which was called among the Germans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+<i>Panzerbrecher</i>, or &ldquo;breaker of cuirasses,&rdquo; and
+among the French the <i>misericorde</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>fuero</i> of Cáceres tells us, furthermore,
+what was the regular equipment of the Spanish
+foot and mounted soldier of that period. &ldquo;Each
+horseman shall go forth to battle with a shield,
+a lance, a sword, and spurs; and he that carries
+not all these shall pay each time five sheep wherewith
+to feed the soldiers&hellip;. Each mounted man
+or pawn that trotteth not or runneth not to quit
+his town or village as he hears the call,&mdash;the
+first shall have his horse's tail cut off; the other
+shall have his beard clipped.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Defensive arms included various kinds of
+coverings for the head; the <i>lóriga</i> or covering
+for the body, the <i>cálcias</i> or covering for the
+legs, and the shield.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lóriga</i> (Latin <i>lorica</i>) was the ordinary
+hauberk or shirt of mail, such as was worn all
+over military Europe, made of rings or scales
+sewed strongly on a linen or leather under-tunic
+consisting of a single piece, and reaching to
+the knee. The <i>Gran Conquista de Ultramar</i>
+of Alfonso el Sabio also informs us that it was
+tied at certain openings known as <i>ventanas</i>
+(&ldquo;windows&rdquo;), and that the collar of the tunic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+was called the <i>gorguera</i>. The resistance of the
+Spanish <i>lóriga</i> to a pointed weapon does not
+seem to have been great, for the Chronicle of
+the Monk of Silos says that at the siege of
+Viseo the arrows of the Moorish bowmen went
+through the triple <i>lórigas</i> of their foe.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the twelfth century the custom arose
+of wearing over the coat of mail a loose, sleeveless
+frock (the <i>Waffenrock</i> of Germany), woven
+of linen or some other light material, painted
+or embroidered with the owner's arms. As
+the Count of Clonard observes, it is clearly
+this kind of frock that is referred to in the
+following passage of the <i>Leyes de Partida</i>:
+&ldquo;For some (of the knights) placed upon the
+armour carried by themselves and by their
+horses,<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> signs that were different one from
+another, in order to be known thereby; while
+others placed them on their heads, or on their
+helmets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_206.jpg" width="500" height="359"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_206.jpg" id="img_206.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE BATTLE OF LA HIGUERUELA<br />
+(<i>Wall painting. Hall of Battles, El Escorial</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Normans used a form of hauberk with
+attached mail-stockings. In Spain we find in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+lieu of this leg-covering, the Roman <i>cálcia</i> (Latin
+<i>caliga</i>), extending from the foot to just below the
+thigh, and subsequently called the <i>brafonera</i>.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a>
+This was, in fact, a separate mail-stocking, made
+of closely interlacing steel rings, and worn above
+the leather boots or <i>trebuqueras</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish <i>escudo</i> or shield was usually made
+of wood covered with leather, and painted with
+the arms or the distinguishing emblem of its lord.
+Sometimes it was made of parchment. Thus the
+Chronicle of the Cid informs us that this hero
+after death was equipped with &ldquo;a painted parchment
+helm and with a shield in the same wise.&rdquo;
+Another form of Spanish shield, the <i>adarga</i>
+(<i>atareca</i>, <i>atarca</i>; Arabic <i>ad-darka</i>, to hold upon
+the arm), of which I shall subsequently notice
+specimens in the Royal Armoury, was commonly
+in the shape of a rough oval or of a heart, and
+made of various folds of leather sewn and glued
+together. The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh
+speaks of a certain famine which broke out among
+the Spanish troops, and caused them such privation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+that &ldquo;they chewed the leather of their
+shields.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
+
+<p>The battle headgear of this people passed
+through many changes. &ldquo;The helmet of the
+eighth century,&rdquo; says the Count of Clonard,
+&ldquo;was the same which had been used by the
+Cantabrians and Vascones before the general
+peace proclaimed by Augustus Cæsar. Helmets
+of this design are engraved upon the medals
+(reproduced by Florez) of the imperial legate
+Publius Carisius. They covered the entire head
+and face, leaving only two holes for the eyes, as
+we see upon the carved stone fragments in relief
+at the door of the church of San Pedro de
+Villanueva, representing the struggle of King
+Froila with a bear.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another form of helmet which the Spaniards
+began to use about this time was the <i>almofar</i>
+(Arabic <i>al-mejfar</i>), made of iron scales. It
+covered all the head, with the exception of the
+eyes, nose, and mouth, and corresponds to the
+<i>camail</i> of the Normans. Beneath it was worn
+the linen <i>cofia</i>, a kind of bag or cap in which
+the warrior gathered up his hair. After about
+another century a round or conical iron helmet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+(<i>capacete</i>), fitted with cheek-pieces, was superposed
+on the <i>almofar</i> and fastened round the
+chin with straps. The <i>capacete</i> of a noble was
+often adorned with precious stones and coronets
+of pure gold, while a spike projecting from the
+top was tipped with a large carbuncle, in order to
+catch and to reflect the flashing sunbeams.</p>
+
+<p>The substitution for this spike of multiform and
+multicolor figures or devices dates from a later
+age. The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh
+describes as something altogether novel and surprising,
+the crests upon the helmets of the foreign
+knights who flocked, in 1343, to Algeciras to
+aid the cause of Christianity against the Moor.
+&ldquo;All of them,&rdquo; says this narrative, &ldquo;placed their
+helmets at the door of their dwellings, supporting
+them on stout and lofty staves; and the figures
+on the helmets were of many kinds. On some
+was the figure of a lion; on others that of a wolf,
+or ass's head, or ox, or dog, or divers other
+beasts; while others bore the likeness of the
+heads of men; faces, beards, and all. Others,
+too, had wings as those of eagles or of crows;
+and so, between these various kinds there were
+in all as many as six hundred helmets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This brings us to the celebrated helmet or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+<i>cimera</i> (Plate <a href="#img_198.jpg">xxxix</a>.), now in the Royal Armoury
+of Madrid, believed till recently to have belonged
+to Jayme the First, conqueror of Palma and
+Valencia, and the greatest, both in spirit and in
+stature, of the old-time kings of Aragon.</p>
+
+<p>Such part of this interesting helmet as is left
+consists of two pieces, one of them resting loosely
+on the other. Baron de las Cuatro Torres infers,
+from a detail which will presently be noted, that
+the lower of these two pieces is not original; and
+his opinion was shared by the Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan, who, notwithstanding, thought the
+spurious part to be coeval with the actual crest.
+The upper part consists of a fragment of a helm,
+made, like some flimsy theatre property, of linen,
+card, and parchment, and surmounted with the
+figure of the mythical monster known in the
+Lemosin language as the <i>drac-pennat</i>, or winged
+dragon, which formed, conjointly with the royal
+crown, the emblem or device of all the Aragonese
+sovereigns from Pedro the Fourth to Ferdinand
+the Second.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_210.jpg" width="372" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_210.jpg" id="img_210.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">PARADE HARNESS OF PHILIP THE THIRD<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is, however, no reason to doubt the
+helmet's authenticity. It is known to have
+remained for centuries at Palma, in the Balearics,
+where it was worn upon the day of Saint Sylvester<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+in each year, by a person who walked in the procession
+of the <i>Standart</i> to celebrate the capture
+of the city by Don Jayme. This would explain
+the lower piece contrived and added to the crest
+itself, in order to adjust the incomplete and upper
+portion to the subsequent wearer's head. The
+helmet as originally made was meant for tourneying
+only, and is therefore fashioned, not of metal,
+but of the frail theatrical materials I have stated.
+Copper and wood, says Viollet-le-Duc, were
+also used in making these objects. The earliest
+wearer of the helm cannot have been Don Jayme.
+Baron de las Cuatro Torres remarks that on
+an Aragonese coin of the reign of Pedro the
+Fourth, the monarch is wearing on his head
+something which looks identical with this <i>cimera</i>.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a>
+Demay has further told us that the vogue of
+such <i>cimeras</i>, whose principal purpose was to
+distinguish seigniories, lasted from 1289 till the
+introduction of movable visors at the end of the
+fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth
+century. The present helmet, therefore, probably
+belonged to Don Pedro the Fourth of
+Aragon (&ldquo;the Ceremonious&rdquo;), and was made at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+some time in his reign&mdash;that is, between 1335
+and 1387. A document has been discovered in
+which this monarch's son, Don Martin of Aragon,
+commands that year by year his own helmet,
+&ldquo;<i>nostram emprissiam sive cimbram</i>,&rdquo; together
+with the banner of Jayme the Conqueror, is to
+be publicly exhibited in commemoration of the
+capture of Majorca. Therefore we may conclude
+from these important facts that here is the crest
+of a tourneying helmet which belonged either
+to Don Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, or else to
+either of, or possibly both, his sons, Don Juan
+and Don Martin.</p>
+
+<p>The changes which occur in Spanish arms and
+armour between the fourteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries keep pace, upon the whole, with those in
+other parts of Europe. It is, however, opportune
+to notice how the Spanish armies of this time were
+organized. Their regular cavalry consisted of:
+(1) the force directly mustered by the king and
+under his immediate leadership; (2) the mounted
+burghers who defrayed the whole or part of their
+expenses, being in certain instances assisted by a
+stipend which had been created by municipal and
+local <i>fueros</i>; (3) the knights belonging to the
+military orders; and (4) the barons, together with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+the men these last were called upon, obedient to
+the summons of the royal <i>mandadero</i> (messenger),
+to mount, equip, provision, and bring to war with
+them. Such was the heavy cavalry of later mediæval
+Spain. A lighter class, said by the Count of
+Clonard to have been recruited from the southern
+regions of the land, was known as <i>alfaraces</i>,
+<i>almogávares</i>, or <i>omes de la gineta</i>.</p>
+
+<p>These latter lived in frugal fashion. Water
+was their only drink; bread and the roots of
+plants their only food. Their clothing, too, was
+of the slightest, consisting merely of a shirt, high
+boots, and a kind of net upon the head. They
+wore no armour, and carried as their only weapons
+an <i>azagaya</i> and a lance. Their principal value was
+in skirmishing.</p>
+
+<p>The infantry were also of two kinds. The
+first, collective or stipendiary, was levied by the
+towns and cities, and from them received its maintenance.
+The second was the <i>almogávares</i>, who
+served for scouting, like their mounted comrades
+of the same denomination. The stipendiary or
+regular troops proceeded chiefly from the northern
+provinces&mdash;Alava, Guipúzcoa, the Asturias, and
+the mountains of León, and carried commonly the
+lance, sword, sling, crossbow, and the <i>azagaya</i>&mdash;this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+last a dart-shaped missile borrowed from the
+Berber tribesmen,&mdash;the ancient Moorish <i>azgaya</i>,
+the modern <i>assagai</i> or <i>assegai</i> of Zululand.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_214.jpg" width="500" height="351"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_214.jpg" id="img_214.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH CROSSBOW AND STIRRUP<br />
+(<i>Museum of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In a country which was plunged in ruinous and
+almost unremitting internecine strife; which was
+(and is) inherently averse to commerce or to agriculture;
+and where the bulk of all the national
+wealth was either locked away in churches and in
+convents, or in the coffers of great nobles who were
+frequently as wealthy as, or even wealthier than,
+the Crown, the armour of the common mediæval
+Spanish soldier consisted of the plain and necessary
+parts and nothing more. The aristocracy, upon
+the other hand, often adorned their battle-harness
+with the finest gold and silver work, and studded
+it with precious stones. Even the esquires would
+sometimes imitate their masters in this costly
+mode. &ldquo;We command,&rdquo; said Juan the First in
+one of his pragmatics dating from the end of the
+fourteenth century, &ldquo;that no shield-bearer shall
+carry cloth of gold or any manner of gold ornament
+upon his trappings, scarf, or saddle; or on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+his badge or arms, excepting only on the edges of
+his bassinet and his cuisses, together with the bit
+and poitral of his horse, which may be gilded.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is also evident from Royal Letters of this
+time, that the kings of Spain depended very
+largely for the flower of their forces on the private
+fortune or resources of the Spanish noblemen
+or even commoners; nor did they ever hesitate
+to turn these means of other people to their
+own particular good. The Ordinance of Juan
+the First, dated Segovia, 1390, commands that,
+&ldquo;Every man who possesses 20,000 <i>maravedis</i>
+and upward shall have his proper set of harness,
+habergeons and scale-pieces, and lappet-piece,
+cuisses and vantbrasses, bassinet, camail, and
+war-cap<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> with its gorget; or else a helmet, together
+with sword and dagger, glaive and battle-axe.
+And whoso possesses 3000 <i>maravedis</i> and
+upward shall have his lance and javelin and shield,
+his lappet-piece and coat of mail, and iron bassinet
+without a camail, and a <i>capellina</i>, together with
+his sword, <i>estoque</i>, and knife. And whoso has
+between 2000 and 3000 <i>maravedis</i> shall have his
+lance and sword or <i>estoque</i> and knife, or a bassinet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+or <i>capellina</i>, together with a shield. And whoso
+has from 600 to 2000 <i>maravedis</i> shall have a
+crossbow with its nut and cord and stirrup, quiver
+and strap, and three dozen shafts. And whoso
+has from 400 to 600 <i>maravedis</i> shall have a lance,
+a javelin, and a shield. And whoso has 400
+<i>maravedis</i> shall have a javelin and a lance.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The wealthier classes responded lavishly to
+this command. Describing the battle of Olmedo
+and the forces of Don Alvaro de Luna sent
+against the Navarrese, the chronicle of the
+Constable declares that among his entire host
+could hardly have been found a single cavalier
+whose horse was not covered with trappings, and
+its neck with mail. &ldquo;For some there were that
+carried divers figures painted on the aforesaid
+trappings, and others that bore upon their helmets
+jewels that were a token from their mistresses.
+And others carried gold or silver bells suspended
+from their horses' necks by thick chains; or
+plates upon their helmets studded with precious
+stones, or small targes richly garnished with
+strange figures and devices. Nor was there less
+variety in the crests upon their helmets; for some
+bore likenesses of savage beasts, and others
+plumes of various colours; while others carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+but a plume or two upon their helmet crest, like
+unto those upon the forehead of their horses.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The fifteenth century is often called in Spain
+her golden age of arms&mdash;not in the sense that
+she invented anything new relating to this craft,
+but that her warriors were more fully and more
+frequently equipped with what had been imported
+from elsewhere. As in the case of crested
+helmets, foreign initiative brought about the
+substitution of plate or German armour&mdash;developed
+from the chain armour and the coat of mail&mdash;for
+the earlier sets of disconnected pieces. Possibly,
+as a chronicle which describes the Englishmen
+and Gascons who were present at the siege of
+Lerma in 1334 would seem to indicate, it was in
+consequence of this direct association with the
+foreigner that the older form of Spanish harness
+yielded to the new. However this may be, plate
+armour certainly appeared in Spain at some time
+in the fourteenth century, and grew in vogue
+throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.
+Suits of armour worn by Spanish pikemen and
+crossbowmen of this period may be profitably
+studied in the Royal Armoury (Plate <a href="#img_202.jpg">xl</a>.); and the
+same harness is reproduced in the choir-stalls of
+Toledo cathedral, carved by Maestre Rodrigo in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+1495. It is also useful to consult the prolix
+description of the <i>Passo Honroso</i> (1433) of Suero
+de Quiñones, held at the bridge of Orbigo, as
+well as the painting of the battle of La Higueruela
+(Plate <a href="#img_206.jpg">xli</a>.) in the Sala de las Batallas of the
+Escorial. We find from these authoritative
+sources that Spanish harness then consisted of
+the war-hat or <i>capacete</i>, with its <i>barbote</i> or piece
+to cover the mouth and cheeks, and fringe of
+mail (<i>mantillos</i>) to protect the neck: the <i>coracina</i>
+or korazin of tinned steel plates;<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> the coat of
+mail; armlets and gauntlets; leg-pieces with
+closed greaves; and steel-pointed mail shoes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_219.jpg" width="297" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_219.jpg" id="img_219.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH SWORD<br />
+(<i>Casa de los Tiros, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spanish man-at-arms of the sixteenth
+century is well described by Martin de Eguiluz,
+in his book, <i>Milicia, Discursos, y Regla Militar</i>.
+&ldquo;The man is mounted and bears a lance. His
+head is covered with a visored helmet. He
+wears a double breastplate, of which the outer
+piece is called <i>volante</i>. His thighs are guarded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+by cuisses, his legs by greaves, and his feet by
+shoes of mail or iron. His horse's face, neck,
+breast, and haunches are covered with iron or
+with doubled leather. These coverings are called
+<i>bardas</i>, and the horses protected by them <i>bardados</i>,
+of which each man-at-arms is called upon to
+possess two.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These plainer sets of war-harness for horses
+were made in Spain. The costlier bards, whether
+for war or tournament, were made in Italy and
+Germany, and often match the outfit of the rider
+in the splendour and luxuriance of their decoration.
+Striking examples of these bards are in the
+Royal Armoury, including one (Plate <a href="#img_210.jpg">xlii</a>.) which
+formerly belonged to Philip the Third. Probably
+it is the same referred to in the manuscript
+account of Valladolid from which I have already
+quoted curious notices of other crafts. Speaking
+of the Duke of Lerma in 1605, this narrative
+says; &ldquo;He rode a beautiful horse with richly
+decorated arms and gold-embroidered bard,
+fringed, and with medallions in relief. The
+trappings, reaching to the ground, were of black
+velvet covered with silver plates as large as
+dinner-plates, and others of a smaller size that
+represented arms and war-trophies, all of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+gilt, and studded with precious stones. I heard
+say that this armour which the Duke now wore,
+had once belonged to the Emperor, and is now
+the King's.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>The crossbow was an arm of great importance
+from about the eleventh century until the seventeenth,
+and Spain, throughout the latter of these
+centuries, was celebrated for their manufacture.
+Roquetas, a Catalan, &ldquo;master-maker of crossbows,&rdquo;
+constructed them of steel, so skilfully and
+finely that they could be carried concealed inside
+the sleeve of a coat, and discharged without
+awaking the suspicion of the victim. A letter of
+René of Anjou, quoted by the Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan, also refers to the skill of the
+Catalans in making crossbows, and mentions one
+of these weapons constructed by &ldquo;Saracen,&rdquo; of
+Barcelona, &ldquo;who refuses to teach his craft to
+Christians.&rdquo; The letter further states that this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+arm was of a curious shape, and that, &ldquo;despite its
+small dimensions, it carries to a greater distance
+than any other I have yet possessed.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A handsome Moorish crossbow, inlaid with
+bronze (Plate <a href="#img_214.jpg">xliii</a>.), exists in the provincial
+museum of Granada. The Royal Armoury has
+no example of the rare form of crossbow fitted
+with wheeled gear, but all the commoner kinds
+employed for hunting or for war are represented
+here, including those with the <i>armatoste</i> or
+goat's-foot lever, stirruped crossbows, and those
+which have the <i>torno</i> or windlass (French <i>cranequin</i>).
+Demmin appends the following note to
+an illustration in his handbook of a crossbow
+with a goat's-foot lever fixed to the stock:&mdash;&ldquo;A
+similar weapon in ironwood, sixteenth century,
+belonged to Ferdinand the First, proved by the
+inscription on the bow: <span class="smcap">Dom Fernando rei de
+Romano</span>, followed by four Golden Fleeces. It
+bears the name of the Spanish armourer Juan
+Deneinas. This valuable crossbow once belonged
+to M. Spengel, at Munich, but it is at present in
+the collection of the Count of Nieuwerkerke.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There is also in the Royal Armoury a crossbow
+of the scarcer kind known in Spanish as
+<i>ballestas de palo</i>, in which the gaffle is not of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+steel, but put together from slips of springy<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">woods, including yew. The wings are tipped</span><br />
+with horn, and traces of heraldic and Renaissance
+decoration, painted on parchment, yet remain
+upon the weapon. Other portions are inlaid.
+Except for the erasure of the painting, this arm
+is splendidly preserved, and still retains its double
+cord, nut, and pins, together with the separate
+lever.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_222.jpg" width="349" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_222.jpg" id="img_222.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SWORD OF BOABDIL EL CHICO<br />
+(<i>Museum of Artillery, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another interesting crossbow in this armoury
+belonged to Charles the Fifth, who used it for
+the chase. It has a <i>verja</i> or yard of steel engraved
+with the letter C four times repeated and
+surmounted by a crown, and bears the inscription,
+<span class="smcap">PRO · IMPERATORE · SEMPER · AVGVSTO ·
+PLVS · VLTRA ·</span>, together with · <img src="images/img_328.jpg" alt="IV DE LA FVETE" /> ·,
+for Juan de la Fuente, the name of a celebrated
+maker of these parts of a crossbow. The shaft
+(<i>tablero</i>), ornamented in bone and iron, is from
+the hand of another master, Juan Hernandez,
+whose signature is <span class="smcap">IO: HRZ</span>. The Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan supposed that this was
+the one crossbow which Charles took with him
+to the rustic solitude of Yuste, and which
+is mentioned in a document at Simancas as
+&ldquo;a crossbow with its gear and gaffles (it is in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+His Majesty's possession, but he has not paid
+for it).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto I have traced the war-equipment of
+the Spanish Christians only. In the early period
+of Mohammedan rule, the conquerors used a
+simple dress for war, consisting of the <i>capacete</i>
+or <i>almofar</i> for the head, secured by a chain
+beneath the chin and covered by a piece of
+cloth called <i>schasch</i>, hanging to just below the
+shoulders; a wide sleeveless tunic; a shirt of
+mail; tight breeches, and leather shoes. Their
+weapons were the lance and sword. The foot-soldiery
+wore the <i>djobba</i>, a tight-sleeved tunic of
+white wool, bound to the body by a scarf, and
+leather shoes, and carried as their arms a <i>capacete</i>
+of beaten iron, without a crest or cheek-pieces;
+a large round shield with its projecting umbo;
+and either a lance, or a double-edged and double-handed
+sword. Such are the details represented
+in the <i>Codex of the Apocalypse</i>, preserved in
+the cathedral of Gerona. As time progressed,
+the weapons and defensive armour of these
+Spanish Moors grew more luxurious and ornate,
+being often decorated with enamels, precious
+stones, or inlaid metals such as silver, gold, and
+bronze. Prominent centres of this industry were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+Murcia, Zaragoza, and Toledo, which are even
+said to have surpassed Damascus. Andalusia,
+too, was celebrated for her gold-inlaid cuirasses
+and coats of mail; while, according to El Idrisi,
+the town of Jativa enjoyed a widespread fame for
+every kind of decorative armour.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
+
+<p>The military outfit of the Spanish Moors was,
+therefore, much the same as that of Christian
+Spain. Toledo under Muslim rule continued
+to be famous for her swords. Moorish Seville,
+Ronda, and Valencia were also favourably known
+for weapons, household knives, and scissors.
+Cutlery in the Moorish style is still produced in
+certain parts of eastern Spain, and in his <i>History
+of the Mohammedan Dynasties</i> of this country,
+Gayangos tells us of a knife which bore upon one
+side of the blade the inscription in Arabic
+characters, &ldquo;<i>With the help of God I will inflict
+death upon thy adversary</i>,&rdquo; and upon the other
+side, in Castilian, the words, &ldquo;<i>Knife-factory of
+Antonio Gonzalez. Albacete, 1705.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The primitive Spanish-Moorish sword was an
+arm of moderate breadth used both for cutting
+and for thrusting. As time went on, this people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+gradually adopted swords of Spanish make or
+pattern, such as the ponderous <i>brandimartes</i> and
+<i>montantes</i> made for wielding with both hands.
+The Granadino writer Aben Said complains
+that the adoption of the arms, and even of the
+costume of the Spanish Christians, was prevalent
+at Granada in the thirteenth century. &ldquo;Sultans
+and soldiers alike,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;dress in the manner
+of the Christians, even to their arms and armour,
+crimson cloaks, standards, and saddlery. They
+wield in battle a shield and a long lance,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> which
+serves them to attack with; nor do they seem
+to care for Arab bows or maces, but prefer to
+use the Frankish ones.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the warriors of Granada carried
+several weapons which were not of Christian
+origin. The tribe of the Beni-Merines brought
+across from Africa a kind of sword called often
+in the Christian chronicles the <i>espada gineta</i>, used
+principally, as we gather from its name, by those
+addicted to the Moorish mode of horsemanship,
+or riding with short stirrups. The use of it extended
+later to the Christian Spaniards, and it
+is said to have contributed in later times to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+victory of the Spanish army at Pavia. Other
+swords in use among the Granadinos were the
+<i>alfange</i>, the <i>chifarra</i>, the <i>chifarote</i>, and the
+<i>nammexi</i>. The last of these is described in an
+old dictionary of the Valencian and Castilian
+languages as a kind of scimitar, although Quatremère
+and Fleischer believe it to have been a
+dagger.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_226.jpg" width="345" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_226.jpg" id="img_226.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">DAGGER OF BOABDIL EL CHICO<br />
+(<i>Museum of Artillery, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another author who describes the arms and
+armour of the Granadinos is Al-Jattib, who says
+in his <i>Splendour of the New Moon</i>; &ldquo;There are
+in Granada two kinds of soldiery&mdash;those of Al-Andalus
+and those of Africa. Their leader is a
+prince of royal blood, or some exalted personage
+at court. Formerly they used the Christian arms;
+that is, ample coats of mail, heavy shields, thick
+iron helmets, lances with broad points, and
+insecure saddles&hellip;. Now they have discarded
+that equipment, and are beginning to use short
+cuirasses, light helmets, Arab saddles, leather
+shields, and thin lances.&rdquo; Of the African troops
+the same historian adds; &ldquo;Their weapons for
+attacking are spears, either short or long, which
+they propel by pressing with the finger. These
+arms they call <i>marasas</i>; but for daily exercise
+they use the European bow.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Descriptions of the Spanish-Moorish swords<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+inserted in the chronicles and poems of the Middle
+Ages, together with the few examples that have
+been preserved until our time, enable us to form an
+accurate idea of the shape and decoration of these
+weapons generally. Those of the sultans and the
+Muslim aristocracy were, as a rule, profusely
+ornamented, either with precious stones or with
+enamels, or else with delicate and lavish damascening,
+or with the characteristic Oriental <i>ataujía</i>-work
+of gold and silver inlay. Inscriptions, too,
+were freely used upon the hilt or scabbard. Thus
+we are told that the great Almanzor kept for daily
+use a sword which bore the legend; &ldquo;<i>Strive in
+warfare till ye win great victories. Battle with
+the infidels till ye win them over to Islam</i>&rdquo;; and
+similar inscriptions may be quoted in great number.
+But four or five of these magnificent arms have
+proved superior to the ravages of time, and naturally
+tell us more than any weapons whose renown
+survives in written records merely. Among such
+extant Spanish-Moorish swords are two attributed
+respectively to Aliatar and Abindarraez; two
+others which are known to have belonged to the
+last ill-fated monarch of the Moors of Spain,
+Boabdil el Chico; and another, considered to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+also been Boabdil's property, now in possession
+of the Marquises of Campotejar, owners of the
+Generalife and of the Casa de los Tiros at Granada.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;sword of Aliatar,&rdquo; preserved in the
+Museum of Artillery at Madrid, is said to have
+been wrested from the clenched hand of that
+warrior, father-in-law of Boabdil and governor of
+Loja, as his corpse was swept away down stream
+after the rout of the Moorish expedition at Lucena.
+This arm is richly damascened as well as decorated
+with the characteristic <i>ataujía</i>. The centre of
+the hilt is made of ivory, and the pommel and
+crossbars&mdash;which latter terminate in elephants'
+heads with slightly upturned trunks&mdash;of damascened
+and inlaid iron, ornamented here and
+there with <i>ataujía</i>. Part of the blade&mdash;probably
+about an eighth&mdash;is broken off. The sheath has
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>An idle superstition has attributed the so-called
+&ldquo;sword of Abindarraez&rdquo; to the hero of the well-known
+sixteenth-century romance entitled <i>The
+Abencerraje and the Beautiful Jarifa.</i> This
+weapon, which for many years was in possession
+of the Narvaez family, belongs at present to the
+Marquis of La Vega de Armijo. The decoration
+is not particularly rich, and part of it is worn away;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+but the narrow blade is still engraved with figures
+or portraits from the story which has given the
+sword its name.</p>
+
+<p>The sword (Pl. <a href="#img_219.jpg">xliv</a>.) belonging to the Marquises
+of Campotejar, and which is preserved in the Casa
+de los Tiros at Granada, bears some resemblance
+to the &ldquo;sword of Aliatar,&rdquo; and has about the same
+dimensions. Although it is commonly believed
+that Boabdil was the original owner of this sword,
+Gómez Moreno considers that more probably it
+belonged to one of the Moorish princes of Almería.
+The handle and crossbars, as well as the shape
+of the sheath, are silver-gilt, covered with minute
+arabesque ornamentation forming leaves and
+stems, and further decorated with enamel. The
+sheath is of Morocco leather worked with silver
+thread. The crossbars, curving abruptly down,<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>
+terminate in elephants' trunks boldly upturned towards
+the pommel. The blade is stamped with a
+Toledo mark consisting of Castilian letters and a
+pomegranate.</p>
+
+<p>But the most important, interesting, and beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+specimens of Spanish-Moorish arms preserved
+to-day are those which were captured from
+Boabdil at the battle of Lucena (1482), when the
+monarch was made prisoner by the young Alcaide
+de los Donceles, Don Diego Fernandez de
+Cordova. A manuscript <i>History of the House
+of Cordova</i>, quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas,<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> says
+that upon the day in question, irretrievably disastrous
+to the Moorish cause in Spain, Boabdil
+carried &ldquo;a short, silver-handled sword, a damascened
+dagger, and a lance and buckler of great
+strength&rdquo; (Plates <a href="#img_222.jpg">xlv</a>. and <a href="#img_226.jpg">xlvi</a>.). These arms, together
+with another and a larger sword (<i>montante</i>
+or <i>estoque real</i>) for wielding with both hands, and
+certain articles of Boabdil's clothing, continued in
+the captor's family for centuries, and were, some
+years ago, presented by the Marquises of Villaseca,
+his direct descendants, to the National Museum
+of Artillery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_230.jpg" width="334" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_230.jpg" id="img_230.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH SWORD<br />
+(<i>Hilt and upper part of sheath</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The smaller or <i>gineta</i> sword<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> is handsomer and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+more important than the large <i>estoque</i>. The
+crossbars, as we find so often in weapons of this
+character and date, are bent abruptly down, and
+then curve up in a design of dragons' heads&mdash;the
+well-known emblem of the Nasrite sultans of
+Granada. Part of the handle is of solid gold
+adorned with crimson, white, and blue enamel
+distributed about the top and bottom of the hilt,
+the pommel, and the <i>arriaces</i> or crossbars. The
+centre of the hilt consists of ivory, richly carved.
+On either side of it are two octagonal intersecting
+figures, bearing upon one side, in semi-Cufic
+characters, the words, &ldquo;<i>Achieve thy aim</i>,&rdquo; and on
+the other, &ldquo;<i>in preserving his</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the owner's)
+<i>life</i>.&rdquo; Round the upper border of the ivory is
+carved the sentence; &ldquo;<i>In the name of God; the
+power belongs to Him, and there is no Divinity but
+He. Happiness proceeds from God alone</i>&rdquo;; and
+round the lower border, &ldquo;<i>The marvellous belongs
+to God. Assuredly at the outset the ignorant do
+not know their God; seeing that error is their
+custom.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other inscriptions of a sacred character, combined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+with delicate <i>ataujía</i>-work, are on the
+pommel and the upper portion of the hilt; but
+it has been remarked that, although the entire
+decoration is amazingly elaborate and rich, these
+inscriptions nowhere indicate that the weapon
+belonged to a personage of royal blood.</p>
+
+<p>The sheath of this most sumptuous arm is also
+lavishly adorned with silver and enamel on a purple
+leather ground. The blade is of a later date
+than either sheath or hilt, and bears the letter S,
+believed to be the mark of Alonso Sahagun the
+elder, of Toledo. The total length of this weapon
+is thirty-nine inches; and Gayangos declares that
+it was worn suspended by a belt between the
+shoulders.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+<p>The large <i>montante</i> which belonged to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+same ill-fated monarch has a cylindrical hilt,
+narrower in the centre of the handle than at either
+end. This hilt is made of steel inlaid with <i>lacería</i>
+or network ornament in ivory. In a small shield
+within the decoration of the pommel, appear the
+words &ldquo;<i>To God</i>&rdquo;; and in the centre of the
+handle, the familiar motto of the Nasrite sultans
+of Granada; &ldquo;<i>The only Conqueror is God.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Part of the blade is broken off. That which is
+left is broad and straight, with two grooves (one
+of which extends about three inches only) on each
+side, and bears an oriental mark consisting of
+five half-moons. The sheath is of brown Morocco
+decorated with a small gilt pattern forming shells
+and flowers. The mouth and chape are silver-gilt.</p>
+
+<p>In beautiful and skilful craftsmanship Boabdil's
+dagger or <i>gumía</i> matches with his swords. The
+handle is of steel inlaid in ivory with floral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+patterns, and terminates in a large sphere,
+similarly decorated. The blade has a single edge,
+and is exquisitely damascened in gold designs
+which cover more than half of all its surface.
+Along one side we read the inscription; &ldquo;<i>Health,
+permanent glory, lasting felicity, permanent glory,
+lasting felicity, and lasting and permanent glory
+belong to God</i>&rdquo;; and on the other side, &ldquo;<i>It was
+made by Reduan.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The sheath of this little arm is made of crimson
+velvet richly embroidered with gold thread, and
+hanging from it is a large tassel of gold cord and
+crimson silk. The chape and mouth are silver-gilt,
+profusely decorated, and the latter of these
+pieces is embellished with circular devices of a
+lightish green enamel, in addition to the chasing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_234.jpg" width="300" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_234.jpg" id="img_234.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">WAR HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The small, plain knife, also preserved among the
+spoil, was carried in this sheath, together with the
+dagger.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury at Madrid is often thought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+by foreigners<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> to contain a representative collection
+of the arms, offensive and defensive, used
+by the Spanish people through all their mediæval
+and post-mediæval history. This is not so.
+Although it is the choicest and the richest gallery
+in Europe, the Armería Real was formed almost
+entirely from the <i>cámaras de armas</i> or private
+armouries of Charles the Fifth and of his son, and
+is, as Mélida describes it, &ldquo;a splendid gallery of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+royal arms,&rdquo; dating, with very few exceptions, from
+the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of its contents were made
+within a limited interval, as well as not produced
+in Spain. Such are the glittering and gorgeous
+harnesses constructed for the actual use of Charles
+the Fifth by celebrated German and Italian
+armourers, ponderous suits for jousting or parade,
+or lighter suits for combat in the field, whether
+on foot or horseback (Plate <a href="#img_234.jpg">xlviii</a>.), fashioned,
+chiselled, and inlaid by craftsmen such as the
+Negroli and Piccini of Milan, Bartolommeo
+Campi of Pesaro, or Kollman of Augsburg, bombastically
+called, by a Spanish poet in the mode
+of Gongora, &ldquo;the direct descendant of Vulcanus.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This German and Italian armour, with its
+multitude of accessorial pieces,<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> falls outside the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+province of a book on Spanish arts and crafts.
+Nevertheless, I reproduce, as being too little
+known outside Madrid, the sumptuous jousting
+harness (Plate <a href="#img_238.jpg">xlix</a>.), of Charles the Fifth, made
+for the emperor when he was a lad of only
+eighteen years by Kollman Helmschmied of
+Augsburg.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Laurent Vital, describing the royal
+jousts at Valladolid in 1518, relates that &ldquo;après
+marchait le Roy bien gorgiasement monté et
+armé d'un fin harnais d'Alemaigne, plus reluisant
+que d'argent brunti.&rdquo; This is the very harness
+told of by the chronicler. The helmet turns the
+scale at forty pounds; the entire suit at two
+hundred and fifty-three pounds; and the length
+of the lance exceeds eleven feet.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, also in this armoury a
+jousting harness (Plate <a href="#img_242.jpg">l</a>.) formerly the property
+of Philip the First of Spain, a part of which,
+including the cuirass, is known to be of Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+make. The cuirass in question bears the mark
+of a Valencia armourer, and the harness generally
+dates from about the year 1500, at which
+time Gachard tells us in his <i>Chroniques Belges</i>
+that Philip was learning to joust &ldquo;à la mode
+d'Espaigne.&rdquo; Besides the enormous helmet and
+the Spanish-made cuirass, covered with gold
+brocade, this ornament includes a tourneying
+lance with a blunt three-pointed head,<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> and a
+curious form of rest, said by the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan to be peculiar to the
+Spaniards and Italians. This rest is stuffed with
+cork, on which, just as the fray began, the iron
+extremity of the lance was firmly driven. Another
+interesting detail is the <i>cuja</i>, fastened to
+the right side of the cuirass, and also stuffed with
+cork, made use of to support the lance upon its
+passage over to the rest. Nor in this instance
+was the <i>cuja</i> a superfluous device, seeing that
+the lance is over fifteen feet in length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_238.jpg" width="362" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_238.jpg" id="img_238.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">JOUSTING HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These are the principal portions of the harness.
+The seemingly insufficient protection for the
+arms is explained by the fact that the solid wooden
+shield completely covered the fighter's left arm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+while the right would be defended by the shield-like
+disc or <i>arandela</i> of the lance.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish shields and swords of great antiquity
+and interest are also in this armoury. The
+oldest of the shields dates from the twelfth
+century, and proceeds from the monastery of San
+Salvador de Oña, Burgos. The material is a
+wood resembling cedar, although much eaten by
+moth, and is covered on both sides with parchment
+bearing traces of primitive painting of a
+non-heraldic character. Inside the shield, this
+decoration consisted of a black ground crossed
+diagonally by a broad red band, and outside, of
+a red ground covered with rhomboid figures, some
+in gilt and some in colour. Such figures were a
+popular pattern at this time and on this class of
+objects. The general stoutness of this shield
+shows that it was meant for war. It still retains
+the strap which slung it from the warrior's neck, as
+well as fragments of the braces&mdash;made of buffalo
+leather covered with crimson velvet&mdash;for the hand.</p>
+
+<p>Another shield, proceeding from the same
+monastery, dates from the thirteenth century.
+The material, here again, is wood and parchment;
+but in this hundred years formal heraldic ornament
+had superseded fancy or conventional devices.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+Accordingly, this shield is painted with a blazon,
+now much worn, of which, however, enough remains
+to show that it consisted once upon a time of four
+black chaperons crowned with gold <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>
+upon a gold ground&mdash;said to have been the arms
+of Don Rodrigo Gomez, Count of Bureba.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>scut</i>, or polished metal shield, with painted
+blazonry or other decoration, was limited to
+Aragon and Cataluña.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the smaller and more modern shields
+preserved in this collection are two wooden bucklers
+dating from the sixteenth century. One is in
+the Spanish-Moorish style and of a convex shape,
+with iron bordering and umbo, and a lining of
+yellow brocade. The other, of the Christian
+Spaniards, is small and lined with painted parchment,
+and was intended, so the inventory says,
+&ldquo;for going about at night.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is also a richly gilt and silvered buckler
+of the seventeenth century, made at Eugui in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+Navarre, and covered with a scene&mdash;decadent in
+design and workmanship&mdash;which represents the
+judgment of Paris. Defensive armour, chiefly of
+a highly decorative kind, was made all through
+this century at the capital of Navarre, Pamplona.
+The Royal Armoury contains a Pamplonese
+parade harness (Plate <a href="#img_250.jpg">lii</a>.), offered as a gift to
+Philip the Third, as well as six diminutive sets of
+armour made to his order for the youthful princes
+Don Felipe, Don Fernando, and Don Carlos.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>adarga</i> was a kind of targe used by the
+light cavalry, and had its origin in Africa. Those
+which were stored in the palace of the Nasrite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+sultans of Granada are described by Al-Makkari
+as &ldquo;solid, without pores, soft to the touch, and
+famed for their imperviousness.&rdquo; The material
+was strong leather, such as cowhide, often embroidered
+with a scutcheon or with arabesques.
+Two Spanish-made <i>adargas</i> in this armoury
+are particularly handsome. One is of Moorish
+craftsmanship, and dates from the end of the
+fifteenth century. The other (Plate <a href="#img_254.jpg">liii</a>.), apparently
+the work of a Spanish Christian and dating
+from a century later, is embroidered in silver
+thread and coloured silk with arabesque devices
+and also with four coats of arms, one of which
+belongs to the noble family of Fernández de
+Cordova. The dimensions of this shield are a
+yard in height by thirty inches in breadth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_242.jpg" width="308" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_242.jpg" id="img_242.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">JOUSTING HARNESS OF PHILIP THE HANDSOME<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There also are preserved in this collection a
+shield (late sixteenth century) adorned by Mexican
+Indians with a most elaborate &ldquo;mosaic of feather-work,&rdquo;
+and a number of Spanish <i>adargas</i> of the
+same period, for playing the <i>juego de cañas</i> or
+&ldquo;game of canes.&rdquo; The armoury contained in
+former days as many as forty-two <i>adargas</i>; but
+the fire of 1884 completely destroyed sixteen and
+badly damaged twenty-three, obliterating their
+heraldic and other decoration. A yet more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+sinister event befell on December 1st, 1808,
+when the Spanish mob, exasperated by the
+French, broke in and seized three hundred swords,
+not one of which was afterwards recovered.
+Mention of these disasters leads me to recall the
+quantity of beautiful or historic military gear that
+Spain has lost through many tribulations and
+vicissitudes. Formerly her noble families had
+excellent collections in their palaces or castles.
+Such were the private armouries of the Dukes of
+Pastrana at Guadalajara, and of the Dukes of
+Alburquerque at Cuéllar Castle, near Segovia.
+Bertaut de Rouen describes the first as &ldquo;une des
+plus belles qui se voyent pour un seigneur
+particulier. Il y a quantité d'armes anciennes, et
+l'on y void une épée qui s'allonge et s'accourcit
+quand on veut, de deux pieds et demy.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The
+Cuéllar armoury was pulled to pieces by Philip
+the Fourth to arm his troops against the French.
+&ldquo;Send me,&rdquo; he wrote to the Duke from Madrid,
+in a letter dated April 16th, 1637, &ldquo;all your
+pistols, carbines, harness for horses, breastplates
+and other arms for mounted fighting&rdquo;;
+and the loyal nobleman complied upon the spot,
+despatching more than five hundred pieces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+many of which were doubtless of the greatest
+interest.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<p>Had I the erudition and the time, I would
+attempt to write, as it deserves to be written, an
+introduction to the history of Spanish swords.
+Of all the objects mentioned in these volumes,
+here is the most inherently symbolic of the
+Spanish character and history. The Spanish
+Moors and Spanish Christians spoke of it as
+something superhuman. &ldquo;Once the sword is in
+the hand of man,&rdquo; observed, in solemn tones, the
+Wise Alfonso, &ldquo;he hath it in his power to raise
+or lower it, to strike with it, or to abandon it.&rdquo;
+The Spanish Mussulmans talked of putting
+&ldquo;clothes and breeches&rdquo; on a sword that had a
+sheath, as though it were a breathing person;
+while a Spaniard of the time of Gongora would
+often use such language as the following: &ldquo;Truly
+in point of look there is as great a difference
+between a costly sword and a <i>Toledan Loyalty</i> or
+<i>Soldier's Dream</i>, as between a marquis and a
+muleteer, or a washerwoman and the Infanta.
+Yet every sword is virtually an hidalgo. Does
+not the basest of our Toledanas, even to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+<i>perrillos</i> and <i>morillos</i>, which have no core, and
+cost a dozen <i>reales</i> merely, afford a chivalrous
+lesson to its wearer, as it bids him <i>no me saques
+sin razon, ni me envaines sin honor</i>?<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> The
+horse and the sword,&rdquo; he continued, taking a
+magnificently damascened rapier, and stroking it
+caressingly, &ldquo;are the noblest friends of man,
+albeit the nobler is the sword; for the horse at
+times is obstinate or faint-hearted, but the sword
+is ready continually. The sword, moreover,
+possesses the chiefest of all virtues&mdash;justice, or
+the power of dividing right and wrong; a soul of
+iron, which is strength; and, last and greatest,
+the Cross, which is the symbol of the blessed
+Catholic Faith.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p>
+
+<p>Notices of early Spanish sword-makers are
+far from common. Don Manuel G. Simancas
+quotes the following, dated in the thirteenth
+century:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Master Almerique.</i> By letters of the King
+and Queen, to Master Almerique, for making the
+(sword) blades for the King; out of the MCC<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+<i>maravedis</i> of his salary he received CCCC
+<i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Master Enrique.</i> By letters of the King and
+Queen, to Master Enrique, for making the swords,
+MCCCC, (of which) he received CCCCXII
+<i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other entries of the same period relate to Juan
+Ferrández, armourer, who received a sum for
+making coverings for arms and saddles; and to
+Master Jacomin, who was paid three gold <i>doblas</i>,
+or sixty-three <i>maravedis</i>, for making a breastplate.</p>
+
+<p>In the inventory (1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque
+occurs a very curious notice which seems
+to show that mediæval Spanish swords were
+manufactured even in the rural districts. The
+entry runs; &ldquo;an old grooved sword of a broad
+shape, bearing the words <i>Juanes me fezió</i> (&ldquo;John
+made me&rdquo;). In the middle of the same a P
+within a parted wave, with Portuguese fittings,
+varnished, black silk hilt and fringes, and double
+straps of black leather, with varnished ends and
+buckles and black leather sheath. <i>Juan de
+Lobinguez made this sword at Cuéllar.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_246.jpg" width="407" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_246.jpg" id="img_246.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH BUCKLER<br />
+(<i>Osier and metal. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spanish guilds of armourers enjoyed high
+favour,<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> since the examination for admission to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+this craft was very strict, as well as fenced
+about with curious prohibitions. Thus at Seville,
+&ldquo;no Moor, Jew, black man, or other person
+such as the law debars, shall set up a shop for
+making and selling defensive arms, or undergo
+examination in this craft.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> The penalty for
+infringement of this law was confiscation of the
+arms, together with a fine of twenty thousand
+<i>maravedis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout these times the armourer's and the
+gilder's crafts are found in closest union; just as
+the armourer's craft would often alternate with
+that of the goldsmith or the silversmith. At
+Seville, the Ordinance of 1512 prescribed that
+every candidate who came to be examined must
+make &ldquo;a set of horse harness, complete with
+stirrups, headstalls, spurs, poitral, and the fittings
+of a sword; and he must silver several of these
+pieces and blue them with fine blue; and make of
+iron, and gild the spurs and fittings of the sword.
+Thus shall he make, and gild, and silver the aforesaid
+pieces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Equally severe and comprehensive are the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+swordsmiths' Ordinances (1527 to 1531) of
+Granada. The aspirant to the title of <i>oficial</i>
+&ldquo;shall mount a sword for wear with ordinary
+clothes, fitted in black, together with its straps, and
+fringed and corded hilt; besides a sword gilded
+a low gold, together with its straps and other parts,
+all of a single colour. Also he shall fit a velvet-scabbarded,
+silver-hilted sword, and a two-handed
+sword, fully decorated, with the knife attaching to
+the same, one-edged and with a smooth hilt; also
+a sword whose scabbard shall be fitted with knives
+numbering not less than three; and a hilt of
+<i>lacería</i> (network ornament); and another sword
+in a white sheath, with woven hilt; and another of
+a hand and a half.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury at Madrid contains an
+excellent collection of these weapons. Among
+the earliest known to be of Spanish make are
+two which date from the thirteenth century. One
+of them (Plate <a href="#img_258.jpg">liv</a>., No. 1), with fittings of a
+later time, is frequently miscalled the &ldquo;Cid's
+Colada,&rdquo; and seems to have been confounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+with the genuine weapon of that hero which was
+acquired in the thirteenth century by one of the
+sovereigns of Castile, and which has probably
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The blade of this remarkable sword has two
+edges and tapers gradually to the point. Part
+of the blade is slightly hollowed, and bears,
+extending through about a quarter of the hollow
+or <i>canal</i>, the following inscription or device:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_249.jpg" width="400" height="146"
+        alt="inscription"
+        title="inscription" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This is believed by some authorities to
+represent the words <span class="smcap">SI, SI, NO, NON</span> (&ldquo;Yes, yes, no,
+no&rdquo;); and by others to be a purely meaningless
+and decorative pattern. The weapon, in any
+case, is in the best of preservation, and is
+especially interesting from the fact that engraved
+blades dating from this early period are very
+seldom met with. The Count of Valencia de
+Don Juan believes this weapon to be the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+<i>Lobera</i> which belonged to Ferdinand the Third,
+and aptly quotes the following passage from the
+chronicle. When Ferdinand, conqueror of
+Seville, was lying on his death-bed in that
+capital, surrounded by his children, he gave his
+blessing to his younger son, the Infante Don
+Manuel, and addressed him in these words. &ldquo;I
+can bequeath no heritage to you; but I bestow
+upon you my sword Lobera, that is of passing
+worth, and wherewith God has wrought much
+good to me.&rdquo; If the Count's surmise be accurate,
+another passage which he quotes from the work
+<i>Nobleza y Lealtad</i>, written by the twelve
+councillors of Ferdinand, fully explains the legend
+on the blade. &ldquo;<i>Sennor, el tu si sea asi, e el tu
+non, sea non; que muy gran virtud es al Príncipe,
+ó á otro qualquier ome ser verdadero, e grand
+seguranza de sus vasallos, e de sus cosas.</i>&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_250.jpg" width="344" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_250.jpg" id="img_250.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">ARMOUR MADE AT PAMPLONA<br />
+(<i>17th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I said that the chiselled and gilded iron
+fittings to the blade are of a later period. They
+date from the earlier part of the sixteenth
+century, and are the work of Salvador de Avila,
+of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>The other sword in this collection, and which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+also belongs to the thirteenth century, has a long,
+broad blade with two edges and a central groove,
+thinly engraved with circles (Pl. <a href="#img_258.jpg">liv</a>., No. 3, and
+Pl. lv.). The crossbars are of silver-gilt, engraved
+with <i>ataurique</i>, curving towards the blade and
+terminating in trefoils. A shield midway between
+them bears the arms of Castile upon one side, and
+those of León upon the other. The grip is of
+wood, covered with silver plates with decorated
+borders, and the pommel is of iron, also covered
+with ornamental plates of silver-gilt. Formerly
+this arm was studded with precious stones, but
+all of these excepting one have disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The scabbard is of wood lined with sheepskin,
+and is covered with a series of five silver-gilt
+plates, profusely decorated with Hispano-Moresque
+<i>lacería</i>, studded with various kinds of gems.
+These gems upon the scabbard amounted once
+upon a time to seventy-six, which sum, through
+pilfering or accident (probably the former, since
+the finest stones are gone), has been diminished
+by one-half. An inventory, made in the reign
+of Philip the Second, states that the inner
+side of the sheath, now wholly worn away, was
+covered with lions and castles, and that the belt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+was of broad orange-coloured cloth, with silver
+fittings.</p>
+
+<p>This sword has been absurdly attributed to the
+nephew of Charlemagne, who lived not less than
+half a thousand years before its date of manufacture.
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+thought that it may have been the property of a
+Spanish monarch of the thirteenth century,&mdash;perhaps
+Alfonso the Learned, or Ferdinand the
+Third, Alfonso's father. Ferdinand, we know,
+possessed a sword which he delivered with due
+ceremony to his elder son, the Infante Don
+Fernando, upon his leading out a force against
+the town of Antequera. This sword the chronicler
+Alvar García de Santa María described as
+having &ldquo;a sheath in pieces, with many precious
+stones.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Of even greater interest than the foregoing
+weapon is the great two-handed and two-edged
+<i>estoque</i> or ceremonial sword of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, which measures forty-two inches in
+length. The fittings are of iron, gilded and
+engraved. The crossbars, terminating in small
+half-moons, with the concave side directed
+outward, are inscribed with the well-known motto
+of the Catholic sovereigns, <span class="smcap">TANTO MONTA</span>, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+with a supplication to the Virgin, <span class="smcap">MEMENTO MEI O
+MATER DEI MEI</span>. The pommel is a flat disc,
+suggestive in its outline of a Gothic cross, and
+bears upon one side the figure of Saint John
+together with the yoke, emblem of Ferdinand
+the Catholic, and upon the other the sheaf of
+arrows, emblem of his consort Isabella. The
+hilt is covered with red velvet bound with wire.</p>
+
+<p>The sheath of this most interesting sword&mdash;affirmed
+by the Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+to have been used by Ferdinand and Isabella, and
+subsequently by Charles the Fifth, in the ceremony
+of conferring knighthood, and also, during the
+Hapsburg monarchy, to have been carried by the
+master of the horse before the king upon his
+formal visit to a city of his realm&mdash;is made of
+wood covered with crimson silk, bearing in
+&ldquo;superposed&rdquo; embroidery the arms of Spain
+posterior to the conquest of Granada, together
+with a repetition of the emblems of the Catholic
+sovereigns (Plate <a href="#img_258.jpg">liv</a>., No. 2).</p>
+
+<p>In the same collection are two other swords
+which probably belonged to Ferdinand the
+Catholic. One of them (Pl. <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 1), has a
+discoid pommel and a gilded iron handle. The
+flat crossbars grow wider and bend down towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+the blade, and on the hilt we read the words <span class="smcap">PAZ
+COMIGO NVNCA VEO, Y SIEMPRE GVERA DESEO</span>
+(&ldquo;Never does peace attend me, and always do
+I yearn for war&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>This sword has been attributed to Isabella.
+The evidence for this belief is slight, although
+the Count of Valencia de Don Juan discovered
+that in the year 1500 Isabella was undoubtedly
+the possessor of certain weapons and armour
+which she sometimes actually wore. Among
+these objects were several Milanese breastplates,
+a small dagger with a gold enamelled hilt in the
+shape of her emblem of the sheaf of arrows, and
+two swords, one fitted with silver and enamel,
+and the other with iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_254.jpg" width="408" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_254.jpg" id="img_254.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>ADARGA</i><br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other sword, which probably belonged to
+Ferdinand the Catholic, is of the kind known as
+&ldquo;of a hand and a half&rdquo; (<i>de mano y media</i>; see
+p. 248, <i>note</i>), and also of the class denominated
+<i>estoques de arzón</i>, or &ldquo;saddle-bow swords,&rdquo; being
+commonly slung from the forepart of the saddle
+upon the left side of the rider. Ferdinand, however,
+had reason to be chary of this usage, for
+Lucio Marineo Sículo affirms that at the siege
+of Velez-Málaga the sword which he was wearing
+thus suspended, jammed at a critical moment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+the fray, and very nearly caused his death.
+Sículo adds that after this experience Ferdinand
+invariably wore his sword girt round his person,
+just as he wears it in the carving on the choir-stalls
+of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury contains another sword
+improperly attributed both to Ferdinand the
+Third and Ferdinand the Catholic. It dates
+from the fifteenth century, and has a blade
+of unusual strength intended to resist plate
+armour. This blade, which has a central ridge
+continued to the very point, is very broad towards
+the handle, tapers rapidly, and measures
+thirty-two inches. At the broader end, and on
+a gilded ground embellished with concentric
+circles, are graven such legends as:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Lord is my aid. I will not fear what
+man may do to me, and will despise my enemies.
+Superior to them, I will destroy them utterly.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Make me worthy to praise thee, O sweet and
+blessed Virgin Mary.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The handle is of iron, with traces of gilded
+decoration, and corded with black silk. The
+Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that no
+reliable information can be found concerning
+this fine arm. Its length and general design<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+would allow of its being used with one hand or
+with both, and either slung from the saddle-bow
+or round the middle of a warrior on foot.</p>
+
+<p>Another handsome sword, wrongly attributed
+by the ignorant to Alfonso the Sixth, is kept at
+Toledo, in the sacristy of the cathedral. The
+scabbard is adorned with fourteenth-century
+enamel in the <i>champlevé</i> style. Baron de las
+Cuatro Torres considers that this sword belonged
+to the archbishop Don Pedro Tenorio (see <a href="#Page_269">p. 269</a>),
+and adduces his proofs in the <i>Boletín de la
+Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i> for March
+1897. The prelate in question, appointed to
+command an army sent against Granada, was,
+like so many of the Spanish mediæval clerics,
+of a warlike temper, and &ldquo;exchanged with great
+alacrity his rochet for his harness, and his mitre
+for his helm.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>One of the most ridiculous and barefaced
+forgeries in the Royal Armoury is a sixteenth-century
+sword which has inscribed upon its blade
+the name of the redoubtable Bernardo del Carpio.
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says he
+remembers to have met with other blades of
+later mediæval make, engraved with such legends
+as &ldquo;belonging to Count Fernán-Gonzalez,&rdquo; or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+even &ldquo;Recaredus Rex Gothorum,&rdquo; while others
+in this armoury are ascribed, without the least
+authority of fact or common sense, to García de
+Paredes, Alvaro de Sande, and Hernando de
+Alarcón. Others, again, with less extravagance,
+though not on solid proof, are said to have belonged
+to Hernán Cortés, the Count of Lemos,
+and Diego Hurtado de Mendoza.</p>
+
+<p>Some, upon the other hand, belonged undoubtedly
+to celebrated Spanish warriors of the
+olden time. Such are the swords of the Count
+of Coruña, of Gonzalo de Córdova, and of the conqueror
+of Peru, Francisco Pizarro. The first of
+these weapons (Pl. <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 4) has a superb hilt
+carved in the style of the Spanish Renaissance,
+with crossbars curving down, a <i>pas d'âne</i>, and a
+Toledo blade of six <i>mesas</i> (&ldquo;tables&rdquo;) or surfaces,
+grooved on both sides, and ending in a blunt
+point. The armourer's mark, which seems to
+represent a <i>fleur-de-lis</i> four times repeated, is
+that of the swordsmith Juan Martinez, whose
+name we read upon the blade, together with the
+words <span class="smcap">IN TE DOMINE SPERAVI</span>, and on the other
+side, in Spanish, <span class="smcap">PARA DON BERNARDINO XVAREZ
+DE MENDOZA, CONDE DE CORVÑA</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The sword of &ldquo;the great captain,&rdquo; Gonzalo de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+Córdova (1453&ndash;1515), is not of Spanish make
+(Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 3). It has a straight blade with
+bevelled edges. The pommel and <i>quillons</i> are
+decorated with Renaissance carving, and the
+bars, which are of gilded iron, grow wider at
+their end and curve towards the blade. The
+pommel, of gilded copper, is spherical, and
+bears, upon one side, a scene which represents
+a battle, together with the words <span class="smcap">GONSALVI
+AGIDARI VICTORIA DE GALLIS AD CANNAS</span>. Upon
+the other side are carved his arms. Other inscriptions
+in Latin are also on the pommel and
+the blade.</p>
+
+<p>The Count of Valencia de Don Juan believed
+that this sword was a present to Gonzalo from
+the corporation of some Italian town, and that it
+replaced, as an <i>estoque real</i>, or sword of ceremony,
+the state sword (see <a href="#Page_252">p. 252</a>) of Ferdinand and
+Isabella.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_258.jpg" width="360" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_258.jpg" id="img_258.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SPANISH SWORDS<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pizarro's sword remained in possession of his
+descendants, the Marquises of La Conquista, until
+as recently as 1809, in which year this family
+presented it to a Scotch officer named John
+Downie, who had fought in the Peninsular War
+against the French. Downie, in turn, bequeathed
+it to his brother Charles, lieutenant-colonel in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+Spanish army, from whom it passed into the hands
+of Ferdinand the Seventh. The appearance of
+this sword is not remarkable. It has a stout,
+four-surfaced blade, with a powerful <i>recazo</i> or
+central ridge, engraved with the Christian name
+of Mateo Duarte, a swordsmith who was living at
+Valencia in the middle of the sixteenth century.
+The hilt is of blued (<i>pavonado</i>) steel, inlaid with
+leaves and other ornament in gold. The pommel
+is a disc; the <i>quillons</i> are straight, or very nearly
+so, and there is a <i>pas d'âne</i> (Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 2).</p>
+
+<p>The sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries
+are famous as the epoch of the Spanish rapier.
+Toledo, as the world is well aware, enjoyed an
+undisputed name for the production of these
+weapons. Within this ancient and historic capital
+generations of artists bequeathed, from father to
+son, and son to grandson, the secret (if there
+were a secret) of the tempering of these matchless
+arms; nor have Toledo blades deteriorated to this
+day. Many an idle superstition seeks to justify
+the talent and dexterity of these swordsmiths;
+though probably the key to all their skill was
+merely in the manual cunning, based on constant
+practice, of the craftsman, as well as in the native
+virtues of the water of the Tagus.</p>
+
+<p>In one of my books I have described the workshop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+of an armourer of Toledo in the sixteenth
+century. &ldquo;After a few moments we entered the
+Calle de las Armas, which struck me as having
+grown a good deal narrower; and my companion,
+pausing beside an open doorway topped with a
+sign depicting a halberd and a sword, invited me
+to enter. Two or three steps led downwards to
+a dark, damp passage, and at the end of this was
+a low but very large room, blackened by the
+smoke from half a dozen forges. The walls were
+hung with a bewildering variety of arms and parts
+of armour&mdash;gauntlets and cuirasses; morions,
+palettes, and lobster-tails; partisans and ranseurs;
+halberds, bayonets, and spontoons; as well as
+swords and daggers without number. Several
+anvils, with tall, narrow buckets filled with water
+standing beside them, were arranged about the
+stone-paved floor; and beside each forge was a
+large heap of fine, white sand.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The showers of sparks, together with a couple
+of ancient-looking lamps whose flames shook fitfully
+to and fro in the vibration, showed thirty or
+forty workmen busily engaged; and what with
+the clanging of the hammers, the roaring of the
+bellows, and the strident hissing of the hot metal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+as it plunged into the cold water, the racket was
+incessant.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;My cicerone surveyed the discordant scene
+with all the nonchalance of lifelong custom,
+daintily eluding the columns of scalding steam, or
+screening his <i>chambergo</i> from the sparks. Finding,
+however, that I was powerless to understand the
+remarks he kept addressing to me, he finally held
+up his finger and gave the signal to cease work;
+upon which the <i>oficial</i> handed him a bundle of
+papers which I took to be accounts, and the men,
+doffing their leathern aprons, and hanging them
+in a corner, filed eagerly away.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;It is quite simple,&rsquo; said my companion, as
+though divining the query I was about to put to
+him; &lsquo;and indeed, I often wonder why we are so
+famous. They say it is the water; but any water
+will do. Or else they say it is the sand; and yet
+this sand, though clean and pure, is just the same
+as any other. Look! The blade of nearly all
+our swords is composed of three pieces&mdash;two
+strips of steel, from Mondragón in Guipúzcoa,
+and an iron core. This latter is the <i>alma</i>, or soul.
+The three pieces are heated and beaten together;
+and when they grow red-hot and begin to throw
+out sparks, they are withdrawn from the fire, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+few handfuls of sand are thrown over them. The
+welding of the pieces is then continued on the
+anvil; and, finally, the file is brought to bear on
+all unevennesses, and the weapon passes on to
+the temperer, the grinder, and the burnisher.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_262.jpg" width="261" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_262.jpg" id="img_262.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SWORD<br />
+(<i>13th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;It is in the tempering that we have earned
+our principal renown, although this process is
+quite as simple as the rest. Upon the forge&mdash;see,
+here is one still burning&mdash;a fire is made in the
+form of a narrow trench, long enough to receive
+four-fifths of the length of the weapon. As soon
+as the metal reaches a certain colour&rsquo; (I thought
+I noted a mischievous twinkle in the armourer's
+eyes, as though this <i>certain colour</i> were the key
+to all our conversation), &lsquo;I take these pincers,
+and, grasping the portion which had remained
+outside the fire, drop the weapon so, point downwards,
+into the bucket of water. Any curve is
+then made straight by beating upon the concave
+side, and the part which had been previously kept
+outside the trench of fire returns to the forge and
+is duly heated. The entire blade is next smeared
+with mutton fat, and rested against the wall to
+cool, point upwards. There is nothing more except
+the finishing. Your sword is made.&rsquo;&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p>
+
+<p>The following passage from Bowles' <i>Natural</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+<i>History of Spain</i>, written in 1752, is also of
+especial interest here:&mdash;&ldquo;At a league's distance
+from Mondragón is a mine of varnished, or, as
+miners term it, frozen iron. It lies in the midst
+of soft red earth, and produces natural steel&mdash;a
+very curious circumstance, seeing that, as I am
+assured, there is no other mine of this description
+in the kingdom. A tradition exists that the
+iron from this mine was used for making the
+swords, so celebrated for their tempering, presented
+by Doña Catalina, daughter of the Catholic
+Sovereigns, to her husband, Henry the Eighth of
+England. A few of these swords are yet extant
+in Scotland, where the natives call them <i>André
+Ferrara</i>,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> and esteem them greatly. The famous
+sword-blades of Toledo, and the Perrillo blades
+of Zaragoza, which are still so highly valued, as
+well as others made elsewhere, are said to have
+been forged from the iron of this mine, which
+yields forty per cent. of metal. It is, however,
+somewhat hard to melt. With a little trouble it
+is possible to secure excellent steel, because this
+mine, like many another, possesses in itself the
+quality of readily taking from the coal of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+forge the spirit which is indispensable for making
+first-rate swords; but without cementation I do
+not think it would serve for making good files
+or razors.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The swords of which I spoke as being so
+famed were generally either of a long shape, for
+wearing with a ruff; or broad, and known as the
+<i>arzón</i>, for use on horseback. It is probable that
+when the ruff was suddenly abandoned at the
+beginning of this century, large quantities of
+ready-fitted swords began to be imported from
+abroad, of such a kind as was demanded by the
+novel clothing. This would account for the
+decline and the eventual collapse of our factories,
+and the loss of our art of tempering swords.
+Concerning the mode of executing this, opinions
+differ. It is said by some that the blades were
+tempered in winter only, and that when they were
+withdrawn for the last time from the furnace, the
+smiths would shake them in the air at great speed
+three times on a very cold day. Others say that
+the blades were heated to a cherry-colour, then
+plunged for a couple of seconds into a deep
+jar filled with oil or grease, and changed forthwith
+to another vessel of lukewarm water, after
+which they were set to cool in cold water; all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+these operations being performed at midwinter.
+Others, again, declare that the blades were
+forged from the natural iron of Mondragón by
+placing a strip of ordinary iron along their core
+so as to give them greater elasticity; and
+that they were then tempered in the ordinary
+manner, though always in the winter. Such
+are the prevailing theories about the iron
+swords of Mondragón, which are, in truth, of
+admirable quality.&ldquo;</p>
+
+<p>Magnificent examples of Toledo sword-blades,
+produced while her craft was at the zenith of its
+fame&mdash;that is, throughout the sixteenth and the
+seventeenth centuries&mdash;are in the Royal Armoury
+(Pl. <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., Nos. 5, 6, 7). Among them are a series
+of <i>montantes</i> made for tournament or war, and a
+superb blade, dated 1564, forged for Philip the
+Second by Miguel Cantero. The Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan considered this to be one
+of the finest weapons ever tempered; adding that
+the sword-blades of the city of the Tagus were
+held in such esteem all over Europe that he had
+seen, in numerous museums of the Continent,
+weapons professing to be Toledo-made, in which
+the blade and mark are evidently forged; bearing,
+for instance, <i>Ernantz</i> for Hernandez, <i>Johanos</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+for Juanes, and <i>Tomas Dailae</i> for Tomás de
+Ayala.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally agreed that the changes in the
+national costume, together with the importation
+of a lighter make of sword from France, were
+directly responsible for the decline of the Toledo
+sword-blades early in the eighteenth century.
+However, this decline was only temporary.
+Townsend wrote in 1786: &ldquo;From the Alcazar
+we went to visit the royal manufactory of arms,
+with which I was much pleased. The steel is excellent,
+and so perfectly tempered, that in thrusting
+at a target, the swords will bend like whalebone,
+and yet cut through a helmet without turning
+their edge. This once famous manufacture
+had been neglected, and in a manner lost, but it
+is now reviving.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Laborde endorsed these praises subsequently:
+&ldquo;Within a few years the fabrication of swords
+has been resumed at Toledo; the place allotted to
+this object is a handsome edifice, a quarter of a
+league distant from the city, which commands
+the banks of the Tagus. This undertaking has
+hitherto been prosperous; the swords are celebrated
+for the excellence of their blades, which are
+of finely tempered steel.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_266.jpg" width="298" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_266.jpg" id="img_266.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">OLD SWORD<br />
+(<i>Erroneously attributed to the Cid. Collection
+of the Marquis of Falces</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The modern small-arms factory of Toledo,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+situated on the right bank of the Tagus, a mile
+from the city walls, had, in fact, been opened in
+1783, when the same industry was also reviving
+at Vitoria, Barcelona, and elsewhere. Toledo
+worthily maintains to-day her ancient and illustrious
+reputation for this craft. The Tagus still
+supplies its magic water for the tempering, while
+part of the prime material of the steel itself
+proceeds from Solingen and Styria, and the rest
+from Trubia and Malaga.</p>
+
+<p>Cutlery continued to be made in Spain all
+through the eighteenth century. Colmenar says
+that the knives of Barcelona were considered excellent.
+According to Laborde, cutlery was made
+at Solsona and Cardona in Cataluña, at Mora
+in New Castile, and at Albacete in Murcia.
+&ldquo;The cutlery of Solsona is in great repute; but
+the largest quantity is made at Albacete. In
+the latter place are about twenty-eight working
+cutlers, each of whom employs five or six journeymen,
+who respectively manufacture annually six
+or seven thousand pieces, amounting in the
+whole to about one hundred and eighty thousand
+pieces.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>FIREARMS</h3>
+
+<p>Cannon of a primitive kind were used in Spain
+comparatively early. A large variety of names
+was given to these pieces, such as <i>cerbatanas</i>,
+<i>ribadoquines</i>, <i>culebrinas</i>, <i>falconetes</i>, <i>pasavolantes</i>,
+<i>lombardas</i> or <i>bombardas</i>, and many more; but
+the oldest, commonest, and most comprehensive
+name of all was <i>trueno</i>, &ldquo;thunder,&rdquo; from the
+terrifying noise of the discharge. This word was
+used for both the piece and the projectile. The
+Count of Clonard quotes Pedro Megía's <i>Silva de
+Varias Lecciones</i> to show that gunpowder was
+known in Spain as early as the eleventh century.
+&ldquo;Thunders&rdquo; of some description seem to have
+been used at the siege of Zaragoza in 1118; and
+a Moorish author, writing in 1249, describes in
+fearsome terms &ldquo;the horrid noise like thunder,
+vomiting fire in all directions, destroying everything,
+reducing everything to ashes.&rdquo; Al-Jattib,
+the historian of Granada, wrote at the beginning
+of the fourteenth century that the sultan of that
+kingdom used at the siege of Baza &ldquo;a mighty
+engine, applying fire thereto, prepared with
+naphtha and with balls.&rdquo; The Chronicle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+Alfonso the Eleventh describes in a quaint and
+graphic passage the crude artillery of that period,
+and the panic it occasioned. At the siege of
+Algeciras in 1342, &ldquo;the Moors that were within
+the city threw many &lsquo;thunders&rsquo; at the (Christian)
+host, together with mighty balls of iron, to such a
+distance that several overpassed the army, and
+some did damage to our host. Also, by means
+of &lsquo;thunders&rsquo; they threw arrows exceeding great
+and thick, so that it was as much as a man
+could do to lift them from the ground. And as
+for the iron balls these &lsquo;thunders&rsquo; hurled, men
+were exceedingly afraid thereof; for if they
+chanced to strike a limb they cut it off as clean as
+with a knife, and though the wound were but a
+slight one, yet was the man as good as dead; nor
+was any chirurgery that might avail him, both
+because the balls came burning hot, like flame,
+and because the powder which discharged them
+was of such a kind that any wound it made was
+surely mortal; and such was the violence of these
+balls, that they went through a man, together
+with all his armour.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the same century the
+testament of Don Pedro Tenorio (see <a href="#Page_256">p. 256</a>), the
+bellicose archbishop of Alcalá de Henares, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+ruled that diocese from 1376 to 1399, contains
+the following passage:&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Item</i>. We bought
+crossbows and bassinets both for foot and horse,
+together with shields, pikes, javelins, darts,
+lombards, hemp, powder, and other munitions for
+the castles of our Church; of which munitions we
+stored the greater quantity at Talavera and at
+Alcalá de Henares, purposing to deposit them at
+Cazorla and in the castles of Canales and of
+Alhamin, which we are now repairing after they
+were thrown down by the King Don Pedro, and
+for the tower of Cazorla, which we are now
+erecting. And it is our will that all of these
+munitions be for the said castles and tower; and
+that no one lay his hand on them, on pain of
+excommunication, excepting only the bishop
+elected and confirmed who shall succeed us; and
+he shall distribute them as he holds best among
+the aforesaid castles. And all the best of these
+munitions shall be for the governorship of Cazorla,
+as being most needed there to overthrow the
+enemies of our faith; and we have duly lodged
+the shields and crossbows, parted from the rest,
+upon the champaign of Toledo; whither should
+arrive more shields from Valladolid, that all
+together may be carried to Cazorla.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_270.jpg" width="455" height="600"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_270.jpg" id="img_270.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SPANISH SWORDS<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The article from which I quote this passage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+adds that the palace of the archbishop at Alcalá
+de Henares was fortified with cannon until the
+beginning of the nineteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cannon are mentioned with increasing frequency
+throughout the fifteenth century; and in
+the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella we read of
+lombards of enormous size, which had to be
+dragged across the Andalusian hills and plains
+by many scores of men and beasts; which frequently
+stuck fast and had to be abandoned on
+the march; and which, even in the best of circumstances,
+could only be discharged some twice or
+thrice a day.</p>
+
+<p>In reading documents and chronicles of older
+Spain, it is easy to confound the early forms of
+cannon with the engines similar to those employed
+by the Crusaders in the Holy Land, and built
+for hurling stones or arrows of large size. Such
+engines were the <i>trabuco</i>, the <i>almajanech</i> or
+<i>almojaneque</i>, the <i>algarrada</i>, and the <i>fundíbalo</i> or
+Catalan <i>fonevol</i>. Beuter, in his <i>Chronicle of
+Spain and of Valencia</i>, describes the latter as &ldquo;a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+certain instrument which has a sling made fast
+to an extremity of wood &hellip; made to revolve
+so rapidly that the arm, on being released, projects
+the stone with such a force as to inflict much
+harm, even in distant places, whither could reach
+no missile slung by the hand of man.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Turning to portable Spanish firearms, we find
+that the precursor of the arquebus, musket, and
+rifle seems to have been a weapon which was
+introduced about the middle of the fifteenth
+century, and called the <i>espingarda</i>. Alfonso de
+Palencia says it was employed against the rebels
+of Toledo in 1467; and the Chronicle of Don
+Alvaro de Luna relates that when this nobleman
+was standing beside Don Iñigo d'Estúñiga, upon
+a certain occasion in 1453, &ldquo;a man came out in
+his shirt and set fire to an <i>espingarda</i>, discharging
+the shot thereof above the heads of Don
+Alvaro and of Iñigo d'Estúñiga, but wounding
+an esquire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_272.jpg" width="500" height="435"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_272.jpg" id="img_272.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MARKS OF TOLEDAN ARMOURERS (15TH&ndash;17TH CENTURIES),
+FROM SWORDS IN THE ROYAL ARMOURY AT MADRID</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As time advanced, portable firearms of first-rate
+quality were made throughout the northern
+Spanish provinces, and also in Navarra, Cataluña,
+Aragon, and Andalusia. The inventory of the
+Dukes of Alburquerque mentions, in 1560, &ldquo;four
+flint arquebuses of Zaragoza make &hellip; another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+arquebus of Zaragoza, together with its fuse,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;arquebuses of those that are made within this
+province&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> of Segovia). Cristóbal Frisleva,
+of Ricla in Aragon, and Micerguillo of Seville
+were celebrated makers of this arm; but probably
+these and all the other Spanish masters of this
+craft derived their skill from foreign teaching,
+such as that of the brothers Simon and Peter
+Marckwart (in Spanish the name is spelt <i>Marcuarte</i>,)
+who were brought to Spain by Charles
+the Fifth.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury contains some finely
+decorated guns, made for the kings of Spain at
+the close of the seventeenth century and early in
+the eighteenth, by Juan Belen, Juan Fernandez,
+Francisco Baeza y Bis, and Nicolás Bis. The
+last-named, pupil of Juan Belen, was a German;
+but all these gunsmiths lived and worked at
+Madrid. Nicolás was arquebus-maker to Charles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
+the Second from 1691, and afterwards held the
+same post from Philip the Fifth. He died in
+1726, and the Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+says that in 1808&mdash;that is, before it was plundered
+by the mob&mdash;the Royal Armoury contained no
+fewer than fifty-three weapons of his manufacture.
+One of the guns which bear his mark, and still
+exist, is inscribed with the words, &ldquo;I belong to
+the Queen our lady&rdquo; (Isabel Farnese, first wife
+of Philip the Fifth), combined with the arms of
+León and Castile, and of the Bourbon family.
+This weapon was used, or intended to be used,
+for hunting.</p>
+
+<p>Diego Esquivel, another gunsmith of Madrid,
+was also famous early in the eighteenth century,
+as, later on, were Manuel Sutil, José Cano,
+Francisco Lopez, Salvador Cenarro, Isidro Soler
+(author of a <i>Compendious History of the Arquebus-makers
+of Madrid</i>), Juan de Soto, and Sebastián
+Santos.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_274.jpg" width="362" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_274.jpg" id="img_274.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>BRIDONA</i> SADDLE<br />
+(<i>15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Swinburne wrote from Cataluña in 1775; &ldquo;the
+gun-barrels of Barcelona are much esteemed, and
+cost from four to twenty guineas, but about five
+is the real value; all above is paid for fancy and
+ornament; they are made out of the old shoes of
+mules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Until 1793, the smaller firearms of the Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+army were made at Plasencia in Guipúzcoa. In
+that year the government factory, where hand-labour
+alone continued to be used till 1855, was
+removed to Oviedo. To-day this factory employs
+about five hundred workmen. In 1809 Laborde
+wrote that &ldquo;firearms, such as fusees, musquets, carbines,
+and pistols are manufactured at Helgoivar,
+Eybor, and Plasencia; at Oviedo, Barcelona,
+Igualada, and at Ripoll; the arms made at the
+latter city have long had a distinguished reputation.
+Seven hundred and sixty-five gunsmiths,
+it is estimated, find employment in the factories of
+Guipúzcoa.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Both Townsend and the foregoing writer give
+a good account of Spanish cannon at this time.
+According to Laborde, &ldquo;two excellent founderies
+for brass cannon are royal establishments at
+Barcelona and Seville; in the latter city copper
+cannon are cast, following the method recommended
+by M. Maritz. Iron ordnance are made
+at Lierganez and Cavada.&rdquo; Townsend wrote
+of Barcelona, in 1786; &ldquo;The foundery for
+brass cannon is magnificent, and worthy of
+inspection. It is impossible anywhere to see
+either finer metal, or work executed in a neater<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+and more perfect manner. Their method of
+boring was, in the present reign, introduced by
+Maritz, a Swiss. Near two hundred twenty-four
+pounders are finished every year, besides mortars
+and field-pieces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<h3>SADDLERY AND COACHES</h3>
+
+<p>Probably no relic of the former of these crafts
+in Spain is older or more curious than the iron
+bit (Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 8), inlaid with silver
+dragons' heads and crosses, and attributed, from
+cruciform monograms which also decorate it, to
+the Visigothic King Witiza (who died in 711),
+or sometimes to the conqueror of Toledo, Alfonso
+the Sixth (eleventh century). The spurs or
+<i>acicates</i> (Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 9) of Ferdinand the
+Third of Castile, who conquered Seville from the
+Moors, are also treasured in the Royal Armoury,
+and bear upon an iron ground remains of gold and
+silver decoration representing castles. The Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan believed these spurs to
+be authentic, because they are identical with the
+ones which Ferdinand wears in his equestrian
+seal, preserved among the National Archives of
+France, and dating from the year 1237.</p>
+
+<p>Saddles of various kinds were used in Spain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+throughout the Middle Ages. Among them
+were the ordinary travelling-saddle or <i>silla de
+barda</i> (Arabic <i>al-bardá</i>); saddles <i>de palafrén</i>,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> the
+<i>silla de la guisa</i>, or <i>de la brida</i> or <i>bridona</i>, for
+riding with long stirrups, and consequently the
+antithesis of the <i>gineta</i> saddle;<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> or saddles
+made for use exclusively in war, on which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+rider was accustomed to make the sign of the
+cross before or after mounting, such as the <i>lidona</i>,
+<i>gallega</i> (&ldquo;<i>siellas gallegas</i>&rdquo; are mentioned in the
+<i>Poem of the Cid</i>), and <i>corsera</i> or <i>cocera</i> (Arabic
+<i>al-corsi</i>), or else the <i>silla de conteras</i>, &ldquo;whose
+hindmost bow,&rdquo; according to the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan, &ldquo;terminated in converging
+pieces to protect the wearer's thighs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A saddle known as the <i>silla de rua</i>, or &ldquo;street
+saddle,&rdquo; was generally used in Spain throughout
+the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. It
+was intended, not for war, but promenade and
+show, and therefore richly decorated. The Royal
+Armoury has nineteen of these saddles, all of
+which are Spanish-made. In the same collection
+is a plain <i>bridona</i> saddle (Plate <a href="#img_274.jpg">lix</a>.), with iron
+stirrups and two gilt-metal bells, such as were
+commonly used in tournaments or other festivals.
+This saddle has been erroneously ascribed to the
+thirteenth century. It dates from the beginning
+of the fifteenth century, and proceeds from
+Majorca.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_278.jpg" width="500" height="341"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_278.jpg" id="img_278.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">HANGING <i>JAECES</i> FOR HORSES</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The old belief that one of the saddles in this
+armoury, whose bows are chased with a design
+in black and gilt of leaves and pilgrim's shells,
+was once upon a time the Cid Campeador's,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+has been exploded recently. The saddle in
+question is known to be Italian, dates from the
+sixteenth century, and bears the arms of a town
+in the duchy of Montferrato.</p>
+
+<p>The inventory (1560) of the dukes of Alburquerque
+mentions some curious saddles, including
+one &ldquo;<i>de la brida</i>, of blue velvet, with the bows
+painted gold, and on the front bow a cannon with
+its carriage, and on the hind bow another cannon
+with flames of fire.&rdquo; Among the rest were &ldquo;a
+<i>gineta</i> saddle of red leather, used by my lord the
+duke,&rdquo; together with saddles of bay leather, of
+dark brown leather, of &ldquo;smooth leather with
+trappings of blue cloth,&rdquo; of Cordova leather, and
+&ldquo;a date-coloured <i>gineta</i>-saddle, complete.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same inventory specifies innumerable
+smaller articles of harness, such as stirrups, spurs,
+reins, headstalls, and poitrals or breast-leathers.
+Many of these pieces were richly ornamented; <i>e.g.</i>,
+&ldquo;some silver headstalls of small size, enamelled
+in blue, with gilt supports of iron,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> as well as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>
+&ldquo;some silver headstalls, gilded and enamelled
+green and rose, with shields upon the temples.&rdquo;
+Others of these headstalls were made of copper,
+and nearly all were colour-enamelled.</p>
+
+<p>The stirrups included &ldquo;two Moorish stirrups of
+gilded tin, for a woman's use&rdquo;;<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> &ldquo;some large
+Moorish stirrups, gilt, with two silver plates upon
+their faces, enamelled gold, green, and blue, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+eight nails on either face&rdquo;; &ldquo;some other Moorish
+stirrups, wrought inside with <i>ataujía</i>-work in gold,
+and outside with plates of copper enamelled in
+green, blue, and white; the handles gilt, with
+coverings of red leather&rdquo;; and &ldquo;some silver
+stirrups with three bars upon the floor thereof,
+round-shaped in the manner of an urinal, with
+open sides consisting of two bars, a flower within
+a small shield on top, and, over this, the small
+face of a man.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The many sets of reins included several of
+Granada make, coloured in white, red, and
+bay; while one of the most elaborate of the
+poitrals was of &ldquo;red leather, embroidered with
+gold thread, with fringes of rose-coloured silk,
+buckles, ends, and rounded knobs; the whole of
+copper enamelled green, and blue, and white.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Small but attractive accessories to these handsome
+sets of mediæval Spanish harness were the
+decorative medals (Plate <a href="#img_278.jpg">lx</a>.) hung from the
+horse's breast in tourneying or in war. In France
+these medals were known as <i>annelets volants</i>,
+<i>branlants</i>, or <i>pendants</i>; although in Spain, where
+it is probable that they were used more widely
+than in other countries, they have no definite
+name. The term <i>jaeces</i> is sometimes applied to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>
+them; but <i>jaez</i> properly means the entire harness
+for a horse, and the word is thus employed by
+classic Spanish authors, such as Tirso de Molina.
+A recent term, invented by a living writer, is
+<i>jaeces colgantes</i>, or &ldquo;hanging <i>jaeces</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These ornaments, which had their origin among
+the Romans and Byzantines, are figured in certain
+of the older Spanish codices such as the <i>Cántigas
+de Santa Maria</i>. In Christian Spain, however,
+their vogue was greatest in the thirteenth and
+the fourteenth centuries. They disappeared altogether
+in the sixteenth century; and among the
+Spanish Moors their use, though not unknown,
+was always quite exceptional.</p>
+
+<p>The mottoes and devices on these little plates
+are very varied. Sometimes the motto has an
+amorous, sometimes a religious import. Sometimes
+the vehicle of the motto is Latin, sometimes
+Spanish, sometimes French. Sometimes
+the device contains, or is composed of, a blazon,
+and commonly there is floral or other ornament.
+A collection of nearly three hundred of these
+medals belonged to the late Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan, all of which were probably made
+in Spain. The material as a rule is copper,
+adorned with <i>champlevé</i> enamelling, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+colours often used to decorate and relieve the
+interspaces of the gilded metal are red, blue,
+black, white, and green.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_282.jpg" width="500" height="371"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_282.jpg" id="img_282.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">TRAVELLING LITTER<br />
+(<i>Attributed to Charles the Fifth. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to Florencio Janer, coaches were
+not known in Spain until the middle of the sixteenth
+century. Before that time the usual conveyance
+was the litter. The Madrid Armoury
+contains an object which is thought to have been
+the campaigning-litter of Charles the Fifth
+(Plate <a href="#img_282.jpg">lxi</a>.). The Count of Valencia de Don
+Juan also inclined to this belief from the circumstance
+that an engraving exists in the British
+Museum which represents a German litter of the
+sixteenth century, identical in all respects with
+this one. Probably, however, these litters were
+the same all over Europe. The inventory of the
+Dukes of Alburquerque includes, in 1560, a &ldquo;cowhide
+litter, black, lined with black serge; also
+poles stained black, and harness for mules.&rdquo;
+This, together with other travelling gear, belonged
+to &ldquo;my lady the duchess&rdquo;; and it is
+worth noting that the litter attributed to Charles,
+though cased with a protective covering of
+whitish canvas, is also of black leather and lined
+with black serge, besides being evidently built for
+carriage by two mules. The interior contains a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+small armchair rising some inches only from the
+floor, and which, requiring him to keep his legs
+continually outstretched, could hardly fail to prove
+excruciatingly uncomfortable to the traveller.</p>
+
+<p>Mendez Silva says that the precise date of the
+introduction of coaches into Spain was 1546,
+and other writers do not greatly differ from him.
+The Alburquerque inventory includes &ldquo;two four-wheeled
+coaches,&rdquo; as well as &ldquo;a triumphal car
+with four wheels, its body painted with red and
+gold stripes.&rdquo; Vanderhamen, who says that the
+first coach ever seen in Spain was brought here
+by a servant of Charles the Fifth in 1554, adds
+that within a little time their use became &ldquo;a hellish
+vice that wrought incalculable havoc to Castile.&rdquo;
+Certainly this vehicle for many years was far from
+popular among the Spaniards, and was assailed
+with special vehemence by all who lacked the
+income to support one. The Duke of Berganza
+is said to have remarked that &ldquo;God had fashioned
+horses for the use of men, and men had fashioned
+coaches for the use of women&rdquo;; while a priest,
+Tomás Ramón, declared that it was &ldquo;a vast
+disgrace to see bearded men, with rapiers at their
+side, promenading in a coach.&rdquo; Even the governing
+powers thought fit to interfere. In 1550,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+1563, and 1573 the Cortes demanded the total
+prohibition of these modish yet detested vehicles,
+while the Cortes of 1578 decreed four horses as
+the statutory and invariable number for a private
+carriage. A further law enacted in 1611 that
+coaches must be strictly private property, and not,
+on pain of rigorous chastisement, be lent or hired
+by their owner;<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> while the owner, to own or use
+a coach at all, required a special licence from the
+Crown.</p>
+
+<p>Some curious facts relating to these vehicles in
+older Spain are instanced by Janer. In the
+seventeenth century a Spanish provincial town
+would normally contain a couple of hundred
+coaches. Among such boroughs was Granada.
+Here, in 1615, the authorities, backed by
+nearly all the citizens, protested that the coaches
+ploughed the highway into muddy pits and
+channels, and gave occasion, after nightfall, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+disgraceful and immoral scenes.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> After a while
+the protest grew so loud that the use of coaches in
+this capital was totally suppressed. One of the
+first persons to employ a coach in Granada had
+been the Marquis of Mondejar; and yet, in spite
+of his extensive influence, this nobleman, each
+time he wished to drive abroad, required to
+sue for licence from the town authorities, and
+these, in making out the written permit, took
+care to specify the streets through which he was
+allowed to pass.</p>
+
+<p>Assailed by numerous pragmatics,<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> chiefly of a
+sumptuary tenor and repeated at spasmodic
+intervals until as late as 1785, the private coach
+became at last an undisputed adjunct to the
+national life of Spain. Doubtless the use by
+royalty of gala-coaches or <i>carrozas</i> went far to
+sanction and extend their vogue. However, I
+will not describe these lumbering, uncouth, and
+over-ornamented gala-carriages (some of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+were made in Spain) belonging to the Spanish
+Crown, but quote the following pragmatic, dated
+1723, as aptly illustrative of the progress of this
+industry, and other industries akin to it, in the
+Peninsula:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In order to restrain the immoderate use of
+coaches, state-coaches, <i>estufas</i>, litters, <i>furlones</i>,<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>
+and calashes, we order that from this time forth
+no one of these be decorated with gold embroidery
+or any kind of silk containing gold, nor yet with
+bands or fringes that have gold or silver points;
+but only with velvets, damasks, and other simple
+silken fabrics made within this realm and its dependencies,
+or else in foreign countries that have
+friendly commerce with us. Also, the fringes
+and galloons shall be of silk alone; and none, of
+whatsoever dignity and degree, shall cause his
+coach, state-coach, etc., to be decorated with the
+fringes that are known as net-work, tassel-pointed,
+or bell-pointed; but only with undecorated, simple
+fringes, or with those of Santa Isabel; nor shall
+the breadth of either kind of these exceed four
+fingers. Also, he shall not cause his coach, state-coach,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
+etc., to be overlaid with any gilt or silvered
+work, or painted with any manner of design&mdash;meaning
+by such, historic scenes, marines, landscapes,
+flowers, masks, knots of the pattern known
+as coulicoles, coats of arms, war devices, perspectives,
+or any other painting, except it imitate
+marble, or be marbled over of one single colour
+chosen at the owner's fancy; and further, we
+allow in every coach, state-coach, etc., only a
+certain moderate quantity of carving. And this
+our order and pragmatic shall begin to rule upon
+the day it is made public; from which day forth
+no person shall construct, or buy, or bring from
+other countries, coaches or <i>estufas</i> that infringe
+our law herein expressed; wherefore we order
+the <i>alcaldes</i> of this town, our court and capital, to
+make a register of all such vehicles that each
+house contains, without excepting any. Nevertheless,
+considering that if we should prohibit
+very shortly those conveyances that now be
+lawful, the owners would be put to great expense,
+we grant a period of two years wherein
+they may consume or rid themselves thereof;
+upon the expiration of which term our law
+shall be again made public, and thenceforward
+all, regardless of their quality and rank, shall be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>
+compelled to pay obedience to the same. Also
+we order that no person make or go abroad in
+hand-chairs fitted with brocade, or cloth of gold
+or silver, or yet with any silk containing gold and
+silver; nor shall the lining be embroidered or
+adorned with any of the stuffs aforesaid; but
+the covering of the chair, inside and out, shall
+only be of velvet, damask, or other unmixed silk,
+with a plain fringe of four fingers' breadth and
+button-holes of the same silk, and not of silver,
+gold, or thread, or any covering other than those
+aforesaid; but the columns of such chairs may be
+adorned with silken trimmings nailed thereto.
+And we allow, as in the case of coaches, a period
+of two years for wearing out the hand-chairs now
+in use&hellip;. Also, we order that the coverings
+of coaches, <i>estufas</i>, litters, calashes, and <i>furlones</i>
+shall not be made of any kind of silk, or yet the
+harness of horses or mules for coaches and travelling
+litters; and that the said coaches, gala-coaches,
+<i>estufas</i>, litters, calashes, and <i>furlones</i> shall not be
+back-stitched (<i>pespuntados</i>), even if they should
+be of cowhide or of cordwain (goatskin); nor shall
+they contain any fitting of embroidered leather.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> According to Tubino, the existence of a prehistoric age of
+stone was not suspected in Spain until the year 1755, when Mann
+y Mendoza affirmed that a state of society had existed in the
+Peninsula before the age of metals. Since then the Celtic remains
+of Spain and Portugal have been investigated by many scientists,
+including Assas, Mitjana, Murguía, and Casiano de Prado, who
+discovered numbers of these weapons. Towards the middle of
+last century Casiano de Prado, aided by the Frenchmen Verneuil
+and Lartet, explored the neighbourhood of San Isidro on the
+Manzanares, and found large quantities of arms and implements
+of stone. Valuable service in the cause of prehistoric Spanish
+archæology has also been performed by Vilanova, Torrubia, and
+Machado.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Gerone qui ferrum gelat.</i>&rdquo; This river, the purity and coldness
+of whose waters lent, or so it is supposed, its virtues to the steel,
+rolls past the walls of Calatayud, and is called in later ages the Jalon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Imo Toletano præcingant ilia cultro.</i>&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Romani patriis gladiis depositis Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium
+assumpserunt &hellip; sed ferri bonitatem et fabrica solertiam
+imitari non potuerunt.</i>&rdquo;&mdash;Suidas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <i>Descripciones de las Islas Pithiusas y Baleares.</i> Madrid, 1787.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> A javelin made throughout of iron was found in Spain some
+years ago, completely doubled up, so as to admit of its being thrust
+into a burial urn. The javelin in question is now in the Madrid
+museum, and a similar weapon may be seen in the provincial
+museum of Granada.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte</i>: García Llansó; <i>Armas</i>, pp.
+439, 440.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> The horse was also covered with a <i>lóriga</i>, on which, from
+about the twelfth century, were thrown the decorative trappings
+of <i>cendal</i> or thin silk, painted or embroidered with the warrior's
+arms.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Calzó las brafoneras que eran bien obradas</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Con sortijas de acero, sabet bien enlazadas;</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Asi eran presas é bien trabadas,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Que semejaban calzas de las tiendas taiadas.</i>&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 0; margin-left: 55%;"><i>Poem of the Cid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Count of Clonard, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>; Nos. 16
+and 17.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> One of these weapons may be seen in the Royal Armoury (No.
+I. 95). It is made of iron covered with leather, and has a laurel-shaped
+blade with sharpened edges. The other end consists of two
+projecting pieces of the metal, shaped to resemble the plumes of an
+arrow. The length of this arm is 5 feet 8 inches.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> <i>Capellina</i>. The Count of Clonard says that this was in the
+shape of half a lemon, and fitted with a visor with a cutting edge.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> The following armourers' marks are stamped on various
+korazins in the Royal Armoury, made in Aragon and dating from
+the fifteenth century:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_218.jpg" width="500" height="71"
+        alt="marks"
+        title="marks" />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> My theory that this harness and the one in the Royal Armoury
+are the same is strengthened by the official inventory, which
+specifies &ldquo;a band of gold and silver, striped, and with devices in
+relief, studded with lapis lazuli, and yellow gems and luminous
+crystals.&rdquo; The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that this fine
+outfit, except the portions which are represented in the plate, was
+mutilated and dispersed in later years, and that he has discovered
+fragments in the museums of Paris and Vienna, and in the collection
+of Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte</i>: García Llansó; <i>Armas</i>; pp. 440,
+441.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> This weapon can have been no other than the typical Iberian
+lance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> In the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, this characteristically
+eastern downward curve of the crossbars grew to be popular even
+with the Christian Spaniards, as we observe from the swords of
+Ferdinand himself, preserved in the Royal Armoury at Madrid, and
+the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of Granada.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>Las Pinturas de la Alhambra</i>, p. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> The Count of Valencia de Don Juan states that seven Hispano-Moresque
+<i>gineta</i> swords are known to exist to-day: the one which
+is here described, and those belonging to the Marquises of Viana
+and Pallavicino, Baron de Sangarrén, the Duke of Dino, Señor
+Sánchez Toscano, the archæological museum at Madrid, the
+museum of Cassel in Germany, and the national library at Paris,
+A <i>gineta</i> sword in the Madrid Armoury popularly attributed to
+Boabdil can never have belonged to him. The hilt is modern, and
+the blade proceeds from Barbary.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> A number of Moorish swords are mentioned in the inventory,
+compiled in 1560, of the Dukes of Alburquerque. One is
+particularly interesting. It is described as &ldquo;a Moorish <i>gineta</i>
+sword which belongs to the Count of Monteagudo, and is pawned for
+six thousand <i>maravedis</i>. The sheath is of bay leather, worked in
+gold thread. The chape and fittings are of silver, decorated with
+green, blue, purple, and white enamel. There are two serpents'
+heads upon the fitting, together with the figure of a monster
+worked in gold thread on a little plate, and two large scarlet
+tassels: the little plate has three ends of the same enamel and a
+silver-gilt buckle.&rdquo; A note at the margin adds; &ldquo;The chape is
+wanting, and is owed us by the Marquis of Comares, who lost it at
+the cane-play at Madrid.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The two serpents' heads formed part of the arms of the Alahmar
+sultans of Granada; so that from this and from the richness of this
+weapon we may infer that it had once belonged to Mussulman
+royalty. The same inventory describes &ldquo;a Moorish scimitar with
+gilded hilt; the cross and pommel, and a great part of the scimitar
+itself, being of gilded <i>ataujía</i> work. The sheath is green inside, and
+black and gilt upon the face; and hanging from the hilt is a gold
+and purple cord with a button and a black tassel.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> To-day the craft of finely decorating arms is not forgotten in
+Morocco. &ldquo;A silversmith advanced to show a half-completed
+silver-sheathed and hafted dagger, engraved with pious sentences,
+as, &ldquo;God is our sufficiency and our best bulwark here on earth,&rdquo; and
+running in and out between the texts a pattern of a rope with one of
+the strands left out, which pattern also ran round the cornice of the
+room we sat in, and round the door, as it runs round the doors in
+the Alhambra and the Alcazar, and in thousands of houses built by
+the Moors, and standing still, in Spain. The dagger and the sheath
+were handed to me for my inspection, and on my saying that they
+were beautifully worked, the Caid said keep them, but I declined,
+not having anything of equal value to give in return.&rdquo;&mdash;Cunninghame
+Graham; <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i>, p. 234.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, by Townsend, who wrote of it, with ill-informed enthusiasm,
+as &ldquo;an epitome of Spanish history.&rdquo; Swinburne's notice of the
+same armoury is also curious: &ldquo;At the bottom of the palace-yard
+is an old building, called the Armeria, containing a curious assortment
+of antique arms and weapons, kept in a manner that would have
+made poor Cornelius Scriblerus swoon at every step; no notable
+housemaid in England has her fire-grates half so bright as these
+coats of mail; they show those of all the heroes that dignify the
+annals of Spain; those of Saint Ferdinand, Ferdinand the Catholic,
+his wife Isabella, Charles the Fifth, the great Captain Gonsalo, the
+king of Granada, and many others. Some suits are embossed with
+great nicety. The temper of the sword blades is quite wonderful,
+for you may lap them round your waist like a girdle. The art of
+tempering steel in Toledo was lost about seventy years ago, and the
+project of reviving and encouraging it is one of the favourite schemes
+of Charles the Third, who has erected proper works for it on the
+banks of the Tagus.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Throughout this time, the full equipment of the knight consisted
+of no less than four complete suits, for tournament or battle,
+or for foot or mounted fighting, together with their lances, swords,
+and targes. The Alburquerque inventory describes in detail a
+complete set (&ldquo;all of it kept in a box&rdquo;) of war and tourneying
+harness belonging to the duke. Although the warriors of that day
+were short of stature, their muscular strength is undeniable, for
+one of their lances has to be lifted nowadays by several men.
+When the author of <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i> wrote contemptuously of the
+&ldquo;scrofulous champions tapping on each other's shields,&rdquo; he was
+perhaps, forgetful for a moment of this fact.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> The Count of Valencia de Don Juan has found, from documents
+at Simancas, that in the year 1525 Kollman visited Toledo to
+measure Charles for armour. It is also certain, adds the Count,
+that, in order to produce this armour of a perfect fit, Kollman first
+moulded Charles' limbs in wax, and then transferred the moulds to
+lead. In a budget of accounts which coincides with Kollman's
+visit to Toledo appears the following item: &ldquo;Pour trois livres de
+cire et de plomb pour faire les patrons que maître Colman,
+armoyeur, a fait&rdquo;&mdash;followed by details of the cost.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> This, in the later Middle Ages, was a favourite form of tourneying
+lance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte; Armas</i>, by García Llansó; p. 445.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> &ldquo;Dès que le soir arrive, on ne va point n'y à Madrid ny ailleurs,
+sans cotte de maille et sans <i>broquet</i> qui est une rondache.&rdquo;&mdash;Bertaut
+de Rouen, <i>Voyage d'Espagne</i> (1659 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>), p. 294.</p>
+
+<p>The arms of Spaniards promenading after dark were even fixed
+by law. The <i>Suma de Leyes</i> of 1628 ordains that after ten o'clock
+nobody is to carry arms at all unless he also bears a lighted torch
+or lantern. No arquebus, on pain of a fine of ten thousand
+<i>maravedis</i>, may have a barrel less than a yard long. Nobody may
+carry a sword or rapier the length of whose blade exceeds a yard
+and a quarter, or wear a dagger unless a sword accompanies it.
+Sometimes these prohibitions extended even to seasons of the
+year. In 1530 an Ordinance of Granada proclaims that from
+the first of March until the last day of November nobody may
+carry a hatchet, sickle, or dagger, &ldquo;except the dagger which is
+called a <i>barazano</i>, of a palm in length, even if the wearer be a
+shepherd.&rdquo; The penalty for infringement of this law was a fine of
+ten thousand <i>maravedis</i>; but labourers who worked upon a farm
+were exempted from the prohibition.</p>
+
+<p>Swinburne wrote from Cataluña, in 1775, that &ldquo;amongst other
+restrictions, the use of slouched hats, white shoes, and large brown
+cloaks is forbidden. Until of late they durst not carry any kind of
+knife; but in each public house there was one chained to the table,
+for the use of all comers.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> <i>Voyage d'Espagne</i>, p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Gonzalo de la Torre de Trassierra; Articles on Cuéllar
+published in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> &ldquo;Draw me not without a cause, nor sheathe me without
+honour.&rdquo; A sword with this inscription is in the Royal Armoury&mdash;(G.
+71 of the official catalogue).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Leonard Williams; <i>Toledo and Madrid: their Records and
+Romances</i>; p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> In the Corpus Christi festival at Granada the banner which
+preceded all the rest was that of the armourers and knife-makers,
+followed by that of the silk-mercers. <i>Ordenanzas de Granada</i>;
+tit. 126.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> <i>Armourers' Ordinances of Seville</i>, extant in ms. (quoted by
+Gestoso; <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>; vol. I., p. xxxvi).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>De mano y media</i>&rdquo;; <i>i.e.</i> for wielding either with one hand or
+both. Specimens of this kind of sword existing at Madrid will be
+described immediately.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> &ldquo;Señor, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay be nay; for of great
+virtue is it in the prince, or any man, to be a speaker of the truth,
+and of great security to his vassals and to his property.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> <i>Toledo and Madrid: their Records and Romances</i>; pp. 99&ndash;101.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Andrés Ferrara was a well-known armourer of Zaragoza.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 358.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Escudero de la Peña; <i>Claustros, Escalera, y Artesonados del
+Palacio Arzobispal de Alcalá de Henares</i>; published in the <i>Museo
+Español de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> The brothers Marckwart, or possibly one or other of them,
+are believed to have stamped their arquebuses with a series of
+small sickles, thus:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_273.jpg" width="97" height="150"
+        alt="marks"
+        title="marks" />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> An old account copied into a book (see <a href="#Page_89">p. 89</a>, <i>note</i>) in the National
+Library at Madrid, and dating from the reign of Sancho the Fourth,
+states that Pedro Ferrández, saddler, received a certain sum for
+making various saddles, including two &ldquo;<i>de palafrés</i>, wrought in
+silk with the devices of the king.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> &ldquo;In mediæval Spain, good riders were often designated as
+&lsquo;Ginete en ambas sillas,&rsquo; that is, accustomed to either saddle, <i>i.e.</i>
+the Moorish and the Christian, and I now understand why
+chroniclers have taken the trouble to record the fact. Strangely
+enough, the high-peaked and short-stirruped saddle does not cross
+the Nile, the Arabs of Arabia riding rather flat saddles with an
+ordinary length of leg. The Arab saddle of Morocco, in itself, is
+perhaps the worst that man has yet designed; but, curiously enough,
+from it was made the Mexican saddle, perhaps the most useful for
+all kinds of horses and of countries that the world has seen.&rdquo;
+Cunninghame Graham: <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i>, p. 66. The same
+writer naïvely adds the following footnote to the words <i>Ginete en
+ambas sillas</i>. &ldquo;This phrase often occurs in Spanish chronicles,
+after a long description of a man's virtues, his charity, love of the
+church, and kindness to the poor, and it is apparently inserted as
+at least as important a statement as any of the others. In point
+of fact, chronicles being written for posterity, it is the most
+important.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> As I have stated in another chapter, the precious stones
+and metals were continually employed in arms and harness,
+both of Spanish Moors and Spanish Christians. In 1062
+Pedro Ruderiz bequeathed to the Monastery of Arlanza all his
+battle harness, together with his silver bit (<i>frenum argenteum</i>).
+Thousands of such bequests have been recorded. The
+Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh says that after the victory
+of the Rio Salado, this monarch found among his spoil &ldquo;many
+swords with gold and silver fittings, and many spurs, all of
+enamelled gold and silver&hellip;. And all this spoil was gathered
+by the king into his palaces of Seville (<i>i.e.</i> the Alcázar), the
+doubloons in one part, and the swords in another part.&rdquo; The
+testament (sometimes considered to be a forgery) of Pedro the
+Cruel mentions &ldquo;my sword in the Castilian manner, that I
+caused to be made here in Seville with gems and with <i>aljofar</i>.&rdquo; In
+1409 Yusuf, King of Granada, presented Juan the Second and the
+Infante Don Enrique with silver-fitted swords. Referring to a
+later age, Davillier discovered at Simancas a detailed list of weapons
+sumptuously decorated with gold and coloured enamels, made for
+Philip the Second by Juan de Soto, &ldquo;<i>orfebrero de su Alteza</i>.&rdquo;
+<i>Recherches</i>, pp. 149&ndash;151.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> The women of mediæval Spain had few amusements besides
+riding. Another&mdash;though owing to the temperate climate it must have
+been on few occasions&mdash;was skating, since this inventory mentions
+&ldquo;two pairs of skates, for a man, for travelling over ice. Two pairs
+of skates, for the same purpose, for a woman.&rdquo; This entry almost
+matches in its quaintness with the &ldquo;irons for mustaches,&rdquo; or the
+&ldquo;triggers for extracting teeth,&rdquo; set forth in Spanish documents such
+as the <i>Tassa General</i> of 1627.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> This prohibition was not inopportune. Swinburne wrote towards
+the end of the eighteenth century; &ldquo;Having occasion one day
+for a coach to carry us about, the stable-boy of our inn offered his
+services, and in a quarter of an hour brought to the door a coach
+and four fine mules, with two postillions and a lacquey, all in
+flaming liveries; we found they belonged to a countess, who, like
+the rest of the nobility, allows her coachman to let out her equipage
+when she has no occasion for it; it cost us about nine shillings,
+which no doubt was the perquisite of the servants.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Towns still exist in Spain where vehicles are not allowed to
+proceed at more than a walking-pace through any of the streets.
+One of such towns is Argamasilla de Alba (of <i>Don Quixote</i> fame),
+where I remember to have read a notice to this effect, painted, by
+order of the mayor, on a house-wall of the principal thoroughfare.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> A royal degree of 1619 disposed that &ldquo;every one who sows and
+tills twenty-five <i>fanegas</i> of land each year, may use a coach.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> The <i>estufa</i> (literally <i>stove</i>) was a form of family-coach. The
+<i>furlon</i> is described in an old dictionary as &ldquo;a coach with four seats
+and hung with leather curtains.&rdquo;</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p class="title">PRINTED BY<br />
+NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,<br />
+EDINBURGH.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have
+been maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as a misprint.</p>
+
+<table summary="corrections">
+  <tr>
+    <td><b>The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.</b></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 11: for securing the cloak; the <i>torquis</i> &#8594; <i>torques</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 12: <i>Fibulae</i> &#8594; <i>Fibulæ</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 17: Amador de los Rios &#8594; Ríos</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 28: Amador de los Rios &#8594; Ríos</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 28: de joyaux les plus precieux &#8594; précieux</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 65: is generally of the fifteeenth &#8594; fifteenth</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 70: He carried, too, a &#8594; &ldquo;a</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 72: The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths &#8594; silversmiths'</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 82: Mores ont caché leurs tresors &#8594; trésors</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 90: a friar of Guadelupe &#8594; Guadalupe</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 91: Juan González &#8594; Gonzalez</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 93: As soon as Cristobal &#8594; Cristóbal</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 94: fué deste cuento, Jan &#8594; Juan</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 102: et cela luy feioit &#8594; fetoit</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 105: pearls or other stones. &#8594; stones.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 123: in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i> &#8594; <i>Antigüedades</i>)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 140: Museo Español de Antiguedades &#8594; Antigüedades</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 143: Museo Español de Antiguedades &#8594; Antigüedades</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 176: the emir of the Mussulmans Abi-Abdillah &#8594; Abu-Abdillah</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 180: D.C.C.C.C.XIII. &#8594; D.C.C.C.C.XIII.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 181: and the Puertas del Perdon &#8594; Perdón</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 188: consisted of &rdquo;a &#8594; a</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 205: among the Germans <i>panzerbrecher</i> &#8594; <i>Panzerbrecher</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 206: frock (the <i>waffenrock</i> &#8594; <i>Waffenrock</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 220: which specifies &ldquo;a bard &#8594; band</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 222: It has a <i>verga</i> &#8594; <i>verja</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 229: as well as the chape &#8594; shape</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 232: button and a black tassel. &#8594; tassel.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 244: published in the <i>Boletin</i> &#8594; <i>Boletín</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 262: and the burnisher. &#8594; burnisher.&rsquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: making good files or razors. &#8594; making good files or razors.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 273: of Segovia). Cristobal &#8594; Cristóbal</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44391 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #44391 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44391)
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I
+(of 3), by Leonard Williams
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I (of 3)
+
+
+Author: Leonard Williams
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 10, 2013  [eBook #44391]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER
+SPAIN, VOLUME I (OF 3)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44391-h.htm or 44391-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
+      Volume II: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44392
+      Volume III: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44393
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The signs cross and dagger have been marked as [cross]
+      and [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (Comp^a).
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece_
+_REJA_ OF THE CHOIR
+(_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME I
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+                               Dedicated
+
+                         BY SPECIAL PERMISSION
+                                   TO
+                            THEIR MAJESTIES
+                      KING ALFONSO THE THIRTEENTH
+                                  AND
+                        QUEEN VICTORIA OF SPAIN
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing these volumes, it has been my aim to give a clear and
+fairly complete account of the arts and crafts of older Spain. It seems
+to me that there is room for a work of this design and scope, and that
+there is no reason why so attractive a subject--or rather, group of
+subjects--should be perpetually ignored by persons who travel through,
+or who profess to feel an interest in, the country of the Cid and of Don
+Quixote.
+
+My account of Spanish pottery is guarded, and yet I trust acceptable.
+The study of this craft in Spain is far from definite, and fresh
+researches and discoveries may be hoped for at some future time. The
+history of Spanish arms has also suffered from unjust neglect. Perhaps
+my sketch of them may slightly compensate for this deficiency. For the
+rest, my book, which represents the well-meant assiduity of several
+years, shall speak for itself. Although I was embarrassed by too much
+material, the illustrations have been chosen with great care, and not, I
+think, inadequately. Some of the photographs were taken specially for
+this work. For the loan of others, or for kind assistance generally, I
+am indebted to Excmo. Señor Don Guillermo J. de Osma, Excmo. Señor Don
+José Villegas, and Excmo. Señor Don José Moreno Carbonero; to Señores
+Góngora and Valladar, of Granada; and to Messrs Hauser and Menet, and
+Mons. Lacoste, of Madrid.
+
+_August_, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE
+
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  GOLD, SILVER, AND JEWEL WORK                                    1-119
+
+  IRON-WORK                                                     120-159
+
+  BRONZES                                                       160-191
+
+  ARMS                                                          192-289
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                              _VOLUME ONE_
+
+
+                            GOLD AND SILVER
+
+     PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+           _Reja_ of the Choir; Seville Cathedral        _Frontispiece_
+
+        I. Treasure of Guarrazar; Royal Armoury, Madrid              22
+
+       II. The Cross of Angels; Oviedo Cathedral                     36
+
+      III. The Cross of Victory; Oviedo Cathedral                    43
+
+       IV. Moorish Casket; Gerona Cathedral                          46
+
+        V. Altar-Front in enamelled Bronze; Museum of Burgos         50
+
+       VI. "The Crucifix of the Cid"; Salamanca Cathedral            52
+
+      VII. The "Virgen de la Vega"; San Esteban, Salamanca           54
+
+     VIII. Saint James in Pilgrim's Dress; Santiago Cathedral        57
+
+       IX. Mudejar Triptych; Royal Academy of History, Madrid        60
+
+        X. The "Tablas Alfonsinas"; Seville Cathedral                62
+
+       XI. "The Cup of Saint Ferdinand"; Seville Cathedral           64
+
+      XII. Ship; Zaragoza Cathedral                                  65
+
+     XIII. Moorish Bracelets                                         77
+
+      XIV. Morisco Jewellery                                         83
+
+       XV.  Silver-Gilt Processional Cross                           85
+
+      XVI.  Gothic _Custodia_                                        95
+
+     XVII.  The _Custodia_ of Seville Cathedral                     100
+
+    XVIII.  Early Chalice and Cross in Filigree Gold                114
+
+
+                               IRON-WORK
+
+      XIX. Old Keys; Seville Cathedral                              131
+
+     XIXA. Decorative Nail-Heads; Convent of San Antonio, Toledo    134
+
+       XX. Door-Knockers                                            136
+
+      XXI. Ceremonial Maces and Lantern                             138
+
+     XXII. Iron Pulpit; Avila Cathedral                             140
+
+    XXIII. _Reja_ of Chapel Royal; Granada Cathedral                148
+
+     XXIV. The same (View from Interior)                            149
+
+      XXV. _Reja_; Casa de Pilatos, Seville                         155
+
+     XXVI. _Reja_ of the "Casa de las Conchas," Salamanca           156
+
+
+                                BRONZES
+
+    XXVII. "Meleager's Hunt"                                        164
+
+   XXVIII. A _Candil_                                               166
+
+     XXIX. A _Velón_                                                168
+
+      XXX. Bronze Lion                                              171
+
+     XXXI. Bronze Stag; Museum of Cordova                           173
+
+    XXXII. Bronze Temple; Museum of Granada                         174
+
+   XXXIII. Moorish Lamp and Mortar; Museum of Granada               176
+
+    XXXIV. Lamp of Mohammed the Third; Madrid Museum                178
+
+     XXXV. Abbot Samson's Bell; Museum of Cordova                   180
+
+    XXXVI. Bronze Crucifix                                          182
+
+   XXXVII. The Puerta del Perdón; Seville Cathedral                 184
+
+  XXXVIII. The Weathercock of the Giralda Tower                     186
+
+
+                                  ARMS
+
+    XXXIX. Crest of Jousting Helmet; Royal Armoury, Madrid          198
+
+       XL. Spanish Crossbowman; Royal Armoury, Madrid               202
+
+      XLI. The Battle of La Higueruela; El Escorial                 206
+
+     XLII. Parade Harness of Philip the Third; Royal Armoury,
+           Madrid                                                   210
+
+    XLIII. Moorish Crossbow and Stirrup; Museum of Granada          214
+
+     XLIV. Moorish Sword; Casa de los Tiros, Granada                218
+
+      XLV. Sword of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid   222
+
+     XLVI. Dagger of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid  226
+
+    XLVII. Moorish Sword                                            230
+
+   XLVIII. War Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid  234
+
+     XLIX. Jousting Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury,
+           Madrid                                                   238
+
+        L. Jousting Harness of Philip the Handsome; Royal Armoury,
+           Madrid                                                   242
+
+       LI. Moorish Buckler; Royal Armoury, Madrid                   246
+
+      LII. Armour made at Pamplona; Royal Armoury, Madrid           250
+
+     LIII. _Adarga_; Royal Armoury, Madrid                          254
+
+      LIV. Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid                    258
+
+       LV. Spanish Sword; Royal Armoury, Madrid                     262
+
+      LVI. Spanish Sword                                            266
+
+     LVII. Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid                    270
+
+    LVIII. Sword Marks                                              272
+
+      LIX. _Bridona_ Saddle; Royal Armoury, Madrid                  274
+
+       LX. Hanging _Jaeces_ for Horses                              278
+
+      LXI. Travelling Litter attributed to Charles the Fifth; Royal
+           Armoury, Madrid                                          282
+
+
+
+
+                      GOLD, SILVER, AND JEWEL WORK
+
+
+The hyperbolic language of the ancients spoke of Spain as filled
+throughout, upon her surface and beneath her soil, with precious stones
+and precious metals. Old writers--Strabo, Pliny, Aristoteles, Pomponius
+Mela, and Diodorus Siculus--declare that once upon a time a mountain
+fire, lighted by shepherds in the Pyrenees and fanned into a
+conflagration by the wind, heated the earth until the ore within her
+entrails came bubbling to the top and ran away in rivulets of molten
+gold and silver, spreading all over Spain. The indigens of Lusitania as
+they dug their fields were said to strike their implements on nuggets
+half a pound in weight. The heart of the Peninsula, between the B[oe]tis
+and the Annas rivers--that is, the country of the Oretani and the
+Bastitani--was fabled to abound in mines of gold. The traders from
+Ph[oe]nicia, we are told, discovered silver to be so abundant with the
+Turdetani that "the vilest utensils of this people were composed
+thereof, even to their barrels and their pots." Accordingly these shrewd
+Ph[oe]nicians, offering worthless trinkets in exchange, loaded their
+ships with silver to the water's edge, and even, when their cargo was
+complete, fashioned their chains and anchors of the residue.
+
+In spite of their extravagance, upon the whole these legends are not
+utterly devoid of truth. "Tradition," said so careful an authority as
+Symonds, "when not positively disproved should be allowed to have its
+full value; and a sounder historic sense is exercised in adopting its
+testimony with due caution, than in recklessly rejecting it and
+substituting guesses which the lack of knowledge renders insubstantial."
+So with the legends of the gold and silver treasure of the old-time
+Spaniards. Besides, it seems unquestionable that those fanciful
+assertions had their origin in fact. Spain stood upon the western border
+of the ancient world. Year in, year out, the sanguine sun went seething
+down into the waters at her western marge. Mariners from distant
+countries viewed those sunsets and associated them with Spain herself.
+Thus, hereabouts in the unclouded south, would gold and silver be
+suggested by the solar orb; or emerald and jacinth, pearl and amethyst
+and ruby, by the matchless colours of the seldom-failing sunset.
+
+Then, too, though not of course in fabulous amount, the precious metals
+actually existed in this land. Various of her rivers, such as the Calom
+or Darro of Granada, the Tagus, the Agneda, and the Sil, rolled down,
+together with their current, grains of gold. "Les Mores," wrote Bertaut
+de Rouen of the first of these rivers, "en tiroient beaucoup autrefois;
+mais cela a esté discontinué depuis à cause de la trop grande dépense
+qu'il y faloit faire. Il est certain que souvent on prend dans le Darro
+de petits morceaux d'or, et il y a des gens qui sont accoûtumez d'y en
+chercher."
+
+Centuries before this abbot wrote his book, the Arab author of the
+geographical dictionary known as the _Marasid Ithila_ had made a similar
+remark upon this gold-producing stream; and in the sixteenth century I
+find an Ordinance of Granada city prohibiting the townspeople from
+digging up the river-bed unless it were to look for gold.[1] Probably,
+however, and in spite of what some chroniclers suppose, the title Darro
+is not in any way connected with the Latin words _dat aurum_.
+
+  [1] _Ordenanza de la Limpieza_ (1537), Tit. 9: "We command that nobody
+      remove sand from the aforesaid river Darro unless to extract gold,
+      in which case he shall fill up the holes he made, or pay a fine of
+      fifty _maravedis_ for damaging the watercourses that enter this
+      city and the buildings of the Alhambra."
+
+"Two leagues from Guadarrama," wrote the mineralogist William Bowles,
+about the middle of the eighteenth century, "opposite the town and in
+the direction of San Ildefonso, is a deep valley where one notices a
+vein of common quartz containing some iron. Here, without the use of
+glasses, I perceived a good many grains of gold.... In Galicia grains of
+gold are found on sandy hills, and one is astonished to observe the
+wonderful works carried out by the Romans to bring the sands together,
+wash them, and extract the precious metal. Local tradition affirms that
+this precious sand was destined for the purses of three Roman
+empresses--Livia, Agrippina, and Faustina.... I know a German minister
+who employed his spare time in washing these sands and collecting the
+gold."
+
+The Romans, it is true, profited very greatly by the native wealth of
+the Peninsula. Helvius enriched the treasury with 14,732 pounds of
+Spanish silver bars and 17,023 pounds of silver money; Cornelius
+Lentulus, with 1515 pounds of gold, 20,000 pounds of bar-silver, and
+34,550 pounds in coin. Cato came back from his pro-consulship with
+five-and-twenty thousand pounds of silver bars, twelve thousand pounds
+of silver money, and four hundred pounds of gold. Seventy thousand
+pounds of coined silver fell to the share of Flaccus, while Minutius
+exhibited at his triumph eight thousand pounds of silver bars, and three
+hundred thousand pounds of silver coin.
+
+Mines of silver,[2] gold, and precious stones were also fairly numerous
+in Spain. Moorish authors wrote enthusiastically of the mines of
+precious metals in or close to the Sierra Nevada. "Even at this day,"
+said Bowles, "the Moorish mines may be distinguished from the Roman. The
+Romans made the towers of their fortresses of a round shape, in order to
+avoid as far as possible the blows of the battering-ram; and their
+miners, whether from habit or intentionally, made the mouths of their
+mines round also. The Moors, as strangers to this engine, built their
+towers square and gave a square shape also to the mouths of their
+mines. The round mouths of Roman mines are yet to be seen at Riotinto
+and other places, and the square mouths of Moorish mines in the
+neighbourhood of Linares."
+
+  [2] "I am not aware of any Spanish mine containing silver in a state of
+      absolute purity; though some, I think, would be discovered if they
+      were searched for."--Bowles: _Historia Natural de España_.
+
+Emeralds were formerly extracted from a mine at Moron, in the Sierra de
+Leyta; white sapphires and agates at Cape de Gata,[3] at the eastern
+extremity of the Gulf of Almeria; amethysts at Monte de las Guardas,
+near the port of Plata, "in a precipice (_sic_) about twenty feet in
+depth." According to Laborde, garnets have been discovered down to
+modern times "in a plain half-way on the road from Almeria to Motril.
+They are very abundant there, particularly in the bed of a ravine,
+formed by rain-torrents, at the foot of a little hill, upon which a
+great number of them are likewise found. The emeralds are in the kingdom
+of Seville, all the others in that of Granada. It has been said for some
+time that a pit in the mountain of Bujo, at Cape de Gata, contains a
+great many precious stones; but none could be found there,
+notwithstanding the prolonged and careful searches that were lately
+made."
+
+  [3] Possibly, as Bowles suggests, for Cabo de Agata--"Agate Cape." "It
+      would not be strange," he adds, "if diamonds were found at this
+      cape, since there are signs of their presence. I found white
+      sapphires, slightly clouded, together with cornelians, jaspers,
+      agates, and garnets."
+
+Silver mines exist, or have existed, at Benasque, Calzena, and Bielza,
+in Aragon; at Cuevas, near Almeria; at Almodovar del Campo; at Zalamea,
+in Extremadura; at Puerto Blanco, in Seville province; in the Sierra de
+Guadalupe; at Fuente de la Mina, near Constantina; and near Almazarron,
+in the province of Carthagena. Not far from this latter city was another
+mine, that sent to Rome a daily yield of five-and-twenty thousand
+drachmas, and was worked by forty thousand men. Twenty thousand pounds
+in weight of pure silver proceeded yearly from Asturias, Lusitania, and
+Galicia. Hannibal extracted from a Pyrenean mine three hundred pounds a
+day. The fair Himilca, wife of Hasdrubal, was owner of a silver mine at
+two leagues' distance from Linares. Laborde wrote of this mine: "It was
+reopened in the seventeenth century, when a vein five feet in breadth
+was found, from which many pieces of silver were taken; the working of
+it, however, has been neglected. It belongs to the town of Baeza."
+
+The same author, who wrote about one hundred years ago, gives curious
+and instructive notices of several other Spanish silver mines. "The
+mountains of the kingdom of Seville, on the confines of Extremadura,
+towards Guadalcanal, Alanis, Puerto Blanco, and Cazalla, which form a
+part of the extremity of the chain of Sierra Morena, contain several
+silver mines, which have been worked. There is one of these in the
+Sierra Morena, three miles from Guadalcanal, which to all appearance
+must have been very rich: there were three shafts for descending, the
+mouths of which are still to be seen: it was worked in the seventeenth
+century, and given up in 1653. It is believed that it was inundated by
+the workmen, in revenge for a new tax that was laid upon them. Another
+silver mine was also worked formerly, a league and a half from the
+other; it has a shaft, and a gallery of ancient construction; the vein
+is six feet in circumference, and is composed of spar and quartz. There
+is also a third mine, a league and a half from Guadalcanal, and half a
+league south-east of the village of Alanis, in the middle of a field; it
+is two feet wide; the Romans constructed a gallery in it, from south to
+north; a branch of it running eastward has been worked since their time:
+it originally contained pyrites and quartz, but it is by no means rich;
+there is lead at the bottom."
+
+Gold mines, or traces of them, have been found in the neighbourhood of
+Molina in Aragon, San Ildefonso in Old Castile, and Alocer in
+Extremadura; in the Sierra de Leyta; in the valley of Hecho in Aragon;
+and at Paradeseca and Ponferrada--this latter town the _Interamnium
+Flavium_ of the Romans.
+
+It is said that the chieftains of the ancient Spaniards adorned their
+robes with rude embroidery worked in gold, and that the men and women of
+all ranks wore gold and silver bracelets. These statements cannot now be
+either proved or controverted. Gold or silver objects older than the
+Roman domination have not been found abundantly in Spain. Riaño
+describes a silver bowl, conical in shape and evidently fashioned on the
+wheel, engraved with Iberian characters on one of its sides. A similar
+bowl was found in Andalusia in the seventeenth century, full of Iberian
+coins and weighing ten ounces. Gold ornaments, such as earrings, and
+_torques_ or collars for the neck, have been discovered in Galicia less
+infrequently than in the other Spanish regions, and may be seen to-day
+in private collections, in the Royal Academy of History at Madrid, and
+in the National Museum of Archæology.[4] Villa-amil y Castro has written
+fully of these _torques_ (Museo Español de Antigüedades, _Adornos de oro
+encontrados en Galicia_). In nearly every case, he says, they consist of
+a plain gold bar, C-shaped and therefore not completely closed into a
+ring, and with a knob at each extremity, as though their pattern were
+suggested by the yoke of cattle. One or two are decorated with a
+somewhat rude design extending through a portion of their length.
+
+  [4] A fresh find of _torques_ and _fibulæ_ has occurred in the spring
+      of this year at La Moureta, near Ferrol.
+
+On one of these occasions a pair of curious, kidney-shaped earrings was
+found, together with a _torque_. These earrings, apparently of later
+workmanship than the other ornament, are decorated over all their
+surface, partly with a filigree design, and partly with a fine, beadlike
+pattern executed with a small chisel or graving tool in the manner known
+in French as _fusé_, _guilloché_, or _hachié_. Their material is hollow
+gold, and when discovered they were filled with a substance resembling
+powdered charcoal, mixed with a metallic clay.
+
+These ornaments are ascribed by most authorities to an undetermined
+period somewhere previous to the Roman domination. I think, however,
+that less improbably they were produced by Spanish craftsmen in
+imitation of the Roman manner, and during the time of Roman rule in the
+Peninsula. This would account for their deficiencies of execution, and
+also for certain characteristics which they evidently share with Roman
+work.
+
+We know that Rome imposed her usages on all the peoples whom she
+subjugated. Consequently, following this universal law, the Spaniards
+would adopt, together with the lavish luxury of Rome, the Roman
+ornaments and articles of jewellery. Such were the _annulus_ or
+finger-ring; the _fibula_, a brooch or clasp for securing the cloak; the
+_torques_ or neck-ring, more or less resembling those in use among the
+Persians; and the _phalera_, a round plate of gold, silver, or other
+metal, engraved with any one of a variety of emblems, worn upon the
+breast or stomach by the persons of either sex, and very commonly
+bestowed upon the Roman soldiers in reward of military service. Then
+there were several kinds of earrings--the variously-designed
+_stalagmium_ or pendant, the _inaures_, or the _crotalium_, hung with
+pearls that brushed together as their wearer walked, and gratified her
+vanity by their rustling; and also several kinds of bracelets--the gold
+or bronze _armilla_, principally worn by men; the _periscelis_, the
+_spathalium_, and the _dextrale_, worn round the fleshy part of the
+right arm.[5]
+
+  [5] These ornaments were retained in use by the Visigoths, and find
+      their due description in the _Etymologies_ of Saint Isidore;
+      _e.g._:--
+
+     "_Inaures_ ab aurium foraminibus nuncupatae, quibus pretiosa genera
+     lapidum dependuntur."
+
+     "_Tourques_ sunt circuli aurei a collo ad pectus usque dependentes.
+     Torques autem et bullae a viris geruntur; a foeminis vero monilia et
+     catellae."
+
+     "_Fibulæ_ sunt quibus pectus foeminarum ornatur, vel pallium tenetur:
+     viris in humeris, seu cingulum in lumbris."
+
+Discoveries of Roman jewellery and gold and silver work have occurred
+from time to time in the Peninsula; for example, at Espinosa de Henares
+and (in 1840) near Atarfe, on the southern side of the volcanic-looking
+Sierra Elvira, a few miles from Granada. Riaño describes a Roman silver
+dish found in a stone quarry at Otañez, in the north of Spain. "It
+weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of
+figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical
+subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph
+who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a
+vessel; another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a
+barrel which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two
+mules. On each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and
+libations are offered. Round it is the inscription: SALVS VMERITANA, and
+at the back are engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P.
+CORNELIANI. PIII...."
+
+The same author is of opinion that in the time of the Romans "objects of
+all kinds in gold and silver were used in Spain to a very great extent,
+for, notwithstanding the destruction of ages, we still possess
+inscriptions which allude to silver statues, and a large number of
+objects in the precious metals exist in museums and private
+collections." Doubtless, in the case of articles and household utensils
+of smaller size--bowls, dishes, and the like, or ornaments for the
+person--the precious metals were made use of freely; but when we hear of
+mighty objects as also made of silver, _e.g._ principal portions of a
+building, we might do well to bear in mind a couple of old columns that
+were standing once not far from Cadiz, on a spot where in the days
+preceding history a temple sacred to the Spanish Hercules is rumoured
+to have been. Philostratus affirmed these columns to be wrought of solid
+gold and silver, mixed together yet in themselves without alloy. Strabo
+reduced them modestly to brass; but it was reserved for a curious
+Frenchman, the Père Labat, who travelled in Spain in 1705, to warn us
+what they really were. "Elles sont sur cette langue de terre, qui joint
+l'Isle de Léon à celle de Cadix; car il faut se souvenir que c'est ainsi
+qu'on appelle la partie Orientale, et la partie Occidentale de la même
+Isle. Il y a environ une lieue de la porte de Terre à ces vénérables
+restes de l'antiquité. Nous nous en approchames, croyant justifier les
+contes que les Espagnols en débitent. Mais nous fûmes étrangement
+surpris de ne pas rencontrer la moindre chose qui pût nous faire
+seulement soupçonner qu'elles fussent d'une antiquité un peu
+considérable. Nous vimes que ces deux tours rondes, qui n'ont à présent
+qu'environ vingt pieds de hauteur sur douze à quinze pieds de diamètre,
+étoient d'une maçonnerie fort commune. Leurs portes étoient bouchées, et
+nous convinmes tous qu'elles avoient été dans leur jeune tems des
+moulins à vent qu'on avoit abandonnés; il n'y a ni inscriptions, ni
+bas-reliefs, ni reste de figures quelconques. En un mot, rien qui
+méritât notre attention, ni qui recompensât la moindre partie de la
+peine que nous avions prise pour les aller voir de près. Car je les
+avois vue plus d'une fois du grand chemin, où j'avois passé, et je
+devois me contenter. Mais que ne fait-on pas quand on est curieux, et
+aussi des[oe]uvré que je l'étois alors."
+
+Many of the usages of Roman Spain descended to the Visigoths. The jewels
+of this people manifest the double influence of Rome and of Byzantium,
+and the latter influenced in its turn from Eastern sources. We learn
+from that extraordinary encyclopædia of early mediæval Spanish lore--the
+_Etymologies_ of Isidore of Beja--that the Visigothic women decked
+themselves with earrings, necklaces, and bracelets, set with precious
+stones of fabulous price. Leovigild is stated by the same writer to have
+been the first of the Visigothic princes to use the insignia of royalty.
+One of his coins (engraved in Florez) represents him with an imperial
+crown surmounted by a cross resembling that of the Byzantines. Coins of
+a similar design, and also bearing the imperial crown, were minted at
+Toledo, Cordova, or Merida, in the reigns of Chindaswint, Wamba,
+Ervigius, and Egica.
+
+But the true fountain-head of all our modern knowledge respecting the
+jewellery of Visigothic Spain is in the wonderful crosses, crowns, and
+other ornaments discovered in 1858 upon the site of some old Christian
+temple, two leagues distant from Toledo. These objects, known
+collectively as "the treasure of Guarrazar," were stumbled on by certain
+peasants after a heavy storm had washed away a quantity of earth. Some
+were destroyed upon the spot; others were sold to the Toledo
+silversmiths and melted down by these barbarians of our day; but
+fortunately the greater part remained intact, or very nearly so. There
+were in all, composed exclusively of gold and precious stones, eleven
+crowns, two crosses containing legible inscriptions, fragments such as
+the arms of a processional cross, and many single stones which time had
+doubtless separated from the crosses or the crowns.[6]
+
+  [6] There is also in the Archæological Museum at Madrid a small
+      collection of what has been described as Visigothic jewellery,
+      consisting of a handsome _phalera_, necklaces, finger-rings, and
+      earrings. Most of these objects were found at Elche in 1776. The
+      _Museo Español de Antigüedades_ published a full description by
+      Florencio Janer. Their interest is by no means as great as that of
+      the treasure of Guarrazar, nor is the date of their production
+      definitely ascertained. From various details I suspect that many
+      of them may be purely Roman.
+
+Part of this treasure passed in some mysterious way to France, and is
+now in the Cluny Museum at Paris. The rest is in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid. Paris can boast possession of nine of the crowns; Madrid, of
+two, together with a fragment of a third--this latter of a balustrade or
+basket pattern. Five of the nine crowns preserved at Paris are fashioned
+of simple hoops of gold. The most important of the five, the crown of
+Recceswinth, who ruled in Spain from 650 to 672 A.D., consists of two
+hinged semicircles of hollow gold, about a finger's-breadth across the
+interspace. It measures just over eight inches in diameter and four
+inches in depth. Both the upper and the lower rims are decorated to the
+depth of nearly half an inch with a design of four-pointed floral or
+semi-floral figures within minute circles. Amador de los Ríos has
+recognized this same design in the frieze of certain buildings at
+Toledo, and in the edges of mosaic discovered at Italica and Lugo, as
+well as in the Balearic Islands. The interstices of this design upon the
+crown are filled with a kind of red enamel or glaze, the true nature of
+which has not been definitely ascertained. Riaño calls it "a delicate
+ornamentation of _cloisonné_ work, which encloses a substance resembling
+red glass." The centre of the crown is filled with three rows of large
+stones, principally pearls and sapphires. There are also several onyxes,
+a stone which in those days was held in great esteem. The spaces between
+the rows of stones are ornamented with a somewhat rudimentary design of
+palm branches, the leaves of which appear to have been filled or
+outlined with the kind of red enamel I have spoken of.
+
+This crown is suspended by four gold chains containing each of them five
+leaf-shaped links, _percées à jour_. The chains unite at a gold rosette
+in the form of a double lily, terminated by a stoutish capital of
+rock-crystal. This in its turn is capped by another piece of crystal
+holding the final stem of gold which served as a hook for hanging up the
+crown. Suspended from the gold rosette by a long chain is a handsome
+cross, undoubtedly of more elaborate workmanship, studded with union
+pearls and monster sapphires. Amador believed this ornament to be a
+brooch. If this were so it is, of course, improperly appended here.
+Twenty-four gold chains hang from the lower border of the crown,
+concluding in pyriform sapphires of large size. Each sapphire is
+surmounted by a small, square frame of gold containing coloured glass,
+and above this, in each of three-and-twenty of the chains, is one of
+the golden letters forming the inscription, [cross] RECCESVINTHVS REX
+OFFERET.
+
+Besides this crown there are at Paris--
+
+(1) A similar though slighter crown, the body of which is studded with
+fifty-four magnificent stones. A cross, now kept apart in the same
+collection, is thought by Spanish experts to have once been pendent from
+the crown. If so, the latter was perhaps presented to the sanctuary by
+one Sonnica, probably a Visigothic magnate, and not a woman, as the
+termination of the name induced some foreign antiquaries to suppose. The
+cross is thus inscribed:--
+                                     _
+                                 IN DI
+                                  NOM
+                                  INE
+                        OFFERET   ___   SONNICA
+                                  SCE
+                                  MA
+                                  RIE
+                                  INS
+                                  ORBA
+                                  CES[7]
+
+  [7] The last word is commonly believed to be the name of a
+      place--_Sorbaces_. There has been much discussion as to its
+      meaning.
+
+(2) Three crowns of plain design consisting of hoops of gold with
+primitive _repoussé_ decoration, and, in the case of one, with precious
+stones.
+
+(3) Four crowns, each with a pendent cross. The pattern is a basket-work
+or set of balustrades of thin gold hollow plates (not, as Riaño stated,
+massive) with precious stones about the intersections of the bars or
+meshes, and others hanging from the lower rim. Three of these crowns
+have three rows or tiers of what I call the balustrade; the other crown
+has four.
+
+The custom of offering votive crowns to Christian temples was taken by
+the emperors of Constantinople from heathen peoples of the eastern
+world. In Spain this custom, introduced by Recared, outlived by many
+years the ruin of the Visigothic monarchy--survived, in fact, until the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thus in 891 Alfonso the Third
+presented to the monastery of San Adrian and Santa Natalia four crowns
+of gold and three of silver, while just a hundred years afterwards
+Ordoño the Second presented three silver crowns to the monastery of
+Samos. Other crowns were offered by the prelates and the secular
+nobility.
+
+Returning to the crowns of Guarrazar, there has been great controversy
+as to whether these were worn upon the head. Some experts think they
+must have been so worn; and in this case the rings upon the rim, through
+which the chains are passed, would seem to have been added on the
+presentation of these objects to the sanctuary. Lasteyrie, on the other
+hand, considered that the crowns were merely votive and were never meant
+for personal use, arguing that the rings were fixed about the border
+from the very moment when the crowns were made;[8] but Amador
+ingeniously replied to this by pointing out that in a few of the old
+Castilian coins--for instance, one of Sancho the Third--the crown, with
+rings about its rim, is actually upon the monarch's head. It is
+possible, adds the same authority, that these were old votive crowns
+proceeding from some church, although he thinks it still more likely
+that they were fashioned with the rings attached to them. We should
+remember, too, the hinge which serves to open and close the body of
+these crowns. It is difficult to guess the purpose of this hinge, unless
+it were to fit the crown more comfortably on the head.
+
+  [8] _Description du trésor de Guarrazar_.
+
+Of that portion of the treasure of Guarrazar which has remained at
+Madrid (Plate i.), the most important object is the votive crown of King
+Swinthila, son of Recared, and described as "one of the most illustrious
+and unlucky princes that ever occupied the throne of Atawulf." This
+crown measures nine inches in diameter by two and a half in height. It
+consists of thin gold plates united at the edge, leaving, between the
+inner and the outer side, a hollow space about a quarter of an inch
+across. The exterior is divided into a central horizontal hoop or band
+between two others, somewhat narrower, at the top and bottom, these last
+being slightly raised above the level of the third. A triple row of
+precious stones, amounting to one hundred and twenty-five pearls and
+sapphires in the entire crown, surrounds the outer surface of the same,
+the central band or zone of which contains besides, wrought in
+_repoussé_ on the hoop, a simple circular device wherein each centre is
+a sapphire or a pearl, though many of these have fallen from their
+setting. The spaces which describe these circles are superposed on what
+looks like a red enamel retaining at this moment all or nearly all its
+pristine brightness of twelve hundred years ago. This substance was
+believed by French investigators to be a coloured glass or paste,[9]
+but Amador, after protracted chemical experiments, declared it to be
+layers of cornelian. Some of these layers have fallen from their grip,
+and if the crown be stirred are heard to move within. It is worth
+remarking, too, that the fillets which form the setting of the precious
+stones were made apart and welded afterwards; nor are these settings
+uniform in shape, but tally in each instance with the outline of the
+gem.
+
+  [9] "_Ce que je puis affirmer, après l'examen le plus minutieux, c'est
+      que la matière qui fait le fond de cette riche ornementation est
+      réellement du verre._"--Lasteyrie, supported by Sommerard.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                         TREASURE OF GUARRAZAR
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The chains which served for hanging up the crown are four in number. As
+in the crown of Recceswinth, each of them is composed of four _repoussé_
+cinquefoil links adorned along their edge with small gold beads minutely
+threaded on a wire and fastened on by fusing. The chains converge into
+an ornament shaped like two lilies pointing stem to stem, so that the
+lower is inverted, although they are divided by a piece of faceted rock
+crystal.[10] Four gems are hung from either lily, and issuing from the
+uppermost of these a strong gold hook attaches to the final length of
+chain.
+
+  [10] "In Spain," said Bowles (_Hist. Nat. de Esp._, p. 498), "are found
+       two species of rock crystal. The one, occurring in clusters, are
+       transparent, six-sided, and always have their source in rocks.
+       There are great quantities all over the kingdom, and at Madrid
+       they are found near the hills of San Isidro. The other species are
+       found singly, and are rounded like a pebble. I have seen them from
+       the size of a filbert to that of my fist. Some were covered with a
+       thin, opaque integument.... The river Henares abounds with these
+       crystals, and as it passes San Fernando, at two leagues' distance
+       from Madrid, sweeps some of them along which are the size of the
+       largest ones at Strasburg, though very few are perfect."
+
+Possibly the chain and cross now hanging through the circuit of the
+crown were not originally part of it. This cross is most remarkable. It
+has four arms of equal length, gracefully curved, and is wrought of
+plates of gold in duplicate, fastened back to back by straps of gold
+along the edges. The centre holds a piece of crystal in the midst of
+pearls and gold bead work threaded on a wire of the same metal and
+attached by fusion. Several fairly large stones are hung from the
+lateral and lower arms of the cross by small gold chains.
+
+The letters hanging from Swinthila's crown are cut and punched from thin
+gold plates. Their decoration is a zigzag ornament backed by the same
+mysterious crimson substance as the circular devices on the hoop.
+Hanging from the letters are pearls, sapphires, and several imitation
+stones--particularly imitation emeralds--in paste.
+
+The cross before the letters points to a custom of that period. We find
+it also on Swinthila's coins, and those of other Visigothic kings. Of
+the letters themselves twelve have been recovered, thus:--
+
+                    [cross] SV  TI  NV  REX  OFF  T
+
+The chains, however, or fragments of them, amount to
+twenty-three--precisely (if we count the cross) the number needed to
+complete the dedication.[11]
+
+  [11] A veritable cryptogram awaited the decipherers of these legends.
+       When King Swinthila's crown was brought to light, four of the
+       letters only were in place, thus:--
+
+                 [cross] ...... I ... V . R .... F ....
+
+       Eight of the others were recovered shortly after; two more, an E
+       and L, appeared at a later date, and eight continued to be missing.
+       The inscription dangling from the crown of Recceswinth arrived at
+       Paris in this eloquent form:--
+
+                    [cross] RRCCEEFEVINSTVSETORHFEX
+
+The Royal Armoury contains another crown, a great deal smaller and less
+ornamented than Swinthila's. The body of this crown, which was presented
+by the finder to the late Queen Isabella the Second, is just a hoop of
+gold, two inches deep and five across, hinged like the more elaborate
+and larger crowns, but merely decorated with a fine gold spiral at the
+rims, a zigzag pattern in _repoussé_, and a rudely executed scale-work.
+The dedication on this cross is in the centre of the hoop, and says--
+                                             __
+                 [cross] OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM SCO STEFANO
+                                         _
+                           THEODOSIVS ABBA
+
+We do not know who Theodosius was, but Amador, judging from the simple
+decoration of this crown, believes him to have been a priest of lower
+rank, and by no means a dignitary of the Visigothic church.
+
+A votive cross also forms part of this collection, which has a simple
+sunk device along the edges and seven pendent stones, two of these
+hanging from each of the lateral arms, and three, a little larger, from
+the lower arm. The inscription, which is rough in the extreme, appears
+to be the work of some illiterate craftsman, and has been interpreted
+with difficulty:--
+                                          __
+                IN NOMINE DEI: IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET
+                               LUCETIUS E
+
+This reading gives an extra letter at the end, which may be construed as
+_Episcopus_--or anything else, according to the student's fancy.
+
+I may close my notice of this collection in the Royal Armoury at Madrid
+by drawing attention to a greenish, semi-opaque stone, three-quarters of
+an inch in height. It is engraved _en creux_ upon two facets with the
+scene of the Annunciation. The gem itself is commonly taken for an
+emerald, of which, referring to the glyptic art among the Visigoths, the
+learned Isidore remarked that "_Sculpentibus quoque gemmas nulla gratior
+oculorum refectio est._" I shall insert a sketch of the cutting on this
+stone as a tailpiece to the chapter, and here append a full description.
+"The Virgin listens standing to the Archangel Gabriel, who communicates
+to her the will of the Almighty. Before her is a jar, from which
+projects the stem of a lily, emblematic of the chaste and pure, that
+reaches to her breast. Her figure is completely out of measurement. Upon
+her head appears to be a _nimbus_ or _amiculum_; her breast is covered
+with a broad and folded _fascia_, enveloping her arms, while her tunic,
+reaching to the ground, conceals one of her feet. The angel in the
+cutting on the stone is at the Virgin's right. His attitude is that of
+one who is conveying tidings. Large wings folded upon his shoulders and
+extending nearly to the ground are fitted to his form, better drawn and
+livelier than the Virgin's. He executes his holy mission with his right
+hand lifted. His dress is a tunic in small folds, over which is a cloak
+fastened by a brooch and fitting closely. Upon his head he wears a kind
+of helmet."[12]
+
+  [12] Amador de los Ríos, _El Arte latino-bizantino en España y las
+       Coronas Visigodas de Guarrazar_, p. 121.
+
+The drawing of this design upon the stone is most bizarre and barbarous;
+for the Virgin's head is so completely disproportioned that it forms the
+one-third part of her entire person.
+
+The merit of all this Visigothic gem or gold and silver work has been
+extolled too highly by the French and Spanish archæologists.[13] It is,
+however, greatly interesting. Rudely and ponderously magnificent, it
+tells us of a people who as yet were almost wholly strangers to the true
+artistic sense. Such were the Visigoths and the Spaniards of the
+Visigothic era, of all of whom I have observed elsewhere that "serfdom
+was the distinguishing mark of the commons; arrogance, of the nobility;
+avarice, and ambition of temporal and political power, of the clergy;
+regicide and tumult, of the crown."[14] These crowns of Guarrazar
+proclaim to us in plainest language that the volume of the stones, and
+showiness and glitter of the precious metal were accorded preference of
+every other factor--the _pondus auri_ preference of the _manus
+artificis_. We gather, too, from documents and chronicles and popular
+tradition, that the Visigothic princes, as they set apart their stores
+of treasure in secluded caves or in the strong rooms of their palaces,
+were ever captivated and corrupted by the mere intrinsic worth in
+opposition to the nobler and æsthetic value of the craftsmanship.
+
+  [13] _E.g._ Sommerard: "_Une collection sans égale de joyaux les plus
+       précieux qui, par la splendeur de la matière, le mérite de
+       l'exécution, et plus encore, peut être, par leur origine
+       incontestable et par leur étonnante conservation, surpassent tout
+       ce qui possédent d'analogue les collections publiques de l'Europe
+       et les trésors les plus renommés de l'Italie_."
+
+  [14] _Toledo and Madrid_; p. 16.
+
+Thus we are told that Sisenand owned a plate of gold (no word is said of
+its design or style) five hundred pounds in weight, proceeding from the
+royal treasure of his race, and which, long years before, had been
+presented by the nobleman Accio to King Turismund. When Sisenand was
+conspiring to dethrone Swinthila, he called on Dagobert the king of
+France to come to his support, and promised him, as recompense, this
+golden plate. The French king lent his help forthwith, and then, as
+soon as Turismund was seated on the throne of Spain, despatched an
+embassy to bring the coveted vessel to his court. Sisenand fulfilled his
+word and placed the envoys in possession of the plate, but since his
+subjects, rising in rebellion, wrenched it from their power and kept it
+under custody, he compensated Dagobert by a money payment of two hundred
+thousand _sueldos_.[15]
+
+  [15] _Ajbar Machmua_. Lafuente y Alcántara's edition; p. 27, note.
+
+Innumerable narratives and legends dwell upon the treasure taken by the
+Moors on entering Spain. Such as relate the battle of the Guadalete, or
+the Lake of Janda (as it is also called by some authorities), agree that
+when the fatal day was at an end the riderless steed of Roderick was
+found imbedded in the mire, wearing a saddle of massive gold adorned
+with emeralds and rubies. According to Al-Makkari, that luckless
+monarch's boots were also made of gold studded with precious stones,
+while the Muslim victors, stripping the Visigothic dead, identified the
+nobles by the golden rings upon their fingers, those of a less exalted
+rank by their silver rings, and the slaves by their rings of copper. The
+widow of the fallen king was also famous for her stores of jewellery.
+Her name was Eila or Egilona (Umm-Asim of the Moors), but she was known
+besides as "the lady of the beautiful necklaces." After being made a
+prisoner she was given in marriage to the young prince Abd-al-Azis, who
+grew to love her very greatly, and received from her, "seeing that she
+still retained sufficient of her royal wealth," the present of a crown.
+
+Muza, on returning to the East, is said to have drawn near to Damascus
+with a train of thirty waggons full of Spanish silver, gold, and
+precious stones. Tarik ben Ziyed, marching in triumph through the land,
+secured at Cordova, Amaya, and other towns and capitals, enormous store
+of "pearls, arms, dishes, silver, gold, and other jewels in
+unprecedented number." One object, in particular, is mentioned with
+insistency by nearly all the chronicles, both Mussulman and Christian.
+Quoting from the _Pearl of Marvels_ of Ibn Alwardi, this was "the table
+which had belonged to God's prophet, Solomon (health be to both of
+them). It was of green emeralds, and nothing fairer had been ever seen
+before. Its cups were golden and its plates of precious jewels, one of
+them specked with black and white." All manner of strange things are
+said about this table, though most accounts describe it as consisting of
+a _single_ emerald. Perhaps it was of malachite, or of the bright green
+serpentine stone extracted formerly as well as nowadays from the
+Barranco de San Juan at Granada, and several other spots in Spain. Bayan
+Almoghreb says it was of gold mixed with a little silver and surrounded
+by three gold rings or collars; the first containing pearls, the second
+rubies, and the third emeralds. Al-Makkari describes it as "green, with
+its 365 feet and borders of a single emerald." Nor is it known for
+certain where this "table" fell into the hands of Tarik. Probably he
+found it in the principal Christian temple at Toledo--that is to say,
+the Basilica of Santa María. Ibn Alwardi says that in the _aula regia_,
+or palace of the Visigothic kings, the lancers of the Moorish general
+broke down a certain door, discovering "a matchless quantity of gold and
+silver plate," together with the "table." Doubtless this strong room was
+the same referred to in the following lines. "It was for ever closed;
+and each time that a Christian king began to reign he added to its door
+a new and powerful fastening. In this way as many as four and twenty
+padlocks were gathered on the door."
+
+However, the most explicit and informative of all these ancient authors
+is Ibn Hayyan, who says; "The table had its origin in the days of
+Christian rulers. It was the custom in those times that when a rich man
+died he should bequeath a legacy to the churches. Proceeding from the
+value of these gifts were fashioned tables, thrones, and other articles
+of gold and silver, whereon the clergy bore the volumes of their gospel
+when they showed them at their ceremonies. These objects they would also
+set upon their altars to invest them with a further splendour by the
+ornament thereof. For this cause was the table at Toledo, and the
+[Visigothic] monarchs vied with one another in enriching it, each of
+them adding somewhat to the offerings of his predecessor, till it
+surpassed all other jewels of its kind and grew to be renowned
+exceedingly. It was of fine gold studded with emeralds, pearls, and
+rubies, in such wise that nothing similar had ever been beheld. So did
+the kings endeavour to increase its richness, seeing that this city was
+their capital, nor did they wish another to contain more splendid
+ornaments or furniture. Thus was the table resting on an altar of the
+church, and here the Muslims came upon it, and the fame of its
+magnificence spread far abroad."
+
+Another chronicle affirms that Tarik found the "table" at a city called
+Almeida, now perhaps Olmedo. "He reached Toledo, and leaving a
+detachment there, advanced to Guadalajara and the [Guadarrama]
+mountains. These he crossed by the pass which took his name, and
+reached, upon the other side, a city called Almeida or _The Table_, for
+there had been discovered the table of Solomon the son of David, and the
+feet and borders of it, numbering three hundred and sixty-five, were of
+green emerald."
+
+In any case this venerated jewel gave considerable trouble to its
+captors. When envious Muza followed up the march of Tarik, his
+lieutenant, he demanded from him all the spoil, and in particular the
+ever-famous table. Tarik surrendered this forthwith, but after slyly
+wrenching off a leg. Muza perceived the breakage, and inquired for the
+missing piece. "I know not," said the other; "'twas thus that I
+discovered it." Muza then ordered a new leg of gold to be made for the
+table, as well as a box of palm leaves, in which it was deposited.
+"This," says Ibn Hayyan, "is known to be one of the reasons why Tarik
+worsted Muza in the dispute they had before the Caliph as to their
+respective conquests." So it proved. Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem[16] relates that
+Muza appeared before the Caliph Al-Walid and produced the table. Tarik
+interposed and said that he himself had taken it, and not the other
+leader. "Give it into my hands," the Caliph answered, "that I may see if
+any piece of it be wanting," and found, indeed, that one of its feet was
+different from the rest. "Ask Muza," interrupted Tarik, "for the missing
+foot, and if he answer from his heart, then shall his words be truth."
+Accordingly Al-Walid inquired for the foot, and Muza made reply that he
+had found the table as it now appeared; but Tarik with an air of triumph
+drew forth the missing piece which he himself had broken off, and said:
+"By this shall the Emir of the Faithful recognize that I am speaking
+truth; that I it was who found the table." And thereupon Al-Walid
+credited his words and loaded him with gifts.
+
+  [16] _Account of the Conquest of Spain_, published, with an English
+       translation and notes, by John Harris Jones. London, 1858.
+
+Comparing the statements of these writers, we may be certain that the
+"table" was a kind of desk of Visigothic or, more probably, Byzantine
+workmanship, for holding the gospels on the feast-days of the national
+church. Probably, too, seeing that a palm-leaf box was strong enough to
+keep it in, its size was inconsiderable. Its value, on the statement of
+Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, was two hundred thousand _dinares_.
+
+The sum of my remarks upon the Visigothic jewel-work is this.
+Distinguished by a coarse though costly splendour, we find in it a
+mingled Roman and Byzantine source, although it was upon the whole
+inferior to these styles, being essentially, as Amador observes, "an
+imitative and decadent art." Yet it did not succumb before the Moors,
+but lurked for refuge in the small Asturian monarchy, and later, issuing
+thence, extended through the kingdom of León into Castile. We find its
+clearest characteristics in such objects as the Cross of Angels and the
+Cross of Victory. Then, later still, it is affected and regenerated by
+the purely oriental art of the invader; and lastly, till the wave of the
+Renaissance floods the western world, by Gothic influences from across
+the Pyrenees.
+
+A similar sketch may be applied to other arts and crafts of
+Spain--particularly furniture and architecture.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+                          THE CROSS OF ANGELS
+                         _(Oviedo Cathedral)_]
+
+The pious or superstitious kings and magnates of this land have always
+taken pride in adding (at the instigation of the clergy) to the treasure
+of her churches and cathedrals. Such gifts include all kinds of
+sumptuous apparel for the priesthood; chasubles and dalmatics heavily
+embroidered with the precious metals, gold or silver crowns and crosses,
+paxes,[17] chalices and patines, paraments and baldaquinos, reliquaries
+in every shape and style and size, and figures of the Virgin--such as
+those of Lugo, Seville, Astorga, and Pamplona--consisting of elaborate
+silver-work upon a wooden frame. Visitors to Spain, from leisurely
+Rosmithal five hundred years ago to time-economizing tourists of our
+century, have been continually astonished at the prodigal richness of
+her sanctuaries. Upon this point I quote a typical extract from the
+narrative of Bertaut de Rouen. "The treasure of this church," he said of
+Montserrat, "is wonderfully precious, and particularly so by reason of
+two objects that belong to it. The first is a crown of massive gold of
+twenty pounds in weight, covered with pearls, with ten stars radiating
+from it also loaded with large pearls and diamonds of extraordinary
+value. This crown took forty years to make, and is valued at two
+millions of gold money. The second object is a gold crown entirely
+covered with emeralds, most of them of an amazing size. Many are worth
+five thousand crowns apiece. The reliquary, too, is of extraordinary
+richness, as also a service of gold plate studded with pearls, donated
+by the late emperor for use in celebrating Mass."
+
+  [17] The pax or osculatory used in celebrating High Mass is commonly,
+       says Rosell de Torres, "a plate of gold or ivory, or other metal
+       or material, according to the time and circumstances of its
+       manufacture. The priest who celebrates the Mass kisses it after
+       the _Agnus Dei_ and the prayer _ad petendam pacem_, and the
+       acolytes present it, as a sign of peace and brotherly union, to
+       all the other priests who may be present. This usage springs from
+       the kiss of peace which was exchanged, prior to receiving the
+       communion, between the early Christians in their churches. The pax
+       has commonly borne an image of the Virgin with the Holy Infant,
+       the face of Christ, or else the Agnus Dei." Its Latin name was the
+       _deosculatorium_.
+
+Similar accounts to the above exist in quantities, relating to every
+part of Spain and every period of her history.
+
+Reverting to the earlier Middle Ages, a few conspicuous objects thus
+presented to the Spanish Church require to be briefly noted here. Famous
+chalices are those of Santo Domingo de Silos (eleventh century), made to
+the order of Abbot Domingo in honour of San Sebastian, and showing the
+characteristic Asturian filigree-work; and of San Isidoro of León, made
+in 1101 by order of Urraca Fernandez, sister of the fourth Alfonso. The
+latter vessel, inscribed with the dedication of _Urraca Fredinandi_, has
+an agate cup and foot. A remarkably handsome silver-gilt chalice and
+patine (thirteenth century) belong to Toledo cathedral. The height of
+this chalice is thirteen inches, and the diameter of its bowl, which has
+a conical shape, eight and a half inches. Inside and out the bowl is
+smooth, but midway between the bowl and the foot is a massive knot or
+swelling in the stem, and on the knot the emblematic lion, eagle, bull,
+and angel are chiselled in high relief. Below the knot is a ring of
+graceful rosettes. The patine which accompanies this chalice measures
+twelve inches in diameter. It has upon it, thinly engraved within a
+slightly sunk centre with a scalloped edge, the figure of Christ upon
+the cross, between the Virgin and St John. This central group of figures
+and the border of the plate are each surrounded with a narrow strip of
+decoration.
+
+The cathedral of Valencia has a beautiful and early cup asserted to be
+the veritable Holy Grail (_greal_, _garal_, or _gradal_, in the old
+Castilian), "of which," wrote Ford with his accustomed irony, "so many
+are shown in different orthodox _relicarios_." However this may be, the
+chalice of Valencia is particularly handsome. According to Riaño it
+consists of "a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded round the
+lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These are united
+by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which are inlaid
+with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are set round
+the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires, and emeralds.
+This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the mounts are
+of a later date."
+
+A series of Spanish chalices, beginning chronologically with specimens
+which date from the early Middle Ages, and terminating with the chalice,
+made in 1712, of Santa María la Blanca of Seville, was shown in 1892 at
+the Exposición Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Among the finer or most
+curious were chalices proceeding from the parish church of Játiva, Las
+Huelgas, and Seville cathedral, and the Plateresque chalices of
+Calatayud, Granada, and Alcalá de Henares. Another chalice which is
+greatly interesting because of the date inscribed on it, is one which
+was presented to Lugo cathedral by a bishop of that diocese, Don Garcia
+Martinez de Bahamonde (1441-1470). The workmanship, though prior to the
+sixteenth century, is partly Gothic. An article by José Villa-amil y
+Castro, dealing with all these chalices, will be found in the _Boletín
+de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_ for April, 1893.
+
+A small exhibition was held at Lugo in August 1896. Here were shown
+sixteen chalices, nearly all of them of merit from the point of view of
+history or art. Such are the chalice of San Rosendo, proceeding from the
+old monastery of Celanova; the Gothic chalices of Tuy cathedral, Lugo
+cathedral, Santa María del Lucio, Santa Eulalia de Guilfrei, San Pedro
+de Puertomarín, and the Franciscan friars of Santiago; and the chalice
+and patine of Cebrero (twelfth century), in which it is said that on a
+certain occasion in the fifteenth century the wine miraculously turned
+to actual blood, and the Host to actual flesh, in order to convince a
+doubting priest who celebrated service.
+
+The Cross of Angels and the Cross of Victory--presents, respectively,
+from Alfonso the Chaste and Alfonso the Great--are now preserved at
+Oviedo, in the Camara Santa of that stately temple. The former of these
+crosses, fancied by credulous people to be the handiwork of
+angels--whence its title[18]--was made in A.D. 808. It consists of four
+arms of equal length, radiating from a central rosette (Pl. ii.). The
+core or _alma_ is of wood covered with a double plate of richly
+decorated gold, chased in the finest filigree (indicative already of the
+influence of Cordova) and thickly strewn with sapphires, amethysts,
+topazes, and cornelians. Other stones hung formerly from six small rings
+upon the lower border of the arms. The cross is thus inscribed:--
+
+               _"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei
+               Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xti
+               Hoc signo tuetur pius
+               Hoc signo vincitur inimicus._
+
+               _Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi
+               Fulmine divino intereat ipse
+               Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea
+               Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCXLVI."_
+
+  [18] This marvel is related by the Monk of Silos. A quotation from
+       another of my books is applicable here. "Last year," I wrote in
+       1902--(pp. 64, 65 of _Toledo and Madrid: Their Records and
+       Romances_)--"the young King Alfonso the Thirteenth paid a visit to
+       Oviedo cathedral, and was duly shown the relics and the jewels.
+       Among these latter was the 'Cross of the Angels.'
+
+       "'Why is it so called?' inquired the king.
+
+       "'Because,' replied the bishop of the diocese, 'it is said that the
+       angels made it to reward King Alfonso the Chaste.'
+
+       "'Well, but,' insisted the young monarch, 'what ground is there for
+       thinking so?'
+
+       "'Señor,' replied the prelate, 'none whatever. _The time for
+       traditions is passing away._'"
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                          THE CROSS OF VICTORY
+                         (_Oviedo Cathedral_)]
+
+The other cross (Pl. iii.) is more than twice as large, and measures
+just one yard in height by two feet four and a half inches in width.
+Tradition says that the primitive, undecorated wooden core of this cross
+was carried against the Moors by King Pelayo. The ornate casing, similar
+to that upon the Cross of Angels, was added later, and contains 152 gems
+and imitation gems. The following inscription tells us that this casing
+was made at the Castle of Gauzon in Asturias, in the year 828:--
+
+          _"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent
+          Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemaena Regina;
+          Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit
+          Fulmine divino intereat ipse.
+          Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est
+          Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis.
+          Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus
+          Et operatum est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri._
+                              XLII. _discurrente Era_ DCCCLXVI."
+
+These crosses are processional. Others which were used for the same
+purpose are those of San Sebastián de Serrano (Galicia), San Munio de
+Veiga, Santa María de Guillar (Lugo), San Mamed de Fisteos, and Santa
+María de Arcos. The five preceding crosses are of bronze; those of
+Baamorto and San Adriano de Lorenzana are respectively of silver, and of
+wood covered with silver plates, and all were shown at the Lugo
+exhibition I have spoken of.
+
+Besides the Cross of Victory or Pelayo, and the Cross of Angels,
+interesting objects preserved at Oviedo are a small diptych presented by
+Bishop Don Gonzalo (A.D. 1162-1175), and the _Arca Santa_ used for
+storing saintly relics. This beautiful chest, measuring three feet nine
+inches and a half in length by twenty-eight inches and a half in height,
+is considered by Riaño to be of Italian origin, and to date from between
+the tenth and twelfth centuries.
+
+Another handsome box belonging to the cathedral of Astorga was once upon
+a time the property of Alfonso the Third and his queen Jimena, whose
+names it bears--ADEFONSVS REX: SCEMENA REGINA. The workmanship is
+consequently of the close of the ninth or the beginning of the tenth
+century. The material is wood covered with _repoussé_ silver plates on
+which are figured angels and birds, together with the eagle and the ox
+as emblems of the evangelists John and Luke, whose names are also to be
+read upon the casket.
+
+Next to the sword, no object in the history of mediæval Spain was more
+profoundly popular or venerated than the _relicario_. This in its
+primitive form was just a small receptacle, such as a vase or urn of
+gold or silver, ivory or crystal, used by the laity or clergy for
+treasuring bones, or hairs, or other relics of the Virgin, or the
+Saviour, or the saints. In private families a holy tooth, or toe, or
+finger thus preserved would often, as though it were some Eastern
+talisman, accompany its credulous possessor to the battlefield.
+
+As time went on, the urn or vase was commonly replaced by chests or
+caskets made by Moorish captives, or by tranquil and respected Moorish
+residents within the territory of the Christian,[19] or wrested from
+the infidel in war and offered by the Spanish kings or nobles to their
+churches. Here they were kept on brackets, or suspended near the altar
+by a chain[20] of silver, gold, or iron. Among the Moors themselves such
+chests and caskets served, according to their richness or capacity, for
+storing perfumes, clothes, or jewels, or as a present from a bridegroom
+to his bride; and since the sparsely-furnished Oriental room contains no
+kind of wardrobe, cabinet, or chest of drawers, their use in Moorish
+parts of Spain was universal.
+
+  [19] In many towns a hearty friendship sprang up between the Spaniard
+       and the Moor. This was a natural consequence in places where the
+       vanquished had a better education than the victor. The warrior
+       population of both races might be struggling on the field at the
+       same moment that their craftsmen were fraternizing in the workshop.
+       Ferdinand the First and Alfonso the Sixth were particularly lenient
+       in their usage of the dominated Muslim. Thus, the former of these
+       princes recognised the Moorish townspeople of Sena as his vassals,
+       while those of Toledo were freely allowed by Alfonso to retain
+       their worship and their mosque.
+
+  [20]       "_Fallaron ay de marfil arquetas muy preçiadas
+             Con tantas de noblezas que non podrian ser contadas
+             Fueron para San Pedro las arquetas donadas;
+             Están en este dia en el su altar asentadas._"
+                           Poem of FERRAN GONZALVEZ (13th century).
+
+A typical Moorish casket of this kind (Plate iv.) is now in the
+cathedral of Gerona. It measures fifteen inches in length by nine
+across, fastens with a finely ornamented band and clasp of bronze, and
+is covered with thin silver-gilt plates profusely decorated with a bead
+and floral pattern superposed upon a box of non-decaying
+wood--possibly larch or cedar. A Cufic inscription along the lower
+part of the lid was formerly interpreted as follows:--
+
+"In the name of God. (May) the blessing of God, prosperity and fortune
+and perpetual felicity be (destined) for the servant of God, Alhakem,
+Emir of the Faithful, because he ordered (this casket) to be made for
+Abdul Walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished
+by the hands of Hudzen, son of Bothla."
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                             MOORISH CASKET
+                         (_Gerona Cathedral_)]
+
+It is supposed, however, that the part of this inscription which
+contains the maker's name was rendered incorrectly by Riaño, who
+followed, on this point, Saavedra, Fita, and other archæologists; and
+that the casket was made to the order of Djaudar, as a gift to the heir
+to the throne, Abulwalid Hischem, the actual workmen being two slaves,
+Bedr and Tarif. That is to say, the name Hudzen is now replaced by
+Djaudar, whom Dozy mentions in his history of the Mussulman domination
+in Spain, and who is known to have been a eunuch high in favour with
+Alhakem, Hischem's father. These princes ruled at Cordova in the latter
+half of the tenth century and the beginning of the eleventh.
+
+Spanish-Moorish caskets (_arquetas_) of ivory, silver, or inlaid work,
+are also preserved in the South Kensington Museum, the Archæological
+Museum at Madrid, and the cathedrals of Braga, Tortosa, and Oviedo.
+There is no reason to doubt that all these boxes were made in Spain,
+although an Eastern and particularly Persian influence is very
+noticeable in their scheme of decoration.
+
+Two silver caskets which were once in the church of San Isidoro at León
+are now in the Madrid Museum. The smaller and plainer of the two,
+elliptical in shape and measuring five inches in length by two inches
+and a half in depth, is covered with a leaf and stem device outlined in
+black enamel. A Cufic inscription of a private and domestic import, also
+picked out with black enamel, runs along the top. The lid is ornamented,
+like the body of the box, with leaves and stems surrounded by a Grecian
+border, and fastens with a heart-shaped clasp secured by a ring.
+
+The other, more elaborate, and larger box measures eight inches long by
+five in height. In shape it is a parallelogram, with a deeply bevelled
+rather than--as Amador describes it--a five-sided top. Bands of a simple
+winding pattern outlined in black enamel on a ground of delicate
+niello-work run round the top and body of the casket. The central band
+upon the lower part contains a Cufic inscription of slight interest.
+Some of the letters terminate in leaves. The bevelled lid is covered
+with groups of peacocks--symbolic, among Mohammedans, of eternal
+life--outlined in black enamel. These birds are eight in all, gathered
+in two groups of four about the large and overlapping hinges. Four
+leaves, trifoliate, in _repoussé_, one beneath the other, decorate the
+clasp, which opens out into a heart containing, also in _repoussé_, two
+inverted peacocks looking face to face. Between the birds this heart
+extremity is pierced for the passage of a ring.
+
+Amador de los Ríos considers that both caskets were made between the
+years 1048 and 1089.
+
+The use of coloured enamel in the manufacture of these boxes dates, or
+generally so, from somewhat later. Although the history of enamelling in
+Spain is nebulous and contradictory in the extreme, we know that caskets
+in _champlevé_ enamel on a copper ground, with figures either flat or
+hammered in a bold relief, became abundant here. Two, from the convent
+of San Marcos at León, and dating from the thirteenth century, are now
+in the Madrid Museum. Labarte says that the lids of these enamelled
+reliquaries were flat until the twelfth century, and of a gable form
+thenceforward.
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                    ALTAR-FRONT IN ENAMELLED BRONZE
+                  (_11th Century. Museum of Burgos_)]
+
+Other old objects--boxes, triptyches, statuettes, incensories,
+book-covers, crucifixes, and processional crosses--partly or wholly
+covered with enamel, belong or recently belonged to the Marquises of
+Castrillo and Casa-Torres, the Count of Valencia de Don Juan, and Señor
+Escanciano. All, or nearly all, of these are thought to have proceeded
+from Limoges (Pl. v.). _Champlevé_ enamel is also on the tiny "Crucifix
+of the Cid" (Pl. vi.) at Salamanca, as well as on the Virgin's throne in
+the gilt bronze statuette of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban in the
+same city.[21] Of this image, although it properly belongs to another
+heading of my book, I think it well to give a reproduction here (Plate
+vii.). I will also mention, in spite of its presumably foreign origin,
+the enamelled altar-front of San Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre--a small
+sanctuary constructed by a mediæval cavalier who, by an accident
+occasioned by the dark, murdered his father and mother in lieu of his
+wife.[22] This altar-front, conspicuously Byzantine in its style,
+measures four feet three inches high by seven feet five inches long, and
+is now employed as the _retablo_ of the little church which stands in
+solitary picturesqueness on the lofty mountain-top of Aralar. The
+figures, coloured in relief upon a yellowish enamel ground, are those of
+saints, and of a monarch and his queen--possibly King Sancho the Great,
+who is believed to have been the donor of the ornament. If this surmise
+be accurate, the front would date from the eleventh century.
+
+  [21] Together with the statuette of Ujué in Navarre, the Virgen de la
+       Vega of Salamanca may be classed as one of the earliest "local
+       Virgins" of this country. Sometimes these images are of wood alone,
+       sometimes of wood beneath a silver covering, sometimes, as that of
+       the Claustro de León, of stone. But whatever may be the substance,
+       the characteristics are the same:--Byzantine rigidness and
+       disproportion, the crude and primitive anatomy of artists only just
+       emerging from the dark. The Virgin and Child of Santa María la Real
+       of Hirache in Navarra may be instanced as another of the series.
+       This image dates from late in the twelfth or early in the
+       thirteenth century, although a crown and nimbus have been added
+       subsequently. It measures rather more than a yard in height, and
+       consists of wood covered with silver plates, except the hands and
+       face, which are painted. The Virgin, seated, holds the Infant with
+       her left arm; in her right hand is an apple. A kind of stole
+       bearing the following inscription in Gothic letter falls upon the
+       Infant's breast; "_Puer natus est nobis, venite adoremus. Ego sum
+       alpha et omega, primus et novissimus Dominus._" Before this
+       statuette the King Don Sancho is stated to have offered his
+       devotion.
+
+  [22] I quote this legend in Appendix A.
+
+I have said that the history of Spanish enamel-work is both confused and
+scanty. The subject in its general aspects has been studied by M.
+Roulin, whose judgments will be found in the _Revue de l'Art Ancien et
+Moderne_, and in his article, "Mobilier liturgique d'Espagne," published
+in the _Revue de l'Art Chrétien_ for 1903. M. Roulin believes the
+altar-front of San Miguel in Excelsis to be a Limoges product, not
+earlier than the first half of the thirteenth century.
+
+Ramírez de Arellano declares that no enamelling at all was done in Spain
+before the invasion of the Almohades. López Ferreiro, who as a priest
+had access to the jealously secreted archives of Santiago cathedral,
+gives us the names of Arias Perez, Pedro Martinez, Fernan Perez, and
+Pedro Pelaez, Galician enamellers who worked at Santiago in the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries. Martin Minguez says that enamelling was done
+at Gerona in the fourteenth century, and Moorish enamels were certainly
+produced at Cordova and Cuenca from comparatively early in the Middle
+Ages. A few obscure workers in enamel are mentioned by Gestoso, in his
+_Diccionario de Artistas Sevillanos_, as living at Seville in the
+fifteenth century, though, in the entries which refer to them, little is
+told us of their lives and nothing of their labours. In the sixteenth
+century we obtain a glimpse of two enamellers of Toledo--Lorenzo Marqués
+and Andrés Ordoñez, and dating from the same period the Chapter of the
+Military Orders of Ciudad Real possesses a silver-gilt _porta-paz_ with
+enamelling done at Cuenca. However, our notices of this branch of
+Spanish art have yet to be completed.
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                       "THE CRUCIFIX OF THE CID"
+                        (_Salamanca Cathedral_)]
+
+A long array of royal gifts caused, in the olden time, the treasure of
+Santiago cathedral to be the richest and most varied in the whole
+Peninsula, although at first this see was merely suffragan to Merida.
+But early in the twelfth century a scheming bishop, by name Diego
+Gelmirez, intrigued at Rome to raise his diocese to the dignity of an
+archbishopric. The means by which he proved successful in the end were
+far from irreproachable. "Gelmirez," says Ford (vol. ii. p. 666) "was a
+cunning prelate, and well knew how to carry his point; he put Santiago's
+images and plate into the crucible, and sent the ingots to the Pope."
+
+The original altar-front or parament (_aurea tabula_) was made of solid
+gold. This altar-front Gelmirez melted down to steal from it some
+hundred ounces of the precious metal for the Pope, donating in its
+stead another front of gold and silver mixed, wrought from the remaining
+treasure of the sanctuary. Aymerich tells us that the primitive frontal
+bore the figure of the Saviour seated on a throne supported by the four
+evangelists, blessing with his right hand, and holding in his left the
+Book of Life. The four-and-twenty elders (called by quaint Morales
+"gentlemen") of the apocalypse were also gathered round the throne, with
+musical instruments in their hands, and golden goblets filled with
+fragrant essences. At either end of the frontal were six of the
+apostles, three above and three beneath, separated by "beautiful
+columns" and surrounded by floral decoration. The upper part was thus
+inscribed:--
+
+                  HANC TABULAM DIDACUS PRÆSUL JACOBITA
+                                SECUNDUS
+                   TEMPORE QUINQUENNI FECIT EPISCOPI
+                  MARCAS ARGENTI DE THESAURO JACOBENSI
+                   HIC OCTOGINTA QUINQUE MINUS NUMERA.
+
+And the lower part:--
+
+               REX ERAT ANFONSUS GENER EJUS DUX RAIMUNDUS
+                  PRÆSUL PRÆFATUS QUANDO PEREGIT OPUS.
+
+This early altar-front has disappeared like its predecessor; it is
+not known precisely at what time; but both Morales and Medina saw and
+wrote about it in the sixteenth century.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                        THE "VIRGEN DE LA VEGA"
+                             (_Salamanca_)]
+
+Another ornament which Aymerich describes, namely, the _baldaquino_ or
+_cimborius_, has likewise faded from the eyes of the profane, together
+with three bronze caskets covered with enamel, and stated by Morales to
+have contained the bones of Saints Silvestre, Cucufate, and Fructuoso.
+One of these caskets was existing in the seventeenth century.
+
+The silver lamps were greatly celebrated. Ambrosio de Morales counted
+"twenty or more"; but Zepedano made their total mount to fifty-one. The
+French invasion brought their number down to three. Three of the oldest
+of these lamps had been of huge dimensions, particularly one, a present
+from Alfonso of Aragon, which occupied the centre. The shape of it, says
+Aymerich, was "like a mighty mortar." Seven was the number of its beaks,
+symbolic of the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; and each beak contained a
+lamplet fed with oil of myrtles, acorns, or olives.
+
+All kinds of robberies and pilferings have thus been perpetrated with
+the once abundant wealth of Santiago.[23] The jealous care which keeps
+the copious archives inaccessible to all the outside world is in itself
+of sinister significance. It has transpired, furthermore, that many of
+the bishops have "exchanged," or simply stolen, portions of the holy
+property. Besides these clerical dilapidations, a cartload, weighing
+half a ton, was carried off by Marshal Ney, though some was subsequently
+handed back, "because the spoilers feared the hostility of the
+_Plateros_, the silversmiths who live close to the cathedral, and by
+whom many workmen were employed in making little graven images,
+teraphims and lares, as well as medallions of Santiago, which pilgrims
+purchase."[24]
+
+  [23] A recent instance, not devoid of humour, is as follows. About three
+       years ago, a silly rogue removed and carried off the crown from
+       Santiago's head; but since the actual jewel is only worn on solemn
+       festivals, his prize turned out to be a worthless piece of tin. An
+       odd removal of the treasure of another Spanish church was noted by
+       the traveller Bowles. "The curate of the place, a worthy fellow who
+       put me up in his house, assured me that a detachment of a legion of
+       locusts entered the church, ate up the silk clothes upon the
+       images, and gnawed the varnish on the altars." Perhaps these
+       adamantine-stomached insects have assailed, from time to time, the
+       gold and silver plate of Santiago.
+
+  [24] Ford, _Handbook_, vol. ii. p. 671. I briefly notice, in Appendix B,
+       the Santiago jet-work, also practised by these craftsmen.
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                     SAINT JAMES IN PILGRIM'S DRESS
+      (_Silver-gilt statuette; 15th Century. Santiago Cathedral_)]
+
+Among the gifts of value which this temple yet preserves are the ancient
+processional cross presented by the third Alfonso in the year of
+grace 874,[25] and the hideous fourteenth-century reliquary shaped to
+represent the head of James Alfeo, and containing (as it is believed)
+this very relic (Pl. viii.). I make a reservation here, because the
+Chapter have forbidden the reliquary to be opened. In either case,
+whether the head be there or not, heads of the same apostle are affirmed
+to be at Chartres, Toulouse, and other places. Similarly, discussing
+these Hydra-headed beings of the Bible and the hagiology, Villa-amil y
+Castro (_El Tesoro de la Catedral de Santiago_, published in the _Museo
+Español de Antigüedades_) recalls to us the ten authenticated and
+indubitable mazzards of Saint John the Baptist.
+
+  [25] To lend my censures further cogency, I leave this statement as I
+       set it down some weeks ago; since when, on picking up a Spanish
+       newspaper, I read the following telegram:--
+
+                      "THEFT IN SANTIAGO CATHEDRAL
+
+                                 "SANTIAGO, _May 7th, 1906_ (9.15 _p.m._).
+
+       "This morning, when the canon in charge of the Chapel of the Relics
+       unlocked the door, he was surprised to observe that some of these
+       were lying in confusion on the floor. Fearing that a theft had been
+       committed, he sent for the dean and others of the clergy, who had
+       examination made, and found the following objects to be missing:--
+
+       _"A gold cross, presented by King Alfonso the Great, when he
+       attended the consecration of this temple in the year 874._
+
+       "Another cross, of silver, dating from the fifteenth century--a
+       present from Archbishop Spinola.
+
+       "An aureole of the fifteenth century, studded with precious stones
+       belonging to a statuette of the apostle Santiago.
+
+       "The authorities were summoned and at once began their search.
+
+       "They find that two of the thick iron bars of the skylight in the
+       ceiling of the cloister have been filed through. This cloister has
+       a skylight which opens upon the chapel.
+
+       "They have also found, upon the roof, a knotted rope. This rope was
+       only long enough to reach a cornice in the chapel wall. _The wall
+       itself affords no sign that anybody has attempted to descend by
+       it._"
+
+The head-shaped reliquary is of beaten silver with enamelled visage, and
+the hair and beard gilt.[26] The workmanship is French. The cross, which
+hung till recently above the altar of the Relicario, but which now
+requires to be placed upon the lengthy list of stolen wealth, was not
+unlike the Cross of Angels in the Camara Santa at Oviedo, and had a
+wooden body covered with gold plates in finely executed filigree,
+studded with precious stones and cameos. Not many days ago, the wooden
+core, divested of the precious metal and the precious stones, was found
+abandoned in a field.
+
+  [26] This form of reliquary was not uncommon. Morales, in his _Viaje
+       Sacro_, describes another one, also preserved at Santiago, saying
+       that it was a bust of silver, life-size and gilded to the breast,
+       "with a large diadem of rays and many stones, both small and great,
+       all or most of them of fine quality, though not of the most
+       precious." Other bust-reliquaries belong, or have belonged, to the
+       Cathedrals of Burgos and Toledo.
+
+Visitors to the shrine of Santiago seldom fail to have their curiosity
+excited by the monster "smoke-thrower" (_bota-fumeiro_) or incensory,
+lowered (much like the deadly sword in Poe's exciting tale) on each
+_fiesta_ by a batch of vigorous Gallegos from an iron frame fixed into
+the pendentives of the dome. "The calmest heart," says Villa-amil,
+"grows agitated to behold this giant vessel descending from the apex of
+the nave until it almost sweeps the ground, wreathed in dense smoke and
+spewing flame." Ford seems to have been unaware that the real purpose of
+this metal monster was not to simply scent the holy precincts, but to
+cover up the pestilential atmosphere created by a horde of verminous,
+diseased, and evil-smelling pilgrims, who, by a usage which is now
+suppressed, were authorized to pass the night before the services within
+the actual cathedral wall.
+
+The original _bota-fumeiro_, resembling, in Oxea's words, "a silver
+boiler of gigantic bulk," was lost or stolen in the War of Spanish
+Independence. It was replaced by another of iron, and this, in 1851, by
+the present apparatus of white metal.
+
+Striking objects of ecclesiastical _orfebrería_ were produced in Spain
+throughout the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. Among the finest
+are the triptych-reliquary of Seville cathedral known as the _Alfonsine
+Tables_; the _retablo_ and _baldaquino_ of the cathedral of Gerona; the
+silver throne, preserved in Barcelona cathedral, of Don Martin of
+Aragon; and the _guión_, at Toledo, of Cardinal Mendoza.
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                            MUDEJAR TRIPTYCH
+           (_Interior of one leaf of the door. 14th Century.
+                  Royal Academy of History, Madrid_)]
+
+Triptych-reliquaries, which had gradually expanded from the diptych
+form--three leaves or panels thus replacing two,--were generally used in
+Spain from the eleventh century, and varied in dimensions from a few
+inches in height and width to several yards. We find them in the Gothic,
+Mudejar,[27] Romanic, or Renaissance styles--wrought either in a single
+style of these, or in effective combination of some two or more. The
+Academy of History at Madrid possesses a richly ornamented Mudejar
+triptych (Plate ix.) proceeding from the Monasterio de Piedra. It is
+inferior, notwithstanding, to the _Tablas Alfonsinas_,[28] "a
+specimen of Spanish silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition
+to the new style, and the progress in the design of the figures owing to
+the Italian Renaissance."[29] In or about the year 1274, this splendid
+piece of sacred furniture was made by order of the learned king, to hold
+the relics of certain saints and of the Virgin Mary. The maker is
+thought by Amador to have been one "Master George," a craftsman held in
+high esteem by the father of Alfonso and the conqueror of Seville,
+Ferdinand the Third. Romanic influence is abundant in this triptych,
+showing that, although exposed to constant changes from abroad, the
+Spanish mediæval crafts adhered upon the whole with singular tenacity to
+primitive tradition.
+
+  [27] The Mudejares were the Mussulmans who submitted, in the conquered
+       cities, to the Spanish-Christian rule. The word _Mudejar_ is of
+       modern growth, nor can its derivation be resolved with certainty.
+       From the thirteenth century onwards, and formed by the fusion of
+       the Christian and the Saracenic elements, we find Mudejar influence
+       copiously distributed through every phase of Spanish life and art,
+       and even literature.
+
+  [28] Amador prefers to call these Tables "the triptych of the learned
+       king," in order to distinguish them by this explicit title from the
+       _Astronomical Tables_ prepared by order of the same monarch.
+
+  [29] Riaño, _Spanish Arts_, p. 16.
+
+The triptych is of larch, or some such undecaying wood, and measures,
+when the leaves are opened wide, forty inches over its entire breadth,
+by twenty-two in height. Linen is stretched upon the wood, and over that
+the silver-gilt _repoussé_ plates which form the principal adornment of
+the reliquary. "The outside is decorated with twelve medallions
+containing the arms of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in
+which are repeated alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi
+and the Annunciation of the Virgin, also in _repoussé_. In the centres
+are eagles, allusive, it is possible, to Don Alfonso's claim to be
+crowned Emperor.... The ornamentation which surrounds the panels belongs
+to the sixteenth century" (Riaño). The arms here spoken of contain the
+crowned lion and the castle of three towers; and the interesting fact is
+pointed out by Amador that the diminutive doors and windows of these
+castles show a strongly pointed Gothic arch. The sixteenth-century
+bordering to the panels is in the manner known as Plateresque.[30] The
+clasps are also Plateresque, and prove, together with the border,
+that the triptych was restored about this time.
+
+  [30] So named because the silversmiths (_plateros_) of this country used
+       it in their monstrances (_custodias_) and in many other objects or
+       utensils of religious worship. The most refined and erudite of
+       Spanish silver-workers, Juan de Arfe, thus referred to it in
+       rhyme:--
+
+                      _"Usaron desta obra los plateros
+                      Guardando sus preceptos con zelo;
+                      Pusiéronle en los puntos postrimeros
+                      De perfección mi abuelo."_
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                        THE "TABLAS ALFONSINAS"
+         (_View of Interior; 13th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+Inside (Plate x.), it consists of fifteen compartments, "full of minute
+ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules covered
+with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an inscription of
+enamelled gold, _cloisonné_. Several good cameos with sacred subjects
+appear near the edge of the side leaves" (Riaño). These cameos,
+handsomely engraved with figures of the Virgin and other subjects of
+religious character, are fairly well preserved; but the designs upon
+enamel are almost obliterated. Eight precious stones, set in as rude a
+style as those upon the ancient crowns and crosses of the Visigoths,
+have also fallen out, or been removed, from the interior.
+
+The _retablo_ of Gerona cathedral and its baldachin date from the
+fourteenth century. "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with silver
+plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and canopies;
+each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is introduced
+in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels. Each panel
+has a cinq-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and pinnacles on either
+side. The straight line of the top is broken by three niches, which
+rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre is the Blessed
+Virgin with our Lord; on the right, San Narciso; and on the left, St
+Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of saints, subjects
+from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from the life of our
+Lord."[31]
+
+  [31] Street, _Gothic Architecture in Spain_.
+
+San Narciso is patron of the city of Gerona; which explains the presence
+of his image here. From the treasury of the same cathedral was stolen,
+during the War of Spanish Independence, a magnificent altar-front of
+wrought gold and mosaic, a gift of Countess Gisla, wife of Ramón
+Berenguer, count-king of Barcelona. It had in the centre a bas-relief
+medallion representing the Virgin, another medallion with a portrait of
+the donor, and various saints in niches, interworked with precious
+stones.
+
+The great armchair of Don Martin, called by Baron Davillier a "beau
+faudesteuil gothique," which possibly served that monarch as a throne,
+and was presented by him to the cathedral of Barcelona, dates from the
+year 1410. The wooden frame is covered with elaborately chiselled plates
+in silver-gilt. This most imposing object is carried in procession
+through the streets upon the yearly festival of Corpus Christi.
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                       "THE CUP OF SAN FERNANDO"
+                  (_13th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                                  SHIP
+                 (_15th Century. Zaragoza Cathedral_)]
+
+The _guión de Mendoza_, now in Toledo cathedral, is a handsome
+later-Gothic silver-gilt cross, and is the same which was raised upon
+the Torre de la Vela at Granada on January 2nd, 1492, when the fairest
+and most storied city in all Spain surrendered formally to Ferdinand and
+Isabella. Many other interesting crosses, of the character known as
+processional, are still preserved in various parts of the Peninsula, at
+South Kensington, and elsewhere. The more remarkable are noticed under
+various headings of this book. Their workmanship is generally of the
+fifteenth or the sixteenth century.
+
+The Seo or cathedral of Zaragoza possesses a handsome ship (Plate xii.),
+presented to this temple, towards the end of the fifteenth century, by
+the Valencian corsair, Mosén Juan de Torrellas. The hull is a large
+shell resting on a silver-gilt dragon of good design, with a large
+emerald set in the middle of its forehead, and a ruby for each eye.
+Ships of this kind were not uncommon on a Spanish dining table of the
+time, or in the treasuries of churches and cathedrals. Toledo owns
+another of these vessels (in both senses of the word), which once
+belonged to Doña Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+Hitherto I have confined my notice almost wholly to the treasure of the
+Spanish temples. Turning from ecclesiastical to secular life, we find,
+all through the Middle Ages, the humbler classes kept by constant penury
+and war aloof from every form of luxury. Jewellery and gold and silver
+work were thus essentially the perquisite or, so to speak, the privilege
+of princes, nobles, and the Church. The mediæval kings and magnates of
+this land were smitten inveterately with a passion for display, and
+chronicles and inventories of the time contain instructive details of
+the quantities of gems and precious metals employed by them to decorate
+their persons and their palaces. The richness of their bedsteads will be
+noticed under Furniture. Quantities of jewellery and plate belonged to
+every noble household. For instance, the testament of the Countess of
+Castañeda (A.D. 1443) includes the mention of "a gilded cup and cover to
+the same; a silver vessel and its lid, the edges gilt, and in the centre
+of both lid and vessel the arms of the said count, my lord; a silver
+vessel with a foot to it; a diamond ring; a silver vessel with gilt
+edges and the arms of the count, companion to the other vessels; a
+jasper sweetmeat-tray with silver-gilt handles and feet; four coral
+spoons; a gilt enamelled cup and lid; a small gilt cup and lid; two
+large silver porringers; two French cups of white silver; two large
+plates of eight marks apiece; two middling-sized silver vessels; two
+silver-gilt barrels with silver-gilt chains."[32]
+
+  [32] Count of Clonard.
+
+On each occasion of a court or national festivity, the apparel of the
+great was ponderous with gold and silver fringe, or thickly strewn with
+pearls--the characteristic _aljofar_ or _aljofar_-work (Arabic _chawar_,
+small pearls), for which the Moors were widely famed. Towards the
+thirteenth century unmarried Spanish women of high rank possessed
+abundant stores of bracelets, earrings, necklaces, gold chains, rings,
+and gem-embroidered pouches for their money. Their waist-belts, too,
+were heavy with gold and silver, and _aljofar_.[33] The poem of the
+Archpriest of Hita (1343) mentions two articles of jewellery for female
+wear called the _broncha_ and the _pancha_. The former was an ornament
+for the throat; the other, a plate or medal which hung to below the
+waist. An Arabic document quoted by Casiri, and dating from the reign
+of Henry the First of Castile, specifies as belonging to an aristocratic
+lady of that time, "Egyptian shirts of silk and linen, embroidered
+shirts, Persian shirts with silk embroidery, Murcian gold necklaces,
+ear-pendants of the same metal, set with gems; finger-rings and
+bracelets, waist-belts of skins, embroidered with silk and precious
+stones; cloaks of cloth of gold, embroidered mantles of the same,
+coverings for the head, and kerchiefs."
+
+  [33] _Ibid_.
+
+For all the frequency with which they framed and iterated sterile and
+exasperating sumptuary pragmatics for their people, the Spanish kings
+themselves went even beyond the nobles in their craze for ostentatious
+luxury. Upon the day when he was crowned at Burgos, Alfonso the Eleventh
+"arrayed himself in gold and silver cloth bearing devices of the castle
+and the lion, in which was much _aljofar_-work, as well as precious
+stones innumerable; rubies, emeralds, and sapphires." Even the bit and
+saddle of the monarch's charger were "exceeding precious on this day,
+for gems and gold and silver covered all the saddle-bows, and the sides
+of the saddle and its girths, together with the headstall, were
+curiously wrought of gold and silver thread."
+
+Similar relations may be found at every moment of the history of
+mediæval Spain. Another instance may be quoted from the reign of
+Ferdinand and Isabella. When these sovereigns visited Barcelona in 1481,
+the queen was dressed as follows:--"She advanced riding upon a fine
+mule, and seated on cushions covered with brocade, rising high above the
+saddle. Her robe was of gold thread and jewel-work, with a rich brocade
+skirt. Upon her head she wore a crown of gold adorned with richest
+diamonds, pearls, rubies, balas rubies, and other stones of passing
+price." During the same visit, a royal tournament was given in the Plaza
+del Born, in presence of the aristocracy and wealthy townspeople, "the
+counts, viscounts, deputies, councillors, _caballeros_, _gentiles
+hombres_, burgesses, and others without number." Ferdinand, who "with
+virtue and benignity" had deigned to break a lance or two in tourneying
+with the Duke of Alburquerque, the Count of Benavente, and several
+gentlemen of Cataluña, was wearing "over his harness a jacket all of
+gold brocade. His horse's coverings and poitral also were of thread of
+gold, richly devised and wrought, and of exceeding majesty and beauty.
+And on his helm he wore a crown of gold, embellished with many pearls
+and other stones; and above the crown a figure of a large gold bat,
+which is the emblem of the kings of Aragon and counts of Barcelona, with
+white and sanguine bars upon the scutcheon.[34] The queen and the
+cardinal of Spain were in a window of the house of Mossen Guillem
+Pujades, conservator of the realm of Sicily. Her highness wore a robe of
+rich gold thread with a collar of beautiful pearls; and the trappings of
+her mule were of brocade."[35]
+
+  [34] Four pallets gules, on a field or; which were the arms of Cataluña
+       and subsequently of Aragon.
+
+  [35] _Archives of the Crown of Aragon._
+
+Eleven years later the youthful prince, Don Juan, son of these rulers,
+appeared before the citizens of Barcelona dressed in "a robe of
+beautiful brocade that almost swept the ground, and a doublet of the
+same material; the sleeves of the robe thickly adorned with fine pearls
+of large size." He carried, too, "a gold collar of great size and beauty,
+wrought of large diamonds, pearls, and other stones."[36]
+
+  [36] _Ibid_.
+
+It was an ancient usage with the people of Barcelona to present a silver
+service to any member of the royal family who paid a visit to their
+capital. The service so presented to Ferdinand the Catholic cost the
+corporation a sum of more than twelve hundred pounds of Catalan money,
+and included "a saltcellar made upon a rock. Upon the rock is a castle,
+the tower of which contains the salt.... Two silver ewers, gilt within
+and containing on the outside various enamelled devices in the centre,
+together with the city arms. Also a silver-gilt lion upon a rustic
+palisade of tree-trunks, holding an inscription in his right paw, with
+the arms of the city, a flag, and a crown upon his head. This object
+weighs thirty-four marks."[37] The service offered on the same occasion
+to Isabella, though less in weight, was more elaborately wrought, and
+cost on this account considerably more. It included "two silver ewers,
+gilt within and enamelled without, bearing the city arms, and chiselled
+in the centre with various designs of foliage. Also a silver saltcellar,
+with six small towers, containing at the foot three pieces of
+enamel-work with the arms of the city in relief. This saltcellar has its
+lid and case, with a pinnacle upon the lid, and is of silver-gilt inside
+and out."[38]
+
+  [37] Sanpere y Miquel, _Revista de Ciencias Históricas_, art. _La
+       Platería catalana en los siglos XIV. y XV._, vol. i. p. 441.
+
+  [38] _Ibid_.
+
+From about the fifteenth century the goldsmiths and the silversmiths of
+Barcelona enjoyed considerable fame. Among their names are those of
+Lobarolla, Roig, Berni, Belloch, Planes, Mellar, Corda, Fábregues,
+Farrán, Perot Ximenis, Rafel Ximenis, Balagué, and Antonio de Valdés.
+Riaño quotes the names of many more from Cean's dictionary. The most
+important facts relating to these artists were brought to light some
+years ago by Baron Davillier, who based the greater part of his research
+upon the _Libros de Pasantía_ or silversmiths' examination-books (filled
+with excellent designs for jewel-work) of Barcelona. These volumes,
+formerly kept in the college of San Eloy, are now the property of the
+Provincial Deputation of this city.
+
+The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of Seville also possesses
+four of its old examination-books, of which the earliest dates from
+1600. Gestoso, in his _Dictionary of Sevillian Artificers_ describes the
+actual ceremony of examination for a silversmith or goldsmith. Once in
+every year the members of the guild assembled in their chapel of the
+convent of San Francisco. Here and upon this day the candidate was
+closely questioned, to begin with, as to his "purity of blood"--that is,
+his freedom from contamination by relationship with any Moor or Hebrew.
+When it was duly and precisely ascertained that he, his parents, and his
+grandparents were uniformly "old Christians," untainted with the "wicked
+race of Moors, Jews, heretics, mulattoes, and renegades," and that
+neither he nor his ancestors had ever been put on trial by the
+Inquisition or by any other tribunal, "whether publicly or secretly," he
+was permitted to proceed to his examination proper.[39] The formula of
+this was simple. The candidate was summoned before the board of
+examiners, consisting of the Padre Mayor or patriarch of the guild, and
+the two _veedores_ or inspectors, the one of gold-work, the other of
+silver-work. The book of drawings was then placed upon the table, and a
+ruler was thrust at haphazard among its leaves. Where the ruler chanced
+to fall, the candidate was called upon to execute the corresponding
+drawing to the satisfaction of his judges.
+
+  [39] Gestoso mentions that Juan de Luna, a silversmith of Seville, was
+       turned into the gutter from the workshop where he was employed,
+       solely because his father had been punished as a Morisco by the
+       Inquisition (_Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. i.
+       p. lvi.).
+
+Riaño lays too slight a stress upon the Moorish and Morisco jewellery of
+Spain. Although the use of gold and silver ornaments is forbidden by
+the Koran, the Muslim, wherever his vanity or his bodily comfort is
+involved, tramples his Bible underfoot almost as regularly, tranquilly,
+and radically as the Christians do their own. The Moors of Spain were
+not at all behind their oriental brethren in displaying precious stones
+and metals on their persons or about their homes. Al-Jattib tells us
+that the third Mohammed offered to the mosque of the Alhambra columns
+with capitals and bases of pure silver. Or who does not recall the
+Caliphate of Cordova; the silver lamp that measured fifty palms across,
+fitted with a thousand and fifty-four glass lamplets, and swinging by a
+golden chain from the cupola of the entrance to the _mirhab_ in the vast
+_mezquita_; the silver candlesticks and perfume-burners in the same
+extraordinary temple; the precious stones and metals employed in mighty
+quantities to decorate the palaces of Az-zahyra and Az-zahra?--
+
+               "A wilderness of building, sinking far
+               And self-withdrawn into a wondrous depth,
+               Far sinking into splendour without end!
+               Fabric it seemed of diamond and of gold,
+               With alabaster domes and silver spires,
+               And blazing terrace upon terrace, high
+               Uplifted."
+
+In brief, just as the prelates of the Christian Church habitually
+precede the Christian laity in trampling underfoot the elemental
+doctrine of Our Lord, so were the most exalted and responsible of all
+the Mussulmans--that is, their sultans--indefatigably foremost in
+neglect of the Koranic law.
+
+The Spanish sultans wore a ring of gold containing one large stone (such
+as an emerald, or ruby, or turquoise), on which was cut the royal seal
+and signature. Such was the ring belonging to Boabdil el Chico, worn by
+him on the very day of the surrender of his capital, and by his hand
+presented to a Spanish nobleman, the Count of Tendilla, governor-elect
+of the Alhambra. According to Rodriguez de Ardila, the following
+inscription was upon the stone:--"_La Ala ile Ala, abahu Tabiu. Aben Abi
+Abdalá_," meaning, "_There is no God but God; this is the seal of Aben
+Abi Abdalá._" Ardila, who was the author of a history of the Counts of
+Tendilla (which still remains in manuscript), adds that he saw the ring,
+although, as Eguilaz observes, two words of the inscription are
+inaccurately rendered.
+
+Among the Moors of Spain the use of signet rings was general. The stone
+employed was commonly cornelian, richly mounted and inscribed in various
+ways, as with the owner's name, his name together with a date, or the
+name of the town of which he was a native. In other instances we meet
+with pious phrases or quotations from the Koran; or perhaps a talismanic
+figure, such as the open eye to guard the wearer from the dreaded _mal
+de ojo_; or the open hand that still surmounts the gateway of the Tower
+of Justice at Granada.[40]
+
+  [40] An article by Señor Saavedra on these inscribed jewels and signets
+       of Mohammedan Spain will be found in the _Museo Español de
+        Antigüedades_.
+
+Undoubtedly, too, the Moorish sultans of this country owned enormous
+hoards of silver, gold, and precious stones. Al-Makkari says that the
+treasure of the Nasrite rulers of Granada included quantities of pearls,
+turquoises, and rubies; pearl necklets; earrings "surpassing those of
+Mary the Copt" (Mohammed's concubine); swords of the finest temper,
+embellished with pure gold; helmets with gilded borders, studded with
+emeralds, pearls, and rubies; and silvered and enamelled belts.
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+                           MOORISH BRACELETS]
+
+The Moorish women of this country, and in particular the
+Granadinas,[41] were passionately fond of jewellery. Ornaments which
+once belonged to them are sometimes brought to light in Andalusia,
+Murcia, or Valencia, including pendants, rings, necklaces, and _axorcas_
+or bangles for the ankle or the wrist, and bracelets for the upper
+portion of the arm. The National Museum contains a small collection of
+these objects, dating from the time of the Moriscos, and including a
+handsome necklace terminating in a double chain, with ball and pyramid
+shaped ornaments about the centre, a square-headed finger-ring with four
+green stones and a garnet, and a hollow bracelet filled with a substance
+that appears to be mastic, similar to those which are reproduced in
+Plate xiii.
+
+  [41] "As to the ornaments and jewels of the ladies of Granada, these
+       wear at present necklaces of rich design, bracelets, rings (upon
+       their ankles), and earrings of pure gold; together with quantities
+       of silver and of precious stones upon their shoes. I say this of
+       the middle class; for ladies of the aristocracy and of the older
+       noble families display a vast variety of gems, such as rubies,
+       chrysolites, emeralds, and pearls of great value. The ladies of
+       Granada are commonly fair to look upon, shapely, of good stature,
+       with long hair, teeth of a shining white, and perfumed breath,
+       gracefully alert in their movements, and witty and agreeable in
+       conversation. But unfortunately at this time their passion for
+       painting themselves and for arraying themselves in every kind of
+       jewellery and costly stuffs has reached a pitch that is no longer
+       tolerable."--Al-Jattib, in _The Splendour of the New Moon
+       concerning the Nasrite Sultans of Granada_.
+
+These jewels, I repeat, are of Morisco workmanship, and therefore date
+from later than the independent empire of the Spanish Moors.
+Nevertheless, the geometrical or filigree design was common both to
+Moorish and Morisco art. As I observed in my description of the
+casket-reliquaries, we note continually the influence of these motives
+on the arts of Christian Spain. The Ordinances relative to the
+goldsmiths and the silversmiths of Granada, cried at various times
+between 1529 and 1538, whether "in the silversmiths' street of the
+Alcaycería, that has its opening over against the scriveners'"; or in
+"the street of the Puente del Carbon, before the goldsmiths' shops"; or
+"in the street of the Zacatin, where dwell the silversmiths," prove also
+that for many years after the Reconquest the character and nomenclature
+of this kind of work continued to be principally and traditionally
+Moorish.
+
+Firstly, the Ordinances complain that the goldsmiths of Granada now
+employ a base and detrimental standard of the precious metals,
+especially in the bracelets or _manillas_ of the women. The goldsmiths
+answer in their vindication that equally as poor a standard is employed
+at Seville, Cordova, and Toledo. These city laws herewith establish
+twenty carats as a minimum fineness for the gold employed in making
+ornaments. The makers, also, are ordered to impress their private stamp
+or seal on every article, or in default to pay a fine of ten thousand
+_maravedis_. A copy of each stamp or seal to be deposited in the city
+chest. The _alamín_ or inspector of this trade to test and weigh all
+gold and silver work before it is exposed for sale.
+
+We learn from the same source that the gold bracelets were sometimes
+smooth, and sometimes "covered over with devices" (_cubiertos de
+estampas por cima_). The technical name of these was _albordados_. The
+silver bracelets were also either smooth, or stamped, or twisted in a
+cord (_encordados_). Bangles for the ankle, upper arm, and wrist are
+mentioned as continuing to be generally worn, while one of the
+Ordinances complains that "Moorish _axorcas_ are often sold that are
+hollow, and filled with chalk and mastic, so that before they can be
+weighed it is necessary to rid them of such substances by submitting
+them to fire, albeit the fire turns them black."
+
+The weapons and war-harness of the Spanish Moors were often exquisitely
+decorated with the precious stones or metals. Splendid objects of this
+kind have been preserved, and will be noticed in their proper chapter.
+
+The ruinous and reckless measure known to Spain's eternal shame as the
+Expulsion of the Moriscos, deprived this country of a great--perhaps the
+greatest--part of her resources. Fonseca estimates this loss, solely in
+the quantity of coin conveyed away, at two million and eight hundred
+thousand _escudos_, adding that a single Morisco, Alami Delascar de
+Aberique, bore off with him one hundred thousand ducats.[42] To make
+this matter worse, the Moriscos, just before they went on board their
+ships, fashioned from scraps of tin, old nails, and other refuse,
+enormous stores of counterfeit coin, and slyly sold this rubbish to the
+simple Spaniards in return for lawful money of the land. In the course
+of a few days, and in a single quarter of Valencia, more than three
+hundred thousand ducats of false coin were thus passed off upon the
+Christians. Besides this exportation of good Spanish money, the cunning
+fugitives removed huge quantities of jewellery and plate. Chains,
+_axorcas_, rings, _zarcillos_, and gold _escudos_ were taken from the
+bodies of many of the Morisco women who were murdered by the Spanish
+soldiery; but the greater part of all this treasure found its way to
+Africa. In his work _Expulsión justificada de los Moriscos_ (1612),
+Aznar de Cardona says that the Morisco women carried "divers plates upon
+the breast, together with necklaces and collars, earrings and
+bracelets." It is recorded, too, that the Moriscos, as they struggled in
+the country regions to avenge themselves upon their persecutors, did
+unlimited damage to the ornaments and fittings of the churches. "This
+people," says Fonseca, "respected not our temples or the holy images
+that in them were; nor yet the chalices and other objects they
+encountered in our sacristies. Upon the contrary, they smashed the
+crosses, burned the saints, profaned the sacred vestments, and committed
+such acts of sacrilege as though they had been Algerian Moors, or Turks
+of Constantinople."
+
+  [42] There was, however, from long before this time a prohibition to
+       export from Spain the precious metals, in any form, whether as
+       objects of plate or as coined money. The penalty for a repetition
+       of this offence was death. Another law prohibited all foreigners
+       who were resident in Spain, not excluding the Moriscos, from buying
+       gold or silver in the bar (_Suma de Leyes_, p. 46). It was also
+       forbidden to sell the jewels or other objects of value belonging to
+       a place of worship (_ibid_. p. 87).
+
+Legends of hidden Moorish and Morisco wealth are still extant in many
+parts of Spain. The Abbé Bertaut de Rouen[43] and Swinburne among
+foreigners, or Spaniards such as the gossiping priest Echeverría, who
+provided Washington Irving with the pick of his _Tales of the Alhambra_,
+have treated copiously of this fascinating and mysterious theme. The
+Siete Suelos Tower at Granada is particularly favoured with traditions
+of this kind. Peasants of the Alpujarras still declare that piles of
+Moorish money lie secreted in the lofty buttresses of Mulhacen and the
+Veleta, while yet another summit of this snowy range bears the
+suggestive title of the Cerro del Tesoro, where, almost within the
+memory of living men, a numerous party, fitted and commissioned by the
+State, explored with feverish though unlucky zeal the naked cliffs and
+sterile crannies of the lonely mountain.[44]
+
+  [43] This entertaining and inquisitive tourist describes, in 1659, a
+       wondrous cavern in the south of Spain, "ou l'on conte que les Mores
+       ont caché leurs trésors en s'en retournant en Afrique, et ou
+       personne n'ose aborder de peur des esprits que l'on dit que l'on y
+       voit souvent. Mais comme il commencait a se faire nuit, je n'eus
+       pas le loisir de m'y amuser beaucoup." With this our author shelved
+       his curiosity, and prudently retired.
+
+  [44] Leonard Williams. _Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies, and
+       Impressions_, p. 90.
+
+Reducing all these fables to the terms of truth, Moorish and Morisco
+jewellery and coin are sometimes brought to light on Spanish soil. Such
+finds occur, less seldom than elsewhere, within the provinces of
+Seville, Cordova, Granada, and Almeria (Plate xiv.), but since they are
+neither frequent nor considerable, although the likeliest ground for
+them is being disturbed continually, we may conclude that nearly all the
+Muslim wealth accumulated here slipped from the clumsy if ferocious
+fingers of the mother-country, and found its way, concealed upon the
+bodies of her persecuted offspring, to the shores of Africa.[45]
+
+  [45] Ford was more hopeful as to the preservation of this wealth in
+       Spain. "No doubt much coin is buried in the Peninsula, since the
+       country has always been invaded and torn by civil wars, and there
+       never has been much confidence between Spaniard and Spaniard;
+       accordingly the only sure, although unproductive, investment for
+       those who had money, was gold or silver, and the only resource to
+       preserve that, was to hide it."--_Handbook_, vol. ii. p. 682.
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                           MORISCO JEWELLERY
+                 (_Found in the Province of Granada_)]
+
+Sometimes, too, an early gold or silver object would be melted down and
+modernized into another and a newer piece of plate. This was a fairly
+common usage with the silversmiths themselves, or with an ignorant or
+stingy brotherhood or chapter. Thus, the following entry occurs in the
+_Libro de Visita de Fábrica_ belonging to the parish church of Santa
+Ana, Triana, Seville. In the year 1599 "the large cross of silver-gilt,
+together with its _mançana_ and all the silver attaching thereto, was
+taken to the house of Zubieta the silversmith, and pulled to pieces. It
+weighed 25 marks and 4 _ochavas_ of silver, besides 5 marks and 2 ounces
+and 4 _ochavas_ of silver which was the weight of the three lamps
+delivered to Zubieta in the time of Juan de Mirando, aforetime steward
+of this church. It is now made into a silver-gilt cross."[46]
+
+  [46] Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. ii. p. 360.
+
+A similar instance may be quoted from a document of Cordova, published
+by Ramírez de Arellano in his relation of a visit to the monastery of
+San Jerónimo de Valparaiso. In the year 1607 Gerónimo de la Cruz, a
+Cordovese silversmith, agreed with the prior of this monastery to make
+for the community a silver-gilt _custodia_. For this purpose he received
+from the prior, doubtless a man of parsimonious spirit and a boor in his
+appreciativeness of art, eight pairs of vinegar cruets, four of whose
+tops were missing; a silver-gilt chalice and its patine; a _viril_ with
+two angels and four pieces on the crown of it; a small communion cup;
+some silver candlesticks; four spoons and a fork, also of silver; and a
+silver-gilt salt-cellar. The total value of these objects was 1826
+_reales_; and all of them were tossed, in Ford's indignant phrase, into
+the "sacrilegious melting-pot," in order to provide material for the new
+_custodia_.
+
+                            [Illustration: XV
+                     SILVER-GILT PROCESSIONAL CROSS
+         (_Made by Juan de Arfe in_ 1592. _Burgos Cathedral_)]
+
+The gold and silver work of Christian Spain attained, throughout the
+fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries, a high degree of excellence
+(Plates xv., xvi., etc.). The best of it was made at Seville, Barcelona,
+Toledo, and Valladolid. Objects of great artistic worth were also
+produced at Burgos, Palencia, León, Cuenca, Cordova, and Salamanca. I
+have already mentioned some of the principal _orfebreros_ of Barcelona.
+Juan Ruiz of Cordova, whom Juan de Arfe applauds as "the first
+silversmith who taught the way to do good work in Andalusia," was also,
+in this region, the first to turn the precious metals on the lathe. A
+famous silversmith of Seville was Diego de Vozmediano, whom we find
+living there in 1525. Toledo, too, could boast, among an army of
+distinguished gold and silver smiths (Riaño gives the names of no fewer
+than seventy-seven), Cristóbal de Ordas, Juan Rodríguez de Babria, and
+Pedro Hernandez, _plateros_, respectively, to Charles the Fifth, to
+Philip the Second, and to the queen-dowager of Portugal; and also the
+silversmith and engraver upon metals, Pedro Angel, whose praise is sung
+by Lope de Vega in the prologue to his _auto_ called _The Voyage of the
+Soul_:--
+
+               "_Y es hoy Pedro Angel un divino artífice
+                 con el buril en oro, plata, ó cobre._"
+
+By far the greater part of all Toledo's gold and silver work was made
+for service in her mighty temple. Such were the statue of Saint Helen,
+presented by Philip the Second; the crown of the Virgen del Sagrario,
+wrought by Hernando de Carrión and Alejo de Montoya; the bracelets or
+_ajorcas_ made for the image of the same Madonna by Julián Honrado; and
+the exquisite chests carved in 1569 and 1598 by Francisco Merino from
+designs by the two Vergaras, father and son, as reliquaries for the
+bones of San Eugenio and Santa Leocadia, patrons of this ancient
+capital.[47] A magnificent silver lamp was also, in 1565, offered by the
+chapter of the cathedral to the church of Saint Denis in France, in
+gratitude for the surrender of the bones of San Eugenio to the city of
+his birth. These and other objects of Toledan gold and silver work are
+stated to be "worthy of comparison with the very best of what was then
+produced in Germany, Italy, and France."[48]
+
+  [47] A full description of these chests will be found in Cean Bermudez,
+       vol. iii. pp. 135-137.
+
+  [48] Rada y Delgado, in his reply to the Count of Cedillo's address in
+       the Royal Academy of History. For particulars of the silver lamp,
+       which was made by Marcos and Gonzalo Hernandez, Toledanos, and by
+       Diego Dávila, see Zarco del Valle, _Documentos Inéditos para la
+       Historia de las Bellas Artes en España_, vol. lv. p. 580.
+
+Baron Davillier also held a high opinion of the Spanish _orfebreros_ of
+this time. After remarking that the Italian influence was powerful among
+the Spaniards in the sixteenth century, and more particularly for some
+fifty years at Barcelona, he says: "A cette époque les _plateros_
+espagnols pouvaient rivaliser sans désavantage avec les Italiens, les
+Français, les Flamands, et les Allemands."
+
+The same authority also says that the Spanish _plateros_ of this period
+were skilled enamellers on gold and silver, and quotes some entries from
+French inventories of the time in which we read of cups, salt-cellars,
+washing-basins, and other objects executed or enamelled "à la mode
+d'Espagne."[49]
+
+  [49] _Recherches sur l'Orfévrerie en Espagne_, pp. 61 _et seq._
+
+As we have seen, the exodus of the Moriscos lost to Spain a great
+proportion of her total wealth, although, conjointly with this loss, new
+wealth flowed into her in marvellous abundance from the New World.[50]
+Thus, the silver-mines of Potosi, discovered in 1545, sent over to the
+mother-country, between that year and 1633, no less than eight hundred
+and forty-five millions of _pesos_. And yet this mighty influx of new
+riches cannot be said, except in the artistic sense, to have enriched
+the nation. She had renounced the service of the most industrious and,
+in many instances, the most ingenious of her native craftsmen; while on
+the other hand the Christians, with but limited exceptions, were far too
+proud and far too indolent to set their hand to any form of manual
+exercise; just as (I much regret to add) a great proportion of them are
+this very day. Foreign artificers in consequence (particularly after the
+royal pragmatic of 1623 encouraging their immigration), attracted by the
+treasure fleets that anchored in the bay of Cadiz, came trooping into
+Spain and filled their pockets from the national purse, fashioning, in
+return for money which they husbanded and sent abroad, luxurious gold
+and silver objects that were merely destined to stagnate within her
+churches and cathedrals.
+
+  [50] Ulloa, _Memorias Sevillanas_, vol. i. p. 199.
+
+Riaño and Baron de la Vega de Hoz extract from Cean Bermudez a copious
+list of silversmiths who worked in Spain all through the Middle Ages.
+This long array of isolated names and dates is neither interesting nor
+informative. Newer and more attractive notices have been discovered
+subsequently. Thus, in the National Library at Madrid, Don Manuel G.
+Simancas has disinterred quite recently the copy made by a Jesuit of a
+series of thirteenth-century accounts relating to various craftsmen of
+the reign of Sancho the Fourth ("the Brave"). Two of them are concerning
+early _orfebreros_:--
+
+"Juan Yanez. By letters of the king and queen to Johan Yanez, goldsmith,
+brother of Ferran García, scrivener to the king; for three chalices
+received from him by the king, CCCCLXXVIII _maravedis_."
+
+The second entry says:--
+
+"Bartolomé Rinalt. And he paid Bartolomé Rinalt for jewels which the
+queen bought from him to present to Doña Marina Suarez, nurse of the
+Infante Don Pedro, MCCCL _maravedis_."[51]
+
+  [51] _Libro de diferentes Cuentas y gasto de la Casa Real en el Reynado
+       de Don Sancho IV. Sacado de un tomo original en folio que se guarda
+       en la Librería de la Santa Iglesia de Toledo._ Años de 1293-1294.
+       Por el P. Andres Marcos Burriel de la Comp^a de Jesus.
+
+Among Spain's gold and silver craftsmen of the fifteenth century we
+find the names of Juan de Castelnou, together with his son Jaime, who
+worked at Valencia; of Lope Rodríguez de Villareal, Ruby, and Juan
+Gonzalez, all three of whom worked at Toledo; and of Juan de Segovia, a
+friar of Guadalupe. Papers concerning Juan Gonzalez, and dated 1425,
+1427, and 1431, are published among the _Documentos Inéditos_ of Zarco
+del Valle. One of Segovia's masterpieces was a silver salt-cellar in the
+form of a lion tearing open a pomegranate--clearly allusive to the
+conquest of Granada from the Moors. Upon their visiting the monastery,
+Ferdinand and Isabella saw and, as was natural, conceived a fancy for
+this salt-cellar; and so, whether from inclination or necessity, the
+brotherhood induced them to accept it.
+
+Sixteenth-century _plateros_ of renown were Juan Donante, Mateo and
+Nicolás (whose surnames are unknown)--all three of whom worked at
+Seville; and Duarte Rodríguez and Fernando Ballesteros, natives of that
+city. In or about the year 1524 were working at Toledo the silversmiths
+Pedro Herreros and Hernando de Valles, together with Diego Vazquez,
+Andres Ordoñez, Hernando de Carrión, Diego de Valdivieso, Juan Domingo
+de Villanueva, Diego Abedo de Villandrando, Juan Tello de Morata,
+Francisco de Reinalte, Hans Belta, and Francisco Merino. Several of
+these men were natives of Toledo.
+
+Among the silversmiths of sixteenth-century Cordova were Diego de Alfaro
+and his son Francisco, Francisco de Baena, Alonso Casas, Alonso del
+Castillo, Luis de Cordoba, Sebastián de Cordoba, Cristóbal de Escalante,
+Juan Gonzalez, Diego Fernandez, Diego Hernandez Rubio (son of Sebastián
+de Cordoba), Rodrigo de León, Gómez Luque, Ginés Martinez, Melchor de
+los Reyes (silversmith and enameller), Andrés de Roa, Pedro de Roa,
+Alonso Sanchez, Jerónimo Sanchez de la Cruz, Martin Sanchez de la Cruz
+(Jerónimo's son), Pedro Sanchez de Luque, Alonso de Sevilla, Juan
+Urbano, and Lucas de Valdés.
+
+Not much is told us of the lives and labours of these artists. The best
+reputed of them as a craftsman was Rodrigo de León, who stood next after
+Juan Ruiz, _el Sandolino_. Ramírez de Arellano, from whom I have
+collected these data, publishes a number of León's agreements or
+contracts, which from their length and dryness I do not here repeat. In
+1603 we find him official silversmith to the cathedral, under the title
+of "_platero de martillo_ ("silversmith of hammered work") _de la obra
+de la catedral desta ciudad_."
+
+Francisco de Alfaro, although a Cordovese by birth, resided commonly at
+Seville. In 1578 he received 446,163 _maravedis_ for making four silver
+candlesticks for use in celebrating divine service. These candlesticks
+are still in the cathedral.
+
+Sebastián de Cordoba was one of the foremost artists of his age. He died
+in 1587, leaving, together with other children, a son, Diego, who also
+won some reputation as a silversmith. Ramírez de Arellano publishes a
+full relation of the property which Sebastián de Cordoba bequeathed at
+his decease, as well as of the money which was owing to him. Among the
+former, or the "movable effects," we read of "Isabel, a Morisco woman,
+native of the kingdom of Granada; her age thirty-four years, a little
+less or more." The same inventory includes a curious and complete
+account of all the tools and apparatus in Sebastián's workshop.
+
+But the quaintest notice of them all, though it does not apprise us of
+his merit as a silversmith, is that concerning Cristóbal de Escalante.
+Cristóbal suffered, we are told, from "certain sores produced by humours
+in his left leg; wherefore the said leg undergoes a change and swells."
+He therefore makes a contract with one Juan Jiménez, "servant in the
+Royal Stables of His Majesty the King," and duly examined as a herbalist
+("licensed," in the actual phrase, "to remedy this kind of ailments"),
+who is to heal his leg "by means of the divine will of the cure." As
+soon as Cristóbal shall be thoroughly well, "in so much that his ailing
+leg shall be the other's equal in the fatness and the form thereof," he
+is to pay Jiménez five-and-fifty _reales_, "having already given him ten
+_reales_ on account."
+
+Probably, as Señor Ramírez de Arellano facetiously supposes, Cristóbal,
+after such a course of treatment, would be lame for all his life. At any
+rate, he died in 1605, though whether from the gentle handling of the
+stableman and herbalist is not recorded in these entries.
+
+Still keeping to the sixteenth century, in other parts of Spain we find
+the silversmiths Baltasar Alvarez and Juan de Benavente, working at
+Palencia; Alonso de Dueñas at Salamanca; and Juan de Orna at Burgos,
+about the same time that the foreigners Jacomi de Trezzo and Leo Leoni
+were engaged at the Escorial. Cuenca, too, boasted three excellent
+silver-workers in the family of Becerril, mentioned by Juan de Arfe in
+company with other craftsmen of the time of the Renaissance.[52]
+Stirling says of Cuenca and the Becerriles: "They made for the cathedral
+its great _custodia_, which was one of the most costly and celebrated
+pieces of church plate in Spain. They began it in 1528, and, though
+ready for use in 1546, it was not finished till 1573. It was a
+three-storied edifice, of a florid classical design, crowned with a
+dome, and enriched with numberless groups and statues, and an inner
+shrine of jewelled gold; it contained 616 marks of silver, and cost
+17,725-1/2 ducats, a sum which can barely have paid the ingenious
+artists for the labour of forty-five years. In the War of Independence,
+this splendid prize fell into the hands of the French General
+Caulaincourt, by whom it was forthwith turned into five-franc pieces,
+bearing the image and superscription of Napoleon."[53]
+
+  [52]         "_Con estos fué mi padre en seguimiento
+               Joan Alvarez tambien el Salmantino,
+               Becerril, que tambien fué deste cuento,
+               Juan de Orna, y Juan Ruiz el Vandolino._"
+
+  [53] _Annals of the Artists of Spain_, vol. i. pp. 161, 162.
+
+A more reliable notice says that this _custodia_ was begun by Alonso
+Becerril and finished by his brother Francisco. The third member of
+this family of artists, Cristóbal, who flourished towards the end of the
+sixteenth century, was Francisco's son.
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                           GOTHIC _CUSTODIA_
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+Towards the close of the Gothic and during the earlier phases of the
+Renaissance movement in this country, enormous quantities of gold and
+silver began to be employed in making these _custodias_ or monstrances
+of her temples; so that the fifteenth century may well be called, in
+Spanish craftsmanship, the "age of the _custodia_." A century ago the
+reverend Townsend, loyal to the Low Church prejudices of his day, spoke
+of this object with something of a sneer as "the depository of the Host,
+or, according to the ideas of a Catholic, the throne of the Most High,
+when, upon solemn festivals, He appears to command the adoration of
+mankind." Riaño's description is more technical. "The name of
+_custodia_," he says, "is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or
+ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of
+temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which
+is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus
+Christi day (Plate xvi.). In order to distinguish these objects one from
+another, the name of _viril_ is given to the object which holds the
+consecrated Host; it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem
+and mount ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are
+generally objects of the greatest importance, both from their artistic
+and intrinsic value." A third description of the monstrance, written in
+quaint and antiquated Spanish verse by Juan de Arfe, is truthfully if
+not melodiously translated into English rhyme by Stirling:--
+
+               "Custodia is a temple of rich plate,
+               Wrought for the glory of our Saviour true,
+               Where, into wafer transubstantiate,
+               He shows his Godhead and his Manhood too,
+               That holiest ark of old to imitate,
+               Fashioned by Bezaleel, the cunning Jew,
+               Chosen of God to work His sov'ran will,
+               And greatly gifted with celestial skill."[54]
+
+  [54] _Op. cit._, p. 159, note.
+
+Notwithstanding that the monstrance of Toledo, surmounted by a cross of
+solid gold, turns the scale at ten thousand nine hundred ounces, and
+that of Avila at one hundred and forty pounds, the weight of nearly all
+of these _custodias_ is far exceeded by the value of their workmanship.
+The style employed in their construction is the Gothic, the Renaissance,
+or the two combined. _Custodias_ of the eastern parts of Spain are more
+affected than the others by Italian influence, noticeable both in
+decorative motives which recall the Florentine, and in the use, together
+with the silver-work, of painting and enamels. In other parts of Spain
+the dominating influence is the later Gothic. Among the former or
+Levantine class of monstrances, the most important are those of
+Barcelona, Vich, Gerona, and Palma de Mallorca; and of the others, those
+of Cordova, Cadiz, Sahagún, Zamora, Salamanca, and Toledo--this last,
+according to Bertaut de Rouen, "à la manière d'un clocher percé à jour,
+d'ouvrage de filigrane, et plein de figures." _Custodias_ in the purest
+classic or Renaissance style are those of Seville, Valladolid, Palencia,
+Avila, Jaen, Madrid, Segovia, Zaragoza, Santiago, and Orense.
+
+Juan de Arfe y Villafañe, who may be called the Cellini of Spain's
+_custodia_-makers, was born at León in 1535. He was the son of Antonio
+de Arfe, and grandson of Enrique de Arfe, a German who had married a
+Spanish wife and made his home in Spain. The family of Juan, including
+his brother Antonio, were all distinguished craftsmen, and he himself
+informs us that his grandfather excelled in Gothic _platería_, as may
+be judged from the _custodias_, by Enrique's hand, of Cordova, León,
+Toledo, and Sahagún, and many smaller objects, such as incensories,
+crosiers, and paxes.
+
+The father of Juan, Antonio de Arfe, worked in silver in the Renaissance
+or Plateresque styles, and executed in the florid manner the _custodias_
+of Santiago de Galicia and Medina de Rioseco; but the training and
+tastes of Juan himself were sternly classical. His work in consequence
+has a certain coldness, largely atoned for by its exquisite correctness
+of design and unimpeachable proportions. Arfe's ideal in these matters
+may readily be judged of from his written verdict on the Greco-Roman
+architecture. "The Escorial," he says, in the preface to his description
+of the _custodia_ of Seville cathedral, "_because it follows the rules
+of ancient art_, competes in general perfection, size, or splendour with
+the most distinguished buildings of the Asiatics, Greeks, and Romans,
+and displays magnificence and truth in all its detail."
+
+In point of versatility Juan de Arfe was a kind of Spanish Leonardo. His
+book, _De Varia Conmensuración_, etc., published in 1585, is divided
+into four parts, and deals, the first part with the practice of
+geometry, the second with human anatomy, the third with animals, and
+the fourth with architecture and silver-work for use in churches.
+
+[Illustration: IOAN DE ARFE]
+
+This book is prefaced by the portrait of the author, given above. It
+shows us--what he really was--a quiet, cultured, gentle-hearted man.
+Indeed, while Arfe was studying anatomy at Salamanca, it gave him pain
+to lacerate the bodies even of the dead. "I was witness," he records,
+"to the flaying of several pauper men and women whom the law had
+executed; but these experiments, besides being horrible and cruel, I saw
+to be of little service to my studies in anatomy."
+
+Arfe's workmanship of the _custodia_ of Avila cathedral, which he began
+in 1564 and terminated in 1571, won for him an early and extended fame.
+He also made the _custodia_ of Burgos (brutally melted during the
+Spanish War of Independence), and those of Valladolid (finished in
+1590), Lugo, Osma, and the Hermandad del Santísimo at Madrid. The
+_custodia_ of Palencia is also thought by some to be his handiwork.
+
+But Arfe's crowning labour was the Greco-Roman _custodia_ of Seville
+cathedral (Plate xvii.). The chapter of this temple selected his design
+in 1580, and nominated the licentiate Pacheco to assist him with the
+statuettes. Pacheco also carried out his portion of the task with skill
+and judgment. A rare pamphlet, written by Arfe and published at Seville
+in 1587, gives a minute description of the whole _custodia_. In Appendix
+C, I render this description into English, together with a similarly
+detailed notice of the _custodia_ (1513 A.D.) of Cordova. This last,
+which we have seen to be the work of Juan de Arfe's grandfather,
+Enrique, is not to be surpassed for fairy grace and lightness, seeming,
+in the eloquent metaphor of a modern writer, "to have been conceived in
+a dream, and executed with the breath."
+
+                           [Illustration: XVII
+                    _CUSTODIA_ OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL
+                (_By Juan de Arfe. Late 16th Century_)]
+
+Spain in the seventeenth century had reached the lowest depth of her
+decadence and impoverishment; and yet we find that century an age--to
+quote a Spanish term--of "gallantries and pearls," in which a craze for
+reckless luxury continued to prevail in every quarter. Narratives
+innumerable inform us of the life and doings of that prodigal court and
+prodigal aristocracy; their ruinous and incessant festivals; the
+fortunes that were thrown away on furniture, and jewels, and costume.
+True, we are told by Bertaut de Rouen that, except upon their numerous
+holidays, the costume of the Spanish men was plain enough. This author,
+who calls them otherwise "debauched and ignorant," says that their
+clothes were all of "méchante frise," and adds that they continually
+took snuff, "dont ils ont toujours les narines pleines, ce qui fait
+qu'ils n'ont que des mouchoirs de laine, de toile grise, et peinte comme
+de la toile de la Chine." The same traveller, attending an ordinary
+reception in the royal palace at Madrid, was unable to distinguish the
+nobles from the lower orders, except that, by the privilege peculiar to
+this country, the former kept their hats on in the presence of the
+sovereign. Even of Philip himself he says: "Le Roy d'Espagne estoit
+debout avec un habit fort simple et fort ressemblant à tous ses
+portraits"; alluding, probably, to those of Philip the Fourth by
+Velazquez, in which the monarch wears a plain cloth doublet.
+
+But when the Spaniard dressed himself for any scene of gala show, his
+spendthrift inclinations swelled into a positive disease. The women,
+too, squandered enormous sums on finery. The Marchioness of Liche, said
+to have been the loveliest Española of that day, is spoken of by Bertaut
+as wearing "un corps de brocard d'argent avec de grandes basques à leur
+mode, la jupe d'une autre étoffe avec grand nombre de pierreries, et
+cela luy fetoit fort bien." An anonymous manuscript of the period,
+published by Gayangos in the _Revista de España_ for 1884, describes the
+_fiestas_ celebrated at Valladolid in 1605, in honour of the English
+ambassador and his retinue. In this relation the Duke of Lerma is quoted
+as possessing a yearly income of three hundred thousand _cruzados_,
+besides "as much again in jewellery and furniture, and gold and silver
+services." At the state banquets which were given at that wasteful
+court, even the pies and tarts were washed with gold or silver; and at a
+single feast the dishes of various kinds of fare amounted to two
+thousand and two hundred. At the banquet given by the Duke of Lerma,
+three special sideboards were constructed to sustain the weight of four
+hundred pieces of silver, "all of them of delicate design and
+exquisitely wrought of silver, gold, and enamel, together with
+innumerable objects of glass and crystal of capricious form, with
+handles, lids, and feet of finest gold."
+
+The whole of Spain's nobility was congregated at these festivals,
+"richly attired with quantities of pearls and oriental gems," while
+everybody, young and old alike, wore "diamond buttons and brooches on
+cloaks and doublets," feather plumes with costly medals, gold chains
+with emeralds, and other ornaments. The ladies of the aristocracy were
+also "clothed in costliest style, as well as loaded with diamonds and
+pearls and hair-ornaments of pearls and gold, such as the women of
+Castile lay by for these solemnities."
+
+The Spanish churches, too, continued to be veritable storehouses of
+treasure. The manuscript published by Gayangos says that in 1605 the
+church of La Merced at Valladolid had its altars "covered with beautiful
+gold and silver vessels, of which there are a great many in the whole of
+Castilla la Vieja, and particularly here at Valladolid." Bertaut de
+Rouen's notice of the shrine of Montserrat in Cataluña has been inserted
+previously. In 1775 Swinburne wrote of the same temple:--"In the
+sacristy and passages leading to it are presses and cupboards full of
+relics and ornaments of gold, silver, and precious stones; they pointed
+out to us, as the most remarkable, two crowns for the Virgin and her
+Son, of inestimable value, some large diamond rings, an excellent cameo
+of Medusa's head, the Roman emperors in alabaster, the sword of Saint
+Ignatius, and the chest that contains the ashes of a famous brother,
+John Guarin, of whom they relate the same story as that given in the
+_Spectator_ of a Turkish santon and the Sultan's daughter.... Immense is
+the quantity of votive offerings to this miraculous statue; and as
+nothing can be rejected or otherwise disposed of, the shelves are
+crowded with the most whimsical _ex votos_, viz., silver legs, fingers,
+breasts, earrings, watches, two-wheeled chaises, boats, carts, and
+such-like trumpery."
+
+Many pragmatics from the Crown vainly endeavoured to suppress or
+mitigate the popular extravagance. Such was the royal letter of 1611,
+which forbade, among the laity, the wearing of "gold jewels with
+decoration or enamel in relief, or points with pearls or other stones."
+Smaller jewels, of the kind known as _joyeles_ and _brincos_,[55] were
+limited to a single stone, together with its pearl pendant. The
+jewellery of the women was exempted from these laws, though even here
+were certain limitations. Rings for the finger might, however, bear
+enamel-work, or any kind of stone. Enamel was also allowed in gold
+buttons and chains for the men's caps, as well as in the badges worn by
+the knights of the military orders.
+
+  [55] _Brinco_ (_brincar_, to jump or spring). These jewels were so
+       called from their vibrating as the wearer walked. The Balearic
+       Islands were famous for their manufacture; and the late Marquis of
+       Arcicollar possessed a case of valuable examples, most of which
+       proceeded from this locality.
+
+"It is forbidden," continues this pragmatic, "to make any object of
+gold, silver, or other metal with work in relief, or the likeness of a
+person; nor shall any object be gilt, excepting drinking vessels, and
+the weight of these shall not exceed three marks. All other silver
+shall be flat and plain, without gilding; but this does not apply to
+objects intended for religious worship."
+
+"All niello-work is prohibited, as are silver brasiers and buffets."[56]
+
+  [56] _Suma de Leyes_, 1628, p. 116 (2).
+
+What I may call the private jewel-work of Spain, largely retains
+throughout its history the characteristic lack of finish of all the
+Visigothic treasure found at Guarrazar. From first to last, until
+extinguished or absorbed by foreign influences two centuries ago, it
+strives to compensate in ponderous and bulky splendour for what it lacks
+in delicacy, elegance, and taste. It is just the jewellery we should
+expect to find among a military people who once upon a time possessed
+great riches simultaneously with little education, and who, from this
+and other causes, such as the strenuous opposition of the national
+church to pagan sentiments expressed in fleshly form, were never
+genuinely or profoundly art-loving. Long residence and observation in
+their midst induce me to affirm that as a race the Spaniards are and
+always have been hostile, or at least indifferent, to the arts; and that
+their most illustrious artists have made their power manifest and raised
+themselves to eminence despite the people--not, as in Italy, on the
+supporting shoulders of the people.
+
+Dazzle and show monopolized, and to a great extent monopolize still, the
+preference of this race. The Spanish breast-ornaments of the seventeenth
+century, preserved at South Kensington and reproduced by Riaño on pages
+37 and 39 of his handbook, are strongly reminiscent of the Visigothic
+ornaments. Who would imagine that a thousand years had come and gone
+between the execution of the new and of the old? As late as the reign of
+Charles the Second the culture of a Spanish lady of high birth was
+little, if at all, superior to a savage's. "False stones enchant them,"
+wrote Countess d'Aulnoy. "Although they possess many jewels of
+considerable value and the finest quality, it is their whim to carry on
+their person wretched bits of glass cut in the coarsest fashion, just
+like those which pedlars in my country sell to country girls who have
+seen nobody but the village curate, and nothing but their flocks of
+sheep. Dames of the aristocracy adorn themselves with these pieces of
+glass, that are worth nothing at all; yet they purchase them at high
+prices. When I asked them why they like false diamonds, they told me
+they prefer them to the genuine as being larger. Indeed, they sometimes
+wear them of the bigness of an egg." Even where the stones were real,
+the Spanish taste in setting and in wearing them was no less execrable.
+The Countess says: "the ladies here possess great stores of beautiful
+precious stones, and do not wear, like Frenchwomen, a single article of
+jewellery, but nine or ten together, some of diamonds, others of rubies,
+pearls, emeralds, and turquoises, wretchedly mounted, since they are
+almost wholly covered with the gold. When I inquired the cause of this,
+they told me the jewels were so made because the gold was as beautiful
+as the gems. I suppose, however, the real reason is the backwardness of
+the craftsmen, who can do no better work than this, excepting Verbec,
+who has no lack of skill, and would turn out excellent jewels if he took
+the trouble to finish them."
+
+"In the neck of their bodices the ladies fasten pins profusely set with
+precious stones. Hanging from the pin, and fastened at the lower end to
+the side of their dress, is a string of pearls or diamonds. They wear no
+necklace, but bracelets on their wrists and rings on their fingers, as
+well as long earrings of so great a weight that I know not how they can
+support them. Hanging from these earrings they display whatever finery
+they may fancy. I have seen some ladies who wore good-sized watches
+hanging from their ears, strings of precious stones, English keys of
+dainty make, and little bells. They also wear the _agnus_, together with
+little images about their neck and arms, or in their hair. They dress
+their hair in various ways, and always go with it uncovered, using many
+hairpins in the form of coloured flies or butterflies of diamonds,
+emeralds, and rubies."
+
+Book-worm authorities, addicted to "dry bones" of letters, are prone
+just now to doubt this visit of Countess d'Aulnoy to the capital of
+Spain. But if such patient doubters will compare her narrative with
+those of other foreigners, _e.g._ Bertaut de Rouen, or the manuscript
+description of Valladolid, written by a Portuguese, and now in the
+British Museum library, their scepticism will--or should--be done away
+with on the moment. The letters of the countess make it plain by copious
+inner testimony that she actually performed her Spanish visit; and
+though from time to time she over-colours or misreads the truth, it was
+the very usages of Spain that were absurd and out of joint, and not,
+except in isolated instances, the sprightly and observant Frenchwoman's
+account of them.[57]
+
+  [57] But on the other hand I much suspect that the following passage in
+       Alvarez de Colmenar's _Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal_
+       (vol. iii. p. 326) is stolen from Countess d'Aulnoy. "Elles ne
+       portent point de colier, mais en échange elles ont des bracelets,
+       des bagues, et des pendans d'oreille, plus gros que tous ceux qu'on
+       voit en Hollande. Telle est la diversité des gouts des nations
+       différentes, en matière de beauté. Il y en a même quelques-unes,
+       qui attachent quelque beau joli bijou à leurs pendans d'oreilles,
+       quelque ornement de pierreries, par exemple, ou d'autres choses
+       semblables, selon leur quantité ou leur pouvoir."
+
+Elsewhere the Countess says: "Utensils of common metal are not employed
+here, but only those of silver or of ware. I hear that a little while
+ago, upon the death of the Duke of Alburquerque, six weeks were needed
+to make out an inventory of his gold and silver services. His house
+contained fourteen hundred dozen plates, five hundred large dishes, and
+seven hundred of a smaller size, with all the other pieces in
+proportion, and forty silver ladders for climbing his sideboard, made in
+grades like an altar in a spacious hall."
+
+These statements have been proved in later years. Dating from 1560, an
+inventory of the ducal house of Alburquerque was found not many years
+ago. In it we find the detailed list of gold and silver; cups and
+dishes, bowls and basins, plates and salt-cellars, trenchers, wine and
+water flagons, sauce-spoons, salad-spoons, conserve-spoons, and
+innumerable other articles. Here, too, we find, upon the mighty
+sideboard mounted by its forty silver stairs, such objects as the
+following:--
+
+"A gold cup with festoon-work above and beneath, wrought with leaves in
+relief. At the top of the foot there issue some leaves that fall down
+over a small gold staple, and below this, about the narrowest part of
+the foot, are leaves in relief and several dolphins. The broad part of
+the foot is decorated with festoons. The lid of this cup is wrought with
+leaves in relief, and on the crest thereof is a lion, crowned. The cup
+weighs three hundred and fifty-one _castellanos_ and a half."
+
+"A Castilian jar from which my lord the duke was wont to drink, weighing
+two marks and five ounces."[58]
+
+  [58] The mark was a standard of eight ounces, and was divided into fifty
+       _castellanos_.
+
+"A cup with a high foot, gilt all over, with the figure of a woman in
+its midst, and decorated in four places in the Roman manner."
+
+"A flagon of white silver, flat beneath the stem, with a screw-top
+surmounted by a small lion; for cooling water."
+
+"A small silver dish, of the kind they call meat-warmers."
+
+"A large silver seal for sealing provisions, with the arms of my lord
+the duke, Don Francisco."
+
+"A large silver vessel, embossed, with a savage on top."
+
+"A gold horse, enamelled in white upon a gold plate enamelled in green
+and open at the top; also a wolf, upon another gold plate enamelled in
+green, with lettering round about it; also a green enamelled lizard upon
+blue enamel; and a gold toothpick with four pieces enamelled in green,
+white, and rose; also a small gold column enamelled in black and rose."
+
+"A silver lemon-squeezer, gilt and chiselled, with white scroll-work
+about the mesh thereof, through which the lemon-juice is strained."
+
+"A large round silver salt-cellar, in two halves, gilt all over, with
+scales about the body, and two thick twisted threads about the flat
+part. One side of it is perforated."
+
+Among the property of the duchess, Doña Mencía Enriquez, we find "a
+small gold padlock, which opens and closes by means of letters"; two
+gold bangles; a gold necklace consisting of forty-two pieces "enamelled
+with some B's";[59] a gold signet ring with the duchess's arms; and "a
+gold and niello box with relics, for wearing round the neck." Also,
+resting on a table covered with silver plates, "a box of combs; the said
+box wrought in gold upon blue leather, containing five combs, a
+looking-glass, a little brush, and other fittings; girt with a cord in
+gold and blue silk."
+
+  [59] For Beltran de la Cueva, ancestor of this family.
+
+The seventeenth century and a race of native Spanish kings declined and
+passed away together. A dynasty of France succeeded to the throne of
+Spain, and with the foreigner came a fresh reactionary movement towards
+the neo-classic art, coupled with the canons of French taste. Henceforth
+a century of slow political reform goes hand in hand with slow
+suppression of the salient parts of Spanish character. Madrid transforms
+or travesties herself into a miniature Versailles, and national arts and
+crafts belong henceforward to a Frenchified society which found its
+painter in Goya, just as the preceding and eminently Spanish society had
+found its painter in Velazquez.
+
+Another of the causes of the falling-off in Spanish _orfebrería_ at this
+time, is stated to have been the craftsmen's overwhelming tendency to
+substitute the slighter though venerable and beautiful gold or silver
+filigree (Plate xviii.), for more artistic and ambitious, if less showy
+work in massive metal. Thus, in 1699, a supplementary chapter of the
+Ordinances of Seville complained in bitter phrases of this tendency,
+denouncing it as "a source of fraud and detriment to the republic," and
+deploring that "of the last few years we have forsaken our goodly usages
+of older times, in the matter of the drawings entrusted to the
+candidates who come before us for examination."
+
+In the same year the goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of Seville
+enacted that none of its members were to work in filigree, unless they
+were qualified to execute the other work as well. Such efforts to
+suppress this evil were not new. More than a century before, on April
+15th, 1567, the inspectors of the guild had entered the shop of Luis de
+Alvarado, silversmith, and seized some filigree earrings "of the work
+that is forbidden," breaking these objects on the spot, and imposing a
+fine of half-a-dozen ducats on the peccant or oblivious Alvarado.[60]
+
+  [60] Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. ii. p. 134.
+
+The modern gold and silver work of Spain is thus exempted from a lengthy
+notice, seeing that its typical and national characteristics have
+succumbed, or very nearly so. I may, however, mention the giant silver
+candelabra in the cathedral of Palma de Mallorca, which were made at
+Barcelona, between 1704 and 1718, by Juan Matons and three of his
+assistants. They measure eight feet high by four feet and a quarter
+across, weigh more than eight thousand ounces, and cost 21,942 pounds,
+15 _sueldos_, and 11 _dineros_ of Majorcan money. The State seized them
+during the Napoleonic wars, in order to melt them down for money; but
+the chapter of the cathedral bought them back for eleven thousand
+dollars.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+             EARLY CHALICE AND CROSS IN FILIGREE GOLD-WORK
+                   (_Church of Saint Isidore, León_)]
+
+During this century Riaño mentions several factories of silver articles
+established at Madrid, including that of Isaac and Michael Naudin (1772)
+and the Escuela de Platería (1778), protected by Charles the Third; but
+since the work of these was purely in the French or English manner, they
+call for no particular notice. The principal objects they produced were
+"inkstands, dishes, dinner-services, chocolate-stands, cruets, knives
+and forks, together with buckles, needle-cases, brooches, snuff-boxes,
+frames for miniatures, and similar trinkets."
+
+Early in the nineteenth century Laborde wrote that "the fabrication of
+articles of gold and silver might become an important object in a
+country where these metals abound; but it is neglected, and the demand
+is almost entirely supplied from foreign markets. What little they do in
+this branch at home is usually very ill executed, and exorbitantly dear.
+Madrid, however, begins to possess some good workmen; encouragement
+would increase their number and facilitate the means of improvement; but
+manual labour is there excessively dear. Hence the Spaniards prefer
+foreign articles of this kind, which, notwithstanding the expense of
+carriage, the enormous duties that they pay, and the profits of the
+merchants, are still cheaper than those made at home."
+
+Several of the inherent characteristics of the national _orfebrería_ may
+yet be noticed somewhat faintly in the ornaments and jewels of the
+Spanish peasants, though even these are being discarded. A century ago
+Laborde described the dress of the Mauregata women, near Astorga, in the
+kingdom of León. "They wear large earrings, a kind of white turban, flat
+and widened like a hat, and their hair parted on the forehead. They have
+a chemise closed over the chest, and a brown corset buttoned, with
+large sleeves opening behind. Their petticoats and veils are also brown.
+Over all they wear immense coral necklaces, which descend from the neck
+to the knee; they twist them several times round the neck, pass them
+over the shoulders, where a row is fastened, forming a kind of bandage
+over the bosom. Then another row lower than this; in short, a third and
+fourth row at some distance from each other. The last falls over the
+knee, with a large cross on the right side. These necklaces or chaplets
+are ornamented with a great many silver medals, stamped with the figure
+of saints. They only wear these decorations when not working, or on
+festivals."
+
+I have a manuscript account in French of Spanish regional costumes at
+the same period. The dress of the peasant women of Valencia is thus
+described: "Elle se coiffe toujours en cheveux, de la manière appelée
+_castaña_, et elle y passe une aiguille en argent que l'on nomme
+_rascamoño_; quelque fois elle se pare d'un grand peigne (_peineta_) en
+argent doré. Son cou este orné d'une chaine d'or ou d'argent (_cadena
+del cuello_) à laquelle est suspendue une croix ou un reliquaire." This
+was the Valencian peasant's dress for every day. On festivals the same
+woman would adorn her ears with "pendants (_arracadas_) de pierres
+fausses; mais lorsque la jardinière est riche, elles sont fines. Une
+relique (_relicario_) dans un petit médaillon en argent, est suspendue à
+son cou; ainsi qu'un chapelet très mince (_rosario_) en argent doré."
+
+The peasant women of Iviza, in the Balearics, are described in the same
+manuscript as wearing "un collier en verre, quelque fois en argent, et
+rarement en or"; while Laborde wrote of Minorca, another of these
+islands, that "the ladies are always elegantly adorned; their ornaments
+consist of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, and chaplets. _The
+peasants wear these also._" Of the women of Barcelona he said: "Silk
+stockings are very common in every class; and their shoes are
+embroidered with silk, gold, silver, pearls, and spangles."
+
+But Spain, like Italy or Switzerland, or many another country, is
+throwing off her regional costumes, of which these various jewels form a
+prominent and even an essential feature. More rarely now we come across
+the gold and seed-pearl necklaces of Salamanca, the Moorish filigree
+silver-work of Cordova, the silver-gilt necklaces of Santiago, and the
+heavy _arracadas_, hung with emeralds and sapphires, of Cataluña.
+Murcia, nevertheless, retains her Platería, a street of venerable aspect
+and associations, where to this hour the oriental-looking silver
+pendants of the neighbourhood are made and trafficked in.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                               IRON-WORK
+
+
+The ancient iron mines of Spain were no less celebrated than her mines
+of silver and of gold. Nevertheless, the history of Spanish iron-work
+begins comparatively late. Excepting certain swords and other weapons
+which require to be noticed under _Arms_, and owing to the commonness
+and cheapness of this metal, as well as to the ease with which it
+decomposes under damp, few of the earliest Spanish objects made of iron
+have descended to our time.[61] Even Riaño pays but little notice to
+this craft in the Peninsula before the second half of the fifteenth
+century. Henceforth, he says, "it continued to progress in the
+sixteenth, and produced, undoubtedly, at that period works which were
+unrivalled in Europe."
+
+  [61] A small collection, formed by Don Emilio Rotondo, of primitive iron
+       rings, bracelets, brooches, and other ornaments, is preserved in
+       the Schools of Aguirre at Madrid. Villa-amil y Castro
+       (_Antigüedades prehistóricas y célticas_, and _Castros y Mamoas de
+       Galicia_, published in the _Museo Español de Antigüedades_),
+       describes some iron objects of uncertain use discovered in Galicia,
+       together with spear-heads and other weapons or pieces of weapons
+       which will be noticed under _Arms_, and also an object which he
+       says may once have been a candlestick, or else a kind of flute. All
+       these are probably pre-Roman. Dating from the Roman period are an
+       iron ploughshare and some sickles, discovered at Ronda in
+       Andalusia, and now in the Madrid Museum. Góngora, however
+       (_Antigüedades prehistóricas de Andalucía_), inclines to think that
+       previous to the Roman conquest the occupants of Betica were
+       ignorant of this metal, though not of gold, from which they
+       fashioned diadems and other articles of wear. See also Caballero
+       Infante, _Aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados en el pueblo
+       de Santiponce_, Seville, 1898.
+
+The decorative iron-work of Spain may suitably be dealt with in three
+classes: railings, screens, or pulpits of churches, chapels, and
+cathedrals; balconies and other parts or fittings applied to public or
+private buildings of a non-ecclesiastical character; and smaller, though
+not necessarily less attractive or important objects, such as knockers,
+locks and keys, and nail-heads.
+
+The last of these divisions, as embracing Spanish-Moorish craftsmanship,
+shall have, as far as order is concerned, our preferential notice.
+
+Surely, in the whole domain of history, no object has a grander
+symbolism than the key. In mediæval times the keys of cities, castles,
+towns, and fortresses were held to be significant of ownership, or
+vigilance, or conquest. Especially was this the case in Spain--a nation
+incessantly engaged in war. Probably in no country in the world has the
+ceremony of delivering up this mark of tenure of a guarded and defended
+place occurred so often as here. Do we not read of it in stirring
+stanzas of her literature? Do we not find it in her paintings, on her
+stone and metal _rilievi_, or carved in wood upon the stalls of her
+cathedrals? Therefore the key, just like the sword, seemed, in the warm
+imagination of the Spaniards, to be something almost sacred. The
+legislative codes of Old Castile are most minute in their relation of
+its venerated attributes. Nor were the Spanish Muslims less alive to its
+importance than their foe, taking it also for an emblem of their own,
+and planting it in lordly eminence upon their gates and towers of
+Cordova, and Seville, and Granada. For what was Tarik's Mountain but the
+key of the narrow gate that led to their enchanted land, as sunny as,
+and yet less sultry than, their sandy home; truly a land of promise to
+the fiery children of the desert, panting for the paradise that smiled
+at them across the storied strip of emerald and sapphire water?
+
+So was it that both Moors and Spaniards made their keys of fortresses
+and citadels almost into an object of their worship. In hearing or in
+reading of such keys, the mind at once recurs to those of Seville (Plate
+xix.), two in number, famed throughout the world of mediæval art, and
+stored among the holiest relics in the sacristy of her cathedral. The
+larger is of silver, in the style now known as Mudejar, and dates from
+the second half of the thirteenth century. The length is rather more
+than eight inches, and the whole key is divided into five compartments,
+ornamented in enamels and in gold. Castles, ships, and lions adorn the
+thicker portion of the stem between the barrel proper and the handle;
+and on the rim of the latter is this inscription, in Hebrew
+characters:--
+
+"_The King of Kings will open; the king of all the land shall
+enter._"[62]
+
+  [62] Riaño's reading was, "_the King of the whole Earth will enter_."
+       But is not this contradicted by the other inscription on the same
+       key?
+
+The wards are also beautifully carved into the following legend,
+distributed in two rows, one superposed upon the other, of two words
+and of ten letters apiece:--
+
+               "_Dios abrirá; Rey entrará._"
+               "_God will open; the king shall enter._"
+
+The iron key is purely Moorish, smaller than its fellow, and measures
+just over six inches. Like the other, it consists of five divisions, and
+the wards are in the form of an inscription in African Cufic characters,
+which Gayangos and other Arabists have variously interpreted. Five of
+the commonest readings are as follows:--
+
+(1) "_May Allah permit that the rule (of Islam) last for ever in this
+city._"
+
+(2) "_By the grace of God may (this key) last for ever._"
+
+(3) "_May peace be in the King's mansion._"
+
+(4) "_May God grant us the boon of the preservation of the city._"
+
+(5) "_To God (belongs) all the empire and the power._"
+
+Our earliest tidings of this iron key are from the Jesuit Bernal, who
+wrote in the seventeenth century. It was not then the property of the
+cathedral chapter, for Ortiz de Zúñiga says that it belonged, in the
+same century, to a gentleman of Seville named Don Antonio Lopez de Mesa,
+who had inherited it from his father. Tradition declares that both this
+key and its companion were laid at the feet of Ferdinand the Third by
+Axataf, governor of Seville, when the city capitulated to the Christian
+prince on November 23rd, 1248. But Ortiz is careful to inform us that he
+neither countenances nor rejects the popular notion that the iron key
+was thus delivered as the token of surrender, "although," he says, "the
+owners of it are strongly of this judgment." What we do know is that on
+June 16th, 1698, the iron key was presented to the cathedral by Doña
+Catalina Basilia Domonte y Pinto, niece of the Señor Lopez de Mesa
+aforesaid; and that the chapter forthwith accepted it with solemn
+gratitude as "one of the keys delivered by the Moors to the Rey Santo on
+the conquest of the city," ordering it to be guarded in a special box.
+
+Such is the popular fancy still accepted by the Sevillanos. However,
+Amador de los Ríos has sifted out a good deal of the truth, showing that
+the iron and the silver key are wrought in different styles, and were
+intended for a different purpose. He places the iron instrument among
+the "keys of conquered cities," and its silver neighbour among the "keys
+of honour, or of dedication"; and he declares as certain (although the
+reasons he adduces do not quite convince me) that this iron key is
+actually the one which figured in the ceremony of surrender. The other
+he considers to have been a gift from the Sevillians to the tenth
+Alfonso, son of Ferdinand the saint and conqueror, as a loyal and a
+grateful offering in return for his protection of their industries and
+commerce. However this may be, the decorative aspect of the larger key,
+together with the choice material of which it is made, appears to prove
+that it was not associated with the rigours of a siege, but served in
+some way as a symbol of prosperity and peace. It was a common custom at
+a later age for Spanish cities to present their sovereign, when he came
+among them, with a richly ornamented key. Such keys were offered to
+Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second when, in 1526 and 1570,
+respectively, they visited Seville; while Riaño reminds us that "even in
+the present day the ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the
+foreign princes who stay at the royal palace of Madrid." Similarly, as
+an ordinary form of salutation, does the well-bred Spaniard place his
+house at your disposal.
+
+Five Moorish keys--one of bronze and four of iron--are in the Museum of
+Segovia, and bear, as Amador observes, a general resemblance to the iron
+key of Seville. The wards of four of them are shaped into the following
+inscriptions: the first key, "_In Secovia_ (Segovia)"; the second,
+"(_This_) _key was curiously wrought at Medina Huelma, God protect
+her_"; the third, "_Open_"; and the fourth, "_This work is by
+Abdallah._"
+
+The first and smallest of these keys informs us, therefore, that it was
+manufactured at Segovia. The third key is that which is of bronze, and
+bears the word "_Open_," probably addressed to Allah. The second, which
+is also the largest and the most artistic and ornate, belonged, we read
+upon its wards, to Huelma, a fortress-town upon the frontiers of the
+kingdom of Granada. This town was wrested from the Moors on April 20th,
+1438, by Iñigo Lopez de Mendoza, first Marquis of Santillana, who
+possibly sent this key to Castile as a present to his sovereign, Juan
+the Second, in company with the usual papers of capitulation.
+
+Other Moorish keys are scattered over Spain in various of her public and
+private collections, though none are so remarkable as those of Seville
+and Segovia. The town of Sepúlveda possesses seven early iron keys,
+several of which are Moorish. Others are at Burgos, Valencia, Palma,
+Jaen, and Granada. At the last-named city the following key, dating
+undoubtedly from the period of the Muslim domination, was discovered, in
+1901, among the débris of the Palace of Seti Meriem.[63]
+
+  [63] _La Alhambra_ (from which this sketch is taken) for September 30th,
+       1901; article on the Palace of Seti Meriem, by F. de Paula
+       Valladar.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Keys of awe-inspiring magnitude are still preferred among the Spaniards
+to a handier and slighter instrument, this people seeming to believe
+that the bigger the key the more inviolable is the custody which it
+affords--a theory not at all upheld by modern experts in this venerable
+craft. Perhaps this singular and local preference is derived from
+Barbary. At any rate it still obtains across the Strait. "Our host,"
+wrote Mr Cunninghame Graham in _Mogreb-El-Acksa_, "knocks off great
+pieces from a loaf of cheap French sugar with the key of the house,
+drawing it from his belt and hammering lustily, as the key weighs about
+four ounces, and is eight or nine inches long." Of such a length are
+nearly all the house-keys of contemporary Spain; and with this apparatus
+bulging in his belt the somnolent _sereno_ or night-watchman of this
+sleepy, unprogressive, Latino-Mussulmanic land prowls to this hour along
+the starlit streets of Barcelona, Seville, or Madrid.
+
+The city Ordinances of Granada form a valuable and interesting link
+between the Spanish-Moorish craftsmanship and that of Spaniards
+Christian-born. The _Ordenanzas de Cerrageros_, or Locksmiths'
+Ordinances, though not voluminous, are curious and informative beyond
+the rest, and show us that a general rascality was prevalent in Granada
+after her reconquest from the Moor. Locksmiths were forbidden now to
+make a lock the impression of which was put into their hands in wax,
+even if the order should be sweetened by "a quantity of maravedis,"
+since the effect of such commissions, whose very secrecy betrayed
+illicit and improper ends in view, was stated to be "very greatly
+perilous and mischief-making."
+
+Another Ordinance reveals the Christian locksmiths of Granada as arrant
+scoundrels, almost as troublesome to deal with as the pestering little
+shoeblacks of to-day. "Word is brought us," groaned the aldermen, "how
+many locksmiths, foreigners that dwell within this city as well as
+naturals that go up and down our thoroughfares, in taking locks and
+padlocks to repair, do, at the same time that they set the keys in
+order, contrive to fit them with new wards inferior to the older ones,
+so as to be able to open and close them with the keys they have
+themselves in store, wherein is grave deceitfulness, seeing that the
+aforesaid locks and padlocks may be opened in such wise without a key at
+all."[64]
+
+  [64] _Ordenanzas de Granada_, p. 191.
+
+If we except the vast dimensions of the common keys of houses, this
+branch of Spanish craftsmanship has now no quality to point it from the
+rest of Europe, having become, in Riaño's words, "simply practical and
+useful." Laborde observed in 1809 that "locks and various iron utensils
+are made in divers places. Locksmiths are numerous at Vega de Ribadeo in
+Galicia, at Helgoivar in Biscay, at Vergara in Guipuscoa, at Solsona and
+Cardona in Catalonia. Different kinds of iron goods are manufactured at
+Vergara, Solsona, and Cardona. The articles made of iron and steel at
+Solsona are in high estimation, notwithstanding they are destitute of
+taste and elegance, badly finished, and worse polished; and can by no
+means be put in competition with similar articles introduced from other
+countries."[65]
+
+  [65] Those of my readers who have visited Spain will probably have seen
+       the inlaid iron-work of Eibar and Toledo. The objects chiefly
+       manufactured in this style are brooches, bracelets, scarf and hat
+       pins, photograph frames, jewel and trinket boxes, watches, and
+       cigarette cases. The workmanship is often elaborate and costly, nor
+       can it be denied that the red or greenish gold has an effective
+       look against the jet-black surface of the polished or unpolished
+       iron. Upon the other hand, the taste displayed in the design is
+       seldom good; while in a climate with the slightest tendency to
+       damp, the iron is apt to rust and tarnish, and the fine inlay to
+       loosen.
+
+Iron nails with ornamented heads and decorative door-knockers are other
+objects which reveal the influence of Mohammedan Spain. A number of
+artistic Spanish nails are in the South Kensington Museum. "Some doors,"
+says Riaño, "still exist at the Alhambra, Granada, covered with enormous
+heads of nails of a half-spherical form with embossed pattern. These
+same nails are constantly to be found on old Spanish houses, to which
+are added in the angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order" (Pl.
+xix.A). In the same city, though not precisely in the Alhambra, I
+have seen upon the doors of private houses nails of a decorative kind
+which appear to consist of a single piece, but which are really formed
+of two--an ornamental boss perforated through its centre, and the nail
+proper, which fastens through it to the woodwork of the door behind.
+Thus, when the nail is hammered tight upon the boss, the effect is
+naturally that of a single piece of metal. Similar nails are on the door
+of Tavera's hospital at Toledo.
+
+                          [Illustration: XIX_a_
+                         DECORATIVE NAIL-HEADS
+                  (_Convent of San Antonio, Toledo_)]
+
+The _Ordenanzas_ of Granada tell us minutely of the nails which were
+produced there in the sixteenth century. They were denominated
+_cabriales_, _costaneros_, _palmares_, _bolayques_, _vizcainos_,
+sabetinos, and _moriscos_; of all of which I can only find that the
+_cabriales_ and _costaneros_ were used for beams and rafters, and the
+_moriscos_ for fixing horse-shoes. In Spain the custom of fastening down
+the decorative coverings of chairs or benches dates from comparatively
+late; and it was probably with this innovation that iron-workers began
+to exercise their ingenuity upon the heads of nails.
+
+Towards the close of the Middle Ages the city of Segovia was celebrated
+for her locks and keys, her knockers, and her _rejas_. In 1892,
+collections of iron objects, chiefly manufactured in this town, were
+shown by the duke of Segovia, Don Nicolás Duque, and Don Adolfo Herrera
+at the Exposición Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Segovia still preserves
+an old door covered with extraordinary iron spikes, that once belonged
+to the castle of Pedraza; many curious balconies, such as that in a
+first floor of the Calle del Carmen; and the grilles--proceeding from
+the old cathedral--of the chapel of the Cristo del Consuelo and the
+chapel of the Piedad.
+
+Another interesting collection of early decorative Spanish iron,
+belonging to the well-known painter, Señor Rusiñol, is kept at the town
+of Sitjes, in Cataluña. The late Marquis of Arcicollar possessed a
+number of specimens of Spanish manufactured iron of the later Middle
+Ages, such as boxes, candelabra, locks, nails, door-knockers,
+_braseros_, and a rare and curious iron desk (fourteenth century), with
+leather fittings.
+
+The collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan included four
+door-knockers of Spanish iron, dating from late in the fifteenth century
+or early in the sixteenth. I give a reproduction of these knockers (Pl.
+xx.). The two which occupy the centre are evidently from a sacred
+building; while the other pair are just as evidently _señoriales_, and
+belonged to a noble house. In the former pair, the clumsy carving of the
+saints, Peter and James, is attributed by Serrano Fatigati to the native
+coarseness of the iron.
+
+                            [Illustration: XX
+                             DOOR-KNOCKERS
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+Proceeding from the same collection are a pair of ceremonial maces and a
+ceremonial lantern, which I also reproduce (Pl. xxi.), since the Spanish
+writer from whom I have just quoted pronounces them to be "excellent
+specimens of the iron-work of our country at the close of the Middle
+Ages." He says that, as we notice in the pinnacles, they show a tendency
+to copy architectural detail, and are otherwise characteristic of the
+period. Towards the fourteenth century the file replaced the hammer, and
+the sheet of iron was substituted for the bar. These objects, dating
+from the fifteenth century, duly reveal this change. Also, as was usual
+at the time, they are composed of separate pieces stoutly riveted. In
+the knockers with the figures of the saints "we notice the partial use
+of the chisel, which became general in the sixteenth century, at the
+same time that iron objects were loaded with images, forms of animals,
+and other capricious figures. These may be said to belong to a period
+of transition, culminating in the _rejas_."[66]
+
+  [66] Serrano Fatigati, in the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+       Excursiones_.
+
+The Madrid Museum contains a sixteenth-century cross of _repoussé_ iron,
+in the Greek form, and which is certainly of Spanish make. According to
+Villa-amil, it formerly had a gilded border and was painted black, which
+leads this writer to suppose that it was used at funerals. Iron crosses
+may be seen occasionally on churches and on other public buildings, and
+Stirling has inserted cuts of several in his _Annals of the Artists of
+Spain_. Crosses of large size were sometimes planted on the highway.
+Such was the elaborate but ugly iron cross, measuring three yards in
+height, made by Sebastian Conde in 1692 for the Plazuela de la
+Cerrajeriá in Seville, and now preserved in her Museum.
+
+The iron balustrade or _verja_ of the marble tomb of Cardinal Cisneros
+is finely wrought in Plateresque-Renaissance, with elaborate designs of
+gryphons, foliage, urns, birds, masks, sheep's heads, swans, coats of
+arms, dolphins, and other ornament in great profusion. The craftsman was
+Nicolás de Vergara the elder. Lesser in size, though not less
+striking in its execution, is the railing, by Francisco de Villalpando,
+which surrounds the _Altar de Prima_ in the choir of Toledo Cathedral.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                      CEREMONIAL MACES AND LANTERN
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+"Iron pulpits," says Riaño, "have been made in Spain with great
+success." He mentions five: two in Avila Cathedral (Plate xxii.); two at
+Seville; and one at the church of San Gil at Burgos. The latter is
+described by Street, who says: "It is of very late date, end of the
+fifteenth century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. The
+support is of iron, resting on stone, and the staircase modern. The
+framework at the angles, top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the
+iron-work is laid. The traceries are cut out of two plates of iron, laid
+one over the other, and the iron-work is in part gilded, but I do not
+think that this is original. The canopy is of the same age and
+character, and the whole effect is very rich at the same time that it is
+very novel. I saw other pulpits, but none so old as this."
+
+The iron pulpits of Salamanca, "covered with bas-reliefs representing
+the Evangelists and subjects taken from the Acts of the Apostles and the
+apocalypse," were made at the same time as the _reja_ by Fray Francisco
+de Zalamea or Salamanca, Fray Juan, and other artists. The two at Avila
+are stationed one on either side of the Capilla Mayor, and are of gilded
+iron, hexagonal in form, and measuring about ten feet in height.
+Gryphons or other beasts support the pulpit on its stem or column. The
+body of each pulpit bears the arms of the cathedral, namely, the _Agnus
+Dei_, a lion, and a castle--the whole surmounted by a crown--and is
+divided lengthways by a central band into a double tier, closed by a
+richly decorated cornice at the upper and the lower border. Otherwise
+the pulpits are quite dissimilar. In one the decorative scheme is almost
+purely geometrical, while in the other it consists of foliage, birds and
+beasts, and niches containing statuettes of saints. The stair-railings
+are modern; but the primitive carving still adorns the end of every
+step.[67]
+
+  [67] For a detailed account of these pulpits see Villa-amil y Castro's
+       article in the _Museo Español de Antigüedadess_.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXII
+                              IRON PULPIT
+                          (_Avila Cathedral_)]
+
+We do not know who was the maker of these pulpits. Some believe him to
+have been a certain Juan Francés, to whom our notice will again be
+called as figuring among the earliest masters of this eminently Spanish
+craft, and who, on strongish evidence, is thought to be the author of
+the _rejas_ in the same cathedral which enclose the choir, and the
+front and sides of the Capilla Mayor. This is the only reason for
+supposing him to have made the pulpits also. One of these, however, is
+in the Flamboyant, and the other in the Renaissance style; so it may
+well be doubted whether both were produced by the same hand, or even at
+exactly the same period.[68]
+
+  [68] Payments made to "Master Juan Francés" are recorded by Zarco del
+       Valle, _Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes
+       en España_, pp. 320, 321.
+
+It is, however, in the _rejas_ that the craftsmanship of older Spain
+attains its loftiest pinnacle. They consist, says Banister Fletcher, of
+"rich and lofty grilles in hammered and chiselled iron ... strongly
+characteristic of the national art. The formality of the long and
+vertical bars is relieved by figures beaten in _repoussé_, in
+duplicates, attached back to back, and by crestings and traceries
+adapted to the material, and freely employed. Few things in Spain are
+more original and artistic."[69]
+
+  [69] _History of Architecture_, p. 303. They possess, too, the
+       advantage, from their ponderous solidity and fixedness, that most
+       of them are still extant and in the best of preservation, although
+       Napoleon's Vandals rooted up the chapel _rejas_ of the Church of
+       Santo Domingo at Granada, and turned them into bullets; just as
+       their general, Sebastiani, threw down the tower of San Jerónimo to
+       make a trumpery bridge across the trickling stream of the Genil.
+       Scores of thousands of such crimes, not to forget the blowing up
+       of the gate and tower of the Siete Suelos, were perpetrated by the
+       French all over Spain; yet Washington Irving, in a strangely
+       infelicitous passage of his _Tales of the Alhambra_, congratulates
+       the invaders for their reverential treatment of the noblest
+       monuments of Spanish art!
+
+The _reja_ generally was not, as many have supposed, of late invention.
+It existed from the earliest days of Christianity; but it was only in
+the Gothic and Renaissance ages that Spain converted it into a vehicle
+for decorative art. The growth of these ornamental _rejas_ may be traced
+in cities of Old Castile, together with Seville, Salamanca, Cuenca, and
+Toledo. Spain, it is idle to observe, was at no moment so appreciative
+of her craftsmen as was Italy, so that our information as to mediæval
+Spanish craftsmen and the process of their lives and labours is, upon
+the whole, deplorably deficient. Nevertheless, among the oldest of her
+artists known in Spanish as _rejeros_, or (a finer and more venerable
+term) _"reja_-masters"--_maestros de rexas_--appears Juan Francés,
+working in 1494 in Toledo Cathedral and, in the same capacity (for he
+seems to have been an armourer besides, and to have held the title of
+"master-maker of iron arms in Spain")[70] at Alcalá de Henares, as well
+as, in 1505, at Osma, in whose cathedral he made the _rejas_ of the
+choir and high chapel.[71]
+
+  [70] So, in Spain, does war appear to have been connected even with the
+       peaceful _reja_. Similarly, in 1518, the contractors for the grille
+       of the Chapel Royal of Granada were Juan Zagala and Juan de
+       Cubillana, "master-artillerymen to their highnesses." Valladar,
+       _Guía de Granada_, 1st ed., p. 302, note.
+
+  [71] A quaint but somewhat tautological and prosy letter
+       concerning matters of his craft, addressed by Francés to the
+       cardinal-archbishop of Toledo, is published in the _Museo Español
+       de Antigüedades_, article _Los Púlpitos de la Catedral de Avila_,
+       by Villa-amil y Castro. The _reja_ of the presbytery at Burgo de
+       Osma is thus inscribed: "_Izo esta obra maestre Joan Francés
+       maestre mayor._" The top consists of repetitions of a shield
+       containing five stars and supported by angels, lions, and gryphons.
+       Two iron pulpits project from the lower part of the grille, and a
+       swan of the same metal, with extended wings, rests upon either
+       pulpit.
+
+Although the craftsman's name has rarely been recorded, we know that
+excellent _rejería_ was made at Barcelona in the fifteenth century. Also
+dating from the fifteenth century, and therefore prior to the
+Plateresque, is the _reja_, ornamented with leaves and figures of
+centaurs and other creatures, mythical and real, enclosing the sepulchre
+of the Anayas in the old cathedral of Salamanca. During the first
+quarter of the sixteenth century much work in decorative _rejería_ was
+completed in Seville Cathedral by Fernando Prieto, Fray Francisco de
+Salamanca,[72] Sancho Muñoz, Diego de Adrobo, and others (_vide_
+Frontispiece). Taught by these, while yet belonging to a slightly later
+time, and linking in this way the riper and decadent Gothic with the new
+Renaissance and the Plateresque, were Pedro de Andino, Antonio de
+Palencia, and Juan Delgado. Rosell observes that without doubt these
+artists, excepting only Juan Francés--the pioneer of them all--were
+Spanish-born; and they in their turn were succeeded by other Spaniards
+who worked most regularly at Toledo; such as Bartolomé Rodriguez, Luis
+de Peñafiel, and Francisco de Silva.
+
+  [72] A Dominican friar, summoned to Seville in 1518, to make her
+       cathedral _rejas_. He also made the pulpits of the high altar in
+       1531, and was working in this city as late as 1547. Account-sheets
+       penned by his hand were still extant a century ago, and Cean
+       conveys to us some knowledge of Fray Francisco, receiving as the
+       wages of his labour, now a score or so of ducats, now a bushel or
+       two of corn. The friar, whom the canons spoke of with affection for
+       his many virtues, seems to have been a handy man, seeing that
+       between his spells of _reja_-making he put the clock of the Giralda
+       into trim, and built an alarum apparatus to rouse the cathedral
+       bell-ringer at early morning.
+
+       For the sums paid to Fray Francisco and to Sancho Muñoz for their
+       work, see Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. ii.
+       pp. 365 _et seq._
+
+An excellent _rejero_ named Hernando de Arenas completed the grille of
+Cuenca Cathedral in 1557. Three years before, a Cordovese, Fernando de
+Valencia, had made the intricate Renaissance _reja_ of the Chapel of the
+Asunción in the mosque of that most ancient capital--a noble piece of
+work, which still exists. Other _rejeros_ who were either natives of, or
+who resided in, this city were Pedro Sanchez, Alonso Perez, Pedro
+Sanchez Cardenosa, Francisco Lopez, Juan Martinez Cano, and Diego de
+Valencia.
+
+One of these men, Alonso Perez, a native of Jaen, contracted, on April
+13th, 1576, to make the _rejas_ of the Capilla Mayor in the church of
+the convent of the Trinity at Cordova. He was to finish them within one
+year, at a cost of fifty-one _maravedis_ for every pound of iron, of
+sixteen ounces to the pound. Ramírez de Arellano, who has extracted
+these notices of Cordovese artists from the city archives[73], says that
+the _reja_ in question is no longer standing; but a document of the time
+informs us that it was of an elaborate character, and carried
+architraves, cornices, and the usual decorative detail of the Spanish
+Renaissance.
+
+  [73] Consult his valuable studies, _Artistas exhumados_, published in
+       various numbers of the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+       Excursionistas_.
+
+In 1593 Pedro Sanchez agreed to make, within four years, a grille for
+the old chapel of the Concepción, also in Cordova, at a cost of
+forty-nine maravedis for every pound of iron that the finished _reja_
+should contain; and a year later the same artist signed a contract for
+what is thought to be his masterpiece--the _reja_ of the chapel of the
+Holy Cross, in the nave of the _sagrario_ of the same temple. The
+stipulated time was two years only; but the cost amounted in this
+instance to one hundred maravedis for every pound of the completed
+_reja_.
+
+Marvels of power and of patience are among the _rejas_ of this land. In
+them, obedient to the genius of the craftsman, the ponderous metal
+assumes the gossamer lightness of the finest gauze, now seeming to be
+breathed rather than built across the entrance to some side-chapel, now
+tapering skyward till we fancy it to melt away, like vapour, on the
+surface of the lofty roof. Such are the screens--which here demand a
+brief description--of Toledo and Palencia and Granada; that of Cuenca,
+where Arenas plied his master-hand; and, first in merit of them all,
+the peerless _reja_, royal in magnificence and faultless taste, that
+closes in at Burgos the no less royal-looking chapel of a Count of Haro,
+sometime Constable of all Castile.
+
+The _reja_ of the Capilla Mayor of Toledo Cathedral is twenty-one feet
+high by forty-six in breadth. "Armies of workmen," wrote Méndez Silva,
+referring to this screen and to its neighbour, that of the _coro_, "were
+toiling at them for ten years, nor would their cost have been greater
+had they been of founded silver." The cost of which he speaks was more
+than a quarter of a million _reales_, although the workmen's daily wage
+was only two _reales_ and a half, or, in the case of the particularly
+skilled, four _reales_.
+
+The author of this admirable screen was Francisco de Villalpando, whose
+plans and estimate were approved by Cardinal Tavera in 1540. "The _reja_
+consists of two tiers resting on different kinds of marble. Attic
+columns ornamented with handsome _rilievi_ and terminated by bronze
+caryatides, divide these tiers into several spaces. The upper tier is
+formed by seven columns of ornate pattern, containing, on a frieze of
+complicated tracery, figures of animals and angels, and other
+delicately drawn and executed objects in relief. Upon the cornice are
+coats of arms, angels, and other decoration; and in the centre, the
+imperial arms of Charles the Fifth, together with a large crucifix
+pendent from a massive gilded chain. On the frieze of the second tier
+are the words, ADORATE DOMINUM IN ATRIO SANCTO EJUS KALENDAS APRILIS
+1548, and on the inner side, PLUS ULTRA." [74]
+
+  [74] Rosell y Torres; _La Reja de la Capilla del Condestable en la
+       Catedral de Burgos_, published in the _Museo Español de
+       Antigüedades_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                         _REJA_ OF CHAPEL ROYAL
+                         (_Granada Cathedral_)]
+
+The other of the larger _rejas_ in this temple--that of the choir--is
+not inferior in a great degree to Villalpando's masterpiece. It was made
+by "Maestre" Domingo (de Céspedes),[75] who, in his estimate of June
+18th, 1540, engaged to finish it at a total cost of 5000 ducats, "he to
+be given the necessary gold and silver for the plating" (_Archives of
+Toledo Cathedral_, quoted by Rosell). This Maestre Domingo was
+aided by his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo, and both of them, says de la
+Rada y Delgado, were probably natives of Toledo.[76] In the same city
+they also made the _rejas_ for the Baptismal Chapel, and for the chapels
+of the Reyes Viejos and Reyes Nuevos.
+
+  [75] He is called Domingo de Céspedes by Cean Bermudez, although, as
+       Zarco del Valle remarks, the surname does not appear in any of the
+       documents relating to this craftsman which are yet preserved in the
+       archives of Toledo cathedral. These documents merely tell us that
+       Domingo was his Christian name, that his own signature was _Maestre
+       Domingo_, and that he and Fernando Bravo were required to find
+       surety to the value of 375,000 _maravedis_ for the faithful and
+       expert performance of their work, which they were to complete
+       within two years, receiving for it the sum of six thousand ducats.
+
+  [76] Conde de Cedillo, _Toledo en el Siglo XVI_. Reply to the Count's
+       address, by J. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXIV
+                         _REJA_ OF CHAPEL ROYAL
+               (_View from interior. Granada Cathedral_)]
+
+Excellent Plateresque _rejas_ are those of the Capilla Mayor and Coro of
+Palencia Cathedral--the latter from the hand of Gaspar Rodriguez of
+Segovia, who finished it in 1571 at a cost of 3400 ducats. In the same
+city is the _reja_ of the chapel of Nuestra Señora la Blanca, finished
+in 1512 by Juan Relojero, a Palencian, who received for his labour
+25,000 _maravedis_ and a load and a half of wheat.
+
+The noble and colossal gilt and painted[77] _reja_ of the Chapel Royal
+of Granada Cathedral was wrought between the years 1518 and 1523 by one
+Master Bartholomew, whose name is near the keyhole. This was a person of
+obscure life though mighty powers as a craftsman. We know that he
+resided at Jaen, and, from a document which still remains,[78] that he
+petitioned Charles the Fifth for payment (sixteen hundred ducats) of
+this grille, because the clergy had continually refused to liquidate it.
+He made, besides the work I herewith describe, the _reja_ of the
+presbytery for Seville cathedral,[79] and possibly, as Sentenach
+suggests, the iron tenebrarium, ten feet high by five across, for the
+cathedral of Jaen.
+
+  [77] The painting of a _reja_ was commonly executed by the
+       "image-painter" (_pintor de imaginería_). As the term implies, it
+       was this artist's business to gild or colour sacred furniture,
+       such as altars, panels, images, and decorative doors and ceilings.
+
+  [78] Archives of Simancas. _Descargos de las R.C._; _Legajo 23 prov._
+       Valladar, _Guía de Granada_ (1st ed.), p. 302, note.
+
+  [79] "To Master Bartholomew, _rexero_, twenty gold ducats for the days
+       he took in travelling from Jaen, and for those on which he was at
+       work upon the _reja_ of the high altar here in Seville." On
+       March 18th, 1524, the same craftsman was paid 13,125 _maravedis_
+       for making the "samples and other things belonging to the _reja_
+       of the high altar."--_Libro de Fábrica_ of Seville Cathedral.
+       Gestoso, _Sevilla Monumental y Artística_, and _Diccionario de
+       Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. xi. p. 362.
+
+The _reja_ of the Chapel Royal of Granada, "of two faces, the finest
+that was ever made of this material," [80] has three tiers. "The first
+tier contains six Corinthian pilasters and a broad frieze covered with
+Plateresque ornamentation, as are the pedestals on which the pilasters
+rest. In the second tier are the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella within
+a garland supported by two lions, and other crowns together with the
+yoke and arrows;[81] all intertwined with stems, leaves, and little
+angels of an exquisite effect. Before the pilasters of this tier and of
+the one immediately above it are figures of the apostles on Gothic
+brackets--a style we also notice on the fastening of the gate and on the
+twisted railing; but every other detail of the grille is Plateresque.
+Upon the top are scenes of martyrdoms and of the life of Christ, the
+whole surmounted by a decorative scheme of leaves and candelabra, and,
+over this, a crucifix together with the figures of the Virgin and Saint
+John. The designing of the figures is only moderately good, but all
+remaining detail and the craftsmanship are admirable" [82] (Plates
+xxiii. and xxiv.).
+
+  [80] Pedraza, _Historia de Granada_ (1636), p. 40.
+
+  [81] The yoke and sheaf of arrows were the emblems of these princes--the
+       yoke, of Ferdinand; the arrows, of his queen. Shields of their
+       reign, whether employed in architecture or on title-pages, almost
+       invariably include these emblems and the well-known motto,
+       _Tanto Monta_.
+
+  [82] Gómez Moreno, _Guía de Granada_, p. 291.
+
+Last on my list of Spanish _reja_-makers I place the greatest and most
+honoured of them all--Cristóbal de Andino, who, as a modern writer has
+expressed it, "uttered the last word in the matter of giving shape to
+iron." Cristóbal, son of Pedro de Andino--himself an artist of no mean
+capacity--excelled in architecture, sculpture, _rejería_, and probably
+in silver-work as well. "Good craftsmen," wrote his contemporary, Diego
+de Sagredo, "and those who wish their work to breathe the spirit of
+authority and pass without rebuke, should follow--like your
+fellow-townsman, Cristóbal de Andino--ancient precepts, in that his
+works have greater elegance and beauty than any others that I witnessed
+heretofore. If this (you think) be not the case, look at that _reja_ he
+is making for my lord the Constable, which _reja_ is well known to be
+superior to all others of this kingdom."
+
+Such is the _reja_ thought, both then and now, to be the finest ever
+made. The style is pure Renaissance. Two tiers of equal height consist
+of four-and-twenty ornamented rails or balusters disposed, above,
+between four columns; below, between four pilasters. An attic is upon
+the cornice, and contains two central, semi-naked, kneeling figures
+which support a large, crowned shield. This is surmounted by a bust of
+God the Father, enclosed in a triangular frame, and raising the hand to
+bless. On either side of the attic are S-shaped crests sustaining
+circular medallions with the likenesses, in bold relief, of Christ and
+Mary. Along the friezes are the legends; EGO SUM ALPHA ET [Greek:
+omega]; EGO SUM LUX VERA; and ECCE ANCILLA DOMINI, together with the
+words, referring to the artist, AB ANDINO, and the date A.D. MDXXIII.
+The decorative scheme is spirited and delicate at once, whether we
+observe it on the railing, pilasters, and columns, or on the horizontal
+parts and members of the _reja_. The attic which surmounts the double
+tier and cornice is finally surmounted by a gilt Saint Andrew's cross;
+and the entire screen is lavishly painted and gilded throughout.
+
+Here is a thing--almost a being--created out of iron, so intensely
+lovely that the eye would wish to contemplate it to the end of time;
+and, as we linger in its presence, if perchance the dead are privileged
+to hear their earthly praises echoed in the silence of the tomb, surely
+from his marble sepulchre Cristóbal de Andino listens to such praises at
+this hour. For yonder, in the neighbouring parish church of San Cosmé,
+beside a wife devoted and well-loved the great artificer is laid to
+rest, where Latin words (although of idle purport while the _reja_ of
+the Constable remains) are deep engraved to thus remind us of his
+worth:--
+
+               CHRISTOPHORUS ANDINO EGREGIUS
+               ARTIFEX ET IN ARCHITECTURA OMNIUM
+               SUI SECULI FACILE PRINCEPS
+               MONUMENTUM SIBI PONENDUM LE
+               GAVIT ET CATERINA FRIAS EJUS
+               UXOR HONESTISSIMA STATIM MARITI
+               VOTIS ET SUIS SATISFACIENDUM B
+               ENIGNE CHRISTIANEQUE CURAVIT URNAM CU
+               JUS LAPIDES SOLUM AMBORUM OSSA TEGUNT
+               SED ADMONET ETIAM CERTIS ANNUI HE
+               BDOMADE CUJUSQUE DIEBUS SACRIFICIA
+               PRO EIS ESSE PERPETUO FACIENDA
+
+But if these splendid _rejas_ of her temples constitute to-day a special
+glory of this nation, her private balconies and window-gratings were in
+former times, though from profaner motives, almost or quite as notable.
+Between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries, few of the
+foreigners who visited Spain omitted to record their admiration of these
+balconies, crowded upon a holiday with pretty women. "Il y avoit," wrote
+Bertaut de Rouen in 1659, "autant de foule à proportion qu'à Paris; et
+mesme ce qu'il y avoit de plus beau, c'estoit que comme il y avoit des
+balcons à toutes les fenestres et qu'elles estoient occupées par
+toutes les dames de la ville, cela faisoit un plus bel effet que les
+échaffauts que l'on fait dans les rues de Paris en semblables
+rencontres."
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                                 _REJA_
+                     (_Casa de Pilatos, Seville_)]
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga, in his queer _Pincigraphia_, or "Description and
+Natural and Moral History of Valladolid," written earlier in the same
+century, and published twenty years ago by Gayangos from a manuscript in
+the British Museum, is more plain-spoken than the Frenchman on the
+various merits and peculiarities of the Spanish balconies and _rejas_.
+"All of these churches have the most beautiful iron balustrades and iron
+open-work doors (_cancelas_) that can be found in Europe, for nowhere is
+iron worked so skilfully as here in Valladolid. These objects are made
+by the Moriscos with turned balusters, foliage, boughs, fruits,
+war-material, trophies, and other contrivances, which afterwards they
+gild and silver into the very likeness of these metals. I say the same
+of window-balconies; for nearly every window has its balcony. There are
+in Valladolid houses up which one might clamber to the very roof from
+balcony to balcony, as though these were a hand-ladder. So too from
+balcony to balcony (for the distance from one to other is never greater
+than a palm's breadth) one might climb round the whole Plaza. By reason
+of this, we Portuguese were wont to say that if there were as many
+thieves or lovers in Valladolid as in Portugal, verily both one and
+other of this kind of folks would have but little need of hand-ladders.
+Yet here the thieves content themselves with stealing by the light of
+day, while as for the women (crafty creatures that they are!), they
+perpetrate their thefts away from home; and, having all the day at their
+disposal, prefer to thieve while daylight lasts, rather than pass the
+night uncomfortably. To this I heard a lady of Castile declare, when one
+of my friends, a Portuguese, petitioned her for leave to speak with her
+at night across her _reja_: 'That would be tantamount to passing from
+one _hierro_ to another _yerro_;[83] and in my house (which is also your
+worship's) it would not look well for you to seem a window-climbing
+thief.'"
+
+  [83] _Hierro_ means _iron_; _yerro_, a _fault, faux pas_. Thus glossed,
+       the somewhat feeble pleasantry or pun is able to explain itself.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXVI
+                  _REJA_ OF THE _CASA DE LAS CONCHAS_
+                             (_Salamanca_)]
+
+It is curious, in the foregoing narrative, to read of Morisco craftsmen
+working as late as 1600, and as far north as Castile. Perhaps the notice
+of Moriscos doing Spanish iron-work may be traced to certain
+Ordinances of Granada, published about three-quarters of a century
+before. On October 14th, 1522, the councillors of that town confabulated
+very lengthily and seriously as to the damage caused by "balconies and
+_rejas_ in the streets, fixed in the basements and the lower rooms of
+houses, or projecting portals which extend beyond the level of the wall.
+For we have witnessed, and do witness daily, numerous mishaps to
+wayfarers, alike on horseback and on foot, whether by day or night,
+because the highways, narrow in themselves, are rendered yet more narrow
+by such balconies and _rejas_. Whereas in winter persons seeking to
+escape the filth by keeping to the wall are thwarted, or at night-time
+injured, by these _rejas_. Or yet in summer, when the waters swell, and
+conduits burst and overflow the middle of the street, then neither can
+they keep the middle of the way, nor pass aside (by reason of the
+balconies aforesaid) to its edges."
+
+Having regard to all these grievances, the councillors decreed that
+"none of whatsoever order or condition shall dare henceforth to place,
+or cause to be placed, about the lower floors or entrance of their
+dwelling, _rejas_ or iron balconies, or anything projecting much or
+little from the level of the wall. But all projections shall be set
+three yards, not any less, above the street. If not so much, they shall
+be set within the wall, on pain of a fine of ten thousand _maravedis_,
+and five thousand _maravedis_ to the mason and the carpenter that shall
+repair their fixing. Further, we order that all balconies and _rejas_
+now at a height of less than the aforesaid three yards be taken away
+within three days from the crying in public of these Ordinances."[84]
+
+  [84] These laws affecting balconies were not, or not as time went on,
+       restricted to Granada. "Nobody," prescribes the general Spanish
+       code in force in 1628, "shall make a balcony or oversailing part
+       to fall upon the street, nor yet rebuild or repair any that shall
+       fall."--Pradilla, _Suma de Todas las Leyes Penales, Canonicas,
+       Civiles, y destos Reynos_.
+
+For this deplorable state of things a double influence was to blame;
+namely, the oriental narrowness of the street, and also the elaborate
+ornamentation, proceeding very largely from a northern Gothic and
+non-Spanish source, of these annoying yet impressive gratings. Some of
+them, sweeping the very soil, and boldly and fantastically curved, may
+yet be seen at Toro. Those of Granada are no more. Indeed, not only have
+the _rejas_ of the Spanish private house long ceased to show the
+decorative cunning of the craftsman, but even in their present
+unartistic form are largely limited to Andalusia. Yet even thus, they
+seem to guard a typical and national air, mixed with a subtle,
+semi-Mussulmanic poetry. Across them, while the term of courtship lasts,
+the lover whispers with his mistress, oblivious of the outer world,
+fixing his gaze within, until his sultaness emerges from the gloom, and
+holds his hand, and looks into his eyes, and listens to his vow.
+Therefore, in "April's ivory moonlight," beneath the velvet skies of
+Andalusia, one always is well pleased to pass beside these children of
+romantic Spain, warming the frigid iron with the breath of youth, and
+hope, and happiness, and telling to each other a secret that is known
+unto us all--at once the sweetest and the saddest, the newest and the
+oldest story of all stories.
+
+
+
+
+                                BRONZES
+
+
+The earliest objects of bronze discovered in this country are
+comparatively few. As in other parts of Europe, they consist mostly of
+weapons, such as spear-heads and hatchets (which will be noticed under
+_Arms_), or bracelets, necklaces, and clasps or brooches. Earrings
+(_inaures_), brooches (_fibulæ_), and other objects of a similar purpose
+dating from the Roman period have been discovered in Galicia, while
+plates of the same alloy[85] which imitate a shell were used as personal
+ornaments by the men and women of the ancient Spanish tribes.
+
+  [85] Le Hon reminds us, in _L'homme fossile_, that before the Iron Age
+       all bronzes of our western world contained one part of tin to nine
+       of copper.
+
+The province of Palencia is a fertile field for archæological discovery.
+Here have been found some curious clasps, intended, it would seem, to
+represent the old Iberian mounted warrior, sometimes brandishing the
+typical Iberian lance. The following is a sketch in outline of an
+object of this kind, fashioned as clumsily and crudely as the cheapest
+wooden plaything of our time:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Two parts--the figure of the horseman, and a four-wheeled stand on which
+the warrior's steed is resolutely set--compose this comical antiquity.
+The rider's only article of clothing is a helmet; while the horse,
+without a saddle or a bridle, is completely nude. This toy, or table
+ornament, or whatever it may be, was found not far from Badajoz, where
+other prehistoric bronzes are preserved in the museum of the
+province;[86] and Mr E. S. Dodgson says that in possession of an
+Englishman at Comillas he has seen another bronze rider of primitive
+workmanship, with the head of a wild boar under his left arm. Those who
+are interested in the meaning of these early bronzes should consult
+an article, _El jinete ibérico_, by Señor Mélida, published in Nos.
+90-92 of the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_.
+
+  [86] See Romero de Castilla, _Inventarios de los objetos recogidos en
+       el Museo Arqueológico de la Comisión de Monumentos de Badajoz_.
+       Badajoz, 1896. Plate xxvii. represents another of these objects.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                           "MELEAGER'S HUNT"
+                     (_Primitive Spanish Bronze_)]
+
+We know that the use of Roman lamps grew to be general in this land--a
+fact which justifies my noticing the specimens preserved in the museum
+of Madrid; and more particularly so because their shape and general
+character have been perpetuated through the Spanish Moors and Christians
+of the Middle Ages till this very moment.
+
+The Roman lamp, shaped somewhat like a boat by reason of the _rostrum_
+or beakish receptacle for the wick, consisted of an earthenware or metal
+vessel with a circular or oblong body and a handle, together with at
+least one hole for pouring in the oil. The commonest material was
+earthenware, and next to this, bronze. The lamp was either suspended by
+a chain or chains, or else was rested on a stand. Plato and Petronius
+tell us that the stand was borrowed from the rustic makeshift of a
+stick, or the stout stem of a plant, thrust into the ground. As time
+went on, the stem or stick in imitative metal-work was rendered more or
+less artistic and ornate. But there was more than a single kind of
+lampstand. The _lychnuchus_ ([Greek: lychnouchos]), invented by the
+Greeks, held various lamps suspended from its branches, while, on the
+other hand, the Roman _candelabrum_ supported but a solitary lamp upon
+the disc or platform at its top extremity.[87] The island of Egina was
+famed for the production of these discs, and Pliny tells us that the
+decorated stem or _scapus_ was chiefly manufactured at Tarentum.
+
+  [87] Undoubtedly the use of the Roman _candelabrum_ was continued by the
+       Spanish Visigoths. "_Candelabrum_," says Saint Isidore, "_a
+       candelis dictum, quasi candela feram, quod candelam ferat_"
+       (_Originum_, book xx., chap. x.). The Spanish word _candela_ is
+       loosely used to-day for almost any kind of light or fire, or even
+       for a match; but an ordinary candle is generally called a _vela_ or
+       _bugía_ (_bougie_).
+
+The Roman lampstands also varied in their height. When the stem was long
+they stood upon the ground--a fashion we have seen revived in recent
+years, and even where electricity replaces oil. When, on the contrary,
+the stem was short, the stand was known as a _candelabrum humile_, and
+rested on a table or a stool.
+
+The Madrid Museum contains a remarkable bronze lamp in the form of an
+ass's head adorned with flowers and with ivy. The ass is holding in its
+mouth the _rostrum_ for the wick. The hole for the oil is shaped like a
+flower with eleven petals, under one of which is the monogram M[dagger]R.
+The back of this lamp consists of an uncouth human male figure, in a
+reclining posture, wearing a Phrygian cap and holding the ass's head
+between his legs.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVIII
+                               A _CANDIL_
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+Other lamps of bronze, including several of an interesting character,
+are in the same collection. One of these represents a sea-deity; another
+has its handle shaped like a horse's head and neck; and in a third the
+orifice for the oil is heart-shaped, while the handle terminates in the
+head of a swan.
+
+There is also a series of three pensile lamps--two in the likeness of
+the head and neck of a griffin, and the third in that of a theatrical
+mask; as well as a candelabrum fourteen inches high, terminating beneath
+in three legs with lions' claws (foreshadowing or repeating oriental
+motives), and above in a two-handled vessel on which to place the lamp.
+This vessel supports at present a fine _lucerna_ in the form of a
+peacock.
+
+Probably no people in the world have kept extant, or rather, kept alive,
+their oldest forms of pottery or instruments for giving light more
+steadfastly or more solicitously than the Spaniards. Their iron
+_candil_[88] and brass _velón_ of nowadays (Pls. xxviii. and
+xxix.)--the one of these the primitive lamp that hangs; the other, the
+primitive lamp that rests upon a table or the ground--are borrowed with
+but a minimum of alteration from the lighting apparatus of the ancient
+Greeks and Romans, and possess, for all their coarse and cheap and
+unpretentious workmanship, a subtle interest and elegance attributable
+only to the inspiration of antiquity.
+
+  [88] "A small open lamp with a beak, and a hook to hang it, within which
+       is another of the same make that contains oil and a wick to give
+       light, commonly used in kitchens, stables, and inns."--Fathers
+       Connelly and Higgins, _Spanish-English and English-Spanish
+       Dictionary_. Swinburne wrote of these _candiles_:--"The Spaniards
+       delight in wine that tastes strong of the pitched skin, and of oil
+       that has a rank smell and taste; indeed, the same oil feeds their
+       lamp, swims in their pottage, and dresses their salad; in inns the
+       lighted lamp is frequently handed down to the table, that each man
+       may take the quantity he chooses."
+
+                           [Illustration: XXIX
+                               A _VELÓN_
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+More than the shape of these old objects seems to have passed to modern
+Spain--if any phase at all of Spanish life can ever justly be accounted
+modern. The ancients had an almost superstitious reverence for a lighted
+lamp, and were accustomed to declare that "_lucerna, cum extinguitur,
+vocem emittit, quasi necata_"; "a lamp, on being put out, utters
+a sound as though it were being murdered." Now, it may be a
+coincidence--although I cannot but regard it as distinctly more than a
+coincidence--that even at this day a large proportion of the
+Andalusian people are markedly averse to blowing out a kindled match;
+nor do they think it of good augury to be in a room where three
+lights--candles, matches, or whatever they may be--are simultaneously
+aflame. I have noticed, too, that, whether from utter carelessness or
+whether from ancestral superstition handed down from Rome, one rarely
+sees upon the staircase or the doorstep of a Spanish public building a
+vesta that has been (if I may be allowed the term) extinguished
+_artificially_.[89]
+
+  [89] Perhaps it is not foreign to my theme to add that the current name
+       in Spanish for an oil lamp is _quinqué_, from Quinquet, the
+       Parisian chemist who invented the _tuyau-cheminée_ a hundred and
+       odd years ago. The same word passes also into Spanish slang,
+       "_tener quinqué_"--_i.e._ to be quick-witted and perceptive.
+
+In the Madrid Museum are several military bronze _signa_ which were
+found in Spain and date from the Roman era, as well as a _vexillum_, or
+one of the T-shaped frames on which the warriors of that people used to
+hang their standards. One of these _signa_ is in the form of a wild
+boar; another in that of a saddled and bridled horse. Beneath this
+latter is the word VIVA and a cross, which shows that the object dates
+from a period not earlier than the reign of Constantine.
+
+It is strange--or rather, would be strange in any country that had been
+less constantly afflicted both with civil and external warfare--that
+hardly anything remains of all the bronze artistic objects manufactured
+by the Spanish Moors. Poets of this race have sung of gold and silver
+fountains, door-knockers, and statues that adorned the buildings of
+Cordova. In many of these instances the hyperbolic gold and silver of
+the writers would undoubtedly be bronze. Al-Makkari quotes an Arab poet
+who extols in passionate terms Almanzor's dazzling mansion of Az-zahyra.
+"Lions of metal," sang this poet, "bite the knockers of thy doors, and
+as those doors resound appear to be exclaiming _Allahu akbar_" ("God is
+great"). Another bard describes the fountains of the same enchanted
+palace. "The lions who repose majestically in this home of princes,
+instead of roaring, allow the waters to fall in murmuring music from
+their mouths. _Their bodies seem to be covered with gold_, and in their
+mouths crystal is made liquid.
+
+"Though in reality these lions are at rest, they seem to move and, when
+provoked, to grow enraged. One would imagine that they remembered their
+carnage of past days, and bellowing turned once more to the attack.
+
+"When the sun is reflected from their _bronze_ surface, they seem to be
+of fire, with tongues of flame that issue from their mouths.
+
+"Nevertheless, when we observe them to be vomiting water, one would
+think this water to be swords which melt without the help of fire, and
+are confounded with the crystal of the fountain."
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                              BRONZE LION
+                 (_Found in the Province of Palencia_)]
+
+Figures in bronze, of eagles, peacocks, swans, stags, dragons, lions,
+and many other creatures were set about in garden and in hall, to
+decorate these splendid palaces of ancient Cordova.
+
+A specimen of this class of objects is a bronze lion of small dimensions
+(Plate xxx.) found not many years ago in the province of Palencia, and
+believed to date from the reign of Al-Hakem the Second of Cordova. It
+belonged for some time to the painter Fortuny--a diligent and lucky
+hunter of antiquities,--and was subsequently purchased in 1875 by M.
+Piot. The modelling and decoration of this beast, especially the
+mannered and symmetrical curls which are supposed to form its mane, are
+quite conventional and strongly reminiscent of Assyrian art, such as
+pervades the various lions rudely wrought in stone and still existing at
+Granada; whether the celebrated dozen that support and guard the
+fountain in the courtyard of the Moorish palace,[90] or else the
+greater pair of grinning brutes proceeding from the ruins of the palace
+of Azaque (miscalled the Moorish Mint), which may be noticed squatting
+with their rumps towards the road, beside the garden entrance to the
+Carmen de la Mezquita.
+
+  [90] Swinburne fell into a comical error concerning these. "In the
+       centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions _muzzled_, their
+       fore-parts smooth, their hind-parts rough, which bear upon their
+       backs an enormous bason, out of which a lesser rises."--_Travels
+       through Spain_, p. 180.
+
+This little bronze lion measures about twelve inches high by fourteen
+inches long. The legs and part of the body are covered with a pattern
+representing flowers. The mane is described by comma-shaped marks. The
+tail, bent not ungracefully along the animal's back, is decorated with a
+kind of plait through nearly all its length. The eyes are now two
+cavities, but seem in other days to have contained two coloured stones
+or gems. Upon the back and flanks is a Cufic inscription which says,
+"_Perfect blessing. Complete happiness._"
+
+                           [Illustration: XXXI
+                              BRONZE STAG
+                    (_Moorish. Museum of Cordova._)]
+
+Mussulman historians have described, in terms of cloying praise, the
+"red gold animals contrived with subtle skill and spread with precious
+stones" which Abderrahman placed at Cordova upon the fountains of his
+palaces. "Rivers of water issued from the mouth of every animal, and
+fell into a jasper basin." The words "red gold" are patently an oriental
+term for bronze. In view of this, and of the fact that the lion of
+Palencia is hollow-bellied, with his mouth wide open for ejecting water,
+and with a tail of cunning craftsmanship, which would avail, on being
+rotated, to produce or check the current of the "liquid crystal," we may
+conclude that it was intended both to form a part of, and to decorate a
+Moorish fountain of old days, and is the kind of beast "with precious
+stones for eyes" so often and so ecstatically lauded by the Muslim
+writers.
+
+Similar to the foregoing object, and dating from about the same period,
+is a small bronze stag (Pl. xxxi.) in the provincial museum of Cordova.
+It is believed to proceed originally from the famous palace (tenth
+century) of Az-zahra, and used to be kept, some centuries ago, in the
+convent of San Jerónimo de Valparaiso.
+
+The museum of Granada contains some interesting Moorish bronzes, found
+on the site of the ancient city of Illiberis, abandoned by its occupants
+on their removal to Granada at the beginning of the eleventh century.
+The most remarkable of these discoveries are pieces of a fountain, a
+small temple (Plate xxxii.), an _almirez_ or mortar (Plate xxxiii.),
+similar to one (not mentioned by Riaño) which was discovered at Monzón,
+and a few lamps. The fragments of a fountain end in the characteristic
+Assyrian-looking lions' heads, with lines in regular zones to represent
+the eyes and other features. One of the lamps (Pl. xxxiii.) is far
+superior to the rest. Notwithstanding Riaño's assertion that all of
+these antiquities are "incomplete and mutilated," this lamp is well
+preserved, and still retains, secured by a chain, the little metal
+trimming-piece or _emunctorium_ of the Romans. The small bronze temple
+is sometimes thought (but this hypothesis seems rather fanciful) to be a
+case, or part of a case, designed for keeping jewellery. The height of
+it is two-and-twenty inches, and the form hexagonal, "with twelve small
+columns supporting bands of open work, frescoes, cupola, and turrets; in
+the angles are birds" (Riaño).
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                             BRONZE TEMPLE
+                    (_Moorish. Museum of Granada_)]
+
+The most important object in this substance now extant in any part of
+Spain is probably the huge and finely decorated lamp of Mohammed the
+Third of Granada (Pl. xxxiv.), called sometimes "the lamp of Oran,"
+from a mistaken belief that it had formed part of the booty yielded by
+this city after her capture in 1509 by Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros.
+
+The material of this lamp is bronze, possibly provided by the bells of
+Christian churches taken and pillaged by the Moors. It has four parts or
+tiers of varying shape, delicately wrought in open-work, and reaching a
+height of nearly seven feet in all. The third and largest tier,
+corresponding to the shade, is in the form of a truncated pyramid, and
+shows a different design on each of its four sides. The lamp bears
+several inscriptions, interrupted here and there through breakage of the
+metal. The longest of these legends is interpreted as follows:--
+
+"In the name of God the Merciful. (May) the blessing of God be on our
+lord Mohammed and his kin; health and peace. (This lamp) was ordered (to
+be made) by our Lord the egregious sultan, the favoured, the victorious,
+the just, the happy, the conqueror of cities, and the extreme boundary
+of just conduct among the servants (of God); the emir of the Mussulmans
+Abu-Abdillah, son of our lord the emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah,
+son of our lord Al-Galib-Billah, the conqueror through God's
+protection, the emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah; (may) God aid him
+(praised be God)." Here is a breakage and a corresponding gap in the
+inscription, which continues, "beneath it, lighted by my light for its
+magnificence and the care of its _xeque_, with righteous purpose and
+unerring certainty. And this was in the month of Rabié the first
+blessed, in the year 705.[91] May (God) be praised."
+
+  [91] September 20th to October 19th, A.D. 1305.
+
+The history of this lamp has been explored with scholarly care by
+Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos, whose monograph will be found in the _Museo
+Español de Antigüedades_. He says that the lamp was formerly suspended
+from the ceiling of the chapel of San Ildefonso in the university of
+Alcalá de Henares. Here, too, he has discovered entries which relate to
+it in two separate inventories, dated 1526 and 1531, from which we
+gather that the lamp, excepting the lowest part or tier, which probably
+proceeded from Oran, was brought to Alcalá by Cardinal Cisneros from the
+mosque of the Alhambra of Granada.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIII
+                        MOORISH LAMP AND MORTAR
+                         (_Museum of Granada_)]
+
+All of the lamp (continues Amador) that properly belongs to it, is the
+open-work shade, together with the graduated set of spheres which we
+now observe on top.[92] The lowest part is clearly an inverted bell,
+from which project four decorative pieces. This is believed by Amador to
+be a Spanish bell, dating from the fifteenth century, designed for
+striking with a hammer, and proceeding from some monastery or convent
+plundered by the Moors. Indeed, one of the two inventories discovered at
+Alcalá mentions "a bell with a hole in it, _which used to belong to a
+Moorish lamp_," thus countenancing the widespread supposition that the
+lamps of the mosque of Cordova were made of the Christian bells of
+Compostela, which the fierce Almanzor caused to be conveyed upon the
+aching backs of Christian captives to the Moorish court and capital of
+Andalusia.
+
+  [92] These spheres recall the four great gilded globes of bronze,
+       tapering from the bottom to the top, that crowned in olden days the
+       Giralda tower of Seville. According to the _Crónica General_ the
+       glitter of these globes "de tan grande obra, é tan grandes, que no
+       se podríen hacer otras tales," could be distinguished at a distance
+       of eight leagues. On August 24th, 1395, when Seville was assailed
+       by a frightful tempest accompanied by an earthquake, the metal rod
+       which pierced and held the globes was snapped, and the globes
+       themselves were dashed into a myriad pieces on the _azotea_, scores
+       of yards below.
+
+It is probable, therefore, that the lamp of the third Mohammed of
+Granada is now composed of two lamps, and that the primitive
+arrangement of its parts was altered by the ignorant. Eight chains
+would formerly suspend it, in the following order of its tiers or
+stages, from the dome of the _mezquita_. First and uppermost would come
+the shade; then, next to this, the set of tapering spheres; and, last
+and lowest, the saucer or _platillo_, which has disappeared. Further,
+and as Koranic law prescribed, the lamp would hold two lights--one to be
+kindled on the saucer, and the other underneath the shade.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Other articles of Spanish-Moorish ornamented bronze are thimbles,
+buckets, and the spherical perfume-burners which were used to roll upon
+the stone or marble pavement of a dwelling. Moorish thimbles, conical
+and uncouthly large, are not uncommonly met with at Granada. I have one,
+of which the above is an outline sketched to size.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIV
+                       LAMP OF MOHAMMED THE THIRD
+                           (_Madrid Museum_)]
+
+Sometimes these Moorish thimbles are inscribed in Cufic lettering
+with phrases such as--"(May) the blessing of God and every kind of
+happiness (be destined for the owner of this thimble)"; or else the
+maker's name--"The work of Saif"; or a single word--"Blessing."
+
+The thimbles from which I quote these legends are in the National
+Museum. The same collection includes a very finely wrought bronze bucket
+or _acetre_ (Latin _situlus_; Arabic _as-setl_, the utensil for drawing
+water for a bath). The outside is covered with delicate ornamentation,
+varied with inscriptions of no great interest, invoking Allah's blessing
+on the owner or employer of the bucket, which is thought by Amador to be
+of Granadino workmanship, and to date from about the middle of the
+fourteenth century.
+
+Not many specimens remain of early mediæval Spanish bronzes wrought by
+Christian hands. Riaño, who admits that "we can hardly trace any bronze
+of this period other than cathedral bells," mentions as probably
+proceeding from abroad the altar-fronts and statuettes, in gilt
+enamelled bronze, of Salamanca and elsewhere,[93] and gives a short
+description of the bell, about six inches high (Pl. xxxv.), known as the
+Abbot Samson's, now in Cordova Museum. This object bears an early date
+(875 A.D.), and is inscribed, "_Offert hoc munus Samson abbatis in domum
+Sancti Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era_ D.C.C.C.C.XIII."
+
+  [93] See p. 50.
+
+It is curious that Riaño should make no mention of Spanish bronze
+processional crosses. In my chapter on gold, silver, and jewel work I
+mentioned those belonging to churches in the north of Spain. A bronze
+crucifix (Plate xxxvi.), believed to date from the beginning of the
+twelfth century, and proceeding from the monastery of Arbós, in the
+province of León, is now in the possession of Don Felix Granda Builla.
+It is undoubtedly of Spanish make, and probably was carried in
+processions. The style is pure Romanic, and the drawing of the ribs,
+extremities, and limbs is typically primitive. The _sudarium_ is secured
+by the belt or _parazonium_. The feet, unpierced, rest on a
+_supedaneum_.
+
+A bronze Renaissance parish cross of the sixteenth century, once hidden
+in a village of Asturias, was bought some thirty years ago by the museum
+of Madrid. The body of the cross is wood, covered on both sides with
+bronze plates wrought with figures of the Saviour as the holy infant and
+as full-grown man, and also with a figure of the Virgin. These
+figures were formerly painted, and traces of the colour yet remain. The
+cross was also silvered. The rest of the ornamentation consists of
+vases, flowers, and other subjects proper to Renaissance art.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXXV
+                          ABBOT SAMSON'S BELL
+                  (_9th Century. Museum of Cordova_)]
+
+A similar cross belongs to the parish church of San Julian de Recaré, in
+the province of Lugo, while San Pedro de Donas, near Santiago in
+Galicia, possesses a processional cross of bronze, pierced along the
+edges in a pattern of trefoils and _fleurs-de-lis_, but otherwise
+undecorated.
+
+Sometimes in Spanish bronze we find the handiwork of Moors and
+Christians picturesquely intermingled, as in the gates of Toledo
+cathedral (1337), and the Puertas del Perdón--forming the principal
+entrance to the Court of Orange Trees--of the mosque of Cordova, made of
+wood and covered with bronze plating decorated with irregular hexagons
+and Gothic and Arabic inscriptions. The knockers contain a scroll and
+flowers, and on the scroll the words, _Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel_.
+The gate of the same name of Seville cathedral (Pl. xxxvii.) is similar
+in workmanship, and is considered by Riaño to be a good example of
+Moresque bronze-work.
+
+While speaking of these doors, we should remember that Moorish
+craftsmen were employed to decorate or to repair the mosque of Cordova
+long after it had been converted to the worship of the Christians. When
+he was acting as viceroy in the year 1275, the Infante Don Fernando
+confirmed a letter of his father, King Alfonso, remitting tolls and
+taxes that would otherwise be leviable upon four Moors who worked in the
+cathedral. The Infante's confirmation, after recording that "one (of the
+four Moors) is dead and the other blind, in such wise that he can work
+no more," consents to the engagement of another two, Famet and Zahec by
+name, to fill their places, and who also are hereby exempted from the
+payment of all dues. Five years afterwards this privilege was
+reconfirmed by King Alfonso, and we are further told on this occasion
+that two of the Moorish four were _albañís_, or masons, and the others
+_añaiares_, or carpenters. As time progressed, the situation of the
+vanquished and humiliated Mussulmans grew more irksome. On October 25th,
+1320, the Infante Don Sancho, who had usurped the throne, proclaimed, in
+ratification of a letter issued by his father, that all the Moorish
+carpenters, masons, sawyers, and other workmen and artificers of Cordova
+must work in the cathedral (presumably without a wage) for two days
+in every year.[94]
+
+  [94] _Libro de las Tablas_, pp. 17, 18. See Madrazo, _Cordova_, pp. 273
+       _et seq._
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXVI
+                            BRONZE CRUCIFIX
+                           (_12th Century_)]
+
+In the latter half of the sixteenth century, Bartolomé Morel, a
+Sevillano, produced some notable work in bronze.[95] Three objects by
+his hand--namely, the choir lectern and the tenebrarium of Seville
+cathedral, and the weathercock or _Giraldillo_ which crowns the
+celebrated tower of the same enormous temple--are specially
+distinguished for their vigour and effectiveness.
+
+  [95] In documents which relate to him (see Gestoso's _Dictionary of
+       Sevillian Artificers_) Morel is often called an _artillero_. His
+       father, Juan Morel, was also a founder of cannon, and signed a
+       contract in 1564 to cast two bronze pieces or _tiros_, with the
+       royal arms on them.
+
+The least important of these objects is the choir lectern, for which
+Morel was paid six hundred ducats. The decoration is of statuettes and
+_rilievi_, well designed and better executed. The tenebrarium, aptly
+defined by Amador as "an article of church furniture intended to make a
+show of light,"[96] is more ambitious and original. "It was designed
+and made by Morel in the year 1562. Juan Giralte, a native of Flanders,
+and Juan Bautista Vazquez helped him to make the statues at the head of
+this candelabrum, and Pedro Delgado, another noted sculptor of Seville,
+worked at the foot of it. It is eight and a half yards high, and the
+triangular head is three yards across. Upon this upper part are fifteen
+statues, representing the Saviour, the apostles, and two other disciples
+or evangelists. In the vacant space of the triangle is a circle adorned
+with leaves, and in the centre of this circle is a bust of the Virgin in
+relief, and, lower down, the figure of a king. All of this part is of
+bronzed wood, and rests upon four small bronze columns. The remainder of
+the candelabrum is all of this material, and the small columns are
+supported by four caryatides, resting upon an order of noble design
+decorated with lions' heads, scrolls, pendants, and other ornamentation,
+the whole resting upon a graceful border enriched with harpies."
+
+  [96] The efficacy of light in illuminating, or may be in dazzling and
+       confounding, Christian worshippers is too self-evident to call for
+       illustration. The symbolic meaning of church candles is, however,
+       neatly indicated by the wise Alfonso in his compilation of the
+       seven _Partidas_. "Because three virtues dwell in candles, namely,
+       wick, wax, and flame, so do we understand that persons three dwell
+       in the Trinity--Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; and we may understand
+       three other things that dwell in Jesus Christ; to wit, body, soul,
+       and godhead. Hence the twelve lighted candles manifested to each
+       quarter of the church exhibit unto us the twelve apostles who
+       preached the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ through all the earth,
+       and manifesting truest wisdom illumined all the world."
+
+This description of the Seville tenebrarium is translated from Cean
+Bermudez, and is the one most commonly quoted, though Amador complains
+that it is not precise, and fails to dwell upon the symbolism of this
+mighty mass of bronze.[97] Thus, what Cean affirms to be the bust of a
+king is declared by Amador to be the head of a pope, probably Saint
+Gregory the Great. Metal, as Cean remarks, is not employed throughout.
+In order to preserve its balance, the upper part of the tenebrarium,
+containing the triangle which is said by some to symbolize "the divinity
+of Jesus as God the triple and the one," is merely wood bronzed over.
+Amador adds that the foot and stem are intended to represent "the people
+of Israel in their perfidy and ingratitude." He also says that the
+statue in the centre of the triangle is that of Faith, and that which
+crowns the entire tenebrarium, of the Virgin Mary.
+
+  [97] The English rendering of Cean's description inserted by Riaño is
+       inaccurate throughout.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXVII
+                        THE _PUERTA DEL PERDÓN_
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+Morel, like Brunelleschi, was an architect as well as a craftsman in
+bronze.[98] He completed this tenebrarium in 1562, and the chapter of
+the cathedral were so contented with it that instead of paying him the
+stipulated price, namely, eight hundred ducats, they added of their own
+accord a further two hundred and fifty. They also commissioned him to
+make a handsome case to keep it in; but the case has disappeared, and
+the naked tenebrarium now stands in the Sacristy of Chalices of the
+cathedral.[99] It is still used at the Matin service during the last
+three days of Holy Week, and still, in the _Oficio de Tinieblas_, the
+custom is observed of extinguishing the fifteen tapers, one by one, at
+the conclusion of each psalm.
+
+  [98] As architect, he made a monument (which exists no longer) for the
+       festivals of Holy Week at Seville.
+
+  [99] In 1565 Juan del Pozo, an ironsmith, received one hundred _reales_
+       "on account of an engine which he made of iron for moving the
+       tenebrarium of the cathedral, and other heavy things."--Gestoso,
+       _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_, vol. i. p. 313.
+
+The title of the object which surmounts the famed Giralda tower of
+Seville is properly "the Statue of Faith, the triumph of the Church"
+(Pl. xxxviii.); but it is known in common language as the Giraldillo
+(weathercock), which name has passed into the word Giralda, now applied
+to all the tower. The populace of Seville also call it, in the _argot_
+of their cheerful town, the _muñeco_ or "doll," the "Victory," and the
+"Santa Juana."
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXVIII
+                  THE WEATHERCOCK OF THE GIRALDA TOWER
+                  (_16th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+This statue, made of hollow bronze, rotates upon an iron rod piercing
+the great bronze globe which lies immediately beneath the figure's feet.
+The globe is nearly six feet in diameter. The figure itself represents a
+Roman matron wearing a flowing tunic partly covering her legs and arms.
+Sandals are secured to her feet by straps. Upon her head she wears a
+Roman helmet crested by a triple plume. In her right hand she holds the
+semicircular Roman standard of the time of Constantine, which points the
+direction of the wind and causes the figure to revolve, excepting when
+the air is very faint, in which case it is caught by two diminutive
+banners springing from the large one.[100] So huge are the proportions
+of this metal lady that the medal on her breast contains a life-size
+head which represents an angel.
+
+  [100] The statue, which looks so tiny from the street, measures nearly
+        fourteen feet in height, and weighs more than two thousand two
+        hundred pounds. The banner alone weighs close upon four hundred
+        pounds. The figure was raised into its place in 1568, in which
+        year I find that eighteen Moriscos were paid seventy-eight
+        _reales_ between them all for doing the work of carriage (Gestoso,
+        _Diccionario_). Gestoso also mentions a large bronze plate made
+        by Morel for the pavement of the cathedral, and which has
+        disappeared. It weighed 2269 pounds, or about the same as the
+        weathercock of the Giralda, and Morel was paid for it the sum of
+        289,361 _maravedis_.
+
+The Spanish Moors were also well acquainted with the use of
+weathercocks. During the reign, in the eleventh century, of the Zirite
+kingling of Granada, Badis ben Habbus, a weathercock of strange design
+surmounted his _alcázar_. The historian Marmol wrote in the sixteenth
+century that it was still existing on a little tower, and consisted of a
+horseman in Moorish dress, with a long lance and his shield upon his
+arm, the whole of bronze, with an inscription on the shield which says:
+"Badis ben Habbus declares that in this attitude should the Andalusian
+be discovered (at his post)."
+
+Not many other objects in this substance can be instanced as the work of
+Spanish craftsmen of the sixteenth and succeeding centuries, or of the
+later-Gothic age immediately preceding. Among them are the pulpits of
+Santiago cathedral, made by Celma, an Aragonese, in 1563; the
+choir-screen (1574-1579) in the cathedral of Zaragoza, made by Juan
+Tomás Cela, also a native of Aragon; the gilt lecterns of Toledo
+cathedral, which are the work of Nicolás Vergara and his son; the Gothic
+lectern of the mosque of Cordova; the choir-lectern (1557) of Cuenca,
+made by Hernando de Arenas, who will also be remembered as having made
+the _reja_ of the same cathedral; and the octagonal gilt-bronze pulpits
+of Toledo, wrought by Francisco de Villalpando, as are the bas-reliefs
+(1564) upon the door of Lions, executed by the same craftsman from
+designs by Berruguete.
+
+These last-named pulpits are associated with a legend. Within this
+temple, once upon a time, rested the metal sepulchre of the great Don
+Alvaro de Luna, so constructed by his orders that upon the touching of a
+secret spring the statue of the Constable himself would rise into a
+kneeling posture throughout the celebration of the mass. His lifelong
+and relentless foe, the Infante Enrique of Aragon, tore up the tomb in
+1449; and from its fragments, superstition says, were made these
+pulpits.
+
+Spanish Renaissance door-knockers in bronze are often curious. Fifteen
+large bronze rings adorned with garlands, heads of lions and of eagles,
+or with the pair of columns and the motto PLUS OULTRE of Charles the
+Fifth, were formerly upon the pilasters of the roofless, semi-ruined
+palace of that emperor at Granada. Removed elsewhere for greater
+safety,[101] they will now be found among the couple of dozen
+curiosities preserved in a chamber of the Moorish royal residence of the
+Alhambra.
+
+  [101] Spaniards have a very scanty confidence in one another's honesty,
+        as well as in the competence of their police. Often, at Madrid,
+        and at this day, the porter of a house, as soon as it is dark,
+        unscrews the knockers from the downstairs door, and guards them
+        in his _conciergerie_ until the morning.
+
+Herewith I end my sketch of Spanish bronzes, without delaying to
+describe the tasteless _transparente_ behind the altar of Toledo
+cathedral, or the neo-classic, Frenchified productions of the reign of
+Charles the Third, such as the table-mountings of the Buen Retiro, or
+trifles from the silver factory of Antonio Martinez. At the Escorial,
+the shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa Forma and the altar-front of the
+pantheon of the kings of Spain, wrought by Fray Eugenio de la Cruz, Fray
+Juan de la Concepción, and Fray Marcos de Perpignan, are meritorious
+objects of their time. But the history of Spanish bronzes properly ends
+with the Renaissance. This material, possibly from its cost, has not at
+any time been greatly popular in Spain. Wood, plain or painted, was
+preferred to bronze in nearly all her statuary. Her mediæval and
+Renaissance _reja_ and _custodia_ makers can challenge all the world. So
+can her potters, armourers, leather-workers, and wood-carvers. But if
+we look for masterpieces in the art of shaping bronze, our eyes must
+turn to Italy, where, to astonish modern men, the powers of a Donatello
+or Ghiberti vibrate across all ages in the bas-reliefs of Saint Anthony
+at Padua, or in the gates of the Baptistery of Florence.
+
+
+
+
+                                  ARMS
+
+
+Lovers of the old-time crafts approach a fertile field in Spanish arms;
+for truly with this warworn land the sword and spear, obstinately
+substituted for the plough, seem to have grown well-nigh into her
+regular implements of daily bread-winning; and from long before the age
+of written chronicle her soil was planted with innumerable weapons of
+her wrangling tribesmen.
+
+The history of these ancient Spanish tribes is both obscure and
+complicated. If Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy, and other authors may be
+credited, the Celtic race invaded the Peninsula some seven centuries
+before the Christian era, crossing the river Ebro, founding settlements,
+and fusing with the natives into the composite people known henceforward
+as the Celtiberians. Thus strengthened, they extended over nearly all
+the land, and occupied, by a dominative or assimilative policy, the
+regions corresponding to the modern Andalusia, Portugal, Galicia, and
+the flat and central elevations of Castile.
+
+These Spanish tribes were ever quarrelling, and knew, in Strabo's words,
+"no entertainment save in horsemanship and in the exercise of arms."
+Quantities of their weapons have been found all over Spain, such as the
+heads of spears and arrows, or the blades of daggers, hatchets, knives,
+and swords. With these Iberian tribesmen, as with other peoples of the
+ancient world, the truly prehistoric age is that of stone; hence they
+advanced to bronze, and finally to iron. Beuter, the historian of
+Valencia, wrote in 1534 that near to the town of Cariñena, in Aragon, on
+digging out some earthen mounds the excavators came upon enormous bones,
+flint lance and arrow heads, and knives the size of half an ordinary
+sword; all these in company with "many skulls transfixed by the said
+stones." In the collection at Madrid, formed by Don Emilio Rotondo y
+Nicolau, these primitive Spanish weapons number several thousands; and
+many more are in the National Museum.[102]
+
+  [102] According to Tubino, the existence of a prehistoric age of stone
+        was not suspected in Spain until the year 1755, when Mann y
+        Mendoza affirmed that a state of society had existed in the
+        Peninsula before the age of metals. Since then the Celtic remains
+        of Spain and Portugal have been investigated by many scientists,
+        including Assas, Mitjana, Murguía, and Casiano de Prado, who
+        discovered numbers of these weapons. Towards the middle of last
+        century Casiano de Prado, aided by the Frenchmen Verneuil and
+        Lartet, explored the neighbourhood of San Isidro on the
+        Manzanares, and found large quantities of arms and implements of
+        stone. Valuable service in the cause of prehistoric Spanish
+        archæology has also been performed by Vilanova, Torrubia, and
+        Machado.
+
+Discoveries of ancient Spanish arms of bronze occur less often and in
+smaller quantities than those of stone or iron. Bronze hatchets,
+principally of the straight-edged class (_à bords droites_) have been
+found in Galicia and certain other provinces. Villa-amil y Castro
+describes a bronze dagger of curious workmanship, which was found in
+Galicia in 1869. The point of the blade is missing. If this were
+included, the length of the weapon would be about six inches.
+
+Other examples, now in the Madrid Museum, include two swords, two
+daggers, and two arrowheads. The swords, sharp-pointed, narrow in the
+blade, and used by preference for thrusting, were found not far from
+Calatayud--the ancient town renowned, as Roman Bilbilis, for weapons of
+incomparable temper. The daggers were probably used for fighting hand to
+hand.
+
+At the time of the Roman invasion we find, of course, the Spaniards
+using iron weapons. I shall not tax the patience of my readers by
+enumerating all these weapons. Their names are many, and the comments
+and descriptions of old authors which refer to them are constantly at
+variance. Nevertheless, the sword most popular with the Celtiberians at
+the period of the Roman conquest seems to have been a broad, two-handed
+weapon with a point and double edge, and therefore serviceable both for
+cutting and for thrusting. Another of the Celtiberian swords, called the
+_falcata_, was of a sickle shape. It terminated in the kind of point we
+commonly associate with a scimitar, and which is found to-day in Spanish
+knives produced at Albacete. One of these swords, in good condition, is
+in the National Museum. It has a single edge, upon the concave side of
+the blade, and measures rather less than two feet. Other weapons in
+common use among the Celtiberians were an iron dart--the _sannion_ or
+_soliferrea_; the javelin; the lance--a weapon so immemorially old in
+Spain that patriotic writers trace its origin to the prehistoric town of
+Lancia in Asturias; and the _trudes_ or _bidente_, a crescent blade
+mounted upon a pole, mentioned by Strabo and Saint Isidore, and
+identical with the cruel weapon used until about a quarter of a
+century ago for houghing coward cattle in the bull-ring.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIX
+                        CREST OF JOUSTING HELMET
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Thus, when the Romans entered Spain the natives of this country were
+experienced in the use of arms, and made their own from such materials
+as their own soil yielded. Their tempering was excellent, for Diodorus
+Siculus tells us that they had already discovered the secret of burying
+the metal in order that the moisture of the earth might eat away its
+baser portions. Besides the ancient Bilbilis in Aragon, a Spanish city
+famous for her faultless tempering of implements and weapons was Toledo.
+Martial,[103] the most illustrious son of Bilbilis, has sung the praises
+of the one; less celebrated poets, such as Gracio Falisco, of the
+other.[104] Even the armourers of Rome were found to be less skilful and
+successful swordsmiths than the Spaniards;[105] and so, before the
+second Punic War, the model or the models of the Spanish sword had been
+adopted by the Roman army.
+
+  [103] "_Gerone qui ferrum gelat._" This river, the purity and coldness
+        of whose waters lent, or so it is supposed, its virtues to the
+        steel, rolls past the walls of Calatayud, and is called in later
+        ages the Jalon.
+
+  [104] "_Imo Toletano præcingant ilia cultro._"
+
+  [105] "_Romani patriis gladiis depositis Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium
+        assumpserunt ... sed ferri bonitatem et fabrica solertiam imitari
+        non potuerunt._"--Suidas.
+
+Various of the native peoples of Iberia were distinguished by a special
+instrument or mode of fighting. Strabo says that the Iberians as a
+general rule employed two lances and a sword. Those of Lusitania were
+especially adroit in hurling darts. Each of their warriors kept a number
+of these darts contained within his shield. Upon the head they wore a
+helmet of a primitive pattern strapped beneath the chin. This helmet,
+called the _bacula_, protected all the wearer's face, and had a mitred
+shape, with three red feathers on the crest. Together with these arms,
+the Lusitanians used a copper-headed lance and the typical form of
+Celtiberian sword. More singular and celebrated in their mode of
+fighting were the Balearic islanders, who carried, through persistent
+exercise, the art of slinging stones and leaden plummets to the utmost
+limit of perfection. The beaches of these islands, we are told,
+abounded, then as now, in small, smooth pebbles, "weapons of Nature's
+own contrivance," rarely suited to the sling.[106] These slings were of
+three patterns, severally designed for near, far, and middling
+distances. The lead or stone projectile sometimes weighed a pound.
+Accordingly--so strenuous was their zeal to be unrivalled in the
+practice of this arm--even as little children the Baleares went without
+their dinner, till, with the formidable _funda_ in their hand, they
+struck the stick their parents planted for them in the soil. Pliny and
+Polybius, notwithstanding, state that the sling itself was not
+indigenous in this region, but imported from Ph[oe]nicia. However this
+may be, the islanders within a little time contributed to swell the
+power of the Roman legions.
+
+  [106] _Descripciones de las Islas Pithiusas y Baleares._ Madrid, 1787.
+
+The Visigoths continued using many of the Roman or Ibero-Roman arms.
+Nevertheless, the solid armour of the Romans, such as their greaves and
+thigh-pieces and breastplates, was now replaced by primitive chain-mail
+resembling scales of fishes. According to Saint Isidore, Procopius, and
+other writers, the favourite weapons of the Spanish Visigoths were the
+sword or _spatha_, long, broad-bladed, with a double edge; the hatchet,
+the bow, the sling, the lance, the scythe, the mace, the _pilum_ or
+javelin (used extensively in Spain throughout the Middle Ages),[107] the
+_dolon_, a dagger which concealed itself within a wooden staff, and
+took the name of "treacherous" or "wily" from this circumstance; and the
+_conto_, a keenly pointed pike. We also find among the military engines
+of the Visigoths the _balista_, for hurling stones and darts of large
+size, and the _ariete_ or battering-ram, constructed from a gnarled and
+powerful tree-trunk braced with iron and suspended by a cable. Their
+defensive body-armour consisted of a coat of mail composed of bronze or
+iron scales, and called the _lóriga_ or _perpunte_. This was worn above
+the _thorachomachus_, a kind of tunic made of felt, in order to shield
+the body from the roughness of the mail. Upon their heads they wore an
+ample helmet.
+
+  [107] A javelin made throughout of iron was found in Spain some years
+        ago, completely doubled up, so as to admit of its being thrust
+        into a burial urn. The javelin in question is now in the Madrid
+        museum, and a similar weapon may be seen in the provincial museum
+        of Granada.
+
+A fragment of stone carving preserved in Seville museum shows us two
+Visigothic Spanish warriors who wear a tunic and helmet of a simple
+pattern, and carry a two-edged sword and a large shield. García Llansó
+says, however, that the nobles of this people wore close-fitting mail
+tunics covered with steel scales, a kind of bronze bassinet, tight
+breeches, and high boots, and carried, besides the sword which was slung
+from their belts, a large, oval shield.[108]
+
+  [108] _Historia General del Arte_: García Llansó; _Armas_, pp. 439, 440.
+
+                           [Illustration: XL
+                          SPANISH CROSSBOWMAN
+             (_Late 15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+From about the time of the Moorish invasion, the changes in the arms and
+armour of the Spaniards coincided in the main with those in other parts
+of western Europe. Nevertheless, as late as the eleventh century the
+Spanish sword retained the characteristic which had endeared it to the
+Roman legionaries--namely, a hilt of small dimensions and a broad and
+shortish blade. In course of time the blade grows narrower and begins to
+taper towards the point. The _quillons_ or crossbars (Spanish
+_arriaces_, from the Arabic _arrias_, a sword-hilt) were originally
+straight or semicircular, and ended in a knob (_manzana_, literally
+"apple"; Latin _pomum_, English _pommel_). Thus, in the _Poem of the
+Cid_ we find the verse:--
+
+           "_Las manzanas é los arriaces todos de oro son._"
+
+Throughout these early times the scabbard was of wood lined with leather
+or with velvet, and strengthened and adorned with leather bands; but
+when the owner was of high estate, it often bore enamels in the
+_cloisonné_ style; that is, with patches of the coloured, vitreous
+substance bordered and fastened in by metal wire. In Spain this style,
+undoubtedly of foreign origin, was superseded in the thirteenth century
+by _champlevé_ enamelling, in which the enamel lies within a hollowed
+ground.
+
+Spanish mediæval weapons down to the fourteenth century are specified in
+the _fuero_ of Cáceres and other documents contemporary with their use.
+Next always in importance to the sword we find the hatchet, lance,
+crossbow, and mace. Montaner's _Chronicle of the Kings of Aragon_ tells
+us that the sovereign, mace in hand, dealt one of his enemies "such a
+blow upon his iron hat that his brains came oozing out at his ears."
+Covarrubias mentions a dart-shaped missile called the _azcona_--a word
+which some authorities derive from the Arabic, and others from the
+Basque _gascona_, an arm employed by the natives of Gascony. The former
+derivation seems the likelier. The _fuero_ of Cáceres mentions the
+_tarágulo_, described by the Count of Clonard as a kind of dagger; and
+at the close of the thirteenth century appears in Spain the poniard,
+which was called among the Germans _Panzerbrecher_, or "breaker of
+cuirasses," and among the French the _misericorde_.
+
+The _fuero_ of Cáceres tells us, furthermore, what was the regular
+equipment of the Spanish foot and mounted soldier of that period. "Each
+horseman shall go forth to battle with a shield, a lance, a sword, and
+spurs; and he that carries not all these shall pay each time five sheep
+wherewith to feed the soldiers.... Each mounted man or pawn that
+trotteth not or runneth not to quit his town or village as he hears the
+call,--the first shall have his horse's tail cut off; the other shall
+have his beard clipped."
+
+Defensive arms included various kinds of coverings for the head; the
+_lóriga_ or covering for the body, the _cálcias_ or covering for the
+legs, and the shield.
+
+The _lóriga_ (Latin _lorica_) was the ordinary hauberk or shirt of mail,
+such as was worn all over military Europe, made of rings or scales sewed
+strongly on a linen or leather under-tunic consisting of a single piece,
+and reaching to the knee. The _Gran Conquista de Ultramar_ of Alfonso el
+Sabio also informs us that it was tied at certain openings known as
+_ventanas_ ("windows"), and that the collar of the tunic was called the
+_gorguera_. The resistance of the Spanish _lóriga_ to a pointed weapon
+does not seem to have been great, for the Chronicle of the Monk of Silos
+says that at the siege of Viseo the arrows of the Moorish bowmen went
+through the triple _lórigas_ of their foe.
+
+Towards the twelfth century the custom arose of wearing over the coat of
+mail a loose, sleeveless frock (the _Waffenrock_ of Germany), woven of
+linen or some other light material, painted or embroidered with the
+owner's arms. As the Count of Clonard observes, it is clearly this kind
+of frock that is referred to in the following passage of the _Leyes de
+Partida_: "For some (of the knights) placed upon the armour carried by
+themselves and by their horses,[109] signs that were different one from
+another, in order to be known thereby; while others placed them on their
+heads, or on their helmets."
+
+  [109] The horse was also covered with a _lóriga_, on which, from about
+        the twelfth century, were thrown the decorative trappings of
+        _cendal_ or thin silk, painted or embroidered with the warrior's
+        arms.
+
+                           [Illustration: XLI
+                      THE BATTLE OF LA HIGUERUELA
+            (_Wall painting. Hall of Battles, El Escorial_)]
+
+The Normans used a form of hauberk with attached mail-stockings. In
+Spain we find in lieu of this leg-covering, the Roman _cálcia_ (Latin
+_caliga_), extending from the foot to just below the thigh, and
+subsequently called the _brafonera_.[110] This was, in fact, a separate
+mail-stocking, made of closely interlacing steel rings, and worn above
+the leather boots or _trebuqueras_.
+
+  [110]        "_Calzó las brafoneras que eran bien obradas
+                Con sortijas de acero, sabet bien enlazadas;
+                Asi eran presas é bien trabadas,
+                Que semejaban calzas de las tiendas taiadas._"
+                                                     _Poem of the Cid._
+
+The Spanish _escudo_ or shield was usually made of wood covered with
+leather, and painted with the arms or the distinguishing emblem of its
+lord. Sometimes it was made of parchment. Thus the Chronicle of the Cid
+informs us that this hero after death was equipped with "a painted
+parchment helm and with a shield in the same wise." Another form of
+Spanish shield, the _adarga_ (_atareca_, _atarca_; Arabic _ad-darka_, to
+hold upon the arm), of which I shall subsequently notice specimens in
+the Royal Armoury, was commonly in the shape of a rough oval or of a
+heart, and made of various folds of leather sewn and glued together. The
+Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh speaks of a certain famine which broke
+out among the Spanish troops, and caused them such privation that "they
+chewed the leather of their shields."[111]
+
+  [111] Count of Clonard, _op. cit._
+
+The battle headgear of this people passed through many changes. "The
+helmet of the eighth century," says the Count of Clonard, "was the same
+which had been used by the Cantabrians and Vascones before the general
+peace proclaimed by Augustus Cæsar. Helmets of this design are engraved
+upon the medals (reproduced by Florez) of the imperial legate Publius
+Carisius. They covered the entire head and face, leaving only two holes
+for the eyes, as we see upon the carved stone fragments in relief at the
+door of the church of San Pedro de Villanueva, representing the struggle
+of King Froila with a bear."
+
+Another form of helmet which the Spaniards began to use about this time
+was the _almofar_ (Arabic _al-mejfar_), made of iron scales. It covered
+all the head, with the exception of the eyes, nose, and mouth, and
+corresponds to the _camail_ of the Normans. Beneath it was worn the
+linen _cofia_, a kind of bag or cap in which the warrior gathered up his
+hair. After about another century a round or conical iron helmet
+(_capacete_), fitted with cheek-pieces, was superposed on the _almofar_
+and fastened round the chin with straps. The _capacete_ of a noble was
+often adorned with precious stones and coronets of pure gold, while a
+spike projecting from the top was tipped with a large carbuncle, in
+order to catch and to reflect the flashing sunbeams.
+
+The substitution for this spike of multiform and multicolor figures or
+devices dates from a later age. The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh
+describes as something altogether novel and surprising, the crests upon
+the helmets of the foreign knights who flocked, in 1343, to Algeciras to
+aid the cause of Christianity against the Moor. "All of them," says this
+narrative, "placed their helmets at the door of their dwellings,
+supporting them on stout and lofty staves; and the figures on the
+helmets were of many kinds. On some was the figure of a lion; on others
+that of a wolf, or ass's head, or ox, or dog, or divers other beasts;
+while others bore the likeness of the heads of men; faces, beards, and
+all. Others, too, had wings as those of eagles or of crows; and so,
+between these various kinds there were in all as many as six hundred
+helmets."
+
+This brings us to the celebrated helmet or _cimera_ (Plate xxxix.), now
+in the Royal Armoury of Madrid, believed till recently to have belonged
+to Jayme the First, conqueror of Palma and Valencia, and the greatest,
+both in spirit and in stature, of the old-time kings of Aragon.
+
+Such part of this interesting helmet as is left consists of two pieces,
+one of them resting loosely on the other. Baron de las Cuatro Torres
+infers, from a detail which will presently be noted, that the lower of
+these two pieces is not original; and his opinion was shared by the
+Count of Valencia de Don Juan, who, notwithstanding, thought the
+spurious part to be coeval with the actual crest. The upper part
+consists of a fragment of a helm, made, like some flimsy theatre
+property, of linen, card, and parchment, and surmounted with the figure
+of the mythical monster known in the Lemosin language as the
+_drac-pennat_, or winged dragon, which formed, conjointly with the royal
+crown, the emblem or device of all the Aragonese sovereigns from Pedro
+the Fourth to Ferdinand the Second.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLII
+                   PARADE HARNESS OF PHILIP THE THIRD
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+There is, however, no reason to doubt the helmet's authenticity. It is
+known to have remained for centuries at Palma, in the Balearics, where
+it was worn upon the day of Saint Sylvester in each year, by a person
+who walked in the procession of the _Standart_ to celebrate the capture
+of the city by Don Jayme. This would explain the lower piece contrived
+and added to the crest itself, in order to adjust the incomplete and
+upper portion to the subsequent wearer's head. The helmet as originally
+made was meant for tourneying only, and is therefore fashioned, not of
+metal, but of the frail theatrical materials I have stated. Copper and
+wood, says Viollet-le-Duc, were also used in making these objects. The
+earliest wearer of the helm cannot have been Don Jayme. Baron de las
+Cuatro Torres remarks that on an Aragonese coin of the reign of Pedro
+the Fourth, the monarch is wearing on his head something which looks
+identical with this _cimera_.[112] Demay has further told us that the
+vogue of such _cimeras_, whose principal purpose was to distinguish
+seigniories, lasted from 1289 till the introduction of movable visors at
+the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century. The
+present helmet, therefore, probably belonged to Don Pedro the Fourth of
+Aragon ("the Ceremonious"), and was made at some time in his
+reign--that is, between 1335 and 1387. A document has been discovered in
+which this monarch's son, Don Martin of Aragon, commands that year by
+year his own helmet, "_nostram emprissiam sive cimbram_," together with
+the banner of Jayme the Conqueror, is to be publicly exhibited in
+commemoration of the capture of Majorca. Therefore we may conclude from
+these important facts that here is the crest of a tourneying helmet
+which belonged either to Don Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, or else to
+either of, or possibly both, his sons, Don Juan and Don Martin.
+
+  [112] _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_; Nos. 16 and 17.
+
+The changes which occur in Spanish arms and armour between the
+fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries keep pace, upon the whole, with
+those in other parts of Europe. It is, however, opportune to notice how
+the Spanish armies of this time were organized. Their regular cavalry
+consisted of: (1) the force directly mustered by the king and under his
+immediate leadership; (2) the mounted burghers who defrayed the whole or
+part of their expenses, being in certain instances assisted by a stipend
+which had been created by municipal and local _fueros_; (3) the knights
+belonging to the military orders; and (4) the barons, together with the
+men these last were called upon, obedient to the summons of the royal
+_mandadero_ (messenger), to mount, equip, provision, and bring to war
+with them. Such was the heavy cavalry of later mediæval Spain. A lighter
+class, said by the Count of Clonard to have been recruited from the
+southern regions of the land, was known as _alfaraces_, _almogávares_,
+or _omes de la gineta_.
+
+These latter lived in frugal fashion. Water was their only drink; bread
+and the roots of plants their only food. Their clothing, too, was of the
+slightest, consisting merely of a shirt, high boots, and a kind of net
+upon the head. They wore no armour, and carried as their only weapons an
+_azagaya_ and a lance. Their principal value was in skirmishing.
+
+The infantry were also of two kinds. The first, collective or
+stipendiary, was levied by the towns and cities, and from them received
+its maintenance. The second was the _almogávares_, who served for
+scouting, like their mounted comrades of the same denomination. The
+stipendiary or regular troops proceeded chiefly from the northern
+provinces--Alava, Guipúzcoa, the Asturias, and the mountains of León,
+and carried commonly the lance, sword, sling, crossbow, and the
+_azagaya_--this last a dart-shaped missile borrowed from the Berber
+tribesmen,--the ancient Moorish _azgaya_, the modern _assagai_ or
+_assegai_ of Zululand.[113]
+
+  [113] One of these weapons may be seen in the Royal Armoury (No. I. 95).
+        It is made of iron covered with leather, and has a laurel-shaped
+        blade with sharpened edges. The other end consists of two
+        projecting pieces of the metal, shaped to resemble the plumes of
+        an arrow. The length of this arm is 5 feet 8 inches.
+
+In a country which was plunged in ruinous and almost unremitting
+internecine strife; which was (and is) inherently averse to commerce or
+to agriculture; and where the bulk of all the national wealth was either
+locked away in churches and in convents, or in the coffers of great
+nobles who were frequently as wealthy as, or even wealthier than, the
+Crown, the armour of the common mediæval Spanish soldier consisted of
+the plain and necessary parts and nothing more. The aristocracy, upon
+the other hand, often adorned their battle-harness with the finest gold
+and silver work, and studded it with precious stones. Even the esquires
+would sometimes imitate their masters in this costly mode. "We command,"
+said Juan the First in one of his pragmatics dating from the end of the
+fourteenth century, "that no shield-bearer shall carry cloth of gold or
+any manner of gold ornament upon his trappings, scarf, or saddle; or
+on his badge or arms, excepting only on the edges of his bassinet and
+his cuisses, together with the bit and poitral of his horse, which may
+be gilded."
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIII
+                      MOORISH CROSSBOW AND STIRRUP
+                         (_Museum of Granada_)]
+
+It is also evident from Royal Letters of this time, that the kings of
+Spain depended very largely for the flower of their forces on the
+private fortune or resources of the Spanish noblemen or even commoners;
+nor did they ever hesitate to turn these means of other people to their
+own particular good. The Ordinance of Juan the First, dated Segovia,
+1390, commands that, "Every man who possesses 20,000 _maravedis_ and
+upward shall have his proper set of harness, habergeons and
+scale-pieces, and lappet-piece, cuisses and vantbrasses, bassinet,
+camail, and war-cap[114] with its gorget; or else a helmet, together
+with sword and dagger, glaive and battle-axe. And whoso possesses 3000
+_maravedis_ and upward shall have his lance and javelin and shield, his
+lappet-piece and coat of mail, and iron bassinet without a camail, and a
+_capellina_, together with his sword, _estoque_, and knife. And whoso
+has between 2000 and 3000 _maravedis_ shall have his lance and sword or
+_estoque_ and knife, or a bassinet or _capellina_, together with a
+shield. And whoso has from 600 to 2000 _maravedis_ shall have a crossbow
+with its nut and cord and stirrup, quiver and strap, and three dozen
+shafts. And whoso has from 400 to 600 _maravedis_ shall have a lance, a
+javelin, and a shield. And whoso has 400 _maravedis_ shall have a
+javelin and a lance."
+
+  [114] _Capellina_. The Count of Clonard says that this was in the shape
+        of half a lemon, and fitted with a visor with a cutting edge.
+
+The wealthier classes responded lavishly to this command. Describing the
+battle of Olmedo and the forces of Don Alvaro de Luna sent against the
+Navarrese, the chronicle of the Constable declares that among his entire
+host could hardly have been found a single cavalier whose horse was not
+covered with trappings, and its neck with mail. "For some there were
+that carried divers figures painted on the aforesaid trappings, and
+others that bore upon their helmets jewels that were a token from their
+mistresses. And others carried gold or silver bells suspended from their
+horses' necks by thick chains; or plates upon their helmets studded with
+precious stones, or small targes richly garnished with strange figures
+and devices. Nor was there less variety in the crests upon their
+helmets; for some bore likenesses of savage beasts, and others plumes of
+various colours; while others carried but a plume or two upon their
+helmet crest, like unto those upon the forehead of their horses."
+
+The fifteenth century is often called in Spain her golden age of
+arms--not in the sense that she invented anything new relating to this
+craft, but that her warriors were more fully and more frequently
+equipped with what had been imported from elsewhere. As in the case of
+crested helmets, foreign initiative brought about the substitution of
+plate or German armour--developed from the chain armour and the coat of
+mail--for the earlier sets of disconnected pieces. Possibly, as a
+chronicle which describes the Englishmen and Gascons who were present at
+the siege of Lerma in 1334 would seem to indicate, it was in consequence
+of this direct association with the foreigner that the older form of
+Spanish harness yielded to the new. However this may be, plate armour
+certainly appeared in Spain at some time in the fourteenth century, and
+grew in vogue throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.
+Suits of armour worn by Spanish pikemen and crossbowmen of this period
+may be profitably studied in the Royal Armoury (Plate xl.); and the same
+harness is reproduced in the choir-stalls of Toledo cathedral, carved by
+Maestre Rodrigo in 1495. It is also useful to consult the prolix
+description of the _Passo Honroso_ (1433) of Suero de Quiñones, held at
+the bridge of Orbigo, as well as the painting of the battle of La
+Higueruela (Plate xli.) in the Sala de las Batallas of the Escorial. We
+find from these authoritative sources that Spanish harness then
+consisted of the war-hat or _capacete_, with its _barbote_ or piece to
+cover the mouth and cheeks, and fringe of mail (_mantillos_) to protect
+the neck: the _coracina_ or korazin of tinned steel plates;[115] the
+coat of mail; armlets and gauntlets; leg-pieces with closed greaves; and
+steel-pointed mail shoes.
+
+  [115] The following armourers' marks are stamped on various korazins in
+        the Royal Armoury, made in Aragon and dating from the fifteenth
+        century:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Spanish man-at-arms of the sixteenth century is well described by
+Martin de Eguiluz, in his book, _Milicia, Discursos, y Regla Militar_.
+"The man is mounted and bears a lance. His head is covered with a
+visored helmet. He wears a double breastplate, of which the outer piece
+is called _volante_. His thighs are guarded by cuisses, his legs by
+greaves, and his feet by shoes of mail or iron. His horse's face, neck,
+breast, and haunches are covered with iron or with doubled leather.
+These coverings are called _bardas_, and the horses protected by them
+_bardados_, of which each man-at-arms is called upon to possess two."
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIV
+                             MOORISH SWORD
+                    (_Casa de los Tiros, Granada_)]
+
+These plainer sets of war-harness for horses were made in Spain. The
+costlier bards, whether for war or tournament, were made in Italy and
+Germany, and often match the outfit of the rider in the splendour and
+luxuriance of their decoration. Striking examples of these bards are in
+the Royal Armoury, including one (Plate xlii.) which formerly belonged
+to Philip the Third. Probably it is the same referred to in the
+manuscript account of Valladolid from which I have already quoted
+curious notices of other crafts. Speaking of the Duke of Lerma in 1605,
+this narrative says; "He rode a beautiful horse with richly decorated
+arms and gold-embroidered bard, fringed, and with medallions in relief.
+The trappings, reaching to the ground, were of black velvet covered with
+silver plates as large as dinner-plates, and others of a smaller size
+that represented arms and war-trophies, all of them gilt, and studded
+with precious stones. I heard say that this armour which the Duke now
+wore, had once belonged to the Emperor, and is now the King's."[116]
+
+  [116] My theory that this harness and the one in the Royal Armoury are
+        the same is strengthened by the official inventory, which
+        specifies "a band of gold and silver, striped, and with devices
+        in relief, studded with lapis lazuli, and yellow gems and luminous
+        crystals." The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that this fine
+        outfit, except the portions which are represented in the plate,
+        was mutilated and dispersed in later years, and that he has
+        discovered fragments in the museums of Paris and Vienna, and in
+        the collection of Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild.
+
+The crossbow was an arm of great importance from about the eleventh
+century until the seventeenth, and Spain, throughout the latter of these
+centuries, was celebrated for their manufacture. Roquetas, a Catalan,
+"master-maker of crossbows," constructed them of steel, so skilfully and
+finely that they could be carried concealed inside the sleeve of a coat,
+and discharged without awaking the suspicion of the victim. A letter of
+René of Anjou, quoted by the Count of Valencia de Don Juan, also refers
+to the skill of the Catalans in making crossbows, and mentions one of
+these weapons constructed by "Saracen," of Barcelona, "who refuses to
+teach his craft to Christians." The letter further states that this arm
+was of a curious shape, and that, "despite its small dimensions, it
+carries to a greater distance than any other I have yet possessed."
+
+A handsome Moorish crossbow, inlaid with bronze (Plate xliii.), exists
+in the provincial museum of Granada. The Royal Armoury has no example of
+the rare form of crossbow fitted with wheeled gear, but all the commoner
+kinds employed for hunting or for war are represented here, including
+those with the _armatoste_ or goat's-foot lever, stirruped crossbows,
+and those which have the _torno_ or windlass (French _cranequin_).
+Demmin appends the following note to an illustration in his handbook of
+a crossbow with a goat's-foot lever fixed to the stock:--"A similar
+weapon in ironwood, sixteenth century, belonged to Ferdinand the First,
+proved by the inscription on the bow: DOM FERNANDO REI DE ROMANO,
+followed by four Golden Fleeces. It bears the name of the Spanish
+armourer Juan Deneinas. This valuable crossbow once belonged to M.
+Spengel, at Munich, but it is at present in the collection of the Count
+of Nieuwerkerke."
+
+There is also in the Royal Armoury a crossbow of the scarcer kind known
+in Spanish as _ballestas de palo_, in which the gaffle is not of steel,
+but put together from slips of springy woods, including yew. The wings
+are tipped with horn, and traces of heraldic and Renaissance decoration,
+painted on parchment, yet remain upon the weapon. Other portions are
+inlaid. Except for the erasure of the painting, this arm is splendidly
+preserved, and still retains its double cord, nut, and pins, together
+with the separate lever.
+
+Another interesting crossbow in this armoury belonged to Charles the
+Fifth, who used it for the chase. It has a _verja_ or yard of steel
+engraved with the letter C four times repeated and surmounted by a
+crown, and bears the inscription, PRO · IMPERATORE · SEMPER · AVGVSTO ·
+PLVS · VLTRA ·, together with · IV DE LA FVETE ·, for Juan de la
+Fuente, the name of a celebrated maker of these parts of a crossbow. The
+shaft (_tablero_), ornamented in bone and iron, is from the hand of
+another master, Juan Hernandez, whose signature is IO: HRZ. The Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan supposed that this was the one crossbow which
+Charles took with him to the rustic solitude of Yuste, and which is
+mentioned in a document at Simancas as "a crossbow with its gear and
+gaffles (it is in His Majesty's possession, but he has not paid for
+it)."
+
+                           [Illustration: XLV
+                       SWORD OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+                    (_Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+Hitherto I have traced the war-equipment of the Spanish Christians only.
+In the early period of Mohammedan rule, the conquerors used a simple
+dress for war, consisting of the _capacete_ or _almofar_ for the head,
+secured by a chain beneath the chin and covered by a piece of cloth
+called _schasch_, hanging to just below the shoulders; a wide sleeveless
+tunic; a shirt of mail; tight breeches, and leather shoes. Their weapons
+were the lance and sword. The foot-soldiery wore the _djobba_, a
+tight-sleeved tunic of white wool, bound to the body by a scarf, and
+leather shoes, and carried as their arms a _capacete_ of beaten iron,
+without a crest or cheek-pieces; a large round shield with its
+projecting umbo; and either a lance, or a double-edged and double-handed
+sword. Such are the details represented in the _Codex of the
+Apocalypse_, preserved in the cathedral of Gerona. As time progressed,
+the weapons and defensive armour of these Spanish Moors grew more
+luxurious and ornate, being often decorated with enamels, precious
+stones, or inlaid metals such as silver, gold, and bronze. Prominent
+centres of this industry were Murcia, Zaragoza, and Toledo, which are
+even said to have surpassed Damascus. Andalusia, too, was celebrated for
+her gold-inlaid cuirasses and coats of mail; while, according to El
+Idrisi, the town of Jativa enjoyed a widespread fame for every kind of
+decorative armour.[117]
+
+  [117] _Historia General del Arte_: García Llansó; _Armas_; pp. 440, 441.
+
+The military outfit of the Spanish Moors was, therefore, much the same
+as that of Christian Spain. Toledo under Muslim rule continued to be
+famous for her swords. Moorish Seville, Ronda, and Valencia were also
+favourably known for weapons, household knives, and scissors. Cutlery in
+the Moorish style is still produced in certain parts of eastern Spain,
+and in his _History of the Mohammedan Dynasties_ of this country,
+Gayangos tells us of a knife which bore upon one side of the blade the
+inscription in Arabic characters, "_With the help of God I will inflict
+death upon thy adversary_," and upon the other side, in Castilian, the
+words, "_Knife-factory of Antonio Gonzalez. Albacete, 1705._"
+
+The primitive Spanish-Moorish sword was an arm of moderate breadth used
+both for cutting and for thrusting. As time went on, this people
+gradually adopted swords of Spanish make or pattern, such as the
+ponderous _brandimartes_ and _montantes_ made for wielding with both
+hands. The Granadino writer Aben Said complains that the adoption of the
+arms, and even of the costume of the Spanish Christians, was prevalent
+at Granada in the thirteenth century. "Sultans and soldiers alike," he
+said, "dress in the manner of the Christians, even to their arms and
+armour, crimson cloaks, standards, and saddlery. They wield in battle a
+shield and a long lance,[118] which serves them to attack with; nor do
+they seem to care for Arab bows or maces, but prefer to use the Frankish
+ones."
+
+  [118] This weapon can have been no other than the typical Iberian lance.
+
+Nevertheless, the warriors of Granada carried several weapons which were
+not of Christian origin. The tribe of the Beni-Merines brought across
+from Africa a kind of sword called often in the Christian chronicles the
+_espada gineta_, used principally, as we gather from its name, by those
+addicted to the Moorish mode of horsemanship, or riding with short
+stirrups. The use of it extended later to the Christian Spaniards, and
+it is said to have contributed in later times to the victory of the
+Spanish army at Pavia. Other swords in use among the Granadinos were the
+_alfange_, the _chifarra_, the _chifarote_, and the _nammexi_. The last
+of these is described in an old dictionary of the Valencian and
+Castilian languages as a kind of scimitar, although Quatremère and
+Fleischer believe it to have been a dagger.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVI
+                       DAGGER OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+                    (_Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+Another author who describes the arms and armour of the Granadinos is
+Al-Jattib, who says in his _Splendour of the New Moon_; "There are in
+Granada two kinds of soldiery--those of Al-Andalus and those of Africa.
+Their leader is a prince of royal blood, or some exalted personage at
+court. Formerly they used the Christian arms; that is, ample coats of
+mail, heavy shields, thick iron helmets, lances with broad points, and
+insecure saddles.... Now they have discarded that equipment, and are
+beginning to use short cuirasses, light helmets, Arab saddles, leather
+shields, and thin lances." Of the African troops the same historian
+adds; "Their weapons for attacking are spears, either short or long,
+which they propel by pressing with the finger. These arms they call
+_marasas_; but for daily exercise they use the European bow."
+
+Descriptions of the Spanish-Moorish swords inserted in the chronicles
+and poems of the Middle Ages, together with the few examples that have
+been preserved until our time, enable us to form an accurate idea of the
+shape and decoration of these weapons generally. Those of the sultans
+and the Muslim aristocracy were, as a rule, profusely ornamented, either
+with precious stones or with enamels, or else with delicate and lavish
+damascening, or with the characteristic Oriental _ataujía_-work of gold
+and silver inlay. Inscriptions, too, were freely used upon the hilt or
+scabbard. Thus we are told that the great Almanzor kept for daily use a
+sword which bore the legend; "_Strive in warfare till ye win great
+victories. Battle with the infidels till ye win them over to Islam_";
+and similar inscriptions may be quoted in great number. But four or five
+of these magnificent arms have proved superior to the ravages of time,
+and naturally tell us more than any weapons whose renown survives in
+written records merely. Among such extant Spanish-Moorish swords are two
+attributed respectively to Aliatar and Abindarraez; two others which are
+known to have belonged to the last ill-fated monarch of the Moors of
+Spain, Boabdil el Chico; and another, considered to have also been
+Boabdil's property, now in possession of the Marquises of Campotejar,
+owners of the Generalife and of the Casa de los Tiros at Granada.
+
+The "sword of Aliatar," preserved in the Museum of Artillery at Madrid,
+is said to have been wrested from the clenched hand of that warrior,
+father-in-law of Boabdil and governor of Loja, as his corpse was swept
+away down stream after the rout of the Moorish expedition at Lucena.
+This arm is richly damascened as well as decorated with the
+characteristic _ataujía_. The centre of the hilt is made of ivory, and
+the pommel and crossbars--which latter terminate in elephants' heads
+with slightly upturned trunks--of damascened and inlaid iron, ornamented
+here and there with _ataujía_. Part of the blade--probably about an
+eighth--is broken off. The sheath has disappeared.
+
+An idle superstition has attributed the so-called "sword of Abindarraez"
+to the hero of the well-known sixteenth-century romance entitled _The
+Abencerraje and the Beautiful Jarifa._ This weapon, which for many years
+was in possession of the Narvaez family, belongs at present to the
+Marquis of La Vega de Armijo. The decoration is not particularly rich,
+and part of it is worn away; but the narrow blade is still engraved
+with figures or portraits from the story which has given the sword its
+name.
+
+The sword (Pl. xliv.) belonging to the Marquises of Campotejar, and
+which is preserved in the Casa de los Tiros at Granada, bears some
+resemblance to the "sword of Aliatar," and has about the same
+dimensions. Although it is commonly believed that Boabdil was the
+original owner of this sword, Gómez Moreno considers that more probably
+it belonged to one of the Moorish princes of Almería. The handle and
+crossbars, as well as the shape of the sheath, are silver-gilt, covered
+with minute arabesque ornamentation forming leaves and stems, and
+further decorated with enamel. The sheath is of Morocco leather worked
+with silver thread. The crossbars, curving abruptly down,[119] terminate
+in elephants' trunks boldly upturned towards the pommel. The blade is
+stamped with a Toledo mark consisting of Castilian letters and a
+pomegranate.
+
+  [119] In the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, this characteristically
+        eastern downward curve of the crossbars grew to be popular even
+        with the Christian Spaniards, as we observe from the swords of
+        Ferdinand himself, preserved in the Royal Armoury at Madrid, and
+        the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of Granada.
+
+But the most important, interesting, and beautiful specimens of
+Spanish-Moorish arms preserved to-day are those which were captured from
+Boabdil at the battle of Lucena (1482), when the monarch was made
+prisoner by the young Alcaide de los Donceles, Don Diego Fernandez de
+Cordova. A manuscript _History of the House of Cordova_, quoted by
+Eguilaz Yanguas,[120] says that upon the day in question, irretrievably
+disastrous to the Moorish cause in Spain, Boabdil carried "a short,
+silver-handled sword, a damascened dagger, and a lance and buckler of
+great strength" (Plates xlv. and xlvi.). These arms, together with
+another and a larger sword (_montante_ or _estoque real_) for wielding
+with both hands, and certain articles of Boabdil's clothing, continued
+in the captor's family for centuries, and were, some years ago,
+presented by the Marquises of Villaseca, his direct descendants, to the
+National Museum of Artillery.
+
+  [120] _Las Pinturas de la Alhambra_, p. 15.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVII
+                             MOORISH SWORD
+                   (_Hilt and upper part of sheath_)]
+
+The smaller or _gineta_ sword[121] is handsomer and more important
+than the large _estoque_. The crossbars, as we find so often in weapons
+of this character and date, are bent abruptly down, and then curve up in
+a design of dragons' heads--the well-known emblem of the Nasrite sultans
+of Granada. Part of the handle is of solid gold adorned with crimson,
+white, and blue enamel distributed about the top and bottom of the hilt,
+the pommel, and the _arriaces_ or crossbars. The centre of the hilt
+consists of ivory, richly carved. On either side of it are two octagonal
+intersecting figures, bearing upon one side, in semi-Cufic characters,
+the words, "_Achieve thy aim_," and on the other, "_in preserving his_
+(_i.e._ the owner's) _life_." Round the upper border of the ivory is
+carved the sentence; "_In the name of God; the power belongs to Him, and
+there is no Divinity but He. Happiness proceeds from God alone_"; and
+round the lower border, "_The marvellous belongs to God. Assuredly at
+the outset the ignorant do not know their God; seeing that error is
+their custom._"
+
+  [121] The Count of Valencia de Don Juan states that seven
+        Hispano-Moresque _gineta_ swords are known to exist to-day: the
+        one vwhich is here described, and those belonging to the Marquises
+        of Viana and Pallavicino, Baron de Sangarrén, the Duke of Dino,
+        Señor Sánchez Toscano, the archæological museum at Madrid, the
+        museum of Cassel in Germany, and the national library at Paris, A
+        _gineta_ sword in the Madrid Armoury popularly attributed to
+        Boabdil can never have belonged to him. The hilt is modern, and
+        the blade proceeds from Barbary.
+
+Other inscriptions of a sacred character, combined with delicate
+_ataujía_-work, are on the pommel and the upper portion of the hilt; but
+it has been remarked that, although the entire decoration is amazingly
+elaborate and rich, these inscriptions nowhere indicate that the weapon
+belonged to a personage of royal blood.
+
+The sheath of this most sumptuous arm is also lavishly adorned with
+silver and enamel on a purple leather ground. The blade is of a later
+date than either sheath or hilt, and bears the letter S, believed to be
+the mark of Alonso Sahagun the elder, of Toledo. The total length of
+this weapon is thirty-nine inches; and Gayangos declares that it was
+worn suspended by a belt between the shoulders.[122]
+
+  [122] A number of Moorish swords are mentioned in the inventory,
+        compiled in 1560, of the Dukes of Alburquerque. One is
+        particularly interesting. It is described as "a Moorish _gineta_
+        sword which belongs to the Count of Monteagudo, and is pawned for
+        six thousand _maravedis_. The sheath is of bay leather, worked in
+        gold thread. The chape and fittings are of silver, decorated with
+        green, blue, purple, and white enamel. There are two serpents'
+        heads upon the fitting, together with the figure of a monster
+        worked in gold thread on a little plate, and two large scarlet
+        tassels: the little plate has three ends of the same enamel and a
+        silver-gilt buckle." A note at the margin adds; "The chape is
+        wanting, and is owed us by the Marquis of Comares, who lost it at
+        the cane-play at Madrid."
+
+        The two serpents' heads formed part of the arms of the Alahmar
+        sultans of Granada; so that from this and from the richness of
+        this weapon we may infer that it had once belonged to Mussulman
+        royalty. The same inventory describes "a Moorish scimitar with
+        gilded hilt; the cross and pommel, and a great part of the
+        scimitar itself, being of gilded _ataujía_ work. The sheath is
+        green inside, and black and gilt upon the face; and hanging from
+        the hilt is a gold and purple cord with a button and a black
+        tassel."
+
+The large _montante_ which belonged to the same ill-fated monarch has a
+cylindrical hilt, narrower in the centre of the handle than at either
+end. This hilt is made of steel inlaid with _lacería_ or network
+ornament in ivory. In a small shield within the decoration of the
+pommel, appear the words "_To God_"; and in the centre of the handle,
+the familiar motto of the Nasrite sultans of Granada; "_The only
+Conqueror is God._"
+
+Part of the blade is broken off. That which is left is broad and
+straight, with two grooves (one of which extends about three inches
+only) on each side, and bears an oriental mark consisting of five
+half-moons. The sheath is of brown Morocco decorated with a small gilt
+pattern forming shells and flowers. The mouth and chape are silver-gilt.
+
+In beautiful and skilful craftsmanship Boabdil's dagger or _gumía_
+matches with his swords. The handle is of steel inlaid in ivory with
+floral patterns, and terminates in a large sphere, similarly decorated.
+The blade has a single edge, and is exquisitely damascened in gold
+designs which cover more than half of all its surface. Along one side we
+read the inscription; "_Health, permanent glory, lasting felicity,
+permanent glory, lasting felicity, and lasting and permanent glory
+belong to God_"; and on the other side, "_It was made by Reduan._"
+
+The sheath of this little arm is made of crimson velvet richly
+embroidered with gold thread, and hanging from it is a large tassel of
+gold cord and crimson silk. The chape and mouth are silver-gilt,
+profusely decorated, and the latter of these pieces is embellished with
+circular devices of a lightish green enamel, in addition to the chasing.
+
+The small, plain knife, also preserved among the spoil, was carried in
+this sheath, together with the dagger.[123]
+
+  [123] To-day the craft of finely decorating arms is not forgotten in
+        Morocco. "A silversmith advanced to show a half-completed
+        silver-sheathed and hafted dagger, engraved with pious sentences,
+        as, "God is our sufficiency and our best bulwark here on earth,"
+        and running in and out between the texts a pattern of a rope with
+        one of the strands left out, which pattern also ran round the
+        cornice of the room we sat in, and round the door, as it runs
+        round the doors in the Alhambra and the Alcazar, and in thousands
+        of houses built by the Moors, and standing still, in Spain. The
+        dagger and the sheath were handed to me for my inspection, and on
+        my saying that they were beautifully worked, the Caid said keep
+        them, but I declined, not having anything of equal value to give
+        in return."--Cunninghame Graham; _Mogreb-El-Acksa_, p. 234.
+
+                         [Illustration: XLVIII
+                    WAR HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The Royal Armoury at Madrid is often thought by foreigners[124] to
+contain a representative collection of the arms, offensive and
+defensive, used by the Spanish people through all their mediæval and
+post-mediæval history. This is not so. Although it is the choicest and
+the richest gallery in Europe, the Armería Real was formed almost
+entirely from the _cámaras de armas_ or private armouries of Charles the
+Fifth and of his son, and is, as Mélida describes it, "a splendid
+gallery of royal arms," dating, with very few exceptions, from the
+sixteenth century.
+
+  [124] _E.g._, by Townsend, who wrote of it, with ill-informed
+        enthusiasm, as "an epitome of Spanish history." Swinburne's notice
+        of the same armoury is also curious: "At the bottom of the
+        palace-yard is an old building, called the Armeria, containing a
+        curious assortment of antique arms and weapons, kept in a manner
+        that would have made poor Cornelius Scriblerus swoon at every
+        step; no notable housemaid in England has her fire-grates half so
+        bright as these coats of mail; they show those of all the heroes
+        that dignify the annals of Spain; those of Saint Ferdinand,
+        Ferdinand the Catholic, his wife Isabella, Charles the Fifth, the
+        great Captain Gonsalo, the king of Granada, and many others. Some
+        suits are embossed with great nicety. The temper of the sword
+        blades is quite wonderful, for you may lap them round your waist
+        like a girdle. The art of tempering steel in Toledo was lost about
+        seventy years ago, and the project of reviving and encouraging it
+        is one of the favourite schemes of Charles the Third, who has
+        erected proper works for it on the banks of the Tagus."
+
+The greater part of its contents were made within a limited interval, as
+well as not produced in Spain. Such are the glittering and gorgeous
+harnesses constructed for the actual use of Charles the Fifth by
+celebrated German and Italian armourers, ponderous suits for jousting or
+parade, or lighter suits for combat in the field, whether on foot or
+horseback (Plate xlviii.), fashioned, chiselled, and inlaid by craftsmen
+such as the Negroli and Piccini of Milan, Bartolommeo Campi of Pesaro,
+or Kollman of Augsburg, bombastically called, by a Spanish poet in the
+mode of Gongora, "the direct descendant of Vulcanus."
+
+This German and Italian armour, with its multitude of accessorial
+pieces,[125] falls outside the province of a book on Spanish arts and
+crafts. Nevertheless, I reproduce, as being too little known outside
+Madrid, the sumptuous jousting harness (Plate xlix.), of Charles the
+Fifth, made for the emperor when he was a lad of only eighteen years by
+Kollman Helmschmied of Augsburg.[126] Laurent Vital, describing the
+royal jousts at Valladolid in 1518, relates that "après marchait le Roy
+bien gorgiasement monté et armé d'un fin harnais d'Alemaigne, plus
+reluisant que d'argent brunti." This is the very harness told of by the
+chronicler. The helmet turns the scale at forty pounds; the entire suit
+at two hundred and fifty-three pounds; and the length of the lance
+exceeds eleven feet.
+
+  [125] Throughout this time, the full equipment of the knight consisted
+        of no less than four complete suits, for tournament or battle, or
+        for foot or mounted fighting, together with their lances, swords,
+        and targes. The Alburquerque inventory describes in detail a
+        complete set ("all of it kept in a box") of war and tourneying
+        harness belonging to the duke. Although the warriors of that day
+        were short of stature, their muscular strength is undeniable, for
+        one of their lances has to be lifted nowadays by several men. When
+        the author of _Mogreb-El-Acksa_ wrote contemptuously of the
+        "scrofulous champions tapping on each other's shields," he was
+        perhaps, forgetful for a moment of this fact.
+
+  [126] The Count of Valencia de Don Juan has found, from documents at
+        Simancas, that in the year 1525 Kollman visited Toledo to measure
+        Charles for armour. It is also certain, adds the Count, that, in
+        order to produce this armour of a perfect fit, Kollman first
+        moulded Charles' limbs in wax, and then transferred the moulds to
+        lead. In a budget of accounts which coincides with Kollman's visit
+        to Toledo appears the following item: "Pour trois livres de cire
+        et de plomb pour faire les patrons que maître Colman, armoyeur,
+        a fait"--followed by details of the cost.
+
+There is, however, also in this armoury a jousting harness (Plate l.)
+formerly the property of Philip the First of Spain, a part of which,
+including the cuirass, is known to be of Spanish make. The cuirass in
+question bears the mark of a Valencia armourer, and the harness
+generally dates from about the year 1500, at which time Gachard tells us
+in his _Chroniques Belges_ that Philip was learning to joust "à la mode
+d'Espaigne." Besides the enormous helmet and the Spanish-made cuirass,
+covered with gold brocade, this ornament includes a tourneying lance
+with a blunt three-pointed head,[127] and a curious form of rest, said
+by the Count of Valencia de Don Juan to be peculiar to the Spaniards and
+Italians. This rest is stuffed with cork, on which, just as the fray
+began, the iron extremity of the lance was firmly driven. Another
+interesting detail is the _cuja_, fastened to the right side of the
+cuirass, and also stuffed with cork, made use of to support the lance
+upon its passage over to the rest. Nor in this instance was the _cuja_ a
+superfluous device, seeing that the lance is over fifteen feet in
+length.
+
+  [127] This, in the later Middle Ages, was a favourite form of tourneying
+        lance.
+
+These are the principal portions of the harness. The seemingly
+insufficient protection for the arms is explained by the fact that the
+solid wooden shield completely covered the fighter's left arm, while
+the right would be defended by the shield-like disc or _arandela_ of the
+lance.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIX
+                 JOUSTING HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Spanish shields and swords of great antiquity and interest are also in
+this armoury. The oldest of the shields dates from the twelfth century,
+and proceeds from the monastery of San Salvador de Oña, Burgos. The
+material is a wood resembling cedar, although much eaten by moth, and is
+covered on both sides with parchment bearing traces of primitive
+painting of a non-heraldic character. Inside the shield, this decoration
+consisted of a black ground crossed diagonally by a broad red band, and
+outside, of a red ground covered with rhomboid figures, some in gilt and
+some in colour. Such figures were a popular pattern at this time and on
+this class of objects. The general stoutness of this shield shows that
+it was meant for war. It still retains the strap which slung it from the
+warrior's neck, as well as fragments of the braces--made of buffalo
+leather covered with crimson velvet--for the hand.
+
+Another shield, proceeding from the same monastery, dates from the
+thirteenth century. The material, here again, is wood and parchment; but
+in this hundred years formal heraldic ornament had superseded fancy or
+conventional devices. Accordingly, this shield is painted with a
+blazon, now much worn, of which, however, enough remains to show that it
+consisted once upon a time of four black chaperons crowned with gold
+_fleurs-de-lis_ upon a gold ground--said to have been the arms of Don
+Rodrigo Gomez, Count of Bureba.
+
+The _scut_, or polished metal shield, with painted blazonry or other
+decoration, was limited to Aragon and Cataluña.[128]
+
+  [128] _Historia General del Arte; Armas_, by García Llansó; p. 445.
+
+Among the smaller and more modern shields preserved in this collection
+are two wooden bucklers dating from the sixteenth century. One is in the
+Spanish-Moorish style and of a convex shape, with iron bordering and
+umbo, and a lining of yellow brocade. The other, of the Christian
+Spaniards, is small and lined with painted parchment, and was intended,
+so the inventory says, "for going about at night."[129]
+
+  [129] "Dès que le soir arrive, on ne va point n'y à Madrid ny ailleurs,
+        sans cotte de maille et sans _broquet_ qui est une
+        rondache."--Bertaut de Rouen, _Voyage d'Espagne_ (1659 A.D.),
+        p. 294.
+
+        The arms of Spaniards promenading after dark were even fixed by
+        law. The _Suma de Leyes_ of 1628 ordains that after ten o'clock
+        nobody is to carry arms at all unless he also bears a lighted
+        torch or lantern. No arquebus, on pain of a fine of ten thousand
+        _maravedis_, may have a barrel less than a yard long. Nobody may
+        carry a sword or rapier the length of whose blade exceeds a yard
+        and a quarter, or wear a dagger unless a sword accompanies it.
+        Sometimes these prohibitions extended even to seasons of the year.
+        In 1530 an Ordinance of Granada proclaims that from the first of
+        March until the last day of November nobody may carry a hatchet,
+        sickle, or dagger, "except the dagger which is called a
+        _barazano_, of a palm in length, even if the wearer be a
+        shepherd." The penalty for infringement of this law was a fine of
+        ten thousand _maravedis_; but labourers who worked upon a farm
+        were exempted from the prohibition.
+
+        Swinburne wrote from Cataluña, in 1775, that "amongst other
+        restrictions, the use of slouched hats, white shoes, and large
+        brown cloaks is forbidden. Until of late they durst not carry any
+        kind of knife; but in each public house there was one chained to
+        the table, for the use of all comers."
+
+There is also a richly gilt and silvered buckler of the seventeenth
+century, made at Eugui in Navarre, and covered with a scene--decadent
+in design and workmanship--which represents the judgment of Paris.
+Defensive armour, chiefly of a highly decorative kind, was made all
+through this century at the capital of Navarre, Pamplona. The Royal
+Armoury contains a Pamplonese parade harness (Plate lii.), offered as a
+gift to Philip the Third, as well as six diminutive sets of armour made
+to his order for the youthful princes Don Felipe, Don Fernando, and Don
+Carlos.
+
+The _adarga_ was a kind of targe used by the light cavalry, and had its
+origin in Africa. Those which were stored in the palace of the Nasrite
+sultans of Granada are described by Al-Makkari as "solid, without pores,
+soft to the touch, and famed for their imperviousness." The material was
+strong leather, such as cowhide, often embroidered with a scutcheon or
+with arabesques. Two Spanish-made _adargas_ in this armoury are
+particularly handsome. One is of Moorish craftsmanship, and dates from
+the end of the fifteenth century. The other (Plate liii.), apparently
+the work of a Spanish Christian and dating from a century later, is
+embroidered in silver thread and coloured silk with arabesque devices
+and also with four coats of arms, one of which belongs to the noble
+family of Fernández de Cordova. The dimensions of this shield are a yard
+in height by thirty inches in breadth.
+
+                            [Illustration: L
+                JOUSTING HARNESS OF PHILIP THE HANDSOME
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+There also are preserved in this collection a shield (late sixteenth
+century) adorned by Mexican Indians with a most elaborate "mosaic of
+feather-work," and a number of Spanish _adargas_ of the same period, for
+playing the _juego de cañas_ or "game of canes." The armoury contained
+in former days as many as forty-two _adargas_; but the fire of 1884
+completely destroyed sixteen and badly damaged twenty-three,
+obliterating their heraldic and other decoration. A yet more sinister
+event befell on December 1st, 1808, when the Spanish mob, exasperated by
+the French, broke in and seized three hundred swords, not one of which
+was afterwards recovered. Mention of these disasters leads me to recall
+the quantity of beautiful or historic military gear that Spain has lost
+through many tribulations and vicissitudes. Formerly her noble families
+had excellent collections in their palaces or castles. Such were the
+private armouries of the Dukes of Pastrana at Guadalajara, and of the
+Dukes of Alburquerque at Cuéllar Castle, near Segovia. Bertaut de Rouen
+describes the first as "une des plus belles qui se voyent pour un
+seigneur particulier. Il y a quantité d'armes anciennes, et l'on y void
+une épée qui s'allonge et s'accourcit quand on veut, de deux pieds et
+demy."[130] The Cuéllar armoury was pulled to pieces by Philip the
+Fourth to arm his troops against the French. "Send me," he wrote to the
+Duke from Madrid, in a letter dated April 16th, 1637, "all your pistols,
+carbines, harness for horses, breastplates and other arms for mounted
+fighting"; and the loyal nobleman complied upon the spot, despatching
+more than five hundred pieces, many of which were doubtless of the
+greatest interest.[131]
+
+  [130] _Voyage d'Espagne_, p. 199.
+
+  [131] Gonzalo de la Torre de Trassierra; Articles on Cuéllar published
+        in the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_.
+
+Had I the erudition and the time, I would attempt to write, as it
+deserves to be written, an introduction to the history of Spanish
+swords. Of all the objects mentioned in these volumes, here is the most
+inherently symbolic of the Spanish character and history. The Spanish
+Moors and Spanish Christians spoke of it as something superhuman. "Once
+the sword is in the hand of man," observed, in solemn tones, the Wise
+Alfonso, "he hath it in his power to raise or lower it, to strike with
+it, or to abandon it." The Spanish Mussulmans talked of putting "clothes
+and breeches" on a sword that had a sheath, as though it were a
+breathing person; while a Spaniard of the time of Gongora would often
+use such language as the following: "Truly in point of look there is as
+great a difference between a costly sword and a _Toledan Loyalty_ or
+_Soldier's Dream_, as between a marquis and a muleteer, or a washerwoman
+and the Infanta. Yet every sword is virtually an hidalgo. Does not the
+basest of our Toledanas, even to the _perrillos_ and _morillos_, which
+have no core, and cost a dozen _reales_ merely, afford a chivalrous
+lesson to its wearer, as it bids him _no me saques sin razon, ni me
+envaines sin honor_?[132] The horse and the sword," he continued, taking
+a magnificently damascened rapier, and stroking it caressingly, "are the
+noblest friends of man, albeit the nobler is the sword; for the horse at
+times is obstinate or faint-hearted, but the sword is ready continually.
+The sword, moreover, possesses the chiefest of all virtues--justice, or
+the power of dividing right and wrong; a soul of iron, which is
+strength; and, last and greatest, the Cross, which is the symbol of the
+blessed Catholic Faith."[133]
+
+  [132] "Draw me not without a cause, nor sheathe me without honour." A
+        sword with this inscription is in the Royal Armoury--(G. 71 of
+        the official catalogue).
+
+  [133] Leonard Williams; _Toledo and Madrid: their Records and Romances_;
+        p. 102.
+
+Notices of early Spanish sword-makers are far from common. Don Manuel G.
+Simancas quotes the following, dated in the thirteenth century:--
+
+"_Master Almerique._ By letters of the King and Queen, to Master
+Almerique, for making the (sword) blades for the King; out of the MCC
+_maravedis_ of his salary he received CCCC _maravedis_."
+
+"_Master Enrique._ By letters of the King and Queen, to Master Enrique,
+for making the swords, MCCCC, (of which) he received CCCCXII
+_maravedis_."
+
+Other entries of the same period relate to Juan Ferrández, armourer, who
+received a sum for making coverings for arms and saddles; and to Master
+Jacomin, who was paid three gold _doblas_, or sixty-three _maravedis_,
+for making a breastplate.
+
+In the inventory (1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque occurs a very
+curious notice which seems to show that mediæval Spanish swords were
+manufactured even in the rural districts. The entry runs; "an old
+grooved sword of a broad shape, bearing the words _Juanes me fezió_
+("John made me"). In the middle of the same a P within a parted wave,
+with Portuguese fittings, varnished, black silk hilt and fringes, and
+double straps of black leather, with varnished ends and buckles and
+black leather sheath. _Juan de Lobinguez made this sword at Cuéllar._"
+
+                           [Illustration: LI
+                            MOORISH BUCKLER
+              (_Osier and metal. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The Spanish guilds of armourers enjoyed high favour,[134] since the
+examination for admission to this craft was very strict, as well as
+fenced about with curious prohibitions. Thus at Seville, "no Moor, Jew,
+black man, or other person such as the law debars, shall set up a shop
+for making and selling defensive arms, or undergo examination in this
+craft."[135] The penalty for infringement of this law was confiscation
+of the arms, together with a fine of twenty thousand _maravedis_.
+
+  [134] In the Corpus Christi festival at Granada the banner which
+        preceded all the rest was that of the armourers and knife-makers,
+        followed by that of the silk-mercers. _Ordenanzas de Granada_;
+        tit. 126.
+
+  [135] _Armourers' Ordinances of Seville_, extant in ms. (quoted by
+        Gestoso; _Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos_; vol. I.,
+        p. xxxvi).
+
+Throughout these times the armourer's and the gilder's crafts are found
+in closest union; just as the armourer's craft would often alternate
+with that of the goldsmith or the silversmith. At Seville, the Ordinance
+of 1512 prescribed that every candidate who came to be examined must
+make "a set of horse harness, complete with stirrups, headstalls, spurs,
+poitral, and the fittings of a sword; and he must silver several of
+these pieces and blue them with fine blue; and make of iron, and gild
+the spurs and fittings of the sword. Thus shall he make, and gild, and
+silver the aforesaid pieces."
+
+Equally severe and comprehensive are the swordsmiths' Ordinances (1527
+to 1531) of Granada. The aspirant to the title of _oficial_ "shall mount
+a sword for wear with ordinary clothes, fitted in black, together with
+its straps, and fringed and corded hilt; besides a sword gilded a low
+gold, together with its straps and other parts, all of a single colour.
+Also he shall fit a velvet-scabbarded, silver-hilted sword, and a
+two-handed sword, fully decorated, with the knife attaching to the same,
+one-edged and with a smooth hilt; also a sword whose scabbard shall be
+fitted with knives numbering not less than three; and a hilt of
+_lacería_ (network ornament); and another sword in a white sheath, with
+woven hilt; and another of a hand and a half."[136]
+
+  [136] "_De mano y media_"; _i.e._ for wielding either with one hand or
+        both. Specimens of this kind of sword existing at Madrid will be
+        described immediately.
+
+The Royal Armoury at Madrid contains an excellent collection of these
+weapons. Among the earliest known to be of Spanish make are two which
+date from the thirteenth century. One of them (Plate liv., No. 1), with
+fittings of a later time, is frequently miscalled the "Cid's Colada,"
+and seems to have been confounded with the genuine weapon of that hero
+which was acquired in the thirteenth century by one of the sovereigns of
+Castile, and which has probably disappeared.
+
+The blade of this remarkable sword has two edges and tapers gradually to
+the point. Part of the blade is slightly hollowed, and bears, extending
+through about a quarter of the hollow or _canal_, the following
+inscription or device:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This is believed by some authorities to represent the words SI, SI, NO,
+NON ("Yes, yes, no, no"); and by others to be a purely meaningless and
+decorative pattern. The weapon, in any case, is in the best of
+preservation, and is especially interesting from the fact that engraved
+blades dating from this early period are very seldom met with. The Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan believes this weapon to be the same _Lobera_
+which belonged to Ferdinand the Third, and aptly quotes the following
+passage from the chronicle. When Ferdinand, conqueror of Seville, was
+lying on his death-bed in that capital, surrounded by his children, he
+gave his blessing to his younger son, the Infante Don Manuel, and
+addressed him in these words. "I can bequeath no heritage to you; but I
+bestow upon you my sword Lobera, that is of passing worth, and wherewith
+God has wrought much good to me." If the Count's surmise be accurate,
+another passage which he quotes from the work _Nobleza y Lealtad_,
+written by the twelve councillors of Ferdinand, fully explains the
+legend on the blade. "_Sennor, el tu si sea asi, e el tu non, sea non;
+que muy gran virtud es al Príncipe, ó á otro qualquier ome ser
+verdadero, e grand seguranza de sus vasallos, e de sus cosas._"[137]
+
+  [137] "Señor, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay be nay; for of great
+         virtue is it in the prince, or any man, to be a speaker of the
+         truth, and of great security to his vassals and to his property."
+
+I said that the chiselled and gilded iron fittings to the blade are of a
+later period. They date from the earlier part of the sixteenth century,
+and are the work of Salvador de Avila, of Toledo.
+
+                           [Illustration: LII
+                        ARMOUR MADE AT PAMPLONA
+                (_17th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The other sword in this collection, and which also belongs to the
+thirteenth century, has a long, broad blade with two edges and a central
+groove, thinly engraved with circles (Pl. liv., No. 3, and Pl. lv.). The
+crossbars are of silver-gilt, engraved with _ataurique_, curving towards
+the blade and terminating in trefoils. A shield midway between them
+bears the arms of Castile upon one side, and those of León upon the
+other. The grip is of wood, covered with silver plates with decorated
+borders, and the pommel is of iron, also covered with ornamental plates
+of silver-gilt. Formerly this arm was studded with precious stones, but
+all of these excepting one have disappeared.
+
+The scabbard is of wood lined with sheepskin, and is covered with a
+series of five silver-gilt plates, profusely decorated with
+Hispano-Moresque _lacería_, studded with various kinds of gems. These
+gems upon the scabbard amounted once upon a time to seventy-six, which
+sum, through pilfering or accident (probably the former, since the
+finest stones are gone), has been diminished by one-half. An inventory,
+made in the reign of Philip the Second, states that the inner side of
+the sheath, now wholly worn away, was covered with lions and castles,
+and that the belt was of broad orange-coloured cloth, with silver
+fittings.
+
+This sword has been absurdly attributed to the nephew of Charlemagne,
+who lived not less than half a thousand years before its date of
+manufacture. The Count of Valencia de Don Juan thought that it may have
+been the property of a Spanish monarch of the thirteenth
+century,--perhaps Alfonso the Learned, or Ferdinand the Third, Alfonso's
+father. Ferdinand, we know, possessed a sword which he delivered with
+due ceremony to his elder son, the Infante Don Fernando, upon his
+leading out a force against the town of Antequera. This sword the
+chronicler Alvar García de Santa María described as having "a sheath in
+pieces, with many precious stones."
+
+Of even greater interest than the foregoing weapon is the great
+two-handed and two-edged _estoque_ or ceremonial sword of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, which measures forty-two inches in length. The fittings are of
+iron, gilded and engraved. The crossbars, terminating in small
+half-moons, with the concave side directed outward, are inscribed with
+the well-known motto of the Catholic sovereigns, TANTO MONTA, and with
+a supplication to the Virgin, MEMENTO MEI O MATER DEI MEI. The pommel is
+a flat disc, suggestive in its outline of a Gothic cross, and bears upon
+one side the figure of Saint John together with the yoke, emblem of
+Ferdinand the Catholic, and upon the other the sheaf of arrows, emblem
+of his consort Isabella. The hilt is covered with red velvet bound with
+wire.
+
+The sheath of this most interesting sword--affirmed by the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan to have been used by Ferdinand and Isabella, and
+subsequently by Charles the Fifth, in the ceremony of conferring
+knighthood, and also, during the Hapsburg monarchy, to have been carried
+by the master of the horse before the king upon his formal visit to a
+city of his realm--is made of wood covered with crimson silk, bearing in
+"superposed" embroidery the arms of Spain posterior to the conquest of
+Granada, together with a repetition of the emblems of the Catholic
+sovereigns (Plate liv., No. 2).
+
+In the same collection are two other swords which probably belonged to
+Ferdinand the Catholic. One of them (Pl. lvii., No. 1), has a discoid
+pommel and a gilded iron handle. The flat crossbars grow wider and bend
+down towards the blade, and on the hilt we read the words PAZ COMIGO
+NVNCA VEO, Y SIEMPRE GVERA DESEO ("Never does peace attend me, and
+always do I yearn for war").
+
+This sword has been attributed to Isabella. The evidence for this belief
+is slight, although the Count of Valencia de Don Juan discovered that in
+the year 1500 Isabella was undoubtedly the possessor of certain weapons
+and armour which she sometimes actually wore. Among these objects were
+several Milanese breastplates, a small dagger with a gold enamelled hilt
+in the shape of her emblem of the sheaf of arrows, and two swords, one
+fitted with silver and enamel, and the other with iron.
+
+The other sword, which probably belonged to Ferdinand the Catholic, is
+of the kind known as "of a hand and a half" (_de mano y media_; see p.
+248, _note_), and also of the class denominated _estoques de arzón_, or
+"saddle-bow swords," being commonly slung from the forepart of the
+saddle upon the left side of the rider. Ferdinand, however, had reason
+to be chary of this usage, for Lucio Marineo Sículo affirms that at the
+siege of Velez-Málaga the sword which he was wearing thus suspended,
+jammed at a critical moment of the fray, and very nearly caused his
+death. Sículo adds that after this experience Ferdinand invariably wore
+his sword girt round his person, just as he wears it in the carving on
+the choir-stalls of Toledo.
+
+                          [Illustration: LIII
+                                _ADARGA_
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The Royal Armoury contains another sword improperly attributed both to
+Ferdinand the Third and Ferdinand the Catholic. It dates from the
+fifteenth century, and has a blade of unusual strength intended to
+resist plate armour. This blade, which has a central ridge continued to
+the very point, is very broad towards the handle, tapers rapidly, and
+measures thirty-two inches. At the broader end, and on a gilded ground
+embellished with concentric circles, are graven such legends as:--
+
+"The Lord is my aid. I will not fear what man may do to me, and will
+despise my enemies. Superior to them, I will destroy them utterly."
+
+"Make me worthy to praise thee, O sweet and blessed Virgin Mary."
+
+The handle is of iron, with traces of gilded decoration, and corded with
+black silk. The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that no reliable
+information can be found concerning this fine arm. Its length and
+general design would allow of its being used with one hand or with
+both, and either slung from the saddle-bow or round the middle of a
+warrior on foot.
+
+Another handsome sword, wrongly attributed by the ignorant to Alfonso
+the Sixth, is kept at Toledo, in the sacristy of the cathedral. The
+scabbard is adorned with fourteenth-century enamel in the _champlevé_
+style. Baron de las Cuatro Torres considers that this sword belonged to
+the archbishop Don Pedro Tenorio (see p. 269), and adduces his proofs in
+the _Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones_ for March 1897. The
+prelate in question, appointed to command an army sent against Granada,
+was, like so many of the Spanish mediæval clerics, of a warlike temper,
+and "exchanged with great alacrity his rochet for his harness, and his
+mitre for his helm."
+
+One of the most ridiculous and barefaced forgeries in the Royal Armoury
+is a sixteenth-century sword which has inscribed upon its blade the name
+of the redoubtable Bernardo del Carpio. The Count of Valencia de Don
+Juan says he remembers to have met with other blades of later mediæval
+make, engraved with such legends as "belonging to Count
+Fernán-Gonzalez," or even "Recaredus Rex Gothorum," while others in
+this armoury are ascribed, without the least authority of fact or common
+sense, to García de Paredes, Alvaro de Sande, and Hernando de Alarcón.
+Others, again, with less extravagance, though not on solid proof, are
+said to have belonged to Hernán Cortés, the Count of Lemos, and Diego
+Hurtado de Mendoza.
+
+Some, upon the other hand, belonged undoubtedly to celebrated Spanish
+warriors of the olden time. Such are the swords of the Count of Coruña,
+of Gonzalo de Córdova, and of the conqueror of Peru, Francisco Pizarro.
+The first of these weapons (Pl. lvii., No. 4) has a superb hilt carved
+in the style of the Spanish Renaissance, with crossbars curving down, a
+_pas d'âne_, and a Toledo blade of six _mesas_ ("tables") or surfaces,
+grooved on both sides, and ending in a blunt point. The armourer's mark,
+which seems to represent a _fleur-de-lis_ four times repeated, is that
+of the swordsmith Juan Martinez, whose name we read upon the blade,
+together with the words IN TE DOMINE SPERAVI, and on the other side, in
+Spanish, PARA DON BERNARDINO XVAREZ DE MENDOZA, CONDE DE CORVÑA.
+
+The sword of "the great captain," Gonzalo de Córdova (1453-1515), is
+not of Spanish make (Plate lvii., No. 3). It has a straight blade with
+bevelled edges. The pommel and _quillons_ are decorated with Renaissance
+carving, and the bars, which are of gilded iron, grow wider at their end
+and curve towards the blade. The pommel, of gilded copper, is spherical,
+and bears, upon one side, a scene which represents a battle, together
+with the words GONSALVI AGIDARI VICTORIA DE GALLIS AD CANNAS. Upon the
+other side are carved his arms. Other inscriptions in Latin are also on
+the pommel and the blade.
+
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan believed that this sword was a present
+to Gonzalo from the corporation of some Italian town, and that it
+replaced, as an _estoque real_, or sword of ceremony, the state sword
+(see p. 252) of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+                           [Illustration: LIV
+                             SPANISH SWORDS
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Pizarro's sword remained in possession of his descendants, the Marquises
+of La Conquista, until as recently as 1809, in which year this family
+presented it to a Scotch officer named John Downie, who had fought in
+the Peninsular War against the French. Downie, in turn, bequeathed it to
+his brother Charles, lieutenant-colonel in the Spanish army, from
+whom it passed into the hands of Ferdinand the Seventh. The appearance
+of this sword is not remarkable. It has a stout, four-surfaced blade,
+with a powerful _recazo_ or central ridge, engraved with the Christian
+name of Mateo Duarte, a swordsmith who was living at Valencia in the
+middle of the sixteenth century. The hilt is of blued (_pavonado_)
+steel, inlaid with leaves and other ornament in gold. The pommel is a
+disc; the _quillons_ are straight, or very nearly so, and there is a
+_pas d'âne_ (Plate lvii., No. 2).
+
+The sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries are famous as the epoch of
+the Spanish rapier. Toledo, as the world is well aware, enjoyed an
+undisputed name for the production of these weapons. Within this ancient
+and historic capital generations of artists bequeathed, from father to
+son, and son to grandson, the secret (if there were a secret) of the
+tempering of these matchless arms; nor have Toledo blades deteriorated
+to this day. Many an idle superstition seeks to justify the talent and
+dexterity of these swordsmiths; though probably the key to all their
+skill was merely in the manual cunning, based on constant practice, of
+the craftsman, as well as in the native virtues of the water of the
+Tagus.
+
+In one of my books I have described the workshop of an armourer of
+Toledo in the sixteenth century. "After a few moments we entered the
+Calle de las Armas, which struck me as having grown a good deal
+narrower; and my companion, pausing beside an open doorway topped with a
+sign depicting a halberd and a sword, invited me to enter. Two or three
+steps led downwards to a dark, damp passage, and at the end of this was
+a low but very large room, blackened by the smoke from half a dozen
+forges. The walls were hung with a bewildering variety of arms and parts
+of armour--gauntlets and cuirasses; morions, palettes, and
+lobster-tails; partisans and ranseurs; halberds, bayonets, and
+spontoons; as well as swords and daggers without number. Several anvils,
+with tall, narrow buckets filled with water standing beside them, were
+arranged about the stone-paved floor; and beside each forge was a large
+heap of fine, white sand.
+
+"The showers of sparks, together with a couple of ancient-looking lamps
+whose flames shook fitfully to and fro in the vibration, showed thirty
+or forty workmen busily engaged; and what with the clanging of the
+hammers, the roaring of the bellows, and the strident hissing of the hot
+metal as it plunged into the cold water, the racket was incessant.
+
+"My cicerone surveyed the discordant scene with all the nonchalance of
+lifelong custom, daintily eluding the columns of scalding steam, or
+screening his _chambergo_ from the sparks. Finding, however, that I was
+powerless to understand the remarks he kept addressing to me, he finally
+held up his finger and gave the signal to cease work; upon which the
+_oficial_ handed him a bundle of papers which I took to be accounts, and
+the men, doffing their leathern aprons, and hanging them in a corner,
+filed eagerly away.
+
+"'It is quite simple,' said my companion, as though divining the query I
+was about to put to him; 'and indeed, I often wonder why we are so
+famous. They say it is the water; but any water will do. Or else they
+say it is the sand; and yet this sand, though clean and pure, is just
+the same as any other. Look! The blade of nearly all our swords is
+composed of three pieces--two strips of steel, from Mondragón in
+Guipúzcoa, and an iron core. This latter is the _alma_, or soul. The
+three pieces are heated and beaten together; and when they grow red-hot
+and begin to throw out sparks, they are withdrawn from the fire, and a
+few handfuls of sand are thrown over them. The welding of the pieces is
+then continued on the anvil; and, finally, the file is brought to bear
+on all unevennesses, and the weapon passes on to the temperer, the
+grinder, and the burnisher.'
+
+"'It is in the tempering that we have earned our principal renown,
+although this process is quite as simple as the rest. Upon the
+forge--see, here is one still burning--a fire is made in the form of a
+narrow trench, long enough to receive four-fifths of the length of the
+weapon. As soon as the metal reaches a certain colour' (I thought I
+noted a mischievous twinkle in the armourer's eyes, as though this
+_certain colour_ were the key to all our conversation), 'I take these
+pincers, and, grasping the portion which had remained outside the fire,
+drop the weapon so, point downwards, into the bucket of water. Any curve
+is then made straight by beating upon the concave side, and the part
+which had been previously kept outside the trench of fire returns to the
+forge and is duly heated. The entire blade is next smeared with mutton
+fat, and rested against the wall to cool, point upwards. There is
+nothing more except the finishing. Your sword is made.'"[138]
+
+  [138] _Toledo and Madrid: their Records and Romances_; pp. 99-101.
+
+                           [Illustration: LV
+                                 SWORD
+                (_13th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The following passage from Bowles' _Natural History of Spain_, written
+in 1752, is also of especial interest here:--"At a league's distance
+from Mondragón is a mine of varnished, or, as miners term it, frozen
+iron. It lies in the midst of soft red earth, and produces natural
+steel--a very curious circumstance, seeing that, as I am assured, there
+is no other mine of this description in the kingdom. A tradition exists
+that the iron from this mine was used for making the swords, so
+celebrated for their tempering, presented by Doña Catalina, daughter of
+the Catholic Sovereigns, to her husband, Henry the Eighth of England. A
+few of these swords are yet extant in Scotland, where the natives call
+them _André Ferrara_,[139] and esteem them greatly. The famous
+sword-blades of Toledo, and the Perrillo blades of Zaragoza, which are
+still so highly valued, as well as others made elsewhere, are said to
+have been forged from the iron of this mine, which yields forty per
+cent. of metal. It is, however, somewhat hard to melt. With a little
+trouble it is possible to secure excellent steel, because this mine,
+like many another, possesses in itself the quality of readily taking
+from the coal of the forge the spirit which is indispensable for making
+first-rate swords; but without cementation I do not think it would serve
+for making good files or razors."
+
+  [139] Andrés Ferrara was a well-known armourer of Zaragoza.
+
+"The swords of which I spoke as being so famed were generally either of
+a long shape, for wearing with a ruff; or broad, and known as the
+_arzón_, for use on horseback. It is probable that when the ruff was
+suddenly abandoned at the beginning of this century, large quantities of
+ready-fitted swords began to be imported from abroad, of such a kind as
+was demanded by the novel clothing. This would account for the decline
+and the eventual collapse of our factories, and the loss of our art of
+tempering swords. Concerning the mode of executing this, opinions
+differ. It is said by some that the blades were tempered in winter only,
+and that when they were withdrawn for the last time from the furnace,
+the smiths would shake them in the air at great speed three times on a
+very cold day. Others say that the blades were heated to a
+cherry-colour, then plunged for a couple of seconds into a deep jar
+filled with oil or grease, and changed forthwith to another vessel of
+lukewarm water, after which they were set to cool in cold water; all
+these operations being performed at midwinter. Others, again, declare
+that the blades were forged from the natural iron of Mondragón by
+placing a strip of ordinary iron along their core so as to give them
+greater elasticity; and that they were then tempered in the ordinary
+manner, though always in the winter. Such are the prevailing theories
+about the iron swords of Mondragón, which are, in truth, of admirable
+quality."
+
+Magnificent examples of Toledo sword-blades, produced while her craft
+was at the zenith of its fame--that is, throughout the sixteenth and the
+seventeenth centuries--are in the Royal Armoury (Pl. lvii., Nos. 5, 6,
+7). Among them are a series of _montantes_ made for tournament or war,
+and a superb blade, dated 1564, forged for Philip the Second by Miguel
+Cantero. The Count of Valencia de Don Juan considered this to be one of
+the finest weapons ever tempered; adding that the sword-blades of the
+city of the Tagus were held in such esteem all over Europe that he had
+seen, in numerous museums of the Continent, weapons professing to be
+Toledo-made, in which the blade and mark are evidently forged; bearing,
+for instance, _Ernantz_ for Hernandez, _Johanos_ for Juanes, and _Tomas
+Dailae_ for Tomás de Ayala.
+
+It is generally agreed that the changes in the national costume,
+together with the importation of a lighter make of sword from France,
+were directly responsible for the decline of the Toledo sword-blades
+early in the eighteenth century. However, this decline was only
+temporary. Townsend wrote in 1786: "From the Alcazar we went to visit
+the royal manufactory of arms, with which I was much pleased. The steel
+is excellent, and so perfectly tempered, that in thrusting at a target,
+the swords will bend like whalebone, and yet cut through a helmet
+without turning their edge. This once famous manufacture had been
+neglected, and in a manner lost, but it is now reviving."
+
+Laborde endorsed these praises subsequently: "Within a few years the
+fabrication of swords has been resumed at Toledo; the place allotted to
+this object is a handsome edifice, a quarter of a league distant from
+the city, which commands the banks of the Tagus. This undertaking has
+hitherto been prosperous; the swords are celebrated for the excellence
+of their blades, which are of finely tempered steel."
+
+                           [Illustration: LVI
+                               OLD SWORD
+            (_Erroneously attributed to the Cid. Collection
+                      of the Marquis of Falces_)]
+
+The modern small-arms factory of Toledo, situated on the right bank of
+the Tagus, a mile from the city walls, had, in fact, been opened in
+1783, when the same industry was also reviving at Vitoria, Barcelona,
+and elsewhere. Toledo worthily maintains to-day her ancient and
+illustrious reputation for this craft. The Tagus still supplies its
+magic water for the tempering, while part of the prime material of the
+steel itself proceeds from Solingen and Styria, and the rest from Trubia
+and Malaga.
+
+Cutlery continued to be made in Spain all through the eighteenth
+century. Colmenar says that the knives of Barcelona were considered
+excellent. According to Laborde, cutlery was made at Solsona and Cardona
+in Cataluña, at Mora in New Castile, and at Albacete in Murcia. "The
+cutlery of Solsona is in great repute; but the largest quantity is made
+at Albacete. In the latter place are about twenty-eight working cutlers,
+each of whom employs five or six journeymen, who respectively
+manufacture annually six or seven thousand pieces, amounting in the
+whole to about one hundred and eighty thousand pieces."[140]
+
+  [140] Vol. iv. p. 358.
+
+
+                                FIREARMS
+
+Cannon of a primitive kind were used in Spain comparatively early. A
+large variety of names was given to these pieces, such as _cerbatanas_,
+_ribadoquines_, _culebrinas_, _falconetes_, _pasavolantes_, _lombardas_
+or _bombardas_, and many more; but the oldest, commonest, and most
+comprehensive name of all was _trueno_, "thunder," from the terrifying
+noise of the discharge. This word was used for both the piece and the
+projectile. The Count of Clonard quotes Pedro Megía's _Silva de Varias
+Lecciones_ to show that gunpowder was known in Spain as early as the
+eleventh century. "Thunders" of some description seem to have been used
+at the siege of Zaragoza in 1118; and a Moorish author, writing in 1249,
+describes in fearsome terms "the horrid noise like thunder, vomiting
+fire in all directions, destroying everything, reducing everything to
+ashes." Al-Jattib, the historian of Granada, wrote at the beginning of
+the fourteenth century that the sultan of that kingdom used at the siege
+of Baza "a mighty engine, applying fire thereto, prepared with naphtha
+and with balls." The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh describes in a
+quaint and graphic passage the crude artillery of that period, and the
+panic it occasioned. At the siege of Algeciras in 1342, "the Moors that
+were within the city threw many 'thunders' at the (Christian) host,
+together with mighty balls of iron, to such a distance that several
+overpassed the army, and some did damage to our host. Also, by means of
+'thunders' they threw arrows exceeding great and thick, so that it was
+as much as a man could do to lift them from the ground. And as for the
+iron balls these 'thunders' hurled, men were exceedingly afraid thereof;
+for if they chanced to strike a limb they cut it off as clean as with a
+knife, and though the wound were but a slight one, yet was the man as
+good as dead; nor was any chirurgery that might avail him, both because
+the balls came burning hot, like flame, and because the powder which
+discharged them was of such a kind that any wound it made was surely
+mortal; and such was the violence of these balls, that they went through
+a man, together with all his armour."
+
+Towards the close of the same century the testament of Don Pedro Tenorio
+(see p. 256), the bellicose archbishop of Alcalá de Henares, who
+ruled that diocese from 1376 to 1399, contains the following
+passage:--"_Item_. We bought crossbows and bassinets both for foot and
+horse, together with shields, pikes, javelins, darts, lombards, hemp,
+powder, and other munitions for the castles of our Church; of which
+munitions we stored the greater quantity at Talavera and at Alcalá de
+Henares, purposing to deposit them at Cazorla and in the castles of
+Canales and of Alhamin, which we are now repairing after they were
+thrown down by the King Don Pedro, and for the tower of Cazorla, which
+we are now erecting. And it is our will that all of these munitions be
+for the said castles and tower; and that no one lay his hand on them, on
+pain of excommunication, excepting only the bishop elected and confirmed
+who shall succeed us; and he shall distribute them as he holds best
+among the aforesaid castles. And all the best of these munitions shall
+be for the governorship of Cazorla, as being most needed there to
+overthrow the enemies of our faith; and we have duly lodged the shields
+and crossbows, parted from the rest, upon the champaign of Toledo;
+whither should arrive more shields from Valladolid, that all together
+may be carried to Cazorla."
+
+                          [Illustration: LVII
+                             SPANISH SWORDS
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The article from which I quote this passage adds that the palace of the
+archbishop at Alcalá de Henares was fortified with cannon until the
+beginning of the nineteenth century.[141]
+
+  [141] Escudero de la Peña; _Claustros, Escalera, y Artesonados del
+        Palacio Arzobispal de Alcalá de Henares_; published in the _Museo
+        Español de Antigüedades_.
+
+Cannon are mentioned with increasing frequency throughout the fifteenth
+century; and in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella we read of lombards
+of enormous size, which had to be dragged across the Andalusian hills
+and plains by many scores of men and beasts; which frequently stuck fast
+and had to be abandoned on the march; and which, even in the best of
+circumstances, could only be discharged some twice or thrice a day.
+
+In reading documents and chronicles of older Spain, it is easy to
+confound the early forms of cannon with the engines similar to those
+employed by the Crusaders in the Holy Land, and built for hurling stones
+or arrows of large size. Such engines were the _trabuco_, the
+_almajanech_ or _almojaneque_, the _algarrada_, and the _fundíbalo_ or
+Catalan _fonevol_. Beuter, in his _Chronicle of Spain and of Valencia_,
+describes the latter as "a certain instrument which has a sling made
+fast to an extremity of wood ... made to revolve so rapidly that the
+arm, on being released, projects the stone with such a force as to
+inflict much harm, even in distant places, whither could reach no
+missile slung by the hand of man."
+
+Turning to portable Spanish firearms, we find that the precursor of the
+arquebus, musket, and rifle seems to have been a weapon which was
+introduced about the middle of the fifteenth century, and called the
+_espingarda_. Alfonso de Palencia says it was employed against the
+rebels of Toledo in 1467; and the Chronicle of Don Alvaro de Luna
+relates that when this nobleman was standing beside Don Iñigo
+d'Estúñiga, upon a certain occasion in 1453, "a man came out in his
+shirt and set fire to an _espingarda_, discharging the shot thereof
+above the heads of Don Alvaro and of Iñigo d'Estúñiga, but wounding an
+esquire."
+
+                          [Illustration: LVIII
+         MARKS OF TOLEDAN ARMOURERS (15TH-17TH CENTURIES), FROM
+                 SWORDS IN THE ROYAL ARMOURY AT MADRID]
+
+As time advanced, portable firearms of first-rate quality were made
+throughout the northern Spanish provinces, and also in Navarra,
+Cataluña, Aragon, and Andalusia. The inventory of the Dukes of
+Alburquerque mentions, in 1560, "four flint arquebuses of Zaragoza
+make ... another arquebus of Zaragoza, together with its fuse," and
+"arquebuses of those that are made within this province" (_i.e._ of
+Segovia). Cristóbal Frisleva, of Ricla in Aragon, and Micerguillo of
+Seville were celebrated makers of this arm; but probably these and all
+the other Spanish masters of this craft derived their skill from foreign
+teaching, such as that of the brothers Simon and Peter Marckwart (in
+Spanish the name is spelt _Marcuarte_,) who were brought to Spain by
+Charles the Fifth.[142]
+
+  [142] The brothers Marckwart, or possibly one or other of them, are
+        believed to have stamped their arquebuses with a series of small
+        sickles, thus:
+
+        [Illustration]
+
+The Royal Armoury contains some finely decorated guns, made for the
+kings of Spain at the close of the seventeenth century and early in the
+eighteenth, by Juan Belen, Juan Fernandez, Francisco Baeza y Bis, and
+Nicolás Bis. The last-named, pupil of Juan Belen, was a German; but all
+these gunsmiths lived and worked at Madrid. Nicolás was arquebus-maker
+to Charles the Second from 1691, and afterwards held the same post from
+Philip the Fifth. He died in 1726, and the Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+says that in 1808--that is, before it was plundered by the mob--the
+Royal Armoury contained no fewer than fifty-three weapons of his
+manufacture. One of the guns which bear his mark, and still exist, is
+inscribed with the words, "I belong to the Queen our lady" (Isabel
+Farnese, first wife of Philip the Fifth), combined with the arms of León
+and Castile, and of the Bourbon family. This weapon was used, or
+intended to be used, for hunting.
+
+Diego Esquivel, another gunsmith of Madrid, was also famous early in the
+eighteenth century, as, later on, were Manuel Sutil, José Cano,
+Francisco Lopez, Salvador Cenarro, Isidro Soler (author of a
+_Compendious History of the Arquebus-makers of Madrid_), Juan de Soto,
+and Sebastián Santos.
+
+Swinburne wrote from Cataluña in 1775; "the gun-barrels of Barcelona are
+much esteemed, and cost from four to twenty guineas, but about five is
+the real value; all above is paid for fancy and ornament; they are made
+out of the old shoes of mules."
+
+                           [Illustration: LIX
+                            _BRIDONA_ SADDLE
+                (_15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Until 1793, the smaller firearms of the Spanish army were made at
+Plasencia in Guipúzcoa. In that year the government factory, where
+hand-labour alone continued to be used till 1855, was removed to Oviedo.
+To-day this factory employs about five hundred workmen. In 1809 Laborde
+wrote that "firearms, such as fusees, musquets, carbines, and pistols
+are manufactured at Helgoivar, Eybor, and Plasencia; at Oviedo,
+Barcelona, Igualada, and at Ripoll; the arms made at the latter city
+have long had a distinguished reputation. Seven hundred and sixty-five
+gunsmiths, it is estimated, find employment in the factories of
+Guipúzcoa."
+
+Both Townsend and the foregoing writer give a good account of Spanish
+cannon at this time. According to Laborde, "two excellent founderies for
+brass cannon are royal establishments at Barcelona and Seville; in the
+latter city copper cannon are cast, following the method recommended by
+M. Maritz. Iron ordnance are made at Lierganez and Cavada." Townsend
+wrote of Barcelona, in 1786; "The foundery for brass cannon is
+magnificent, and worthy of inspection. It is impossible anywhere to see
+either finer metal, or work executed in a neater and more perfect
+manner. Their method of boring was, in the present reign, introduced by
+Maritz, a Swiss. Near two hundred twenty-four pounders are finished
+every year, besides mortars and field-pieces."
+
+
+                          SADDLERY AND COACHES
+
+Probably no relic of the former of these crafts in Spain is older or
+more curious than the iron bit (Plate lvii., No. 8), inlaid with silver
+dragons' heads and crosses, and attributed, from cruciform monograms
+which also decorate it, to the Visigothic King Witiza (who died in 711),
+or sometimes to the conqueror of Toledo, Alfonso the Sixth (eleventh
+century). The spurs or _acicates_ (Plate lvii., No. 9) of Ferdinand the
+Third of Castile, who conquered Seville from the Moors, are also
+treasured in the Royal Armoury, and bear upon an iron ground remains of
+gold and silver decoration representing castles. The Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan believed these spurs to be authentic, because they are
+identical with the ones which Ferdinand wears in his equestrian seal,
+preserved among the National Archives of France, and dating from the
+year 1237.
+
+Saddles of various kinds were used in Spain throughout the Middle Ages.
+Among them were the ordinary travelling-saddle or _silla de barda_
+(Arabic _al-bardá_); saddles _de palafrén_,[143] the _silla de la
+guisa_, or _de la brida_ or _bridona_, for riding with long stirrups,
+and consequently the antithesis of the _gineta_ saddle;[144] or saddles
+made for use exclusively in war, on which the rider was accustomed to
+make the sign of the cross before or after mounting, such as the
+_lidona_, _gallega_ ("_siellas gallegas_" are mentioned in the _Poem of
+the Cid_), and _corsera_ or _cocera_ (Arabic _al-corsi_), or else the
+_silla de conteras_, "whose hindmost bow," according to the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan, "terminated in converging pieces to protect the
+wearer's thighs."
+
+  [143] An old account copied into a book (see p. 89, _note_) in the
+        National Library at Madrid, and dating from the reign of Sancho
+        the Fourth, states that Pedro Ferrández, saddler, received a
+        certain sum for making various saddles, including two "_de
+        palafrés_, wrought in silk with the devices of the king."
+
+  [144] "In mediæval Spain, good riders were often designated as 'Ginete
+        en ambas sillas,' that is, accustomed to either saddle, _i.e._
+        the Moorish and the Christian, and I now understand why
+        chroniclers have taken the trouble to record the fact. Strangely
+        enough, the high-peaked and short-stirruped saddle does not cross
+        the Nile, the Arabs of Arabia riding rather flat saddles with an
+        ordinary length of leg. The Arab saddle of Morocco, in itself, is
+        perhaps the worst that man has yet designed; but, curiously
+        enough, from it was made the Mexican saddle, perhaps the most
+        useful for all kinds of horses and of countries that the world has
+        seen." Cunninghame Graham: _Mogreb-El-Acksa_, p. 66. The same
+        writer naïvely adds the following footnote to the words _Ginete en
+        ambas sillas_. "This phrase often occurs in Spanish chronicles,
+        after along description of a man's virtues, his charity, love of
+        the church, and kindness to the poor, and it is apparently
+        inserted as at least as important a statement as any of the
+        others. In point of fact, chronicles being written for posterity,
+        it is the most important."
+
+A saddle known as the _silla de rua_, or "street saddle," was generally
+used in Spain throughout the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. It
+was intended, not for war, but promenade and show, and therefore richly
+decorated. The Royal Armoury has nineteen of these saddles, all of which
+are Spanish-made. In the same collection is a plain _bridona_ saddle
+(Plate lix.), with iron stirrups and two gilt-metal bells, such as were
+commonly used in tournaments or other festivals. This saddle has been
+erroneously ascribed to the thirteenth century. It dates from the
+beginning of the fifteenth century, and proceeds from Majorca.
+
+                           [Illustration: LX
+                      HANGING _JAECES_ FOR HORSES]
+
+The old belief that one of the saddles in this armoury, whose bows are
+chased with a design in black and gilt of leaves and pilgrim's shells,
+was once upon a time the Cid Campeador's, has been exploded recently.
+The saddle in question is known to be Italian, dates from the sixteenth
+century, and bears the arms of a town in the duchy of Montferrato.
+
+The inventory (1560) of the dukes of Alburquerque mentions some curious
+saddles, including one "_de la brida_, of blue velvet, with the bows
+painted gold, and on the front bow a cannon with its carriage, and on
+the hind bow another cannon with flames of fire." Among the rest were "a
+_gineta_ saddle of red leather, used by my lord the duke," together with
+saddles of bay leather, of dark brown leather, of "smooth leather with
+trappings of blue cloth," of Cordova leather, and "a date-coloured
+_gineta_-saddle, complete."
+
+The same inventory specifies innumerable smaller articles of harness,
+such as stirrups, spurs, reins, headstalls, and poitrals or
+breast-leathers. Many of these pieces were richly ornamented; _e.g._,
+"some silver headstalls of small size, enamelled in blue, with gilt
+supports of iron,"[145] as well as "some silver headstalls, gilded and
+enamelled green and rose, with shields upon the temples." Others of
+these headstalls were made of copper, and nearly all were
+colour-enamelled.
+
+  [145] As I have stated in another chapter, the precious stones and
+        metals were continually employed in arms and harness, both of
+        Spanish Moors and Spanish Christians. In 1062 Pedro Ruderiz
+        bequeathed to the Monastery of Arlanza all his battle harness,
+        together with his silver bit (_frenum argenteum_). Thousands of
+        such bequests have been recorded. The Chronicle of Alfonso the
+        Eleventh says that after the victory of the Rio Salado, this
+        monarch found among his spoil "many swords with gold and silver
+        fittings, and many spurs, all of enamelled gold and silver....
+        And all this spoil was gathered by the king into his palaces
+        of Seville (_i.e._ the Alcázar), the doubloons in one part, and
+        the swords in another part." The testament (sometimes considered
+        to be a forgery) of Pedro the Cruel mentions "my sword in the
+        Castilian manner, that I caused to be made here in Seville with
+        gems and with _aljofar_." In 1409 Yusuf, King of Granada,
+        presented Juan the Second and the Infante Don Enrique with
+        silver-fitted swords. Referring to a later age, Davillier
+        discovered at Simancas a detailed list of weapons sumptuously
+        decorated with gold and coloured enamels, made for Philip the
+        Second by Juan de Soto, "_orfebrero de su Alteza_." _Recherches_,
+        pp. 149-151.
+
+The stirrups included "two Moorish stirrups of gilded tin, for a woman's
+use";[146] "some large Moorish stirrups, gilt, with two silver plates
+upon their faces, enamelled gold, green, and blue, and eight nails on
+either face"; "some other Moorish stirrups, wrought inside with
+_ataujía_-work in gold, and outside with plates of copper enamelled in
+green, blue, and white; the handles gilt, with coverings of red
+leather"; and "some silver stirrups with three bars upon the floor
+thereof, round-shaped in the manner of an urinal, with open sides
+consisting of two bars, a flower within a small shield on top, and, over
+this, the small face of a man."
+
+  [146] The women of mediæval Spain had few amusements besides riding.
+        Another--though owing to the temperate climate it must have been
+        on few occasions--was skating, since this inventory mentions
+        "two pairs of skates, for a man, for travelling over ice. Two
+        pairs of skates, for the same purpose, for a woman." This entry
+        almost matches in its quaintness with the "irons for mustaches,"
+        or the "triggers for extracting teeth," set forth in Spanish
+        documents such as the _Tassa General_ of 1627.
+
+The many sets of reins included several of Granada make, coloured in
+white, red, and bay; while one of the most elaborate of the poitrals was
+of "red leather, embroidered with gold thread, with fringes of
+rose-coloured silk, buckles, ends, and rounded knobs; the whole of
+copper enamelled green, and blue, and white."
+
+Small but attractive accessories to these handsome sets of mediæval
+Spanish harness were the decorative medals (Plate lx.) hung from the
+horse's breast in tourneying or in war. In France these medals were
+known as _annelets volants_, _branlants_, or _pendants_; although in
+Spain, where it is probable that they were used more widely than in
+other countries, they have no definite name. The term _jaeces_ is
+sometimes applied to them; but _jaez_ properly means the entire harness
+for a horse, and the word is thus employed by classic Spanish authors,
+such as Tirso de Molina. A recent term, invented by a living writer, is
+_jaeces colgantes_, or "hanging _jaeces_."
+
+These ornaments, which had their origin among the Romans and Byzantines,
+are figured in certain of the older Spanish codices such as the
+_Cántigas de Santa Maria_. In Christian Spain, however, their vogue was
+greatest in the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. They
+disappeared altogether in the sixteenth century; and among the Spanish
+Moors their use, though not unknown, was always quite exceptional.
+
+The mottoes and devices on these little plates are very varied.
+Sometimes the motto has an amorous, sometimes a religious import.
+Sometimes the vehicle of the motto is Latin, sometimes Spanish,
+sometimes French. Sometimes the device contains, or is composed of, a
+blazon, and commonly there is floral or other ornament. A collection of
+nearly three hundred of these medals belonged to the late Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan, all of which were probably made in Spain. The
+material as a rule is copper, adorned with _champlevé_ enamelling, and
+the colours often used to decorate and relieve the interspaces of the
+gilded metal are red, blue, black, white, and green.
+
+                           [Illustration: LXI
+                           TRAVELLING LITTER
+      (_Attributed to Charles the Fifth. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+According to Florencio Janer, coaches were not known in Spain until the
+middle of the sixteenth century. Before that time the usual conveyance
+was the litter. The Madrid Armoury contains an object which is thought
+to have been the campaigning-litter of Charles the Fifth (Plate lxi.).
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan also inclined to this belief from the
+circumstance that an engraving exists in the British Museum which
+represents a German litter of the sixteenth century, identical in all
+respects with this one. Probably, however, these litters were the same
+all over Europe. The inventory of the Dukes of Alburquerque includes, in
+1560, a "cowhide litter, black, lined with black serge; also poles
+stained black, and harness for mules." This, together with other
+travelling gear, belonged to "my lady the duchess"; and it is worth
+noting that the litter attributed to Charles, though cased with a
+protective covering of whitish canvas, is also of black leather and
+lined with black serge, besides being evidently built for carriage by
+two mules. The interior contains a small armchair rising some inches
+only from the floor, and which, requiring him to keep his legs
+continually outstretched, could hardly fail to prove excruciatingly
+uncomfortable to the traveller.
+
+Mendez Silva says that the precise date of the introduction of coaches
+into Spain was 1546, and other writers do not greatly differ from him.
+The Alburquerque inventory includes "two four-wheeled coaches," as well
+as "a triumphal car with four wheels, its body painted with red and gold
+stripes." Vanderhamen, who says that the first coach ever seen in Spain
+was brought here by a servant of Charles the Fifth in 1554, adds that
+within a little time their use became "a hellish vice that wrought
+incalculable havoc to Castile." Certainly this vehicle for many years
+was far from popular among the Spaniards, and was assailed with special
+vehemence by all who lacked the income to support one. The Duke of
+Berganza is said to have remarked that "God had fashioned horses for the
+use of men, and men had fashioned coaches for the use of women"; while a
+priest, Tomás Ramón, declared that it was "a vast disgrace to see
+bearded men, with rapiers at their side, promenading in a coach." Even
+the governing powers thought fit to interfere. In 1550, 1563, and 1573
+the Cortes demanded the total prohibition of these modish yet detested
+vehicles, while the Cortes of 1578 decreed four horses as the statutory
+and invariable number for a private carriage. A further law enacted in
+1611 that coaches must be strictly private property, and not, on pain of
+rigorous chastisement, be lent or hired by their owner;[147] while the
+owner, to own or use a coach at all, required a special licence from the
+Crown.
+
+  [147] This prohibition was not inopportune. Swinburne wrote towards the
+        end of the eighteenth century; "Having occasion one day for a
+        coach to carry us about, the stable-boy of our inn offered his
+        services, and in a quarter of an hour brought to the door a coach
+        and four fine mules, with two postillions and a lacquey, all in
+        flaming liveries; we found they belonged to a countess, who, like
+        the rest of the nobility, allows her coachman to let out her
+        equipage when she has no occasion for it; it cost us about nine
+        shillings, which no doubt was the perquisite of the servants."
+
+Some curious facts relating to these vehicles in older Spain are
+instanced by Janer. In the seventeenth century a Spanish provincial town
+would normally contain a couple of hundred coaches. Among such boroughs
+was Granada. Here, in 1615, the authorities, backed by nearly all the
+citizens, protested that the coaches ploughed the highway into muddy
+pits and channels, and gave occasion, after nightfall, to disgraceful
+and immoral scenes.[148] After a while the protest grew so loud that the
+use of coaches in this capital was totally suppressed. One of the first
+persons to employ a coach in Granada had been the Marquis of Mondejar;
+and yet, in spite of his extensive influence, this nobleman, each time
+he wished to drive abroad, required to sue for licence from the town
+authorities, and these, in making out the written permit, took care to
+specify the streets through which he was allowed to pass.
+
+  [148] Towns still exist in Spain where vehicles are not allowed to
+        proceed at more than a walking-pace through any of the streets.
+        One of such towns is Argamasilla de Alba (of _Don Quixote_ fame),
+        where I remember to have read a notice to this effect, painted,
+        by order of the mayor, on a house-wall of the principal
+        thoroughfare.
+
+Assailed by numerous pragmatics,[149] chiefly of a sumptuary tenor and
+repeated at spasmodic intervals until as late as 1785, the private coach
+became at last an undisputed adjunct to the national life of Spain.
+Doubtless the use by royalty of gala-coaches or _carrozas_ went far to
+sanction and extend their vogue. However, I will not describe these
+lumbering, uncouth, and over-ornamented gala-carriages (some of which
+were made in Spain) belonging to the Spanish Crown, but quote the
+following pragmatic, dated 1723, as aptly illustrative of the progress
+of this industry, and other industries akin to it, in the Peninsula:--
+
+"In order to restrain the immoderate use of coaches, state-coaches,
+_estufas_, litters, _furlones_,[150] and calashes, we order that from
+this time forth no one of these be decorated with gold embroidery or any
+kind of silk containing gold, nor yet with bands or fringes that have
+gold or silver points; but only with velvets, damasks, and other simple
+silken fabrics made within this realm and its dependencies, or else in
+foreign countries that have friendly commerce with us. Also, the fringes
+and galloons shall be of silk alone; and none, of whatsoever dignity and
+degree, shall cause his coach, state-coach, etc., to be decorated with
+the fringes that are known as net-work, tassel-pointed, or bell-pointed;
+but only with undecorated, simple fringes, or with those of Santa
+Isabel; nor shall the breadth of either kind of these exceed four
+fingers. Also, he shall not cause his coach, state-coach, etc., to be
+overlaid with any gilt or silvered work, or painted with any manner of
+design--meaning by such, historic scenes, marines, landscapes, flowers,
+masks, knots of the pattern known as coulicoles, coats of arms, war
+devices, perspectives, or any other painting, except it imitate marble,
+or be marbled over of one single colour chosen at the owner's fancy; and
+further, we allow in every coach, state-coach, etc., only a certain
+moderate quantity of carving. And this our order and pragmatic shall
+begin to rule upon the day it is made public; from which day forth no
+person shall construct, or buy, or bring from other countries, coaches
+or _estufas_ that infringe our law herein expressed; wherefore we order
+the _alcaldes_ of this town, our court and capital, to make a register
+of all such vehicles that each house contains, without excepting any.
+Nevertheless, considering that if we should prohibit very shortly those
+conveyances that now be lawful, the owners would be put to great
+expense, we grant a period of two years wherein they may consume or rid
+themselves thereof; upon the expiration of which term our law shall be
+again made public, and thenceforward all, regardless of their quality
+and rank, shall be compelled to pay obedience to the same. Also we
+order that no person make or go abroad in hand-chairs fitted with
+brocade, or cloth of gold or silver, or yet with any silk containing
+gold and silver; nor shall the lining be embroidered or adorned with any
+of the stuffs aforesaid; but the covering of the chair, inside and out,
+shall only be of velvet, damask, or other unmixed silk, with a plain
+fringe of four fingers' breadth and button-holes of the same silk, and
+not of silver, gold, or thread, or any covering other than those
+aforesaid; but the columns of such chairs may be adorned with silken
+trimmings nailed thereto. And we allow, as in the case of coaches, a
+period of two years for wearing out the hand-chairs now in use.... Also,
+we order that the coverings of coaches, _estufas_, litters, calashes,
+and _furlones_ shall not be made of any kind of silk, or yet the harness
+of horses or mules for coaches and travelling litters; and that the said
+coaches, gala-coaches, _estufas_, litters, calashes, and _furlones_
+shall not be back-stitched (_pespuntados_), even if they should be of
+cowhide or of cordwain (goatskin); nor shall they contain any fitting of
+embroidered leather."
+
+  [149] A royal degree of 1619 disposed that "every one who sows and tills
+        twenty-five _fanegas_ of land each year, may use a coach."
+
+  [150] The _estufa_ (literally _stove_) was a form of family-coach. The
+        _furlon_ is described in an old dictionary as "a coach with four
+         seats and hung with leather curtains."
+
+
+
+
+                               PRINTED BY
+
+                      NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,
+
+                               EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as an misprint.
+
+The text decoration above IV DE LA FVETE has been omitted on page 222.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. xii: Old Keys; Seville Cathedral    126 -> 131
+  p. 11: for securing the cloak; the _torquis_ -> _torques_
+  p. 12: _Fibulae_ -> _Fibulæ_
+  p. 17: Amador de los Rios -> Ríos
+  p. 28: Amador de los Rios -> Ríos
+  p. 28: de joyaux les plus precieux -> précieux
+  p. 65: is generally of the fifteeenth -> fifteenth
+  p. 70: He carried, too, a -> "a
+  p. 72: The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths -> silversmiths'
+  p. 82: Mores ont caché leurs tresors -> trésors
+  p. 90: a friar of Guadelupe -> Guadalupe
+  p. 91: Juan González -> Gonzalez
+  p. 93: As soon as Cristobal -> Cristóbal
+  p. 94: fué deste cuento, Jan -> Juan
+  p. 102: et cela luy feioit -> fetoit
+  p. 105: pearls or other stones. -> stones."
+  p. 123: in the _Museo Español de Antigüedades_ -> Antigüedades_)
+  p. 140: Museo Español de Antiguedades -> Antigüedades
+  p. 143: Museo Español de Antiguedades -> Antigüedades
+  p. 176: the emir of the Mussulmans Abi-Abdillah -> Abu-Abdillah
+  p. 180: D.C.C.C.C.XIII. -> D.C.C.C.C.XIII."
+  p. 181: and the Puertas del Perdon -> Perdón
+  p. 188: consisted of "a -> a !!!
+  p. 205: among the Germans _panzerbrecher_ -> _Panzerbrecher_
+  p. 206: frock (the _waffenrock_ -> _Waffenrock_
+  p. 220: which specifies "a bard -> band
+  p. 222: It has a _verga_ -> _verja_
+  p. 229: as well as the chape -> shape
+  p. 232: button and a black tassel. -> tassel."
+  p. 244: published in the _Boletin -> _Boletín
+  p. 262: and the burnisher. -> burnisher.
+  p. 264: making good files or razors. -> making good files or razors."
+  p. 273: of Segovia). Cristobal -> Cristóbal
+
+
+
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+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I
+(of 3), by Leonard Williams</h1>
+<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a
+href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
+<p>Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I (of 3)</p>
+<p>Author: Leonard Williams</p>
+<p>Release Date: December 10, 2013  [eBook #44391]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME I (OF 3)***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3 class="pg">E-text prepared by<br />
+    Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm">Volume II</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44392/44392-h/44392-h.htm<br />
+      <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm">Volume III</a>: see http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44393/44393-h/44393-h.htm
+      <a href="">
+      </a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="422" height="600"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF THE CHOIR<br />
+(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;"><br /><br />The World of Art Series</span></p>
+
+<h1>The Arts and Crafts<br />
+of Older Spain</h1>
+
+<p class="title">BY<br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 150%;">LEONARD WILLIAMS</span><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy, of<br />
+the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the<br />
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts; Author<br />
+Of &ldquo;The Land of the Dons&rdquo;; &ldquo;Toledo and<br />
+Madrid&rdquo;; &ldquo;Granada,&rdquo; etc.</span><br /><br />
+
+<i>IN THREE VOLUMES, ILLUSTRATED</i><br /><br />
+
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">VOLUME I</span><br /></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_05.jpg" width="100" height="99"
+        alt="title-symbol"
+        title="title-symbol" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="title"><span style="font-size: 125%;">CHICAGO<br />
+A. C. McCLURG &amp; CO.</span><br />
+EDINBURGH: T. N. FOULIS<br />
+1908<br /><br /><br />
+AMERICAN EDITION<br />
+Published October 10, 1908<br /><br /><br />
+Dedicated<br />
+<br />
+BY SPECIAL PERMISSION<br />
+TO<br />
+THEIR MAJESTIES<br /><br />
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">KING ALFONSO THE THIRTEENTH</span><br />
+AND<br />
+<span style="font-size: 125%;">QUEEN VICTORIA OF SPAIN</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>In preparing these volumes, it has been my aim
+to give a clear and fairly complete account of the
+arts and crafts of older Spain. It seems to me
+that there is room for a work of this design and
+scope, and that there is no reason why so attractive
+a subject&mdash;or rather, group of subjects&mdash;should
+be perpetually ignored by persons who travel
+through, or who profess to feel an interest in,
+the country of the Cid and of Don Quixote.</p>
+
+<p>My account of Spanish pottery is guarded, and
+yet I trust acceptable. The study of this craft in
+Spain is far from definite, and fresh researches
+and discoveries may be hoped for at some future
+time. The history of Spanish arms has also
+suffered from unjust neglect. Perhaps my sketch
+of them may slightly compensate for this deficiency.
+For the rest, my book, which represents
+the well-meant assiduity of several years, shall
+speak for itself.</p>
+
+<p>Although I was embarrassed by too much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+material, the illustrations have been chosen with
+great care, and not, I think, inadequately. Some
+of the photographs were taken specially for this
+work. For the loan of others, or for kind assistance
+generally, I am indebted to Excmo. Señor
+Don Guillermo J. de Osma, Excmo. Señor Don
+José Villegas, and Excmo. Señor Don José
+Moreno Carbonero; to Señores Góngora and
+Valladar, of Granada; and to Messrs Hauser
+and Menet, and Mons. Lacoste, of Madrid.</p>
+
+<p><i>August</i>, 1907.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE</h2>
+
+<table summary="TOC" cellpadding="4">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGES</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#GOLD_SILVER_AND_JEWEL_WORK"><span class="smcap">Gold, Silver, and Jewel Work</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">1&ndash;119</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#IRON-WORK"><span class="smcap">Iron-Work</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">120&ndash;159</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#BRONZES"><span class="smcap">Bronzes</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">160&ndash;191</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><a href="#ARMS"><span class="smcap">Arms</span></a></td>
+    <td class="page">192&ndash;289</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><i>VOLUME ONE</i></p>
+
+<table summary="LOI" cellpadding="2">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">GOLD AND SILVER</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">PLATE</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="page">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i> of the Choir; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">I.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Treasure of Guarrazar; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_22.jpg">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">II.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Cross of Angels; Oviedo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_36.jpg">36</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">III.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Cross of Victory; Oviedo Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_42.jpg">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Casket; Gerona Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_46.jpg">46</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">V.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Altar-Front in enamelled Bronze; Museum of Burgos</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_50.jpg">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Crucifix of the Cid&rdquo;; Salamanca Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_52.jpg">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Virgen de la Vega&rdquo;; San Esteban, Salamanca</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_54.jpg">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">VIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Saint James in Pilgrim's Dress; Santiago Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_57.jpg">57</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">IX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Mudejar Triptych; Royal Academy of History, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_60.jpg">60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">X.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The &ldquo;Tablas Alfonsinas&rdquo;; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_62.jpg">62</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;The Cup of Saint Ferdinand&rdquo;; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_64.jpg">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ship; Zaragoza Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_65.jpg">65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Bracelets</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_77.jpg">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Morisco Jewellery</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_83.jpg">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Silver-Gilt Processional Cross</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_85.jpg">85</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Gothic <i>Custodia</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_95.jpg">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The <i>Custodia</i> of Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_100.jpg">100</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Early Chalice and Cross in Filigree Gold</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_114.jpg">114</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">IRON-WORK</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Old Keys; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_131.jpg">131</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XIX<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Decorative Nail-Heads; Convent of San Antonio, Toledo</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_134.jpg">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Door-Knockers</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_136.jpg">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Ceremonial Maces and Lantern</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_138.jpg">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Iron Pulpit; Avila Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_140.jpg">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i> of Chapel Royal; Granada Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_148.jpg">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The same (View from Interior)</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_149.jpg">149</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i>; Casa de Pilatos, Seville</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_155.jpg">155</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Reja</i> of the &ldquo;Casa de las Conchas,&rdquo; Salamanca</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_156.jpg">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">BRONZES</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">&ldquo;Meleager's Hunt&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_165.jpg">164</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Candil</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_166.jpg">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">A <i>Velón</i></td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_168.jpg">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Lion</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_171.jpg">171</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Stag; Museum of Cordova</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_173.jpg">173</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Temple; Museum of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_174.jpg">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Lamp and Mortar; Museum of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_176.jpg">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Lamp of Mohammed the Third; Madrid Museum</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_179.jpg">178</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Abbot Samson's Bell; Museum of Cordova</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_180.jpg">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Bronze Crucifix</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_182.jpg">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Puerta del Perdón; Seville Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_184.jpg">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Weathercock of the Giralda Tower</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_186.jpg">186</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">ARMS</td>
+    <td class="page">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XXXIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Crest of Jousting Helmet; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_198.jpg">198</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XL.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Crossbowman; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_202.jpg">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">The Battle of La Higueruela; El Escorial</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_206.jpg">206</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Parade Harness of Philip the Third; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_210.jpg">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Crossbow and Stirrup; Museum of Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_214.jpg">214</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Sword; Casa de los Tiros, Granada</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_219.jpg">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Sword of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_222.jpg">222</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Dagger of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_226.jpg">226</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Sword</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_230.jpg">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">War Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_234.jpg">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">XLIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Jousting Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_238.jpg">238</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">L.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Jousting Harness of Philip the Handsome; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_242.jpg">242</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Moorish Buckler; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_246.jpg">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Armour made at Pamplona; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_250.jpg">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Adarga</i>; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_254.jpg">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_258.jpg">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LV.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Sword; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_262.jpg">262</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Sword</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_266.jpg">266</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_270.jpg">270</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LVIII.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Sword Marks</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_272.jpg">272</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LIX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle"><i>Bridona</i> Saddle; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_274.jpg">274</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LX.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Hanging <i>Jaeces</i> for Horses</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_278.jpg">278</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chapnum">LXI.</td>
+    <td class="chaptitle">Travelling Litter attributed to Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid</td>
+    <td class="page"><a href="#img_282.jpg">282</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="GOLD_SILVER_AND_JEWEL_WORK" id="GOLD_SILVER_AND_JEWEL_WORK">GOLD, SILVER, AND JEWEL WORK</a></h2>
+
+<p>The hyperbolic language of the ancients spoke
+of Spain as filled throughout, upon her surface and
+beneath her soil, with precious stones and precious
+metals. Old writers&mdash;Strabo, Pliny, Aristoteles,
+Pomponius Mela, and Diodorus Siculus&mdash;declare
+that once upon a time a mountain fire, lighted
+by shepherds in the Pyrenees and fanned into a
+conflagration by the wind, heated the earth until
+the ore within her entrails came bubbling to the
+top and ran away in rivulets of molten gold and
+silver, spreading all over Spain. The indigens
+of Lusitania as they dug their fields were said to
+strike their implements on nuggets half a pound
+in weight. The heart of the Peninsula, between
+the B&oelig;tis and the Annas rivers&mdash;that is, the
+country of the Oretani and the Bastitani&mdash;was
+fabled to abound in mines of gold. The traders
+from Ph&oelig;nicia, we are told, discovered silver to
+be so abundant with the Turdetani that &ldquo;the
+vilest utensils of this people were composed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+thereof, even to their barrels and their pots.&rdquo;
+Accordingly these shrewd Ph&oelig;nicians, offering
+worthless trinkets in exchange, loaded their ships
+with silver to the water's edge, and even, when
+their cargo was complete, fashioned their chains
+and anchors of the residue.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of their extravagance, upon the whole
+these legends are not utterly devoid of truth.
+&ldquo;Tradition,&rdquo; said so careful an authority as
+Symonds, &ldquo;when not positively disproved should
+be allowed to have its full value; and a sounder
+historic sense is exercised in adopting its testimony
+with due caution, than in recklessly rejecting it
+and substituting guesses which the lack of
+knowledge renders insubstantial.&rdquo; So with the
+legends of the gold and silver treasure of the old-time
+Spaniards. Besides, it seems unquestionable
+that those fanciful assertions had their origin in
+fact. Spain stood upon the western border of the
+ancient world. Year in, year out, the sanguine
+sun went seething down into the waters at her
+western marge. Mariners from distant countries
+viewed those sunsets and associated them with
+Spain herself. Thus, hereabouts in the unclouded
+south, would gold and silver be suggested by the
+solar orb; or emerald and jacinth, pearl and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+amethyst and ruby, by the matchless colours of
+the seldom-failing sunset.</p>
+
+<p>Then, too, though not of course in fabulous
+amount, the precious metals actually existed in
+this land. Various of her rivers, such as the
+Calom or Darro of Granada, the Tagus, the
+Agneda, and the Sil, rolled down, together with
+their current, grains of gold. &ldquo;Les Mores,&rdquo;
+wrote Bertaut de Rouen of the first of these
+rivers, &ldquo;en tiroient beaucoup autrefois; mais cela
+a esté discontinué depuis à cause de la trop
+grande dépense qu'il y faloit faire. Il est certain
+que souvent on prend dans le Darro de petits
+morceaux d'or, et il y a des gens qui sont
+accoûtumez d'y en chercher.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Centuries before this abbot wrote his book, the
+Arab author of the geographical dictionary known
+as the <i>Marasid Ithila</i> had made a similar remark
+upon this gold-producing stream; and in the
+sixteenth century I find an Ordinance of Granada
+city prohibiting the townspeople from digging up
+the river-bed unless it were to look for gold.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+Probably, however, and in spite of what some
+chroniclers suppose, the title Darro is not in
+any way connected with the Latin words <i>dat
+aurum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Two leagues from Guadarrama,&rdquo; wrote the
+mineralogist William Bowles, about the middle of
+the eighteenth century, &ldquo;opposite the town and
+in the direction of San Ildefonso, is a deep valley
+where one notices a vein of common quartz containing
+some iron. Here, without the use of
+glasses, I perceived a good many grains of
+gold&hellip;. In Galicia grains of gold are found
+on sandy hills, and one is astonished to observe
+the wonderful works carried out by the Romans
+to bring the sands together, wash them, and
+extract the precious metal. Local tradition
+affirms that this precious sand was destined for
+the purses of three Roman empresses&mdash;Livia,
+Agrippina, and Faustina&hellip;. I know a German
+minister who employed his spare time in washing
+these sands and collecting the gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Romans, it is true, profited very greatly
+by the native wealth of the Peninsula. Helvius
+enriched the treasury with 14,732 pounds of
+Spanish silver bars and 17,023 pounds of silver
+money; Cornelius Lentulus, with 1515 pounds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+gold, 20,000 pounds of bar-silver, and 34,550
+pounds in coin. Cato came back from his pro-consulship
+with five-and-twenty thousand pounds
+of silver bars, twelve thousand pounds of silver
+money, and four hundred pounds of gold.
+Seventy thousand pounds of coined silver fell to
+the share of Flaccus, while Minutius exhibited
+at his triumph eight thousand pounds of silver
+bars, and three hundred thousand pounds of
+silver coin.</p>
+
+<p>Mines of silver,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> gold, and precious stones
+were also fairly numerous in Spain. Moorish
+authors wrote enthusiastically of the mines of
+precious metals in or close to the Sierra Nevada.
+&ldquo;Even at this day,&rdquo; said Bowles, &ldquo;the Moorish
+mines may be distinguished from the Roman.
+The Romans made the towers of their fortresses
+of a round shape, in order to avoid as far as
+possible the blows of the battering-ram; and
+their miners, whether from habit or intentionally,
+made the mouths of their mines round also. The
+Moors, as strangers to this engine, built their
+towers square and gave a square shape also to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+the mouths of their mines. The round mouths of
+Roman mines are yet to be seen at Riotinto and
+other places, and the square mouths of Moorish
+mines in the neighbourhood of Linares.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Emeralds were formerly extracted from a
+mine at Moron, in the Sierra de Leyta; white
+sapphires and agates at Cape de Gata,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> at the
+eastern extremity of the Gulf of Almeria;
+amethysts at Monte de las Guardas, near the
+port of Plata, &ldquo;in a precipice (<i>sic</i>) about twenty
+feet in depth.&rdquo; According to Laborde, garnets
+have been discovered down to modern times &ldquo;in
+a plain half-way on the road from Almeria to
+Motril. They are very abundant there, particularly
+in the bed of a ravine, formed by
+rain-torrents, at the foot of a little hill, upon
+which a great number of them are likewise
+found. The emeralds are in the kingdom
+of Seville, all the others in that of Granada.
+It has been said for some time that a pit in
+the mountain of Bujo, at Cape de Gata, contains
+a great many precious stones; but none<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+could be found there, notwithstanding the prolonged
+and careful searches that were lately
+made.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Silver mines exist, or have existed, at Benasque,
+Calzena, and Bielza, in Aragon; at Cuevas, near
+Almeria; at Almodovar del Campo; at Zalamea,
+in Extremadura; at Puerto Blanco, in Seville
+province; in the Sierra de Guadalupe; at Fuente
+de la Mina, near Constantina; and near Almazarron,
+in the province of Carthagena. Not far
+from this latter city was another mine, that sent
+to Rome a daily yield of five-and-twenty thousand
+drachmas, and was worked by forty thousand men.
+Twenty thousand pounds in weight of pure silver
+proceeded yearly from Asturias, Lusitania, and
+Galicia. Hannibal extracted from a Pyrenean
+mine three hundred pounds a day. The fair
+Himilca, wife of Hasdrubal, was owner of a silver
+mine at two leagues' distance from Linares.
+Laborde wrote of this mine: &ldquo;It was reopened
+in the seventeenth century, when a vein five feet
+in breadth was found, from which many pieces
+of silver were taken; the working of it, however,
+has been neglected. It belongs to the town of
+Baeza.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author, who wrote about one hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+years ago, gives curious and instructive notices
+of several other Spanish silver mines. &ldquo;The
+mountains of the kingdom of Seville, on the
+confines of Extremadura, towards Guadalcanal,
+Alanis, Puerto Blanco, and Cazalla, which form a
+part of the extremity of the chain of Sierra Morena,
+contain several silver mines, which have been
+worked. There is one of these in the Sierra
+Morena, three miles from Guadalcanal, which to
+all appearance must have been very rich: there
+were three shafts for descending, the mouths of
+which are still to be seen: it was worked in the
+seventeenth century, and given up in 1653. It is
+believed that it was inundated by the workmen,
+in revenge for a new tax that was laid upon them.
+Another silver mine was also worked formerly, a
+league and a half from the other; it has a shaft,
+and a gallery of ancient construction; the vein is
+six feet in circumference, and is composed of spar
+and quartz. There is also a third mine, a league
+and a half from Guadalcanal, and half a league
+south-east of the village of Alanis, in the middle
+of a field; it is two feet wide; the Romans constructed
+a gallery in it, from south to north; a
+branch of it running eastward has been worked
+since their time: it originally contained pyrites<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+and quartz, but it is by no means rich; there is
+lead at the bottom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gold mines, or traces of them, have been found
+in the neighbourhood of Molina in Aragon,
+San Ildefonso in Old Castile, and Alocer in
+Extremadura; in the Sierra de Leyta; in the
+valley of Hecho in Aragon; and at Paradeseca
+and Ponferrada&mdash;this latter town the <i>Interamnium
+Flavium</i> of the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the chieftains of the ancient
+Spaniards adorned their robes with rude embroidery
+worked in gold, and that the men and
+women of all ranks wore gold and silver bracelets.
+These statements cannot now be either proved
+or controverted. Gold or silver objects older
+than the Roman domination have not been found
+abundantly in Spain. Riaño describes a silver
+bowl, conical in shape and evidently fashioned
+on the wheel, engraved with Iberian characters
+on one of its sides. A similar bowl was found
+in Andalusia in the seventeenth century, full
+of Iberian coins and weighing ten ounces. Gold
+ornaments, such as earrings, and <i>torques</i> or collars
+for the neck, have been discovered in Galicia
+less infrequently than in the other Spanish regions,
+and may be seen to-day in private collections,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+in the Royal Academy of History at Madrid,
+and in the National Museum of Archæology.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+Villa-amil y Castro has written fully of these
+<i>torques</i> (Museo Español de Antigüedades, <i>Adornos
+de oro encontrados en Galicia</i>). In nearly every
+case, he says, they consist of a plain gold bar,
+C-shaped and therefore not completely closed
+into a ring, and with a knob at each extremity, as
+though their pattern were suggested by the yoke
+of cattle. One or two are decorated with a somewhat
+rude design extending through a portion of
+their length.</p>
+
+<p>On one of these occasions a pair of curious,
+kidney-shaped earrings was found, together with a
+<i>torque</i>. These earrings, apparently of later workmanship
+than the other ornament, are decorated
+over all their surface, partly with a filigree design,
+and partly with a fine, beadlike pattern executed
+with a small chisel or graving tool in the manner
+known in French as <i>fusé</i>, <i>guilloché</i>, or <i>hachié</i>.
+Their material is hollow gold, and when discovered
+they were filled with a substance resembling
+powdered charcoal, mixed with a metallic
+clay.</p>
+
+<p>These ornaments are ascribed by most authorities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+to an undetermined period somewhere
+previous to the Roman domination. I think,
+however, that less improbably they were produced
+by Spanish craftsmen in imitation of the Roman
+manner, and during the time of Roman rule in
+the Peninsula. This would account for their
+deficiencies of execution, and also for certain
+characteristics which they evidently share with
+Roman work.</p>
+
+<p>We know that Rome imposed her usages on all
+the peoples whom she subjugated. Consequently,
+following this universal law, the Spaniards would
+adopt, together with the lavish luxury of Rome,
+the Roman ornaments and articles of jewellery.
+Such were the <i>annulus</i> or finger-ring; the <i>fibula</i>,
+a brooch or clasp for securing the cloak; the
+<i>torgues</i> or neck-ring, more or less resembling
+those in use among the Persians; and the <i>phalera</i>,
+a round plate of gold, silver, or other metal,
+engraved with any one of a variety of emblems,
+worn upon the breast or stomach by the persons
+of either sex, and very commonly bestowed upon
+the Roman soldiers in reward of military service.
+Then there were several kinds of earrings&mdash;the
+variously-designed <i>stalagmium</i> or pendant, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+<i>inaures</i>, or the <i>crotalium</i>, hung with pearls that
+brushed together as their wearer walked, and
+gratified her vanity by their rustling; and also
+several kinds of bracelets&mdash;the gold or bronze
+<i>armilla</i>, principally worn by men; the <i>periscelis</i>,
+the <i>spathalium</i>, and the <i>dextrale</i>, worn round
+the fleshy part of the right arm.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>Discoveries of Roman jewellery and gold and
+silver work have occurred from time to time in the
+Peninsula; for example, at Espinosa de Henares
+and (in 1840) near Atarfe, on the southern side
+of the volcanic-looking Sierra Elvira, a few miles
+from Granada. Riaño describes a Roman silver
+dish found in a stone quarry at Otañez, in the
+north of Spain. &ldquo;It weighs thirty-three ounces,
+and is covered with an ornamentation of figures
+in relief, some of which are gilt, representing
+an allegorical subject of the source of medicinal
+waters. In the upper part is a nymph who pours<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects
+it in a vessel; another gives a cup of it to a sick
+man; another fills with it a barrel which is placed
+in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two
+mules. On each side of the fountain are altars on
+which sacrifices and libations are offered. Round
+it is the inscription: <span class="smcap">SALVS VMERITANA</span>, and at the
+back are engraved, in confused characters, the
+words: <span class="smcap">L. P. CORNELIANI. PIII</span>&hellip;.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same author is of opinion that in the time
+of the Romans &ldquo;objects of all kinds in gold and
+silver were used in Spain to a very great extent,
+for, notwithstanding the destruction of ages, we
+still possess inscriptions which allude to silver
+statues, and a large number of objects in the
+precious metals exist in museums and private
+collections.&rdquo; Doubtless, in the case of articles
+and household utensils of smaller size&mdash;bowls,
+dishes, and the like, or ornaments for the person&mdash;the
+precious metals were made use of freely; but
+when we hear of mighty objects as also made of
+silver, <i>e.g.</i> principal portions of a building, we
+might do well to bear in mind a couple of old
+columns that were standing once not far from Cadiz,
+on a spot where in the days preceding history a
+temple sacred to the Spanish Hercules is rumoured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+to have been. Philostratus affirmed these columns
+to be wrought of solid gold and silver, mixed
+together yet in themselves without alloy. Strabo
+reduced them modestly to brass; but it was reserved
+for a curious Frenchman, the Père Labat,
+who travelled in Spain in 1705, to warn us what
+they really were. &ldquo;Elles sont sur cette langue de
+terre, qui joint l'Isle de Léon à celle de Cadix;
+car il faut se souvenir que c'est ainsi qu'on appelle
+la partie Orientale, et la partie Occidentale de la
+même Isle. Il y a environ une lieue de la porte
+de Terre à ces vénérables restes de l'antiquité.
+Nous nous en approchames, croyant justifier les
+contes que les Espagnols en débitent. Mais nous
+fûmes étrangement surpris de ne pas rencontrer
+la moindre chose qui pût nous faire seulement
+soupçonner qu'elles fussent d'une antiquité un peu
+considérable. Nous vimes que ces deux tours
+rondes, qui n'ont à présent qu'environ vingt pieds
+de hauteur sur douze à quinze pieds de diamètre,
+étoient d'une maçonnerie fort commune. Leurs
+portes étoient bouchées, et nous convinmes tous
+qu'elles avoient été dans leur jeune tems des
+moulins à vent qu'on avoit abandonnés; il n'y a
+ni inscriptions, ni bas-reliefs, ni reste de figures
+quelconques. En un mot, rien qui méritât notre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+attention, ni qui recompensât la moindre partie de
+la peine que nous avions prise pour les aller voir
+de près. Car je les avois vue plus d'une fois du
+grand chemin, où j'avois passé, et je devois me
+contenter. Mais que ne fait-on pas quand on est
+curieux, et aussi des&oelig;uvré que je l'étois alors.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Many of the usages of Roman Spain descended
+to the Visigoths. The jewels of this people
+manifest the double influence of Rome and of
+Byzantium, and the latter influenced in its turn
+from Eastern sources. We learn from that extraordinary
+encyclopædia of early mediæval Spanish
+lore&mdash;the <i>Etymologies</i> of Isidore of Beja&mdash;that the
+Visigothic women decked themselves with earrings,
+necklaces, and bracelets, set with precious stones
+of fabulous price. Leovigild is stated by the same
+writer to have been the first of the Visigothic
+princes to use the insignia of royalty. One of
+his coins (engraved in Florez) represents him
+with an imperial crown surmounted by a cross
+resembling that of the Byzantines. Coins of a
+similar design, and also bearing the imperial crown,
+were minted at Toledo, Cordova, or Merida, in
+the reigns of Chindaswint, Wamba, Ervigius, and
+Egica.</p>
+
+<p>But the true fountain-head of all our modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+knowledge respecting the jewellery of Visigothic
+Spain is in the wonderful crosses, crowns, and
+other ornaments discovered in 1858 upon the site
+of some old Christian temple, two leagues distant
+from Toledo. These objects, known collectively
+as &ldquo;the treasure of Guarrazar,&rdquo; were stumbled
+on by certain peasants after a heavy storm had
+washed away a quantity of earth. Some were
+destroyed upon the spot; others were sold to the
+Toledo silversmiths and melted down by these
+barbarians of our day; but fortunately the greater
+part remained intact, or very nearly so. There
+were in all, composed exclusively of gold and
+precious stones, eleven crowns, two crosses containing
+legible inscriptions, fragments such as the
+arms of a processional cross, and many single
+stones which time had doubtless separated from
+the crosses or the crowns.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Part of this treasure passed in some mysterious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+way to France, and is now in the Cluny Museum
+at Paris. The rest is in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid. Paris can boast possession of nine of the
+crowns; Madrid, of two, together with a fragment
+of a third&mdash;this latter of a balustrade or basket
+pattern. Five of the nine crowns preserved at
+Paris are fashioned of simple hoops of gold. The
+most important of the five, the crown of Recceswinth,
+who ruled in Spain from 650 to 672 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>,
+consists of two hinged semicircles of hollow gold,
+about a finger's-breadth across the interspace. It
+measures just over eight inches in diameter and
+four inches in depth. Both the upper and the
+lower rims are decorated to the depth of nearly
+half an inch with a design of four-pointed floral
+or semi-floral figures within minute circles.
+Amador de los Ríos has recognized this same
+design in the frieze of certain buildings at
+Toledo, and in the edges of mosaic discovered
+at Italica and Lugo, as well as in the Balearic
+Islands. The interstices of this design upon the
+crown are filled with a kind of red enamel or
+glaze, the true nature of which has not been
+definitely ascertained. Riaño calls it &ldquo;a delicate
+ornamentation of <i>cloisonné</i> work, which encloses
+a substance resembling red glass.&rdquo; The centre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+of the crown is filled with three rows of large
+stones, principally pearls and sapphires. There are
+also several onyxes, a stone which in those days
+was held in great esteem. The spaces between
+the rows of stones are ornamented with a somewhat
+rudimentary design of palm branches, the leaves
+of which appear to have been filled or outlined
+with the kind of red enamel I have spoken of.</p>
+
+<p>This crown is suspended by four gold chains
+containing each of them five leaf-shaped links,
+<i>percées à jour</i>. The chains unite at a gold rosette
+in the form of a double lily, terminated by a stoutish
+capital of rock-crystal. This in its turn is capped
+by another piece of crystal holding the final stem
+of gold which served as a hook for hanging up
+the crown. Suspended from the gold rosette by
+a long chain is a handsome cross, undoubtedly of
+more elaborate workmanship, studded with union
+pearls and monster sapphires. Amador believed
+this ornament to be a brooch. If this were so it
+is, of course, improperly appended here. Twenty-four
+gold chains hang from the lower border of
+the crown, concluding in pyriform sapphires of
+large size. Each sapphire is surmounted by a
+small, square frame of gold containing coloured
+glass, and above this, in each of three-and-twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+of the chains, is one of the golden letters forming
+the inscription, &#9769; <span class="smcap">RECCESVINTHVS REX OFFERET</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Besides this crown there are at Paris&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) A similar though slighter crown, the body
+of which is studded with fifty-four magnificent
+stones. A cross, now kept apart in the same
+collection, is thought by Spanish experts to have
+once been pendent from the crown. If so, the
+latter was perhaps presented to the sanctuary by
+one Sonnica, probably a Visigothic magnate, and
+not a woman, as the termination of the name
+induced some foreign antiquaries to suppose.
+The cross is thus inscribed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="cross">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">IN D<span style="text-decoration: overline;">I</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">NOM</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">INE</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">OFFERET</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">SONNICA</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc"><span style="text-decoration: overline;">SCE</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">MA</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">RIE</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">INS</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">ORBA</td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdc">CES<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></td>
+    <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>(2) Three crowns of plain design consisting of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+hoops of gold with primitive <i>repoussé</i> decoration,
+and, in the case of one, with precious stones.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Four crowns, each with a pendent cross.
+The pattern is a basket-work or set of balustrades
+of thin gold hollow plates (not, as Riaño stated,
+massive) with precious stones about the intersections
+of the bars or meshes, and others hanging
+from the lower rim. Three of these crowns have
+three rows or tiers of what I call the balustrade;
+the other crown has four.</p>
+
+<p>The custom of offering votive crowns to
+Christian temples was taken by the emperors of
+Constantinople from heathen peoples of the
+eastern world. In Spain this custom, introduced
+by Recared, outlived by many years the ruin of
+the Visigothic monarchy&mdash;survived, in fact, until
+the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thus in 891
+Alfonso the Third presented to the monastery
+of San Adrian and Santa Natalia four crowns of
+gold and three of silver, while just a hundred
+years afterwards Ordoño the Second presented
+three silver crowns to the monastery of Samos.
+Other crowns were offered by the prelates and
+the secular nobility.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the crowns of Guarrazar, there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+has been great controversy as to whether these
+were worn upon the head. Some experts think
+they must have been so worn; and in this case
+the rings upon the rim, through which the chains
+are passed, would seem to have been added on
+the presentation of these objects to the sanctuary.
+Lasteyrie, on the other hand, considered that the
+crowns were merely votive and were never meant
+for personal use, arguing that the rings were
+fixed about the border from the very moment
+when the crowns were made;<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> but Amador
+ingeniously replied to this by pointing out that
+in a few of the old Castilian coins&mdash;for instance,
+one of Sancho the Third&mdash;the crown, with rings
+about its rim, is actually upon the monarch's
+head. It is possible, adds the same authority,
+that these were old votive crowns proceeding
+from some church, although he thinks it still
+more likely that they were fashioned with the
+rings attached to them. We should remember,
+too, the hinge which serves to open and close the
+body of these crowns. It is difficult to guess
+the purpose of this hinge, unless it were to fit the
+crown more comfortably on the head.</p>
+
+<p>Of that portion of the treasure of Guarrazar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+which has remained at Madrid (Plate <a href="#img_22.jpg">i</a>.), the
+most important object is the votive crown of King
+Swinthila, son of Recared, and described as &ldquo;one
+of the most illustrious and unlucky princes that ever
+occupied the throne of Atawulf.&rdquo; This crown
+measures nine inches in diameter by two and a
+half in height. It consists of thin gold plates
+united at the edge, leaving, between the inner and
+the outer side, a hollow space about a quarter
+of an inch across. The exterior is divided into
+a central horizontal hoop or band between two
+others, somewhat narrower, at the top and bottom,
+these last being slightly raised above the level of the
+third. A triple row of precious stones, amounting
+to one hundred and twenty-five pearls and
+sapphires in the entire crown, surrounds the outer
+surface of the same, the central band or zone of
+which contains besides, wrought in <i>repoussé</i> on
+the hoop, a simple circular device wherein each
+centre is a sapphire or a pearl, though many of
+these have fallen from their setting. The spaces
+which describe these circles are superposed on
+what looks like a red enamel retaining at this
+moment all or nearly all its pristine brightness of
+twelve hundred years ago. This substance was
+believed by French investigators to be a coloured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+glass or paste,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> but Amador, after protracted
+chemical experiments, declared it to be layers of
+cornelian. Some of these layers have fallen from
+their grip, and if the crown be stirred are heard
+to move within. It is worth remarking, too, that
+the fillets which form the setting of the precious
+stones were made apart and welded afterwards;
+nor are these settings uniform in shape, but tally
+in each instance with the outline of the gem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_22.jpg" width="436" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_22.jpg" id="img_22.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">TREASURE OF GUARRAZAR<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chains which served for hanging up the
+crown are four in number. As in the crown of
+Recceswinth, each of them is composed of four
+<i>repoussé</i> cinquefoil links adorned along their edge
+with small gold beads minutely threaded on a
+wire and fastened on by fusing. The chains converge
+into an ornament shaped like two lilies
+pointing stem to stem, so that the lower is inverted,
+although they are divided by a piece of
+faceted rock crystal.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Four gems are hung from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+either lily, and issuing from the uppermost of
+these a strong gold hook attaches to the final
+length of chain.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the chain and cross now hanging
+through the circuit of the crown were not originally
+part of it. This cross is most remarkable.
+It has four arms of equal length, gracefully curved,
+and is wrought of plates of gold in duplicate,
+fastened back to back by straps of gold along the
+edges. The centre holds a piece of crystal in
+the midst of pearls and gold bead work threaded
+on a wire of the same metal and attached by
+fusion. Several fairly large stones are hung from
+the lateral and lower arms of the cross by small
+gold chains.</p>
+
+<p>The letters hanging from Swinthila's crown are
+cut and punched from thin gold plates. Their
+decoration is a zigzag ornament backed by the
+same mysterious crimson substance as the circular
+devices on the hoop. Hanging from the letters
+are pearls, sapphires, and several imitation stones&mdash;particularly
+imitation emeralds&mdash;in paste.</p>
+
+<p>The cross before the letters points to a custom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+of that period. We find it also on Swinthila's
+coins, and those of other Visigothic kings. Of the
+letters themselves twelve have been recovered,
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:center;">&#9769;  SV  TI  NV  REX  OFF  T</p>
+
+<p>The chains, however, or fragments of them,
+amount to twenty-three&mdash;precisely (if we count
+the cross) the number needed to complete the
+dedication.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury contains another crown, a
+great deal smaller and less ornamented than
+Swinthila's. The body of this crown, which was
+presented by the finder to the late Queen Isabella
+the Second, is just a hoop of gold, two inches
+deep and five across, hinged like the more
+elaborate and larger crowns, but merely decorated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+with a fine gold spiral at the rims, a zigzag
+pattern in <i>repoussé</i>, and a rudely executed scale-work.
+The dedication on this cross is in the
+centre of the hoop, and says&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:center;">&#9769; OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM S<span style="text-decoration: overline;">CO</span> STEFANO<br />
+THEODOSIVS ABB<span style="text-decoration: overline;">A</span></p>
+
+<p>We do not know who Theodosius was, but
+Amador, judging from the simple decoration of
+this crown, believes him to have been a priest
+of lower rank, and by no means a dignitary of
+the Visigothic church.</p>
+
+<p>A votive cross also forms part of this collection,
+which has a simple sunk device along the edges
+and seven pendent stones, two of these hanging
+from each of the lateral arms, and three, a little
+larger, from the lower arm. The inscription,
+which is rough in the extreme, appears to be the
+work of some illiterate craftsman, and has been
+interpreted with difficulty:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align:center;">IN NOMINE DEI: IN NOMINE S<span style="text-decoration: overline;">CI</span> OFFERET<br />
+LUCETIUS E</p>
+
+<p>This reading gives an extra letter at the end,
+which may be construed as <i>Episcopus</i>&mdash;or anything
+else, according to the student's fancy.</p>
+
+<p>I may close my notice of this collection in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+Royal Armoury at Madrid by drawing attention
+to a greenish, semi-opaque stone, three-quarters
+of an inch in height. It is engraved <i>en creux</i>
+upon two facets with the scene of the Annunciation.
+The gem itself is commonly taken for an
+emerald, of which, referring to the glyptic art
+among the Visigoths, the learned Isidore remarked
+that &ldquo;<i>Sculpentibus quoque gemmas nulla gratior
+oculorum refectio est.</i>&rdquo; I shall insert a sketch of
+the cutting on this stone as a tailpiece to the
+chapter, and here append a full description.
+&ldquo;The Virgin listens standing to the Archangel
+Gabriel, who communicates to her the will of
+the Almighty. Before her is a jar, from which
+projects the stem of a lily, emblematic of the
+chaste and pure, that reaches to her breast.
+Her figure is completely out of measurement.
+Upon her head appears to be a <i>nimbus</i> or
+<i>amiculum</i>; her breast is covered with a broad and
+folded <i>fascia</i>, enveloping her arms, while her
+tunic, reaching to the ground, conceals one of her
+feet. The angel in the cutting on the stone is at
+the Virgin's right. His attitude is that of one
+who is conveying tidings. Large wings folded
+upon his shoulders and extending nearly to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+ground are fitted to his form, better drawn and
+livelier than the Virgin's. He executes his holy
+mission with his right hand lifted. His dress is
+a tunic in small folds, over which is a cloak
+fastened by a brooch and fitting closely. Upon
+his head he wears a kind of helmet.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>The drawing of this design upon the stone is
+most bizarre and barbarous; for the Virgin's head
+is so completely disproportioned that it forms the
+one-third part of her entire person.</p>
+
+<p>The merit of all this Visigothic gem or gold and
+silver work has been extolled too highly by the
+French and Spanish archæologists.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> It is, however,
+greatly interesting. Rudely and ponderously
+magnificent, it tells us of a people who as yet
+were almost wholly strangers to the true artistic
+sense. Such were the Visigoths and the Spaniards
+of the Visigothic era, of all of whom I have
+observed elsewhere that &ldquo;serfdom was the distinguishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+mark of the commons; arrogance, of
+the nobility; avarice, and ambition of temporal and
+political power, of the clergy; regicide and tumult,
+of the crown.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> These crowns of Guarrazar proclaim
+to us in plainest language that the volume of
+the stones, and showiness and glitter of the precious
+metal were accorded preference of every other
+factor&mdash;the <i>pondus auri</i> preference of the <i>manus
+artificis</i>. We gather, too, from documents and
+chronicles and popular tradition, that the Visigothic
+princes, as they set apart their stores of treasure in
+secluded caves or in the strong rooms of their
+palaces, were ever captivated and corrupted by the
+mere intrinsic worth in opposition to the nobler
+and æsthetic value of the craftsmanship.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we are told that Sisenand owned a plate
+of gold (no word is said of its design or style)
+five hundred pounds in weight, proceeding from
+the royal treasure of his race, and which, long
+years before, had been presented by the nobleman
+Accio to King Turismund. When Sisenand was
+conspiring to dethrone Swinthila, he called on
+Dagobert the king of France to come to his
+support, and promised him, as recompense, this
+golden plate. The French king lent his help<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+forthwith, and then, as soon as Turismund was
+seated on the throne of Spain, despatched an
+embassy to bring the coveted vessel to his court.
+Sisenand fulfilled his word and placed the envoys
+in possession of the plate, but since his subjects,
+rising in rebellion, wrenched it from their power
+and kept it under custody, he compensated
+Dagobert by a money payment of two hundred
+thousand <i>sueldos</i>.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>Innumerable narratives and legends dwell
+upon the treasure taken by the Moors on entering
+Spain. Such as relate the battle of the
+Guadalete, or the Lake of Janda (as it is also
+called by some authorities), agree that when the
+fatal day was at an end the riderless steed of
+Roderick was found imbedded in the mire,
+wearing a saddle of massive gold adorned with
+emeralds and rubies. According to Al-Makkari,
+that luckless monarch's boots were also made of
+gold studded with precious stones, while the
+Muslim victors, stripping the Visigothic dead,
+identified the nobles by the golden rings upon
+their fingers, those of a less exalted rank by
+their silver rings, and the slaves by their rings
+of copper. The widow of the fallen king was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+also famous for her stores of jewellery. Her
+name was Eila or Egilona (Umm-Asim of the
+Moors), but she was known besides as &ldquo;the
+lady of the beautiful necklaces.&rdquo; After being
+made a prisoner she was given in marriage to
+the young prince Abd-al-Azis, who grew to love
+her very greatly, and received from her, &ldquo;seeing
+that she still retained sufficient of her royal
+wealth,&rdquo; the present of a crown.</p>
+
+<p>Muza, on returning to the East, is said to
+have drawn near to Damascus with a train of
+thirty waggons full of Spanish silver, gold, and
+precious stones. Tarik ben Ziyed, marching in
+triumph through the land, secured at Cordova,
+Amaya, and other towns and capitals, enormous
+store of &ldquo;pearls, arms, dishes, silver, gold, and
+other jewels in unprecedented number.&rdquo; One
+object, in particular, is mentioned with insistency
+by nearly all the chronicles, both Mussulman
+and Christian. Quoting from the <i>Pearl of
+Marvels</i> of Ibn Alwardi, this was &ldquo;the table
+which had belonged to God's prophet, Solomon
+(health be to both of them). It was of green
+emeralds, and nothing fairer had been ever seen
+before. Its cups were golden and its plates of
+precious jewels, one of them specked with black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+and white.&rdquo; All manner of strange things are
+said about this table, though most accounts
+describe it as consisting of a <i>single</i> emerald.
+Perhaps it was of malachite, or of the bright
+green serpentine stone extracted formerly as well
+as nowadays from the Barranco de San Juan
+at Granada, and several other spots in Spain.
+Bayan Almoghreb says it was of gold mixed
+with a little silver and surrounded by three gold
+rings or collars; the first containing pearls, the
+second rubies, and the third emeralds. Al-Makkari
+describes it as &ldquo;green, with its 365 feet and
+borders of a single emerald.&rdquo; Nor is it known
+for certain where this &ldquo;table&rdquo; fell into the hands
+of Tarik. Probably he found it in the principal
+Christian temple at Toledo&mdash;that is to say, the
+Basilica of Santa María. Ibn Alwardi says that
+in the <i>aula regia</i>, or palace of the Visigothic kings,
+the lancers of the Moorish general broke down
+a certain door, discovering &ldquo;a matchless quantity
+of gold and silver plate,&rdquo; together with the
+&ldquo;table.&rdquo; Doubtless this strong room was the same
+referred to in the following lines. &ldquo;It was for
+ever closed; and each time that a Christian king
+began to reign he added to its door a new and
+powerful fastening. In this way as many as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+four and twenty padlocks were gathered on the
+door.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>However, the most explicit and informative of
+all these ancient authors is Ibn Hayyan, who says;
+&ldquo;The table had its origin in the days of Christian
+rulers. It was the custom in those times that
+when a rich man died he should bequeath a legacy
+to the churches. Proceeding from the value of
+these gifts were fashioned tables, thrones, and
+other articles of gold and silver, whereon the
+clergy bore the volumes of their gospel when
+they showed them at their ceremonies. These
+objects they would also set upon their altars to
+invest them with a further splendour by the
+ornament thereof. For this cause was the table
+at Toledo, and the [Visigothic] monarchs vied
+with one another in enriching it, each of them
+adding somewhat to the offerings of his predecessor,
+till it surpassed all other jewels of its
+kind and grew to be renowned exceedingly. It
+was of fine gold studded with emeralds, pearls,
+and rubies, in such wise that nothing similar had
+ever been beheld. So did the kings endeavour
+to increase its richness, seeing that this city was
+their capital, nor did they wish another to contain
+more splendid ornaments or furniture. Thus was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+the table resting on an altar of the church, and
+here the Muslims came upon it, and the fame of
+its magnificence spread far abroad.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another chronicle affirms that Tarik found the
+&ldquo;table&rdquo; at a city called Almeida, now perhaps
+Olmedo. &ldquo;He reached Toledo, and leaving a
+detachment there, advanced to Guadalajara and
+the [Guadarrama] mountains. These he crossed
+by the pass which took his name, and reached,
+upon the other side, a city called Almeida or <i>The
+Table</i>, for there had been discovered the table of
+Solomon the son of David, and the feet and
+borders of it, numbering three hundred and sixty-five,
+were of green emerald.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In any case this venerated jewel gave considerable
+trouble to its captors. When envious Muza
+followed up the march of Tarik, his lieutenant,
+he demanded from him all the spoil, and in
+particular the ever-famous table. Tarik surrendered
+this forthwith, but after slyly wrenching
+off a leg. Muza perceived the breakage, and
+inquired for the missing piece. &ldquo;I know not,&rdquo;
+said the other; &ldquo;'twas thus that I discovered it.&rdquo;
+Muza then ordered a new leg of gold to be made
+for the table, as well as a box of palm leaves, in
+which it was deposited. &ldquo;This,&rdquo; says Ibn Hayyan,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+&ldquo;is known to be one of the reasons why Tarik
+worsted Muza in the dispute they had before
+the Caliph as to their respective conquests.&rdquo;
+So it proved. Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> relates that
+Muza appeared before the Caliph Al-Walid and
+produced the table. Tarik interposed and said
+that he himself had taken it, and not the other
+leader. &ldquo;Give it into my hands,&rdquo; the Caliph
+answered, &ldquo;that I may see if any piece of it be
+wanting,&rdquo; and found, indeed, that one of its feet
+was different from the rest. &ldquo;Ask Muza,&rdquo; interrupted
+Tarik, &ldquo;for the missing foot, and if he
+answer from his heart, then shall his words be
+truth.&rdquo; Accordingly Al-Walid inquired for the
+foot, and Muza made reply that he had found
+the table as it now appeared; but Tarik with
+an air of triumph drew forth the missing piece
+which he himself had broken off, and said: &ldquo;By
+this shall the Emir of the Faithful recognize that
+I am speaking truth; that I it was who found
+the table.&rdquo; And thereupon Al-Walid credited his
+words and loaded him with gifts.</p>
+
+<p>Comparing the statements of these writers, we
+may be certain that the &ldquo;table&rdquo; was a kind of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+desk of Visigothic or, more probably, Byzantine
+workmanship, for holding the gospels on the
+feast-days of the national church. Probably, too,
+seeing that a palm-leaf box was strong enough to
+keep it in, its size was inconsiderable. Its value,
+on the statement of Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, was
+two hundred thousand <i>dinares</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The sum of my remarks upon the Visigothic
+jewel-work is this. Distinguished by a coarse
+though costly splendour, we find in it a mingled
+Roman and Byzantine source, although it was
+upon the whole inferior to these styles, being
+essentially, as Amador observes, &ldquo;an imitative
+and decadent art.&rdquo; Yet it did not succumb before
+the Moors, but lurked for refuge in the small
+Asturian monarchy, and later, issuing thence, extended
+through the kingdom of León into Castile.
+We find its clearest characteristics in such objects
+as the Cross of Angels and the Cross of Victory.
+Then, later still, it is affected and regenerated by the
+purely oriental art of the invader; and lastly, till the
+wave of the Renaissance floods the western world,
+by Gothic influences from across the Pyrenees.</p>
+
+<p>A similar sketch may be applied to other arts
+and crafts of Spain&mdash;particularly furniture and
+architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_36.jpg" width="320" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_36.jpg" id="img_36.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE CROSS OF ANGELS<br />
+(<i>Oviedo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The pious or superstitious kings and magnates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+of this land have always taken pride in adding (at
+the instigation of the clergy) to the treasure of her
+churches and cathedrals. Such gifts include all
+kinds of sumptuous apparel for the priesthood;
+chasubles and dalmatics heavily embroidered with
+the precious metals, gold or silver crowns and
+crosses, paxes,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> chalices and patines, paraments
+and baldaquinos, reliquaries in every shape and
+style and size, and figures of the Virgin&mdash;such
+as those of Lugo, Seville, Astorga, and Pamplona&mdash;consisting
+of elaborate silver-work upon a
+wooden frame. Visitors to Spain, from leisurely
+Rosmithal five hundred years ago to time-economizing
+tourists of our century, have been
+continually astonished at the prodigal richness
+of her sanctuaries. Upon this point I quote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+a typical extract from the narrative of Bertaut de
+Rouen. &ldquo;The treasure of this church,&rdquo; he said
+of Montserrat, &ldquo;is wonderfully precious, and particularly
+so by reason of two objects that belong
+to it. The first is a crown of massive gold of
+twenty pounds in weight, covered with pearls,
+with ten stars radiating from it also loaded with
+large pearls and diamonds of extraordinary value.
+This crown took forty years to make, and is valued
+at two millions of gold money. The second
+object is a gold crown entirely covered with
+emeralds, most of them of an amazing size. Many
+are worth five thousand crowns apiece. The
+reliquary, too, is of extraordinary richness, as also
+a service of gold plate studded with pearls,
+donated by the late emperor for use in celebrating
+Mass.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Similar accounts to the above exist in quantities,
+relating to every part of Spain and every period
+of her history.</p>
+
+<p>Reverting to the earlier Middle Ages, a few
+conspicuous objects thus presented to the Spanish
+Church require to be briefly noted here. Famous
+chalices are those of Santo Domingo de Silos
+(eleventh century), made to the order of Abbot
+Domingo in honour of San Sebastian, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+showing the characteristic Asturian filigree-work;
+and of San Isidoro of León, made in 1101 by
+order of Urraca Fernandez, sister of the fourth
+Alfonso. The latter vessel, inscribed with the
+dedication of <i>Urraca Fredinandi</i>, has an agate
+cup and foot. A remarkably handsome silver-gilt
+chalice and patine (thirteenth century) belong
+to Toledo cathedral. The height of this chalice
+is thirteen inches, and the diameter of its bowl,
+which has a conical shape, eight and a half inches.
+Inside and out the bowl is smooth, but midway
+between the bowl and the foot is a massive knot
+or swelling in the stem, and on the knot the
+emblematic lion, eagle, bull, and angel are
+chiselled in high relief. Below the knot is a ring
+of graceful rosettes. The patine which accompanies
+this chalice measures twelve inches in
+diameter. It has upon it, thinly engraved within
+a slightly sunk centre with a scalloped edge, the
+figure of Christ upon the cross, between the
+Virgin and St John. This central group of
+figures and the border of the plate are each
+surrounded with a narrow strip of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral of Valencia has a beautiful and
+early cup asserted to be the veritable Holy Grail
+(<i>greal</i>, <i>garal</i>, or <i>gradal</i>, in the old Castilian), &ldquo;of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+which,&rdquo; wrote Ford with his accustomed irony, &ldquo;so
+many are shown in different orthodox <i>relicarios</i>.&rdquo;
+However this may be, the chalice of Valencia is
+particularly handsome. According to Riaño it
+consists of &ldquo;a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully
+moulded round the lip. The base is formed
+of another inverted sardonyx. These are united
+by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by
+handles, which are inlaid with delicate arabesque
+in black enamel. Oriental pearls are set round
+the base and stem, which alternate with rubies,
+sapphires, and emeralds. This chalice is a work
+of the Roman imperial epoch, and the mounts
+are of a later date.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A series of Spanish chalices, beginning chronologically
+with specimens which date from the
+early Middle Ages, and terminating with the
+chalice, made in 1712, of Santa María la Blanca
+of Seville, was shown in 1892 at the Exposición
+Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Among the finer
+or most curious were chalices proceeding from the
+parish church of Játiva, Las Huelgas, and Seville
+cathedral, and the Plateresque chalices of Calatayud,
+Granada, and Alcalá de Henares. Another
+chalice which is greatly interesting because of
+the date inscribed on it, is one which was presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+to Lugo cathedral by a bishop of that diocese,
+Don Garcia Martinez de Bahamonde (1441&ndash;1470).
+The workmanship, though prior to the sixteenth
+century, is partly Gothic. An article by José
+Villa-amil y Castro, dealing with all these chalices,
+will be found in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad
+Española de Excursiones</i> for April, 1893.</p>
+
+<p>A small exhibition was held at Lugo in August
+1896. Here were shown sixteen chalices, nearly
+all of them of merit from the point of view of
+history or art. Such are the chalice of San
+Rosendo, proceeding from the old monastery
+of Celanova; the Gothic chalices of Tuy
+cathedral, Lugo cathedral, Santa María del
+Lucio, Santa Eulalia de Guilfrei, San Pedro
+de Puertomarín, and the Franciscan friars of
+Santiago; and the chalice and patine of Cebrero
+(twelfth century), in which it is said that on a
+certain occasion in the fifteenth century the wine
+miraculously turned to actual blood, and the Host
+to actual flesh, in order to convince a doubting
+priest who celebrated service.</p>
+
+<p>The Cross of Angels and the Cross of Victory&mdash;presents,
+respectively, from Alfonso the Chaste
+and Alfonso the Great&mdash;are now preserved at
+Oviedo, in the Camara Santa of that stately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+temple. The former of these crosses, fancied by
+credulous people to be the handiwork of angels&mdash;whence
+its title<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>&mdash;was made in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 808. It consists
+of four arms of equal length, radiating from
+a central rosette (Pl. <a href="#img_36.jpg">ii</a>.). The core or <i>alma</i> is of
+wood covered with a double plate of richly decorated
+gold, chased in the finest filigree (indicative
+already of the influence of Cordova) and thickly
+strewn with sapphires, amethysts, topazes, and
+cornelians. Other stones hung formerly from six
+small rings upon the lower border of the arms.
+The cross is thus inscribed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>&ldquo;Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei<br />
+Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xti<br />
+Hoc signo tuetur pius<br />
+Hoc signo vincitur inimicus.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi<br />
+Fulmine divino intereat ipse<br />
+Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea<br />
+Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCXLVI.&rdquo;</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_42.jpg" width="374" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_42.jpg" id="img_42.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE CROSS OF VICTORY<br />
+(<i>Oviedo Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other cross (Pl. <a href="#img_42.jpg">iii</a>.) is more than twice as
+large, and measures just one yard in height by two
+feet four and a half inches in width. Tradition
+says that the primitive, undecorated wooden core of
+this cross was carried against the Moors by King
+Pelayo. The ornate casing, similar to that upon
+the Cross of Angels, was added later, and contains
+152 gems and imitation gems. The following
+inscription tells us that this casing was made
+at the Castle of Gauzon in Asturias, in the year
+828:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>&ldquo;Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent<br />
+Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemaena Regina;<br />
+Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit<br />
+Fulmine divino intereat ipse.<br />
+Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est<br />
+Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis.<br />
+Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus<br />
+Et operatum est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri.</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 10%;">XLII. <i>discurrente Era</i> DCCCLXVI.&rdquo;</span></p>
+
+<p>These crosses are processional. Others which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+were used for the same purpose are those of San
+Sebastián de Serrano (Galicia), San Munio de
+Veiga, Santa María de Guillar (Lugo), San Mamed
+de Fisteos, and Santa María de Arcos. The five
+preceding crosses are of bronze; those of Baamorto
+and San Adriano de Lorenzana are respectively
+of silver, and of wood covered with silver plates,
+and all were shown at the Lugo exhibition I have
+spoken of.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Cross of Victory or Pelayo, and the
+Cross of Angels, interesting objects preserved at
+Oviedo are a small diptych presented by Bishop
+Don Gonzalo (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1162&ndash;1175), and the <i>Arca Santa</i>
+used for storing saintly relics. This beautiful
+chest, measuring three feet nine inches and a half
+in length by twenty-eight inches and a half in
+height, is considered by Riaño to be of Italian
+origin, and to date from between the tenth and
+twelfth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Another handsome box belonging to the cathedral
+of Astorga was once upon a time the
+property of Alfonso the Third and his queen
+Jimena, whose names it bears&mdash;<span class="smcap">ADEFONSVS REX:
+SCEMENA REGINA</span>. The workmanship is consequently
+of the close of the ninth or the beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+of the tenth century. The material is wood
+covered with <i>repoussé</i> silver plates on which are
+figured angels and birds, together with the eagle
+and the ox as emblems of the evangelists John
+and Luke, whose names are also to be read upon
+the casket.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the sword, no object in the history of
+mediæval Spain was more profoundly popular or
+venerated than the <i>relicario</i>. This in its primitive
+form was just a small receptacle, such as a vase or
+urn of gold or silver, ivory or crystal, used by the
+laity or clergy for treasuring bones, or hairs, or
+other relics of the Virgin, or the Saviour, or the
+saints. In private families a holy tooth, or toe,
+or finger thus preserved would often, as though
+it were some Eastern talisman, accompany its
+credulous possessor to the battlefield.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on, the urn or vase was commonly
+replaced by chests or caskets made by Moorish
+captives, or by tranquil and respected Moorish
+residents within the territory of the Christian,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+or wrested from the infidel in war and offered
+by the Spanish kings or nobles to their churches.
+Here they were kept on brackets, or suspended
+near the altar by a chain<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> of silver, gold, or iron.
+Among the Moors themselves such chests and
+caskets served, according to their richness or
+capacity, for storing perfumes, clothes, or jewels,
+or as a present from a bridegroom to his bride;
+and since the sparsely-furnished Oriental room
+contains no kind of wardrobe, cabinet, or chest
+of drawers, their use in Moorish parts of Spain
+was universal.</p>
+
+<p>A typical Moorish casket of this kind (Plate <a href="#img_46.jpg">iv</a>.)
+is now in the cathedral of Gerona. It measures
+fifteen inches in length by nine across, fastens
+with a finely ornamented band and clasp of
+bronze, and is covered with thin silver-gilt plates
+profusely decorated with a bead and floral pattern
+superposed upon a box of non-decaying wood&mdash;possibly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+larch or cedar. A Cufic inscription along
+the lower part of the lid was formerly interpreted
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the name of God. (May) the blessing of
+God, prosperity and fortune and perpetual felicity
+be (destined) for the servant of God, Alhakem,
+Emir of the Faithful, because he ordered (this
+casket) to be made for Abdul Walid Hischem,
+heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished
+by the hands of Hudzen, son of Bothla.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_46.jpg" width="500" height="322"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_46.jpg" id="img_46.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH CASKET<br />
+(<i>Gerona Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is supposed, however, that the part of this
+inscription which contains the maker's name was
+rendered incorrectly by Riaño, who followed, on
+this point, Saavedra, Fita, and other archæologists;
+and that the casket was made to the order
+of Djaudar, as a gift to the heir to the throne,
+Abulwalid Hischem, the actual workmen being
+two slaves, Bedr and Tarif. That is to say, the
+name Hudzen is now replaced by Djaudar, whom
+Dozy mentions in his history of the Mussulman
+domination in Spain, and who is known to have
+been a eunuch high in favour with Alhakem,
+Hischem's father. These princes ruled at Cordova
+in the latter half of the tenth century and the
+beginning of the eleventh.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish-Moorish caskets (<i>arquetas</i>) of ivory,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+silver, or inlaid work, are also preserved in the
+South Kensington Museum, the Archæological
+Museum at Madrid, and the cathedrals of Braga,
+Tortosa, and Oviedo. There is no reason to
+doubt that all these boxes were made in Spain,
+although an Eastern and particularly Persian
+influence is very noticeable in their scheme of
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Two silver caskets which were once in the
+church of San Isidoro at León are now in the
+Madrid Museum. The smaller and plainer of
+the two, elliptical in shape and measuring five
+inches in length by two inches and a half in depth,
+is covered with a leaf and stem device outlined in
+black enamel. A Cufic inscription of a private
+and domestic import, also picked out with black
+enamel, runs along the top. The lid is ornamented,
+like the body of the box, with leaves and stems
+surrounded by a Grecian border, and fastens with
+a heart-shaped clasp secured by a ring.</p>
+
+<p>The other, more elaborate, and larger box
+measures eight inches long by five in height. In
+shape it is a parallelogram, with a deeply bevelled
+rather than&mdash;as Amador describes it&mdash;a five-sided
+top. Bands of a simple winding pattern outlined
+in black enamel on a ground of delicate niello-work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+run round the top and body of the casket.
+The central band upon the lower part contains a
+Cufic inscription of slight interest. Some of the
+letters terminate in leaves. The bevelled lid is
+covered with groups of peacocks&mdash;symbolic, among
+Mohammedans, of eternal life&mdash;outlined in black
+enamel. These birds are eight in all, gathered in
+two groups of four about the large and overlapping
+hinges. Four leaves, trifoliate, in <i>repoussé</i>, one
+beneath the other, decorate the clasp, which opens
+out into a heart containing, also in <i>repoussé</i>, two
+inverted peacocks looking face to face. Between
+the birds this heart extremity is pierced for the
+passage of a ring.</p>
+
+<p>Amador de los Ríos considers that both caskets
+were made between the years 1048 and 1089.</p>
+
+<p>The use of coloured enamel in the manufacture
+of these boxes dates, or generally so, from somewhat
+later. Although the history of enamelling
+in Spain is nebulous and contradictory in the
+extreme, we know that caskets in <i>champlevé</i> enamel
+on a copper ground, with figures either flat or
+hammered in a bold relief, became abundant here.
+Two, from the convent of San Marcos at León, and
+dating from the thirteenth century, are now in the
+Madrid Museum. Labarte says that the lids of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+these enamelled reliquaries were flat until the
+twelfth century, and of a gable form thenceforward.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_50.jpg" width="500" height="329"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_50.jpg" id="img_50.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">ALTAR-FRONT IN ENAMELLED BRONZE<br />
+(<i>11th Century. Museum of Burgos</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other old objects&mdash;boxes, triptyches, statuettes,
+incensories, book-covers, crucifixes, and processional
+crosses&mdash;partly or wholly covered with
+enamel, belong or recently belonged to the
+Marquises of Castrillo and Casa-Torres, the Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan, and Señor Escanciano.
+All, or nearly all, of these are thought to have proceeded
+from Limoges (Pl. <a href="#img_50.jpg">v</a>.). <i>Champlevé</i> enamel
+is also on the tiny &ldquo;Crucifix of the Cid&rdquo; (Pl. <a href="#img_52.jpg">vi</a>.) at
+Salamanca, as well as on the Virgin's throne in
+the gilt bronze statuette of the Virgin de la Vega
+at San Esteban in the same city.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Of this image,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+although it properly belongs to another heading of
+my book, I think it well to give a reproduction here
+(Plate <a href="#img_54.jpg">vii</a>.). I will also mention, in spite of its
+presumably foreign origin, the enamelled altar-front
+of San Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre&mdash;a
+small sanctuary constructed by a mediæval cavalier
+who, by an accident occasioned by the dark,
+murdered his father and mother in lieu of his
+wife.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> This altar-front, conspicuously Byzantine
+in its style, measures four feet three inches high
+by seven feet five inches long, and is now employed
+as the <i>retablo</i> of the little church which
+stands in solitary picturesqueness on the lofty
+mountain-top of Aralar. The figures, coloured in
+relief upon a yellowish enamel ground, are those
+of saints, and of a monarch and his queen&mdash;possibly
+King Sancho the Great, who is believed to have
+been the donor of the ornament. If this surmise
+be accurate, the front would date from the eleventh
+century.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the history of Spanish enamel-work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+is both confused and scanty. The subject
+in its general aspects has been studied by M.
+Roulin, whose judgments will be found in the
+<i>Revue de l'Art Ancien et Moderne</i>, and in his
+article, &ldquo;Mobilier liturgique d'Espagne,&rdquo; published
+in the <i>Revue de l'Art Chrétien</i> for 1903. M.
+Roulin believes the altar-front of San Miguel in
+Excelsis to be a Limoges product, not earlier than
+the first half of the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Ramírez de Arellano declares that no enamelling
+at all was done in Spain before the invasion of the
+Almohades. López Ferreiro, who as a priest had
+access to the jealously secreted archives of Santiago
+cathedral, gives us the names of Arias Perez,
+Pedro Martinez, Fernan Perez, and Pedro Pelaez,
+Galician enamellers who worked at Santiago in
+the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Martin
+Minguez says that enamelling was done at Gerona
+in the fourteenth century, and Moorish enamels
+were certainly produced at Cordova and Cuenca
+from comparatively early in the Middle Ages.
+A few obscure workers in enamel are mentioned
+by Gestoso, in his <i>Diccionario de Artistas Sevillanos</i>,
+as living at Seville in the fifteenth century,
+though, in the entries which refer to them, little
+is told us of their lives and nothing of their labours.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+In the sixteenth century we obtain a glimpse of
+two enamellers of Toledo&mdash;Lorenzo Marqués and
+Andrés Ordoñez, and dating from the same
+period the Chapter of the Military Orders of
+Ciudad Real possesses a silver-gilt <i>porta-paz</i>
+with enamelling done at Cuenca. However, our
+notices of this branch of Spanish art have yet
+to be completed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_52.jpg" width="323" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_52.jpg" id="img_52.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">&ldquo;THE CRUCIFIX OF THE CID&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Salamanca Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A long array of royal gifts caused, in the
+olden time, the treasure of Santiago cathedral
+to be the richest and most varied in the
+whole Peninsula, although at first this see was
+merely suffragan to Merida. But early in the
+twelfth century a scheming bishop, by name
+Diego Gelmirez, intrigued at Rome to raise his
+diocese to the dignity of an archbishopric. The
+means by which he proved successful in the
+end were far from irreproachable. &ldquo;Gelmirez,&rdquo;
+says Ford (vol. ii. p. 666) &ldquo;was a cunning
+prelate, and well knew how to carry his point; he
+put Santiago's images and plate into the crucible,
+and sent the ingots to the Pope.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The original altar-front or parament (<i>aurea
+tabula</i>) was made of solid gold. This altar-front
+Gelmirez melted down to steal from it some
+hundred ounces of the precious metal for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+Pope, donating in its stead another front of gold
+and silver mixed, wrought from the remaining
+treasure of the sanctuary. Aymerich tells us
+that the primitive frontal bore the figure of the
+Saviour seated on a throne supported by the four
+evangelists, blessing with his right hand, and
+holding in his left the Book of Life. The four-and-twenty
+elders (called by quaint Morales &ldquo;gentlemen&rdquo;)
+of the apocalypse were also gathered round
+the throne, with musical instruments in their hands,
+and golden goblets filled with fragrant essences.
+At either end of the frontal were six of the apostles,
+three above and three beneath, separated by
+&ldquo;beautiful columns&rdquo; and surrounded by floral decoration.
+The upper part was thus inscribed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="title"><span class="smcap">HANC TABULAM DIDACUS PRÆSUL JACOBITA<br />
+SECUNDUS<br />
+TEMPORE QUINQUENNI FECIT EPISCOPI<br />
+MARCAS ARGENTI DE THESAURO JACOBENSI<br />
+HIC OCTOGINTA QUINQUE MINUS NUMERA.</span></p>
+
+<p>And the lower part:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="title"><span class="smcap">REX ERAT ANFONSUS GENER EJUS DUX RAIMUNDUS<br />
+PRÆSUL PRÆFATUS QUANDO PEREGIT OPUS.</span></p>
+
+<p>This early altar-front has disappeared like its predecessor;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+it is not known precisely at what time;
+but both Morales and Medina saw and wrote
+about it in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_54.jpg" width="368" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_54.jpg" id="img_54.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE &ldquo;VIRGEN DE LA VEGA&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Salamanca</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another ornament which Aymerich describes,
+namely, the <i>baldaquino</i> or <i>cimborius</i>, has likewise
+faded from the eyes of the profane, together with
+three bronze caskets covered with enamel, and
+stated by Morales to have contained the bones of
+Saints Silvestre, Cucufate, and Fructuoso. One
+of these caskets was existing in the seventeenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The silver lamps were greatly celebrated.
+Ambrosio de Morales counted &ldquo;twenty or
+more&rdquo;; but Zepedano made their total mount to
+fifty-one. The French invasion brought their
+number down to three. Three of the oldest
+of these lamps had been of huge dimensions,
+particularly one, a present from Alfonso of
+Aragon, which occupied the centre. The shape
+of it, says Aymerich, was &ldquo;like a mighty mortar.&rdquo;
+Seven was the number of its beaks, symbolic of
+the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; and each
+beak contained a lamplet fed with oil of myrtles,
+acorns, or olives.</p>
+
+<p>All kinds of robberies and pilferings have thus
+been perpetrated with the once abundant wealth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+of Santiago.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The jealous care which keeps the
+copious archives inaccessible to all the outside
+world is in itself of sinister significance. It has
+transpired, furthermore, that many of the bishops
+have &ldquo;exchanged,&rdquo; or simply stolen, portions of the
+holy property. Besides these clerical dilapidations,
+a cartload, weighing half a ton, was carried
+off by Marshal Ney, though some was subsequently
+handed back, &ldquo;because the spoilers feared the
+hostility of the <i>Plateros</i>, the silversmiths who live
+close to the cathedral, and by whom many workmen
+were employed in making little graven
+images, teraphims and lares, as well as medallions
+of Santiago, which pilgrims purchase.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_57.jpg" width="271" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_57.jpg" id="img_57.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SAINT JAMES IN PILGRIM'S DRESS<br />
+(<i>Silver-gilt statuette; 15th Century.<br />
+Santiago Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the gifts of value which this temple yet
+preserves are the ancient processional cross presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+by the third Alfonso in the year of grace
+874,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> and the hideous fourteenth-century reliquary
+shaped to represent the head of James Alfeo, and
+containing (as it is believed) this very relic (Pl. <a href="#img_57.jpg">viii</a>.).
+I make a reservation here, because the Chapter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+have forbidden the reliquary to be opened. In
+either case, whether the head be there or not,
+heads of the same apostle are affirmed to be at
+Chartres, Toulouse, and other places. Similarly,
+discussing these Hydra-headed beings of the Bible
+and the hagiology, Villa-amil y Castro (<i>El Tesoro
+de la Catedral de Santiago</i>, published in the
+<i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>) recalls to us the
+ten authenticated and indubitable mazzards of
+Saint John the Baptist.</p>
+
+<p>The head-shaped reliquary is of beaten silver
+with enamelled visage, and the hair and beard gilt.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
+The workmanship is French. The cross, which
+hung till recently above the altar of the Relicario,
+but which now requires to be placed upon the
+lengthy list of stolen wealth, was not unlike the
+Cross of Angels in the Camara Santa at Oviedo,
+and had a wooden body covered with gold plates
+in finely executed filigree, studded with precious
+stones and cameos. Not many days ago, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+wooden core, divested of the precious metal and
+the precious stones, was found abandoned in a field.</p>
+
+<p>Visitors to the shrine of Santiago seldom fail
+to have their curiosity excited by the monster
+&ldquo;smoke-thrower&rdquo; (<i>bota-fumeiro</i>) or incensory,
+lowered (much like the deadly sword in Poe's exciting
+tale) on each <i>fiesta</i> by a batch of vigorous
+Gallegos from an iron frame fixed into the pendentives
+of the dome. &ldquo;The calmest heart,&rdquo; says
+Villa-amil, &ldquo;grows agitated to behold this giant
+vessel descending from the apex of the nave until
+it almost sweeps the ground, wreathed in dense
+smoke and spewing flame.&rdquo; Ford seems to have
+been unaware that the real purpose of this metal
+monster was not to simply scent the holy precincts,
+but to cover up the pestilential atmosphere created
+by a horde of verminous, diseased, and evil-smelling
+pilgrims, who, by a usage which is now suppressed,
+were authorized to pass the night before the
+services within the actual cathedral wall.</p>
+
+<p>The original <i>bota-fumeiro</i>, resembling, in Oxea's
+words, &ldquo;a silver boiler of gigantic bulk,&rdquo; was lost
+or stolen in the War of Spanish Independence.
+It was replaced by another of iron, and this, in
+1851, by the present apparatus of white metal.</p>
+
+<p>Striking objects of ecclesiastical <i>orfebrería</i> were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+produced in Spain throughout the thirteenth and
+the fourteenth centuries. Among the finest are the
+triptych-reliquary of Seville cathedral known as
+the <i>Alfonsine Tables</i>; the <i>retablo</i> and <i>baldaquino</i>
+of the cathedral of Gerona; the silver throne,
+preserved in Barcelona cathedral, of Don Martin
+of Aragon; and the <i>guión</i>, at Toledo, of Cardinal
+Mendoza.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_60.jpg" width="445" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_60.jpg" id="img_60.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MUDEJAR TRIPTYCH<br />
+(<i>Interior of one leaf of the door. 14th Century.<br />
+Royal Academy of History, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Triptych-reliquaries, which had gradually expanded
+from the diptych form&mdash;three leaves or
+panels thus replacing two,&mdash;were generally used in
+Spain from the eleventh century, and varied in
+dimensions from a few inches in height and width
+to several yards. We find them in the Gothic,
+Mudejar,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Romanic, or Renaissance styles&mdash;wrought
+either in a single style of these, or in
+effective combination of some two or more. The
+Academy of History at Madrid possesses a richly
+ornamented Mudejar triptych (Plate <a href="#img_60.jpg">ix</a>.) proceeding
+from the Monasterio de Piedra. It is inferior,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+notwithstanding, to the <i>Tablas Alfonsinas</i>,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> &ldquo;a
+specimen of Spanish silversmiths' work which
+illustrates the transition to the new style, and the
+progress in the design of the figures owing to the
+Italian Renaissance.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> In or about the year 1274,
+this splendid piece of sacred furniture was made
+by order of the learned king, to hold the relics of
+certain saints and of the Virgin Mary. The
+maker is thought by Amador to have been
+one &ldquo;Master George,&rdquo; a craftsman held in
+high esteem by the father of Alfonso and the
+conqueror of Seville, Ferdinand the Third.
+Romanic influence is abundant in this triptych,
+showing that, although exposed to constant
+changes from abroad, the Spanish mediæval
+crafts adhered upon the whole with singular
+tenacity to primitive tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The triptych is of larch, or some such undecaying
+wood, and measures, when the leaves are
+opened wide, forty inches over its entire breadth,
+by twenty-two in height. Linen is stretched upon
+the wood, and over that the silver-gilt <i>repoussé</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+plates which form the principal adornment of the
+reliquary. &ldquo;The outside is decorated with twelve
+medallions containing the arms of Castile and
+Aragon, and forty-eight others in which are
+repeated alternately the subjects of the Adoration
+of the Magi and the Annunciation of the Virgin,
+also in <i>repoussé</i>. In the centres are eagles,
+allusive, it is possible, to Don Alfonso's claim
+to be crowned Emperor&hellip;. The ornamentation
+which surrounds the panels belongs to the
+sixteenth century&rdquo; (Riaño). The arms here
+spoken of contain the crowned lion and the castle
+of three towers; and the interesting fact is pointed
+out by Amador that the diminutive doors and
+windows of these castles show a strongly pointed
+Gothic arch. The sixteenth-century bordering to
+the panels is in the manner known as Plateresque.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+The clasps are also Plateresque, and prove,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+together with the border, that the triptych was
+restored about this time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_62.jpg" width="500" height="290"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_62.jpg" id="img_62.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE &ldquo;TABLAS ALFONSINAS&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>View of Interior; 13th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Inside (Plate <a href="#img_62.jpg">x</a>.), it consists of fifteen compartments,
+&ldquo;full of minute ornamentation, among which
+are set a large number of capsules covered with rock
+crystal containing relics, each one with an inscription
+of enamelled gold, <i>cloisonné</i>. Several good
+cameos with sacred subjects appear near the edge
+of the side leaves&rdquo; (Riaño). These cameos, handsomely
+engraved with figures of the Virgin and
+other subjects of religious character, are fairly well
+preserved; but the designs upon enamel are almost
+obliterated. Eight precious stones, set in as rude
+a style as those upon the ancient crowns and
+crosses of the Visigoths, have also fallen out, or
+been removed, from the interior.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>retablo</i> of Gerona cathedral and its
+baldachin date from the fourteenth century.
+&ldquo;The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with
+silver plates, and divided vertically into three
+series of niches and canopies; each division has a
+subject, and a good deal of enamelling is introduced
+in various parts of the canopies and grounds
+of the panels. Each panel has a cinq-foiled arch
+with a crocketed gablet and pinnacles on either
+side. The straight line of the top is broken by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+three niches, which rise in the centre and at either
+end. In the centre is the Blessed Virgin with
+our Lord; on the right, San Narciso; and on the
+left, St Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain
+figures of saints, subjects from the life of the
+Blessed Virgin, and subjects from the life of our
+Lord.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>San Narciso is patron of the city of Gerona;
+which explains the presence of his image here.
+From the treasury of the same cathedral was
+stolen, during the War of Spanish Independence,
+a magnificent altar-front of wrought gold and
+mosaic, a gift of Countess Gisla, wife of Ramón
+Berenguer, count-king of Barcelona. It had in
+the centre a bas-relief medallion representing the
+Virgin, another medallion with a portrait of the
+donor, and various saints in niches, interworked
+with precious stones.</p>
+
+<p>The great armchair of Don Martin, called by
+Baron Davillier a &ldquo;beau faudesteuil gothique,&rdquo;
+which possibly served that monarch as a throne, and
+was presented by him to the cathedral of Barcelona,
+dates from the year 1410. The wooden frame is
+covered with elaborately chiselled plates in silver-gilt.
+This most imposing object is carried in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+procession through the streets upon the yearly
+festival of Corpus Christi.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_64.jpg" width="500" height="347"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_64.jpg" id="img_64.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">&ldquo;THE CUP OF SAN FERNANDO&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>13th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_65.jpg" width="319" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_65.jpg" id="img_65.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SHIP<br />
+(<i>15th Century. Zaragoza Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>guión de Mendoza</i>, now in Toledo cathedral,
+is a handsome later-Gothic silver-gilt cross, and is
+the same which was raised upon the Torre de la
+Vela at Granada on January 2nd, 1492, when the
+fairest and most storied city in all Spain surrendered
+formally to Ferdinand and Isabella. Many other
+interesting crosses, of the character known as processional,
+are still preserved in various parts of
+the Peninsula, at South Kensington, and elsewhere.
+The more remarkable are noticed under
+various headings of this book. Their workmanship
+is generally of the fifteenth or the sixteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The Seo or cathedral of Zaragoza possesses a
+handsome ship (Plate <a href="#img_65.jpg">xii</a>.), presented to this temple,
+towards the end of the fifteenth century, by the
+Valencian corsair, Mosén Juan de Torrellas. The
+hull is a large shell resting on a silver-gilt dragon of
+good design, with a large emerald set in the middle
+of its forehead, and a ruby for each eye. Ships of
+this kind were not uncommon on a Spanish dining
+table of the time, or in the treasuries of churches
+and cathedrals. Toledo owns another of these
+vessels (in both senses of the word), which once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+belonged to Doña Juana, daughter of Ferdinand
+and Isabella.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto I have confined my notice almost
+wholly to the treasure of the Spanish temples.
+Turning from ecclesiastical to secular life, we find,
+all through the Middle Ages, the humbler classes
+kept by constant penury and war aloof from every
+form of luxury. Jewellery and gold and silver
+work were thus essentially the perquisite or, so to
+speak, the privilege of princes, nobles, and the
+Church. The mediæval kings and magnates of
+this land were smitten inveterately with a passion
+for display, and chronicles and inventories of the
+time contain instructive details of the quantities of
+gems and precious metals employed by them to
+decorate their persons and their palaces. The
+richness of their bedsteads will be noticed under
+Furniture. Quantities of jewellery and plate belonged
+to every noble household. For instance, the
+testament of the Countess of Castañeda (<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1443)
+includes the mention of &ldquo;a gilded cup and cover to
+the same; a silver vessel and its lid, the edges gilt,
+and in the centre of both lid and vessel the arms
+of the said count, my lord; a silver vessel with a
+foot to it; a diamond ring; a silver vessel with
+gilt edges and the arms of the count, companion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+to the other vessels; a jasper sweetmeat-tray with
+silver-gilt handles and feet; four coral spoons; a
+gilt enamelled cup and lid; a small gilt cup and
+lid; two large silver porringers; two French cups
+of white silver; two large plates of eight marks
+apiece; two middling-sized silver vessels; two
+silver-gilt barrels with silver-gilt chains.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<p>On each occasion of a court or national festivity,
+the apparel of the great was ponderous with gold
+and silver fringe, or thickly strewn with pearls&mdash;the
+characteristic <i>aljofar</i> or <i>aljofar</i>-work (Arabic
+<i>chawar</i>, small pearls), for which the Moors were
+widely famed. Towards the thirteenth century
+unmarried Spanish women of high rank possessed
+abundant stores of bracelets, earrings, necklaces,
+gold chains, rings, and gem-embroidered pouches
+for their money. Their waist-belts, too, were
+heavy with gold and silver, and <i>aljofar</i>.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The
+poem of the Archpriest of Hita (1343) mentions two
+articles of jewellery for female wear called the
+<i>broncha</i> and the <i>pancha</i>. The former was an ornament
+for the throat; the other, a plate or medal
+which hung to below the waist. An Arabic document
+quoted by Casiri, and dating from the reign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+of Henry the First of Castile, specifies as belonging
+to an aristocratic lady of that time, &ldquo;Egyptian
+shirts of silk and linen, embroidered shirts, Persian
+shirts with silk embroidery, Murcian gold necklaces,
+ear-pendants of the same metal, set with
+gems; finger-rings and bracelets, waist-belts of
+skins, embroidered with silk and precious stones;
+cloaks of cloth of gold, embroidered mantles of
+the same, coverings for the head, and kerchiefs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For all the frequency with which they framed
+and iterated sterile and exasperating sumptuary
+pragmatics for their people, the Spanish kings
+themselves went even beyond the nobles in their
+craze for ostentatious luxury. Upon the day when
+he was crowned at Burgos, Alfonso the Eleventh
+&ldquo;arrayed himself in gold and silver cloth bearing
+devices of the castle and the lion, in which was
+much <i>aljofar</i>-work, as well as precious stones
+innumerable; rubies, emeralds, and sapphires.&rdquo;
+Even the bit and saddle of the monarch's charger
+were &ldquo;exceeding precious on this day, for gems
+and gold and silver covered all the saddle-bows,
+and the sides of the saddle and its girths, together
+with the headstall, were curiously wrought of gold
+and silver thread.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Similar relations may be found at every moment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+of the history of mediæval Spain. Another instance
+may be quoted from the reign of Ferdinand
+and Isabella. When these sovereigns visited
+Barcelona in 1481, the queen was dressed as
+follows:&mdash;&ldquo;She advanced riding upon a fine mule,
+and seated on cushions covered with brocade,
+rising high above the saddle. Her robe was of gold
+thread and jewel-work, with a rich brocade skirt.
+Upon her head she wore a crown of gold adorned
+with richest diamonds, pearls, rubies, balas rubies,
+and other stones of passing price.&rdquo; During the
+same visit, a royal tournament was given in
+the Plaza del Born, in presence of the aristocracy
+and wealthy townspeople, &ldquo;the counts, viscounts,
+deputies, councillors, <i>caballeros</i>, <i>gentiles hombres</i>,
+burgesses, and others without number.&rdquo; Ferdinand,
+who &ldquo;with virtue and benignity&rdquo; had
+deigned to break a lance or two in tourneying
+with the Duke of Alburquerque, the Count of
+Benavente, and several gentlemen of Cataluña,
+was wearing &ldquo;over his harness a jacket all of gold
+brocade. His horse's coverings and poitral also
+were of thread of gold, richly devised and wrought,
+and of exceeding majesty and beauty. And on
+his helm he wore a crown of gold, embellished
+with many pearls and other stones; and above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+the crown a figure of a large gold bat, which is
+the emblem of the kings of Aragon and counts of
+Barcelona, with white and sanguine bars upon the
+scutcheon.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> The queen and the cardinal of Spain
+were in a window of the house of Mossen Guillem
+Pujades, conservator of the realm of Sicily. Her
+highness wore a robe of rich gold thread with a
+collar of beautiful pearls; and the trappings of
+her mule were of brocade.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p>Eleven years later the youthful prince, Don Juan,
+son of these rulers, appeared before the citizens of
+Barcelona dressed in &ldquo;a robe of beautiful brocade
+that almost swept the ground, and a doublet of the
+same material; the sleeves of the robe thickly
+adorned with fine pearls of large size.&rdquo; He carried,
+too, &ldquo;a gold collar of great size and beauty, wrought
+of large diamonds, pearls, and other stones.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was an ancient usage with the people of
+Barcelona to present a silver service to any
+member of the royal family who paid a visit to
+their capital. The service so presented to Ferdinand
+the Catholic cost the corporation a sum of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+more than twelve hundred pounds of Catalan
+money, and included &ldquo;a saltcellar made upon a
+rock. Upon the rock is a castle, the tower of
+which contains the salt&hellip;. Two silver ewers,
+gilt within and containing on the outside various
+enamelled devices in the centre, together with the
+city arms. Also a silver-gilt lion upon a rustic
+palisade of tree-trunks, holding an inscription in
+his right paw, with the arms of the city, a flag,
+and a crown upon his head. This object weighs
+thirty-four marks.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The service offered on the
+same occasion to Isabella, though less in weight,
+was more elaborately wrought, and cost on this
+account considerably more. It included &ldquo;two
+silver ewers, gilt within and enamelled without,
+bearing the city arms, and chiselled in the centre
+with various designs of foliage. Also a silver
+saltcellar, with six small towers, containing at the
+foot three pieces of enamel-work with the arms of
+the city in relief. This saltcellar has its lid and
+case, with a pinnacle upon the lid, and is of silver-gilt
+inside and out.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>From about the fifteenth century the goldsmiths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+and the silversmiths of Barcelona enjoyed considerable
+fame. Among their names are those of
+Lobarolla, Roig, Berni, Belloch, Planes, Mellar,
+Corda, Fábregues, Farrán, Perot Ximenis, Rafel
+Ximenis, Balagué, and Antonio de Valdés. Riaño
+quotes the names of many more from Cean's dictionary.
+The most important facts relating to these
+artists were brought to light some years ago by
+Baron Davillier, who based the greater part of
+his research upon the <i>Libros de Pasantía</i> or silversmiths'
+examination-books (filled with excellent
+designs for jewel-work) of Barcelona. These
+volumes, formerly kept in the college of San
+Eloy, are now the property of the Provincial
+Deputation of this city.</p>
+
+<p>The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of
+Seville also possesses four of its old examination-books,
+of which the earliest dates from 1600.
+Gestoso, in his <i>Dictionary of Sevillian Artificers</i>
+describes the actual ceremony of examination for
+a silversmith or goldsmith. Once in every year
+the members of the guild assembled in their
+chapel of the convent of San Francisco. Here
+and upon this day the candidate was closely
+questioned, to begin with, as to his &ldquo;purity of
+blood&rdquo;&mdash;that is, his freedom from contamination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+by relationship with any Moor or Hebrew.
+When it was duly and precisely ascertained that
+he, his parents, and his grandparents were uniformly
+&ldquo;old Christians,&rdquo; untainted with the
+&ldquo;wicked race of Moors, Jews, heretics, mulattoes,
+and renegades,&rdquo; and that neither he nor his ancestors
+had ever been put on trial by the Inquisition
+or by any other tribunal, &ldquo;whether publicly
+or secretly,&rdquo; he was permitted to proceed to his
+examination proper.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The formula of this was
+simple. The candidate was summoned before the
+board of examiners, consisting of the Padre Mayor
+or patriarch of the guild, and the two <i>veedores</i> or inspectors,
+the one of gold-work, the other of silver-work.
+The book of drawings was then placed
+upon the table, and a ruler was thrust at haphazard
+among its leaves. Where the ruler chanced to fall,
+the candidate was called upon to execute the corresponding
+drawing to the satisfaction of his judges.</p>
+
+<p>Riaño lays too slight a stress upon the Moorish
+and Morisco jewellery of Spain. Although the
+use of gold and silver ornaments is forbidden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+by the Koran, the Muslim, wherever his vanity
+or his bodily comfort is involved, tramples his
+Bible underfoot almost as regularly, tranquilly,
+and radically as the Christians do their own.
+The Moors of Spain were not at all behind their
+oriental brethren in displaying precious stones
+and metals on their persons or about their homes.
+Al-Jattib tells us that the third Mohammed
+offered to the mosque of the Alhambra columns
+with capitals and bases of pure silver. Or who
+does not recall the Caliphate of Cordova; the
+silver lamp that measured fifty palms across, fitted
+with a thousand and fifty-four glass lamplets, and
+swinging by a golden chain from the cupola of
+the entrance to the <i>mirhab</i> in the vast <i>mezquita</i>;
+the silver candlesticks and perfume-burners in the
+same extraordinary temple; the precious stones
+and metals employed in mighty quantities to decorate
+the palaces of Az-zahyra and Az-zahra?&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;A wilderness of building, sinking far</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And self-withdrawn into a wondrous depth,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Far sinking into splendour without end!</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Fabric it seemed of diamond and of gold,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">With alabaster domes and silver spires,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And blazing terrace upon terrace, high</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Uplifted.&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>In brief, just as the prelates of the Christian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+Church habitually precede the Christian laity in
+trampling underfoot the elemental doctrine of Our
+Lord, so were the most exalted and responsible
+of all the Mussulmans&mdash;that is, their sultans&mdash;indefatigably
+foremost in neglect of the Koranic
+law.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish sultans wore a ring of gold containing
+one large stone (such as an emerald, or
+ruby, or turquoise), on which was cut the royal
+seal and signature. Such was the ring belonging
+to Boabdil el Chico, worn by him on the very
+day of the surrender of his capital, and by his hand
+presented to a Spanish nobleman, the Count of
+Tendilla, governor-elect of the Alhambra. According
+to Rodriguez de Ardila, the following
+inscription was upon the stone:&mdash;&ldquo;<i>La Ala ile
+Ala, abahu Tabiu. Aben Abi Abdalá</i>,&rdquo; meaning,
+&ldquo;<i>There is no God but God; this is the seal
+of Aben Abi Abdalá.</i>&rdquo; Ardila, who was the
+author of a history of the Counts of Tendilla
+(which still remains in manuscript), adds that he
+saw the ring, although, as Eguilaz observes,
+two words of the inscription are inaccurately
+rendered.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Moors of Spain the use of signet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+rings was general. The stone employed was
+commonly cornelian, richly mounted and inscribed
+in various ways, as with the owner's name, his
+name together with a date, or the name of the
+town of which he was a native. In other instances
+we meet with pious phrases or quotations from
+the Koran; or perhaps a talismanic figure, such
+as the open eye to guard the wearer from the
+dreaded <i>mal de ojo</i>; or the open hand that still
+surmounts the gateway of the Tower of Justice at
+Granada.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly, too, the Moorish sultans of this
+country owned enormous hoards of silver, gold,
+and precious stones. Al-Makkari says that the
+treasure of the Nasrite rulers of Granada included
+quantities of pearls, turquoises, and rubies;
+pearl necklets; earrings &ldquo;surpassing those of
+Mary the Copt&rdquo; (Mohammed's concubine); swords
+of the finest temper, embellished with pure gold;
+helmets with gilded borders, studded with emeralds,
+pearls, and rubies; and silvered and enamelled
+belts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_77.jpg" width="343" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_77.jpg" id="img_77.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH BRACELETS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Moorish women of this country, and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+particular the Granadinas,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> were passionately fond
+of jewellery. Ornaments which once belonged to
+them are sometimes brought to light in Andalusia,
+Murcia, or Valencia, including pendants,
+rings, necklaces, and <i>axorcas</i> or bangles for the
+ankle or the wrist, and bracelets for the upper
+portion of the arm. The National Museum contains
+a small collection of these objects, dating from
+the time of the Moriscos, and including a handsome
+necklace terminating in a double chain, with ball
+and pyramid shaped ornaments about the centre,
+a square-headed finger-ring with four green stones
+and a garnet, and a hollow bracelet filled with a
+substance that appears to be mastic, similar to
+those which are reproduced in Plate xiii.</p>
+
+<p>These jewels, I repeat, are of Morisco workmanship,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+and therefore date from later than the
+independent empire of the Spanish Moors.
+Nevertheless, the geometrical or filigree design
+was common both to Moorish and Morisco art.
+As I observed in my description of the casket-reliquaries,
+we note continually the influence of
+these motives on the arts of Christian Spain.
+The Ordinances relative to the goldsmiths and the
+silversmiths of Granada, cried at various times
+between 1529 and 1538, whether &ldquo;in the silversmiths'
+street of the Alcaycería, that has its
+opening over against the scriveners'&rdquo;; or in &ldquo;the
+street of the Puente del Carbon, before the goldsmiths'
+shops&rdquo;; or &ldquo;in the street of the Zacatin,
+where dwell the silversmiths,&rdquo; prove also that for
+many years after the Reconquest the character
+and nomenclature of this kind of work continued
+to be principally and traditionally Moorish.</p>
+
+<p>Firstly, the Ordinances complain that the
+goldsmiths of Granada now employ a base
+and detrimental standard of the precious metals,
+especially in the bracelets or <i>manillas</i> of the
+women. The goldsmiths answer in their vindication
+that equally as poor a standard is employed at
+Seville, Cordova, and Toledo. These city laws<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+herewith establish twenty carats as a minimum
+fineness for the gold employed in making ornaments.
+The makers, also, are ordered to impress
+their private stamp or seal on every article, or in
+default to pay a fine of ten thousand <i>maravedis</i>. A
+copy of each stamp or seal to be deposited in the
+city chest. The <i>alamín</i> or inspector of this trade
+to test and weigh all gold and silver work before
+it is exposed for sale.</p>
+
+<p>We learn from the same source that the gold
+bracelets were sometimes smooth, and sometimes
+&ldquo;covered over with devices&rdquo; (<i>cubiertos de estampas
+por cima</i>). The technical name of these was
+<i>albordados</i>. The silver bracelets were also either
+smooth, or stamped, or twisted in a cord (<i>encordados</i>).
+Bangles for the ankle, upper arm, and
+wrist are mentioned as continuing to be generally
+worn, while one of the Ordinances complains that
+&ldquo;Moorish <i>axorcas</i> are often sold that are hollow,
+and filled with chalk and mastic, so that before
+they can be weighed it is necessary to rid them
+of such substances by submitting them to fire,
+albeit the fire turns them black.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The weapons and war-harness of the Spanish
+Moors were often exquisitely decorated with the
+precious stones or metals. Splendid objects of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+this kind have been preserved, and will be noticed
+in their proper chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The ruinous and reckless measure known to
+Spain's eternal shame as the Expulsion of the
+Moriscos, deprived this country of a great&mdash;perhaps
+the greatest&mdash;part of her resources.
+Fonseca estimates this loss, solely in the quantity
+of coin conveyed away, at two million and eight
+hundred thousand <i>escudos</i>, adding that a single
+Morisco, Alami Delascar de Aberique, bore off
+with him one hundred thousand ducats.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> To
+make this matter worse, the Moriscos, just before
+they went on board their ships, fashioned from
+scraps of tin, old nails, and other refuse, enormous
+stores of counterfeit coin, and slyly sold
+this rubbish to the simple Spaniards in return
+for lawful money of the land. In the course of
+a few days, and in a single quarter of Valencia,
+more than three hundred thousand ducats of false<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+coin were thus passed off upon the Christians.
+Besides this exportation of good Spanish money,
+the cunning fugitives removed huge quantities
+of jewellery and plate. Chains, <i>axorcas</i>, rings,
+<i>zarcillos</i>, and gold <i>escudos</i> were taken from the
+bodies of many of the Morisco women who were
+murdered by the Spanish soldiery; but the greater
+part of all this treasure found its way to Africa.
+In his work <i>Expulsión justificada de los Moriscos</i>
+(1612), Aznar de Cardona says that the Morisco
+women carried &ldquo;divers plates upon the breast,
+together with necklaces and collars, earrings and
+bracelets.&rdquo; It is recorded, too, that the Moriscos,
+as they struggled in the country regions to avenge
+themselves upon their persecutors, did unlimited
+damage to the ornaments and fittings of the
+churches. &ldquo;This people,&rdquo; says Fonseca, &ldquo;respected
+not our temples or the holy images
+that in them were; nor yet the chalices and
+other objects they encountered in our sacristies.
+Upon the contrary, they smashed the crosses,
+burned the saints, profaned the sacred vestments,
+and committed such acts of sacrilege as
+though they had been Algerian Moors, or Turks
+of Constantinople.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Legends of hidden Moorish and Morisco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+wealth are still extant in many parts of Spain.
+The Abbé Bertaut de Rouen<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> and Swinburne
+among foreigners, or Spaniards such as the gossiping
+priest Echeverría, who provided Washington
+Irving with the pick of his <i>Tales of the Alhambra</i>,
+have treated copiously of this fascinating and
+mysterious theme. The Siete Suelos Tower at
+Granada is particularly favoured with traditions of
+this kind. Peasants of the Alpujarras still declare
+that piles of Moorish money lie secreted in the
+lofty buttresses of Mulhacen and the Veleta, while
+yet another summit of this snowy range bears the
+suggestive title of the Cerro del Tesoro, where,
+almost within the memory of living men, a
+numerous party, fitted and commissioned by the
+State, explored with feverish though unlucky zeal
+the naked cliffs and sterile crannies of the lonely
+mountain.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>Reducing all these fables to the terms of truth,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+Moorish and Morisco jewellery and coin are sometimes
+brought to light on Spanish soil. Such
+finds occur, less seldom than elsewhere, within
+the provinces of Seville, Cordova, Granada, and
+Almeria (Plate <a href="#img_83.jpg">xiv</a>.), but since they are neither
+frequent nor considerable, although the likeliest
+ground for them is being disturbed continually,
+we may conclude that nearly all the Muslim
+wealth accumulated here slipped from the clumsy
+if ferocious fingers of the mother-country, and
+found its way, concealed upon the bodies of her
+persecuted offspring, to the shores of Africa.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_83.jpg" width="365" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_83.jpg" id="img_83.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MORISCO JEWELLERY<br />
+(<i>Found in the Province of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sometimes, too, an early gold or silver object
+would be melted down and modernized into
+another and a newer piece of plate. This was a
+fairly common usage with the silversmiths themselves,
+or with an ignorant or stingy brotherhood
+or chapter. Thus, the following entry occurs in
+the <i>Libro de Visita de Fábrica</i> belonging to the
+parish church of Santa Ana, Triana, Seville. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+the year 1599 &ldquo;the large cross of silver-gilt,
+together with its <i>mançana</i> and all the silver attaching
+thereto, was taken to the house of Zubieta the
+silversmith, and pulled to pieces. It weighed 25
+marks and 4 <i>ochavas</i> of silver, besides 5 marks and
+2 ounces and 4 <i>ochavas</i> of silver which was the
+weight of the three lamps delivered to Zubieta in
+the time of Juan de Mirando, aforetime steward
+of this church. It is now made into a silver-gilt
+cross.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>A similar instance may be quoted from a
+document of Cordova, published by Ramírez de
+Arellano in his relation of a visit to the monastery
+of San Jerónimo de Valparaiso. In the year
+1607 Gerónimo de la Cruz, a Cordovese silversmith,
+agreed with the prior of this monastery to
+make for the community a silver-gilt <i>custodia</i>. For
+this purpose he received from the prior, doubtless
+a man of parsimonious spirit and a boor in his
+appreciativeness of art, eight pairs of vinegar
+cruets, four of whose tops were missing; a silver-gilt
+chalice and its patine; a <i>viril</i> with two angels
+and four pieces on the crown of it; a small
+communion cup; some silver candlesticks; four
+spoons and a fork, also of silver; and a silver-gilt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+salt-cellar. The total value of these objects was 1826
+<i>reales</i>; and all of them were tossed, in Ford's indignant
+phrase, into the &ldquo;sacrilegious melting-pot,&rdquo;
+in order to provide material for the new <i>custodia</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_85.jpg" width="323" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_85.jpg" id="img_85.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SILVER-GILT PROCESSIONAL CROSS<br />
+(<i>Made by Juan de Arfe in</i> 1592. <i>Burgos Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gold and silver work of Christian Spain
+attained, throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries, a high degree of excellence
+(Plates <a href="#img_85.jpg">xv</a>., <a href="#img_95.jpg">xvi</a>., etc.). The best of it was
+made at Seville, Barcelona, Toledo, and Valladolid.
+Objects of great artistic worth were also
+produced at Burgos, Palencia, León, Cuenca,
+Cordova, and Salamanca. I have already mentioned
+some of the principal <i>orfebreros</i> of Barcelona.
+Juan Ruiz of Cordova, whom Juan de Arfe applauds
+as &ldquo;the first silversmith who taught the way to do
+good work in Andalusia,&rdquo; was also, in this region,
+the first to turn the precious metals on the lathe.
+A famous silversmith of Seville was Diego de
+Vozmediano, whom we find living there in 1525.
+Toledo, too, could boast, among an army of distinguished
+gold and silver smiths (Riaño gives the
+names of no fewer than seventy-seven), Cristóbal
+de Ordas, Juan Rodríguez de Babria, and Pedro
+Hernandez, <i>plateros</i>, respectively, to Charles the
+Fifth, to Philip the Second, and to the queen-dowager
+of Portugal; and also the silversmith<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+and engraver upon metals, Pedro Angel, whose
+praise is sung by Lope de Vega in the prologue to
+his <i>auto</i> called <i>The Voyage of the Soul</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0;">&ldquo;<i>Y es hoy Pedro Angel un divino artífice<br />
+con el buril en oro, plata, ó cobre.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>By far the greater part of all Toledo's gold and
+silver work was made for service in her mighty
+temple. Such were the statue of Saint Helen,
+presented by Philip the Second; the crown of
+the Virgen del Sagrario, wrought by Hernando de
+Carrión and Alejo de Montoya; the bracelets or
+<i>ajorcas</i> made for the image of the same Madonna
+by Julián Honrado; and the exquisite chests
+carved in 1569 and 1598 by Francisco Merino
+from designs by the two Vergaras, father and son,
+as reliquaries for the bones of San Eugenio and
+Santa Leocadia, patrons of this ancient capital.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
+A magnificent silver lamp was also, in 1565, offered
+by the chapter of the cathedral to the church of
+Saint Denis in France, in gratitude for the surrender
+of the bones of San Eugenio to the city of
+his birth. These and other objects of Toledan
+gold and silver work are stated to be &ldquo;worthy of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+comparison with the very best of what was then
+produced in Germany, Italy, and France.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>Baron Davillier also held a high opinion of the
+Spanish <i>orfebreros</i> of this time. After remarking
+that the Italian influence was powerful among the
+Spaniards in the sixteenth century, and more particularly
+for some fifty years at Barcelona, he says:
+&ldquo;A cette époque les <i>plateros</i> espagnols pouvaient
+rivaliser sans désavantage avec les Italiens, les
+Français, les Flamands, et les Allemands.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same authority also says that the Spanish
+<i>plateros</i> of this period were skilled enamellers on
+gold and silver, and quotes some entries from
+French inventories of the time in which we read
+of cups, salt-cellars, washing-basins, and other
+objects executed or enamelled &ldquo;à la mode
+d'Espagne.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>As we have seen, the exodus of the Moriscos
+lost to Spain a great proportion of her total wealth,
+although, conjointly with this loss, new wealth
+flowed into her in marvellous abundance from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+New World.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Thus, the silver-mines of Potosi,
+discovered in 1545, sent over to the mother-country,
+between that year and 1633, no less than eight
+hundred and forty-five millions of <i>pesos</i>. And yet
+this mighty influx of new riches cannot be said,
+except in the artistic sense, to have enriched the
+nation. She had renounced the service of the
+most industrious and, in many instances, the most
+ingenious of her native craftsmen; while on the
+other hand the Christians, with but limited exceptions,
+were far too proud and far too indolent to
+set their hand to any form of manual exercise;
+just as (I much regret to add) a great proportion of
+them are this very day. Foreign artificers in consequence
+(particularly after the royal pragmatic
+of 1623 encouraging their immigration), attracted
+by the treasure fleets that anchored in the bay of
+Cadiz, came trooping into Spain and filled their
+pockets from the national purse, fashioning, in
+return for money which they husbanded and sent
+abroad, luxurious gold and silver objects that were
+merely destined to stagnate within her churches
+and cathedrals.</p>
+
+<p>Riaño and Baron de la Vega de Hoz extract
+from Cean Bermudez a copious list of silversmiths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+who worked in Spain all through the Middle
+Ages. This long array of isolated names and
+dates is neither interesting nor informative.
+Newer and more attractive notices have been
+discovered subsequently. Thus, in the National
+Library at Madrid, Don Manuel G. Simancas has
+disinterred quite recently the copy made by a
+Jesuit of a series of thirteenth-century accounts
+relating to various craftsmen of the reign of
+Sancho the Fourth (&ldquo;the Brave&rdquo;). Two of them
+are concerning early <i>orfebreros</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Juan Yanez. By letters of the king and
+queen to Johan Yanez, goldsmith, brother of
+Ferran García, scrivener to the king; for three
+chalices received from him by the king,
+<span class="smcap">CCCCLXXVIII</span> <i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The second entry says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Bartolomé Rinalt. And he paid Bartolomé
+Rinalt for jewels which the queen bought from
+him to present to Doña Marina Suarez, nurse of
+the Infante Don Pedro, MCCCL <i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among Spain's gold and silver craftsmen of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+the fifteenth century we find the names of Juan
+de Castelnou, together with his son Jaime, who
+worked at Valencia; of Lope Rodríguez de
+Villareal, Ruby, and Juan Gonzalez, all three of
+whom worked at Toledo; and of Juan de Segovia,
+a friar of Guadalupe. Papers concerning Juan
+Gonzalez, and dated 1425, 1427, and 1431, are
+published among the <i>Documentos Inéditos</i> of
+Zarco del Valle. One of Segovia's masterpieces
+was a silver salt-cellar in the form of a lion tearing
+open a pomegranate&mdash;clearly allusive to the conquest
+of Granada from the Moors. Upon their
+visiting the monastery, Ferdinand and Isabella
+saw and, as was natural, conceived a fancy for
+this salt-cellar; and so, whether from inclination
+or necessity, the brotherhood induced them to
+accept it.</p>
+
+<p>Sixteenth-century <i>plateros</i> of renown were Juan
+Donante, Mateo and Nicolás (whose surnames
+are unknown)&mdash;all three of whom worked at
+Seville; and Duarte Rodríguez and Fernando
+Ballesteros, natives of that city. In or about the
+year 1524 were working at Toledo the silversmiths
+Pedro Herreros and Hernando de Valles,
+together with Diego Vazquez, Andres Ordoñez,
+Hernando de Carrión, Diego de Valdivieso, Juan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+Domingo de Villanueva, Diego Abedo de Villandrando,
+Juan Tello de Morata, Francisco de
+Reinalte, Hans Belta, and Francisco Merino.
+Several of these men were natives of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>Among the silversmiths of sixteenth-century
+Cordova were Diego de Alfaro and his son Francisco,
+Francisco de Baena, Alonso Casas, Alonso del
+Castillo, Luis de Cordoba, Sebastián de Cordoba,
+Cristóbal de Escalante, Juan Gonzalez, Diego
+Fernandez, Diego Hernandez Rubio (son of
+Sebastián de Cordoba), Rodrigo de León, Gómez
+Luque, Ginés Martinez, Melchor de los Reyes
+(silversmith and enameller), Andrés de Roa,
+Pedro de Roa, Alonso Sanchez, Jerónimo Sanchez
+de la Cruz, Martin Sanchez de la Cruz (Jerónimo's
+son), Pedro Sanchez de Luque, Alonso de Sevilla,
+Juan Urbano, and Lucas de Valdés.</p>
+
+<p>Not much is told us of the lives and labours of
+these artists. The best reputed of them as a
+craftsman was Rodrigo de León, who stood next
+after Juan Ruiz, <i>el Sandolino</i>. Ramírez de
+Arellano, from whom I have collected these data,
+publishes a number of León's agreements or
+contracts, which from their length and dryness I
+do not here repeat. In 1603 we find him official
+silversmith to the cathedral, under the title of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+&ldquo;<i>platero de martillo</i> (&ldquo;silversmith of hammered
+work&rdquo;) <i>de la obra de la catedral desta ciudad</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Francisco de Alfaro, although a Cordovese by
+birth, resided commonly at Seville. In 1578 he
+received 446,163 <i>maravedis</i> for making four silver
+candlesticks for use in celebrating divine service.
+These candlesticks are still in the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Sebastián de Cordoba was one of the foremost
+artists of his age. He died in 1587, leaving,
+together with other children, a son, Diego, who
+also won some reputation as a silversmith.
+Ramírez de Arellano publishes a full relation
+of the property which Sebastián de Cordoba
+bequeathed at his decease, as well as of the money
+which was owing to him. Among the former, or
+the &ldquo;movable effects,&rdquo; we read of &ldquo;Isabel, a
+Morisco woman, native of the kingdom of Granada;
+her age thirty-four years, a little less or more.&rdquo;
+The same inventory includes a curious and
+complete account of all the tools and apparatus in
+Sebastián's workshop.</p>
+
+<p>But the quaintest notice of them all, though it
+does not apprise us of his merit as a silversmith,
+is that concerning Cristóbal de Escalante.
+Cristóbal suffered, we are told, from &ldquo;certain sores
+produced by humours in his left leg; wherefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+the said leg undergoes a change and swells.&rdquo; He
+therefore makes a contract with one Juan Jiménez,
+&ldquo;servant in the Royal Stables of His Majesty
+the King,&rdquo; and duly examined as a herbalist
+(&ldquo;licensed,&rdquo; in the actual phrase, &ldquo;to remedy this
+kind of ailments&rdquo;), who is to heal his leg &ldquo;by
+means of the divine will of the cure.&rdquo; As soon as
+Cristóbal shall be thoroughly well, &ldquo;in so much
+that his ailing leg shall be the other's equal in the
+fatness and the form thereof,&rdquo; he is to pay Jiménez
+five-and-fifty <i>reales</i>, &ldquo;having already given him ten
+<i>reales</i> on account.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Probably, as Señor Ramírez de Arellano facetiously
+supposes, Cristóbal, after such a course of
+treatment, would be lame for all his life. At
+any rate, he died in 1605, though whether from
+the gentle handling of the stableman and herbalist
+is not recorded in these entries.</p>
+
+<p>Still keeping to the sixteenth century, in other
+parts of Spain we find the silversmiths Baltasar
+Alvarez and Juan de Benavente, working at Palencia;
+Alonso de Dueñas at Salamanca; and
+Juan de Orna at Burgos, about the same time that
+the foreigners Jacomi de Trezzo and Leo Leoni
+were engaged at the Escorial. Cuenca, too,
+boasted three excellent silver-workers in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+family of Becerril, mentioned by Juan de Arfe in
+company with other craftsmen of the time of the
+Renaissance.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Stirling says of Cuenca and the
+Becerriles: &ldquo;They made for the cathedral its
+great <i>custodia</i>, which was one of the most costly
+and celebrated pieces of church plate in Spain.
+They began it in 1528, and, though ready for use
+in 1546, it was not finished till 1573. It was a
+three-storied edifice, of a florid classical design,
+crowned with a dome, and enriched with numberless
+groups and statues, and an inner shrine of
+jewelled gold; it contained 616 marks of silver,
+and cost 17,725&frac12; ducats, a sum which can barely
+have paid the ingenious artists for the labour of
+forty-five years. In the War of Independence,
+this splendid prize fell into the hands of the
+French General Caulaincourt, by whom it was
+forthwith turned into five-franc pieces, bearing the
+image and superscription of Napoleon.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p>A more reliable notice says that this <i>custodia</i>
+was begun by Alonso Becerril and finished by
+his brother Francisco. The third member of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+this family of artists, Cristóbal, who flourished
+towards the end of the sixteenth century, was
+Francisco's son.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_95.jpg" width="350" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_95.jpg" id="img_95.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">GOTHIC <i>CUSTODIA</i><br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the Gothic and during the
+earlier phases of the Renaissance movement in
+this country, enormous quantities of gold and
+silver began to be employed in making these
+<i>custodias</i> or monstrances of her temples; so that
+the fifteenth century may well be called, in
+Spanish craftsmanship, the &ldquo;age of the <i>custodia</i>.&rdquo;
+A century ago the reverend Townsend, loyal to
+the Low Church prejudices of his day, spoke of
+this object with something of a sneer as &ldquo;the
+depository of the Host, or, according to the ideas
+of a Catholic, the throne of the Most High, when,
+upon solemn festivals, He appears to command
+the adoration of mankind.&rdquo; Riaño's description is
+more technical. &ldquo;The name of <i>custodia</i>,&rdquo; he says,
+&ldquo;is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance
+or ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is
+exposed, but also to a sort of temple or tabernacle,
+of large size, made also of silver, inside which
+is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession
+on Corpus Christi day (Plate <a href="#img_95.jpg">xvi</a>.). In
+order to distinguish these objects one from another,
+the name of <i>viril</i> is given to the object which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+holds the consecrated Host; it is generally made
+of rock crystal, with a gold stem and mount
+ornamented with precious stones. The small
+tabernacles are generally objects of the greatest
+importance, both from their artistic and intrinsic
+value.&rdquo; A third description of the monstrance,
+written in quaint and antiquated Spanish verse
+by Juan de Arfe, is truthfully if not melodiously
+translated into English rhyme by Stirling:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Custodia is a temple of rich plate,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Wrought for the glory of our Saviour true,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Where, into wafer transubstantiate,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">He shows his Godhead and his Manhood too,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">That holiest ark of old to imitate,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Fashioned by Bezaleel, the cunning Jew,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Chosen of God to work His sov'ran will,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And greatly gifted with celestial skill.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding that the monstrance of Toledo,
+surmounted by a cross of solid gold, turns the
+scale at ten thousand nine hundred ounces, and
+that of Avila at one hundred and forty pounds,
+the weight of nearly all of these <i>custodias</i> is far exceeded
+by the value of their workmanship. The
+style employed in their construction is the Gothic,
+the Renaissance, or the two combined. <i>Custodias</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+of the eastern parts of Spain are more affected
+than the others by Italian influence, noticeable
+both in decorative motives which recall the
+Florentine, and in the use, together with the
+silver-work, of painting and enamels. In other
+parts of Spain the dominating influence is the
+later Gothic. Among the former or Levantine
+class of monstrances, the most important are those
+of Barcelona, Vich, Gerona, and Palma de Mallorca;
+and of the others, those of Cordova, Cadiz,
+Sahagún, Zamora, Salamanca, and Toledo&mdash;this
+last, according to Bertaut de Rouen, &ldquo;à la
+manière d'un clocher percé à jour, d'ouvrage de
+filigrane, et plein de figures.&rdquo; <i>Custodias</i> in the
+purest classic or Renaissance style are those of
+Seville, Valladolid, Palencia, Avila, Jaen, Madrid,
+Segovia, Zaragoza, Santiago, and Orense.</p>
+
+<p>Juan de Arfe y Villafañe, who may be called
+the Cellini of Spain's <i>custodia</i>-makers, was born
+at León in 1535. He was the son of Antonio de
+Arfe, and grandson of Enrique de Arfe, a German
+who had married a Spanish wife and made his
+home in Spain. The family of Juan, including
+his brother Antonio, were all distinguished craftsmen,
+and he himself informs us that his grandfather
+excelled in Gothic <i>platería</i>, as may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+judged from the <i>custodias</i>, by Enrique's hand, of
+Cordova, León, Toledo, and Sahagún, and many
+smaller objects, such as incensories, crosiers, and
+paxes.</p>
+
+<p>The father of Juan, Antonio de Arfe, worked
+in silver in the Renaissance or Plateresque styles,
+and executed in the florid manner the <i>custodias</i> of
+Santiago de Galicia and Medina de Rioseco; but
+the training and tastes of Juan himself were sternly
+classical. His work in consequence has a certain
+coldness, largely atoned for by its exquisite correctness
+of design and unimpeachable proportions.
+Arfe's ideal in these matters may readily be judged
+of from his written verdict on the Greco-Roman
+architecture. &ldquo;The Escorial,&rdquo; he says, in the
+preface to his description of the <i>custodia</i> of Seville
+cathedral, &ldquo;<i>because it follows the rules of ancient
+art</i>, competes in general perfection, size, or splendour
+with the most distinguished buildings of
+the Asiatics, Greeks, and Romans, and displays
+magnificence and truth in all its detail.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In point of versatility Juan de Arfe was a kind
+of Spanish Leonardo. His book, <i>De Varia Conmensuración</i>,
+etc., published in 1585, is divided
+into four parts, and deals, the first part with the
+practice of geometry, the second with human<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+anatomy, the third with animals, and the fourth
+with architecture and silver-work for use in
+churches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_99.jpg" width="322" height="400"
+        alt="IOAN DE ARFE"
+        title="IOAN DE ARFE" />
+        <a name="img_99.jpg" id="img_99.jpg"></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>This book is prefaced by the portrait of the
+author, given above. It shows us&mdash;what he
+really was&mdash;a quiet, cultured, gentle-hearted
+man. Indeed, while Arfe was studying anatomy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+at Salamanca, it gave him pain to lacerate the
+bodies even of the dead. &ldquo;I was witness,&rdquo; he
+records, &ldquo;to the flaying of several pauper men
+and women whom the law had executed; but
+these experiments, besides being horrible and
+cruel, I saw to be of little service to my studies
+in anatomy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Arfe's workmanship of the <i>custodia</i> of Avila
+cathedral, which he began in 1564 and terminated
+in 1571, won for him an early and extended fame.
+He also made the <i>custodia</i> of Burgos (brutally
+melted during the Spanish War of Independence),
+and those of Valladolid (finished in 1590), Lugo,
+Osma, and the Hermandad del Santísimo at
+Madrid. The <i>custodia</i> of Palencia is also thought
+by some to be his handiwork.</p>
+
+<p>But Arfe's crowning labour was the Greco-Roman
+<i>custodia</i> of Seville cathedral (Plate <a href="#img_100.jpg">xvii</a>.).
+The chapter of this temple selected his design in
+1580, and nominated the licentiate Pacheco to assist
+him with the statuettes. Pacheco also carried out
+his portion of the task with skill and judgment. A
+rare pamphlet, written by Arfe and published at
+Seville in 1587, gives a minute description of the
+whole <i>custodia</i>. In Appendix C, I render this
+description into English, together with a similarly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+detailed notice of the <i>custodia</i> (1513 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>) of
+Cordova. This last, which we have seen to be
+the work of Juan de Arfe's grandfather, Enrique,
+is not to be surpassed for fairy grace and lightness,
+seeming, in the eloquent metaphor of a modern
+writer, &ldquo;to have been conceived in a dream, and
+executed with the breath.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_100.jpg" width="347" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_100.jpg" id="img_100.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>CUSTODIA</i> OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL<br />
+(<i>By Juan de Arfe. Late 16th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Spain in the seventeenth century had reached
+the lowest depth of her decadence and impoverishment;
+and yet we find that century an age&mdash;to
+quote a Spanish term&mdash;of &ldquo;gallantries and pearls,&rdquo;
+in which a craze for reckless luxury continued to
+prevail in every quarter. Narratives innumerable
+inform us of the life and doings of that prodigal
+court and prodigal aristocracy; their ruinous and
+incessant festivals; the fortunes that were thrown
+away on furniture, and jewels, and costume. True,
+we are told by Bertaut de Rouen that, except
+upon their numerous holidays, the costume of the
+Spanish men was plain enough. This author, who
+calls them otherwise &ldquo;debauched and ignorant,&rdquo;
+says that their clothes were all of &ldquo;méchante frise,&rdquo;
+and adds that they continually took snuff, &ldquo;dont
+ils ont toujours les narines pleines, ce qui fait qu'ils
+n'ont que des mouchoirs de laine, de toile grise, et
+peinte comme de la toile de la Chine.&rdquo; The same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+traveller, attending an ordinary reception in the
+royal palace at Madrid, was unable to distinguish
+the nobles from the lower orders, except that, by
+the privilege peculiar to this country, the former
+kept their hats on in the presence of the sovereign.
+Even of Philip himself he says: &ldquo;Le Roy d'Espagne
+estoit debout avec un habit fort simple et fort
+ressemblant à tous ses portraits&rdquo;; alluding, probably,
+to those of Philip the Fourth by Velazquez,
+in which the monarch wears a plain cloth
+doublet.</p>
+
+<p>But when the Spaniard dressed himself for any
+scene of gala show, his spendthrift inclinations
+swelled into a positive disease. The women, too,
+squandered enormous sums on finery. The
+Marchioness of Liche, said to have been the
+loveliest Española of that day, is spoken of by
+Bertaut as wearing &ldquo;un corps de brocard d'argent
+avec de grandes basques à leur mode, la jupe
+d'une autre étoffe avec grand nombre de pierreries,
+et cela luy fetoit fort bien.&rdquo; An anonymous
+manuscript of the period, published by Gayangos
+in the <i>Revista de España</i> for 1884, describes the
+<i>fiestas</i> celebrated at Valladolid in 1605, in honour
+of the English ambassador and his retinue. In
+this relation the Duke of Lerma is quoted as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+possessing a yearly income of three hundred
+thousand <i>cruzados</i>, besides &ldquo;as much again in
+jewellery and furniture, and gold and silver services.&rdquo;
+At the state banquets which were given
+at that wasteful court, even the pies and tarts
+were washed with gold or silver; and at a single
+feast the dishes of various kinds of fare amounted
+to two thousand and two hundred. At the banquet
+given by the Duke of Lerma, three special
+sideboards were constructed to sustain the weight
+of four hundred pieces of silver, &ldquo;all of them of
+delicate design and exquisitely wrought of silver,
+gold, and enamel, together with innumerable objects
+of glass and crystal of capricious form, with
+handles, lids, and feet of finest gold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The whole of Spain's nobility was congregated
+at these festivals, &ldquo;richly attired with quantities
+of pearls and oriental gems,&rdquo; while everybody,
+young and old alike, wore &ldquo;diamond buttons and
+brooches on cloaks and doublets,&rdquo; feather plumes
+with costly medals, gold chains with emeralds,
+and other ornaments. The ladies of the aristocracy
+were also &ldquo;clothed in costliest style, as
+well as loaded with diamonds and pearls and
+hair-ornaments of pearls and gold, such as the
+women of Castile lay by for these solemnities.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish churches, too, continued to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+veritable storehouses of treasure. The manuscript
+published by Gayangos says that in 1605 the
+church of La Merced at Valladolid had its altars
+&ldquo;covered with beautiful gold and silver vessels,
+of which there are a great many in the whole of
+Castilla la Vieja, and particularly here at Valladolid.&rdquo;
+Bertaut de Rouen's notice of the shrine
+of Montserrat in Cataluña has been inserted
+previously. In 1775 Swinburne wrote of the
+same temple:&mdash;&ldquo;In the sacristy and passages
+leading to it are presses and cupboards full of
+relics and ornaments of gold, silver, and precious
+stones; they pointed out to us, as the most remarkable,
+two crowns for the Virgin and her Son,
+of inestimable value, some large diamond rings,
+an excellent cameo of Medusa's head, the Roman
+emperors in alabaster, the sword of Saint Ignatius,
+and the chest that contains the ashes of a famous
+brother, John Guarin, of whom they relate the
+same story as that given in the <i>Spectator</i> of a
+Turkish santon and the Sultan's daughter&hellip;.
+Immense is the quantity of votive offerings to this
+miraculous statue; and as nothing can be rejected
+or otherwise disposed of, the shelves are crowded
+with the most whimsical <i>ex votos</i>, viz., silver legs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+fingers, breasts, earrings, watches, two-wheeled
+chaises, boats, carts, and such-like trumpery.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Many pragmatics from the Crown vainly
+endeavoured to suppress or mitigate the popular
+extravagance. Such was the royal letter of 1611,
+which forbade, among the laity, the wearing of
+&ldquo;gold jewels with decoration or enamel in relief,
+or points with pearls or other stones.&rdquo; Smaller
+jewels, of the kind known as <i>joyeles</i> and <i>brincos</i>,<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>
+were limited to a single stone, together with its
+pearl pendant. The jewellery of the women was
+exempted from these laws, though even here were
+certain limitations. Rings for the finger might,
+however, bear enamel-work, or any kind of stone.
+Enamel was also allowed in gold buttons and
+chains for the men's caps, as well as in the badges
+worn by the knights of the military orders.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;It is forbidden,&rdquo; continues this pragmatic, &ldquo;to
+make any object of gold, silver, or other metal
+with work in relief, or the likeness of a person;
+nor shall any object be gilt, excepting drinking
+vessels, and the weight of these shall not exceed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+three marks. All other silver shall be flat and
+plain, without gilding; but this does not apply to
+objects intended for religious worship.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;All niello-work is prohibited, as are silver
+brasiers and buffets.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>What I may call the private jewel-work of
+Spain, largely retains throughout its history the
+characteristic lack of finish of all the Visigothic
+treasure found at Guarrazar. From first to last,
+until extinguished or absorbed by foreign influences
+two centuries ago, it strives to compensate in
+ponderous and bulky splendour for what it lacks
+in delicacy, elegance, and taste. It is just the
+jewellery we should expect to find among a military
+people who once upon a time possessed great
+riches simultaneously with little education, and
+who, from this and other causes, such as the
+strenuous opposition of the national church to
+pagan sentiments expressed in fleshly form, were
+never genuinely or profoundly art-loving. Long
+residence and observation in their midst induce
+me to affirm that as a race the Spaniards are and
+always have been hostile, or at least indifferent, to
+the arts; and that their most illustrious artists
+have made their power manifest and raised themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+to eminence despite the people&mdash;not, as in
+Italy, on the supporting shoulders of the people.</p>
+
+<p>Dazzle and show monopolized, and to a great
+extent monopolize still, the preference of this
+race. The Spanish breast-ornaments of the
+seventeenth century, preserved at South Kensington
+and reproduced by Riaño on pages 37 and 39
+of his handbook, are strongly reminiscent of the
+Visigothic ornaments. Who would imagine that
+a thousand years had come and gone between the
+execution of the new and of the old? As late as
+the reign of Charles the Second the culture of a
+Spanish lady of high birth was little, if at all,
+superior to a savage's. &ldquo;False stones enchant
+them,&rdquo; wrote Countess d'Aulnoy. &ldquo;Although
+they possess many jewels of considerable value
+and the finest quality, it is their whim to carry on
+their person wretched bits of glass cut in the
+coarsest fashion, just like those which pedlars in
+my country sell to country girls who have seen
+nobody but the village curate, and nothing but
+their flocks of sheep. Dames of the aristocracy
+adorn themselves with these pieces of glass, that
+are worth nothing at all; yet they purchase them
+at high prices. When I asked them why they
+like false diamonds, they told me they prefer them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+to the genuine as being larger. Indeed, they
+sometimes wear them of the bigness of an egg.&rdquo;
+Even where the stones were real, the Spanish
+taste in setting and in wearing them was no less
+execrable. The Countess says: &ldquo;the ladies here
+possess great stores of beautiful precious stones,
+and do not wear, like Frenchwomen, a single
+article of jewellery, but nine or ten together, some
+of diamonds, others of rubies, pearls, emeralds,
+and turquoises, wretchedly mounted, since they are
+almost wholly covered with the gold. When I
+inquired the cause of this, they told me the jewels
+were so made because the gold was as beautiful
+as the gems. I suppose, however, the real reason
+is the backwardness of the craftsmen, who can do
+no better work than this, excepting Verbec, who
+has no lack of skill, and would turn out excellent
+jewels if he took the trouble to finish them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the neck of their bodices the ladies fasten
+pins profusely set with precious stones. Hanging
+from the pin, and fastened at the lower end to
+the side of their dress, is a string of pearls or
+diamonds. They wear no necklace, but bracelets
+on their wrists and rings on their fingers, as well
+as long earrings of so great a weight that I know
+not how they can support them. Hanging from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+these earrings they display whatever finery they
+may fancy. I have seen some ladies who wore
+good-sized watches hanging from their ears, strings
+of precious stones, English keys of dainty make,
+and little bells. They also wear the <i>agnus</i>, together
+with little images about their neck and
+arms, or in their hair. They dress their hair in
+various ways, and always go with it uncovered,
+using many hairpins in the form of coloured
+flies or butterflies of diamonds, emeralds, and
+rubies.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Book-worm authorities, addicted to &ldquo;dry bones&rdquo;
+of letters, are prone just now to doubt this visit of
+Countess d'Aulnoy to the capital of Spain. But
+if such patient doubters will compare her narrative
+with those of other foreigners, <i>e.g.</i> Bertaut de
+Rouen, or the manuscript description of Valladolid,
+written by a Portuguese, and now in the British
+Museum library, their scepticism will&mdash;or should&mdash;be
+done away with on the moment. The letters
+of the countess make it plain by copious inner
+testimony that she actually performed her Spanish
+visit; and though from time to time she over-colours
+or misreads the truth, it was the very
+usages of Spain that were absurd and out of
+joint, and not, except in isolated instances, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+sprightly and observant Frenchwoman's account
+of them.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere the Countess says: &ldquo;Utensils of
+common metal are not employed here, but only
+those of silver or of ware. I hear that a little
+while ago, upon the death of the Duke of Alburquerque,
+six weeks were needed to make out an
+inventory of his gold and silver services. His
+house contained fourteen hundred dozen plates,
+five hundred large dishes, and seven hundred of a
+smaller size, with all the other pieces in proportion,
+and forty silver ladders for climbing his sideboard,
+made in grades like an altar in a spacious hall.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These statements have been proved in later
+years. Dating from 1560, an inventory of the
+ducal house of Alburquerque was found not many
+years ago. In it we find the detailed list of gold
+and silver; cups and dishes, bowls and basins,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+plates and salt-cellars, trenchers, wine and water
+flagons, sauce-spoons, salad-spoons, conserve-spoons,
+and innumerable other articles. Here,
+too, we find, upon the mighty sideboard mounted
+by its forty silver stairs, such objects as the
+following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A gold cup with festoon-work above and
+beneath, wrought with leaves in relief. At
+the top of the foot there issue some leaves
+that fall down over a small gold staple, and
+below this, about the narrowest part of the foot,
+are leaves in relief and several dolphins. The
+broad part of the foot is decorated with festoons.
+The lid of this cup is wrought with leaves
+in relief, and on the crest thereof is a lion,
+crowned. The cup weighs three hundred and
+fifty-one <i>castellanos</i> and a half.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A Castilian jar from which my lord the duke
+was wont to drink, weighing two marks and five
+ounces.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A cup with a high foot, gilt all over, with the
+figure of a woman in its midst, and decorated in
+four places in the Roman manner.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A flagon of white silver, flat beneath the stem,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+with a screw-top surmounted by a small lion; for
+cooling water.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A small silver dish, of the kind they call meat-warmers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A large silver seal for sealing provisions, with
+the arms of my lord the duke, Don Francisco.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A large silver vessel, embossed, with a savage
+on top.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A gold horse, enamelled in white upon a gold
+plate enamelled in green and open at the top;
+also a wolf, upon another gold plate enamelled in
+green, with lettering round about it; also a green
+enamelled lizard upon blue enamel; and a gold
+toothpick with four pieces enamelled in green,
+white, and rose; also a small gold column enamelled
+in black and rose.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A silver lemon-squeezer, gilt and chiselled,
+with white scroll-work about the mesh thereof,
+through which the lemon-juice is strained.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A large round silver salt-cellar, in two halves,
+gilt all over, with scales about the body, and two
+thick twisted threads about the flat part. One
+side of it is perforated.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Among the property of the duchess, Doña
+Mencía Enriquez, we find &ldquo;a small gold padlock,
+which opens and closes by means of letters&rdquo;; two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+gold bangles; a gold necklace consisting of forty-two
+pieces &ldquo;enamelled with some B's&rdquo;;<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> a gold
+signet ring with the duchess's arms; and &ldquo;a gold
+and niello box with relics, for wearing round the
+neck.&rdquo; Also, resting on a table covered with silver
+plates, &ldquo;a box of combs; the said box wrought in
+gold upon blue leather, containing five combs, a
+looking-glass, a little brush, and other fittings;
+girt with a cord in gold and blue silk.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The seventeenth century and a race of native
+Spanish kings declined and passed away together.
+A dynasty of France succeeded to the throne
+of Spain, and with the foreigner came a fresh
+reactionary movement towards the neo-classic art,
+coupled with the canons of French taste. Henceforth
+a century of slow political reform goes
+hand in hand with slow suppression of the salient
+parts of Spanish character. Madrid transforms or
+travesties herself into a miniature Versailles, and
+national arts and crafts belong henceforward to a
+Frenchified society which found its painter in
+Goya, just as the preceding and eminently Spanish
+society had found its painter in Velazquez.</p>
+
+<p>Another of the causes of the falling-off in
+Spanish <i>orfebrería</i> at this time, is stated to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+been the craftsmen's overwhelming tendency to
+substitute the slighter though venerable and
+beautiful gold or silver filigree (Plate <a href="#img_114.jpg">xviii</a>.), for
+more artistic and ambitious, if less showy work
+in massive metal. Thus, in 1699, a supplementary
+chapter of the Ordinances of Seville
+complained in bitter phrases of this tendency,
+denouncing it as &ldquo;a source of fraud and
+detriment to the republic,&rdquo; and deploring that
+&ldquo;of the last few years we have forsaken our
+goodly usages of older times, in the matter of the
+drawings entrusted to the candidates who come
+before us for examination.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the same year the goldsmiths' and the
+silversmiths' guild of Seville enacted that none
+of its members were to work in filigree, unless
+they were qualified to execute the other work as
+well. Such efforts to suppress this evil were not
+new. More than a century before, on April 15th,
+1567, the inspectors of the guild had entered the
+shop of Luis de Alvarado, silversmith, and seized
+some filigree earrings &ldquo;of the work that is forbidden,&rdquo;
+breaking these objects on the spot, and
+imposing a fine of half-a-dozen ducats on the
+peccant of obvious Alvarado.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>The modern gold and silver work of Spain is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+thus exempted from a lengthy notice, seeing that
+its typical and national characteristics have succumbed,
+or very nearly so. I may, however,
+mention the giant silver candelabra in the
+cathedral of Palma de Mallorca, which were made
+at Barcelona, between 1704 and 1718, by Juan
+Matons and three of his assistants. They measure
+eight feet high by four feet and a quarter across,
+weigh more than eight thousand ounces, and cost
+21,942 pounds, 15 <i>sueldos</i>, and 11 <i>dineros</i> of
+Majorcan money. The State seized them during
+the Napoleonic wars, in order to melt them down
+for money; but the chapter of the cathedral bought
+them back for eleven thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_114.jpg" width="394" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_114.jpg" id="img_114.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">EARLY CHALICE AND CROSS IN FILIGREE GOLD-WORK<br />
+(<i>Church of Saint Isidore, León</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>During this century Riaño mentions several
+factories of silver articles established at Madrid,
+including that of Isaac and Michael Naudin (1772)
+and the Escuela de Platería (1778), protected by
+Charles the Third; but since the work of these was
+purely in the French or English manner, they call
+for no particular notice. The principal objects they
+produced were &ldquo;inkstands, dishes, dinner-services,
+chocolate-stands, cruets, knives and forks, together
+with buckles, needle-cases, brooches, snuff-boxes,
+frames for miniatures, and similar trinkets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Early in the nineteenth century Laborde wrote<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+that &ldquo;the fabrication of articles of gold and silver
+might become an important object in a country
+where these metals abound; but it is neglected,
+and the demand is almost entirely supplied from
+foreign markets. What little they do in this branch
+at home is usually very ill executed, and exorbitantly
+dear. Madrid, however, begins to possess
+some good workmen; encouragement would
+increase their number and facilitate the means
+of improvement; but manual labour is there
+excessively dear. Hence the Spaniards prefer
+foreign articles of this kind, which, notwithstanding
+the expense of carriage, the enormous duties that
+they pay, and the profits of the merchants, are
+still cheaper than those made at home.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Several of the inherent characteristics of the
+national <i>orfebrería</i> may yet be noticed somewhat
+faintly in the ornaments and jewels of the
+Spanish peasants, though even these are being
+discarded. A century ago Laborde described the
+dress of the Mauregata women, near Astorga,
+in the kingdom of León. &ldquo;They wear large
+earrings, a kind of white turban, flat and widened
+like a hat, and their hair parted on the forehead.
+They have a chemise closed over the chest, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+a brown corset buttoned, with large sleeves opening
+behind. Their petticoats and veils are also
+brown. Over all they wear immense coral necklaces,
+which descend from the neck to the knee;
+they twist them several times round the neck,
+pass them over the shoulders, where a row is
+fastened, forming a kind of bandage over the
+bosom. Then another row lower than this; in
+short, a third and fourth row at some distance
+from each other. The last falls over the knee,
+with a large cross on the right side. These
+necklaces or chaplets are ornamented with a great
+many silver medals, stamped with the figure of
+saints. They only wear these decorations when
+not working, or on festivals.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I have a manuscript account in French of
+Spanish regional costumes at the same period.
+The dress of the peasant women of Valencia is
+thus described: &ldquo;Elle se coiffe toujours en
+cheveux, de la manière appelée <i>castaña</i>, et elle y
+passe une aiguille en argent que l'on nomme
+<i>rascamoño</i>; quelque fois elle se pare d'un grand
+peigne (<i>peineta</i>) en argent doré. Son cou este
+orné d'une chaine d'or ou d'argent (<i>cadena del
+cuello</i>) à laquelle est suspendue une croix ou un
+reliquaire.&rdquo; This was the Valencian peasant's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+dress for every day. On festivals the same
+woman would adorn her ears with &ldquo;pendants
+(<i>arracadas</i>) de pierres fausses; mais lorsque la
+jardinière est riche, elles sont fines. Une relique
+(<i>relicario</i>) dans un petit médaillon en argent,
+est suspendue à son cou; ainsi qu'un chapelet
+très mince (<i>rosario</i>) en argent doré.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The peasant women of Iviza, in the Balearics,
+are described in the same manuscript as wearing
+&ldquo;un collier en verre, quelque fois en argent, et
+rarement en or&rdquo;; while Laborde wrote of Minorca,
+another of these islands, that &ldquo;the ladies are
+always elegantly adorned; their ornaments consist
+of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, and chaplets.
+<i>The peasants wear these also.</i>&rdquo; Of the women of
+Barcelona he said: &ldquo;Silk stockings are very
+common in every class; and their shoes are
+embroidered with silk, gold, silver, pearls, and
+spangles.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But Spain, like Italy or Switzerland, or many
+another country, is throwing off her regional
+costumes, of which these various jewels form a
+prominent and even an essential feature. More
+rarely now we come across the gold and seed-pearl
+necklaces of Salamanca, the Moorish filigree
+silver-work of Cordova, the silver-gilt necklaces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+of Santiago, and the heavy <i>arracadas</i>, hung with
+emeralds and sapphires, of Cataluña. Murcia,
+nevertheless, retains her Platería, a street of
+venerable aspect and associations, where to this
+hour the oriental-looking silver pendants of the
+neighbourhood are made and trafficked in.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_119.jpg" width="150" height="123"
+        alt="end of chapter"
+        title="end of chapter" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Ordenanza de la Limpieza</i> (1537), Tit. 9: &ldquo;We command
+that nobody remove sand from the aforesaid river Darro unless to
+extract gold, in which case he shall fill up the holes he made, or
+pay a fine of fifty <i>maravedis</i> for damaging the watercourses that
+enter this city and the buildings of the Alhambra.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> &ldquo;I am not aware of any Spanish mine containing silver in a
+state of absolute purity; though some, I think, would be discovered
+if they were searched for.&rdquo;&mdash;Bowles: <i>Historia Natural de España</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Possibly, as Bowles suggests, for Cabo de Agata&mdash;&ldquo;Agate Cape.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;It would not be strange,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;if diamonds were found
+at this cape, since there are signs of their presence. I found white
+sapphires, slightly clouded, together with cornelians, jaspers, agates,
+and garnets.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> A fresh find of <i>torques</i> and <i>fibulæ</i> has occurred in the spring of
+this year at La Moureta, near Ferrol.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> These ornaments were retained in use by the Visigoths, and
+find their due description in the <i>Etymologies</i> of Saint Isidore; <i>e.g.</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Inaures</i> ab aurium foraminibus nuncupatae, quibus pretiosa
+genera lapidum dependuntur.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Tourques</i> sunt circuli aurei a collo ad pectus usque dependentes.
+Torques autem et bullae a viris geruntur; a foeminis vero monilia
+et catellae.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Fibulæ</i> sunt quibus pectus foeminarum ornatur, vel pallium
+tenetur: viris in humeris, seu cingulum in lumbris.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> There is also in the Archæological Museum at Madrid a small
+collection of what has been described as Visigothic jewellery, consisting
+of a handsome <i>phalera</i>, necklaces, finger-rings, and earrings.
+Most of these objects were found at Elche in 1776. The <i>Museo
+Español de Antigüedades</i> published a full description by Florencio
+Janer. Their interest is by no means as great as that of the
+treasure of Guarrazar, nor is the date of their production definitely
+ascertained. From various details I suspect that many of them
+may be purely Roman.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The last word is commonly believed to be the name of a place&mdash;<i>Sorbaces</i>.
+There has been much discussion as to its meaning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Description du trésor de Guarrazar</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Ce que je puis affirmer, après l'examen le plus minutieux, c'est
+que la matière qui fait le fond de cette riche ornementation est
+réellement du verre.</i>&rdquo;&mdash;Lasteyrie, supported by Sommerard.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> &ldquo;In Spain,&rdquo; said Bowles (<i>Hist. Nat. de Esp.</i>, p. 498), &ldquo;are found
+two species of rock crystal. The one, occurring in clusters, are transparent,
+six-sided, and always have their source in rocks. There are
+great quantities all over the kingdom, and at Madrid they are found
+near the hills of San Isidro. The other species are found singly, and
+are rounded like a pebble. I have seen them from the size of a
+filbert to that of my fist. Some were covered with a thin, opaque
+integument&hellip;. The river Henares abounds with these crystals,
+and as it passes San Fernando, at two leagues' distance from
+Madrid, sweeps some of them along which are the size of the largest
+ones at Strasburg, though very few are perfect.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> A veritable cryptogram awaited the decipherers of these legends.
+When King Swinthila's crown was brought to light, four of the letters
+only were in place, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">&#9769; ...... I ... V.R .... F ....</p>
+
+<p>Eight of the others were recovered shortly after; two more, an E
+and L, appeared at a later date, and eight continued to be missing.
+The inscription dangling from the crown of Recceswinth arrived at
+Paris in this eloquent form:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">&#9769; RRCCEEFEVINSTVSETORHFEX</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Amador de los Ríos, <i>El Arte latino-bizantino en España y las
+Coronas Visigodas de Guarrazar</i>, p. 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> Sommerard: &ldquo;<i>Une collection sans égale de joyaux les plus
+précieux qui, par la splendeur de la matière, le mérite de l'exécution,
+et plus encore, peut être, par leur origine incontestable et par leur
+étonnante conservation, surpassent tout ce qui possédent d'analogue
+les collections publiques de l'Europe et les trésors les plus renommés
+de l'Italie</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <i>Toledo and Madrid</i>; p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Ajbar Machmua</i>. Lafuente y Alcántara's edition; p. 27, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Account of the Conquest of Spain</i>, published, with an English
+translation and notes, by John Harris Jones. London, 1858.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The pax or osculatory used in celebrating High Mass is
+commonly, says Rosell de Torres, &ldquo;a plate of gold or ivory, or other
+metal or material, according to the time and circumstances of its
+manufacture. The priest who celebrates the Mass kisses it after
+the <i>Agnus Dei</i> and the prayer <i>ad petendam pacem</i>, and the acolytes
+present it, as a sign of peace and brotherly union, to all the other
+priests who may be present. This usage springs from the kiss of peace
+which was exchanged, prior to receiving the communion, between the
+early Christians in their churches. The pax has commonly borne
+an image of the Virgin with the Holy Infant, the face of Christ, or
+else the Agnus Dei.&rdquo; Its Latin name was the <i>deosculatorium</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> This marvel is related by the Monk of Silos. A quotation from
+another of my books is applicable here. &ldquo;Last year,&rdquo; I wrote in
+1902&mdash;(pp. 64, 65 of <i>Toledo and Madrid: Their Records and
+Romances</i>)&mdash;&ldquo;the young King Alfonso the Thirteenth paid a visit to
+Oviedo cathedral, and was duly shown the relics and the jewels.
+Among these latter was the &lsquo;Cross of the Angels.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;Why is it so called?&rsquo; inquired the king.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;Because,&rsquo; replied the bishop of the diocese, &lsquo;it is said that the
+angels made it to reward King Alfonso the Chaste.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;Well, but,&rsquo; insisted the young monarch, &lsquo;what ground is there
+for thinking so?&rsquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;Señor,&rsquo; replied the prelate, &lsquo;none whatever. <i>The time for
+traditions is passing away.</i>&rsquo;&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> In many towns a hearty friendship sprang up between the
+Spaniard and the Moor. This was a natural consequence in
+places where the vanquished had a better education than the
+victor. The warrior population of both races might be struggling
+on the field at the same moment that their craftsmen were fraternizing
+in the workshop. Ferdinand the First and Alfonso the Sixth
+were particularly lenient in their usage of the dominated Muslim.
+Thus, the former of these princes recognised the Moorish townspeople
+of Sena as his vassals, while those of Toledo were freely
+allowed by Alfonso to retain their worship and their mosque.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Fallaron ay de marfil arquetas muy preçiadas</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Con tantas de noblezas que non podrian ser contadas</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Fueron para San Pedro las arquetas donadas;</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Están en este dia en el su altar asentadas.</i>&rdquo;</span>
+</div></div></div></div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 0; margin-left: 50%;"><span class="i0">Poem of <span class="smcap">Ferran Gonzalvez</span> (13th century).</span></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Together with the statuette of Ujué in Navarre, the Virgen de
+la Vega of Salamanca may be classed as one of the earliest &ldquo;local
+Virgins&rdquo; of this country. Sometimes these images are of wood
+alone, sometimes of wood beneath a silver covering, sometimes, as
+that of the Claustro de León, of stone. But whatever may be the
+substance, the characteristics are the same:&mdash;Byzantine rigidness
+and disproportion, the crude and primitive anatomy of artists only
+just emerging from the dark. The Virgin and Child of Santa
+María la Real of Hirache in Navarra may be instanced as
+another of the series. This image dates from late in the twelfth or
+early in the thirteenth century, although a crown and nimbus have
+been added subsequently. It measures rather more than a yard
+in height, and consists of wood covered with silver plates, except
+the hands and face, which are painted. The Virgin, seated, holds
+the Infant with her left arm; in her right hand is an apple. A kind of
+stole bearing the following inscription in Gothic letter falls upon the
+Infant's breast; &ldquo;<i>Puer natus est nobis, venite adoremus. Ego
+sum alpha et omega, primus et novissimus Dominus.</i>&rdquo; Before this
+statuette the King Don Sancho is stated to have offered his devotion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> I quote this legend in Appendix A.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> A recent instance, not devoid of humour, is as follows. About
+three years ago, a silly rogue removed and carried off the crown
+from Santiago's head; but since the actual jewel is only worn on
+solemn festivals, his prize turned out to be a worthless piece of tin.
+An odd removal of the treasure of another Spanish church was noted
+by the traveller Bowles. &ldquo;The curate of the place, a worthy fellow
+who put me up in his house, assured me that a detachment of a legion
+of locusts entered the church, ate up the silk clothes upon the images,
+and gnawed the varnish on the altars.&rdquo; Perhaps these adamantine-stomached
+insects have assailed, from time to time, the gold and
+silver plate of Santiago.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Ford, <i>Handbook</i>, vol. ii. p. 671. I briefly notice, in Appendix B,
+the Santiago jet-work, also practised by these craftsmen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> To lend my censures further cogency, I leave this statement as
+I set it down some weeks ago; since when, on picking up a Spanish
+newspaper, I read the following telegram:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">&ldquo;<span class="smcap">Theft in Santiago Cathedral</span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right;">&ldquo;<span class="smcap">Santiago</span>, <i>May 7th, 1906</i> (9.15 <i>p.m.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This morning, when the canon in charge of the Chapel of the
+Relics unlocked the door, he was surprised to observe that some of
+these were lying in confusion on the floor. Fearing that a theft
+had been committed, he sent for the dean and others of the clergy,
+who had examination made, and found the following objects to be
+missing:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>&ldquo;A gold cross, presented by King Alfonso the Great, when he
+attended the consecration of this temple in the year 874.</i></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Another cross, of silver, dating from the fifteenth century&mdash;a
+present from Archbishop Spinola.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;An aureole of the fifteenth century, studded with precious stones
+belonging to a statuette of the apostle Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The authorities were summoned and at once began their search.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;They find that two of the thick iron bars of the skylight in the
+ceiling of the cloister have been filed through. This cloister has a
+skylight which opens upon the chapel.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;They have also found, upon the roof, a knotted rope. This rope
+was only long enough to reach a cornice in the chapel wall. <i>The
+wall itself affords no sign that anybody has attempted to descend
+by it.</i>&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> This form of reliquary was not uncommon. Morales, in his <i>Viaje
+Sacro</i>, describes another one, also preserved at Santiago, saying
+that it was a bust of silver, life-size and gilded to the breast, &ldquo;with
+a large diadem of rays and many stones, both small and great, all
+or most of them of fine quality, though not of the most precious.&rdquo;
+Other bust-reliquaries belong, or have belonged, to the Cathedrals
+of Burgos and Toledo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The Mudejares were the Mussulmans who submitted, in the
+conquered cities, to the Spanish-Christian rule. The word <i>Mudejar</i>
+is of modern growth, nor can its derivation be resolved with
+certainty. From the thirteenth century onwards, and formed by the
+fusion of the Christian and the Saracenic elements, we find Mudejar
+influence copiously distributed through every phase of Spanish life
+and art, and even literature.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Amador prefers to call these Tables &ldquo;the triptych of the
+learned king,&rdquo; in order to distinguish them by this explicit title
+from the <i>Astronomical Tables</i> prepared by order of the same
+monarch.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Riaño, <i>Spanish Arts</i>, p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> So named because the silversmiths (<i>plateros</i>) of this country
+used it in their monstrances (<i>custodias</i>) and in many other objects
+or utensils of religious worship. The most refined and erudite of
+Spanish silver-workers, Juan de Arfe, thus referred to it in
+rhyme:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>&ldquo;Usaron desta obra los plateros</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Guardando sus preceptos con zelo;</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Pusiéronle en los puntos postrimeros</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>De perfección mi abuelo.&rdquo;</i></span>
+</div></div></div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Street, <i>Gothic Architecture in Spain</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Count of Clonard.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Four pallets gules, on a field or; which were the arms of
+Cataluña and subsequently of Aragon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Archives of the Crown of Aragon.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Sanpere y Miquel, <i>Revista de Ciencias Históricas</i>, art. <i>La
+Platería catalana en los siglos XIV. y XV.</i>, vol. i. p. 441.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Gestoso mentions that Juan de Luna, a silversmith of Seville,
+was turned into the gutter from the workshop where he was
+employed, solely because his father had been punished as a Morisco
+by the Inquisition (<i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. i.
+p. lvi.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> An article by Señor Saavedra on these inscribed jewels and
+signets of Mohammedan Spain will be found in the <i>Museo Español
+de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> &ldquo;As to the ornaments and jewels of the ladies of Granada, these
+wear at present necklaces of rich design, bracelets, rings (upon their
+ankles), and earrings of pure gold; together with quantities of silver
+and of precious stones upon their shoes. I say this of the middle
+class; for ladies of the aristocracy and of the older noble families
+display a vast variety of gems, such as rubies, chrysolites, emeralds,
+and pearls of great value. The ladies of Granada are commonly
+fair to look upon, shapely, of good stature, with long hair, teeth of a
+shining white, and perfumed breath, gracefully alert in their movements,
+and witty and agreeable in conversation. But unfortunately
+at this time their passion for painting themselves and for arraying
+themselves in every kind of jewellery and costly stuffs has reached
+a pitch that is no longer tolerable.&rdquo;&mdash;Al-Jattib, in <i>The Splendour
+of the New Moon concerning the Nasrite Sultans of Granada</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> There was, however, from long before this time a prohibition to
+export from Spain the precious metals, in any form, whether as
+objects of plate or as coined money. The penalty for a repetition
+of this offence was death. Another law prohibited all foreigners
+who were resident in Spain, not excluding the Moriscos, from buying
+gold or silver in the bar (<i>Suma de Leyes</i>, p. 46). It was also forbidden
+to sell the jewels or other objects of value belonging to a
+place of worship (<i>ibid</i>. p. 87).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> This entertaining and inquisitive tourist describes, in 1659, a
+wondrous cavern in the south of Spain, &ldquo;ou l'on conte que les
+Mores ont caché leurs trésors en s'en retournant en Afrique, et ou
+personne n'ose aborder de peur des esprits que l'on dit que l'on y
+voit souvent. Mais comme il commencait a se faire nuit, je n'eus
+pas le loisir de m'y amuser beaucoup.&rdquo; With this our author
+shelved his curiosity, and prudently retired.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Leonard Williams. <i>Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies,
+and Impressions</i>, p. 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Ford was more hopeful as to the preservation of this wealth in
+Spain. &ldquo;No doubt much coin is buried in the Peninsula, since the
+country has always been invaded and torn by civil wars, and there
+never has been much confidence between Spaniard and Spaniard;
+accordingly the only sure, although unproductive, investment for
+those who had money, was gold or silver, and the only resource to
+preserve that, was to hide it.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Handbook</i>, vol. ii. p. 682.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. ii. p. 360.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> A full description of these chests will be found in Cean Bermudez,
+vol. iii. pp. 135&ndash;137.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Rada y Delgado, in his reply to the Count of Cedillo's address
+in the Royal Academy of History. For particulars of the silver lamp,
+which was made by Marcos and Gonzalo Hernandez, Toledanos,
+and by Diego Dávila, see Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos Inéditos
+para la Historia de las Bellas Artes en España</i>, vol. lv. p. 580.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> <i>Recherches sur l'Orfévrerie en Espagne</i>, pp. 61 <i>et seq</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Ulloa, <i>Memorias Sevillanas</i>, vol. i. p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> <i>Libro de diferentes Cuentas y gasto de la Casa Real en el
+Reynado de Don Sancho IV. Sacado de un tomo original en folio
+que se guarda en la Librería de la Santa Iglesia de Toledo.</i> Años
+de 1293&ndash;1294. Por el P. Andres Marcos Burriel de la Comp<sup>a</sup> de
+Jesus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Con estos fué mi padre en seguimiento</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Joan Alvarez tambien el Salmantino,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Becerril, que tambien fué deste cuento,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Juan de Orna, y Juan Ruiz el Vandolino.</i>&rdquo;</span>
+</div></div></div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>Annals of the Artists of Spain</i>, vol. i. pp. 161, 162.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 159, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Brinco</i> (<i>brincar</i>, to jump or spring). These jewels were so
+called from their vibrating as the wearer walked. The Balearic
+Islands were famous for their manufacture; and the late Marquis
+of Arcicollar possessed a case of valuable examples, most of which
+proceeded from this locality.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>Suma de Leyes</i>, 1628, p. 116 (2).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> But on the other hand I much suspect that the following passage
+in Alvarez de Colmenar's <i>Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal</i> (vol.
+iii. p. 326) is stolen from Countess d'Aulnoy. &ldquo;Elles ne portent
+point de colier, mais en échange elles ont des bracelets, des bagues,
+et des pendans d'oreille, plus gros que tous ceux qu'on voit en
+Hollande. Telle est la diversité des gouts des nations différentes,
+en matière de beauté. Il y en a même quelques-unes, qui attachent
+quelque beau joli bijou à leurs pendans d'oreilles, quelque ornement
+de pierreries, par exemple, ou d'autres choses semblables, selon leur
+quantité ou leur pouvoir.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> The mark was a standard of eight ounces, and was divided into
+fifty <i>castellanos</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> For Beltran de la Cueva, ancestor of this family.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. ii. p. 134.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="IRON-WORK" id="IRON-WORK">IRON-WORK</a></h2>
+
+<p>The ancient iron mines of Spain were no less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+celebrated than her mines of silver and of gold.
+Nevertheless, the history of Spanish iron-work
+begins comparatively late. Excepting certain
+swords and other weapons which require to be
+noticed under <i>Arms</i>, and owing to the commonness
+and cheapness of this metal, as well as to
+the ease with which it decomposes under damp,
+few of the earliest Spanish objects made of iron
+have descended to our time.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> Even Riaño pays<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+but little notice to this craft in the Peninsula
+before the second half of the fifteenth century.
+Henceforth, he says, &ldquo;it continued to progress
+in the sixteenth, and produced, undoubtedly,
+at that period works which were unrivalled in
+Europe.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The decorative iron-work of Spain may suitably
+be dealt with in three classes: railings, screens,
+or pulpits of churches, chapels, and cathedrals;
+balconies and other parts or fittings applied to
+public or private buildings of a non-ecclesiastical
+character; and smaller, though not necessarily less
+attractive or important objects, such as knockers,
+locks and keys, and nail-heads.</p>
+
+<p>The last of these divisions, as embracing
+Spanish-Moorish craftsmanship, shall have, as far
+as order is concerned, our preferential notice.</p>
+
+<p>Surely, in the whole domain of history, no
+object has a grander symbolism than the key.
+In mediæval times the keys of cities, castles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+towns, and fortresses were held to be significant
+of ownership, or vigilance, or conquest. Especially
+was this the case in Spain&mdash;a nation incessantly
+engaged in war. Probably in no
+country in the world has the ceremony of delivering
+up this mark of tenure of a guarded
+and defended place occurred so often as here.
+Do we not read of it in stirring stanzas of her
+literature? Do we not find it in her paintings,
+on her stone and metal <i>rilievi</i>, or carved in
+wood upon the stalls of her cathedrals? Therefore
+the key, just like the sword, seemed, in
+the warm imagination of the Spaniards, to be
+something almost sacred. The legislative codes
+of Old Castile are most minute in their relation
+of its venerated attributes. Nor were the Spanish
+Muslims less alive to its importance than their
+foe, taking it also for an emblem of their own,
+and planting it in lordly eminence upon their
+gates and towers of Cordova, and Seville, and
+Granada. For what was Tarik's Mountain but
+the key of the narrow gate that led to their
+enchanted land, as sunny as, and yet less
+sultry than, their sandy home; truly a land
+of promise to the fiery children of the desert,
+panting for the paradise that smiled at them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+across the storied strip of emerald and sapphire
+water?</p>
+
+<p>So was it that both Moors and Spaniards
+made their keys of fortresses and citadels almost
+into an object of their worship. In hearing or in
+reading of such keys, the mind at once recurs to
+those of Seville (Plate <a href="#img_134.jpg">xix</a>.), two in number, famed
+throughout the world of mediæval art, and stored
+among the holiest relics in the sacristy of her
+cathedral. The larger is of silver, in the style now
+known as Mudejar, and dates from the second half
+of the thirteenth century. The length is rather
+more than eight inches, and the whole key is
+divided into five compartments, ornamented in
+enamels and in gold. Castles, ships, and lions
+adorn the thicker portion of the stem between
+the barrel proper and the handle; and on the
+rim of the latter is this inscription, in Hebrew
+characters:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>The King of Kings will open; the king of all the
+land shall enter.</i>&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>The wards are also beautifully carved into the
+following legend, distributed in two rows, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+superposed upon the other, of two words and of
+ten letters apiece:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Dios abrirá; Rey entrará.</i>&rdquo;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>God will open; the king shall enter.</i>&rdquo;</span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>The iron key is purely Moorish, smaller than
+its fellow, and measures just over six inches.
+Like the other, it consists of five divisions, and
+the wards are in the form of an inscription in
+African Cufic characters, which Gayangos and
+other Arabists have variously interpreted. Five
+of the commonest readings are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) &ldquo;<i>May Allah permit that the rule (of Islam) last for
+ever in this city.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(2) &ldquo;<i>By the grace of God may (this key) last for ever.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(3) &ldquo;<i>May peace be in the King's mansion.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(4) &ldquo;<i>May God grant us the boon of the preservation of
+the city.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(5) &ldquo;<i>To God (belongs) all the empire and the power.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Our earliest tidings of this iron key are from
+the Jesuit Bernal, who wrote in the seventeenth
+century. It was not then the property of the
+cathedral chapter, for Ortiz de Zúñiga says
+that it belonged, in the same century, to a gentleman
+of Seville named Don Antonio Lopez de
+Mesa, who had inherited it from his father.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+Tradition declares that both this key and its
+companion were laid at the feet of Ferdinand
+the Third by Axataf, governor of Seville, when
+the city capitulated to the Christian prince on
+November 23rd, 1248. But Ortiz is careful to
+inform us that he neither countenances nor rejects
+the popular notion that the iron key was thus
+delivered as the token of surrender, &ldquo;although,&rdquo;
+he says, &ldquo;the owners of it are strongly of this
+judgment.&rdquo; What we do know is that on June
+16th, 1698, the iron key was presented to the
+cathedral by Doña Catalina Basilia Domonte y
+Pinto, niece of the Señor Lopez de Mesa aforesaid;
+and that the chapter forthwith accepted it
+with solemn gratitude as &ldquo;one of the keys
+delivered by the Moors to the Rey Santo on the
+conquest of the city,&rdquo; ordering it to be guarded
+in a special box.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the popular fancy still accepted by the
+Sevillanos. However, Amador de los Ríos has
+sifted out a good deal of the truth, showing that
+the iron and the silver key are wrought in
+different styles, and were intended for a different
+purpose. He places the iron instrument among
+the &ldquo;keys of conquered cities,&rdquo; and its silver
+neighbour among the &ldquo;keys of honour, or of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+dedication&rdquo;; and he declares as certain (although
+the reasons he adduces do not quite convince me)
+that this iron key is actually the one which figured
+in the ceremony of surrender. The other he considers
+to have been a gift from the Sevillians to
+the tenth Alfonso, son of Ferdinand the saint
+and conqueror, as a loyal and a grateful offering
+in return for his protection of their industries and
+commerce. However this may be, the decorative
+aspect of the larger key, together with the choice
+material of which it is made, appears to prove
+that it was not associated with the rigours of a
+siege, but served in some way as a symbol of
+prosperity and peace. It was a common custom
+at a later age for Spanish cities to present their
+sovereign, when he came among them, with a
+richly ornamented key. Such keys were offered
+to Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second
+when, in 1526 and 1570, respectively, they
+visited Seville; while Riaño reminds us that
+&ldquo;even in the present day the ceremony is still
+kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes
+who stay at the royal palace of Madrid.&rdquo; Similarly,
+as an ordinary form of salutation, does the
+well-bred Spaniard place his house at your
+disposal.</p>
+
+<p>Five Moorish keys&mdash;one of bronze and four of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+iron&mdash;are in the Museum of Segovia, and bear,
+as Amador observes, a general resemblance to
+the iron key of Seville. The wards of four of
+them are shaped into the following inscriptions:
+the first key, &ldquo;<i>In Secovia</i> (Segovia)&rdquo;; the second,
+&ldquo;(<i>This</i>) <i>key was curiously wrought at Medina
+Huelma, God protect her</i>&rdquo;; the third, &ldquo;<i>Open</i>&rdquo;;
+and the fourth, &ldquo;<i>This work is by Abdallah.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The first and smallest of these keys informs
+us, therefore, that it was manufactured at Segovia.
+The third key is that which is of bronze, and
+bears the word &ldquo;<i>Open</i>,&rdquo; probably addressed to
+Allah. The second, which is also the largest
+and the most artistic and ornate, belonged, we
+read upon its wards, to Huelma, a fortress-town
+upon the frontiers of the kingdom of Granada.
+This town was wrested from the Moors on April
+20th, 1438, by Iñigo Lopez de Mendoza, first
+Marquis of Santillana, who possibly sent this key
+to Castile as a present to his sovereign, Juan the
+Second, in company with the usual papers of
+capitulation.</p>
+
+<p>Other Moorish keys are scattered over Spain
+in various of her public and private collections,
+though none are so remarkable as those of Seville<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+and Segovia. The town of Sepúlveda possesses
+seven early iron keys, several of which are
+Moorish. Others are at Burgos, Valencia, Palma,
+Jaen, and Granada. At the last-named city the
+following key, dating undoubtedly from the period
+of the Muslim domination, was discovered, in
+1901, among the débris of the Palace of Seti
+Meriem.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_131.jpg" width="400" height="78"
+        alt="iron key"
+        title="iron key" />
+        <a name="img_131.jpg" id="img_131.jpg"></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Keys of awe-inspiring magnitude are still preferred
+among the Spaniards to a handier and
+slighter instrument, this people seeming to believe
+that the bigger the key the more inviolable is
+the custody which it affords&mdash;a theory not at all
+upheld by modern experts in this venerable
+craft. Perhaps this singular and local preference
+is derived from Barbary. At any rate it still
+obtains across the Strait. &ldquo;Our host,&rdquo; wrote Mr
+Cunninghame Graham in <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i>,
+&ldquo;knocks off great pieces from a loaf of cheap
+French sugar with the key of the house, drawing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+it from his belt and hammering lustily, as the
+key weighs about four ounces, and is eight or
+nine inches long.&rdquo; Of such a length are nearly
+all the house-keys of contemporary Spain; and
+with this apparatus bulging in his belt the somnolent
+<i>sereno</i> or night-watchman of this sleepy,
+unprogressive, Latino-Mussulmanic land prowls
+to this hour along the starlit streets of Barcelona,
+Seville, or Madrid.</p>
+
+<p>The city Ordinances of Granada form a valuable
+and interesting link between the Spanish-Moorish
+craftsmanship and that of Spaniards
+Christian-born. The <i>Ordenanzas de Cerrageros</i>,
+or Locksmiths' Ordinances, though not voluminous,
+are curious and informative beyond the rest,
+and show us that a general rascality was prevalent
+in Granada after her reconquest from the
+Moor. Locksmiths were forbidden now to make
+a lock the impression of which was put into their
+hands in wax, even if the order should be
+sweetened by &ldquo;a quantity of maravedis,&rdquo; since the
+effect of such commissions, whose very secrecy
+betrayed illicit and improper ends in view, was
+stated to be &ldquo;very greatly perilous and mischief-making.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another Ordinance reveals the Christian locksmiths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+of Granada as arrant scoundrels, almost
+as troublesome to deal with as the pestering
+little shoeblacks of to-day. &ldquo;Word is brought
+us,&rdquo; groaned the aldermen, &ldquo;how many locksmiths,
+foreigners that dwell within this city as well as
+naturals that go up and down our thoroughfares,
+in taking locks and padlocks to repair, do, at the
+same time that they set the keys in order, contrive
+to fit them with new wards inferior to the older ones,
+so as to be able to open and close them with the
+keys they have themselves in store, wherein is
+grave deceitfulness, seeing that the aforesaid locks
+and padlocks may be opened in such wise without
+a key at all.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<p>If we except the vast dimensions of the common
+keys of houses, this branch of Spanish
+craftsmanship has now no quality to point it from
+the rest of Europe, having become, in Riaño's
+words, &ldquo;simply practical and useful.&rdquo; Laborde
+observed in 1809 that &ldquo;locks and various iron
+utensils are made in divers places. Locksmiths
+are numerous at Vega de Ribadeo in Galicia, at
+Helgoivar in Biscay, at Vergara in Guipuscoa, at
+Solsona and Cardona in Catalonia. Different kinds
+of iron goods are manufactured at Vergara, Solsona,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+and Cardona. The articles made of iron and
+steel at Solsona are in high estimation, notwithstanding
+they are destitute of taste and elegance,
+badly finished, and worse polished; and can by
+no means be put in competition with similar
+articles introduced from other countries.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>Iron nails with ornamented heads and decorative
+door-knockers are other objects which reveal
+the influence of Mohammedan Spain. A number
+of artistic Spanish nails are in the South Kensington
+Museum. &ldquo;Some doors,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;still
+exist at the Alhambra, Granada, covered with
+enormous heads of nails of a half-spherical form
+with embossed pattern. These same nails are constantly
+to be found on old Spanish houses, to which
+are added in the angles pieces of iron of a most
+artistic order&rdquo; (Pl. <a href="#img_134.jpg">xix</a>.<span class="smcap">a</span>). In the same city, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+not precisely in the Alhambra, I have seen upon
+the doors of private houses nails of a decorative
+kind which appear to consist of a single piece,
+but which are really formed of two&mdash;an ornamental
+boss perforated through its centre, and the
+nail proper, which fastens through it to the woodwork
+of the door behind. Thus, when the nail is
+hammered tight upon the boss, the effect is naturally
+that of a single piece of metal. Similar nails
+are on the door of Tavera's hospital at Toledo.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_134.jpg" width="387" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_134.jpg" id="img_134.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">DECORATIVE NAIL-HEADS<br />
+(<i>Convent of San Antonio, Toledo</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Ordenanzas</i> of Granada tell us minutely
+of the nails which were produced there in the
+sixteenth century. They were denominated <i>cabriales</i>,
+<i>costaneros</i>, <i>palmares</i>, <i>bolayques</i>, <i>vizcainos</i>,
+sabetinos, and <i>moriscos</i>; of all of which I can
+only find that the <i>cabriales</i> and <i>costaneros</i> were
+used for beams and rafters, and the <i>moriscos</i> for
+fixing horse-shoes. In Spain the custom of
+fastening down the decorative coverings of chairs
+or benches dates from comparatively late; and
+it was probably with this innovation that iron-workers
+began to exercise their ingenuity upon
+the heads of nails.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the Middle Ages the city
+of Segovia was celebrated for her locks and keys,
+her knockers, and her <i>rejas</i>. In 1892, collections<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+of iron objects, chiefly manufactured in this town,
+were shown by the duke of Segovia, Don Nicolás
+Duque, and Don Adolfo Herrera at the Exposición
+Histórico-Europea of Madrid. Segovia still
+preserves an old door covered with extraordinary
+iron spikes, that once belonged to the castle of
+Pedraza; many curious balconies, such as that in
+a first floor of the Calle del Carmen; and the
+grilles&mdash;proceeding from the old cathedral&mdash;of
+the chapel of the Cristo del Consuelo and the
+chapel of the Piedad.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting collection of early decorative
+Spanish iron, belonging to the well-known
+painter, Señor Rusiñol, is kept at the town
+of Sitjes, in Cataluña. The late Marquis of
+Arcicollar possessed a number of specimens of
+Spanish manufactured iron of the later Middle
+Ages, such as boxes, candelabra, locks, nails,
+door-knockers, <i>braseros</i>, and a rare and curious
+iron desk (fourteenth century), with leather
+fittings.</p>
+
+<p>The collection of the late Count of Valencia de
+Don Juan included four door-knockers of Spanish
+iron, dating from late in the fifteenth century or
+early in the sixteenth. I give a reproduction of
+these knockers (Pl. <a href="#img_136.jpg">xx</a>.). The two which occupy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+the centre are evidently from a sacred building;
+while the other pair are just as evidently <i>señoriales</i>,
+and belonged to a noble house. In the former
+pair, the clumsy carving of the saints, Peter and
+James, is attributed by Serrano Fatigati to the
+native coarseness of the iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_136.jpg" width="500" height="250"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_136.jpg" id="img_136.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">DOOR-KNOCKERS<br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Proceeding from the same collection are a pair
+of ceremonial maces and a ceremonial lantern,
+which I also reproduce (Pl. <a href="#img_138.jpg">xxi</a>.), since the Spanish
+writer from whom I have just quoted pronounces
+them to be &ldquo;excellent specimens of the iron-work
+of our country at the close of the Middle Ages.&rdquo;
+He says that, as we notice in the pinnacles, they
+show a tendency to copy architectural detail, and
+are otherwise characteristic of the period. Towards
+the fourteenth century the file replaced the
+hammer, and the sheet of iron was substituted for
+the bar. These objects, dating from the fifteenth
+century, duly reveal this change. Also, as was
+usual at the time, they are composed of separate
+pieces stoutly riveted. In the knockers with
+the figures of the saints &ldquo;we notice the partial
+use of the chisel, which became general in the
+sixteenth century, at the same time that iron
+objects were loaded with images, forms of animals,
+and other capricious figures. These may be said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+to belong to a period of transition, culminating in
+the <i>rejas</i>.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Madrid Museum contains a sixteenth-century
+cross of <i>repoussé</i> iron, in the Greek form,
+and which is certainly of Spanish make. According
+to Villa-amil, it formerly had a gilded border
+and was painted black, which leads this writer
+to suppose that it was used at funerals. Iron
+crosses may be seen occasionally on churches and
+on other public buildings, and Stirling has inserted
+cuts of several in his <i>Annals of the Artists of
+Spain</i>. Crosses of large size were sometimes
+planted on the highway. Such was the elaborate
+but ugly iron cross, measuring three yards in
+height, made by Sebastian Conde in 1692 for
+the Plazuela de la Cerrajeriá in Seville, and now
+preserved in her Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_138.jpg" width="388" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_138.jpg" id="img_138.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">CEREMONIAL MACES AND LANTERN<br />
+(<i>15th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The iron balustrade or <i>verja</i> of the marble
+tomb of Cardinal Cisneros is finely wrought in
+Plateresque-Renaissance, with elaborate designs
+of gryphons, foliage, urns, birds, masks, sheep's
+heads, swans, coats of arms, dolphins, and other
+ornament in great profusion. The craftsman was
+Nicolás de Vergara the elder. Lesser in size,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+though not less striking in its execution, is the
+railing, by Francisco de Villalpando, which surrounds
+the <i>Altar de Prima</i> in the choir of Toledo
+Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Iron pulpits,&rdquo; says Riaño, &ldquo;have been made
+in Spain with great success.&rdquo; He mentions five:
+two in Avila Cathedral (Plate <a href="#img_140.jpg">xxii</a>.); two at
+Seville; and one at the church of San Gil at
+Burgos. The latter is described by Street, who
+says: &ldquo;It is of very late date, end of the fifteenth
+century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration.
+The support is of iron, resting on stone, and the
+staircase modern. The framework at the angles,
+top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the iron-work
+is laid. The traceries are cut out of two
+plates of iron, laid one over the other, and the
+iron-work is in part gilded, but I do not think
+that this is original. The canopy is of the same
+age and character, and the whole effect is very
+rich at the same time that it is very novel. I saw
+other pulpits, but none so old as this.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The iron pulpits of Salamanca, &ldquo;covered with
+bas-reliefs representing the Evangelists and
+subjects taken from the Acts of the Apostles and
+the apocalypse,&rdquo; were made at the same time as
+the <i>reja</i> by Fray Francisco de Zalamea or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+Salamanca, Fray Juan, and other artists. The
+two at Avila are stationed one on either side
+of the Capilla Mayor, and are of gilded iron,
+hexagonal in form, and measuring about ten feet
+in height. Gryphons or other beasts support the
+pulpit on its stem or column. The body of each
+pulpit bears the arms of the cathedral, namely,
+the <i>Agnus Dei</i>, a lion, and a castle&mdash;the whole
+surmounted by a crown&mdash;and is divided lengthways
+by a central band into a double tier, closed
+by a richly decorated cornice at the upper and the
+lower border. Otherwise the pulpits are quite
+dissimilar. In one the decorative scheme is almost
+purely geometrical, while in the other it consists
+of foliage, birds and beasts, and niches containing
+statuettes of saints. The stair-railings are modern;
+but the primitive carving still adorns the end of
+every step.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_140.jpg" width="383" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_140.jpg" id="img_140.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">IRON PULPIT<br />
+(<i>Avila Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We do not know who was the maker of these
+pulpits. Some believe him to have been a certain
+Juan Francés, to whom our notice will again be
+called as figuring among the earliest masters of
+this eminently Spanish craft, and who, on strongish
+evidence, is thought to be the author of the <i>rejas</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+in the same cathedral which enclose the choir, and
+the front and sides of the Capilla Mayor. This
+is the only reason for supposing him to have
+made the pulpits also. One of these, however,
+is in the Flamboyant, and the other in the
+Renaissance style; so it may well be doubted
+whether both were produced by the same hand,
+or even at exactly the same period.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in the <i>rejas</i> that the craftsmanship
+of older Spain attains its loftiest pinnacle.
+They consist, says Banister Fletcher, of &ldquo;rich
+and lofty grilles in hammered and chiselled iron &hellip; strongly
+characteristic of the national art.
+The formality of the long and vertical bars is
+relieved by figures beaten in <i>repoussé</i>, in duplicates,
+attached back to back, and by crestings
+and traceries adapted to the material, and
+freely employed. Few things in Spain are
+more original and artistic.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>The <i>reja</i> generally was not, as many have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+supposed, of late invention. It existed from the
+earliest days of Christianity; but it was only in
+the Gothic and Renaissance ages that Spain
+converted it into a vehicle for decorative art.
+The growth of these ornamental <i>rejas</i> may be
+traced in cities of Old Castile, together with
+Seville, Salamanca, Cuenca, and Toledo. Spain,
+it is idle to observe, was at no moment so
+appreciative of her craftsmen as was Italy, so
+that our information as to mediæval Spanish
+craftsmen and the process of their lives and
+labours is, upon the whole, deplorably deficient.
+Nevertheless, among the oldest of her artists
+known in Spanish as <i>rejeros</i>, or (a finer and
+more venerable term) <i>&ldquo;reja</i>-masters&rdquo;&mdash;<i>maestros
+de rexas</i>&mdash;appears Juan Francés, working in
+1494 in Toledo Cathedral and, in the same
+capacity (for he seems to have been an armourer
+besides, and to have held the title of &ldquo;master-maker<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+of iron arms in Spain&rdquo;)<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> at Alcalá de
+Henares, as well as, in 1505, at Osma, in whose
+cathedral he made the <i>rejas</i> of the choir and high
+chapel.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p>Although the craftsman's name has rarely been
+recorded, we know that excellent <i>rejería</i> was
+made at Barcelona in the fifteenth century. Also
+dating from the fifteenth century, and therefore
+prior to the Plateresque, is the <i>reja</i>, ornamented
+with leaves and figures of centaurs and other
+creatures, mythical and real, enclosing the
+sepulchre of the Anayas in the old cathedral of
+Salamanca. During the first quarter of the sixteenth
+century much work in decorative <i>rejería</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+was completed in Seville Cathedral by Fernando
+Prieto, Fray Francisco de Salamanca,<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Sancho
+Muñoz, Diego de Adrobo, and others (<i>vide</i>
+Frontispiece). Taught by these, while yet belonging
+to a slightly later time, and linking in
+this way the riper and decadent Gothic with
+the new Renaissance and the Plateresque, were
+Pedro de Andino, Antonio de Palencia, and Juan
+Delgado. Rosell observes that without doubt
+these artists, excepting only Juan Francés&mdash;the
+pioneer of them all&mdash;were Spanish-born; and
+they in their turn were succeeded by other
+Spaniards who worked most regularly at Toledo;
+such as Bartolomé Rodriguez, Luis de Peñafiel,
+and Francisco de Silva.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent <i>rejero</i> named Hernando de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+Arenas completed the grille of Cuenca Cathedral
+in 1557. Three years before, a Cordovese,
+Fernando de Valencia, had made the intricate
+Renaissance <i>reja</i> of the Chapel of the Asunción
+in the mosque of that most ancient capital&mdash;a
+noble piece of work, which still exists. Other
+<i>rejeros</i> who were either natives of, or who resided
+in, this city were Pedro Sanchez, Alonso
+Perez, Pedro Sanchez Cardenosa, Francisco
+Lopez, Juan Martinez Cano, and Diego de
+Valencia.</p>
+
+<p>One of these men, Alonso Perez, a native of
+Jaen, contracted, on April 13th, 1576, to make
+the <i>rejas</i> of the Capilla Mayor in the church of
+the convent of the Trinity at Cordova. He was
+to finish them within one year, at a cost of fifty-one
+<i>maravedis</i> for every pound of iron, of sixteen
+ounces to the pound. Ramírez de Arellano, who
+has extracted these notices of Cordovese artists
+from the city archives<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>, says that the <i>reja</i> in
+question is no longer standing; but a document
+of the time informs us that it was of an elaborate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+character, and carried architraves, cornices,
+and the usual decorative detail of the Spanish
+Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>In 1593 Pedro Sanchez agreed to make, within
+four years, a grille for the old chapel of the
+Concepción, also in Cordova, at a cost of forty-nine
+maravedis for every pound of iron that the
+finished <i>reja</i> should contain; and a year later the
+same artist signed a contract for what is thought
+to be his masterpiece&mdash;the <i>reja</i> of the chapel of
+the Holy Cross, in the nave of the <i>sagrario</i> of
+the same temple. The stipulated time was two
+years only; but the cost amounted in this instance
+to one hundred maravedis for every pound of the
+completed <i>reja</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Marvels of power and of patience are among
+the <i>rejas</i> of this land. In them, obedient to the
+genius of the craftsman, the ponderous metal
+assumes the gossamer lightness of the finest
+gauze, now seeming to be breathed rather than
+built across the entrance to some side-chapel,
+now tapering skyward till we fancy it to melt
+away, like vapour, on the surface of the lofty
+roof. Such are the screens&mdash;which here demand
+a brief description&mdash;of Toledo and Palencia and
+Granada; that of Cuenca, where Arenas plied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+his master-hand; and, first in merit of them all,
+the peerless <i>reja</i>, royal in magnificence and faultless
+taste, that closes in at Burgos the no less
+royal-looking chapel of a Count of Haro, sometime
+Constable of all Castile.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>reja</i> of the Capilla Mayor of Toledo
+Cathedral is twenty-one feet high by forty-six in
+breadth. &ldquo;Armies of workmen,&rdquo; wrote Méndez
+Silva, referring to this screen and to its neighbour,
+that of the <i>coro</i>, &ldquo;were toiling at them for ten
+years, nor would their cost have been greater had
+they been of founded silver.&rdquo; The cost of which
+he speaks was more than a quarter of a million
+<i>reales</i>, although the workmen's daily wage was
+only two <i>reales</i> and a half, or, in the case of the
+particularly skilled, four <i>reales</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The author of this admirable screen was
+Francisco de Villalpando, whose plans and
+estimate were approved by Cardinal Tavera in
+1540. &ldquo;The <i>reja</i> consists of two tiers resting on
+different kinds of marble. Attic columns ornamented
+with handsome <i>rilievi</i> and terminated
+by bronze caryatides, divide these tiers into
+several spaces. The upper tier is formed by
+seven columns of ornate pattern, containing, on
+a frieze of complicated tracery, figures of animals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+and angels, and other delicately drawn and
+executed objects in relief. Upon the cornice are
+coats of arms, angels, and other decoration; and
+in the centre, the imperial arms of Charles the
+Fifth, together with a large crucifix pendent from
+a massive gilded chain. On the frieze of the
+second tier are the words, <span class="smcap">ADORATE DOMINUM IN
+ATRIO SANCTO EJUS KALENDAS APRILIS 1548</span>, and
+on the inner side, <span class="smcap">PLUS ULTRA</span>.&rdquo; <a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_148.jpg" width="375" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_148.jpg" id="img_148.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF CHAPEL ROYAL<br />
+(<i>Granada Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other of the larger <i>rejas</i> in this temple&mdash;that
+of the choir&mdash;is not inferior in a great
+degree to Villalpando's masterpiece. It was made
+by &ldquo;Maestre&rdquo; Domingo (de Céspedes),<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> who, in
+his estimate of June 18th, 1540, engaged to
+finish it at a total cost of 5000 ducats, &ldquo;he to be
+given the necessary gold and silver for the
+plating&rdquo; (<i>Archives of Toledo Cathedral</i>, quoted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+by Rosell). This Maestre Domingo was aided
+by his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo, and both of
+them, says de la Rada y Delgado, were probably
+natives of Toledo.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> In the same city they also
+made the <i>rejas</i> for the Baptismal Chapel, and
+for the chapels of the Reyes Viejos and Reyes
+Nuevos.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_149.jpg" width="394" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_149.jpg" id="img_149.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF CHAPEL ROYAL<br />
+(<i>View from interior. Granada Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Excellent Plateresque <i>rejas</i> are those of the
+Capilla Mayor and Coro of Palencia Cathedral&mdash;the
+latter from the hand of Gaspar Rodriguez of
+Segovia, who finished it in 1571 at a cost of 3400
+ducats. In the same city is the <i>reja</i> of the chapel
+of Nuestra Señora la Blanca, finished in 1512 by
+Juan Relojero, a Palencian, who received for his
+labour 25,000 <i>maravedis</i> and a load and a half
+of wheat.</p>
+
+<p>The noble and colossal gilt and painted<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> <i>reja</i>
+of the Chapel Royal of Granada Cathedral was
+wrought between the years 1518 and 1523 by
+one Master Bartholomew, whose name is near
+the keyhole. This was a person of obscure life<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+though mighty powers as a craftsman. We know
+that he resided at Jaen, and, from a document
+which still remains,<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> that he petitioned Charles
+the Fifth for payment (sixteen hundred ducats)
+of this grille, because the clergy had continually
+refused to liquidate it. He made, besides the
+work I herewith describe, the <i>reja</i> of the presbytery
+for Seville cathedral,<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> and possibly, as
+Sentenach suggests, the iron tenebrarium, ten
+feet high by five across, for the cathedral of Jaen.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>reja</i> of the Chapel Royal of Granada, &ldquo;of
+two faces, the finest that was ever made of this
+material,&rdquo; <a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> has three tiers. &ldquo;The first tier
+contains six Corinthian pilasters and a broad
+frieze covered with Plateresque ornamentation, as
+are the pedestals on which the pilasters rest. In
+the second tier are the arms of Ferdinand and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+Isabella within a garland supported by two lions,
+and other crowns together with the yoke and
+arrows;<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> all intertwined with stems, leaves, and
+little angels of an exquisite effect. Before the
+pilasters of this tier and of the one immediately
+above it are figures of the apostles on Gothic
+brackets&mdash;a style we also notice on the fastening
+of the gate and on the twisted railing; but every
+other detail of the grille is Plateresque. Upon
+the top are scenes of martyrdoms and of the life
+of Christ, the whole surmounted by a decorative
+scheme of leaves and candelabra, and, over this, a
+crucifix together with the figures of the Virgin and
+Saint John. The designing of the figures is only
+moderately good, but all remaining detail and the
+craftsmanship are admirable&rdquo; <a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> (Plates <a href="#img_148.jpg">xxiii</a>. and
+<a href="#img_149.jpg">xxiv</a>.).</p>
+
+<p>Last on my list of Spanish <i>reja</i>-makers I place
+the greatest and most honoured of them all&mdash;Cristóbal
+de Andino, who, as a modern writer
+has expressed it, &ldquo;uttered the last word in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+matter of giving shape to iron.&rdquo; Cristóbal, son
+of Pedro de Andino&mdash;himself an artist of no
+mean capacity&mdash;excelled in architecture, sculpture,
+<i>rejería</i>, and probably in silver-work as well.
+&ldquo;Good craftsmen,&rdquo; wrote his contemporary,
+Diego de Sagredo, &ldquo;and those who wish their
+work to breathe the spirit of authority and pass
+without rebuke, should follow&mdash;like your fellow-townsman,
+Cristóbal de Andino&mdash;ancient precepts,
+in that his works have greater elegance and
+beauty than any others that I witnessed heretofore.
+If this (you think) be not the case, look at that
+<i>reja</i> he is making for my lord the Constable,
+which <i>reja</i> is well known to be superior to all
+others of this kingdom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such is the <i>reja</i> thought, both then and now,
+to be the finest ever made. The style is pure
+Renaissance. Two tiers of equal height consist
+of four-and-twenty ornamented rails or balusters
+disposed, above, between four columns; below,
+between four pilasters. An attic is upon the
+cornice, and contains two central, semi-naked,
+kneeling figures which support a large, crowned
+shield. This is surmounted by a bust of God the
+Father, enclosed in a triangular frame, and
+raising the hand to bless. On either side of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+attic are S-shaped crests sustaining circular
+medallions with the likenesses, in bold relief, of
+Christ and Mary. Along the friezes are the
+legends; <span class="smcap">EGO SUM ALPHA ET</span> &#937;; <span class="smcap">EGO SUM LUX
+VERA</span>; and <span class="smcap">ECCE ANCILLA DOMINI</span>, together with the
+words, referring to the artist, <span class="smcap">AB ANDINO</span>, and the
+date <span class="smcap">A.D. MDXXIII.</span> The decorative scheme is
+spirited and delicate at once, whether we observe
+it on the railing, pilasters, and columns, or on
+the horizontal parts and members of the <i>reja</i>.
+The attic which surmounts the double tier and
+cornice is finally surmounted by a gilt Saint
+Andrew's cross; and the entire screen is lavishly
+painted and gilded throughout.</p>
+
+<p>Here is a thing&mdash;almost a being&mdash;created
+out of iron, so intensely lovely that the eye
+would wish to contemplate it to the end of
+time; and, as we linger in its presence, if perchance
+the dead are privileged to hear their
+earthly praises echoed in the silence of the
+tomb, surely from his marble sepulchre Cristóbal
+de Andino listens to such praises at this hour.
+For yonder, in the neighbouring parish church
+of San Cosmé, beside a wife devoted and well-loved
+the great artificer is laid to rest, where
+Latin words (although of idle purport while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+<i>reja</i> of the Constable remains) are deep engraved
+to thus remind us of his worth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="noindent" style="margin-left: 10%;">
+<span class="smcap">CHRISTOPHORUS ANDINO EGREGIUS<br />
+ARTIFEX ET IN ARCHITECTURA OMNIUM<br />
+SUI SECULI FACILE PRINCEPS<br />
+MONUMENTUM SIBI PONENDUM LE<br />
+GAVIT ET CATERINA FRIAS EJUS<br />
+UXOR HONESTISSIMA STATIM MARITI<br />
+VOTIS ET SUIS SATISFACIENDUM B<br />
+ENIGNE CHRISTIANEQUE CURAVIT URNAM CU<br />
+JUS LAPIDES SOLUM AMBORUM OSSA TEGUNT<br />
+SED ADMONET ETIAM CERTIS ANNUI HE<br />
+BDOMADE CUJUSQUE DIEBUS SACRIFICIA<br />
+PRO EIS ESSE PERPETUO FACIENDA</span></p>
+
+<p>But if these splendid <i>rejas</i> of her temples
+constitute to-day a special glory of this nation,
+her private balconies and window-gratings were
+in former times, though from profaner motives,
+almost or quite as notable. Between the sixteenth
+and the eighteenth centuries, few of the
+foreigners who visited Spain omitted to record
+their admiration of these balconies, crowded upon
+a holiday with pretty women. &ldquo;Il y avoit,&rdquo;
+wrote Bertaut de Rouen in 1659, &ldquo;autant de
+foule à proportion qu'à Paris; et mesme ce qu'il
+y avoit de plus beau, c'estoit que comme il y
+avoit des balcons à toutes les fenestres et qu'elles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+estoient occupées par toutes les dames de la ville,
+cela faisoit un plus bel effet que les échaffauts
+que l'on fait dans les rues de Paris en semblables
+rencontres.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_155.jpg" width="355" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_155.jpg" id="img_155.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i><br />
+(<i>Casa de Pilatos, Seville</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pinheiro da Veiga, in his queer <i>Pincigraphia</i>,
+or &ldquo;Description and Natural and Moral History
+of Valladolid,&rdquo; written earlier in the same century,
+and published twenty years ago by Gayangos
+from a manuscript in the British Museum, is
+more plain-spoken than the Frenchman on the
+various merits and peculiarities of the Spanish
+balconies and <i>rejas</i>. &ldquo;All of these churches have
+the most beautiful iron balustrades and iron open-work
+doors (<i>cancelas</i>) that can be found in Europe,
+for nowhere is iron worked so skilfully as here
+in Valladolid. These objects are made by the
+Moriscos with turned balusters, foliage, boughs,
+fruits, war-material, trophies, and other contrivances,
+which afterwards they gild and silver
+into the very likeness of these metals. I say
+the same of window-balconies; for nearly every
+window has its balcony. There are in Valladolid
+houses up which one might clamber to
+the very roof from balcony to balcony, as
+though these were a hand-ladder. So too from
+balcony to balcony (for the distance from one to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+other is never greater than a palm's breadth)
+one might climb round the whole Plaza. By
+reason of this, we Portuguese were wont to say
+that if there were as many thieves or lovers in
+Valladolid as in Portugal, verily both one and
+other of this kind of folks would have but little
+need of hand-ladders. Yet here the thieves content
+themselves with stealing by the light of day,
+while as for the women (crafty creatures that
+they are!), they perpetrate their thefts away
+from home; and, having all the day at their
+disposal, prefer to thieve while daylight lasts,
+rather than pass the night uncomfortably. To
+this I heard a lady of Castile declare, when one of
+my friends, a Portuguese, petitioned her for leave
+to speak with her at night across her <i>reja</i>: &lsquo;That
+would be tantamount to passing from one <i>hierro</i>
+to another <i>yerro</i>;<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> and in my house (which is
+also your worship's) it would not look well for
+you to seem a window-climbing thief.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_156.jpg" width="373" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_156.jpg" id="img_156.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>REJA</i> OF THE <i>CASA DE LAS CONCHAS</i><br />
+(<i>Salamanca</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is curious, in the foregoing narrative, to read
+of Morisco craftsmen working as late as 1600, and
+as far north as Castile. Perhaps the notice of
+Moriscos doing Spanish iron-work may be traced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+to certain Ordinances of Granada, published
+about three-quarters of a century before. On
+October 14th, 1522, the councillors of that town
+confabulated very lengthily and seriously as to
+the damage caused by &ldquo;balconies and <i>rejas</i>
+in the streets, fixed in the basements and the
+lower rooms of houses, or projecting portals which
+extend beyond the level of the wall. For we
+have witnessed, and do witness daily, numerous
+mishaps to wayfarers, alike on horseback and on
+foot, whether by day or night, because the
+highways, narrow in themselves, are rendered
+yet more narrow by such balconies and <i>rejas</i>.
+Whereas in winter persons seeking to escape
+the filth by keeping to the wall are thwarted, or
+at night-time injured, by these <i>rejas</i>. Or yet in
+summer, when the waters swell, and conduits
+burst and overflow the middle of the street, then
+neither can they keep the middle of the way, nor
+pass aside (by reason of the balconies aforesaid)
+to its edges.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Having regard to all these grievances, the
+councillors decreed that &ldquo;none of whatsoever
+order or condition shall dare henceforth to
+place, or cause to be placed, about the lower
+floors or entrance of their dwelling, <i>rejas</i> or iron<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+balconies, or anything projecting much or little
+from the level of the wall. But all projections
+shall be set three yards, not any less, above the
+street. If not so much, they shall be set within
+the wall, on pain of a fine of ten thousand
+<i>maravedis</i>, and five thousand <i>maravedis</i> to the
+mason and the carpenter that shall repair their
+fixing. Further, we order that all balconies and
+<i>rejas</i> now at a height of less than the aforesaid
+three yards be taken away within three days
+from the crying in public of these Ordinances.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>For this deplorable state of things a double
+influence was to blame; namely, the oriental
+narrowness of the street, and also the elaborate
+ornamentation, proceeding very largely from a
+northern Gothic and non-Spanish source, of these
+annoying yet impressive gratings. Some of them,
+sweeping the very soil, and boldly and fantastically
+curved, may yet be seen at Toro. Those of
+Granada are no more. Indeed, not only have the
+<i>rejas</i> of the Spanish private house long ceased<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+to show the decorative cunning of the craftsman,
+but even in their present unartistic form are
+largely limited to Andalusia. Yet even thus, they
+seem to guard a typical and national air, mixed
+with a subtle, semi-Mussulmanic poetry. Across
+them, while the term of courtship lasts, the lover
+whispers with his mistress, oblivious of the outer
+world, fixing his gaze within, until his sultaness
+emerges from the gloom, and holds his hand,
+and looks into his eyes, and listens to his vow.
+Therefore, in &ldquo;April's ivory moonlight,&rdquo; beneath
+the velvet skies of Andalusia, one always is well
+pleased to pass beside these children of romantic
+Spain, warming the frigid iron with the breath of
+youth, and hope, and happiness, and telling to
+each other a secret that is known unto us all&mdash;at
+once the sweetest and the saddest, the newest and
+the oldest story of all stories.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> A small collection, formed by Don Emilio Rotondo, of primitive
+iron rings, bracelets, brooches, and other ornaments, is preserved
+in the Schools of Aguirre at Madrid. Villa-amil y Castro (<i>Antigüedades
+prehistóricas y célticas</i>, and <i>Castros y Mamoas de Galicia</i>,
+published in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>), describes some
+iron objects of uncertain use discovered in Galicia, together with
+spear-heads and other weapons or pieces of weapons which will
+be noticed under <i>Arms</i>, and also an object which he says may
+once have been a candlestick, or else a kind of flute. All
+these are probably pre-Roman. Dating from the Roman period
+are an iron ploughshare and some sickles, discovered at Ronda
+in Andalusia, and now in the Madrid Museum. Góngora, however
+(<i>Antigüedades prehistóricas de Andalucía</i>), inclines to think
+that previous to the Roman conquest the occupants of Betica
+were ignorant of this metal, though not of gold, from which they
+fashioned diadems and other articles of wear. See also Caballero
+Infante, <i>Aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados en el pueblo
+de Santiponce</i>, Seville, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Riaño's reading was, &ldquo;<i>the King of the whole Earth will
+enter</i>.&rdquo; But is not this contradicted by the other inscription on
+the same key?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> <i>La Alhambra</i> (from which this sketch is taken) for September
+30th, 1901; article on the Palace of Seti Meriem, by F. de Paula
+Valladar.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <i>Ordenanzas de Granada</i>, p. 191.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Those of my readers who have visited Spain will probably
+have seen the inlaid iron-work of Eibar and Toledo. The objects
+chiefly manufactured in this style are brooches, bracelets, scarf
+and hat pins, photograph frames, jewel and trinket boxes, watches,
+and cigarette cases. The workmanship is often elaborate and
+costly, nor can it be denied that the red or greenish gold has an
+effective look against the jet-black surface of the polished or unpolished
+iron. Upon the other hand, the taste displayed in the
+design is seldom good; while in a climate with the slightest tendency
+to damp, the iron is apt to rust and tarnish, and the fine inlay to
+loosen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Serrano Fatigati, in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+Excursiones</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> For a detailed account of these pulpits see Villa-amil y Castro's
+article in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Payments made to &ldquo;Master Juan Francés&rdquo; are recorded by
+Zarco del Valle, <i>Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de las
+Bellas Artes en España</i>, pp. 320, 321.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <i>History of Architecture</i>, p. 303. They possess, too, the advantage,
+from their ponderous solidity and fixedness, that most of them
+are still extant and in the best of preservation, although Napoleon's
+Vandals rooted up the chapel <i>rejas</i> of the Church of Santo
+Domingo at Granada, and turned them into bullets; just as their
+general, Sebastiani, threw down the tower of San Jerónimo to
+make a trumpery bridge across the trickling stream of the Genil.
+Scores of thousands of such crimes, not to forget the blowing up of
+the gate and tower of the Siete Suelos, were perpetrated by the
+French all over Spain; yet Washington Irving, in a strangely
+infelicitous passage of his <i>Tales of the Alhambra</i>, congratulates the
+invaders for their reverential treatment of the noblest monuments
+of Spanish art!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> So, in Spain, does war appear to have been connected even with
+the peaceful <i>reja</i>. Similarly, in 1518, the contractors for the grille
+of the Chapel Royal of Granada were Juan Zagala and Juan de
+Cubillana, &ldquo;master-artillerymen to their highnesses.&rdquo; Valladar,
+<i>Guía de Granada</i>, 1st ed., p. 302, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> A quaint but somewhat tautological and prosy letter concerning
+matters of his craft, addressed by Francés to the cardinal-archbishop
+of Toledo, is published in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i>,
+article <i>Los Púlpitos de la Catedral de Avila</i>, by Villa-amil
+y Castro. The <i>reja</i> of the presbytery at Burgo de Osma is thus
+inscribed: &ldquo;<i>Izo esta obra maestre Joan Francés maestre mayor.</i>&rdquo;
+The top consists of repetitions of a shield containing five stars
+and supported by angels, lions, and gryphons. Two iron pulpits
+project from the lower part of the grille, and a swan of the same
+metal, with extended wings, rests upon either pulpit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> A Dominican friar, summoned to Seville in 1518, to make her
+cathedral <i>rejas</i>. He also made the pulpits of the high altar in 1531,
+and was working in this city as late as 1547. Account-sheets
+penned by his hand were still extant a century ago, and Cean
+conveys to us some knowledge of Fray Francisco, receiving
+as the wages of his labour, now a score or so of ducats, now a
+bushel or two of corn. The friar, whom the canons spoke of with
+affection for his many virtues, seems to have been a handy man,
+seeing that between his spells of <i>reja</i>-making he put the clock of
+the Giralda into trim, and built an alarum apparatus to rouse the
+cathedral bell-ringer at early morning.</p>
+
+<p>For the sums paid to Fray Francisco and to Sancho Muñoz for
+their work, see Gestoso, <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. ii.
+pp. 365 <i>et seq</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Consult his valuable studies, <i>Artistas exhumados</i>, published
+in various numbers of the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de
+Excursionistas</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Rosell y Torres; <i>La Reja de la Capilla del Condestable
+en la Catedral de Burgos</i>, published in the <i>Museo Español de
+Antigüedades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> He is called Domingo de Céspedes by Cean Bermudez, although,
+as Zarco del Valle remarks, the surname does not appear in any of
+the documents relating to this craftsman which are yet preserved in
+the archives of Toledo cathedral. These documents merely tell us
+that Domingo was his Christian name, that his own signature was
+<i>Maestre Domingo</i>, and that he and Fernando Bravo were required
+to find surety to the value of 375,000 <i>maravedis</i> for the faithful and
+expert performance of their work, which they were to complete
+within two years, receiving for it the sum of six thousand ducats.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Conde de Cedillo, <i>Toledo en el Siglo XVI</i>. Reply to the
+Count's address, by J. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> The painting of a <i>reja</i> was commonly executed by the &ldquo;image-painter&rdquo;
+(<i>pintor de imaginería</i>). As the term implies, it was this
+artist's business to gild or colour sacred furniture, such as altars,
+panels, images, and decorative doors and ceilings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Archives of Simancas. <i>Descargos de las R.C.</i>; <i>Legajo 23
+prov.</i> Valladar, <i>Guía de Granada</i> (1st ed.), p. 302, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> &ldquo;To Master Bartholomew, <i>rexero</i>, twenty gold ducats for the
+days he took in travelling from Jaen, and for those on which he was
+at work upon the <i>reja</i> of the high altar here in Seville.&rdquo; On March
+18th, 1524, the same craftsman was paid 13,125 <i>maravedis</i> for
+making the &ldquo;samples and other things belonging to the <i>reja</i> of the
+high altar.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Libro de Fábrica</i> of Seville Cathedral. Gestoso,
+<i>Sevilla Monumental y Artística</i>, and <i>Diccionario de Artífices
+Sevillanos</i>, vol. xi. p. 362.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Pedraza, <i>Historia de Granada</i> (1636), p. 40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> The yoke and sheaf of arrows were the emblems of these
+princes&mdash;the yoke, of Ferdinand; the arrows, of his queen. Shields
+of their reign, whether employed in architecture or on title-pages,
+almost invariably include these emblems and the well-known motto,
+<i>Tanto Monta</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Gómez Moreno, <i>Guía de Granada</i>, p. 291.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> <i>Hierro</i> means <i>iron</i>; <i>yerro</i>, a <i>fault, faux pas</i>. Thus glossed,
+the somewhat feeble pleasantry or pun is able to explain itself.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> These laws affecting balconies were not, or not as time went
+on, restricted to Granada. &ldquo;Nobody,&rdquo; prescribes the general
+Spanish code in force in 1628, &ldquo;shall make a balcony or oversailing
+part to fall upon the street, nor yet rebuild or repair any that shall
+fall.&rdquo;&mdash;Pradilla, <i>Suma de Todas las Leyes Penales, Canonicas,
+Civiles, y destos Reynos</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="BRONZES" id="BRONZES">BRONZES</a></h2>
+
+<p>The earliest objects of bronze discovered in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+country are comparatively few. As in other parts
+of Europe, they consist mostly of weapons, such as
+spear-heads and hatchets (which will be noticed
+under <i>Arms</i>), or bracelets, necklaces, and clasps or
+brooches. Earrings (<i>inaures</i>), brooches (<i>fibulæ</i>),
+and other objects of a similar purpose dating from
+the Roman period have been discovered in Galicia,
+while plates of the same alloy<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> which imitate a
+shell were used as personal ornaments by the
+men and women of the ancient Spanish tribes.</p>
+
+<p>The province of Palencia is a fertile field for
+archæological discovery. Here have been found
+some curious clasps, intended, it would seem, to
+represent the old Iberian mounted warrior, sometimes
+brandishing the typical Iberian lance. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+following is a sketch in outline of an object of
+this kind, fashioned as clumsily and crudely as the
+cheapest wooden plaything of our time:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_164.jpg" width="250" height="267"
+        alt="warrior"
+        title="warrior" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Two parts&mdash;the figure of the horseman, and a
+four-wheeled stand on which the warrior's steed
+is resolutely set&mdash;compose this comical antiquity.
+The rider's only article of clothing is a helmet;
+while the horse, without a saddle or a bridle, is
+completely nude. This toy, or table ornament,
+or whatever it may be, was found not far from
+Badajoz, where other prehistoric bronzes are
+preserved in the museum of the province;<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> and
+Mr E. S. Dodgson says that in possession of
+an Englishman at Comillas he has seen another
+bronze rider of primitive workmanship, with the
+head of a wild boar under his left arm. Those
+who are interested in the meaning of these early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+bronzes should consult an article, <i>El jinete ibérico</i>,
+by Señor Mélida, published in Nos. 90&ndash;92 of the
+<i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_165.jpg" width="359" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_165.jpg" id="img_165.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">&ldquo;MELEAGER'S HUNT&rdquo;<br />
+(<i>Primitive Spanish Bronze</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We know that the use of Roman lamps grew to
+be general in this land&mdash;a fact which justifies my
+noticing the specimens preserved in the museum
+of Madrid; and more particularly so because their
+shape and general character have been perpetuated
+through the Spanish Moors and Christians
+of the Middle Ages till this very moment.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman lamp, shaped somewhat like a boat
+by reason of the <i>rostrum</i> or beakish receptacle for
+the wick, consisted of an earthenware or metal
+vessel with a circular or oblong body and a handle,
+together with at least one hole for pouring in the
+oil. The commonest material was earthenware,
+and next to this, bronze. The lamp was either
+suspended by a chain or chains, or else was rested
+on a stand. Plato and Petronius tell us that the
+stand was borrowed from the rustic makeshift of
+a stick, or the stout stem of a plant, thrust into
+the ground. As time went on, the stem or stick
+in imitative metal-work was rendered more or less
+artistic and ornate. But there was more than
+a single kind of lampstand. The <i>lychnuchus</i>
+(&#955;&#965;&#967;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#967;&#959;&#962;), invented by the Greeks, held various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+lamps suspended from its branches, while, on
+the other hand, the Roman <i>candelabrum</i> supported
+but a solitary lamp upon the disc or platform
+at its top extremity.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> The island of Egina
+was famed for the production of these discs, and
+Pliny tells us that the decorated stem or <i>scapus</i>
+was chiefly manufactured at Tarentum.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman lampstands also varied in their
+height. When the stem was long they stood upon
+the ground&mdash;a fashion we have seen revived in
+recent years, and even where electricity replaces
+oil. When, on the contrary, the stem was short,
+the stand was known as a <i>candelabrum humile</i>,
+and rested on a table or a stool.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_166.jpg" width="350" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_166.jpg" id="img_166.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">A <i>CANDIL</i><br />
+(<i>Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Madrid Museum contains a remarkable
+bronze lamp in the form of an ass's head adorned
+with flowers and with ivy. The ass is holding in
+its mouth the <i>rostrum</i> for the wick. The hole for
+the oil is shaped like a flower with eleven petals,
+under one of which is the monogram M&#8224;R. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+back of this lamp consists of an uncouth human
+male figure, in a reclining posture, wearing a
+Phrygian cap and holding the ass's head between
+his legs.</p>
+
+<p>Other lamps of bronze, including several of an
+interesting character, are in the same collection.
+One of these represents a sea-deity; another has
+its handle shaped like a horse's head and neck;
+and in a third the orifice for the oil is heart-shaped,
+while the handle terminates in the head of a swan.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a series of three pensile lamps&mdash;two
+in the likeness of the head and neck of a
+griffin, and the third in that of a theatrical mask;
+as well as a candelabrum fourteen inches high,
+terminating beneath in three legs with lions' claws
+(foreshadowing or repeating oriental motives), and
+above in a two-handled vessel on which to place
+the lamp. This vessel supports at present a fine
+<i>lucerna</i> in the form of a peacock.</p>
+
+<p>Probably no people in the world have kept
+extant, or rather, kept alive, their oldest forms of
+pottery or instruments for giving light more steadfastly
+or more solicitously than the Spaniards.
+Their iron <i>candil</i><a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> and brass <i>velón</i> of nowadays<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+(Pls. <a href="#img_166.jpg">xxviii</a>. and <a href="#img_168.jpg">xxix</a>.)&mdash;the one of these the primitive
+lamp that hangs; the other, the primitive
+lamp that rests upon a table or the ground&mdash;are
+borrowed with but a minimum of alteration from
+the lighting apparatus of the ancient Greeks and
+Romans, and possess, for all their coarse and
+cheap and unpretentious workmanship, a subtle
+interest and elegance attributable only to the
+inspiration of antiquity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_168.jpg" width="281" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_168.jpg" id="img_168.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">A <i>VELÓN</i><br />
+(<i>Modern</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>More than the shape of these old objects seems
+to have passed to modern Spain&mdash;if any phase
+at all of Spanish life can ever justly be accounted
+modern. The ancients had an almost superstitious
+reverence for a lighted lamp, and were
+accustomed to declare that &ldquo;<i>lucerna, cum extinguitur,
+vocem emittit, quasi necata</i>&rdquo;; &ldquo;a lamp,
+on being put out, utters a sound as though it were
+being murdered.&rdquo; Now, it may be a coincidence&mdash;although
+I cannot but regard it as distinctly
+more than a coincidence&mdash;that even at this day<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+a large proportion of the Andalusian people are
+markedly averse to blowing out a kindled match;
+nor do they think it of good augury to be in a
+room where three lights&mdash;candles, matches, or
+whatever they may be&mdash;are simultaneously aflame.
+I have noticed, too, that, whether from utter carelessness
+or whether from ancestral superstition
+handed down from Rome, one rarely sees upon
+the staircase or the doorstep of a Spanish public
+building a vesta that has been (if I may be
+allowed the term) extinguished <i>artificially</i>.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Madrid Museum are several military
+bronze <i>signa</i> which were found in Spain and date
+from the Roman era, as well as a <i>vexillum</i>, or one
+of the T-shaped frames on which the warriors of
+that people used to hang their standards. One of
+these <i>signa</i> is in the form of a wild boar; another
+in that of a saddled and bridled horse. Beneath
+this latter is the word VIVA and a cross, which
+shows that the object dates from a period not
+earlier than the reign of Constantine.</p>
+
+<p>It is strange&mdash;or rather, would be strange in any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+country that had been less constantly afflicted
+both with civil and external warfare&mdash;that hardly
+anything remains of all the bronze artistic objects
+manufactured by the Spanish Moors. Poets of
+this race have sung of gold and silver fountains,
+door-knockers, and statues that adorned the buildings
+of Cordova. In many of these instances the
+hyperbolic gold and silver of the writers would
+undoubtedly be bronze. Al-Makkari quotes an
+Arab poet who extols in passionate terms
+Almanzor's dazzling mansion of Az-zahyra.
+&ldquo;Lions of metal,&rdquo; sang this poet, &ldquo;bite the
+knockers of thy doors, and as those doors resound
+appear to be exclaiming <i>Allahu akbar</i>&rdquo; (&ldquo;God is
+great&rdquo;). Another bard describes the fountains
+of the same enchanted palace. &ldquo;The lions who
+repose majestically in this home of princes, instead
+of roaring, allow the waters to fall in murmuring
+music from their mouths. <i>Their bodies seem to be
+covered with gold</i>, and in their mouths crystal is
+made liquid.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Though in reality these lions are at rest, they
+seem to move and, when provoked, to grow
+enraged. One would imagine that they remembered
+their carnage of past days, and bellowing
+turned once more to the attack.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_171.jpg" width="500" height="373"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_171.jpg" id="img_171.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">BRONZE LION<br />
+(<i>Found in the Province of Palencia</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;When the sun is reflected from their <i>bronze</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+surface, they seem to be of fire, with tongues of
+flame that issue from their mouths.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Nevertheless, when we observe them to be
+vomiting water, one would think this water to be
+swords which melt without the help of fire, and
+are confounded with the crystal of the fountain.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Figures in bronze, of eagles, peacocks, swans,
+stags, dragons, lions, and many other creatures
+were set about in garden and in hall, to decorate
+these splendid palaces of ancient Cordova.</p>
+
+<p>A specimen of this class of objects is a bronze
+lion of small dimensions (Plate <a href="#img_173.jpg">xxx</a>.) found not
+many years ago in the province of Palencia, and
+believed to date from the reign of Al-Hakem the
+Second of Cordova. It belonged for some time
+to the painter Fortuny&mdash;a diligent and lucky
+hunter of antiquities,&mdash;and was subsequently purchased
+in 1875 by M. Piot. The modelling and
+decoration of this beast, especially the mannered
+and symmetrical curls which are supposed to form
+its mane, are quite conventional and strongly reminiscent
+of Assyrian art, such as pervades the
+various lions rudely wrought in stone and still
+existing at Granada; whether the celebrated
+dozen that support and guard the fountain in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+the courtyard of the Moorish palace,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> or else the
+greater pair of grinning brutes proceeding from
+the ruins of the palace of Azaque (miscalled the
+Moorish Mint), which may be noticed squatting
+with their rumps towards the road, beside the
+garden entrance to the Carmen de la Mezquita.</p>
+
+<p>This little bronze lion measures about twelve
+inches high by fourteen inches long. The legs
+and part of the body are covered with a pattern
+representing flowers. The mane is described by
+comma-shaped marks. The tail, bent not ungracefully
+along the animal's back, is decorated
+with a kind of plait through nearly all its length.
+The eyes are now two cavities, but seem in other
+days to have contained two coloured stones or
+gems. Upon the back and flanks is a Cufic
+inscription which says, &ldquo;<i>Perfect blessing. Complete
+happiness.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mussulman historians have described, in terms
+of cloying praise, the &ldquo;red gold animals contrived
+with subtle skill and spread with precious stones&rdquo;
+which Abderrahman placed at Cordova upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+fountains of his palaces. &ldquo;Rivers of water
+issued from the mouth of every animal, and
+fell into a jasper basin.&rdquo; The words &ldquo;red gold&rdquo;
+are patently an oriental term for bronze. In
+view of this, and of the fact that the lion of
+Palencia is hollow-bellied, with his mouth wide
+open for ejecting water, and with a tail of cunning
+craftsmanship, which would avail, on being
+rotated, to produce or check the current of the
+&ldquo;liquid crystal,&rdquo; we may conclude that it was
+intended both to form a part of, and to decorate
+a Moorish fountain of old days, and is the kind
+of beast &ldquo;with precious stones for eyes&rdquo; so
+often and so ecstatically lauded by the Muslim
+writers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_173.jpg" width="389" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_173.jpg" id="img_173.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">BRONZE STAG<br />
+(<i>Moorish. Museum of Cordova.</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Similar to the foregoing object, and dating from
+about the same period, is a small bronze stag
+(Pl. <a href="#img_173.jpg">xxxi</a>.) in the provincial museum of Cordova. It
+is believed to proceed originally from the famous
+palace (tenth century) of Az-zahra, and used to be
+kept, some centuries ago, in the convent of San
+Jerónimo de Valparaiso.</p>
+
+<p>The museum of Granada contains some interesting
+Moorish bronzes, found on the site of the
+ancient city of Illiberis, abandoned by its occupants
+on their removal to Granada at the beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+of the eleventh century. The most remarkable
+of these discoveries are pieces of a fountain, a
+small temple (Plate <a href="#img_174.jpg">xxxii</a>.), an <i>almirez</i> or mortar
+(Plate <a href="#img_176.jpg">xxxiii</a>.), similar to one (not mentioned by
+Riaño) which was discovered at Monzón, and a
+few lamps. The fragments of a fountain end in
+the characteristic Assyrian-looking lions' heads,
+with lines in regular zones to represent the eyes
+and other features. One of the lamps (Pl. <a href="#img_176.jpg">xxxiii</a>.)
+is far superior to the rest. Notwithstanding
+Riaño's assertion that all of these antiquities are
+&ldquo;incomplete and mutilated,&rdquo; this lamp is well
+preserved, and still retains, secured by a chain,
+the little metal trimming-piece or <i>emunctorium</i>
+of the Romans. The small bronze temple is
+sometimes thought (but this hypothesis seems
+rather fanciful) to be a case, or part of a case,
+designed for keeping jewellery. The height of it
+is two-and-twenty inches, and the form hexagonal,
+&ldquo;with twelve small columns supporting bands of
+open work, frescoes, cupola, and turrets; in the
+angles are birds&rdquo; (Riaño).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_174.jpg" width="324" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_174.jpg" id="img_174.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">BRONZE TEMPLE<br />
+(<i>Moorish. Museum of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most important object in this substance
+now extant in any part of Spain is probably the
+huge and finely decorated lamp of Mohammed the
+Third of Granada (Pl. <a href="#img_179.jpg">xxxiv</a>.), called sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+&ldquo;the lamp of Oran,&rdquo; from a mistaken belief that
+it had formed part of the booty yielded by this
+city after her capture in 1509 by Cardinal Jimenez
+de Cisneros.</p>
+
+<p>The material of this lamp is bronze, possibly
+provided by the bells of Christian churches taken
+and pillaged by the Moors. It has four parts or
+tiers of varying shape, delicately wrought in open-work,
+and reaching a height of nearly seven feet in
+all. The third and largest tier, corresponding to
+the shade, is in the form of a truncated pyramid,
+and shows a different design on each of its four
+sides. The lamp bears several inscriptions, interrupted
+here and there through breakage of the
+metal. The longest of these legends is interpreted
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the name of God the Merciful. (May) the
+blessing of God be on our lord Mohammed and his
+kin; health and peace. (This lamp) was ordered
+(to be made) by our Lord the egregious sultan,
+the favoured, the victorious, the just, the happy,
+the conqueror of cities, and the extreme boundary
+of just conduct among the servants (of God); the
+emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah, son of our
+lord the emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah,
+son of our lord Al-Galib-Billah, the conqueror<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+through God's protection, the emir of the Mussulmans
+Abu-Abdillah; (may) God aid him (praised
+be God).&rdquo; Here is a breakage and a corresponding
+gap in the inscription, which continues, &ldquo;beneath
+it, lighted by my light for its magnificence
+and the care of its <i>xeque</i>, with righteous purpose
+and unerring certainty. And this was in the
+month of Rabié the first blessed, in the year 705.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>
+May (God) be praised.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The history of this lamp has been explored with
+scholarly care by Rodrigo Amador de los Ríos,
+whose monograph will be found in the <i>Museo
+Español de Antigüedades</i>. He says that the lamp
+was formerly suspended from the ceiling of the
+chapel of San Ildefonso in the university of Alcalá
+de Henares. Here, too, he has discovered entries
+which relate to it in two separate inventories, dated
+1526 and 1531, from which we gather that the
+lamp, excepting the lowest part or tier, which
+probably proceeded from Oran, was brought to
+Alcalá by Cardinal Cisneros from the mosque of
+the Alhambra of Granada.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_176.jpg" width="500" height="333"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_176.jpg" id="img_176.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH LAMP AND MORTAR<br />
+(<i>Moorish. Museum of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>All of the lamp (continues Amador) that
+properly belongs to it, is the open-work shade,
+together with the graduated set of spheres which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+we now observe on top.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> The lowest part is
+clearly an inverted bell, from which project four
+decorative pieces. This is believed by Amador
+to be a Spanish bell, dating from the fifteenth
+century, designed for striking with a hammer,
+and proceeding from some monastery or convent
+plundered by the Moors. Indeed, one of the two
+inventories discovered at Alcalá mentions &ldquo;a bell
+with a hole in it, <i>which used to belong to a Moorish
+lamp</i>,&rdquo; thus countenancing the widespread supposition
+that the lamps of the mosque of Cordova
+were made of the Christian bells of Compostela,
+which the fierce Almanzor caused to be conveyed
+upon the aching backs of Christian captives to the
+Moorish court and capital of Andalusia.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable, therefore, that the lamp of the
+third Mohammed of Granada is now composed
+of two lamps, and that the primitive arrangement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+of its parts was altered by the ignorant. Eight
+chains would formerly suspend it, in the following
+order of its tiers or stages, from the dome of the
+<i>mezquita</i>. First and uppermost would come the
+shade; then, next to this, the set of tapering
+spheres; and, last and lowest, the saucer or <i>platillo</i>,
+which has disappeared. Further, and as Koranic
+law prescribed, the lamp would hold two lights&mdash;one
+to be kindled on the saucer, and the other
+underneath the shade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_178.jpg" width="400" height="195"
+        alt="lamp"
+        title="lamp" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Other articles of Spanish-Moorish ornamented
+bronze are thimbles, buckets, and the spherical
+perfume-burners which were used to roll upon
+the stone or marble pavement of a dwelling.
+Moorish thimbles, conical and uncouthly large,
+are not uncommonly met with at Granada. I
+have one, of which the above is an outline
+sketched to size.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes these Moorish thimbles are inscribed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+in Cufic lettering with phrases such as&mdash;&ldquo;(May)
+the blessing of God and every kind of happiness
+(be destined for the owner of this thimble)&rdquo;; or
+else the maker's name&mdash;&ldquo;The work of Saif&rdquo;; or
+a single word&mdash;&ldquo;Blessing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_179.jpg" width="350" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_179.jpg" id="img_179.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">LAMP OF MOHAMMED THE THIRD<br />
+(<i>Madrid Museum</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The thimbles from which I quote these legends
+are in the National Museum. The same collection
+includes a very finely wrought bronze bucket or
+<i>acetre</i> (Latin <i>situlus</i>; Arabic <i>as-setl</i>, the utensil
+for drawing water for a bath). The outside is
+covered with delicate ornamentation, varied with
+inscriptions of no great interest, invoking Allah's
+blessing on the owner or employer of the bucket,
+which is thought by Amador to be of Granadino
+workmanship, and to date from about the middle
+of the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Not many specimens remain of early mediæval
+Spanish bronzes wrought by Christian hands.
+Riaño, who admits that &ldquo;we can hardly trace
+any bronze of this period other than cathedral
+bells,&rdquo; mentions as probably proceeding from
+abroad the altar-fronts and statuettes, in gilt
+enamelled bronze, of Salamanca and elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>
+and gives a short description of the bell, about
+six inches high (Pl. <a href="#img_180.jpg">xxxv</a>.), known as the Abbot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+Samson's, now in Cordova Museum. This object
+bears an early date (875 A.D.), and is inscribed,
+&ldquo;<i>Offert hoc munus Samson abbatis in domum Sancti
+Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era</i> D.C.C.C.C.XIII.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is curious that Riaño should make no mention
+of Spanish bronze processional crosses. In my
+chapter on gold, silver, and jewel work I mentioned
+those belonging to churches in the north of Spain.
+A bronze crucifix (Plate <a href="#img_182.jpg">xxxvi</a>.), believed to date
+from the beginning of the twelfth century, and
+proceeding from the monastery of Arbós, in the
+province of León, is now in the possession of Don
+Felix Granda Builla. It is undoubtedly of
+Spanish make, and probably was carried in processions.
+The style is pure Romanic, and the
+drawing of the ribs, extremities, and limbs is
+typically primitive. The <i>sudarium</i> is secured by
+the belt or <i>parazonium</i>. The feet, unpierced, rest
+on a <i>supedaneum</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_180.jpg" width="349" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_180.jpg" id="img_180.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">ABBOT SAMSON'S BELL<br />
+(<i>9th Century. Museum of Cordova</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A bronze Renaissance parish cross of the
+sixteenth century, once hidden in a village of
+Asturias, was bought some thirty years ago by
+the museum of Madrid. The body of the cross
+is wood, covered on both sides with bronze plates
+wrought with figures of the Saviour as the holy
+infant and as full-grown man, and also with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+figure of the Virgin. These figures were formerly
+painted, and traces of the colour yet remain. The
+cross was also silvered. The rest of the ornamentation
+consists of vases, flowers, and other subjects
+proper to Renaissance art.</p>
+
+<p>A similar cross belongs to the parish church of
+San Julian de Recaré, in the province of Lugo,
+while San Pedro de Donas, near Santiago in
+Galicia, possesses a processional cross of bronze,
+pierced along the edges in a pattern of trefoils
+and <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>, but otherwise undecorated.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes in Spanish bronze we find the
+handiwork of Moors and Christians picturesquely
+intermingled, as in the gates of Toledo cathedral
+(1337), and the Puertas del Perdón&mdash;forming the
+principal entrance to the Court of Orange Trees&mdash;of
+the mosque of Cordova, made of wood and
+covered with bronze plating decorated with
+irregular hexagons and Gothic and Arabic inscriptions.
+The knockers contain a scroll and
+flowers, and on the scroll the words, <i>Benedictus
+Dominus Deus Israel</i>. The gate of the same
+name of Seville cathedral (Pl. <a href="#img_184.jpg">xxxvii</a>.) is similar
+in workmanship, and is considered by Riaño to
+be a good example of Moresque bronze-work.</p>
+
+<p>While speaking of these doors, we should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+remember that Moorish craftsmen were employed
+to decorate or to repair the mosque of Cordova
+long after it had been converted to the worship
+of the Christians. When he was acting as viceroy
+in the year 1275, the Infante Don Fernando
+confirmed a letter of his father, King Alfonso,
+remitting tolls and taxes that would otherwise be
+leviable upon four Moors who worked in the
+cathedral. The Infante's confirmation, after recording
+that &ldquo;one (of the four Moors) is dead and
+the other blind, in such wise that he can work no
+more,&rdquo; consents to the engagement of another two,
+Famet and Zahec by name, to fill their places,
+and who also are hereby exempted from the
+payment of all dues. Five years afterwards this
+privilege was reconfirmed by King Alfonso, and
+we are further told on this occasion that two of
+the Moorish four were <i>albañís</i>, or masons, and the
+others <i>añaiares</i>, or carpenters. As time progressed,
+the situation of the vanquished and humiliated
+Mussulmans grew more irksome. On October
+25th, 1320, the Infante Don Sancho, who had
+usurped the throne, proclaimed, in ratification of a
+letter issued by his father, that all the Moorish
+carpenters, masons, sawyers, and other workmen
+and artificers of Cordova must work in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+cathedral (presumably without a wage) for two
+days in every year.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_182.jpg" width="342" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_182.jpg" id="img_182.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">BRONZE CRUCIFIX<br />
+(<i>12th Century</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the latter half of the sixteenth century,
+Bartolomé Morel, a Sevillano, produced some
+notable work in bronze.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Three objects by his
+hand&mdash;namely, the choir lectern and the tenebrarium
+of Seville cathedral, and the weathercock
+or <i>Giraldillo</i> which crowns the celebrated tower of
+the same enormous temple&mdash;are specially distinguished
+for their vigour and effectiveness.</p>
+
+<p>The least important of these objects is the
+choir lectern, for which Morel was paid six
+hundred ducats. The decoration is of statuettes
+and <i>rilievi</i>, well designed and better executed.
+The tenebrarium, aptly defined by Amador as
+&ldquo;an article of church furniture intended to make
+a show of light,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> is more ambitious and original.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+&ldquo;It was designed and made by Morel in the year
+1562. Juan Giralte, a native of Flanders, and Juan
+Bautista Vazquez helped him to make the statues
+at the head of this candelabrum, and Pedro
+Delgado, another noted sculptor of Seville, worked
+at the foot of it. It is eight and a half yards high,
+and the triangular head is three yards across.
+Upon this upper part are fifteen statues, representing
+the Saviour, the apostles, and two other
+disciples or evangelists. In the vacant space of
+the triangle is a circle adorned with leaves, and in
+the centre of this circle is a bust of the Virgin in
+relief, and, lower down, the figure of a king. All
+of this part is of bronzed wood, and rests upon
+four small bronze columns. The remainder of the
+candelabrum is all of this material, and the small
+columns are supported by four caryatides, resting
+upon an order of noble design decorated with lions'
+heads, scrolls, pendants, and other ornamentation,
+the whole resting upon a graceful border enriched
+with harpies.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_184.jpg" width="366" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_184.jpg" id="img_184.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE <i>PUERTA DEL PERDÓN</i><br />
+(<i>Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This description of the Seville tenebrarium is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+translated from Cean Bermudez, and is the one
+most commonly quoted, though Amador complains
+that it is not precise, and fails to dwell upon the
+symbolism of this mighty mass of bronze.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Thus,
+what Cean affirms to be the bust of a king is
+declared by Amador to be the head of a pope,
+probably Saint Gregory the Great. Metal, as
+Cean remarks, is not employed throughout. In
+order to preserve its balance, the upper part of the
+tenebrarium, containing the triangle which is said
+by some to symbolize &ldquo;the divinity of Jesus as
+God the triple and the one,&rdquo; is merely wood
+bronzed over. Amador adds that the foot and
+stem are intended to represent &ldquo;the people of
+Israel in their perfidy and ingratitude.&rdquo; He also
+says that the statue in the centre of the triangle is
+that of Faith, and that which crowns the entire
+tenebrarium, of the Virgin Mary.</p>
+
+<p>Morel, like Brunelleschi, was an architect as
+well as a craftsman in bronze.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> He completed
+this tenebrarium in 1562, and the chapter of
+the cathedral were so contented with it that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+instead of paying him the stipulated price, namely,
+eight hundred ducats, they added of their own
+accord a further two hundred and fifty. They
+also commissioned him to make a handsome case
+to keep it in; but the case has disappeared, and
+the naked tenebrarium now stands in the Sacristy
+of Chalices of the cathedral.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> It is still used
+at the Matin service during the last three days
+of Holy Week, and still, in the <i>Oficio de
+Tinieblas</i>, the custom is observed of extinguishing
+the fifteen tapers, one by one, at the conclusion
+of each psalm.</p>
+
+<p>The title of the object which surmounts the
+famed Giralda tower of Seville is properly &ldquo;the
+Statue of Faith, the triumph of the Church&rdquo; (Pl. <a href="#img_186.jpg">xxxviii</a>.);
+but it is known in common language
+as the Giraldillo (weathercock), which name has
+passed into the word Giralda, now applied to all
+the tower. The populace of Seville also call it,
+in the <i>argot</i> of their cheerful town, the <i>muñeco</i>
+or &ldquo;doll,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Victory,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Santa Juana.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_186.jpg" width="310" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_186.jpg" id="img_186.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE WEATHERCOCK OF THE GIRALDA TOWER<br />
+(<i>16th Century. Seville Cathedral</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This statue, made of hollow bronze, rotates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+upon an iron rod piercing the great bronze globe
+which lies immediately beneath the figure's feet.
+The globe is nearly six feet in diameter. The
+figure itself represents a Roman matron wearing
+a flowing tunic partly covering her legs and arms.
+Sandals are secured to her feet by straps.
+Upon her head she wears a Roman helmet
+crested by a triple plume. In her right hand
+she holds the semicircular Roman standard
+of the time of Constantine, which points the
+direction of the wind and causes the figure to
+revolve, excepting when the air is very faint, in
+which case it is caught by two diminutive banners
+springing from the large one.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> So huge are the
+proportions of this metal lady that the medal
+on her breast contains a life-size head which
+represents an angel.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish Moors were also well acquainted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+with the use of weathercocks. During the reign,
+in the eleventh century, of the Zirite kingling
+of Granada, Badis ben Habbus, a weathercock
+of strange design surmounted his <i>alcázar</i>. The
+historian Marmol wrote in the sixteenth century
+that it was still existing on a little tower, and
+consisted of a horseman in Moorish dress, with
+a long lance and his shield upon his arm, the
+whole of bronze, with an inscription on the shield
+which says: &ldquo;Badis ben Habbus declares that in
+this attitude should the Andalusian be discovered
+(at his post).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Not many other objects in this substance can
+be instanced as the work of Spanish craftsmen of
+the sixteenth and succeeding centuries, or of the
+later-Gothic age immediately preceding. Among
+them are the pulpits of Santiago cathedral, made
+by Celma, an Aragonese, in 1563; the choir-screen
+(1574&ndash;1579) in the cathedral of Zaragoza,
+made by Juan Tomás Cela, also a native of
+Aragon; the gilt lecterns of Toledo cathedral,
+which are the work of Nicolás Vergara and his
+son; the Gothic lectern of the mosque of Cordova;
+the choir-lectern (1557) of Cuenca, made by Hernando
+de Arenas, who will also be remembered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+as having made the <i>reja</i> of the same cathedral;
+and the octagonal gilt-bronze pulpits of Toledo,
+wrought by Francisco de Villalpando, as are the
+bas-reliefs (1564) upon the door of Lions, executed
+by the same craftsman from designs by
+Berruguete.</p>
+
+<p>These last-named pulpits are associated with a
+legend. Within this temple, once upon a time,
+rested the metal sepulchre of the great Don
+Alvaro de Luna, so constructed by his orders that
+upon the touching of a secret spring the statue of
+the Constable himself would rise into a kneeling
+posture throughout the celebration of the mass.
+His lifelong and relentless foe, the Infante Enrique
+of Aragon, tore up the tomb in 1449; and from
+its fragments, superstition says, were made these
+pulpits.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish Renaissance door-knockers in bronze
+are often curious. Fifteen large bronze rings
+adorned with garlands, heads of lions and of
+eagles, or with the pair of columns and the motto
+<span class="smcap">PLUS OULTRE</span> of Charles the Fifth, were formerly
+upon the pilasters of the roofless, semi-ruined
+palace of that emperor at Granada. Removed
+elsewhere for greater safety,<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> they will now be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+found among the couple of dozen curiosities
+preserved in a chamber of the Moorish royal
+residence of the Alhambra.</p>
+
+<p>Herewith I end my sketch of Spanish bronzes,
+without delaying to describe the tasteless <i>transparente</i>
+behind the altar of Toledo cathedral, or
+the neo-classic, Frenchified productions of the
+reign of Charles the Third, such as the table-mountings
+of the Buen Retiro, or trifles from
+the silver factory of Antonio Martinez. At the
+Escorial, the shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa
+Forma and the altar-front of the pantheon of the
+kings of Spain, wrought by Fray Eugenio de la
+Cruz, Fray Juan de la Concepción, and Fray
+Marcos de Perpignan, are meritorious objects of
+their time. But the history of Spanish bronzes
+properly ends with the Renaissance. This material,
+possibly from its cost, has not at any time been
+greatly popular in Spain. Wood, plain or painted,
+was preferred to bronze in nearly all her statuary.
+Her mediæval and Renaissance <i>reja</i> and <i>custodia</i>
+makers can challenge all the world. So can her<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+potters, armourers, leather-workers, and wood-carvers.
+But if we look for masterpieces in the
+art of shaping bronze, our eyes must turn to Italy,
+where, to astonish modern men, the powers of a
+Donatello or Ghiberti vibrate across all ages in
+the bas-reliefs of Saint Anthony at Padua, or in
+the gates of the Baptistery of Florence.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Le Hon reminds us, in <i>L'homme fossile</i>, that before the Iron
+Age all bronzes of our western world contained one part of tin to
+nine of copper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> See Romero de Castilla, <i>Inventarios de los objetos recogidos en
+el Museo Arqueológico de la Comisión de Monumentos de Badajoz</i>.
+Badajoz, 1896. Plate xxvii. represents another of these objects.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Undoubtedly the use of the Roman <i>candelabrum</i> was continued
+by the Spanish Visigoths. &ldquo;<i>Candelabrum</i>,&rdquo; says Saint Isidore,
+&ldquo;<i>a candelis dictum, quasi candela feram, quod candelam ferat</i>&rdquo;
+(<i>Originum</i>, book xx., chap. x.). The Spanish word <i>candela</i> is
+loosely used to-day for almost any kind of light or fire, or even for
+a match; but an ordinary candle is generally called a <i>vela</i> or
+<i>bugía</i> (<i>bougie</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> &ldquo;A small open lamp with a beak, and a hook to hang it, within
+which is another of the same make that contains oil and a wick to
+give light, commonly used in kitchens, stables, and inns.&rdquo;&mdash;Fathers
+Connelly and Higgins, <i>Spanish-English and English-Spanish
+Dictionary</i>. Swinburne wrote of these <i>candiles</i>:&mdash;&ldquo;The Spaniards
+delight in wine that tastes strong of the pitched skin, and of oil that
+has a rank smell and taste; indeed, the same oil feeds their lamp,
+swims in their pottage, and dresses their salad; in inns the lighted
+lamp is frequently handed down to the table, that each man may
+take the quantity he chooses.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Perhaps it is not foreign to my theme to add that the current
+name in Spanish for an oil lamp is <i>quinqué</i>, from Quinquet, the
+Parisian chemist who invented the <i>tuyau-cheminée</i> a hundred and
+odd years ago. The same word passes also into Spanish slang,
+&ldquo;<i>tener quinqué</i>&rdquo;&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> to be quick-witted and perceptive.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Swinburne fell into a comical error concerning these. &ldquo;In the
+centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions <i>muzzled</i>, their fore-parts
+smooth, their hind-parts rough, which bear upon their backs an
+enormous bason, out of which a lesser rises.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Travels through
+Spain</i>, p. 180.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> September 20th to October 19th, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1305.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> These spheres recall the four great gilded globes of bronze,
+tapering from the bottom to the top, that crowned in olden days the
+Giralda tower of Seville. According to the <i>Crónica General</i> the
+glitter of these globes &ldquo;de tan grande obra, é tan grandes, que no
+se podríen hacer otras tales,&rdquo; could be distinguished at a distance
+of eight leagues. On August 24th, 1395, when Seville was assailed
+by a frightful tempest accompanied by an earthquake, the metal rod
+which pierced and held the globes was snapped, and the globes
+themselves were dashed into a myriad pieces on the <i>azotea</i>, scores
+of yards below.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> See p. 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Libro de las Tablas</i>, pp. 17, 18. See Madrazo, <i>Cordova</i>, pp. 273
+<i>et seq</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> In documents which relate to him (see Gestoso's <i>Dictionary of
+Sevillian Artificers</i>) Morel is often called an <i>artillero</i>. His father,
+Juan Morel, was also a founder of cannon, and signed a contract in
+1564 to cast two bronze pieces or <i>tiros</i>, with the royal arms on them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> The efficacy of light in illuminating, or may be in dazzling and
+confounding, Christian worshippers is too self-evident to call for
+illustration. The symbolic meaning of church candles is, however,
+neatly indicated by the wise Alfonso in his compilation of the seven
+<i>Partidas</i>. &ldquo;Because three virtues dwell in candles, namely, wick,
+wax, and flame, so do we understand that persons three dwell in the
+Trinity&mdash;Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; and we may understand
+three other things that dwell in Jesus Christ; to wit, body, soul, and
+godhead. Hence the twelve lighted candles manifested to each
+quarter of the church exhibit unto us the twelve apostles who
+preached the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ through all the earth,
+and manifesting truest wisdom illumined all the world.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> The English rendering of Cean's description inserted by Riaño
+is inaccurate throughout.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> As architect, he made a monument (which exists no longer) for
+the festivals of Holy Week at Seville.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> In 1565 Juan del Pozo, an ironsmith, received one hundred
+<i>reales</i> &ldquo;on account of an engine which he made of iron for moving
+the tenebrarium of the cathedral, and other heavy things.&rdquo;&mdash;Gestoso,
+<i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>, vol. i. p. 313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> The statue, which looks so tiny from the street, measures nearly
+fourteen feet in height, and weighs more than two thousand two
+hundred pounds. The banner alone weighs close upon four
+hundred pounds. The figure was raised into its place in 1568, in
+which year I find that eighteen Moriscos were paid seventy-eight
+<i>reales</i> between them all for doing the work of carriage (Gestoso,
+<i>Diccionario</i>). Gestoso also mentions a large bronze plate made by
+Morel for the pavement of the cathedral, and which has disappeared.
+It weighed 2269 pounds, or about the same as the weathercock of
+the Giralda, and Morel was paid for it the sum of 289,361
+<i>maravedis</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Spaniards have a very scanty confidence in one another's
+honesty, as well as in the competence of their police. Often, at
+Madrid, and at this day, the porter of a house, as soon as it is dark,
+unscrews the knockers from the downstairs door, and guards them
+in his <i>conciergerie</i> until the morning.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr95" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="ARMS" id="ARMS">ARMS</a></h2>
+
+<p>Lovers of the old-time crafts approach a fertile<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+field in Spanish arms; for truly with this warworn
+land the sword and spear, obstinately
+substituted for the plough, seem to have grown
+well-nigh into her regular implements of daily
+bread-winning; and from long before the age of
+written chronicle her soil was planted with innumerable
+weapons of her wrangling tribesmen.</p>
+
+<p>The history of these ancient Spanish tribes is
+both obscure and complicated. If Pliny, Strabo,
+Ptolemy, and other authors may be credited, the
+Celtic race invaded the Peninsula some seven
+centuries before the Christian era, crossing the
+river Ebro, founding settlements, and fusing with
+the natives into the composite people known
+henceforward as the Celtiberians. Thus strengthened,
+they extended over nearly all the land, and
+occupied, by a dominative or assimilative policy,
+the regions corresponding to the modern Andalusia,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+Portugal, Galicia, and the flat and central
+elevations of Castile.</p>
+
+<p>These Spanish tribes were ever quarrelling,
+and knew, in Strabo's words, &ldquo;no entertainment
+save in horsemanship and in the exercise of arms.&rdquo;
+Quantities of their weapons have been found all
+over Spain, such as the heads of spears and
+arrows, or the blades of daggers, hatchets, knives,
+and swords. With these Iberian tribesmen, as
+with other peoples of the ancient world, the truly
+prehistoric age is that of stone; hence they
+advanced to bronze, and finally to iron. Beuter,
+the historian of Valencia, wrote in 1534 that near
+to the town of Cariñena, in Aragon, on digging
+out some earthen mounds the excavators came
+upon enormous bones, flint lance and arrow heads,
+and knives the size of half an ordinary sword;
+all these in company with &ldquo;many skulls transfixed
+by the said stones.&rdquo; In the collection at Madrid,
+formed by Don Emilio Rotondo y Nicolau, these
+primitive Spanish weapons number several
+thousands; and many more are in the National
+Museum.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>Discoveries of ancient Spanish arms of bronze<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+occur less often and in smaller quantities than
+those of stone or iron. Bronze hatchets, principally
+of the straight-edged class (<i>à bords droites</i>)
+have been found in Galicia and certain other
+provinces. Villa-amil y Castro describes a bronze
+dagger of curious workmanship, which was found
+in Galicia in 1869. The point of the blade is
+missing. If this were included, the length of the
+weapon would be about six inches.</p>
+
+<p>Other examples, now in the Madrid Museum,
+include two swords, two daggers, and two arrowheads.
+The swords, sharp-pointed, narrow in the
+blade, and used by preference for thrusting, were
+found not far from Calatayud&mdash;the ancient town
+renowned, as Roman Bilbilis, for weapons of incomparable
+temper. The daggers were probably
+used for fighting hand to hand.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the Roman invasion we find, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+course, the Spaniards using iron weapons. I
+shall not tax the patience of my readers by
+enumerating all these weapons. Their names
+are many, and the comments and descriptions of
+old authors which refer to them are constantly at
+variance. Nevertheless, the sword most popular
+with the Celtiberians at the period of the Roman
+conquest seems to have been a broad, two-handed
+weapon with a point and double edge, and therefore
+serviceable both for cutting and for thrusting.
+Another of the Celtiberian swords, called the
+<i>falcata</i>, was of a sickle shape. It terminated in
+the kind of point we commonly associate with
+a scimitar, and which is found to-day in Spanish
+knives produced at Albacete. One of these
+swords, in good condition, is in the National
+Museum. It has a single edge, upon the concave
+side of the blade, and measures rather less
+than two feet. Other weapons in common use
+among the Celtiberians were an iron dart&mdash;the
+<i>sannion</i> or <i>soliferrea</i>; the javelin; the lance&mdash;a
+weapon so immemorially old in Spain that patriotic
+writers trace its origin to the prehistoric town of
+Lancia in Asturias; and the <i>trudes</i> or <i>bidente</i>, a
+crescent blade mounted upon a pole, mentioned
+by Strabo and Saint Isidore, and identical with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+the cruel weapon used until about a quarter of
+a century ago for houghing coward cattle in the
+bull-ring.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_198.jpg" width="392" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_198.jpg" id="img_198.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">CREST OF JOUSTING HELMET<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus, when the Romans entered Spain the
+natives of this country were experienced in the
+use of arms, and made their own from such
+materials as their own soil yielded. Their tempering
+was excellent, for Diodorus Siculus tells us
+that they had already discovered the secret of
+burying the metal in order that the moisture of
+the earth might eat away its baser portions.
+Besides the ancient Bilbilis in Aragon, a Spanish
+city famous for her faultless tempering of implements
+and weapons was Toledo. Martial,<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> the
+most illustrious son of Bilbilis, has sung the
+praises of the one; less celebrated poets, such
+as Gracio Falisco, of the other.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> Even the
+armourers of Rome were found to be less skilful
+and successful swordsmiths than the Spaniards;<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a>
+and so, before the second Punic War, the model<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+or the models of the Spanish sword had been
+adopted by the Roman army.</p>
+
+<p>Various of the native peoples of Iberia were
+distinguished by a special instrument or mode of
+fighting. Strabo says that the Iberians as a
+general rule employed two lances and a sword.
+Those of Lusitania were especially adroit in
+hurling darts. Each of their warriors kept a
+number of these darts contained within his shield.
+Upon the head they wore a helmet of a primitive
+pattern strapped beneath the chin. This helmet,
+called the <i>bacula</i>, protected all the wearer's face,
+and had a mitred shape, with three red feathers
+on the crest. Together with these arms, the
+Lusitanians used a copper-headed lance and the
+typical form of Celtiberian sword. More singular
+and celebrated in their mode of fighting were the
+Balearic islanders, who carried, through persistent
+exercise, the art of slinging stones and leaden
+plummets to the utmost limit of perfection. The
+beaches of these islands, we are told, abounded,
+then as now, in small, smooth pebbles, &ldquo;weapons
+of Nature's own contrivance,&rdquo; rarely suited to
+the sling.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> These slings were of three patterns,
+severally designed for near, far, and middling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+distances. The lead or stone projectile sometimes
+weighed a pound. Accordingly&mdash;so strenuous
+was their zeal to be unrivalled in the practice of
+this arm&mdash;even as little children the Baleares
+went without their dinner, till, with the formidable
+<i>funda</i> in their hand, they struck the stick their
+parents planted for them in the soil. Pliny and
+Polybius, notwithstanding, state that the sling
+itself was not indigenous in this region, but imported
+from Ph&oelig;nicia. However this may be,
+the islanders within a little time contributed to
+swell the power of the Roman legions.</p>
+
+<p>The Visigoths continued using many of the
+Roman or Ibero-Roman arms. Nevertheless, the
+solid armour of the Romans, such as their greaves
+and thigh-pieces and breastplates, was now replaced
+by primitive chain-mail resembling scales
+of fishes. According to Saint Isidore, Procopius,
+and other writers, the favourite weapons of the
+Spanish Visigoths were the sword or <i>spatha</i>, long,
+broad-bladed, with a double edge; the hatchet,
+the bow, the sling, the lance, the scythe, the
+mace, the <i>pilum</i> or javelin (used extensively in
+Spain throughout the Middle Ages),<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> the <i>dolon</i>, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+dagger which concealed itself within a wooden
+staff, and took the name of &ldquo;treacherous&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;wily&rdquo; from this circumstance; and the <i>conto</i>, a
+keenly pointed pike. We also find among the
+military engines of the Visigoths the <i>balista</i>, for
+hurling stones and darts of large size, and the
+<i>ariete</i> or battering-ram, constructed from a gnarled
+and powerful tree-trunk braced with iron and
+suspended by a cable. Their defensive body-armour
+consisted of a coat of mail composed of
+bronze or iron scales, and called the <i>lóriga</i> or
+<i>perpunte</i>. This was worn above the <i>thorachomachus</i>,
+a kind of tunic made of felt, in order
+to shield the body from the roughness of the
+mail. Upon their heads they wore an ample
+helmet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_202.jpg" width="386" height="600"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_202.jpg" id="img_202.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SPANISH CROSSBOWMAN<br />
+(<i>Late 15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A fragment of stone carving preserved in
+Seville museum shows us two Visigothic Spanish
+warriors who wear a tunic and helmet of a simple
+pattern, and carry a two-edged sword and a large
+shield. García Llansó says, however, that the
+nobles of this people wore close-fitting mail tunics
+covered with steel scales, a kind of bronze bassinet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+tight breeches, and high boots, and carried, besides
+the sword which was slung from their belts, a
+large, oval shield.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p>
+
+<p>From about the time of the Moorish invasion, the
+changes in the arms and armour of the Spaniards
+coincided in the main with those in other parts of
+western Europe. Nevertheless, as late as the
+eleventh century the Spanish sword retained the
+characteristic which had endeared it to the
+Roman legionaries&mdash;namely, a hilt of small
+dimensions and a broad and shortish blade. In
+course of time the blade grows narrower and
+begins to taper towards the point. The <i>quillons</i>
+or crossbars (Spanish <i>arriaces</i>, from the Arabic
+<i>arrias</i>, a sword-hilt) were originally straight or
+semicircular, and ended in a knob (<i>manzana</i>,
+literally &ldquo;apple&rdquo;; Latin <i>pomum</i>, English <i>pommel</i>).
+Thus, in the <i>Poem of the Cid</i> we find the verse:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;">&ldquo;<i>Las manzanas é los arriaces todos de oro son.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Throughout these early times the scabbard was
+of wood lined with leather or with velvet, and
+strengthened and adorned with leather bands;
+but when the owner was of high estate, it often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+bore enamels in the <i>cloisonné</i> style; that is,
+with patches of the coloured, vitreous substance
+bordered and fastened in by metal wire. In
+Spain this style, undoubtedly of foreign origin,
+was superseded in the thirteenth century by
+<i>champlevé</i> enamelling, in which the enamel lies
+within a hollowed ground.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish mediæval weapons down to the
+fourteenth century are specified in the <i>fuero</i> of
+Cáceres and other documents contemporary with
+their use. Next always in importance to the
+sword we find the hatchet, lance, crossbow, and
+mace. Montaner's <i>Chronicle of the Kings of
+Aragon</i> tells us that the sovereign, mace in hand,
+dealt one of his enemies &ldquo;such a blow upon his
+iron hat that his brains came oozing out at his
+ears.&rdquo; Covarrubias mentions a dart-shaped
+missile called the <i>azcona</i>&mdash;a word which some
+authorities derive from the Arabic, and others
+from the Basque <i>gascona</i>, an arm employed by
+the natives of Gascony. The former derivation
+seems the likelier. The <i>fuero</i> of Cáceres
+mentions the <i>tarágulo</i>, described by the Count
+of Clonard as a kind of dagger; and at the close
+of the thirteenth century appears in Spain the
+poniard, which was called among the Germans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+<i>Panzerbrecher</i>, or &ldquo;breaker of cuirasses,&rdquo; and
+among the French the <i>misericorde</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>fuero</i> of Cáceres tells us, furthermore,
+what was the regular equipment of the Spanish
+foot and mounted soldier of that period. &ldquo;Each
+horseman shall go forth to battle with a shield,
+a lance, a sword, and spurs; and he that carries
+not all these shall pay each time five sheep wherewith
+to feed the soldiers&hellip;. Each mounted man
+or pawn that trotteth not or runneth not to quit
+his town or village as he hears the call,&mdash;the
+first shall have his horse's tail cut off; the other
+shall have his beard clipped.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Defensive arms included various kinds of
+coverings for the head; the <i>lóriga</i> or covering
+for the body, the <i>cálcias</i> or covering for the
+legs, and the shield.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lóriga</i> (Latin <i>lorica</i>) was the ordinary
+hauberk or shirt of mail, such as was worn all
+over military Europe, made of rings or scales
+sewed strongly on a linen or leather under-tunic
+consisting of a single piece, and reaching to
+the knee. The <i>Gran Conquista de Ultramar</i>
+of Alfonso el Sabio also informs us that it was
+tied at certain openings known as <i>ventanas</i>
+(&ldquo;windows&rdquo;), and that the collar of the tunic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+was called the <i>gorguera</i>. The resistance of the
+Spanish <i>lóriga</i> to a pointed weapon does not
+seem to have been great, for the Chronicle of
+the Monk of Silos says that at the siege of
+Viseo the arrows of the Moorish bowmen went
+through the triple <i>lórigas</i> of their foe.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the twelfth century the custom arose
+of wearing over the coat of mail a loose, sleeveless
+frock (the <i>Waffenrock</i> of Germany), woven
+of linen or some other light material, painted
+or embroidered with the owner's arms. As
+the Count of Clonard observes, it is clearly
+this kind of frock that is referred to in the
+following passage of the <i>Leyes de Partida</i>:
+&ldquo;For some (of the knights) placed upon the
+armour carried by themselves and by their
+horses,<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> signs that were different one from
+another, in order to be known thereby; while
+others placed them on their heads, or on their
+helmets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_206.jpg" width="500" height="359"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_206.jpg" id="img_206.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">THE BATTLE OF LA HIGUERUELA<br />
+(<i>Wall painting. Hall of Battles, El Escorial</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Normans used a form of hauberk with
+attached mail-stockings. In Spain we find in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+lieu of this leg-covering, the Roman <i>cálcia</i> (Latin
+<i>caliga</i>), extending from the foot to just below the
+thigh, and subsequently called the <i>brafonera</i>.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a>
+This was, in fact, a separate mail-stocking, made
+of closely interlacing steel rings, and worn above
+the leather boots or <i>trebuqueras</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish <i>escudo</i> or shield was usually made
+of wood covered with leather, and painted with
+the arms or the distinguishing emblem of its lord.
+Sometimes it was made of parchment. Thus the
+Chronicle of the Cid informs us that this hero
+after death was equipped with &ldquo;a painted parchment
+helm and with a shield in the same wise.&rdquo;
+Another form of Spanish shield, the <i>adarga</i>
+(<i>atareca</i>, <i>atarca</i>; Arabic <i>ad-darka</i>, to hold upon
+the arm), of which I shall subsequently notice
+specimens in the Royal Armoury, was commonly
+in the shape of a rough oval or of a heart, and
+made of various folds of leather sewn and glued
+together. The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh
+speaks of a certain famine which broke out among
+the Spanish troops, and caused them such privation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+that &ldquo;they chewed the leather of their
+shields.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
+
+<p>The battle headgear of this people passed
+through many changes. &ldquo;The helmet of the
+eighth century,&rdquo; says the Count of Clonard,
+&ldquo;was the same which had been used by the
+Cantabrians and Vascones before the general
+peace proclaimed by Augustus Cæsar. Helmets
+of this design are engraved upon the medals
+(reproduced by Florez) of the imperial legate
+Publius Carisius. They covered the entire head
+and face, leaving only two holes for the eyes, as
+we see upon the carved stone fragments in relief
+at the door of the church of San Pedro de
+Villanueva, representing the struggle of King
+Froila with a bear.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another form of helmet which the Spaniards
+began to use about this time was the <i>almofar</i>
+(Arabic <i>al-mejfar</i>), made of iron scales. It
+covered all the head, with the exception of the
+eyes, nose, and mouth, and corresponds to the
+<i>camail</i> of the Normans. Beneath it was worn
+the linen <i>cofia</i>, a kind of bag or cap in which
+the warrior gathered up his hair. After about
+another century a round or conical iron helmet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+(<i>capacete</i>), fitted with cheek-pieces, was superposed
+on the <i>almofar</i> and fastened round the
+chin with straps. The <i>capacete</i> of a noble was
+often adorned with precious stones and coronets
+of pure gold, while a spike projecting from the
+top was tipped with a large carbuncle, in order to
+catch and to reflect the flashing sunbeams.</p>
+
+<p>The substitution for this spike of multiform and
+multicolor figures or devices dates from a later
+age. The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh
+describes as something altogether novel and surprising,
+the crests upon the helmets of the foreign
+knights who flocked, in 1343, to Algeciras to
+aid the cause of Christianity against the Moor.
+&ldquo;All of them,&rdquo; says this narrative, &ldquo;placed their
+helmets at the door of their dwellings, supporting
+them on stout and lofty staves; and the figures
+on the helmets were of many kinds. On some
+was the figure of a lion; on others that of a wolf,
+or ass's head, or ox, or dog, or divers other
+beasts; while others bore the likeness of the
+heads of men; faces, beards, and all. Others,
+too, had wings as those of eagles or of crows;
+and so, between these various kinds there were
+in all as many as six hundred helmets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This brings us to the celebrated helmet or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+<i>cimera</i> (Plate <a href="#img_198.jpg">xxxix</a>.), now in the Royal Armoury
+of Madrid, believed till recently to have belonged
+to Jayme the First, conqueror of Palma and
+Valencia, and the greatest, both in spirit and in
+stature, of the old-time kings of Aragon.</p>
+
+<p>Such part of this interesting helmet as is left
+consists of two pieces, one of them resting loosely
+on the other. Baron de las Cuatro Torres infers,
+from a detail which will presently be noted, that
+the lower of these two pieces is not original; and
+his opinion was shared by the Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan, who, notwithstanding, thought the
+spurious part to be coeval with the actual crest.
+The upper part consists of a fragment of a helm,
+made, like some flimsy theatre property, of linen,
+card, and parchment, and surmounted with the
+figure of the mythical monster known in the
+Lemosin language as the <i>drac-pennat</i>, or winged
+dragon, which formed, conjointly with the royal
+crown, the emblem or device of all the Aragonese
+sovereigns from Pedro the Fourth to Ferdinand
+the Second.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_210.jpg" width="372" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_210.jpg" id="img_210.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">PARADE HARNESS OF PHILIP THE THIRD<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is, however, no reason to doubt the
+helmet's authenticity. It is known to have
+remained for centuries at Palma, in the Balearics,
+where it was worn upon the day of Saint Sylvester<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+in each year, by a person who walked in the procession
+of the <i>Standart</i> to celebrate the capture
+of the city by Don Jayme. This would explain
+the lower piece contrived and added to the crest
+itself, in order to adjust the incomplete and upper
+portion to the subsequent wearer's head. The
+helmet as originally made was meant for tourneying
+only, and is therefore fashioned, not of metal,
+but of the frail theatrical materials I have stated.
+Copper and wood, says Viollet-le-Duc, were
+also used in making these objects. The earliest
+wearer of the helm cannot have been Don Jayme.
+Baron de las Cuatro Torres remarks that on
+an Aragonese coin of the reign of Pedro the
+Fourth, the monarch is wearing on his head
+something which looks identical with this <i>cimera</i>.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a>
+Demay has further told us that the vogue of
+such <i>cimeras</i>, whose principal purpose was to
+distinguish seigniories, lasted from 1289 till the
+introduction of movable visors at the end of the
+fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth
+century. The present helmet, therefore, probably
+belonged to Don Pedro the Fourth of
+Aragon (&ldquo;the Ceremonious&rdquo;), and was made at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+some time in his reign&mdash;that is, between 1335
+and 1387. A document has been discovered in
+which this monarch's son, Don Martin of Aragon,
+commands that year by year his own helmet,
+&ldquo;<i>nostram emprissiam sive cimbram</i>,&rdquo; together
+with the banner of Jayme the Conqueror, is to
+be publicly exhibited in commemoration of the
+capture of Majorca. Therefore we may conclude
+from these important facts that here is the crest
+of a tourneying helmet which belonged either
+to Don Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, or else to
+either of, or possibly both, his sons, Don Juan
+and Don Martin.</p>
+
+<p>The changes which occur in Spanish arms and
+armour between the fourteenth and the sixteenth
+centuries keep pace, upon the whole, with those in
+other parts of Europe. It is, however, opportune
+to notice how the Spanish armies of this time were
+organized. Their regular cavalry consisted of:
+(1) the force directly mustered by the king and
+under his immediate leadership; (2) the mounted
+burghers who defrayed the whole or part of their
+expenses, being in certain instances assisted by a
+stipend which had been created by municipal and
+local <i>fueros</i>; (3) the knights belonging to the
+military orders; and (4) the barons, together with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+the men these last were called upon, obedient to
+the summons of the royal <i>mandadero</i> (messenger),
+to mount, equip, provision, and bring to war with
+them. Such was the heavy cavalry of later mediæval
+Spain. A lighter class, said by the Count of
+Clonard to have been recruited from the southern
+regions of the land, was known as <i>alfaraces</i>,
+<i>almogávares</i>, or <i>omes de la gineta</i>.</p>
+
+<p>These latter lived in frugal fashion. Water
+was their only drink; bread and the roots of
+plants their only food. Their clothing, too, was
+of the slightest, consisting merely of a shirt, high
+boots, and a kind of net upon the head. They
+wore no armour, and carried as their only weapons
+an <i>azagaya</i> and a lance. Their principal value was
+in skirmishing.</p>
+
+<p>The infantry were also of two kinds. The
+first, collective or stipendiary, was levied by the
+towns and cities, and from them received its maintenance.
+The second was the <i>almogávares</i>, who
+served for scouting, like their mounted comrades
+of the same denomination. The stipendiary or
+regular troops proceeded chiefly from the northern
+provinces&mdash;Alava, Guipúzcoa, the Asturias, and
+the mountains of León, and carried commonly the
+lance, sword, sling, crossbow, and the <i>azagaya</i>&mdash;this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+last a dart-shaped missile borrowed from the
+Berber tribesmen,&mdash;the ancient Moorish <i>azgaya</i>,
+the modern <i>assagai</i> or <i>assegai</i> of Zululand.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_214.jpg" width="500" height="351"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_214.jpg" id="img_214.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH CROSSBOW AND STIRRUP<br />
+(<i>Museum of Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In a country which was plunged in ruinous and
+almost unremitting internecine strife; which was
+(and is) inherently averse to commerce or to agriculture;
+and where the bulk of all the national
+wealth was either locked away in churches and in
+convents, or in the coffers of great nobles who were
+frequently as wealthy as, or even wealthier than,
+the Crown, the armour of the common mediæval
+Spanish soldier consisted of the plain and necessary
+parts and nothing more. The aristocracy, upon
+the other hand, often adorned their battle-harness
+with the finest gold and silver work, and studded
+it with precious stones. Even the esquires would
+sometimes imitate their masters in this costly
+mode. &ldquo;We command,&rdquo; said Juan the First in
+one of his pragmatics dating from the end of the
+fourteenth century, &ldquo;that no shield-bearer shall
+carry cloth of gold or any manner of gold ornament
+upon his trappings, scarf, or saddle; or on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+his badge or arms, excepting only on the edges of
+his bassinet and his cuisses, together with the bit
+and poitral of his horse, which may be gilded.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is also evident from Royal Letters of this
+time, that the kings of Spain depended very
+largely for the flower of their forces on the private
+fortune or resources of the Spanish noblemen
+or even commoners; nor did they ever hesitate
+to turn these means of other people to their
+own particular good. The Ordinance of Juan
+the First, dated Segovia, 1390, commands that,
+&ldquo;Every man who possesses 20,000 <i>maravedis</i>
+and upward shall have his proper set of harness,
+habergeons and scale-pieces, and lappet-piece,
+cuisses and vantbrasses, bassinet, camail, and
+war-cap<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> with its gorget; or else a helmet, together
+with sword and dagger, glaive and battle-axe.
+And whoso possesses 3000 <i>maravedis</i> and
+upward shall have his lance and javelin and shield,
+his lappet-piece and coat of mail, and iron bassinet
+without a camail, and a <i>capellina</i>, together with
+his sword, <i>estoque</i>, and knife. And whoso has
+between 2000 and 3000 <i>maravedis</i> shall have his
+lance and sword or <i>estoque</i> and knife, or a bassinet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+or <i>capellina</i>, together with a shield. And whoso
+has from 600 to 2000 <i>maravedis</i> shall have a
+crossbow with its nut and cord and stirrup, quiver
+and strap, and three dozen shafts. And whoso
+has from 400 to 600 <i>maravedis</i> shall have a lance,
+a javelin, and a shield. And whoso has 400
+<i>maravedis</i> shall have a javelin and a lance.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The wealthier classes responded lavishly to
+this command. Describing the battle of Olmedo
+and the forces of Don Alvaro de Luna sent
+against the Navarrese, the chronicle of the
+Constable declares that among his entire host
+could hardly have been found a single cavalier
+whose horse was not covered with trappings, and
+its neck with mail. &ldquo;For some there were that
+carried divers figures painted on the aforesaid
+trappings, and others that bore upon their helmets
+jewels that were a token from their mistresses.
+And others carried gold or silver bells suspended
+from their horses' necks by thick chains; or
+plates upon their helmets studded with precious
+stones, or small targes richly garnished with
+strange figures and devices. Nor was there less
+variety in the crests upon their helmets; for some
+bore likenesses of savage beasts, and others
+plumes of various colours; while others carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+but a plume or two upon their helmet crest, like
+unto those upon the forehead of their horses.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The fifteenth century is often called in Spain
+her golden age of arms&mdash;not in the sense that
+she invented anything new relating to this craft,
+but that her warriors were more fully and more
+frequently equipped with what had been imported
+from elsewhere. As in the case of crested
+helmets, foreign initiative brought about the
+substitution of plate or German armour&mdash;developed
+from the chain armour and the coat of mail&mdash;for
+the earlier sets of disconnected pieces. Possibly,
+as a chronicle which describes the Englishmen
+and Gascons who were present at the siege of
+Lerma in 1334 would seem to indicate, it was in
+consequence of this direct association with the
+foreigner that the older form of Spanish harness
+yielded to the new. However this may be, plate
+armour certainly appeared in Spain at some time
+in the fourteenth century, and grew in vogue
+throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.
+Suits of armour worn by Spanish pikemen and
+crossbowmen of this period may be profitably
+studied in the Royal Armoury (Plate <a href="#img_202.jpg">xl</a>.); and the
+same harness is reproduced in the choir-stalls of
+Toledo cathedral, carved by Maestre Rodrigo in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+1495. It is also useful to consult the prolix
+description of the <i>Passo Honroso</i> (1433) of Suero
+de Quiñones, held at the bridge of Orbigo, as
+well as the painting of the battle of La Higueruela
+(Plate <a href="#img_206.jpg">xli</a>.) in the Sala de las Batallas of the
+Escorial. We find from these authoritative
+sources that Spanish harness then consisted of
+the war-hat or <i>capacete</i>, with its <i>barbote</i> or piece
+to cover the mouth and cheeks, and fringe of
+mail (<i>mantillos</i>) to protect the neck: the <i>coracina</i>
+or korazin of tinned steel plates;<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> the coat of
+mail; armlets and gauntlets; leg-pieces with
+closed greaves; and steel-pointed mail shoes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_219.jpg" width="297" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_219.jpg" id="img_219.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH SWORD<br />
+(<i>Casa de los Tiros, Granada</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spanish man-at-arms of the sixteenth
+century is well described by Martin de Eguiluz,
+in his book, <i>Milicia, Discursos, y Regla Militar</i>.
+&ldquo;The man is mounted and bears a lance. His
+head is covered with a visored helmet. He
+wears a double breastplate, of which the outer
+piece is called <i>volante</i>. His thighs are guarded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+by cuisses, his legs by greaves, and his feet by
+shoes of mail or iron. His horse's face, neck,
+breast, and haunches are covered with iron or
+with doubled leather. These coverings are called
+<i>bardas</i>, and the horses protected by them <i>bardados</i>,
+of which each man-at-arms is called upon to
+possess two.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These plainer sets of war-harness for horses
+were made in Spain. The costlier bards, whether
+for war or tournament, were made in Italy and
+Germany, and often match the outfit of the rider
+in the splendour and luxuriance of their decoration.
+Striking examples of these bards are in the
+Royal Armoury, including one (Plate <a href="#img_210.jpg">xlii</a>.) which
+formerly belonged to Philip the Third. Probably
+it is the same referred to in the manuscript
+account of Valladolid from which I have already
+quoted curious notices of other crafts. Speaking
+of the Duke of Lerma in 1605, this narrative
+says; &ldquo;He rode a beautiful horse with richly
+decorated arms and gold-embroidered bard,
+fringed, and with medallions in relief. The
+trappings, reaching to the ground, were of black
+velvet covered with silver plates as large as
+dinner-plates, and others of a smaller size that
+represented arms and war-trophies, all of them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+gilt, and studded with precious stones. I heard
+say that this armour which the Duke now wore,
+had once belonged to the Emperor, and is now
+the King's.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>The crossbow was an arm of great importance
+from about the eleventh century until the seventeenth,
+and Spain, throughout the latter of these
+centuries, was celebrated for their manufacture.
+Roquetas, a Catalan, &ldquo;master-maker of crossbows,&rdquo;
+constructed them of steel, so skilfully and
+finely that they could be carried concealed inside
+the sleeve of a coat, and discharged without
+awaking the suspicion of the victim. A letter of
+René of Anjou, quoted by the Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan, also refers to the skill of the
+Catalans in making crossbows, and mentions one
+of these weapons constructed by &ldquo;Saracen,&rdquo; of
+Barcelona, &ldquo;who refuses to teach his craft to
+Christians.&rdquo; The letter further states that this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+arm was of a curious shape, and that, &ldquo;despite its
+small dimensions, it carries to a greater distance
+than any other I have yet possessed.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A handsome Moorish crossbow, inlaid with
+bronze (Plate <a href="#img_214.jpg">xliii</a>.), exists in the provincial
+museum of Granada. The Royal Armoury has
+no example of the rare form of crossbow fitted
+with wheeled gear, but all the commoner kinds
+employed for hunting or for war are represented
+here, including those with the <i>armatoste</i> or
+goat's-foot lever, stirruped crossbows, and those
+which have the <i>torno</i> or windlass (French <i>cranequin</i>).
+Demmin appends the following note to
+an illustration in his handbook of a crossbow
+with a goat's-foot lever fixed to the stock:&mdash;&ldquo;A
+similar weapon in ironwood, sixteenth century,
+belonged to Ferdinand the First, proved by the
+inscription on the bow: <span class="smcap">Dom Fernando rei de
+Romano</span>, followed by four Golden Fleeces. It
+bears the name of the Spanish armourer Juan
+Deneinas. This valuable crossbow once belonged
+to M. Spengel, at Munich, but it is at present in
+the collection of the Count of Nieuwerkerke.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There is also in the Royal Armoury a crossbow
+of the scarcer kind known in Spanish as
+<i>ballestas de palo</i>, in which the gaffle is not of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+steel, but put together from slips of springy<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">woods, including yew. The wings are tipped</span><br />
+with horn, and traces of heraldic and Renaissance
+decoration, painted on parchment, yet remain
+upon the weapon. Other portions are inlaid.
+Except for the erasure of the painting, this arm
+is splendidly preserved, and still retains its double
+cord, nut, and pins, together with the separate
+lever.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_222.jpg" width="349" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_222.jpg" id="img_222.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SWORD OF BOABDIL EL CHICO<br />
+(<i>Museum of Artillery, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another interesting crossbow in this armoury
+belonged to Charles the Fifth, who used it for
+the chase. It has a <i>verja</i> or yard of steel engraved
+with the letter C four times repeated and
+surmounted by a crown, and bears the inscription,
+<span class="smcap">PRO · IMPERATORE · SEMPER · AVGVSTO ·
+PLVS · VLTRA ·</span>, together with · <img src="images/img_328.jpg" alt="IV DE LA FVETE" /> ·,
+for Juan de la Fuente, the name of a celebrated
+maker of these parts of a crossbow. The shaft
+(<i>tablero</i>), ornamented in bone and iron, is from
+the hand of another master, Juan Hernandez,
+whose signature is <span class="smcap">IO: HRZ</span>. The Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan supposed that this was
+the one crossbow which Charles took with him
+to the rustic solitude of Yuste, and which
+is mentioned in a document at Simancas as
+&ldquo;a crossbow with its gear and gaffles (it is in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+His Majesty's possession, but he has not paid
+for it).&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto I have traced the war-equipment of
+the Spanish Christians only. In the early period
+of Mohammedan rule, the conquerors used a
+simple dress for war, consisting of the <i>capacete</i>
+or <i>almofar</i> for the head, secured by a chain
+beneath the chin and covered by a piece of
+cloth called <i>schasch</i>, hanging to just below the
+shoulders; a wide sleeveless tunic; a shirt of
+mail; tight breeches, and leather shoes. Their
+weapons were the lance and sword. The foot-soldiery
+wore the <i>djobba</i>, a tight-sleeved tunic of
+white wool, bound to the body by a scarf, and
+leather shoes, and carried as their arms a <i>capacete</i>
+of beaten iron, without a crest or cheek-pieces;
+a large round shield with its projecting umbo;
+and either a lance, or a double-edged and double-handed
+sword. Such are the details represented
+in the <i>Codex of the Apocalypse</i>, preserved in
+the cathedral of Gerona. As time progressed,
+the weapons and defensive armour of these
+Spanish Moors grew more luxurious and ornate,
+being often decorated with enamels, precious
+stones, or inlaid metals such as silver, gold, and
+bronze. Prominent centres of this industry were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+Murcia, Zaragoza, and Toledo, which are even
+said to have surpassed Damascus. Andalusia,
+too, was celebrated for her gold-inlaid cuirasses
+and coats of mail; while, according to El Idrisi,
+the town of Jativa enjoyed a widespread fame for
+every kind of decorative armour.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
+
+<p>The military outfit of the Spanish Moors was,
+therefore, much the same as that of Christian
+Spain. Toledo under Muslim rule continued
+to be famous for her swords. Moorish Seville,
+Ronda, and Valencia were also favourably known
+for weapons, household knives, and scissors.
+Cutlery in the Moorish style is still produced in
+certain parts of eastern Spain, and in his <i>History
+of the Mohammedan Dynasties</i> of this country,
+Gayangos tells us of a knife which bore upon one
+side of the blade the inscription in Arabic
+characters, &ldquo;<i>With the help of God I will inflict
+death upon thy adversary</i>,&rdquo; and upon the other
+side, in Castilian, the words, &ldquo;<i>Knife-factory of
+Antonio Gonzalez. Albacete, 1705.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The primitive Spanish-Moorish sword was an
+arm of moderate breadth used both for cutting
+and for thrusting. As time went on, this people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+gradually adopted swords of Spanish make or
+pattern, such as the ponderous <i>brandimartes</i> and
+<i>montantes</i> made for wielding with both hands.
+The Granadino writer Aben Said complains
+that the adoption of the arms, and even of the
+costume of the Spanish Christians, was prevalent
+at Granada in the thirteenth century. &ldquo;Sultans
+and soldiers alike,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;dress in the manner
+of the Christians, even to their arms and armour,
+crimson cloaks, standards, and saddlery. They
+wield in battle a shield and a long lance,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> which
+serves them to attack with; nor do they seem
+to care for Arab bows or maces, but prefer to
+use the Frankish ones.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the warriors of Granada carried
+several weapons which were not of Christian
+origin. The tribe of the Beni-Merines brought
+across from Africa a kind of sword called often
+in the Christian chronicles the <i>espada gineta</i>, used
+principally, as we gather from its name, by those
+addicted to the Moorish mode of horsemanship,
+or riding with short stirrups. The use of it extended
+later to the Christian Spaniards, and it
+is said to have contributed in later times to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+victory of the Spanish army at Pavia. Other
+swords in use among the Granadinos were the
+<i>alfange</i>, the <i>chifarra</i>, the <i>chifarote</i>, and the
+<i>nammexi</i>. The last of these is described in an
+old dictionary of the Valencian and Castilian
+languages as a kind of scimitar, although Quatremère
+and Fleischer believe it to have been a
+dagger.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_226.jpg" width="345" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_226.jpg" id="img_226.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">DAGGER OF BOABDIL EL CHICO<br />
+(<i>Museum of Artillery, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another author who describes the arms and
+armour of the Granadinos is Al-Jattib, who says
+in his <i>Splendour of the New Moon</i>; &ldquo;There are
+in Granada two kinds of soldiery&mdash;those of Al-Andalus
+and those of Africa. Their leader is a
+prince of royal blood, or some exalted personage
+at court. Formerly they used the Christian arms;
+that is, ample coats of mail, heavy shields, thick
+iron helmets, lances with broad points, and
+insecure saddles&hellip;. Now they have discarded
+that equipment, and are beginning to use short
+cuirasses, light helmets, Arab saddles, leather
+shields, and thin lances.&rdquo; Of the African troops
+the same historian adds; &ldquo;Their weapons for
+attacking are spears, either short or long, which
+they propel by pressing with the finger. These
+arms they call <i>marasas</i>; but for daily exercise
+they use the European bow.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Descriptions of the Spanish-Moorish swords<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+inserted in the chronicles and poems of the Middle
+Ages, together with the few examples that have
+been preserved until our time, enable us to form an
+accurate idea of the shape and decoration of these
+weapons generally. Those of the sultans and the
+Muslim aristocracy were, as a rule, profusely
+ornamented, either with precious stones or with
+enamels, or else with delicate and lavish damascening,
+or with the characteristic Oriental <i>ataujía</i>-work
+of gold and silver inlay. Inscriptions, too,
+were freely used upon the hilt or scabbard. Thus
+we are told that the great Almanzor kept for daily
+use a sword which bore the legend; &ldquo;<i>Strive in
+warfare till ye win great victories. Battle with
+the infidels till ye win them over to Islam</i>&rdquo;; and
+similar inscriptions may be quoted in great number.
+But four or five of these magnificent arms have
+proved superior to the ravages of time, and naturally
+tell us more than any weapons whose renown
+survives in written records merely. Among such
+extant Spanish-Moorish swords are two attributed
+respectively to Aliatar and Abindarraez; two
+others which are known to have belonged to the
+last ill-fated monarch of the Moors of Spain,
+Boabdil el Chico; and another, considered to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+also been Boabdil's property, now in possession
+of the Marquises of Campotejar, owners of the
+Generalife and of the Casa de los Tiros at Granada.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;sword of Aliatar,&rdquo; preserved in the
+Museum of Artillery at Madrid, is said to have
+been wrested from the clenched hand of that
+warrior, father-in-law of Boabdil and governor of
+Loja, as his corpse was swept away down stream
+after the rout of the Moorish expedition at Lucena.
+This arm is richly damascened as well as decorated
+with the characteristic <i>ataujía</i>. The centre of
+the hilt is made of ivory, and the pommel and
+crossbars&mdash;which latter terminate in elephants'
+heads with slightly upturned trunks&mdash;of damascened
+and inlaid iron, ornamented here and
+there with <i>ataujía</i>. Part of the blade&mdash;probably
+about an eighth&mdash;is broken off. The sheath has
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>An idle superstition has attributed the so-called
+&ldquo;sword of Abindarraez&rdquo; to the hero of the well-known
+sixteenth-century romance entitled <i>The
+Abencerraje and the Beautiful Jarifa.</i> This
+weapon, which for many years was in possession
+of the Narvaez family, belongs at present to the
+Marquis of La Vega de Armijo. The decoration
+is not particularly rich, and part of it is worn away;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+but the narrow blade is still engraved with figures
+or portraits from the story which has given the
+sword its name.</p>
+
+<p>The sword (Pl. <a href="#img_219.jpg">xliv</a>.) belonging to the Marquises
+of Campotejar, and which is preserved in the Casa
+de los Tiros at Granada, bears some resemblance
+to the &ldquo;sword of Aliatar,&rdquo; and has about the same
+dimensions. Although it is commonly believed
+that Boabdil was the original owner of this sword,
+Gómez Moreno considers that more probably it
+belonged to one of the Moorish princes of Almería.
+The handle and crossbars, as well as the shape
+of the sheath, are silver-gilt, covered with minute
+arabesque ornamentation forming leaves and
+stems, and further decorated with enamel. The
+sheath is of Morocco leather worked with silver
+thread. The crossbars, curving abruptly down,<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>
+terminate in elephants' trunks boldly upturned towards
+the pommel. The blade is stamped with a
+Toledo mark consisting of Castilian letters and a
+pomegranate.</p>
+
+<p>But the most important, interesting, and beautiful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+specimens of Spanish-Moorish arms preserved
+to-day are those which were captured from
+Boabdil at the battle of Lucena (1482), when the
+monarch was made prisoner by the young Alcaide
+de los Donceles, Don Diego Fernandez de
+Cordova. A manuscript <i>History of the House
+of Cordova</i>, quoted by Eguilaz Yanguas,<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> says
+that upon the day in question, irretrievably disastrous
+to the Moorish cause in Spain, Boabdil
+carried &ldquo;a short, silver-handled sword, a damascened
+dagger, and a lance and buckler of great
+strength&rdquo; (Plates <a href="#img_222.jpg">xlv</a>. and <a href="#img_226.jpg">xlvi</a>.). These arms, together
+with another and a larger sword (<i>montante</i>
+or <i>estoque real</i>) for wielding with both hands, and
+certain articles of Boabdil's clothing, continued in
+the captor's family for centuries, and were, some
+years ago, presented by the Marquises of Villaseca,
+his direct descendants, to the National Museum
+of Artillery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_230.jpg" width="334" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_230.jpg" id="img_230.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH SWORD<br />
+(<i>Hilt and upper part of sheath</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The smaller or <i>gineta</i> sword<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> is handsomer and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+more important than the large <i>estoque</i>. The
+crossbars, as we find so often in weapons of this
+character and date, are bent abruptly down, and
+then curve up in a design of dragons' heads&mdash;the
+well-known emblem of the Nasrite sultans of
+Granada. Part of the handle is of solid gold
+adorned with crimson, white, and blue enamel
+distributed about the top and bottom of the hilt,
+the pommel, and the <i>arriaces</i> or crossbars. The
+centre of the hilt consists of ivory, richly carved.
+On either side of it are two octagonal intersecting
+figures, bearing upon one side, in semi-Cufic
+characters, the words, &ldquo;<i>Achieve thy aim</i>,&rdquo; and on
+the other, &ldquo;<i>in preserving his</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the owner's)
+<i>life</i>.&rdquo; Round the upper border of the ivory is
+carved the sentence; &ldquo;<i>In the name of God; the
+power belongs to Him, and there is no Divinity but
+He. Happiness proceeds from God alone</i>&rdquo;; and
+round the lower border, &ldquo;<i>The marvellous belongs
+to God. Assuredly at the outset the ignorant do
+not know their God; seeing that error is their
+custom.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other inscriptions of a sacred character, combined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+with delicate <i>ataujía</i>-work, are on the
+pommel and the upper portion of the hilt; but
+it has been remarked that, although the entire
+decoration is amazingly elaborate and rich, these
+inscriptions nowhere indicate that the weapon
+belonged to a personage of royal blood.</p>
+
+<p>The sheath of this most sumptuous arm is also
+lavishly adorned with silver and enamel on a purple
+leather ground. The blade is of a later date
+than either sheath or hilt, and bears the letter S,
+believed to be the mark of Alonso Sahagun the
+elder, of Toledo. The total length of this weapon
+is thirty-nine inches; and Gayangos declares that
+it was worn suspended by a belt between the
+shoulders.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+<p>The large <i>montante</i> which belonged to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+same ill-fated monarch has a cylindrical hilt,
+narrower in the centre of the handle than at either
+end. This hilt is made of steel inlaid with <i>lacería</i>
+or network ornament in ivory. In a small shield
+within the decoration of the pommel, appear the
+words &ldquo;<i>To God</i>&rdquo;; and in the centre of the
+handle, the familiar motto of the Nasrite sultans
+of Granada; &ldquo;<i>The only Conqueror is God.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Part of the blade is broken off. That which is
+left is broad and straight, with two grooves (one
+of which extends about three inches only) on each
+side, and bears an oriental mark consisting of
+five half-moons. The sheath is of brown Morocco
+decorated with a small gilt pattern forming shells
+and flowers. The mouth and chape are silver-gilt.</p>
+
+<p>In beautiful and skilful craftsmanship Boabdil's
+dagger or <i>gumía</i> matches with his swords. The
+handle is of steel inlaid in ivory with floral<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+patterns, and terminates in a large sphere,
+similarly decorated. The blade has a single edge,
+and is exquisitely damascened in gold designs
+which cover more than half of all its surface.
+Along one side we read the inscription; &ldquo;<i>Health,
+permanent glory, lasting felicity, permanent glory,
+lasting felicity, and lasting and permanent glory
+belong to God</i>&rdquo;; and on the other side, &ldquo;<i>It was
+made by Reduan.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The sheath of this little arm is made of crimson
+velvet richly embroidered with gold thread, and
+hanging from it is a large tassel of gold cord and
+crimson silk. The chape and mouth are silver-gilt,
+profusely decorated, and the latter of these
+pieces is embellished with circular devices of a
+lightish green enamel, in addition to the chasing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_234.jpg" width="300" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_234.jpg" id="img_234.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">WAR HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The small, plain knife, also preserved among the
+spoil, was carried in this sheath, together with the
+dagger.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury at Madrid is often thought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+by foreigners<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> to contain a representative collection
+of the arms, offensive and defensive, used
+by the Spanish people through all their mediæval
+and post-mediæval history. This is not so.
+Although it is the choicest and the richest gallery
+in Europe, the Armería Real was formed almost
+entirely from the <i>cámaras de armas</i> or private
+armouries of Charles the Fifth and of his son, and
+is, as Mélida describes it, &ldquo;a splendid gallery of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+royal arms,&rdquo; dating, with very few exceptions, from
+the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of its contents were made
+within a limited interval, as well as not produced
+in Spain. Such are the glittering and gorgeous
+harnesses constructed for the actual use of Charles
+the Fifth by celebrated German and Italian
+armourers, ponderous suits for jousting or parade,
+or lighter suits for combat in the field, whether
+on foot or horseback (Plate <a href="#img_234.jpg">xlviii</a>.), fashioned,
+chiselled, and inlaid by craftsmen such as the
+Negroli and Piccini of Milan, Bartolommeo
+Campi of Pesaro, or Kollman of Augsburg, bombastically
+called, by a Spanish poet in the mode
+of Gongora, &ldquo;the direct descendant of Vulcanus.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This German and Italian armour, with its
+multitude of accessorial pieces,<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> falls outside the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+province of a book on Spanish arts and crafts.
+Nevertheless, I reproduce, as being too little
+known outside Madrid, the sumptuous jousting
+harness (Plate <a href="#img_238.jpg">xlix</a>.), of Charles the Fifth, made
+for the emperor when he was a lad of only
+eighteen years by Kollman Helmschmied of
+Augsburg.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Laurent Vital, describing the royal
+jousts at Valladolid in 1518, relates that &ldquo;après
+marchait le Roy bien gorgiasement monté et
+armé d'un fin harnais d'Alemaigne, plus reluisant
+que d'argent brunti.&rdquo; This is the very harness
+told of by the chronicler. The helmet turns the
+scale at forty pounds; the entire suit at two
+hundred and fifty-three pounds; and the length
+of the lance exceeds eleven feet.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, also in this armoury a
+jousting harness (Plate <a href="#img_242.jpg">l</a>.) formerly the property
+of Philip the First of Spain, a part of which,
+including the cuirass, is known to be of Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+make. The cuirass in question bears the mark
+of a Valencia armourer, and the harness generally
+dates from about the year 1500, at which
+time Gachard tells us in his <i>Chroniques Belges</i>
+that Philip was learning to joust &ldquo;à la mode
+d'Espaigne.&rdquo; Besides the enormous helmet and
+the Spanish-made cuirass, covered with gold
+brocade, this ornament includes a tourneying
+lance with a blunt three-pointed head,<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> and a
+curious form of rest, said by the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan to be peculiar to the
+Spaniards and Italians. This rest is stuffed with
+cork, on which, just as the fray began, the iron
+extremity of the lance was firmly driven. Another
+interesting detail is the <i>cuja</i>, fastened to
+the right side of the cuirass, and also stuffed with
+cork, made use of to support the lance upon its
+passage over to the rest. Nor in this instance
+was the <i>cuja</i> a superfluous device, seeing that
+the lance is over fifteen feet in length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_238.jpg" width="362" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_238.jpg" id="img_238.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">JOUSTING HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These are the principal portions of the harness.
+The seemingly insufficient protection for the
+arms is explained by the fact that the solid wooden
+shield completely covered the fighter's left arm,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+while the right would be defended by the shield-like
+disc or <i>arandela</i> of the lance.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish shields and swords of great antiquity
+and interest are also in this armoury. The
+oldest of the shields dates from the twelfth
+century, and proceeds from the monastery of San
+Salvador de Oña, Burgos. The material is a
+wood resembling cedar, although much eaten by
+moth, and is covered on both sides with parchment
+bearing traces of primitive painting of a
+non-heraldic character. Inside the shield, this
+decoration consisted of a black ground crossed
+diagonally by a broad red band, and outside, of
+a red ground covered with rhomboid figures, some
+in gilt and some in colour. Such figures were a
+popular pattern at this time and on this class of
+objects. The general stoutness of this shield
+shows that it was meant for war. It still retains
+the strap which slung it from the warrior's neck, as
+well as fragments of the braces&mdash;made of buffalo
+leather covered with crimson velvet&mdash;for the hand.</p>
+
+<p>Another shield, proceeding from the same
+monastery, dates from the thirteenth century.
+The material, here again, is wood and parchment;
+but in this hundred years formal heraldic ornament
+had superseded fancy or conventional devices.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+Accordingly, this shield is painted with a blazon,
+now much worn, of which, however, enough remains
+to show that it consisted once upon a time of four
+black chaperons crowned with gold <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>
+upon a gold ground&mdash;said to have been the arms
+of Don Rodrigo Gomez, Count of Bureba.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>scut</i>, or polished metal shield, with painted
+blazonry or other decoration, was limited to
+Aragon and Cataluña.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the smaller and more modern shields
+preserved in this collection are two wooden bucklers
+dating from the sixteenth century. One is in
+the Spanish-Moorish style and of a convex shape,
+with iron bordering and umbo, and a lining of
+yellow brocade. The other, of the Christian
+Spaniards, is small and lined with painted parchment,
+and was intended, so the inventory says,
+&ldquo;for going about at night.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is also a richly gilt and silvered buckler
+of the seventeenth century, made at Eugui in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+Navarre, and covered with a scene&mdash;decadent in
+design and workmanship&mdash;which represents the
+judgment of Paris. Defensive armour, chiefly of
+a highly decorative kind, was made all through
+this century at the capital of Navarre, Pamplona.
+The Royal Armoury contains a Pamplonese
+parade harness (Plate <a href="#img_250.jpg">lii</a>.), offered as a gift to
+Philip the Third, as well as six diminutive sets of
+armour made to his order for the youthful princes
+Don Felipe, Don Fernando, and Don Carlos.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>adarga</i> was a kind of targe used by the
+light cavalry, and had its origin in Africa. Those
+which were stored in the palace of the Nasrite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+sultans of Granada are described by Al-Makkari
+as &ldquo;solid, without pores, soft to the touch, and
+famed for their imperviousness.&rdquo; The material
+was strong leather, such as cowhide, often embroidered
+with a scutcheon or with arabesques.
+Two Spanish-made <i>adargas</i> in this armoury
+are particularly handsome. One is of Moorish
+craftsmanship, and dates from the end of the
+fifteenth century. The other (Plate <a href="#img_254.jpg">liii</a>.), apparently
+the work of a Spanish Christian and dating
+from a century later, is embroidered in silver
+thread and coloured silk with arabesque devices
+and also with four coats of arms, one of which
+belongs to the noble family of Fernández de
+Cordova. The dimensions of this shield are a
+yard in height by thirty inches in breadth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_242.jpg" width="308" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_242.jpg" id="img_242.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">JOUSTING HARNESS OF PHILIP THE HANDSOME<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There also are preserved in this collection a
+shield (late sixteenth century) adorned by Mexican
+Indians with a most elaborate &ldquo;mosaic of feather-work,&rdquo;
+and a number of Spanish <i>adargas</i> of the
+same period, for playing the <i>juego de cañas</i> or
+&ldquo;game of canes.&rdquo; The armoury contained in
+former days as many as forty-two <i>adargas</i>; but
+the fire of 1884 completely destroyed sixteen and
+badly damaged twenty-three, obliterating their
+heraldic and other decoration. A yet more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+sinister event befell on December 1st, 1808,
+when the Spanish mob, exasperated by the
+French, broke in and seized three hundred swords,
+not one of which was afterwards recovered.
+Mention of these disasters leads me to recall the
+quantity of beautiful or historic military gear that
+Spain has lost through many tribulations and
+vicissitudes. Formerly her noble families had
+excellent collections in their palaces or castles.
+Such were the private armouries of the Dukes of
+Pastrana at Guadalajara, and of the Dukes of
+Alburquerque at Cuéllar Castle, near Segovia.
+Bertaut de Rouen describes the first as &ldquo;une des
+plus belles qui se voyent pour un seigneur
+particulier. Il y a quantité d'armes anciennes, et
+l'on y void une épée qui s'allonge et s'accourcit
+quand on veut, de deux pieds et demy.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The
+Cuéllar armoury was pulled to pieces by Philip
+the Fourth to arm his troops against the French.
+&ldquo;Send me,&rdquo; he wrote to the Duke from Madrid,
+in a letter dated April 16th, 1637, &ldquo;all your
+pistols, carbines, harness for horses, breastplates
+and other arms for mounted fighting&rdquo;;
+and the loyal nobleman complied upon the spot,
+despatching more than five hundred pieces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+many of which were doubtless of the greatest
+interest.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<p>Had I the erudition and the time, I would
+attempt to write, as it deserves to be written, an
+introduction to the history of Spanish swords.
+Of all the objects mentioned in these volumes,
+here is the most inherently symbolic of the
+Spanish character and history. The Spanish
+Moors and Spanish Christians spoke of it as
+something superhuman. &ldquo;Once the sword is in
+the hand of man,&rdquo; observed, in solemn tones, the
+Wise Alfonso, &ldquo;he hath it in his power to raise
+or lower it, to strike with it, or to abandon it.&rdquo;
+The Spanish Mussulmans talked of putting
+&ldquo;clothes and breeches&rdquo; on a sword that had a
+sheath, as though it were a breathing person;
+while a Spaniard of the time of Gongora would
+often use such language as the following: &ldquo;Truly
+in point of look there is as great a difference
+between a costly sword and a <i>Toledan Loyalty</i> or
+<i>Soldier's Dream</i>, as between a marquis and a
+muleteer, or a washerwoman and the Infanta.
+Yet every sword is virtually an hidalgo. Does
+not the basest of our Toledanas, even to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+<i>perrillos</i> and <i>morillos</i>, which have no core, and
+cost a dozen <i>reales</i> merely, afford a chivalrous
+lesson to its wearer, as it bids him <i>no me saques
+sin razon, ni me envaines sin honor</i>?<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> The
+horse and the sword,&rdquo; he continued, taking a
+magnificently damascened rapier, and stroking it
+caressingly, &ldquo;are the noblest friends of man,
+albeit the nobler is the sword; for the horse at
+times is obstinate or faint-hearted, but the sword
+is ready continually. The sword, moreover,
+possesses the chiefest of all virtues&mdash;justice, or
+the power of dividing right and wrong; a soul of
+iron, which is strength; and, last and greatest,
+the Cross, which is the symbol of the blessed
+Catholic Faith.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p>
+
+<p>Notices of early Spanish sword-makers are
+far from common. Don Manuel G. Simancas
+quotes the following, dated in the thirteenth
+century:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Master Almerique.</i> By letters of the King
+and Queen, to Master Almerique, for making the
+(sword) blades for the King; out of the MCC<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+<i>maravedis</i> of his salary he received CCCC
+<i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<i>Master Enrique.</i> By letters of the King and
+Queen, to Master Enrique, for making the swords,
+MCCCC, (of which) he received CCCCXII
+<i>maravedis</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other entries of the same period relate to Juan
+Ferrández, armourer, who received a sum for
+making coverings for arms and saddles; and to
+Master Jacomin, who was paid three gold <i>doblas</i>,
+or sixty-three <i>maravedis</i>, for making a breastplate.</p>
+
+<p>In the inventory (1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque
+occurs a very curious notice which seems
+to show that mediæval Spanish swords were
+manufactured even in the rural districts. The
+entry runs; &ldquo;an old grooved sword of a broad
+shape, bearing the words <i>Juanes me fezió</i> (&ldquo;John
+made me&rdquo;). In the middle of the same a P
+within a parted wave, with Portuguese fittings,
+varnished, black silk hilt and fringes, and double
+straps of black leather, with varnished ends and
+buckles and black leather sheath. <i>Juan de
+Lobinguez made this sword at Cuéllar.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_246.jpg" width="407" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_246.jpg" id="img_246.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MOORISH BUCKLER<br />
+(<i>Osier and metal. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spanish guilds of armourers enjoyed high
+favour,<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> since the examination for admission to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+this craft was very strict, as well as fenced
+about with curious prohibitions. Thus at Seville,
+&ldquo;no Moor, Jew, black man, or other person
+such as the law debars, shall set up a shop for
+making and selling defensive arms, or undergo
+examination in this craft.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> The penalty for
+infringement of this law was confiscation of the
+arms, together with a fine of twenty thousand
+<i>maravedis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout these times the armourer's and the
+gilder's crafts are found in closest union; just as
+the armourer's craft would often alternate with
+that of the goldsmith or the silversmith. At
+Seville, the Ordinance of 1512 prescribed that
+every candidate who came to be examined must
+make &ldquo;a set of horse harness, complete with
+stirrups, headstalls, spurs, poitral, and the fittings
+of a sword; and he must silver several of these
+pieces and blue them with fine blue; and make of
+iron, and gild the spurs and fittings of the sword.
+Thus shall he make, and gild, and silver the aforesaid
+pieces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Equally severe and comprehensive are the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+swordsmiths' Ordinances (1527 to 1531) of
+Granada. The aspirant to the title of <i>oficial</i>
+&ldquo;shall mount a sword for wear with ordinary
+clothes, fitted in black, together with its straps, and
+fringed and corded hilt; besides a sword gilded
+a low gold, together with its straps and other parts,
+all of a single colour. Also he shall fit a velvet-scabbarded,
+silver-hilted sword, and a two-handed
+sword, fully decorated, with the knife attaching to
+the same, one-edged and with a smooth hilt; also
+a sword whose scabbard shall be fitted with knives
+numbering not less than three; and a hilt of
+<i>lacería</i> (network ornament); and another sword
+in a white sheath, with woven hilt; and another of
+a hand and a half.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury at Madrid contains an
+excellent collection of these weapons. Among
+the earliest known to be of Spanish make are
+two which date from the thirteenth century. One
+of them (Plate <a href="#img_258.jpg">liv</a>., No. 1), with fittings of a
+later time, is frequently miscalled the &ldquo;Cid's
+Colada,&rdquo; and seems to have been confounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+with the genuine weapon of that hero which was
+acquired in the thirteenth century by one of the
+sovereigns of Castile, and which has probably
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The blade of this remarkable sword has two
+edges and tapers gradually to the point. Part
+of the blade is slightly hollowed, and bears,
+extending through about a quarter of the hollow
+or <i>canal</i>, the following inscription or device:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_249.jpg" width="400" height="146"
+        alt="inscription"
+        title="inscription" />
+</div>
+
+<p>This is believed by some authorities to
+represent the words <span class="smcap">SI, SI, NO, NON</span> (&ldquo;Yes, yes, no,
+no&rdquo;); and by others to be a purely meaningless
+and decorative pattern. The weapon, in any
+case, is in the best of preservation, and is
+especially interesting from the fact that engraved
+blades dating from this early period are very
+seldom met with. The Count of Valencia de
+Don Juan believes this weapon to be the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+<i>Lobera</i> which belonged to Ferdinand the Third,
+and aptly quotes the following passage from the
+chronicle. When Ferdinand, conqueror of
+Seville, was lying on his death-bed in that
+capital, surrounded by his children, he gave his
+blessing to his younger son, the Infante Don
+Manuel, and addressed him in these words. &ldquo;I
+can bequeath no heritage to you; but I bestow
+upon you my sword Lobera, that is of passing
+worth, and wherewith God has wrought much
+good to me.&rdquo; If the Count's surmise be accurate,
+another passage which he quotes from the work
+<i>Nobleza y Lealtad</i>, written by the twelve
+councillors of Ferdinand, fully explains the legend
+on the blade. &ldquo;<i>Sennor, el tu si sea asi, e el tu
+non, sea non; que muy gran virtud es al Príncipe,
+ó á otro qualquier ome ser verdadero, e grand
+seguranza de sus vasallos, e de sus cosas.</i>&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_250.jpg" width="344" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_250.jpg" id="img_250.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">ARMOUR MADE AT PAMPLONA<br />
+(<i>17th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I said that the chiselled and gilded iron
+fittings to the blade are of a later period. They
+date from the earlier part of the sixteenth
+century, and are the work of Salvador de Avila,
+of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>The other sword in this collection, and which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+also belongs to the thirteenth century, has a long,
+broad blade with two edges and a central groove,
+thinly engraved with circles (Pl. <a href="#img_258.jpg">liv</a>., No. 3, and
+Pl. lv.). The crossbars are of silver-gilt, engraved
+with <i>ataurique</i>, curving towards the blade and
+terminating in trefoils. A shield midway between
+them bears the arms of Castile upon one side, and
+those of León upon the other. The grip is of
+wood, covered with silver plates with decorated
+borders, and the pommel is of iron, also covered
+with ornamental plates of silver-gilt. Formerly
+this arm was studded with precious stones, but
+all of these excepting one have disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The scabbard is of wood lined with sheepskin,
+and is covered with a series of five silver-gilt
+plates, profusely decorated with Hispano-Moresque
+<i>lacería</i>, studded with various kinds of gems.
+These gems upon the scabbard amounted once
+upon a time to seventy-six, which sum, through
+pilfering or accident (probably the former, since
+the finest stones are gone), has been diminished
+by one-half. An inventory, made in the reign
+of Philip the Second, states that the inner
+side of the sheath, now wholly worn away, was
+covered with lions and castles, and that the belt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+was of broad orange-coloured cloth, with silver
+fittings.</p>
+
+<p>This sword has been absurdly attributed to the
+nephew of Charlemagne, who lived not less than
+half a thousand years before its date of manufacture.
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+thought that it may have been the property of a
+Spanish monarch of the thirteenth century,&mdash;perhaps
+Alfonso the Learned, or Ferdinand the
+Third, Alfonso's father. Ferdinand, we know,
+possessed a sword which he delivered with due
+ceremony to his elder son, the Infante Don
+Fernando, upon his leading out a force against
+the town of Antequera. This sword the chronicler
+Alvar García de Santa María described as
+having &ldquo;a sheath in pieces, with many precious
+stones.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Of even greater interest than the foregoing
+weapon is the great two-handed and two-edged
+<i>estoque</i> or ceremonial sword of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, which measures forty-two inches in
+length. The fittings are of iron, gilded and
+engraved. The crossbars, terminating in small
+half-moons, with the concave side directed
+outward, are inscribed with the well-known motto
+of the Catholic sovereigns, <span class="smcap">TANTO MONTA</span>, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+with a supplication to the Virgin, <span class="smcap">MEMENTO MEI O
+MATER DEI MEI</span>. The pommel is a flat disc,
+suggestive in its outline of a Gothic cross, and
+bears upon one side the figure of Saint John
+together with the yoke, emblem of Ferdinand
+the Catholic, and upon the other the sheaf of
+arrows, emblem of his consort Isabella. The
+hilt is covered with red velvet bound with wire.</p>
+
+<p>The sheath of this most interesting sword&mdash;affirmed
+by the Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+to have been used by Ferdinand and Isabella, and
+subsequently by Charles the Fifth, in the ceremony
+of conferring knighthood, and also, during the
+Hapsburg monarchy, to have been carried by the
+master of the horse before the king upon his
+formal visit to a city of his realm&mdash;is made of
+wood covered with crimson silk, bearing in
+&ldquo;superposed&rdquo; embroidery the arms of Spain
+posterior to the conquest of Granada, together
+with a repetition of the emblems of the Catholic
+sovereigns (Plate <a href="#img_258.jpg">liv</a>., No. 2).</p>
+
+<p>In the same collection are two other swords
+which probably belonged to Ferdinand the
+Catholic. One of them (Pl. <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 1), has a
+discoid pommel and a gilded iron handle. The
+flat crossbars grow wider and bend down towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+the blade, and on the hilt we read the words <span class="smcap">PAZ
+COMIGO NVNCA VEO, Y SIEMPRE GVERA DESEO</span>
+(&ldquo;Never does peace attend me, and always do
+I yearn for war&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>This sword has been attributed to Isabella.
+The evidence for this belief is slight, although
+the Count of Valencia de Don Juan discovered
+that in the year 1500 Isabella was undoubtedly
+the possessor of certain weapons and armour
+which she sometimes actually wore. Among
+these objects were several Milanese breastplates,
+a small dagger with a gold enamelled hilt in the
+shape of her emblem of the sheaf of arrows, and
+two swords, one fitted with silver and enamel,
+and the other with iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_254.jpg" width="408" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_254.jpg" id="img_254.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>ADARGA</i><br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other sword, which probably belonged to
+Ferdinand the Catholic, is of the kind known as
+&ldquo;of a hand and a half&rdquo; (<i>de mano y media</i>; see
+p. 248, <i>note</i>), and also of the class denominated
+<i>estoques de arzón</i>, or &ldquo;saddle-bow swords,&rdquo; being
+commonly slung from the forepart of the saddle
+upon the left side of the rider. Ferdinand, however,
+had reason to be chary of this usage, for
+Lucio Marineo Sículo affirms that at the siege
+of Velez-Málaga the sword which he was wearing
+thus suspended, jammed at a critical moment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+the fray, and very nearly caused his death.
+Sículo adds that after this experience Ferdinand
+invariably wore his sword girt round his person,
+just as he wears it in the carving on the choir-stalls
+of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury contains another sword
+improperly attributed both to Ferdinand the
+Third and Ferdinand the Catholic. It dates
+from the fifteenth century, and has a blade
+of unusual strength intended to resist plate
+armour. This blade, which has a central ridge
+continued to the very point, is very broad towards
+the handle, tapers rapidly, and measures
+thirty-two inches. At the broader end, and on
+a gilded ground embellished with concentric
+circles, are graven such legends as:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Lord is my aid. I will not fear what
+man may do to me, and will despise my enemies.
+Superior to them, I will destroy them utterly.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Make me worthy to praise thee, O sweet and
+blessed Virgin Mary.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The handle is of iron, with traces of gilded
+decoration, and corded with black silk. The
+Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that no
+reliable information can be found concerning
+this fine arm. Its length and general design<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+would allow of its being used with one hand or
+with both, and either slung from the saddle-bow
+or round the middle of a warrior on foot.</p>
+
+<p>Another handsome sword, wrongly attributed
+by the ignorant to Alfonso the Sixth, is kept at
+Toledo, in the sacristy of the cathedral. The
+scabbard is adorned with fourteenth-century
+enamel in the <i>champlevé</i> style. Baron de las
+Cuatro Torres considers that this sword belonged
+to the archbishop Don Pedro Tenorio (see <a href="#Page_269">p. 269</a>),
+and adduces his proofs in the <i>Boletín de la
+Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i> for March
+1897. The prelate in question, appointed to
+command an army sent against Granada, was,
+like so many of the Spanish mediæval clerics,
+of a warlike temper, and &ldquo;exchanged with great
+alacrity his rochet for his harness, and his mitre
+for his helm.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>One of the most ridiculous and barefaced
+forgeries in the Royal Armoury is a sixteenth-century
+sword which has inscribed upon its blade
+the name of the redoubtable Bernardo del Carpio.
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says he
+remembers to have met with other blades of
+later mediæval make, engraved with such legends
+as &ldquo;belonging to Count Fernán-Gonzalez,&rdquo; or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+even &ldquo;Recaredus Rex Gothorum,&rdquo; while others
+in this armoury are ascribed, without the least
+authority of fact or common sense, to García de
+Paredes, Alvaro de Sande, and Hernando de
+Alarcón. Others, again, with less extravagance,
+though not on solid proof, are said to have belonged
+to Hernán Cortés, the Count of Lemos,
+and Diego Hurtado de Mendoza.</p>
+
+<p>Some, upon the other hand, belonged undoubtedly
+to celebrated Spanish warriors of the
+olden time. Such are the swords of the Count
+of Coruña, of Gonzalo de Córdova, and of the conqueror
+of Peru, Francisco Pizarro. The first of
+these weapons (Pl. <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 4) has a superb hilt
+carved in the style of the Spanish Renaissance,
+with crossbars curving down, a <i>pas d'âne</i>, and a
+Toledo blade of six <i>mesas</i> (&ldquo;tables&rdquo;) or surfaces,
+grooved on both sides, and ending in a blunt
+point. The armourer's mark, which seems to
+represent a <i>fleur-de-lis</i> four times repeated, is
+that of the swordsmith Juan Martinez, whose
+name we read upon the blade, together with the
+words <span class="smcap">IN TE DOMINE SPERAVI</span>, and on the other
+side, in Spanish, <span class="smcap">PARA DON BERNARDINO XVAREZ
+DE MENDOZA, CONDE DE CORVÑA</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The sword of &ldquo;the great captain,&rdquo; Gonzalo de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+Córdova (1453&ndash;1515), is not of Spanish make
+(Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 3). It has a straight blade with
+bevelled edges. The pommel and <i>quillons</i> are
+decorated with Renaissance carving, and the
+bars, which are of gilded iron, grow wider at
+their end and curve towards the blade. The
+pommel, of gilded copper, is spherical, and
+bears, upon one side, a scene which represents
+a battle, together with the words <span class="smcap">GONSALVI
+AGIDARI VICTORIA DE GALLIS AD CANNAS</span>. Upon
+the other side are carved his arms. Other inscriptions
+in Latin are also on the pommel and
+the blade.</p>
+
+<p>The Count of Valencia de Don Juan believed
+that this sword was a present to Gonzalo from
+the corporation of some Italian town, and that it
+replaced, as an <i>estoque real</i>, or sword of ceremony,
+the state sword (see <a href="#Page_252">p. 252</a>) of Ferdinand and
+Isabella.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_258.jpg" width="360" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_258.jpg" id="img_258.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SPANISH SWORDS<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pizarro's sword remained in possession of his
+descendants, the Marquises of La Conquista, until
+as recently as 1809, in which year this family
+presented it to a Scotch officer named John
+Downie, who had fought in the Peninsular War
+against the French. Downie, in turn, bequeathed
+it to his brother Charles, lieutenant-colonel in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+Spanish army, from whom it passed into the hands
+of Ferdinand the Seventh. The appearance of
+this sword is not remarkable. It has a stout,
+four-surfaced blade, with a powerful <i>recazo</i> or
+central ridge, engraved with the Christian name
+of Mateo Duarte, a swordsmith who was living at
+Valencia in the middle of the sixteenth century.
+The hilt is of blued (<i>pavonado</i>) steel, inlaid with
+leaves and other ornament in gold. The pommel
+is a disc; the <i>quillons</i> are straight, or very nearly
+so, and there is a <i>pas d'âne</i> (Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 2).</p>
+
+<p>The sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries
+are famous as the epoch of the Spanish rapier.
+Toledo, as the world is well aware, enjoyed an
+undisputed name for the production of these
+weapons. Within this ancient and historic capital
+generations of artists bequeathed, from father to
+son, and son to grandson, the secret (if there
+were a secret) of the tempering of these matchless
+arms; nor have Toledo blades deteriorated to this
+day. Many an idle superstition seeks to justify
+the talent and dexterity of these swordsmiths;
+though probably the key to all their skill was
+merely in the manual cunning, based on constant
+practice, of the craftsman, as well as in the native
+virtues of the water of the Tagus.</p>
+
+<p>In one of my books I have described the workshop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+of an armourer of Toledo in the sixteenth
+century. &ldquo;After a few moments we entered the
+Calle de las Armas, which struck me as having
+grown a good deal narrower; and my companion,
+pausing beside an open doorway topped with a
+sign depicting a halberd and a sword, invited me
+to enter. Two or three steps led downwards to
+a dark, damp passage, and at the end of this was
+a low but very large room, blackened by the
+smoke from half a dozen forges. The walls were
+hung with a bewildering variety of arms and parts
+of armour&mdash;gauntlets and cuirasses; morions,
+palettes, and lobster-tails; partisans and ranseurs;
+halberds, bayonets, and spontoons; as well as
+swords and daggers without number. Several
+anvils, with tall, narrow buckets filled with water
+standing beside them, were arranged about the
+stone-paved floor; and beside each forge was a
+large heap of fine, white sand.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The showers of sparks, together with a couple
+of ancient-looking lamps whose flames shook fitfully
+to and fro in the vibration, showed thirty or
+forty workmen busily engaged; and what with
+the clanging of the hammers, the roaring of the
+bellows, and the strident hissing of the hot metal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+as it plunged into the cold water, the racket was
+incessant.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;My cicerone surveyed the discordant scene
+with all the nonchalance of lifelong custom,
+daintily eluding the columns of scalding steam, or
+screening his <i>chambergo</i> from the sparks. Finding,
+however, that I was powerless to understand the
+remarks he kept addressing to me, he finally held
+up his finger and gave the signal to cease work;
+upon which the <i>oficial</i> handed him a bundle of
+papers which I took to be accounts, and the men,
+doffing their leathern aprons, and hanging them
+in a corner, filed eagerly away.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;It is quite simple,&rsquo; said my companion, as
+though divining the query I was about to put to
+him; &lsquo;and indeed, I often wonder why we are so
+famous. They say it is the water; but any water
+will do. Or else they say it is the sand; and yet
+this sand, though clean and pure, is just the same
+as any other. Look! The blade of nearly all
+our swords is composed of three pieces&mdash;two
+strips of steel, from Mondragón in Guipúzcoa,
+and an iron core. This latter is the <i>alma</i>, or soul.
+The three pieces are heated and beaten together;
+and when they grow red-hot and begin to throw
+out sparks, they are withdrawn from the fire, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+few handfuls of sand are thrown over them. The
+welding of the pieces is then continued on the
+anvil; and, finally, the file is brought to bear on
+all unevennesses, and the weapon passes on to
+the temperer, the grinder, and the burnisher.&rsquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_262.jpg" width="261" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_262.jpg" id="img_262.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SWORD<br />
+(<i>13th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;&lsquo;It is in the tempering that we have earned
+our principal renown, although this process is
+quite as simple as the rest. Upon the forge&mdash;see,
+here is one still burning&mdash;a fire is made in the
+form of a narrow trench, long enough to receive
+four-fifths of the length of the weapon. As soon
+as the metal reaches a certain colour&rsquo; (I thought
+I noted a mischievous twinkle in the armourer's
+eyes, as though this <i>certain colour</i> were the key
+to all our conversation), &lsquo;I take these pincers,
+and, grasping the portion which had remained
+outside the fire, drop the weapon so, point downwards,
+into the bucket of water. Any curve is
+then made straight by beating upon the concave
+side, and the part which had been previously kept
+outside the trench of fire returns to the forge and
+is duly heated. The entire blade is next smeared
+with mutton fat, and rested against the wall to
+cool, point upwards. There is nothing more except
+the finishing. Your sword is made.&rsquo;&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p>
+
+<p>The following passage from Bowles' <i>Natural</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+<i>History of Spain</i>, written in 1752, is also of
+especial interest here:&mdash;&ldquo;At a league's distance
+from Mondragón is a mine of varnished, or, as
+miners term it, frozen iron. It lies in the midst
+of soft red earth, and produces natural steel&mdash;a
+very curious circumstance, seeing that, as I am
+assured, there is no other mine of this description
+in the kingdom. A tradition exists that the
+iron from this mine was used for making the
+swords, so celebrated for their tempering, presented
+by Doña Catalina, daughter of the Catholic
+Sovereigns, to her husband, Henry the Eighth of
+England. A few of these swords are yet extant
+in Scotland, where the natives call them <i>André
+Ferrara</i>,<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> and esteem them greatly. The famous
+sword-blades of Toledo, and the Perrillo blades
+of Zaragoza, which are still so highly valued, as
+well as others made elsewhere, are said to have
+been forged from the iron of this mine, which
+yields forty per cent. of metal. It is, however,
+somewhat hard to melt. With a little trouble it
+is possible to secure excellent steel, because this
+mine, like many another, possesses in itself the
+quality of readily taking from the coal of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+forge the spirit which is indispensable for making
+first-rate swords; but without cementation I do
+not think it would serve for making good files
+or razors.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The swords of which I spoke as being so
+famed were generally either of a long shape, for
+wearing with a ruff; or broad, and known as the
+<i>arzón</i>, for use on horseback. It is probable that
+when the ruff was suddenly abandoned at the
+beginning of this century, large quantities of
+ready-fitted swords began to be imported from
+abroad, of such a kind as was demanded by the
+novel clothing. This would account for the
+decline and the eventual collapse of our factories,
+and the loss of our art of tempering swords.
+Concerning the mode of executing this, opinions
+differ. It is said by some that the blades were
+tempered in winter only, and that when they were
+withdrawn for the last time from the furnace, the
+smiths would shake them in the air at great speed
+three times on a very cold day. Others say that
+the blades were heated to a cherry-colour, then
+plunged for a couple of seconds into a deep
+jar filled with oil or grease, and changed forthwith
+to another vessel of lukewarm water, after
+which they were set to cool in cold water; all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+these operations being performed at midwinter.
+Others, again, declare that the blades were
+forged from the natural iron of Mondragón by
+placing a strip of ordinary iron along their core
+so as to give them greater elasticity; and
+that they were then tempered in the ordinary
+manner, though always in the winter. Such
+are the prevailing theories about the iron
+swords of Mondragón, which are, in truth, of
+admirable quality.&ldquo;</p>
+
+<p>Magnificent examples of Toledo sword-blades,
+produced while her craft was at the zenith of its
+fame&mdash;that is, throughout the sixteenth and the
+seventeenth centuries&mdash;are in the Royal Armoury
+(Pl. <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., Nos. 5, 6, 7). Among them are a series
+of <i>montantes</i> made for tournament or war, and a
+superb blade, dated 1564, forged for Philip the
+Second by Miguel Cantero. The Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan considered this to be one
+of the finest weapons ever tempered; adding that
+the sword-blades of the city of the Tagus were
+held in such esteem all over Europe that he had
+seen, in numerous museums of the Continent,
+weapons professing to be Toledo-made, in which
+the blade and mark are evidently forged; bearing,
+for instance, <i>Ernantz</i> for Hernandez, <i>Johanos</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+for Juanes, and <i>Tomas Dailae</i> for Tomás de
+Ayala.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally agreed that the changes in the
+national costume, together with the importation
+of a lighter make of sword from France, were
+directly responsible for the decline of the Toledo
+sword-blades early in the eighteenth century.
+However, this decline was only temporary.
+Townsend wrote in 1786: &ldquo;From the Alcazar
+we went to visit the royal manufactory of arms,
+with which I was much pleased. The steel is excellent,
+and so perfectly tempered, that in thrusting
+at a target, the swords will bend like whalebone,
+and yet cut through a helmet without turning
+their edge. This once famous manufacture
+had been neglected, and in a manner lost, but it
+is now reviving.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Laborde endorsed these praises subsequently:
+&ldquo;Within a few years the fabrication of swords
+has been resumed at Toledo; the place allotted to
+this object is a handsome edifice, a quarter of a
+league distant from the city, which commands
+the banks of the Tagus. This undertaking has
+hitherto been prosperous; the swords are celebrated
+for the excellence of their blades, which are
+of finely tempered steel.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_266.jpg" width="298" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_266.jpg" id="img_266.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">OLD SWORD<br />
+(<i>Erroneously attributed to the Cid. Collection
+of the Marquis of Falces</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The modern small-arms factory of Toledo,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+situated on the right bank of the Tagus, a mile
+from the city walls, had, in fact, been opened in
+1783, when the same industry was also reviving
+at Vitoria, Barcelona, and elsewhere. Toledo
+worthily maintains to-day her ancient and illustrious
+reputation for this craft. The Tagus still
+supplies its magic water for the tempering, while
+part of the prime material of the steel itself
+proceeds from Solingen and Styria, and the rest
+from Trubia and Malaga.</p>
+
+<p>Cutlery continued to be made in Spain all
+through the eighteenth century. Colmenar says
+that the knives of Barcelona were considered excellent.
+According to Laborde, cutlery was made
+at Solsona and Cardona in Cataluña, at Mora
+in New Castile, and at Albacete in Murcia.
+&ldquo;The cutlery of Solsona is in great repute; but
+the largest quantity is made at Albacete. In
+the latter place are about twenty-eight working
+cutlers, each of whom employs five or six journeymen,
+who respectively manufacture annually six
+or seven thousand pieces, amounting in the
+whole to about one hundred and eighty thousand
+pieces.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>FIREARMS</h3>
+
+<p>Cannon of a primitive kind were used in Spain
+comparatively early. A large variety of names
+was given to these pieces, such as <i>cerbatanas</i>,
+<i>ribadoquines</i>, <i>culebrinas</i>, <i>falconetes</i>, <i>pasavolantes</i>,
+<i>lombardas</i> or <i>bombardas</i>, and many more; but
+the oldest, commonest, and most comprehensive
+name of all was <i>trueno</i>, &ldquo;thunder,&rdquo; from the
+terrifying noise of the discharge. This word was
+used for both the piece and the projectile. The
+Count of Clonard quotes Pedro Megía's <i>Silva de
+Varias Lecciones</i> to show that gunpowder was
+known in Spain as early as the eleventh century.
+&ldquo;Thunders&rdquo; of some description seem to have
+been used at the siege of Zaragoza in 1118; and
+a Moorish author, writing in 1249, describes in
+fearsome terms &ldquo;the horrid noise like thunder,
+vomiting fire in all directions, destroying everything,
+reducing everything to ashes.&rdquo; Al-Jattib,
+the historian of Granada, wrote at the beginning
+of the fourteenth century that the sultan of that
+kingdom used at the siege of Baza &ldquo;a mighty
+engine, applying fire thereto, prepared with
+naphtha and with balls.&rdquo; The Chronicle of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+Alfonso the Eleventh describes in a quaint and
+graphic passage the crude artillery of that period,
+and the panic it occasioned. At the siege of
+Algeciras in 1342, &ldquo;the Moors that were within
+the city threw many &lsquo;thunders&rsquo; at the (Christian)
+host, together with mighty balls of iron, to such a
+distance that several overpassed the army, and
+some did damage to our host. Also, by means
+of &lsquo;thunders&rsquo; they threw arrows exceeding great
+and thick, so that it was as much as a man
+could do to lift them from the ground. And as
+for the iron balls these &lsquo;thunders&rsquo; hurled, men
+were exceedingly afraid thereof; for if they
+chanced to strike a limb they cut it off as clean as
+with a knife, and though the wound were but a
+slight one, yet was the man as good as dead; nor
+was any chirurgery that might avail him, both
+because the balls came burning hot, like flame,
+and because the powder which discharged them
+was of such a kind that any wound it made was
+surely mortal; and such was the violence of these
+balls, that they went through a man, together
+with all his armour.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the same century the
+testament of Don Pedro Tenorio (see <a href="#Page_256">p. 256</a>), the
+bellicose archbishop of Alcalá de Henares, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+ruled that diocese from 1376 to 1399, contains
+the following passage:&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Item</i>. We bought
+crossbows and bassinets both for foot and horse,
+together with shields, pikes, javelins, darts,
+lombards, hemp, powder, and other munitions for
+the castles of our Church; of which munitions we
+stored the greater quantity at Talavera and at
+Alcalá de Henares, purposing to deposit them at
+Cazorla and in the castles of Canales and of
+Alhamin, which we are now repairing after they
+were thrown down by the King Don Pedro, and
+for the tower of Cazorla, which we are now
+erecting. And it is our will that all of these
+munitions be for the said castles and tower; and
+that no one lay his hand on them, on pain of
+excommunication, excepting only the bishop
+elected and confirmed who shall succeed us; and
+he shall distribute them as he holds best among
+the aforesaid castles. And all the best of these
+munitions shall be for the governorship of Cazorla,
+as being most needed there to overthrow the
+enemies of our faith; and we have duly lodged
+the shields and crossbows, parted from the rest,
+upon the champaign of Toledo; whither should
+arrive more shields from Valladolid, that all
+together may be carried to Cazorla.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_270.jpg" width="455" height="600"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_270.jpg" id="img_270.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">SPANISH SWORDS<br />
+(<i>Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The article from which I quote this passage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+adds that the palace of the archbishop at Alcalá
+de Henares was fortified with cannon until the
+beginning of the nineteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cannon are mentioned with increasing frequency
+throughout the fifteenth century; and in
+the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella we read of
+lombards of enormous size, which had to be
+dragged across the Andalusian hills and plains
+by many scores of men and beasts; which frequently
+stuck fast and had to be abandoned on
+the march; and which, even in the best of circumstances,
+could only be discharged some twice or
+thrice a day.</p>
+
+<p>In reading documents and chronicles of older
+Spain, it is easy to confound the early forms of
+cannon with the engines similar to those employed
+by the Crusaders in the Holy Land, and built
+for hurling stones or arrows of large size. Such
+engines were the <i>trabuco</i>, the <i>almajanech</i> or
+<i>almojaneque</i>, the <i>algarrada</i>, and the <i>fundíbalo</i> or
+Catalan <i>fonevol</i>. Beuter, in his <i>Chronicle of
+Spain and of Valencia</i>, describes the latter as &ldquo;a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+certain instrument which has a sling made fast
+to an extremity of wood &hellip; made to revolve
+so rapidly that the arm, on being released, projects
+the stone with such a force as to inflict much
+harm, even in distant places, whither could reach
+no missile slung by the hand of man.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Turning to portable Spanish firearms, we find
+that the precursor of the arquebus, musket, and
+rifle seems to have been a weapon which was
+introduced about the middle of the fifteenth
+century, and called the <i>espingarda</i>. Alfonso de
+Palencia says it was employed against the rebels
+of Toledo in 1467; and the Chronicle of Don
+Alvaro de Luna relates that when this nobleman
+was standing beside Don Iñigo d'Estúñiga, upon
+a certain occasion in 1453, &ldquo;a man came out in
+his shirt and set fire to an <i>espingarda</i>, discharging
+the shot thereof above the heads of Don
+Alvaro and of Iñigo d'Estúñiga, but wounding
+an esquire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_272.jpg" width="500" height="435"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_272.jpg" id="img_272.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">MARKS OF TOLEDAN ARMOURERS (15TH&ndash;17TH CENTURIES),
+FROM SWORDS IN THE ROYAL ARMOURY AT MADRID</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As time advanced, portable firearms of first-rate
+quality were made throughout the northern
+Spanish provinces, and also in Navarra, Cataluña,
+Aragon, and Andalusia. The inventory of the
+Dukes of Alburquerque mentions, in 1560, &ldquo;four
+flint arquebuses of Zaragoza make &hellip; another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+arquebus of Zaragoza, together with its fuse,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;arquebuses of those that are made within this
+province&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> of Segovia). Cristóbal Frisleva,
+of Ricla in Aragon, and Micerguillo of Seville
+were celebrated makers of this arm; but probably
+these and all the other Spanish masters of this
+craft derived their skill from foreign teaching,
+such as that of the brothers Simon and Peter
+Marckwart (in Spanish the name is spelt <i>Marcuarte</i>,)
+who were brought to Spain by Charles
+the Fifth.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Royal Armoury contains some finely
+decorated guns, made for the kings of Spain at
+the close of the seventeenth century and early in
+the eighteenth, by Juan Belen, Juan Fernandez,
+Francisco Baeza y Bis, and Nicolás Bis. The
+last-named, pupil of Juan Belen, was a German;
+but all these gunsmiths lived and worked at
+Madrid. Nicolás was arquebus-maker to Charles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
+the Second from 1691, and afterwards held the
+same post from Philip the Fifth. He died in
+1726, and the Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+says that in 1808&mdash;that is, before it was plundered
+by the mob&mdash;the Royal Armoury contained no
+fewer than fifty-three weapons of his manufacture.
+One of the guns which bear his mark, and still
+exist, is inscribed with the words, &ldquo;I belong to
+the Queen our lady&rdquo; (Isabel Farnese, first wife
+of Philip the Fifth), combined with the arms of
+León and Castile, and of the Bourbon family.
+This weapon was used, or intended to be used,
+for hunting.</p>
+
+<p>Diego Esquivel, another gunsmith of Madrid,
+was also famous early in the eighteenth century,
+as, later on, were Manuel Sutil, José Cano,
+Francisco Lopez, Salvador Cenarro, Isidro Soler
+(author of a <i>Compendious History of the Arquebus-makers
+of Madrid</i>), Juan de Soto, and Sebastián
+Santos.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_274.jpg" width="362" height="500"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_274.jpg" id="img_274.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption"><i>BRIDONA</i> SADDLE<br />
+(<i>15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Swinburne wrote from Cataluña in 1775; &ldquo;the
+gun-barrels of Barcelona are much esteemed, and
+cost from four to twenty guineas, but about five
+is the real value; all above is paid for fancy and
+ornament; they are made out of the old shoes of
+mules.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Until 1793, the smaller firearms of the Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+army were made at Plasencia in Guipúzcoa. In
+that year the government factory, where hand-labour
+alone continued to be used till 1855, was
+removed to Oviedo. To-day this factory employs
+about five hundred workmen. In 1809 Laborde
+wrote that &ldquo;firearms, such as fusees, musquets, carbines,
+and pistols are manufactured at Helgoivar,
+Eybor, and Plasencia; at Oviedo, Barcelona,
+Igualada, and at Ripoll; the arms made at the
+latter city have long had a distinguished reputation.
+Seven hundred and sixty-five gunsmiths,
+it is estimated, find employment in the factories of
+Guipúzcoa.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Both Townsend and the foregoing writer give
+a good account of Spanish cannon at this time.
+According to Laborde, &ldquo;two excellent founderies
+for brass cannon are royal establishments at
+Barcelona and Seville; in the latter city copper
+cannon are cast, following the method recommended
+by M. Maritz. Iron ordnance are made
+at Lierganez and Cavada.&rdquo; Townsend wrote
+of Barcelona, in 1786; &ldquo;The foundery for
+brass cannon is magnificent, and worthy of
+inspection. It is impossible anywhere to see
+either finer metal, or work executed in a neater<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+and more perfect manner. Their method of
+boring was, in the present reign, introduced by
+Maritz, a Swiss. Near two hundred twenty-four
+pounders are finished every year, besides mortars
+and field-pieces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<h3>SADDLERY AND COACHES</h3>
+
+<p>Probably no relic of the former of these crafts
+in Spain is older or more curious than the iron
+bit (Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 8), inlaid with silver
+dragons' heads and crosses, and attributed, from
+cruciform monograms which also decorate it, to
+the Visigothic King Witiza (who died in 711),
+or sometimes to the conqueror of Toledo, Alfonso
+the Sixth (eleventh century). The spurs or
+<i>acicates</i> (Plate <a href="#img_270.jpg">lvii</a>., No. 9) of Ferdinand the
+Third of Castile, who conquered Seville from the
+Moors, are also treasured in the Royal Armoury,
+and bear upon an iron ground remains of gold and
+silver decoration representing castles. The Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan believed these spurs to
+be authentic, because they are identical with the
+ones which Ferdinand wears in his equestrian
+seal, preserved among the National Archives of
+France, and dating from the year 1237.</p>
+
+<p>Saddles of various kinds were used in Spain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+throughout the Middle Ages. Among them
+were the ordinary travelling-saddle or <i>silla de
+barda</i> (Arabic <i>al-bardá</i>); saddles <i>de palafrén</i>,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> the
+<i>silla de la guisa</i>, or <i>de la brida</i> or <i>bridona</i>, for
+riding with long stirrups, and consequently the
+antithesis of the <i>gineta</i> saddle;<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> or saddles
+made for use exclusively in war, on which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+rider was accustomed to make the sign of the
+cross before or after mounting, such as the <i>lidona</i>,
+<i>gallega</i> (&ldquo;<i>siellas gallegas</i>&rdquo; are mentioned in the
+<i>Poem of the Cid</i>), and <i>corsera</i> or <i>cocera</i> (Arabic
+<i>al-corsi</i>), or else the <i>silla de conteras</i>, &ldquo;whose
+hindmost bow,&rdquo; according to the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan, &ldquo;terminated in converging
+pieces to protect the wearer's thighs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A saddle known as the <i>silla de rua</i>, or &ldquo;street
+saddle,&rdquo; was generally used in Spain throughout
+the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. It
+was intended, not for war, but promenade and
+show, and therefore richly decorated. The Royal
+Armoury has nineteen of these saddles, all of
+which are Spanish-made. In the same collection
+is a plain <i>bridona</i> saddle (Plate <a href="#img_274.jpg">lix</a>.), with iron
+stirrups and two gilt-metal bells, such as were
+commonly used in tournaments or other festivals.
+This saddle has been erroneously ascribed to the
+thirteenth century. It dates from the beginning
+of the fifteenth century, and proceeds from
+Majorca.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_278.jpg" width="500" height="341"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_278.jpg" id="img_278.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">HANGING <i>JAECES</i> FOR HORSES</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The old belief that one of the saddles in this
+armoury, whose bows are chased with a design
+in black and gilt of leaves and pilgrim's shells,
+was once upon a time the Cid Campeador's,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+has been exploded recently. The saddle in
+question is known to be Italian, dates from the
+sixteenth century, and bears the arms of a town
+in the duchy of Montferrato.</p>
+
+<p>The inventory (1560) of the dukes of Alburquerque
+mentions some curious saddles, including
+one &ldquo;<i>de la brida</i>, of blue velvet, with the bows
+painted gold, and on the front bow a cannon with
+its carriage, and on the hind bow another cannon
+with flames of fire.&rdquo; Among the rest were &ldquo;a
+<i>gineta</i> saddle of red leather, used by my lord the
+duke,&rdquo; together with saddles of bay leather, of
+dark brown leather, of &ldquo;smooth leather with
+trappings of blue cloth,&rdquo; of Cordova leather, and
+&ldquo;a date-coloured <i>gineta</i>-saddle, complete.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The same inventory specifies innumerable
+smaller articles of harness, such as stirrups, spurs,
+reins, headstalls, and poitrals or breast-leathers.
+Many of these pieces were richly ornamented; <i>e.g.</i>,
+&ldquo;some silver headstalls of small size, enamelled
+in blue, with gilt supports of iron,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> as well as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>
+&ldquo;some silver headstalls, gilded and enamelled
+green and rose, with shields upon the temples.&rdquo;
+Others of these headstalls were made of copper,
+and nearly all were colour-enamelled.</p>
+
+<p>The stirrups included &ldquo;two Moorish stirrups of
+gilded tin, for a woman's use&rdquo;;<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> &ldquo;some large
+Moorish stirrups, gilt, with two silver plates upon
+their faces, enamelled gold, green, and blue, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+eight nails on either face&rdquo;; &ldquo;some other Moorish
+stirrups, wrought inside with <i>ataujía</i>-work in gold,
+and outside with plates of copper enamelled in
+green, blue, and white; the handles gilt, with
+coverings of red leather&rdquo;; and &ldquo;some silver
+stirrups with three bars upon the floor thereof,
+round-shaped in the manner of an urinal, with
+open sides consisting of two bars, a flower within
+a small shield on top, and, over this, the small
+face of a man.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The many sets of reins included several of
+Granada make, coloured in white, red, and
+bay; while one of the most elaborate of the
+poitrals was of &ldquo;red leather, embroidered with
+gold thread, with fringes of rose-coloured silk,
+buckles, ends, and rounded knobs; the whole of
+copper enamelled green, and blue, and white.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Small but attractive accessories to these handsome
+sets of mediæval Spanish harness were the
+decorative medals (Plate <a href="#img_278.jpg">lx</a>.) hung from the
+horse's breast in tourneying or in war. In France
+these medals were known as <i>annelets volants</i>,
+<i>branlants</i>, or <i>pendants</i>; although in Spain, where
+it is probable that they were used more widely
+than in other countries, they have no definite
+name. The term <i>jaeces</i> is sometimes applied to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>
+them; but <i>jaez</i> properly means the entire harness
+for a horse, and the word is thus employed by
+classic Spanish authors, such as Tirso de Molina.
+A recent term, invented by a living writer, is
+<i>jaeces colgantes</i>, or &ldquo;hanging <i>jaeces</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These ornaments, which had their origin among
+the Romans and Byzantines, are figured in certain
+of the older Spanish codices such as the <i>Cántigas
+de Santa Maria</i>. In Christian Spain, however,
+their vogue was greatest in the thirteenth and
+the fourteenth centuries. They disappeared altogether
+in the sixteenth century; and among the
+Spanish Moors their use, though not unknown,
+was always quite exceptional.</p>
+
+<p>The mottoes and devices on these little plates
+are very varied. Sometimes the motto has an
+amorous, sometimes a religious import. Sometimes
+the vehicle of the motto is Latin, sometimes
+Spanish, sometimes French. Sometimes
+the device contains, or is composed of, a blazon,
+and commonly there is floral or other ornament.
+A collection of nearly three hundred of these
+medals belonged to the late Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan, all of which were probably made
+in Spain. The material as a rule is copper,
+adorned with <i>champlevé</i> enamelling, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+colours often used to decorate and relieve the
+interspaces of the gilded metal are red, blue,
+black, white, and green.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_282.jpg" width="500" height="371"
+        alt="see caption"
+        title="see caption" />
+        <a name="img_282.jpg" id="img_282.jpg"></a>
+<p class="caption">TRAVELLING LITTER<br />
+(<i>Attributed to Charles the Fifth. Royal Armoury, Madrid</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to Florencio Janer, coaches were
+not known in Spain until the middle of the sixteenth
+century. Before that time the usual conveyance
+was the litter. The Madrid Armoury
+contains an object which is thought to have been
+the campaigning-litter of Charles the Fifth
+(Plate <a href="#img_282.jpg">lxi</a>.). The Count of Valencia de Don
+Juan also inclined to this belief from the circumstance
+that an engraving exists in the British
+Museum which represents a German litter of the
+sixteenth century, identical in all respects with
+this one. Probably, however, these litters were
+the same all over Europe. The inventory of the
+Dukes of Alburquerque includes, in 1560, a &ldquo;cowhide
+litter, black, lined with black serge; also
+poles stained black, and harness for mules.&rdquo;
+This, together with other travelling gear, belonged
+to &ldquo;my lady the duchess&rdquo;; and it is
+worth noting that the litter attributed to Charles,
+though cased with a protective covering of
+whitish canvas, is also of black leather and lined
+with black serge, besides being evidently built for
+carriage by two mules. The interior contains a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+small armchair rising some inches only from the
+floor, and which, requiring him to keep his legs
+continually outstretched, could hardly fail to prove
+excruciatingly uncomfortable to the traveller.</p>
+
+<p>Mendez Silva says that the precise date of the
+introduction of coaches into Spain was 1546,
+and other writers do not greatly differ from him.
+The Alburquerque inventory includes &ldquo;two four-wheeled
+coaches,&rdquo; as well as &ldquo;a triumphal car
+with four wheels, its body painted with red and
+gold stripes.&rdquo; Vanderhamen, who says that the
+first coach ever seen in Spain was brought here
+by a servant of Charles the Fifth in 1554, adds
+that within a little time their use became &ldquo;a hellish
+vice that wrought incalculable havoc to Castile.&rdquo;
+Certainly this vehicle for many years was far from
+popular among the Spaniards, and was assailed
+with special vehemence by all who lacked the
+income to support one. The Duke of Berganza
+is said to have remarked that &ldquo;God had fashioned
+horses for the use of men, and men had fashioned
+coaches for the use of women&rdquo;; while a priest,
+Tomás Ramón, declared that it was &ldquo;a vast
+disgrace to see bearded men, with rapiers at their
+side, promenading in a coach.&rdquo; Even the governing
+powers thought fit to interfere. In 1550,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+1563, and 1573 the Cortes demanded the total
+prohibition of these modish yet detested vehicles,
+while the Cortes of 1578 decreed four horses as
+the statutory and invariable number for a private
+carriage. A further law enacted in 1611 that
+coaches must be strictly private property, and not,
+on pain of rigorous chastisement, be lent or hired
+by their owner;<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> while the owner, to own or use
+a coach at all, required a special licence from the
+Crown.</p>
+
+<p>Some curious facts relating to these vehicles in
+older Spain are instanced by Janer. In the
+seventeenth century a Spanish provincial town
+would normally contain a couple of hundred
+coaches. Among such boroughs was Granada.
+Here, in 1615, the authorities, backed by
+nearly all the citizens, protested that the coaches
+ploughed the highway into muddy pits and
+channels, and gave occasion, after nightfall, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+disgraceful and immoral scenes.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> After a while
+the protest grew so loud that the use of coaches in
+this capital was totally suppressed. One of the
+first persons to employ a coach in Granada had
+been the Marquis of Mondejar; and yet, in spite
+of his extensive influence, this nobleman, each
+time he wished to drive abroad, required to
+sue for licence from the town authorities, and
+these, in making out the written permit, took
+care to specify the streets through which he was
+allowed to pass.</p>
+
+<p>Assailed by numerous pragmatics,<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> chiefly of a
+sumptuary tenor and repeated at spasmodic
+intervals until as late as 1785, the private coach
+became at last an undisputed adjunct to the
+national life of Spain. Doubtless the use by
+royalty of gala-coaches or <i>carrozas</i> went far to
+sanction and extend their vogue. However, I
+will not describe these lumbering, uncouth, and
+over-ornamented gala-carriages (some of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+were made in Spain) belonging to the Spanish
+Crown, but quote the following pragmatic, dated
+1723, as aptly illustrative of the progress of this
+industry, and other industries akin to it, in the
+Peninsula:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In order to restrain the immoderate use of
+coaches, state-coaches, <i>estufas</i>, litters, <i>furlones</i>,<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>
+and calashes, we order that from this time forth
+no one of these be decorated with gold embroidery
+or any kind of silk containing gold, nor yet with
+bands or fringes that have gold or silver points;
+but only with velvets, damasks, and other simple
+silken fabrics made within this realm and its dependencies,
+or else in foreign countries that have
+friendly commerce with us. Also, the fringes
+and galloons shall be of silk alone; and none, of
+whatsoever dignity and degree, shall cause his
+coach, state-coach, etc., to be decorated with the
+fringes that are known as net-work, tassel-pointed,
+or bell-pointed; but only with undecorated, simple
+fringes, or with those of Santa Isabel; nor shall
+the breadth of either kind of these exceed four
+fingers. Also, he shall not cause his coach, state-coach,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>
+etc., to be overlaid with any gilt or silvered
+work, or painted with any manner of design&mdash;meaning
+by such, historic scenes, marines, landscapes,
+flowers, masks, knots of the pattern known
+as coulicoles, coats of arms, war devices, perspectives,
+or any other painting, except it imitate
+marble, or be marbled over of one single colour
+chosen at the owner's fancy; and further, we
+allow in every coach, state-coach, etc., only a
+certain moderate quantity of carving. And this
+our order and pragmatic shall begin to rule upon
+the day it is made public; from which day forth
+no person shall construct, or buy, or bring from
+other countries, coaches or <i>estufas</i> that infringe
+our law herein expressed; wherefore we order
+the <i>alcaldes</i> of this town, our court and capital, to
+make a register of all such vehicles that each
+house contains, without excepting any. Nevertheless,
+considering that if we should prohibit
+very shortly those conveyances that now be
+lawful, the owners would be put to great expense,
+we grant a period of two years wherein
+they may consume or rid themselves thereof;
+upon the expiration of which term our law
+shall be again made public, and thenceforward
+all, regardless of their quality and rank, shall be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>
+compelled to pay obedience to the same. Also
+we order that no person make or go abroad in
+hand-chairs fitted with brocade, or cloth of gold
+or silver, or yet with any silk containing gold and
+silver; nor shall the lining be embroidered or
+adorned with any of the stuffs aforesaid; but
+the covering of the chair, inside and out, shall
+only be of velvet, damask, or other unmixed silk,
+with a plain fringe of four fingers' breadth and
+button-holes of the same silk, and not of silver,
+gold, or thread, or any covering other than those
+aforesaid; but the columns of such chairs may be
+adorned with silken trimmings nailed thereto.
+And we allow, as in the case of coaches, a period
+of two years for wearing out the hand-chairs now
+in use&hellip;. Also, we order that the coverings
+of coaches, <i>estufas</i>, litters, calashes, and <i>furlones</i>
+shall not be made of any kind of silk, or yet the
+harness of horses or mules for coaches and travelling
+litters; and that the said coaches, gala-coaches,
+<i>estufas</i>, litters, calashes, and <i>furlones</i> shall not be
+back-stitched (<i>pespuntados</i>), even if they should
+be of cowhide or of cordwain (goatskin); nor shall
+they contain any fitting of embroidered leather.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnotes:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> According to Tubino, the existence of a prehistoric age of
+stone was not suspected in Spain until the year 1755, when Mann
+y Mendoza affirmed that a state of society had existed in the
+Peninsula before the age of metals. Since then the Celtic remains
+of Spain and Portugal have been investigated by many scientists,
+including Assas, Mitjana, Murguía, and Casiano de Prado, who
+discovered numbers of these weapons. Towards the middle of
+last century Casiano de Prado, aided by the Frenchmen Verneuil
+and Lartet, explored the neighbourhood of San Isidro on the
+Manzanares, and found large quantities of arms and implements
+of stone. Valuable service in the cause of prehistoric Spanish
+archæology has also been performed by Vilanova, Torrubia, and
+Machado.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Gerone qui ferrum gelat.</i>&rdquo; This river, the purity and coldness
+of whose waters lent, or so it is supposed, its virtues to the steel,
+rolls past the walls of Calatayud, and is called in later ages the Jalon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Imo Toletano præcingant ilia cultro.</i>&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>Romani patriis gladiis depositis Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium
+assumpserunt &hellip; sed ferri bonitatem et fabrica solertiam
+imitari non potuerunt.</i>&rdquo;&mdash;Suidas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <i>Descripciones de las Islas Pithiusas y Baleares.</i> Madrid, 1787.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> A javelin made throughout of iron was found in Spain some
+years ago, completely doubled up, so as to admit of its being thrust
+into a burial urn. The javelin in question is now in the Madrid
+museum, and a similar weapon may be seen in the provincial
+museum of Granada.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte</i>: García Llansó; <i>Armas</i>, pp.
+439, 440.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> The horse was also covered with a <i>lóriga</i>, on which, from
+about the twelfth century, were thrown the decorative trappings
+of <i>cendal</i> or thin silk, painted or embroidered with the warrior's
+arms.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="poem-container">
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;<i>Calzó las brafoneras que eran bien obradas</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Con sortijas de acero, sabet bien enlazadas;</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Asi eran presas é bien trabadas,</i></span><br />
+<span class="i0"><i>Que semejaban calzas de las tiendas taiadas.</i>&rdquo;</span><br />
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p style="margin-top: 0; margin-left: 55%;"><i>Poem of the Cid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Count of Clonard, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>; Nos. 16
+and 17.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> One of these weapons may be seen in the Royal Armoury (No.
+I. 95). It is made of iron covered with leather, and has a laurel-shaped
+blade with sharpened edges. The other end consists of two
+projecting pieces of the metal, shaped to resemble the plumes of an
+arrow. The length of this arm is 5 feet 8 inches.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> <i>Capellina</i>. The Count of Clonard says that this was in the
+shape of half a lemon, and fitted with a visor with a cutting edge.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> The following armourers' marks are stamped on various
+korazins in the Royal Armoury, made in Aragon and dating from
+the fifteenth century:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_218.jpg" width="500" height="71"
+        alt="marks"
+        title="marks" />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> My theory that this harness and the one in the Royal Armoury
+are the same is strengthened by the official inventory, which
+specifies &ldquo;a band of gold and silver, striped, and with devices in
+relief, studded with lapis lazuli, and yellow gems and luminous
+crystals.&rdquo; The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that this fine
+outfit, except the portions which are represented in the plate, was
+mutilated and dispersed in later years, and that he has discovered
+fragments in the museums of Paris and Vienna, and in the collection
+of Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte</i>: García Llansó; <i>Armas</i>; pp. 440,
+441.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> This weapon can have been no other than the typical Iberian
+lance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> In the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, this characteristically
+eastern downward curve of the crossbars grew to be popular even
+with the Christian Spaniards, as we observe from the swords of
+Ferdinand himself, preserved in the Royal Armoury at Madrid, and
+the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of Granada.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> <i>Las Pinturas de la Alhambra</i>, p. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> The Count of Valencia de Don Juan states that seven Hispano-Moresque
+<i>gineta</i> swords are known to exist to-day: the one which
+is here described, and those belonging to the Marquises of Viana
+and Pallavicino, Baron de Sangarrén, the Duke of Dino, Señor
+Sánchez Toscano, the archæological museum at Madrid, the
+museum of Cassel in Germany, and the national library at Paris,
+A <i>gineta</i> sword in the Madrid Armoury popularly attributed to
+Boabdil can never have belonged to him. The hilt is modern, and
+the blade proceeds from Barbary.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> A number of Moorish swords are mentioned in the inventory,
+compiled in 1560, of the Dukes of Alburquerque. One is
+particularly interesting. It is described as &ldquo;a Moorish <i>gineta</i>
+sword which belongs to the Count of Monteagudo, and is pawned for
+six thousand <i>maravedis</i>. The sheath is of bay leather, worked in
+gold thread. The chape and fittings are of silver, decorated with
+green, blue, purple, and white enamel. There are two serpents'
+heads upon the fitting, together with the figure of a monster
+worked in gold thread on a little plate, and two large scarlet
+tassels: the little plate has three ends of the same enamel and a
+silver-gilt buckle.&rdquo; A note at the margin adds; &ldquo;The chape is
+wanting, and is owed us by the Marquis of Comares, who lost it at
+the cane-play at Madrid.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The two serpents' heads formed part of the arms of the Alahmar
+sultans of Granada; so that from this and from the richness of this
+weapon we may infer that it had once belonged to Mussulman
+royalty. The same inventory describes &ldquo;a Moorish scimitar with
+gilded hilt; the cross and pommel, and a great part of the scimitar
+itself, being of gilded <i>ataujía</i> work. The sheath is green inside, and
+black and gilt upon the face; and hanging from the hilt is a gold
+and purple cord with a button and a black tassel.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> To-day the craft of finely decorating arms is not forgotten in
+Morocco. &ldquo;A silversmith advanced to show a half-completed
+silver-sheathed and hafted dagger, engraved with pious sentences,
+as, &ldquo;God is our sufficiency and our best bulwark here on earth,&rdquo; and
+running in and out between the texts a pattern of a rope with one of
+the strands left out, which pattern also ran round the cornice of the
+room we sat in, and round the door, as it runs round the doors in
+the Alhambra and the Alcazar, and in thousands of houses built by
+the Moors, and standing still, in Spain. The dagger and the sheath
+were handed to me for my inspection, and on my saying that they
+were beautifully worked, the Caid said keep them, but I declined,
+not having anything of equal value to give in return.&rdquo;&mdash;Cunninghame
+Graham; <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i>, p. 234.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i>, by Townsend, who wrote of it, with ill-informed enthusiasm,
+as &ldquo;an epitome of Spanish history.&rdquo; Swinburne's notice of the
+same armoury is also curious: &ldquo;At the bottom of the palace-yard
+is an old building, called the Armeria, containing a curious assortment
+of antique arms and weapons, kept in a manner that would have
+made poor Cornelius Scriblerus swoon at every step; no notable
+housemaid in England has her fire-grates half so bright as these
+coats of mail; they show those of all the heroes that dignify the
+annals of Spain; those of Saint Ferdinand, Ferdinand the Catholic,
+his wife Isabella, Charles the Fifth, the great Captain Gonsalo, the
+king of Granada, and many others. Some suits are embossed with
+great nicety. The temper of the sword blades is quite wonderful,
+for you may lap them round your waist like a girdle. The art of
+tempering steel in Toledo was lost about seventy years ago, and the
+project of reviving and encouraging it is one of the favourite schemes
+of Charles the Third, who has erected proper works for it on the
+banks of the Tagus.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Throughout this time, the full equipment of the knight consisted
+of no less than four complete suits, for tournament or battle,
+or for foot or mounted fighting, together with their lances, swords,
+and targes. The Alburquerque inventory describes in detail a
+complete set (&ldquo;all of it kept in a box&rdquo;) of war and tourneying
+harness belonging to the duke. Although the warriors of that day
+were short of stature, their muscular strength is undeniable, for
+one of their lances has to be lifted nowadays by several men.
+When the author of <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i> wrote contemptuously of the
+&ldquo;scrofulous champions tapping on each other's shields,&rdquo; he was
+perhaps, forgetful for a moment of this fact.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> The Count of Valencia de Don Juan has found, from documents
+at Simancas, that in the year 1525 Kollman visited Toledo to
+measure Charles for armour. It is also certain, adds the Count,
+that, in order to produce this armour of a perfect fit, Kollman first
+moulded Charles' limbs in wax, and then transferred the moulds to
+lead. In a budget of accounts which coincides with Kollman's
+visit to Toledo appears the following item: &ldquo;Pour trois livres de
+cire et de plomb pour faire les patrons que maître Colman,
+armoyeur, a fait&rdquo;&mdash;followed by details of the cost.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> This, in the later Middle Ages, was a favourite form of tourneying
+lance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> <i>Historia General del Arte; Armas</i>, by García Llansó; p. 445.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> &ldquo;Dès que le soir arrive, on ne va point n'y à Madrid ny ailleurs,
+sans cotte de maille et sans <i>broquet</i> qui est une rondache.&rdquo;&mdash;Bertaut
+de Rouen, <i>Voyage d'Espagne</i> (1659 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>), p. 294.</p>
+
+<p>The arms of Spaniards promenading after dark were even fixed
+by law. The <i>Suma de Leyes</i> of 1628 ordains that after ten o'clock
+nobody is to carry arms at all unless he also bears a lighted torch
+or lantern. No arquebus, on pain of a fine of ten thousand
+<i>maravedis</i>, may have a barrel less than a yard long. Nobody may
+carry a sword or rapier the length of whose blade exceeds a yard
+and a quarter, or wear a dagger unless a sword accompanies it.
+Sometimes these prohibitions extended even to seasons of the
+year. In 1530 an Ordinance of Granada proclaims that from
+the first of March until the last day of November nobody may
+carry a hatchet, sickle, or dagger, &ldquo;except the dagger which is
+called a <i>barazano</i>, of a palm in length, even if the wearer be a
+shepherd.&rdquo; The penalty for infringement of this law was a fine of
+ten thousand <i>maravedis</i>; but labourers who worked upon a farm
+were exempted from the prohibition.</p>
+
+<p>Swinburne wrote from Cataluña, in 1775, that &ldquo;amongst other
+restrictions, the use of slouched hats, white shoes, and large brown
+cloaks is forbidden. Until of late they durst not carry any kind of
+knife; but in each public house there was one chained to the table,
+for the use of all comers.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> <i>Voyage d'Espagne</i>, p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Gonzalo de la Torre de Trassierra; Articles on Cuéllar
+published in the <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Excursiones</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> &ldquo;Draw me not without a cause, nor sheathe me without
+honour.&rdquo; A sword with this inscription is in the Royal Armoury&mdash;(G.
+71 of the official catalogue).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Leonard Williams; <i>Toledo and Madrid: their Records and
+Romances</i>; p. 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> In the Corpus Christi festival at Granada the banner which
+preceded all the rest was that of the armourers and knife-makers,
+followed by that of the silk-mercers. <i>Ordenanzas de Granada</i>;
+tit. 126.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> <i>Armourers' Ordinances of Seville</i>, extant in ms. (quoted by
+Gestoso; <i>Diccionario de Artífices Sevillanos</i>; vol. I., p. xxxvi).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> &ldquo;<i>De mano y media</i>&rdquo;; <i>i.e.</i> for wielding either with one hand or
+both. Specimens of this kind of sword existing at Madrid will be
+described immediately.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> &ldquo;Señor, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay be nay; for of great
+virtue is it in the prince, or any man, to be a speaker of the truth,
+and of great security to his vassals and to his property.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> <i>Toledo and Madrid: their Records and Romances</i>; pp. 99&ndash;101.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Andrés Ferrara was a well-known armourer of Zaragoza.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Vol. iv. p. 358.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> Escudero de la Peña; <i>Claustros, Escalera, y Artesonados del
+Palacio Arzobispal de Alcalá de Henares</i>; published in the <i>Museo
+Español de Antigüedades</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> The brothers Marckwart, or possibly one or other of them,
+are believed to have stamped their arquebuses with a series of
+small sickles, thus:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <img src="images/img_273.jpg" width="97" height="150"
+        alt="marks"
+        title="marks" />
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> An old account copied into a book (see <a href="#Page_89">p. 89</a>, <i>note</i>) in the National
+Library at Madrid, and dating from the reign of Sancho the Fourth,
+states that Pedro Ferrández, saddler, received a certain sum for
+making various saddles, including two &ldquo;<i>de palafrés</i>, wrought in
+silk with the devices of the king.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> &ldquo;In mediæval Spain, good riders were often designated as
+&lsquo;Ginete en ambas sillas,&rsquo; that is, accustomed to either saddle, <i>i.e.</i>
+the Moorish and the Christian, and I now understand why
+chroniclers have taken the trouble to record the fact. Strangely
+enough, the high-peaked and short-stirruped saddle does not cross
+the Nile, the Arabs of Arabia riding rather flat saddles with an
+ordinary length of leg. The Arab saddle of Morocco, in itself, is
+perhaps the worst that man has yet designed; but, curiously enough,
+from it was made the Mexican saddle, perhaps the most useful for
+all kinds of horses and of countries that the world has seen.&rdquo;
+Cunninghame Graham: <i>Mogreb-El-Acksa</i>, p. 66. The same
+writer naïvely adds the following footnote to the words <i>Ginete en
+ambas sillas</i>. &ldquo;This phrase often occurs in Spanish chronicles,
+after a long description of a man's virtues, his charity, love of the
+church, and kindness to the poor, and it is apparently inserted as
+at least as important a statement as any of the others. In point
+of fact, chronicles being written for posterity, it is the most
+important.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> As I have stated in another chapter, the precious stones
+and metals were continually employed in arms and harness,
+both of Spanish Moors and Spanish Christians. In 1062
+Pedro Ruderiz bequeathed to the Monastery of Arlanza all his
+battle harness, together with his silver bit (<i>frenum argenteum</i>).
+Thousands of such bequests have been recorded. The
+Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh says that after the victory
+of the Rio Salado, this monarch found among his spoil &ldquo;many
+swords with gold and silver fittings, and many spurs, all of
+enamelled gold and silver&hellip;. And all this spoil was gathered
+by the king into his palaces of Seville (<i>i.e.</i> the Alcázar), the
+doubloons in one part, and the swords in another part.&rdquo; The
+testament (sometimes considered to be a forgery) of Pedro the
+Cruel mentions &ldquo;my sword in the Castilian manner, that I
+caused to be made here in Seville with gems and with <i>aljofar</i>.&rdquo; In
+1409 Yusuf, King of Granada, presented Juan the Second and the
+Infante Don Enrique with silver-fitted swords. Referring to a
+later age, Davillier discovered at Simancas a detailed list of weapons
+sumptuously decorated with gold and coloured enamels, made for
+Philip the Second by Juan de Soto, &ldquo;<i>orfebrero de su Alteza</i>.&rdquo;
+<i>Recherches</i>, pp. 149&ndash;151.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> The women of mediæval Spain had few amusements besides
+riding. Another&mdash;though owing to the temperate climate it must have
+been on few occasions&mdash;was skating, since this inventory mentions
+&ldquo;two pairs of skates, for a man, for travelling over ice. Two pairs
+of skates, for the same purpose, for a woman.&rdquo; This entry almost
+matches in its quaintness with the &ldquo;irons for mustaches,&rdquo; or the
+&ldquo;triggers for extracting teeth,&rdquo; set forth in Spanish documents such
+as the <i>Tassa General</i> of 1627.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> This prohibition was not inopportune. Swinburne wrote towards
+the end of the eighteenth century; &ldquo;Having occasion one day
+for a coach to carry us about, the stable-boy of our inn offered his
+services, and in a quarter of an hour brought to the door a coach
+and four fine mules, with two postillions and a lacquey, all in
+flaming liveries; we found they belonged to a countess, who, like
+the rest of the nobility, allows her coachman to let out her equipage
+when she has no occasion for it; it cost us about nine shillings,
+which no doubt was the perquisite of the servants.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> Towns still exist in Spain where vehicles are not allowed to
+proceed at more than a walking-pace through any of the streets.
+One of such towns is Argamasilla de Alba (of <i>Don Quixote</i> fame),
+where I remember to have read a notice to this effect, painted, by
+order of the mayor, on a house-wall of the principal thoroughfare.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> A royal degree of 1619 disposed that &ldquo;every one who sows and
+tills twenty-five <i>fanegas</i> of land each year, may use a coach.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> The <i>estufa</i> (literally <i>stove</i>) was a form of family-coach. The
+<i>furlon</i> is described in an old dictionary as &ldquo;a coach with four seats
+and hung with leather curtains.&rdquo;</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p class="title">PRINTED BY<br />
+NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,<br />
+EDINBURGH.</p>
+
+<hr class="hr65" />
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have
+been maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as a misprint.</p>
+
+<table summary="corrections">
+  <tr>
+    <td><b>The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.</b></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 11: for securing the cloak; the <i>torquis</i> &#8594; <i>torques</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 12: <i>Fibulae</i> &#8594; <i>Fibulæ</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 17: Amador de los Rios &#8594; Ríos</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 28: Amador de los Rios &#8594; Ríos</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 28: de joyaux les plus precieux &#8594; précieux</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 65: is generally of the fifteeenth &#8594; fifteenth</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 70: He carried, too, a &#8594; &ldquo;a</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 72: The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths &#8594; silversmiths'</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 82: Mores ont caché leurs tresors &#8594; trésors</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 90: a friar of Guadelupe &#8594; Guadalupe</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 91: Juan González &#8594; Gonzalez</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 93: As soon as Cristobal &#8594; Cristóbal</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 94: fué deste cuento, Jan &#8594; Juan</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 102: et cela luy feioit &#8594; fetoit</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 105: pearls or other stones. &#8594; stones.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 123: in the <i>Museo Español de Antigüedades</i> &#8594; <i>Antigüedades</i>)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 140: Museo Español de Antiguedades &#8594; Antigüedades</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 143: Museo Español de Antiguedades &#8594; Antigüedades</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 176: the emir of the Mussulmans Abi-Abdillah &#8594; Abu-Abdillah</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 180: D.C.C.C.C.XIII. &#8594; D.C.C.C.C.XIII.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 181: and the Puertas del Perdon &#8594; Perdón</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 188: consisted of &rdquo;a &#8594; a</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 205: among the Germans <i>panzerbrecher</i> &#8594; <i>Panzerbrecher</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 206: frock (the <i>waffenrock</i> &#8594; <i>Waffenrock</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 220: which specifies &ldquo;a bard &#8594; band</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 222: It has a <i>verga</i> &#8594; <i>verja</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 229: as well as the chape &#8594; shape</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 232: button and a black tassel. &#8594; tassel.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 244: published in the <i>Boletin</i> &#8594; <i>Boletín</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 262: and the burnisher. &#8594; burnisher.&rsquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 264: making good files or razors. &#8594; making good files or razors.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>p. 273: of Segovia). Cristobal &#8594; Cristóbal</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN, VOLUME I (OF 3)***</p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,6939 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I
+(of 3), by Leonard Williams
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Arts and Crafts of Older Spain, Volume I (of 3)
+
+
+Author: Leonard Williams
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 10, 2013  [eBook #44391]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER
+SPAIN, VOLUME I (OF 3)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Jens Nordmann, Joseph Cooper, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 44391-h.htm or 44391-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h/44391-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44391/44391-h.zip)
+
+
+      Project Gutenberg has the other two volumes of this work.
+      Volume II: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44392
+      Volume III: see http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44393
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The ligature oe is represented by [oe].
+
+      The signs cross and dagger have been marked as [cross]
+      and [dagger].
+
+      A carat character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the carat is superscripted
+      (Comp^a).
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece_
+_REJA_ OF THE CHOIR
+(_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+
+The World of Art Series
+
+THE ARTS AND CRAFTS OF OLDER SPAIN
+
+by
+
+LEONARD WILLIAMS
+
+Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy,
+of the Royal Spanish Academy of History, and of the
+Royal Spanish Academy of Fine Arts;
+Author of "The Land of the Dons"; "Toledo and Madrid"; "Granada," etc.
+
+In Three Volumes, Illustrated
+
+VOLUME I
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Chicago
+A. C. McClurg & Co.
+Edinburgh: T. N. Foulis
+1908
+
+American Edition
+Published October 10, 1908
+
+
+
+                               Dedicated
+
+                         BY SPECIAL PERMISSION
+                                   TO
+                            THEIR MAJESTIES
+                      KING ALFONSO THE THIRTEENTH
+                                  AND
+                        QUEEN VICTORIA OF SPAIN
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+In preparing these volumes, it has been my aim to give a clear and
+fairly complete account of the arts and crafts of older Spain. It seems
+to me that there is room for a work of this design and scope, and that
+there is no reason why so attractive a subject--or rather, group of
+subjects--should be perpetually ignored by persons who travel through,
+or who profess to feel an interest in, the country of the Cid and of Don
+Quixote.
+
+My account of Spanish pottery is guarded, and yet I trust acceptable.
+The study of this craft in Spain is far from definite, and fresh
+researches and discoveries may be hoped for at some future time. The
+history of Spanish arms has also suffered from unjust neglect. Perhaps
+my sketch of them may slightly compensate for this deficiency. For the
+rest, my book, which represents the well-meant assiduity of several
+years, shall speak for itself. Although I was embarrassed by too much
+material, the illustrations have been chosen with great care, and not, I
+think, inadequately. Some of the photographs were taken specially for
+this work. For the loan of others, or for kind assistance generally, I
+am indebted to Excmo. Senor Don Guillermo J. de Osma, Excmo. Senor Don
+Jose Villegas, and Excmo. Senor Don Jose Moreno Carbonero; to Senores
+Gongora and Valladar, of Granada; and to Messrs Hauser and Menet, and
+Mons. Lacoste, of Madrid.
+
+_August_, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+                         CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE
+
+
+                                                                  PAGES
+
+  GOLD, SILVER, AND JEWEL WORK                                    1-119
+
+  IRON-WORK                                                     120-159
+
+  BRONZES                                                       160-191
+
+  ARMS                                                          192-289
+
+
+
+
+                         LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                              _VOLUME ONE_
+
+
+                            GOLD AND SILVER
+
+     PLATE                                                         PAGE
+
+           _Reja_ of the Choir; Seville Cathedral        _Frontispiece_
+
+        I. Treasure of Guarrazar; Royal Armoury, Madrid              22
+
+       II. The Cross of Angels; Oviedo Cathedral                     36
+
+      III. The Cross of Victory; Oviedo Cathedral                    43
+
+       IV. Moorish Casket; Gerona Cathedral                          46
+
+        V. Altar-Front in enamelled Bronze; Museum of Burgos         50
+
+       VI. "The Crucifix of the Cid"; Salamanca Cathedral            52
+
+      VII. The "Virgen de la Vega"; San Esteban, Salamanca           54
+
+     VIII. Saint James in Pilgrim's Dress; Santiago Cathedral        57
+
+       IX. Mudejar Triptych; Royal Academy of History, Madrid        60
+
+        X. The "Tablas Alfonsinas"; Seville Cathedral                62
+
+       XI. "The Cup of Saint Ferdinand"; Seville Cathedral           64
+
+      XII. Ship; Zaragoza Cathedral                                  65
+
+     XIII. Moorish Bracelets                                         77
+
+      XIV. Morisco Jewellery                                         83
+
+       XV.  Silver-Gilt Processional Cross                           85
+
+      XVI.  Gothic _Custodia_                                        95
+
+     XVII.  The _Custodia_ of Seville Cathedral                     100
+
+    XVIII.  Early Chalice and Cross in Filigree Gold                114
+
+
+                               IRON-WORK
+
+      XIX. Old Keys; Seville Cathedral                              131
+
+     XIXA. Decorative Nail-Heads; Convent of San Antonio, Toledo    134
+
+       XX. Door-Knockers                                            136
+
+      XXI. Ceremonial Maces and Lantern                             138
+
+     XXII. Iron Pulpit; Avila Cathedral                             140
+
+    XXIII. _Reja_ of Chapel Royal; Granada Cathedral                148
+
+     XXIV. The same (View from Interior)                            149
+
+      XXV. _Reja_; Casa de Pilatos, Seville                         155
+
+     XXVI. _Reja_ of the "Casa de las Conchas," Salamanca           156
+
+
+                                BRONZES
+
+    XXVII. "Meleager's Hunt"                                        164
+
+   XXVIII. A _Candil_                                               166
+
+     XXIX. A _Velon_                                                168
+
+      XXX. Bronze Lion                                              171
+
+     XXXI. Bronze Stag; Museum of Cordova                           173
+
+    XXXII. Bronze Temple; Museum of Granada                         174
+
+   XXXIII. Moorish Lamp and Mortar; Museum of Granada               176
+
+    XXXIV. Lamp of Mohammed the Third; Madrid Museum                178
+
+     XXXV. Abbot Samson's Bell; Museum of Cordova                   180
+
+    XXXVI. Bronze Crucifix                                          182
+
+   XXXVII. The Puerta del Perdon; Seville Cathedral                 184
+
+  XXXVIII. The Weathercock of the Giralda Tower                     186
+
+
+                                  ARMS
+
+    XXXIX. Crest of Jousting Helmet; Royal Armoury, Madrid          198
+
+       XL. Spanish Crossbowman; Royal Armoury, Madrid               202
+
+      XLI. The Battle of La Higueruela; El Escorial                 206
+
+     XLII. Parade Harness of Philip the Third; Royal Armoury,
+           Madrid                                                   210
+
+    XLIII. Moorish Crossbow and Stirrup; Museum of Granada          214
+
+     XLIV. Moorish Sword; Casa de los Tiros, Granada                218
+
+      XLV. Sword of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid   222
+
+     XLVI. Dagger of Boabdil el Chico; Museum of Artillery, Madrid  226
+
+    XLVII. Moorish Sword                                            230
+
+   XLVIII. War Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury, Madrid  234
+
+     XLIX. Jousting Harness of Charles the Fifth; Royal Armoury,
+           Madrid                                                   238
+
+        L. Jousting Harness of Philip the Handsome; Royal Armoury,
+           Madrid                                                   242
+
+       LI. Moorish Buckler; Royal Armoury, Madrid                   246
+
+      LII. Armour made at Pamplona; Royal Armoury, Madrid           250
+
+     LIII. _Adarga_; Royal Armoury, Madrid                          254
+
+      LIV. Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid                    258
+
+       LV. Spanish Sword; Royal Armoury, Madrid                     262
+
+      LVI. Spanish Sword                                            266
+
+     LVII. Spanish Swords; Royal Armoury, Madrid                    270
+
+    LVIII. Sword Marks                                              272
+
+      LIX. _Bridona_ Saddle; Royal Armoury, Madrid                  274
+
+       LX. Hanging _Jaeces_ for Horses                              278
+
+      LXI. Travelling Litter attributed to Charles the Fifth; Royal
+           Armoury, Madrid                                          282
+
+
+
+
+                      GOLD, SILVER, AND JEWEL WORK
+
+
+The hyperbolic language of the ancients spoke of Spain as filled
+throughout, upon her surface and beneath her soil, with precious stones
+and precious metals. Old writers--Strabo, Pliny, Aristoteles, Pomponius
+Mela, and Diodorus Siculus--declare that once upon a time a mountain
+fire, lighted by shepherds in the Pyrenees and fanned into a
+conflagration by the wind, heated the earth until the ore within her
+entrails came bubbling to the top and ran away in rivulets of molten
+gold and silver, spreading all over Spain. The indigens of Lusitania as
+they dug their fields were said to strike their implements on nuggets
+half a pound in weight. The heart of the Peninsula, between the B[oe]tis
+and the Annas rivers--that is, the country of the Oretani and the
+Bastitani--was fabled to abound in mines of gold. The traders from
+Ph[oe]nicia, we are told, discovered silver to be so abundant with the
+Turdetani that "the vilest utensils of this people were composed
+thereof, even to their barrels and their pots." Accordingly these shrewd
+Ph[oe]nicians, offering worthless trinkets in exchange, loaded their
+ships with silver to the water's edge, and even, when their cargo was
+complete, fashioned their chains and anchors of the residue.
+
+In spite of their extravagance, upon the whole these legends are not
+utterly devoid of truth. "Tradition," said so careful an authority as
+Symonds, "when not positively disproved should be allowed to have its
+full value; and a sounder historic sense is exercised in adopting its
+testimony with due caution, than in recklessly rejecting it and
+substituting guesses which the lack of knowledge renders insubstantial."
+So with the legends of the gold and silver treasure of the old-time
+Spaniards. Besides, it seems unquestionable that those fanciful
+assertions had their origin in fact. Spain stood upon the western border
+of the ancient world. Year in, year out, the sanguine sun went seething
+down into the waters at her western marge. Mariners from distant
+countries viewed those sunsets and associated them with Spain herself.
+Thus, hereabouts in the unclouded south, would gold and silver be
+suggested by the solar orb; or emerald and jacinth, pearl and amethyst
+and ruby, by the matchless colours of the seldom-failing sunset.
+
+Then, too, though not of course in fabulous amount, the precious metals
+actually existed in this land. Various of her rivers, such as the Calom
+or Darro of Granada, the Tagus, the Agneda, and the Sil, rolled down,
+together with their current, grains of gold. "Les Mores," wrote Bertaut
+de Rouen of the first of these rivers, "en tiroient beaucoup autrefois;
+mais cela a este discontinue depuis a cause de la trop grande depense
+qu'il y faloit faire. Il est certain que souvent on prend dans le Darro
+de petits morceaux d'or, et il y a des gens qui sont accoutumez d'y en
+chercher."
+
+Centuries before this abbot wrote his book, the Arab author of the
+geographical dictionary known as the _Marasid Ithila_ had made a similar
+remark upon this gold-producing stream; and in the sixteenth century I
+find an Ordinance of Granada city prohibiting the townspeople from
+digging up the river-bed unless it were to look for gold.[1] Probably,
+however, and in spite of what some chroniclers suppose, the title Darro
+is not in any way connected with the Latin words _dat aurum_.
+
+  [1] _Ordenanza de la Limpieza_ (1537), Tit. 9: "We command that nobody
+      remove sand from the aforesaid river Darro unless to extract gold,
+      in which case he shall fill up the holes he made, or pay a fine of
+      fifty _maravedis_ for damaging the watercourses that enter this
+      city and the buildings of the Alhambra."
+
+"Two leagues from Guadarrama," wrote the mineralogist William Bowles,
+about the middle of the eighteenth century, "opposite the town and in
+the direction of San Ildefonso, is a deep valley where one notices a
+vein of common quartz containing some iron. Here, without the use of
+glasses, I perceived a good many grains of gold.... In Galicia grains of
+gold are found on sandy hills, and one is astonished to observe the
+wonderful works carried out by the Romans to bring the sands together,
+wash them, and extract the precious metal. Local tradition affirms that
+this precious sand was destined for the purses of three Roman
+empresses--Livia, Agrippina, and Faustina.... I know a German minister
+who employed his spare time in washing these sands and collecting the
+gold."
+
+The Romans, it is true, profited very greatly by the native wealth of
+the Peninsula. Helvius enriched the treasury with 14,732 pounds of
+Spanish silver bars and 17,023 pounds of silver money; Cornelius
+Lentulus, with 1515 pounds of gold, 20,000 pounds of bar-silver, and
+34,550 pounds in coin. Cato came back from his pro-consulship with
+five-and-twenty thousand pounds of silver bars, twelve thousand pounds
+of silver money, and four hundred pounds of gold. Seventy thousand
+pounds of coined silver fell to the share of Flaccus, while Minutius
+exhibited at his triumph eight thousand pounds of silver bars, and three
+hundred thousand pounds of silver coin.
+
+Mines of silver,[2] gold, and precious stones were also fairly numerous
+in Spain. Moorish authors wrote enthusiastically of the mines of
+precious metals in or close to the Sierra Nevada. "Even at this day,"
+said Bowles, "the Moorish mines may be distinguished from the Roman. The
+Romans made the towers of their fortresses of a round shape, in order to
+avoid as far as possible the blows of the battering-ram; and their
+miners, whether from habit or intentionally, made the mouths of their
+mines round also. The Moors, as strangers to this engine, built their
+towers square and gave a square shape also to the mouths of their
+mines. The round mouths of Roman mines are yet to be seen at Riotinto
+and other places, and the square mouths of Moorish mines in the
+neighbourhood of Linares."
+
+  [2] "I am not aware of any Spanish mine containing silver in a state of
+      absolute purity; though some, I think, would be discovered if they
+      were searched for."--Bowles: _Historia Natural de Espana_.
+
+Emeralds were formerly extracted from a mine at Moron, in the Sierra de
+Leyta; white sapphires and agates at Cape de Gata,[3] at the eastern
+extremity of the Gulf of Almeria; amethysts at Monte de las Guardas,
+near the port of Plata, "in a precipice (_sic_) about twenty feet in
+depth." According to Laborde, garnets have been discovered down to
+modern times "in a plain half-way on the road from Almeria to Motril.
+They are very abundant there, particularly in the bed of a ravine,
+formed by rain-torrents, at the foot of a little hill, upon which a
+great number of them are likewise found. The emeralds are in the kingdom
+of Seville, all the others in that of Granada. It has been said for some
+time that a pit in the mountain of Bujo, at Cape de Gata, contains a
+great many precious stones; but none could be found there,
+notwithstanding the prolonged and careful searches that were lately
+made."
+
+  [3] Possibly, as Bowles suggests, for Cabo de Agata--"Agate Cape." "It
+      would not be strange," he adds, "if diamonds were found at this
+      cape, since there are signs of their presence. I found white
+      sapphires, slightly clouded, together with cornelians, jaspers,
+      agates, and garnets."
+
+Silver mines exist, or have existed, at Benasque, Calzena, and Bielza,
+in Aragon; at Cuevas, near Almeria; at Almodovar del Campo; at Zalamea,
+in Extremadura; at Puerto Blanco, in Seville province; in the Sierra de
+Guadalupe; at Fuente de la Mina, near Constantina; and near Almazarron,
+in the province of Carthagena. Not far from this latter city was another
+mine, that sent to Rome a daily yield of five-and-twenty thousand
+drachmas, and was worked by forty thousand men. Twenty thousand pounds
+in weight of pure silver proceeded yearly from Asturias, Lusitania, and
+Galicia. Hannibal extracted from a Pyrenean mine three hundred pounds a
+day. The fair Himilca, wife of Hasdrubal, was owner of a silver mine at
+two leagues' distance from Linares. Laborde wrote of this mine: "It was
+reopened in the seventeenth century, when a vein five feet in breadth
+was found, from which many pieces of silver were taken; the working of
+it, however, has been neglected. It belongs to the town of Baeza."
+
+The same author, who wrote about one hundred years ago, gives curious
+and instructive notices of several other Spanish silver mines. "The
+mountains of the kingdom of Seville, on the confines of Extremadura,
+towards Guadalcanal, Alanis, Puerto Blanco, and Cazalla, which form a
+part of the extremity of the chain of Sierra Morena, contain several
+silver mines, which have been worked. There is one of these in the
+Sierra Morena, three miles from Guadalcanal, which to all appearance
+must have been very rich: there were three shafts for descending, the
+mouths of which are still to be seen: it was worked in the seventeenth
+century, and given up in 1653. It is believed that it was inundated by
+the workmen, in revenge for a new tax that was laid upon them. Another
+silver mine was also worked formerly, a league and a half from the
+other; it has a shaft, and a gallery of ancient construction; the vein
+is six feet in circumference, and is composed of spar and quartz. There
+is also a third mine, a league and a half from Guadalcanal, and half a
+league south-east of the village of Alanis, in the middle of a field; it
+is two feet wide; the Romans constructed a gallery in it, from south to
+north; a branch of it running eastward has been worked since their time:
+it originally contained pyrites and quartz, but it is by no means rich;
+there is lead at the bottom."
+
+Gold mines, or traces of them, have been found in the neighbourhood of
+Molina in Aragon, San Ildefonso in Old Castile, and Alocer in
+Extremadura; in the Sierra de Leyta; in the valley of Hecho in Aragon;
+and at Paradeseca and Ponferrada--this latter town the _Interamnium
+Flavium_ of the Romans.
+
+It is said that the chieftains of the ancient Spaniards adorned their
+robes with rude embroidery worked in gold, and that the men and women of
+all ranks wore gold and silver bracelets. These statements cannot now be
+either proved or controverted. Gold or silver objects older than the
+Roman domination have not been found abundantly in Spain. Riano
+describes a silver bowl, conical in shape and evidently fashioned on the
+wheel, engraved with Iberian characters on one of its sides. A similar
+bowl was found in Andalusia in the seventeenth century, full of Iberian
+coins and weighing ten ounces. Gold ornaments, such as earrings, and
+_torques_ or collars for the neck, have been discovered in Galicia less
+infrequently than in the other Spanish regions, and may be seen to-day
+in private collections, in the Royal Academy of History at Madrid, and
+in the National Museum of Archaeology.[4] Villa-amil y Castro has written
+fully of these _torques_ (Museo Espanol de Antiguedades, _Adornos de oro
+encontrados en Galicia_). In nearly every case, he says, they consist of
+a plain gold bar, C-shaped and therefore not completely closed into a
+ring, and with a knob at each extremity, as though their pattern were
+suggested by the yoke of cattle. One or two are decorated with a
+somewhat rude design extending through a portion of their length.
+
+  [4] A fresh find of _torques_ and _fibulae_ has occurred in the spring
+      of this year at La Moureta, near Ferrol.
+
+On one of these occasions a pair of curious, kidney-shaped earrings was
+found, together with a _torque_. These earrings, apparently of later
+workmanship than the other ornament, are decorated over all their
+surface, partly with a filigree design, and partly with a fine, beadlike
+pattern executed with a small chisel or graving tool in the manner known
+in French as _fuse_, _guilloche_, or _hachie_. Their material is hollow
+gold, and when discovered they were filled with a substance resembling
+powdered charcoal, mixed with a metallic clay.
+
+These ornaments are ascribed by most authorities to an undetermined
+period somewhere previous to the Roman domination. I think, however,
+that less improbably they were produced by Spanish craftsmen in
+imitation of the Roman manner, and during the time of Roman rule in the
+Peninsula. This would account for their deficiencies of execution, and
+also for certain characteristics which they evidently share with Roman
+work.
+
+We know that Rome imposed her usages on all the peoples whom she
+subjugated. Consequently, following this universal law, the Spaniards
+would adopt, together with the lavish luxury of Rome, the Roman
+ornaments and articles of jewellery. Such were the _annulus_ or
+finger-ring; the _fibula_, a brooch or clasp for securing the cloak; the
+_torques_ or neck-ring, more or less resembling those in use among the
+Persians; and the _phalera_, a round plate of gold, silver, or other
+metal, engraved with any one of a variety of emblems, worn upon the
+breast or stomach by the persons of either sex, and very commonly
+bestowed upon the Roman soldiers in reward of military service. Then
+there were several kinds of earrings--the variously-designed
+_stalagmium_ or pendant, the _inaures_, or the _crotalium_, hung with
+pearls that brushed together as their wearer walked, and gratified her
+vanity by their rustling; and also several kinds of bracelets--the gold
+or bronze _armilla_, principally worn by men; the _periscelis_, the
+_spathalium_, and the _dextrale_, worn round the fleshy part of the
+right arm.[5]
+
+  [5] These ornaments were retained in use by the Visigoths, and find
+      their due description in the _Etymologies_ of Saint Isidore;
+      _e.g._:--
+
+     "_Inaures_ ab aurium foraminibus nuncupatae, quibus pretiosa genera
+     lapidum dependuntur."
+
+     "_Tourques_ sunt circuli aurei a collo ad pectus usque dependentes.
+     Torques autem et bullae a viris geruntur; a foeminis vero monilia et
+     catellae."
+
+     "_Fibulae_ sunt quibus pectus foeminarum ornatur, vel pallium tenetur:
+     viris in humeris, seu cingulum in lumbris."
+
+Discoveries of Roman jewellery and gold and silver work have occurred
+from time to time in the Peninsula; for example, at Espinosa de Henares
+and (in 1840) near Atarfe, on the southern side of the volcanic-looking
+Sierra Elvira, a few miles from Granada. Riano describes a Roman silver
+dish found in a stone quarry at Otanez, in the north of Spain. "It
+weighs thirty-three ounces, and is covered with an ornamentation of
+figures in relief, some of which are gilt, representing an allegorical
+subject of the source of medicinal waters. In the upper part is a nymph
+who pours water from an urn over rocks; a youth collects it in a
+vessel; another gives a cup of it to a sick man; another fills with it a
+barrel which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two
+mules. On each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and
+libations are offered. Round it is the inscription: SALVS VMERITANA, and
+at the back are engraved, in confused characters, the words: L. P.
+CORNELIANI. PIII...."
+
+The same author is of opinion that in the time of the Romans "objects of
+all kinds in gold and silver were used in Spain to a very great extent,
+for, notwithstanding the destruction of ages, we still possess
+inscriptions which allude to silver statues, and a large number of
+objects in the precious metals exist in museums and private
+collections." Doubtless, in the case of articles and household utensils
+of smaller size--bowls, dishes, and the like, or ornaments for the
+person--the precious metals were made use of freely; but when we hear of
+mighty objects as also made of silver, _e.g._ principal portions of a
+building, we might do well to bear in mind a couple of old columns that
+were standing once not far from Cadiz, on a spot where in the days
+preceding history a temple sacred to the Spanish Hercules is rumoured
+to have been. Philostratus affirmed these columns to be wrought of solid
+gold and silver, mixed together yet in themselves without alloy. Strabo
+reduced them modestly to brass; but it was reserved for a curious
+Frenchman, the Pere Labat, who travelled in Spain in 1705, to warn us
+what they really were. "Elles sont sur cette langue de terre, qui joint
+l'Isle de Leon a celle de Cadix; car il faut se souvenir que c'est ainsi
+qu'on appelle la partie Orientale, et la partie Occidentale de la meme
+Isle. Il y a environ une lieue de la porte de Terre a ces venerables
+restes de l'antiquite. Nous nous en approchames, croyant justifier les
+contes que les Espagnols en debitent. Mais nous fumes etrangement
+surpris de ne pas rencontrer la moindre chose qui put nous faire
+seulement soupconner qu'elles fussent d'une antiquite un peu
+considerable. Nous vimes que ces deux tours rondes, qui n'ont a present
+qu'environ vingt pieds de hauteur sur douze a quinze pieds de diametre,
+etoient d'une maconnerie fort commune. Leurs portes etoient bouchees, et
+nous convinmes tous qu'elles avoient ete dans leur jeune tems des
+moulins a vent qu'on avoit abandonnes; il n'y a ni inscriptions, ni
+bas-reliefs, ni reste de figures quelconques. En un mot, rien qui
+meritat notre attention, ni qui recompensat la moindre partie de la
+peine que nous avions prise pour les aller voir de pres. Car je les
+avois vue plus d'une fois du grand chemin, ou j'avois passe, et je
+devois me contenter. Mais que ne fait-on pas quand on est curieux, et
+aussi des[oe]uvre que je l'etois alors."
+
+Many of the usages of Roman Spain descended to the Visigoths. The jewels
+of this people manifest the double influence of Rome and of Byzantium,
+and the latter influenced in its turn from Eastern sources. We learn
+from that extraordinary encyclopaedia of early mediaeval Spanish lore--the
+_Etymologies_ of Isidore of Beja--that the Visigothic women decked
+themselves with earrings, necklaces, and bracelets, set with precious
+stones of fabulous price. Leovigild is stated by the same writer to have
+been the first of the Visigothic princes to use the insignia of royalty.
+One of his coins (engraved in Florez) represents him with an imperial
+crown surmounted by a cross resembling that of the Byzantines. Coins of
+a similar design, and also bearing the imperial crown, were minted at
+Toledo, Cordova, or Merida, in the reigns of Chindaswint, Wamba,
+Ervigius, and Egica.
+
+But the true fountain-head of all our modern knowledge respecting the
+jewellery of Visigothic Spain is in the wonderful crosses, crowns, and
+other ornaments discovered in 1858 upon the site of some old Christian
+temple, two leagues distant from Toledo. These objects, known
+collectively as "the treasure of Guarrazar," were stumbled on by certain
+peasants after a heavy storm had washed away a quantity of earth. Some
+were destroyed upon the spot; others were sold to the Toledo
+silversmiths and melted down by these barbarians of our day; but
+fortunately the greater part remained intact, or very nearly so. There
+were in all, composed exclusively of gold and precious stones, eleven
+crowns, two crosses containing legible inscriptions, fragments such as
+the arms of a processional cross, and many single stones which time had
+doubtless separated from the crosses or the crowns.[6]
+
+  [6] There is also in the Archaeological Museum at Madrid a small
+      collection of what has been described as Visigothic jewellery,
+      consisting of a handsome _phalera_, necklaces, finger-rings, and
+      earrings. Most of these objects were found at Elche in 1776. The
+      _Museo Espanol de Antiguedades_ published a full description by
+      Florencio Janer. Their interest is by no means as great as that of
+      the treasure of Guarrazar, nor is the date of their production
+      definitely ascertained. From various details I suspect that many
+      of them may be purely Roman.
+
+Part of this treasure passed in some mysterious way to France, and is
+now in the Cluny Museum at Paris. The rest is in the Royal Armoury at
+Madrid. Paris can boast possession of nine of the crowns; Madrid, of
+two, together with a fragment of a third--this latter of a balustrade or
+basket pattern. Five of the nine crowns preserved at Paris are fashioned
+of simple hoops of gold. The most important of the five, the crown of
+Recceswinth, who ruled in Spain from 650 to 672 A.D., consists of two
+hinged semicircles of hollow gold, about a finger's-breadth across the
+interspace. It measures just over eight inches in diameter and four
+inches in depth. Both the upper and the lower rims are decorated to the
+depth of nearly half an inch with a design of four-pointed floral or
+semi-floral figures within minute circles. Amador de los Rios has
+recognized this same design in the frieze of certain buildings at
+Toledo, and in the edges of mosaic discovered at Italica and Lugo, as
+well as in the Balearic Islands. The interstices of this design upon the
+crown are filled with a kind of red enamel or glaze, the true nature of
+which has not been definitely ascertained. Riano calls it "a delicate
+ornamentation of _cloisonne_ work, which encloses a substance resembling
+red glass." The centre of the crown is filled with three rows of large
+stones, principally pearls and sapphires. There are also several onyxes,
+a stone which in those days was held in great esteem. The spaces between
+the rows of stones are ornamented with a somewhat rudimentary design of
+palm branches, the leaves of which appear to have been filled or
+outlined with the kind of red enamel I have spoken of.
+
+This crown is suspended by four gold chains containing each of them five
+leaf-shaped links, _percees a jour_. The chains unite at a gold rosette
+in the form of a double lily, terminated by a stoutish capital of
+rock-crystal. This in its turn is capped by another piece of crystal
+holding the final stem of gold which served as a hook for hanging up the
+crown. Suspended from the gold rosette by a long chain is a handsome
+cross, undoubtedly of more elaborate workmanship, studded with union
+pearls and monster sapphires. Amador believed this ornament to be a
+brooch. If this were so it is, of course, improperly appended here.
+Twenty-four gold chains hang from the lower border of the crown,
+concluding in pyriform sapphires of large size. Each sapphire is
+surmounted by a small, square frame of gold containing coloured glass,
+and above this, in each of three-and-twenty of the chains, is one of
+the golden letters forming the inscription, [cross] RECCESVINTHVS REX
+OFFERET.
+
+Besides this crown there are at Paris--
+
+(1) A similar though slighter crown, the body of which is studded with
+fifty-four magnificent stones. A cross, now kept apart in the same
+collection, is thought by Spanish experts to have once been pendent from
+the crown. If so, the latter was perhaps presented to the sanctuary by
+one Sonnica, probably a Visigothic magnate, and not a woman, as the
+termination of the name induced some foreign antiquaries to suppose. The
+cross is thus inscribed:--
+                                     _
+                                 IN DI
+                                  NOM
+                                  INE
+                        OFFERET   ___   SONNICA
+                                  SCE
+                                  MA
+                                  RIE
+                                  INS
+                                  ORBA
+                                  CES[7]
+
+  [7] The last word is commonly believed to be the name of a
+      place--_Sorbaces_. There has been much discussion as to its
+      meaning.
+
+(2) Three crowns of plain design consisting of hoops of gold with
+primitive _repousse_ decoration, and, in the case of one, with precious
+stones.
+
+(3) Four crowns, each with a pendent cross. The pattern is a basket-work
+or set of balustrades of thin gold hollow plates (not, as Riano stated,
+massive) with precious stones about the intersections of the bars or
+meshes, and others hanging from the lower rim. Three of these crowns
+have three rows or tiers of what I call the balustrade; the other crown
+has four.
+
+The custom of offering votive crowns to Christian temples was taken by
+the emperors of Constantinople from heathen peoples of the eastern
+world. In Spain this custom, introduced by Recared, outlived by many
+years the ruin of the Visigothic monarchy--survived, in fact, until the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thus in 891 Alfonso the Third
+presented to the monastery of San Adrian and Santa Natalia four crowns
+of gold and three of silver, while just a hundred years afterwards
+Ordono the Second presented three silver crowns to the monastery of
+Samos. Other crowns were offered by the prelates and the secular
+nobility.
+
+Returning to the crowns of Guarrazar, there has been great controversy
+as to whether these were worn upon the head. Some experts think they
+must have been so worn; and in this case the rings upon the rim, through
+which the chains are passed, would seem to have been added on the
+presentation of these objects to the sanctuary. Lasteyrie, on the other
+hand, considered that the crowns were merely votive and were never meant
+for personal use, arguing that the rings were fixed about the border
+from the very moment when the crowns were made;[8] but Amador
+ingeniously replied to this by pointing out that in a few of the old
+Castilian coins--for instance, one of Sancho the Third--the crown, with
+rings about its rim, is actually upon the monarch's head. It is
+possible, adds the same authority, that these were old votive crowns
+proceeding from some church, although he thinks it still more likely
+that they were fashioned with the rings attached to them. We should
+remember, too, the hinge which serves to open and close the body of
+these crowns. It is difficult to guess the purpose of this hinge, unless
+it were to fit the crown more comfortably on the head.
+
+  [8] _Description du tresor de Guarrazar_.
+
+Of that portion of the treasure of Guarrazar which has remained at
+Madrid (Plate i.), the most important object is the votive crown of King
+Swinthila, son of Recared, and described as "one of the most illustrious
+and unlucky princes that ever occupied the throne of Atawulf." This
+crown measures nine inches in diameter by two and a half in height. It
+consists of thin gold plates united at the edge, leaving, between the
+inner and the outer side, a hollow space about a quarter of an inch
+across. The exterior is divided into a central horizontal hoop or band
+between two others, somewhat narrower, at the top and bottom, these last
+being slightly raised above the level of the third. A triple row of
+precious stones, amounting to one hundred and twenty-five pearls and
+sapphires in the entire crown, surrounds the outer surface of the same,
+the central band or zone of which contains besides, wrought in
+_repousse_ on the hoop, a simple circular device wherein each centre is
+a sapphire or a pearl, though many of these have fallen from their
+setting. The spaces which describe these circles are superposed on what
+looks like a red enamel retaining at this moment all or nearly all its
+pristine brightness of twelve hundred years ago. This substance was
+believed by French investigators to be a coloured glass or paste,[9]
+but Amador, after protracted chemical experiments, declared it to be
+layers of cornelian. Some of these layers have fallen from their grip,
+and if the crown be stirred are heard to move within. It is worth
+remarking, too, that the fillets which form the setting of the precious
+stones were made apart and welded afterwards; nor are these settings
+uniform in shape, but tally in each instance with the outline of the
+gem.
+
+  [9] "_Ce que je puis affirmer, apres l'examen le plus minutieux, c'est
+      que la matiere qui fait le fond de cette riche ornementation est
+      reellement du verre._"--Lasteyrie, supported by Sommerard.
+
+                            [Illustration: I
+                         TREASURE OF GUARRAZAR
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The chains which served for hanging up the crown are four in number. As
+in the crown of Recceswinth, each of them is composed of four _repousse_
+cinquefoil links adorned along their edge with small gold beads minutely
+threaded on a wire and fastened on by fusing. The chains converge into
+an ornament shaped like two lilies pointing stem to stem, so that the
+lower is inverted, although they are divided by a piece of faceted rock
+crystal.[10] Four gems are hung from either lily, and issuing from the
+uppermost of these a strong gold hook attaches to the final length of
+chain.
+
+  [10] "In Spain," said Bowles (_Hist. Nat. de Esp._, p. 498), "are found
+       two species of rock crystal. The one, occurring in clusters, are
+       transparent, six-sided, and always have their source in rocks.
+       There are great quantities all over the kingdom, and at Madrid
+       they are found near the hills of San Isidro. The other species are
+       found singly, and are rounded like a pebble. I have seen them from
+       the size of a filbert to that of my fist. Some were covered with a
+       thin, opaque integument.... The river Henares abounds with these
+       crystals, and as it passes San Fernando, at two leagues' distance
+       from Madrid, sweeps some of them along which are the size of the
+       largest ones at Strasburg, though very few are perfect."
+
+Possibly the chain and cross now hanging through the circuit of the
+crown were not originally part of it. This cross is most remarkable. It
+has four arms of equal length, gracefully curved, and is wrought of
+plates of gold in duplicate, fastened back to back by straps of gold
+along the edges. The centre holds a piece of crystal in the midst of
+pearls and gold bead work threaded on a wire of the same metal and
+attached by fusion. Several fairly large stones are hung from the
+lateral and lower arms of the cross by small gold chains.
+
+The letters hanging from Swinthila's crown are cut and punched from thin
+gold plates. Their decoration is a zigzag ornament backed by the same
+mysterious crimson substance as the circular devices on the hoop.
+Hanging from the letters are pearls, sapphires, and several imitation
+stones--particularly imitation emeralds--in paste.
+
+The cross before the letters points to a custom of that period. We find
+it also on Swinthila's coins, and those of other Visigothic kings. Of
+the letters themselves twelve have been recovered, thus:--
+
+                    [cross] SV  TI  NV  REX  OFF  T
+
+The chains, however, or fragments of them, amount to
+twenty-three--precisely (if we count the cross) the number needed to
+complete the dedication.[11]
+
+  [11] A veritable cryptogram awaited the decipherers of these legends.
+       When King Swinthila's crown was brought to light, four of the
+       letters only were in place, thus:--
+
+                 [cross] ...... I ... V . R .... F ....
+
+       Eight of the others were recovered shortly after; two more, an E
+       and L, appeared at a later date, and eight continued to be missing.
+       The inscription dangling from the crown of Recceswinth arrived at
+       Paris in this eloquent form:--
+
+                    [cross] RRCCEEFEVINSTVSETORHFEX
+
+The Royal Armoury contains another crown, a great deal smaller and less
+ornamented than Swinthila's. The body of this crown, which was presented
+by the finder to the late Queen Isabella the Second, is just a hoop of
+gold, two inches deep and five across, hinged like the more elaborate
+and larger crowns, but merely decorated with a fine gold spiral at the
+rims, a zigzag pattern in _repousse_, and a rudely executed scale-work.
+The dedication on this cross is in the centre of the hoop, and says--
+                                             __
+                 [cross] OFFERET MVNVSCVLVM SCO STEFANO
+                                         _
+                           THEODOSIVS ABBA
+
+We do not know who Theodosius was, but Amador, judging from the simple
+decoration of this crown, believes him to have been a priest of lower
+rank, and by no means a dignitary of the Visigothic church.
+
+A votive cross also forms part of this collection, which has a simple
+sunk device along the edges and seven pendent stones, two of these
+hanging from each of the lateral arms, and three, a little larger, from
+the lower arm. The inscription, which is rough in the extreme, appears
+to be the work of some illiterate craftsman, and has been interpreted
+with difficulty:--
+                                          __
+                IN NOMINE DEI: IN NOMINE SCI OFFERET
+                               LUCETIUS E
+
+This reading gives an extra letter at the end, which may be construed as
+_Episcopus_--or anything else, according to the student's fancy.
+
+I may close my notice of this collection in the Royal Armoury at Madrid
+by drawing attention to a greenish, semi-opaque stone, three-quarters of
+an inch in height. It is engraved _en creux_ upon two facets with the
+scene of the Annunciation. The gem itself is commonly taken for an
+emerald, of which, referring to the glyptic art among the Visigoths, the
+learned Isidore remarked that "_Sculpentibus quoque gemmas nulla gratior
+oculorum refectio est._" I shall insert a sketch of the cutting on this
+stone as a tailpiece to the chapter, and here append a full description.
+"The Virgin listens standing to the Archangel Gabriel, who communicates
+to her the will of the Almighty. Before her is a jar, from which
+projects the stem of a lily, emblematic of the chaste and pure, that
+reaches to her breast. Her figure is completely out of measurement. Upon
+her head appears to be a _nimbus_ or _amiculum_; her breast is covered
+with a broad and folded _fascia_, enveloping her arms, while her tunic,
+reaching to the ground, conceals one of her feet. The angel in the
+cutting on the stone is at the Virgin's right. His attitude is that of
+one who is conveying tidings. Large wings folded upon his shoulders and
+extending nearly to the ground are fitted to his form, better drawn and
+livelier than the Virgin's. He executes his holy mission with his right
+hand lifted. His dress is a tunic in small folds, over which is a cloak
+fastened by a brooch and fitting closely. Upon his head he wears a kind
+of helmet."[12]
+
+  [12] Amador de los Rios, _El Arte latino-bizantino en Espana y las
+       Coronas Visigodas de Guarrazar_, p. 121.
+
+The drawing of this design upon the stone is most bizarre and barbarous;
+for the Virgin's head is so completely disproportioned that it forms the
+one-third part of her entire person.
+
+The merit of all this Visigothic gem or gold and silver work has been
+extolled too highly by the French and Spanish archaeologists.[13] It is,
+however, greatly interesting. Rudely and ponderously magnificent, it
+tells us of a people who as yet were almost wholly strangers to the true
+artistic sense. Such were the Visigoths and the Spaniards of the
+Visigothic era, of all of whom I have observed elsewhere that "serfdom
+was the distinguishing mark of the commons; arrogance, of the nobility;
+avarice, and ambition of temporal and political power, of the clergy;
+regicide and tumult, of the crown."[14] These crowns of Guarrazar
+proclaim to us in plainest language that the volume of the stones, and
+showiness and glitter of the precious metal were accorded preference of
+every other factor--the _pondus auri_ preference of the _manus
+artificis_. We gather, too, from documents and chronicles and popular
+tradition, that the Visigothic princes, as they set apart their stores
+of treasure in secluded caves or in the strong rooms of their palaces,
+were ever captivated and corrupted by the mere intrinsic worth in
+opposition to the nobler and aesthetic value of the craftsmanship.
+
+  [13] _E.g._ Sommerard: "_Une collection sans egale de joyaux les plus
+       precieux qui, par la splendeur de la matiere, le merite de
+       l'execution, et plus encore, peut etre, par leur origine
+       incontestable et par leur etonnante conservation, surpassent tout
+       ce qui possedent d'analogue les collections publiques de l'Europe
+       et les tresors les plus renommes de l'Italie_."
+
+  [14] _Toledo and Madrid_; p. 16.
+
+Thus we are told that Sisenand owned a plate of gold (no word is said of
+its design or style) five hundred pounds in weight, proceeding from the
+royal treasure of his race, and which, long years before, had been
+presented by the nobleman Accio to King Turismund. When Sisenand was
+conspiring to dethrone Swinthila, he called on Dagobert the king of
+France to come to his support, and promised him, as recompense, this
+golden plate. The French king lent his help forthwith, and then, as
+soon as Turismund was seated on the throne of Spain, despatched an
+embassy to bring the coveted vessel to his court. Sisenand fulfilled his
+word and placed the envoys in possession of the plate, but since his
+subjects, rising in rebellion, wrenched it from their power and kept it
+under custody, he compensated Dagobert by a money payment of two hundred
+thousand _sueldos_.[15]
+
+  [15] _Ajbar Machmua_. Lafuente y Alcantara's edition; p. 27, note.
+
+Innumerable narratives and legends dwell upon the treasure taken by the
+Moors on entering Spain. Such as relate the battle of the Guadalete, or
+the Lake of Janda (as it is also called by some authorities), agree that
+when the fatal day was at an end the riderless steed of Roderick was
+found imbedded in the mire, wearing a saddle of massive gold adorned
+with emeralds and rubies. According to Al-Makkari, that luckless
+monarch's boots were also made of gold studded with precious stones,
+while the Muslim victors, stripping the Visigothic dead, identified the
+nobles by the golden rings upon their fingers, those of a less exalted
+rank by their silver rings, and the slaves by their rings of copper. The
+widow of the fallen king was also famous for her stores of jewellery.
+Her name was Eila or Egilona (Umm-Asim of the Moors), but she was known
+besides as "the lady of the beautiful necklaces." After being made a
+prisoner she was given in marriage to the young prince Abd-al-Azis, who
+grew to love her very greatly, and received from her, "seeing that she
+still retained sufficient of her royal wealth," the present of a crown.
+
+Muza, on returning to the East, is said to have drawn near to Damascus
+with a train of thirty waggons full of Spanish silver, gold, and
+precious stones. Tarik ben Ziyed, marching in triumph through the land,
+secured at Cordova, Amaya, and other towns and capitals, enormous store
+of "pearls, arms, dishes, silver, gold, and other jewels in
+unprecedented number." One object, in particular, is mentioned with
+insistency by nearly all the chronicles, both Mussulman and Christian.
+Quoting from the _Pearl of Marvels_ of Ibn Alwardi, this was "the table
+which had belonged to God's prophet, Solomon (health be to both of
+them). It was of green emeralds, and nothing fairer had been ever seen
+before. Its cups were golden and its plates of precious jewels, one of
+them specked with black and white." All manner of strange things are
+said about this table, though most accounts describe it as consisting of
+a _single_ emerald. Perhaps it was of malachite, or of the bright green
+serpentine stone extracted formerly as well as nowadays from the
+Barranco de San Juan at Granada, and several other spots in Spain. Bayan
+Almoghreb says it was of gold mixed with a little silver and surrounded
+by three gold rings or collars; the first containing pearls, the second
+rubies, and the third emeralds. Al-Makkari describes it as "green, with
+its 365 feet and borders of a single emerald." Nor is it known for
+certain where this "table" fell into the hands of Tarik. Probably he
+found it in the principal Christian temple at Toledo--that is to say,
+the Basilica of Santa Maria. Ibn Alwardi says that in the _aula regia_,
+or palace of the Visigothic kings, the lancers of the Moorish general
+broke down a certain door, discovering "a matchless quantity of gold and
+silver plate," together with the "table." Doubtless this strong room was
+the same referred to in the following lines. "It was for ever closed;
+and each time that a Christian king began to reign he added to its door
+a new and powerful fastening. In this way as many as four and twenty
+padlocks were gathered on the door."
+
+However, the most explicit and informative of all these ancient authors
+is Ibn Hayyan, who says; "The table had its origin in the days of
+Christian rulers. It was the custom in those times that when a rich man
+died he should bequeath a legacy to the churches. Proceeding from the
+value of these gifts were fashioned tables, thrones, and other articles
+of gold and silver, whereon the clergy bore the volumes of their gospel
+when they showed them at their ceremonies. These objects they would also
+set upon their altars to invest them with a further splendour by the
+ornament thereof. For this cause was the table at Toledo, and the
+[Visigothic] monarchs vied with one another in enriching it, each of
+them adding somewhat to the offerings of his predecessor, till it
+surpassed all other jewels of its kind and grew to be renowned
+exceedingly. It was of fine gold studded with emeralds, pearls, and
+rubies, in such wise that nothing similar had ever been beheld. So did
+the kings endeavour to increase its richness, seeing that this city was
+their capital, nor did they wish another to contain more splendid
+ornaments or furniture. Thus was the table resting on an altar of the
+church, and here the Muslims came upon it, and the fame of its
+magnificence spread far abroad."
+
+Another chronicle affirms that Tarik found the "table" at a city called
+Almeida, now perhaps Olmedo. "He reached Toledo, and leaving a
+detachment there, advanced to Guadalajara and the [Guadarrama]
+mountains. These he crossed by the pass which took his name, and
+reached, upon the other side, a city called Almeida or _The Table_, for
+there had been discovered the table of Solomon the son of David, and the
+feet and borders of it, numbering three hundred and sixty-five, were of
+green emerald."
+
+In any case this venerated jewel gave considerable trouble to its
+captors. When envious Muza followed up the march of Tarik, his
+lieutenant, he demanded from him all the spoil, and in particular the
+ever-famous table. Tarik surrendered this forthwith, but after slyly
+wrenching off a leg. Muza perceived the breakage, and inquired for the
+missing piece. "I know not," said the other; "'twas thus that I
+discovered it." Muza then ordered a new leg of gold to be made for the
+table, as well as a box of palm leaves, in which it was deposited.
+"This," says Ibn Hayyan, "is known to be one of the reasons why Tarik
+worsted Muza in the dispute they had before the Caliph as to their
+respective conquests." So it proved. Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem[16] relates that
+Muza appeared before the Caliph Al-Walid and produced the table. Tarik
+interposed and said that he himself had taken it, and not the other
+leader. "Give it into my hands," the Caliph answered, "that I may see if
+any piece of it be wanting," and found, indeed, that one of its feet was
+different from the rest. "Ask Muza," interrupted Tarik, "for the missing
+foot, and if he answer from his heart, then shall his words be truth."
+Accordingly Al-Walid inquired for the foot, and Muza made reply that he
+had found the table as it now appeared; but Tarik with an air of triumph
+drew forth the missing piece which he himself had broken off, and said:
+"By this shall the Emir of the Faithful recognize that I am speaking
+truth; that I it was who found the table." And thereupon Al-Walid
+credited his words and loaded him with gifts.
+
+  [16] _Account of the Conquest of Spain_, published, with an English
+       translation and notes, by John Harris Jones. London, 1858.
+
+Comparing the statements of these writers, we may be certain that the
+"table" was a kind of desk of Visigothic or, more probably, Byzantine
+workmanship, for holding the gospels on the feast-days of the national
+church. Probably, too, seeing that a palm-leaf box was strong enough to
+keep it in, its size was inconsiderable. Its value, on the statement of
+Ibn Abdo-l-Haquem, was two hundred thousand _dinares_.
+
+The sum of my remarks upon the Visigothic jewel-work is this.
+Distinguished by a coarse though costly splendour, we find in it a
+mingled Roman and Byzantine source, although it was upon the whole
+inferior to these styles, being essentially, as Amador observes, "an
+imitative and decadent art." Yet it did not succumb before the Moors,
+but lurked for refuge in the small Asturian monarchy, and later, issuing
+thence, extended through the kingdom of Leon into Castile. We find its
+clearest characteristics in such objects as the Cross of Angels and the
+Cross of Victory. Then, later still, it is affected and regenerated by
+the purely oriental art of the invader; and lastly, till the wave of the
+Renaissance floods the western world, by Gothic influences from across
+the Pyrenees.
+
+A similar sketch may be applied to other arts and crafts of
+Spain--particularly furniture and architecture.
+
+                           [Illustration: II
+                          THE CROSS OF ANGELS
+                         _(Oviedo Cathedral)_]
+
+The pious or superstitious kings and magnates of this land have always
+taken pride in adding (at the instigation of the clergy) to the treasure
+of her churches and cathedrals. Such gifts include all kinds of
+sumptuous apparel for the priesthood; chasubles and dalmatics heavily
+embroidered with the precious metals, gold or silver crowns and crosses,
+paxes,[17] chalices and patines, paraments and baldaquinos, reliquaries
+in every shape and style and size, and figures of the Virgin--such as
+those of Lugo, Seville, Astorga, and Pamplona--consisting of elaborate
+silver-work upon a wooden frame. Visitors to Spain, from leisurely
+Rosmithal five hundred years ago to time-economizing tourists of our
+century, have been continually astonished at the prodigal richness of
+her sanctuaries. Upon this point I quote a typical extract from the
+narrative of Bertaut de Rouen. "The treasure of this church," he said of
+Montserrat, "is wonderfully precious, and particularly so by reason of
+two objects that belong to it. The first is a crown of massive gold of
+twenty pounds in weight, covered with pearls, with ten stars radiating
+from it also loaded with large pearls and diamonds of extraordinary
+value. This crown took forty years to make, and is valued at two
+millions of gold money. The second object is a gold crown entirely
+covered with emeralds, most of them of an amazing size. Many are worth
+five thousand crowns apiece. The reliquary, too, is of extraordinary
+richness, as also a service of gold plate studded with pearls, donated
+by the late emperor for use in celebrating Mass."
+
+  [17] The pax or osculatory used in celebrating High Mass is commonly,
+       says Rosell de Torres, "a plate of gold or ivory, or other metal
+       or material, according to the time and circumstances of its
+       manufacture. The priest who celebrates the Mass kisses it after
+       the _Agnus Dei_ and the prayer _ad petendam pacem_, and the
+       acolytes present it, as a sign of peace and brotherly union, to
+       all the other priests who may be present. This usage springs from
+       the kiss of peace which was exchanged, prior to receiving the
+       communion, between the early Christians in their churches. The pax
+       has commonly borne an image of the Virgin with the Holy Infant,
+       the face of Christ, or else the Agnus Dei." Its Latin name was the
+       _deosculatorium_.
+
+Similar accounts to the above exist in quantities, relating to every
+part of Spain and every period of her history.
+
+Reverting to the earlier Middle Ages, a few conspicuous objects thus
+presented to the Spanish Church require to be briefly noted here. Famous
+chalices are those of Santo Domingo de Silos (eleventh century), made to
+the order of Abbot Domingo in honour of San Sebastian, and showing the
+characteristic Asturian filigree-work; and of San Isidoro of Leon, made
+in 1101 by order of Urraca Fernandez, sister of the fourth Alfonso. The
+latter vessel, inscribed with the dedication of _Urraca Fredinandi_, has
+an agate cup and foot. A remarkably handsome silver-gilt chalice and
+patine (thirteenth century) belong to Toledo cathedral. The height of
+this chalice is thirteen inches, and the diameter of its bowl, which has
+a conical shape, eight and a half inches. Inside and out the bowl is
+smooth, but midway between the bowl and the foot is a massive knot or
+swelling in the stem, and on the knot the emblematic lion, eagle, bull,
+and angel are chiselled in high relief. Below the knot is a ring of
+graceful rosettes. The patine which accompanies this chalice measures
+twelve inches in diameter. It has upon it, thinly engraved within a
+slightly sunk centre with a scalloped edge, the figure of Christ upon
+the cross, between the Virgin and St John. This central group of figures
+and the border of the plate are each surrounded with a narrow strip of
+decoration.
+
+The cathedral of Valencia has a beautiful and early cup asserted to be
+the veritable Holy Grail (_greal_, _garal_, or _gradal_, in the old
+Castilian), "of which," wrote Ford with his accustomed irony, "so many
+are shown in different orthodox _relicarios_." However this may be, the
+chalice of Valencia is particularly handsome. According to Riano it
+consists of "a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded round the
+lip. The base is formed of another inverted sardonyx. These are united
+by straps of pure gold. The stem is flanked by handles, which are inlaid
+with delicate arabesque in black enamel. Oriental pearls are set round
+the base and stem, which alternate with rubies, sapphires, and emeralds.
+This chalice is a work of the Roman imperial epoch, and the mounts are
+of a later date."
+
+A series of Spanish chalices, beginning chronologically with specimens
+which date from the early Middle Ages, and terminating with the chalice,
+made in 1712, of Santa Maria la Blanca of Seville, was shown in 1892 at
+the Exposicion Historico-Europea of Madrid. Among the finer or most
+curious were chalices proceeding from the parish church of Jativa, Las
+Huelgas, and Seville cathedral, and the Plateresque chalices of
+Calatayud, Granada, and Alcala de Henares. Another chalice which is
+greatly interesting because of the date inscribed on it, is one which
+was presented to Lugo cathedral by a bishop of that diocese, Don Garcia
+Martinez de Bahamonde (1441-1470). The workmanship, though prior to the
+sixteenth century, is partly Gothic. An article by Jose Villa-amil y
+Castro, dealing with all these chalices, will be found in the _Boletin
+de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_ for April, 1893.
+
+A small exhibition was held at Lugo in August 1896. Here were shown
+sixteen chalices, nearly all of them of merit from the point of view of
+history or art. Such are the chalice of San Rosendo, proceeding from the
+old monastery of Celanova; the Gothic chalices of Tuy cathedral, Lugo
+cathedral, Santa Maria del Lucio, Santa Eulalia de Guilfrei, San Pedro
+de Puertomarin, and the Franciscan friars of Santiago; and the chalice
+and patine of Cebrero (twelfth century), in which it is said that on a
+certain occasion in the fifteenth century the wine miraculously turned
+to actual blood, and the Host to actual flesh, in order to convince a
+doubting priest who celebrated service.
+
+The Cross of Angels and the Cross of Victory--presents, respectively,
+from Alfonso the Chaste and Alfonso the Great--are now preserved at
+Oviedo, in the Camara Santa of that stately temple. The former of these
+crosses, fancied by credulous people to be the handiwork of
+angels--whence its title[18]--was made in A.D. 808. It consists of four
+arms of equal length, radiating from a central rosette (Pl. ii.). The
+core or _alma_ is of wood covered with a double plate of richly
+decorated gold, chased in the finest filigree (indicative already of the
+influence of Cordova) and thickly strewn with sapphires, amethysts,
+topazes, and cornelians. Other stones hung formerly from six small rings
+upon the lower border of the arms. The cross is thus inscribed:--
+
+               _"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei
+               Offeret Adefonsus humilis servus Xti
+               Hoc signo tuetur pius
+               Hoc signo vincitur inimicus._
+
+               _Quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi
+               Fulmine divino intereat ipse
+               Nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea
+               Hoc opus perfectum est in Era DCCXLVI."_
+
+  [18] This marvel is related by the Monk of Silos. A quotation from
+       another of my books is applicable here. "Last year," I wrote in
+       1902--(pp. 64, 65 of _Toledo and Madrid: Their Records and
+       Romances_)--"the young King Alfonso the Thirteenth paid a visit to
+       Oviedo cathedral, and was duly shown the relics and the jewels.
+       Among these latter was the 'Cross of the Angels.'
+
+       "'Why is it so called?' inquired the king.
+
+       "'Because,' replied the bishop of the diocese, 'it is said that the
+       angels made it to reward King Alfonso the Chaste.'
+
+       "'Well, but,' insisted the young monarch, 'what ground is there for
+       thinking so?'
+
+       "'Senor,' replied the prelate, 'none whatever. _The time for
+       traditions is passing away._'"
+
+                           [Illustration: III
+                          THE CROSS OF VICTORY
+                         (_Oviedo Cathedral_)]
+
+The other cross (Pl. iii.) is more than twice as large, and measures
+just one yard in height by two feet four and a half inches in width.
+Tradition says that the primitive, undecorated wooden core of this cross
+was carried against the Moors by King Pelayo. The ornate casing, similar
+to that upon the Cross of Angels, was added later, and contains 152 gems
+and imitation gems. The following inscription tells us that this casing
+was made at the Castle of Gauzon in Asturias, in the year 828:--
+
+          _"Susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore Dei, quod offerent
+          Famuli Christi Adefonsus princeps et Scemaena Regina;
+          Quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit
+          Fulmine divino intereat ipse.
+          Hoc opus perfectum et concessum est
+          Santo Salvatori Oventense sedis.
+          Hoc signo tuetur pius, hoc vincitur inimicus
+          Et operatum est in castello Gauzon anno regni nostri._
+                              XLII. _discurrente Era_ DCCCLXVI."
+
+These crosses are processional. Others which were used for the same
+purpose are those of San Sebastian de Serrano (Galicia), San Munio de
+Veiga, Santa Maria de Guillar (Lugo), San Mamed de Fisteos, and Santa
+Maria de Arcos. The five preceding crosses are of bronze; those of
+Baamorto and San Adriano de Lorenzana are respectively of silver, and of
+wood covered with silver plates, and all were shown at the Lugo
+exhibition I have spoken of.
+
+Besides the Cross of Victory or Pelayo, and the Cross of Angels,
+interesting objects preserved at Oviedo are a small diptych presented by
+Bishop Don Gonzalo (A.D. 1162-1175), and the _Arca Santa_ used for
+storing saintly relics. This beautiful chest, measuring three feet nine
+inches and a half in length by twenty-eight inches and a half in height,
+is considered by Riano to be of Italian origin, and to date from between
+the tenth and twelfth centuries.
+
+Another handsome box belonging to the cathedral of Astorga was once upon
+a time the property of Alfonso the Third and his queen Jimena, whose
+names it bears--ADEFONSVS REX: SCEMENA REGINA. The workmanship is
+consequently of the close of the ninth or the beginning of the tenth
+century. The material is wood covered with _repousse_ silver plates on
+which are figured angels and birds, together with the eagle and the ox
+as emblems of the evangelists John and Luke, whose names are also to be
+read upon the casket.
+
+Next to the sword, no object in the history of mediaeval Spain was more
+profoundly popular or venerated than the _relicario_. This in its
+primitive form was just a small receptacle, such as a vase or urn of
+gold or silver, ivory or crystal, used by the laity or clergy for
+treasuring bones, or hairs, or other relics of the Virgin, or the
+Saviour, or the saints. In private families a holy tooth, or toe, or
+finger thus preserved would often, as though it were some Eastern
+talisman, accompany its credulous possessor to the battlefield.
+
+As time went on, the urn or vase was commonly replaced by chests or
+caskets made by Moorish captives, or by tranquil and respected Moorish
+residents within the territory of the Christian,[19] or wrested from
+the infidel in war and offered by the Spanish kings or nobles to their
+churches. Here they were kept on brackets, or suspended near the altar
+by a chain[20] of silver, gold, or iron. Among the Moors themselves such
+chests and caskets served, according to their richness or capacity, for
+storing perfumes, clothes, or jewels, or as a present from a bridegroom
+to his bride; and since the sparsely-furnished Oriental room contains no
+kind of wardrobe, cabinet, or chest of drawers, their use in Moorish
+parts of Spain was universal.
+
+  [19] In many towns a hearty friendship sprang up between the Spaniard
+       and the Moor. This was a natural consequence in places where the
+       vanquished had a better education than the victor. The warrior
+       population of both races might be struggling on the field at the
+       same moment that their craftsmen were fraternizing in the workshop.
+       Ferdinand the First and Alfonso the Sixth were particularly lenient
+       in their usage of the dominated Muslim. Thus, the former of these
+       princes recognised the Moorish townspeople of Sena as his vassals,
+       while those of Toledo were freely allowed by Alfonso to retain
+       their worship and their mosque.
+
+  [20]       "_Fallaron ay de marfil arquetas muy preciadas
+             Con tantas de noblezas que non podrian ser contadas
+             Fueron para San Pedro las arquetas donadas;
+             Estan en este dia en el su altar asentadas._"
+                           Poem of FERRAN GONZALVEZ (13th century).
+
+A typical Moorish casket of this kind (Plate iv.) is now in the
+cathedral of Gerona. It measures fifteen inches in length by nine
+across, fastens with a finely ornamented band and clasp of bronze, and
+is covered with thin silver-gilt plates profusely decorated with a bead
+and floral pattern superposed upon a box of non-decaying
+wood--possibly larch or cedar. A Cufic inscription along the lower
+part of the lid was formerly interpreted as follows:--
+
+"In the name of God. (May) the blessing of God, prosperity and fortune
+and perpetual felicity be (destined) for the servant of God, Alhakem,
+Emir of the Faithful, because he ordered (this casket) to be made for
+Abdul Walid Hischem, heir to the throne of the Muslims. It was finished
+by the hands of Hudzen, son of Bothla."
+
+                           [Illustration: IV
+                             MOORISH CASKET
+                         (_Gerona Cathedral_)]
+
+It is supposed, however, that the part of this inscription which
+contains the maker's name was rendered incorrectly by Riano, who
+followed, on this point, Saavedra, Fita, and other archaeologists; and
+that the casket was made to the order of Djaudar, as a gift to the heir
+to the throne, Abulwalid Hischem, the actual workmen being two slaves,
+Bedr and Tarif. That is to say, the name Hudzen is now replaced by
+Djaudar, whom Dozy mentions in his history of the Mussulman domination
+in Spain, and who is known to have been a eunuch high in favour with
+Alhakem, Hischem's father. These princes ruled at Cordova in the latter
+half of the tenth century and the beginning of the eleventh.
+
+Spanish-Moorish caskets (_arquetas_) of ivory, silver, or inlaid work,
+are also preserved in the South Kensington Museum, the Archaeological
+Museum at Madrid, and the cathedrals of Braga, Tortosa, and Oviedo.
+There is no reason to doubt that all these boxes were made in Spain,
+although an Eastern and particularly Persian influence is very
+noticeable in their scheme of decoration.
+
+Two silver caskets which were once in the church of San Isidoro at Leon
+are now in the Madrid Museum. The smaller and plainer of the two,
+elliptical in shape and measuring five inches in length by two inches
+and a half in depth, is covered with a leaf and stem device outlined in
+black enamel. A Cufic inscription of a private and domestic import, also
+picked out with black enamel, runs along the top. The lid is ornamented,
+like the body of the box, with leaves and stems surrounded by a Grecian
+border, and fastens with a heart-shaped clasp secured by a ring.
+
+The other, more elaborate, and larger box measures eight inches long by
+five in height. In shape it is a parallelogram, with a deeply bevelled
+rather than--as Amador describes it--a five-sided top. Bands of a simple
+winding pattern outlined in black enamel on a ground of delicate
+niello-work run round the top and body of the casket. The central band
+upon the lower part contains a Cufic inscription of slight interest.
+Some of the letters terminate in leaves. The bevelled lid is covered
+with groups of peacocks--symbolic, among Mohammedans, of eternal
+life--outlined in black enamel. These birds are eight in all, gathered
+in two groups of four about the large and overlapping hinges. Four
+leaves, trifoliate, in _repousse_, one beneath the other, decorate the
+clasp, which opens out into a heart containing, also in _repousse_, two
+inverted peacocks looking face to face. Between the birds this heart
+extremity is pierced for the passage of a ring.
+
+Amador de los Rios considers that both caskets were made between the
+years 1048 and 1089.
+
+The use of coloured enamel in the manufacture of these boxes dates, or
+generally so, from somewhat later. Although the history of enamelling in
+Spain is nebulous and contradictory in the extreme, we know that caskets
+in _champleve_ enamel on a copper ground, with figures either flat or
+hammered in a bold relief, became abundant here. Two, from the convent
+of San Marcos at Leon, and dating from the thirteenth century, are now
+in the Madrid Museum. Labarte says that the lids of these enamelled
+reliquaries were flat until the twelfth century, and of a gable form
+thenceforward.
+
+                            [Illustration: V
+                    ALTAR-FRONT IN ENAMELLED BRONZE
+                  (_11th Century. Museum of Burgos_)]
+
+Other old objects--boxes, triptyches, statuettes, incensories,
+book-covers, crucifixes, and processional crosses--partly or wholly
+covered with enamel, belong or recently belonged to the Marquises of
+Castrillo and Casa-Torres, the Count of Valencia de Don Juan, and Senor
+Escanciano. All, or nearly all, of these are thought to have proceeded
+from Limoges (Pl. v.). _Champleve_ enamel is also on the tiny "Crucifix
+of the Cid" (Pl. vi.) at Salamanca, as well as on the Virgin's throne in
+the gilt bronze statuette of the Virgin de la Vega at San Esteban in the
+same city.[21] Of this image, although it properly belongs to another
+heading of my book, I think it well to give a reproduction here (Plate
+vii.). I will also mention, in spite of its presumably foreign origin,
+the enamelled altar-front of San Miguel de Excelsis in Navarre--a small
+sanctuary constructed by a mediaeval cavalier who, by an accident
+occasioned by the dark, murdered his father and mother in lieu of his
+wife.[22] This altar-front, conspicuously Byzantine in its style,
+measures four feet three inches high by seven feet five inches long, and
+is now employed as the _retablo_ of the little church which stands in
+solitary picturesqueness on the lofty mountain-top of Aralar. The
+figures, coloured in relief upon a yellowish enamel ground, are those of
+saints, and of a monarch and his queen--possibly King Sancho the Great,
+who is believed to have been the donor of the ornament. If this surmise
+be accurate, the front would date from the eleventh century.
+
+  [21] Together with the statuette of Ujue in Navarre, the Virgen de la
+       Vega of Salamanca may be classed as one of the earliest "local
+       Virgins" of this country. Sometimes these images are of wood alone,
+       sometimes of wood beneath a silver covering, sometimes, as that of
+       the Claustro de Leon, of stone. But whatever may be the substance,
+       the characteristics are the same:--Byzantine rigidness and
+       disproportion, the crude and primitive anatomy of artists only just
+       emerging from the dark. The Virgin and Child of Santa Maria la Real
+       of Hirache in Navarra may be instanced as another of the series.
+       This image dates from late in the twelfth or early in the
+       thirteenth century, although a crown and nimbus have been added
+       subsequently. It measures rather more than a yard in height, and
+       consists of wood covered with silver plates, except the hands and
+       face, which are painted. The Virgin, seated, holds the Infant with
+       her left arm; in her right hand is an apple. A kind of stole
+       bearing the following inscription in Gothic letter falls upon the
+       Infant's breast; "_Puer natus est nobis, venite adoremus. Ego sum
+       alpha et omega, primus et novissimus Dominus._" Before this
+       statuette the King Don Sancho is stated to have offered his
+       devotion.
+
+  [22] I quote this legend in Appendix A.
+
+I have said that the history of Spanish enamel-work is both confused and
+scanty. The subject in its general aspects has been studied by M.
+Roulin, whose judgments will be found in the _Revue de l'Art Ancien et
+Moderne_, and in his article, "Mobilier liturgique d'Espagne," published
+in the _Revue de l'Art Chretien_ for 1903. M. Roulin believes the
+altar-front of San Miguel in Excelsis to be a Limoges product, not
+earlier than the first half of the thirteenth century.
+
+Ramirez de Arellano declares that no enamelling at all was done in Spain
+before the invasion of the Almohades. Lopez Ferreiro, who as a priest
+had access to the jealously secreted archives of Santiago cathedral,
+gives us the names of Arias Perez, Pedro Martinez, Fernan Perez, and
+Pedro Pelaez, Galician enamellers who worked at Santiago in the twelfth
+and thirteenth centuries. Martin Minguez says that enamelling was done
+at Gerona in the fourteenth century, and Moorish enamels were certainly
+produced at Cordova and Cuenca from comparatively early in the Middle
+Ages. A few obscure workers in enamel are mentioned by Gestoso, in his
+_Diccionario de Artistas Sevillanos_, as living at Seville in the
+fifteenth century, though, in the entries which refer to them, little is
+told us of their lives and nothing of their labours. In the sixteenth
+century we obtain a glimpse of two enamellers of Toledo--Lorenzo Marques
+and Andres Ordonez, and dating from the same period the Chapter of the
+Military Orders of Ciudad Real possesses a silver-gilt _porta-paz_ with
+enamelling done at Cuenca. However, our notices of this branch of
+Spanish art have yet to be completed.
+
+                           [Illustration: VI
+                       "THE CRUCIFIX OF THE CID"
+                        (_Salamanca Cathedral_)]
+
+A long array of royal gifts caused, in the olden time, the treasure of
+Santiago cathedral to be the richest and most varied in the whole
+Peninsula, although at first this see was merely suffragan to Merida.
+But early in the twelfth century a scheming bishop, by name Diego
+Gelmirez, intrigued at Rome to raise his diocese to the dignity of an
+archbishopric. The means by which he proved successful in the end were
+far from irreproachable. "Gelmirez," says Ford (vol. ii. p. 666) "was a
+cunning prelate, and well knew how to carry his point; he put Santiago's
+images and plate into the crucible, and sent the ingots to the Pope."
+
+The original altar-front or parament (_aurea tabula_) was made of solid
+gold. This altar-front Gelmirez melted down to steal from it some
+hundred ounces of the precious metal for the Pope, donating in its
+stead another front of gold and silver mixed, wrought from the remaining
+treasure of the sanctuary. Aymerich tells us that the primitive frontal
+bore the figure of the Saviour seated on a throne supported by the four
+evangelists, blessing with his right hand, and holding in his left the
+Book of Life. The four-and-twenty elders (called by quaint Morales
+"gentlemen") of the apocalypse were also gathered round the throne, with
+musical instruments in their hands, and golden goblets filled with
+fragrant essences. At either end of the frontal were six of the
+apostles, three above and three beneath, separated by "beautiful
+columns" and surrounded by floral decoration. The upper part was thus
+inscribed:--
+
+                  HANC TABULAM DIDACUS PRAESUL JACOBITA
+                                SECUNDUS
+                   TEMPORE QUINQUENNI FECIT EPISCOPI
+                  MARCAS ARGENTI DE THESAURO JACOBENSI
+                   HIC OCTOGINTA QUINQUE MINUS NUMERA.
+
+And the lower part:--
+
+               REX ERAT ANFONSUS GENER EJUS DUX RAIMUNDUS
+                  PRAESUL PRAEFATUS QUANDO PEREGIT OPUS.
+
+This early altar-front has disappeared like its predecessor; it is
+not known precisely at what time; but both Morales and Medina saw and
+wrote about it in the sixteenth century.
+
+                           [Illustration: VII
+                        THE "VIRGEN DE LA VEGA"
+                             (_Salamanca_)]
+
+Another ornament which Aymerich describes, namely, the _baldaquino_ or
+_cimborius_, has likewise faded from the eyes of the profane, together
+with three bronze caskets covered with enamel, and stated by Morales to
+have contained the bones of Saints Silvestre, Cucufate, and Fructuoso.
+One of these caskets was existing in the seventeenth century.
+
+The silver lamps were greatly celebrated. Ambrosio de Morales counted
+"twenty or more"; but Zepedano made their total mount to fifty-one. The
+French invasion brought their number down to three. Three of the oldest
+of these lamps had been of huge dimensions, particularly one, a present
+from Alfonso of Aragon, which occupied the centre. The shape of it, says
+Aymerich, was "like a mighty mortar." Seven was the number of its beaks,
+symbolic of the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost; and each beak contained a
+lamplet fed with oil of myrtles, acorns, or olives.
+
+All kinds of robberies and pilferings have thus been perpetrated with
+the once abundant wealth of Santiago.[23] The jealous care which keeps
+the copious archives inaccessible to all the outside world is in itself
+of sinister significance. It has transpired, furthermore, that many of
+the bishops have "exchanged," or simply stolen, portions of the holy
+property. Besides these clerical dilapidations, a cartload, weighing
+half a ton, was carried off by Marshal Ney, though some was subsequently
+handed back, "because the spoilers feared the hostility of the
+_Plateros_, the silversmiths who live close to the cathedral, and by
+whom many workmen were employed in making little graven images,
+teraphims and lares, as well as medallions of Santiago, which pilgrims
+purchase."[24]
+
+  [23] A recent instance, not devoid of humour, is as follows. About three
+       years ago, a silly rogue removed and carried off the crown from
+       Santiago's head; but since the actual jewel is only worn on solemn
+       festivals, his prize turned out to be a worthless piece of tin. An
+       odd removal of the treasure of another Spanish church was noted by
+       the traveller Bowles. "The curate of the place, a worthy fellow who
+       put me up in his house, assured me that a detachment of a legion of
+       locusts entered the church, ate up the silk clothes upon the
+       images, and gnawed the varnish on the altars." Perhaps these
+       adamantine-stomached insects have assailed, from time to time, the
+       gold and silver plate of Santiago.
+
+  [24] Ford, _Handbook_, vol. ii. p. 671. I briefly notice, in Appendix B,
+       the Santiago jet-work, also practised by these craftsmen.
+
+                          [Illustration: VIII
+                     SAINT JAMES IN PILGRIM'S DRESS
+      (_Silver-gilt statuette; 15th Century. Santiago Cathedral_)]
+
+Among the gifts of value which this temple yet preserves are the ancient
+processional cross presented by the third Alfonso in the year of
+grace 874,[25] and the hideous fourteenth-century reliquary shaped to
+represent the head of James Alfeo, and containing (as it is believed)
+this very relic (Pl. viii.). I make a reservation here, because the
+Chapter have forbidden the reliquary to be opened. In either case,
+whether the head be there or not, heads of the same apostle are affirmed
+to be at Chartres, Toulouse, and other places. Similarly, discussing
+these Hydra-headed beings of the Bible and the hagiology, Villa-amil y
+Castro (_El Tesoro de la Catedral de Santiago_, published in the _Museo
+Espanol de Antiguedades_) recalls to us the ten authenticated and
+indubitable mazzards of Saint John the Baptist.
+
+  [25] To lend my censures further cogency, I leave this statement as I
+       set it down some weeks ago; since when, on picking up a Spanish
+       newspaper, I read the following telegram:--
+
+                      "THEFT IN SANTIAGO CATHEDRAL
+
+                                 "SANTIAGO, _May 7th, 1906_ (9.15 _p.m._).
+
+       "This morning, when the canon in charge of the Chapel of the Relics
+       unlocked the door, he was surprised to observe that some of these
+       were lying in confusion on the floor. Fearing that a theft had been
+       committed, he sent for the dean and others of the clergy, who had
+       examination made, and found the following objects to be missing:--
+
+       _"A gold cross, presented by King Alfonso the Great, when he
+       attended the consecration of this temple in the year 874._
+
+       "Another cross, of silver, dating from the fifteenth century--a
+       present from Archbishop Spinola.
+
+       "An aureole of the fifteenth century, studded with precious stones
+       belonging to a statuette of the apostle Santiago.
+
+       "The authorities were summoned and at once began their search.
+
+       "They find that two of the thick iron bars of the skylight in the
+       ceiling of the cloister have been filed through. This cloister has
+       a skylight which opens upon the chapel.
+
+       "They have also found, upon the roof, a knotted rope. This rope was
+       only long enough to reach a cornice in the chapel wall. _The wall
+       itself affords no sign that anybody has attempted to descend by
+       it._"
+
+The head-shaped reliquary is of beaten silver with enamelled visage, and
+the hair and beard gilt.[26] The workmanship is French. The cross, which
+hung till recently above the altar of the Relicario, but which now
+requires to be placed upon the lengthy list of stolen wealth, was not
+unlike the Cross of Angels in the Camara Santa at Oviedo, and had a
+wooden body covered with gold plates in finely executed filigree,
+studded with precious stones and cameos. Not many days ago, the wooden
+core, divested of the precious metal and the precious stones, was found
+abandoned in a field.
+
+  [26] This form of reliquary was not uncommon. Morales, in his _Viaje
+       Sacro_, describes another one, also preserved at Santiago, saying
+       that it was a bust of silver, life-size and gilded to the breast,
+       "with a large diadem of rays and many stones, both small and great,
+       all or most of them of fine quality, though not of the most
+       precious." Other bust-reliquaries belong, or have belonged, to the
+       Cathedrals of Burgos and Toledo.
+
+Visitors to the shrine of Santiago seldom fail to have their curiosity
+excited by the monster "smoke-thrower" (_bota-fumeiro_) or incensory,
+lowered (much like the deadly sword in Poe's exciting tale) on each
+_fiesta_ by a batch of vigorous Gallegos from an iron frame fixed into
+the pendentives of the dome. "The calmest heart," says Villa-amil,
+"grows agitated to behold this giant vessel descending from the apex of
+the nave until it almost sweeps the ground, wreathed in dense smoke and
+spewing flame." Ford seems to have been unaware that the real purpose of
+this metal monster was not to simply scent the holy precincts, but to
+cover up the pestilential atmosphere created by a horde of verminous,
+diseased, and evil-smelling pilgrims, who, by a usage which is now
+suppressed, were authorized to pass the night before the services within
+the actual cathedral wall.
+
+The original _bota-fumeiro_, resembling, in Oxea's words, "a silver
+boiler of gigantic bulk," was lost or stolen in the War of Spanish
+Independence. It was replaced by another of iron, and this, in 1851, by
+the present apparatus of white metal.
+
+Striking objects of ecclesiastical _orfebreria_ were produced in Spain
+throughout the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. Among the finest
+are the triptych-reliquary of Seville cathedral known as the _Alfonsine
+Tables_; the _retablo_ and _baldaquino_ of the cathedral of Gerona; the
+silver throne, preserved in Barcelona cathedral, of Don Martin of
+Aragon; and the _guion_, at Toledo, of Cardinal Mendoza.
+
+                           [Illustration: IX
+                            MUDEJAR TRIPTYCH
+           (_Interior of one leaf of the door. 14th Century.
+                  Royal Academy of History, Madrid_)]
+
+Triptych-reliquaries, which had gradually expanded from the diptych
+form--three leaves or panels thus replacing two,--were generally used in
+Spain from the eleventh century, and varied in dimensions from a few
+inches in height and width to several yards. We find them in the Gothic,
+Mudejar,[27] Romanic, or Renaissance styles--wrought either in a single
+style of these, or in effective combination of some two or more. The
+Academy of History at Madrid possesses a richly ornamented Mudejar
+triptych (Plate ix.) proceeding from the Monasterio de Piedra. It is
+inferior, notwithstanding, to the _Tablas Alfonsinas_,[28] "a
+specimen of Spanish silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition
+to the new style, and the progress in the design of the figures owing to
+the Italian Renaissance."[29] In or about the year 1274, this splendid
+piece of sacred furniture was made by order of the learned king, to hold
+the relics of certain saints and of the Virgin Mary. The maker is
+thought by Amador to have been one "Master George," a craftsman held in
+high esteem by the father of Alfonso and the conqueror of Seville,
+Ferdinand the Third. Romanic influence is abundant in this triptych,
+showing that, although exposed to constant changes from abroad, the
+Spanish mediaeval crafts adhered upon the whole with singular tenacity to
+primitive tradition.
+
+  [27] The Mudejares were the Mussulmans who submitted, in the conquered
+       cities, to the Spanish-Christian rule. The word _Mudejar_ is of
+       modern growth, nor can its derivation be resolved with certainty.
+       From the thirteenth century onwards, and formed by the fusion of
+       the Christian and the Saracenic elements, we find Mudejar influence
+       copiously distributed through every phase of Spanish life and art,
+       and even literature.
+
+  [28] Amador prefers to call these Tables "the triptych of the learned
+       king," in order to distinguish them by this explicit title from the
+       _Astronomical Tables_ prepared by order of the same monarch.
+
+  [29] Riano, _Spanish Arts_, p. 16.
+
+The triptych is of larch, or some such undecaying wood, and measures,
+when the leaves are opened wide, forty inches over its entire breadth,
+by twenty-two in height. Linen is stretched upon the wood, and over that
+the silver-gilt _repousse_ plates which form the principal adornment of
+the reliquary. "The outside is decorated with twelve medallions
+containing the arms of Castile and Aragon, and forty-eight others in
+which are repeated alternately the subjects of the Adoration of the Magi
+and the Annunciation of the Virgin, also in _repousse_. In the centres
+are eagles, allusive, it is possible, to Don Alfonso's claim to be
+crowned Emperor.... The ornamentation which surrounds the panels belongs
+to the sixteenth century" (Riano). The arms here spoken of contain the
+crowned lion and the castle of three towers; and the interesting fact is
+pointed out by Amador that the diminutive doors and windows of these
+castles show a strongly pointed Gothic arch. The sixteenth-century
+bordering to the panels is in the manner known as Plateresque.[30] The
+clasps are also Plateresque, and prove, together with the border,
+that the triptych was restored about this time.
+
+  [30] So named because the silversmiths (_plateros_) of this country used
+       it in their monstrances (_custodias_) and in many other objects or
+       utensils of religious worship. The most refined and erudite of
+       Spanish silver-workers, Juan de Arfe, thus referred to it in
+       rhyme:--
+
+                      _"Usaron desta obra los plateros
+                      Guardando sus preceptos con zelo;
+                      Pusieronle en los puntos postrimeros
+                      De perfeccion mi abuelo."_
+
+                            [Illustration: X
+                        THE "TABLAS ALFONSINAS"
+         (_View of Interior; 13th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+Inside (Plate x.), it consists of fifteen compartments, "full of minute
+ornamentation, among which are set a large number of capsules covered
+with rock crystal containing relics, each one with an inscription of
+enamelled gold, _cloisonne_. Several good cameos with sacred subjects
+appear near the edge of the side leaves" (Riano). These cameos,
+handsomely engraved with figures of the Virgin and other subjects of
+religious character, are fairly well preserved; but the designs upon
+enamel are almost obliterated. Eight precious stones, set in as rude a
+style as those upon the ancient crowns and crosses of the Visigoths,
+have also fallen out, or been removed, from the interior.
+
+The _retablo_ of Gerona cathedral and its baldachin date from the
+fourteenth century. "The Retablo is of wood entirely covered with silver
+plates, and divided vertically into three series of niches and canopies;
+each division has a subject, and a good deal of enamelling is introduced
+in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels. Each panel
+has a cinq-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and pinnacles on either
+side. The straight line of the top is broken by three niches, which
+rise in the centre and at either end. In the centre is the Blessed
+Virgin with our Lord; on the right, San Narciso; and on the left, St
+Filia. The three tiers of subjects contain figures of saints, subjects
+from the life of the Blessed Virgin, and subjects from the life of our
+Lord."[31]
+
+  [31] Street, _Gothic Architecture in Spain_.
+
+San Narciso is patron of the city of Gerona; which explains the presence
+of his image here. From the treasury of the same cathedral was stolen,
+during the War of Spanish Independence, a magnificent altar-front of
+wrought gold and mosaic, a gift of Countess Gisla, wife of Ramon
+Berenguer, count-king of Barcelona. It had in the centre a bas-relief
+medallion representing the Virgin, another medallion with a portrait of
+the donor, and various saints in niches, interworked with precious
+stones.
+
+The great armchair of Don Martin, called by Baron Davillier a "beau
+faudesteuil gothique," which possibly served that monarch as a throne,
+and was presented by him to the cathedral of Barcelona, dates from the
+year 1410. The wooden frame is covered with elaborately chiselled plates
+in silver-gilt. This most imposing object is carried in procession
+through the streets upon the yearly festival of Corpus Christi.
+
+                           [Illustration: XI
+                       "THE CUP OF SAN FERNANDO"
+                  (_13th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+                           [Illustration: XII
+                                  SHIP
+                 (_15th Century. Zaragoza Cathedral_)]
+
+The _guion de Mendoza_, now in Toledo cathedral, is a handsome
+later-Gothic silver-gilt cross, and is the same which was raised upon
+the Torre de la Vela at Granada on January 2nd, 1492, when the fairest
+and most storied city in all Spain surrendered formally to Ferdinand and
+Isabella. Many other interesting crosses, of the character known as
+processional, are still preserved in various parts of the Peninsula, at
+South Kensington, and elsewhere. The more remarkable are noticed under
+various headings of this book. Their workmanship is generally of the
+fifteenth or the sixteenth century.
+
+The Seo or cathedral of Zaragoza possesses a handsome ship (Plate xii.),
+presented to this temple, towards the end of the fifteenth century, by
+the Valencian corsair, Mosen Juan de Torrellas. The hull is a large
+shell resting on a silver-gilt dragon of good design, with a large
+emerald set in the middle of its forehead, and a ruby for each eye.
+Ships of this kind were not uncommon on a Spanish dining table of the
+time, or in the treasuries of churches and cathedrals. Toledo owns
+another of these vessels (in both senses of the word), which once
+belonged to Dona Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+Hitherto I have confined my notice almost wholly to the treasure of the
+Spanish temples. Turning from ecclesiastical to secular life, we find,
+all through the Middle Ages, the humbler classes kept by constant penury
+and war aloof from every form of luxury. Jewellery and gold and silver
+work were thus essentially the perquisite or, so to speak, the privilege
+of princes, nobles, and the Church. The mediaeval kings and magnates of
+this land were smitten inveterately with a passion for display, and
+chronicles and inventories of the time contain instructive details of
+the quantities of gems and precious metals employed by them to decorate
+their persons and their palaces. The richness of their bedsteads will be
+noticed under Furniture. Quantities of jewellery and plate belonged to
+every noble household. For instance, the testament of the Countess of
+Castaneda (A.D. 1443) includes the mention of "a gilded cup and cover to
+the same; a silver vessel and its lid, the edges gilt, and in the centre
+of both lid and vessel the arms of the said count, my lord; a silver
+vessel with a foot to it; a diamond ring; a silver vessel with gilt
+edges and the arms of the count, companion to the other vessels; a
+jasper sweetmeat-tray with silver-gilt handles and feet; four coral
+spoons; a gilt enamelled cup and lid; a small gilt cup and lid; two
+large silver porringers; two French cups of white silver; two large
+plates of eight marks apiece; two middling-sized silver vessels; two
+silver-gilt barrels with silver-gilt chains."[32]
+
+  [32] Count of Clonard.
+
+On each occasion of a court or national festivity, the apparel of the
+great was ponderous with gold and silver fringe, or thickly strewn with
+pearls--the characteristic _aljofar_ or _aljofar_-work (Arabic _chawar_,
+small pearls), for which the Moors were widely famed. Towards the
+thirteenth century unmarried Spanish women of high rank possessed
+abundant stores of bracelets, earrings, necklaces, gold chains, rings,
+and gem-embroidered pouches for their money. Their waist-belts, too,
+were heavy with gold and silver, and _aljofar_.[33] The poem of the
+Archpriest of Hita (1343) mentions two articles of jewellery for female
+wear called the _broncha_ and the _pancha_. The former was an ornament
+for the throat; the other, a plate or medal which hung to below the
+waist. An Arabic document quoted by Casiri, and dating from the reign
+of Henry the First of Castile, specifies as belonging to an aristocratic
+lady of that time, "Egyptian shirts of silk and linen, embroidered
+shirts, Persian shirts with silk embroidery, Murcian gold necklaces,
+ear-pendants of the same metal, set with gems; finger-rings and
+bracelets, waist-belts of skins, embroidered with silk and precious
+stones; cloaks of cloth of gold, embroidered mantles of the same,
+coverings for the head, and kerchiefs."
+
+  [33] _Ibid_.
+
+For all the frequency with which they framed and iterated sterile and
+exasperating sumptuary pragmatics for their people, the Spanish kings
+themselves went even beyond the nobles in their craze for ostentatious
+luxury. Upon the day when he was crowned at Burgos, Alfonso the Eleventh
+"arrayed himself in gold and silver cloth bearing devices of the castle
+and the lion, in which was much _aljofar_-work, as well as precious
+stones innumerable; rubies, emeralds, and sapphires." Even the bit and
+saddle of the monarch's charger were "exceeding precious on this day,
+for gems and gold and silver covered all the saddle-bows, and the sides
+of the saddle and its girths, together with the headstall, were
+curiously wrought of gold and silver thread."
+
+Similar relations may be found at every moment of the history of
+mediaeval Spain. Another instance may be quoted from the reign of
+Ferdinand and Isabella. When these sovereigns visited Barcelona in 1481,
+the queen was dressed as follows:--"She advanced riding upon a fine
+mule, and seated on cushions covered with brocade, rising high above the
+saddle. Her robe was of gold thread and jewel-work, with a rich brocade
+skirt. Upon her head she wore a crown of gold adorned with richest
+diamonds, pearls, rubies, balas rubies, and other stones of passing
+price." During the same visit, a royal tournament was given in the Plaza
+del Born, in presence of the aristocracy and wealthy townspeople, "the
+counts, viscounts, deputies, councillors, _caballeros_, _gentiles
+hombres_, burgesses, and others without number." Ferdinand, who "with
+virtue and benignity" had deigned to break a lance or two in tourneying
+with the Duke of Alburquerque, the Count of Benavente, and several
+gentlemen of Cataluna, was wearing "over his harness a jacket all of
+gold brocade. His horse's coverings and poitral also were of thread of
+gold, richly devised and wrought, and of exceeding majesty and beauty.
+And on his helm he wore a crown of gold, embellished with many pearls
+and other stones; and above the crown a figure of a large gold bat,
+which is the emblem of the kings of Aragon and counts of Barcelona, with
+white and sanguine bars upon the scutcheon.[34] The queen and the
+cardinal of Spain were in a window of the house of Mossen Guillem
+Pujades, conservator of the realm of Sicily. Her highness wore a robe of
+rich gold thread with a collar of beautiful pearls; and the trappings of
+her mule were of brocade."[35]
+
+  [34] Four pallets gules, on a field or; which were the arms of Cataluna
+       and subsequently of Aragon.
+
+  [35] _Archives of the Crown of Aragon._
+
+Eleven years later the youthful prince, Don Juan, son of these rulers,
+appeared before the citizens of Barcelona dressed in "a robe of
+beautiful brocade that almost swept the ground, and a doublet of the
+same material; the sleeves of the robe thickly adorned with fine pearls
+of large size." He carried, too, "a gold collar of great size and beauty,
+wrought of large diamonds, pearls, and other stones."[36]
+
+  [36] _Ibid_.
+
+It was an ancient usage with the people of Barcelona to present a silver
+service to any member of the royal family who paid a visit to their
+capital. The service so presented to Ferdinand the Catholic cost the
+corporation a sum of more than twelve hundred pounds of Catalan money,
+and included "a saltcellar made upon a rock. Upon the rock is a castle,
+the tower of which contains the salt.... Two silver ewers, gilt within
+and containing on the outside various enamelled devices in the centre,
+together with the city arms. Also a silver-gilt lion upon a rustic
+palisade of tree-trunks, holding an inscription in his right paw, with
+the arms of the city, a flag, and a crown upon his head. This object
+weighs thirty-four marks."[37] The service offered on the same occasion
+to Isabella, though less in weight, was more elaborately wrought, and
+cost on this account considerably more. It included "two silver ewers,
+gilt within and enamelled without, bearing the city arms, and chiselled
+in the centre with various designs of foliage. Also a silver saltcellar,
+with six small towers, containing at the foot three pieces of
+enamel-work with the arms of the city in relief. This saltcellar has its
+lid and case, with a pinnacle upon the lid, and is of silver-gilt inside
+and out."[38]
+
+  [37] Sanpere y Miquel, _Revista de Ciencias Historicas_, art. _La
+       Plateria catalana en los siglos XIV. y XV._, vol. i. p. 441.
+
+  [38] _Ibid_.
+
+From about the fifteenth century the goldsmiths and the silversmiths of
+Barcelona enjoyed considerable fame. Among their names are those of
+Lobarolla, Roig, Berni, Belloch, Planes, Mellar, Corda, Fabregues,
+Farran, Perot Ximenis, Rafel Ximenis, Balague, and Antonio de Valdes.
+Riano quotes the names of many more from Cean's dictionary. The most
+important facts relating to these artists were brought to light some
+years ago by Baron Davillier, who based the greater part of his research
+upon the _Libros de Pasantia_ or silversmiths' examination-books (filled
+with excellent designs for jewel-work) of Barcelona. These volumes,
+formerly kept in the college of San Eloy, are now the property of the
+Provincial Deputation of this city.
+
+The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of Seville also possesses
+four of its old examination-books, of which the earliest dates from
+1600. Gestoso, in his _Dictionary of Sevillian Artificers_ describes the
+actual ceremony of examination for a silversmith or goldsmith. Once in
+every year the members of the guild assembled in their chapel of the
+convent of San Francisco. Here and upon this day the candidate was
+closely questioned, to begin with, as to his "purity of blood"--that is,
+his freedom from contamination by relationship with any Moor or Hebrew.
+When it was duly and precisely ascertained that he, his parents, and his
+grandparents were uniformly "old Christians," untainted with the "wicked
+race of Moors, Jews, heretics, mulattoes, and renegades," and that
+neither he nor his ancestors had ever been put on trial by the
+Inquisition or by any other tribunal, "whether publicly or secretly," he
+was permitted to proceed to his examination proper.[39] The formula of
+this was simple. The candidate was summoned before the board of
+examiners, consisting of the Padre Mayor or patriarch of the guild, and
+the two _veedores_ or inspectors, the one of gold-work, the other of
+silver-work. The book of drawings was then placed upon the table, and a
+ruler was thrust at haphazard among its leaves. Where the ruler chanced
+to fall, the candidate was called upon to execute the corresponding
+drawing to the satisfaction of his judges.
+
+  [39] Gestoso mentions that Juan de Luna, a silversmith of Seville, was
+       turned into the gutter from the workshop where he was employed,
+       solely because his father had been punished as a Morisco by the
+       Inquisition (_Diccionario de Artifices Sevillanos_, vol. i.
+       p. lvi.).
+
+Riano lays too slight a stress upon the Moorish and Morisco jewellery of
+Spain. Although the use of gold and silver ornaments is forbidden by
+the Koran, the Muslim, wherever his vanity or his bodily comfort is
+involved, tramples his Bible underfoot almost as regularly, tranquilly,
+and radically as the Christians do their own. The Moors of Spain were
+not at all behind their oriental brethren in displaying precious stones
+and metals on their persons or about their homes. Al-Jattib tells us
+that the third Mohammed offered to the mosque of the Alhambra columns
+with capitals and bases of pure silver. Or who does not recall the
+Caliphate of Cordova; the silver lamp that measured fifty palms across,
+fitted with a thousand and fifty-four glass lamplets, and swinging by a
+golden chain from the cupola of the entrance to the _mirhab_ in the vast
+_mezquita_; the silver candlesticks and perfume-burners in the same
+extraordinary temple; the precious stones and metals employed in mighty
+quantities to decorate the palaces of Az-zahyra and Az-zahra?--
+
+               "A wilderness of building, sinking far
+               And self-withdrawn into a wondrous depth,
+               Far sinking into splendour without end!
+               Fabric it seemed of diamond and of gold,
+               With alabaster domes and silver spires,
+               And blazing terrace upon terrace, high
+               Uplifted."
+
+In brief, just as the prelates of the Christian Church habitually
+precede the Christian laity in trampling underfoot the elemental
+doctrine of Our Lord, so were the most exalted and responsible of all
+the Mussulmans--that is, their sultans--indefatigably foremost in
+neglect of the Koranic law.
+
+The Spanish sultans wore a ring of gold containing one large stone (such
+as an emerald, or ruby, or turquoise), on which was cut the royal seal
+and signature. Such was the ring belonging to Boabdil el Chico, worn by
+him on the very day of the surrender of his capital, and by his hand
+presented to a Spanish nobleman, the Count of Tendilla, governor-elect
+of the Alhambra. According to Rodriguez de Ardila, the following
+inscription was upon the stone:--"_La Ala ile Ala, abahu Tabiu. Aben Abi
+Abdala_," meaning, "_There is no God but God; this is the seal of Aben
+Abi Abdala._" Ardila, who was the author of a history of the Counts of
+Tendilla (which still remains in manuscript), adds that he saw the ring,
+although, as Eguilaz observes, two words of the inscription are
+inaccurately rendered.
+
+Among the Moors of Spain the use of signet rings was general. The stone
+employed was commonly cornelian, richly mounted and inscribed in various
+ways, as with the owner's name, his name together with a date, or the
+name of the town of which he was a native. In other instances we meet
+with pious phrases or quotations from the Koran; or perhaps a talismanic
+figure, such as the open eye to guard the wearer from the dreaded _mal
+de ojo_; or the open hand that still surmounts the gateway of the Tower
+of Justice at Granada.[40]
+
+  [40] An article by Senor Saavedra on these inscribed jewels and signets
+       of Mohammedan Spain will be found in the _Museo Espanol de
+        Antiguedades_.
+
+Undoubtedly, too, the Moorish sultans of this country owned enormous
+hoards of silver, gold, and precious stones. Al-Makkari says that the
+treasure of the Nasrite rulers of Granada included quantities of pearls,
+turquoises, and rubies; pearl necklets; earrings "surpassing those of
+Mary the Copt" (Mohammed's concubine); swords of the finest temper,
+embellished with pure gold; helmets with gilded borders, studded with
+emeralds, pearls, and rubies; and silvered and enamelled belts.
+
+                          [Illustration: XIII
+                           MOORISH BRACELETS]
+
+The Moorish women of this country, and in particular the
+Granadinas,[41] were passionately fond of jewellery. Ornaments which
+once belonged to them are sometimes brought to light in Andalusia,
+Murcia, or Valencia, including pendants, rings, necklaces, and _axorcas_
+or bangles for the ankle or the wrist, and bracelets for the upper
+portion of the arm. The National Museum contains a small collection of
+these objects, dating from the time of the Moriscos, and including a
+handsome necklace terminating in a double chain, with ball and pyramid
+shaped ornaments about the centre, a square-headed finger-ring with four
+green stones and a garnet, and a hollow bracelet filled with a substance
+that appears to be mastic, similar to those which are reproduced in
+Plate xiii.
+
+  [41] "As to the ornaments and jewels of the ladies of Granada, these
+       wear at present necklaces of rich design, bracelets, rings (upon
+       their ankles), and earrings of pure gold; together with quantities
+       of silver and of precious stones upon their shoes. I say this of
+       the middle class; for ladies of the aristocracy and of the older
+       noble families display a vast variety of gems, such as rubies,
+       chrysolites, emeralds, and pearls of great value. The ladies of
+       Granada are commonly fair to look upon, shapely, of good stature,
+       with long hair, teeth of a shining white, and perfumed breath,
+       gracefully alert in their movements, and witty and agreeable in
+       conversation. But unfortunately at this time their passion for
+       painting themselves and for arraying themselves in every kind of
+       jewellery and costly stuffs has reached a pitch that is no longer
+       tolerable."--Al-Jattib, in _The Splendour of the New Moon
+       concerning the Nasrite Sultans of Granada_.
+
+These jewels, I repeat, are of Morisco workmanship, and therefore date
+from later than the independent empire of the Spanish Moors.
+Nevertheless, the geometrical or filigree design was common both to
+Moorish and Morisco art. As I observed in my description of the
+casket-reliquaries, we note continually the influence of these motives
+on the arts of Christian Spain. The Ordinances relative to the
+goldsmiths and the silversmiths of Granada, cried at various times
+between 1529 and 1538, whether "in the silversmiths' street of the
+Alcayceria, that has its opening over against the scriveners'"; or in
+"the street of the Puente del Carbon, before the goldsmiths' shops"; or
+"in the street of the Zacatin, where dwell the silversmiths," prove also
+that for many years after the Reconquest the character and nomenclature
+of this kind of work continued to be principally and traditionally
+Moorish.
+
+Firstly, the Ordinances complain that the goldsmiths of Granada now
+employ a base and detrimental standard of the precious metals,
+especially in the bracelets or _manillas_ of the women. The goldsmiths
+answer in their vindication that equally as poor a standard is employed
+at Seville, Cordova, and Toledo. These city laws herewith establish
+twenty carats as a minimum fineness for the gold employed in making
+ornaments. The makers, also, are ordered to impress their private stamp
+or seal on every article, or in default to pay a fine of ten thousand
+_maravedis_. A copy of each stamp or seal to be deposited in the city
+chest. The _alamin_ or inspector of this trade to test and weigh all
+gold and silver work before it is exposed for sale.
+
+We learn from the same source that the gold bracelets were sometimes
+smooth, and sometimes "covered over with devices" (_cubiertos de
+estampas por cima_). The technical name of these was _albordados_. The
+silver bracelets were also either smooth, or stamped, or twisted in a
+cord (_encordados_). Bangles for the ankle, upper arm, and wrist are
+mentioned as continuing to be generally worn, while one of the
+Ordinances complains that "Moorish _axorcas_ are often sold that are
+hollow, and filled with chalk and mastic, so that before they can be
+weighed it is necessary to rid them of such substances by submitting
+them to fire, albeit the fire turns them black."
+
+The weapons and war-harness of the Spanish Moors were often exquisitely
+decorated with the precious stones or metals. Splendid objects of this
+kind have been preserved, and will be noticed in their proper chapter.
+
+The ruinous and reckless measure known to Spain's eternal shame as the
+Expulsion of the Moriscos, deprived this country of a great--perhaps the
+greatest--part of her resources. Fonseca estimates this loss, solely in
+the quantity of coin conveyed away, at two million and eight hundred
+thousand _escudos_, adding that a single Morisco, Alami Delascar de
+Aberique, bore off with him one hundred thousand ducats.[42] To make
+this matter worse, the Moriscos, just before they went on board their
+ships, fashioned from scraps of tin, old nails, and other refuse,
+enormous stores of counterfeit coin, and slyly sold this rubbish to the
+simple Spaniards in return for lawful money of the land. In the course
+of a few days, and in a single quarter of Valencia, more than three
+hundred thousand ducats of false coin were thus passed off upon the
+Christians. Besides this exportation of good Spanish money, the cunning
+fugitives removed huge quantities of jewellery and plate. Chains,
+_axorcas_, rings, _zarcillos_, and gold _escudos_ were taken from the
+bodies of many of the Morisco women who were murdered by the Spanish
+soldiery; but the greater part of all this treasure found its way to
+Africa. In his work _Expulsion justificada de los Moriscos_ (1612),
+Aznar de Cardona says that the Morisco women carried "divers plates upon
+the breast, together with necklaces and collars, earrings and
+bracelets." It is recorded, too, that the Moriscos, as they struggled in
+the country regions to avenge themselves upon their persecutors, did
+unlimited damage to the ornaments and fittings of the churches. "This
+people," says Fonseca, "respected not our temples or the holy images
+that in them were; nor yet the chalices and other objects they
+encountered in our sacristies. Upon the contrary, they smashed the
+crosses, burned the saints, profaned the sacred vestments, and committed
+such acts of sacrilege as though they had been Algerian Moors, or Turks
+of Constantinople."
+
+  [42] There was, however, from long before this time a prohibition to
+       export from Spain the precious metals, in any form, whether as
+       objects of plate or as coined money. The penalty for a repetition
+       of this offence was death. Another law prohibited all foreigners
+       who were resident in Spain, not excluding the Moriscos, from buying
+       gold or silver in the bar (_Suma de Leyes_, p. 46). It was also
+       forbidden to sell the jewels or other objects of value belonging to
+       a place of worship (_ibid_. p. 87).
+
+Legends of hidden Moorish and Morisco wealth are still extant in many
+parts of Spain. The Abbe Bertaut de Rouen[43] and Swinburne among
+foreigners, or Spaniards such as the gossiping priest Echeverria, who
+provided Washington Irving with the pick of his _Tales of the Alhambra_,
+have treated copiously of this fascinating and mysterious theme. The
+Siete Suelos Tower at Granada is particularly favoured with traditions
+of this kind. Peasants of the Alpujarras still declare that piles of
+Moorish money lie secreted in the lofty buttresses of Mulhacen and the
+Veleta, while yet another summit of this snowy range bears the
+suggestive title of the Cerro del Tesoro, where, almost within the
+memory of living men, a numerous party, fitted and commissioned by the
+State, explored with feverish though unlucky zeal the naked cliffs and
+sterile crannies of the lonely mountain.[44]
+
+  [43] This entertaining and inquisitive tourist describes, in 1659, a
+       wondrous cavern in the south of Spain, "ou l'on conte que les Mores
+       ont cache leurs tresors en s'en retournant en Afrique, et ou
+       personne n'ose aborder de peur des esprits que l'on dit que l'on y
+       voit souvent. Mais comme il commencait a se faire nuit, je n'eus
+       pas le loisir de m'y amuser beaucoup." With this our author shelved
+       his curiosity, and prudently retired.
+
+  [44] Leonard Williams. _Granada: Memories, Adventures, Studies, and
+       Impressions_, p. 90.
+
+Reducing all these fables to the terms of truth, Moorish and Morisco
+jewellery and coin are sometimes brought to light on Spanish soil. Such
+finds occur, less seldom than elsewhere, within the provinces of
+Seville, Cordova, Granada, and Almeria (Plate xiv.), but since they are
+neither frequent nor considerable, although the likeliest ground for
+them is being disturbed continually, we may conclude that nearly all the
+Muslim wealth accumulated here slipped from the clumsy if ferocious
+fingers of the mother-country, and found its way, concealed upon the
+bodies of her persecuted offspring, to the shores of Africa.[45]
+
+  [45] Ford was more hopeful as to the preservation of this wealth in
+       Spain. "No doubt much coin is buried in the Peninsula, since the
+       country has always been invaded and torn by civil wars, and there
+       never has been much confidence between Spaniard and Spaniard;
+       accordingly the only sure, although unproductive, investment for
+       those who had money, was gold or silver, and the only resource to
+       preserve that, was to hide it."--_Handbook_, vol. ii. p. 682.
+
+                           [Illustration: XIV
+                           MORISCO JEWELLERY
+                 (_Found in the Province of Granada_)]
+
+Sometimes, too, an early gold or silver object would be melted down and
+modernized into another and a newer piece of plate. This was a fairly
+common usage with the silversmiths themselves, or with an ignorant or
+stingy brotherhood or chapter. Thus, the following entry occurs in the
+_Libro de Visita de Fabrica_ belonging to the parish church of Santa
+Ana, Triana, Seville. In the year 1599 "the large cross of silver-gilt,
+together with its _mancana_ and all the silver attaching thereto, was
+taken to the house of Zubieta the silversmith, and pulled to pieces. It
+weighed 25 marks and 4 _ochavas_ of silver, besides 5 marks and 2 ounces
+and 4 _ochavas_ of silver which was the weight of the three lamps
+delivered to Zubieta in the time of Juan de Mirando, aforetime steward
+of this church. It is now made into a silver-gilt cross."[46]
+
+  [46] Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artifices Sevillanos_, vol. ii. p. 360.
+
+A similar instance may be quoted from a document of Cordova, published
+by Ramirez de Arellano in his relation of a visit to the monastery of
+San Jeronimo de Valparaiso. In the year 1607 Geronimo de la Cruz, a
+Cordovese silversmith, agreed with the prior of this monastery to make
+for the community a silver-gilt _custodia_. For this purpose he received
+from the prior, doubtless a man of parsimonious spirit and a boor in his
+appreciativeness of art, eight pairs of vinegar cruets, four of whose
+tops were missing; a silver-gilt chalice and its patine; a _viril_ with
+two angels and four pieces on the crown of it; a small communion cup;
+some silver candlesticks; four spoons and a fork, also of silver; and a
+silver-gilt salt-cellar. The total value of these objects was 1826
+_reales_; and all of them were tossed, in Ford's indignant phrase, into
+the "sacrilegious melting-pot," in order to provide material for the new
+_custodia_.
+
+                            [Illustration: XV
+                     SILVER-GILT PROCESSIONAL CROSS
+         (_Made by Juan de Arfe in_ 1592. _Burgos Cathedral_)]
+
+The gold and silver work of Christian Spain attained, throughout the
+fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries, a high degree of excellence
+(Plates xv., xvi., etc.). The best of it was made at Seville, Barcelona,
+Toledo, and Valladolid. Objects of great artistic worth were also
+produced at Burgos, Palencia, Leon, Cuenca, Cordova, and Salamanca. I
+have already mentioned some of the principal _orfebreros_ of Barcelona.
+Juan Ruiz of Cordova, whom Juan de Arfe applauds as "the first
+silversmith who taught the way to do good work in Andalusia," was also,
+in this region, the first to turn the precious metals on the lathe. A
+famous silversmith of Seville was Diego de Vozmediano, whom we find
+living there in 1525. Toledo, too, could boast, among an army of
+distinguished gold and silver smiths (Riano gives the names of no fewer
+than seventy-seven), Cristobal de Ordas, Juan Rodriguez de Babria, and
+Pedro Hernandez, _plateros_, respectively, to Charles the Fifth, to
+Philip the Second, and to the queen-dowager of Portugal; and also the
+silversmith and engraver upon metals, Pedro Angel, whose praise is sung
+by Lope de Vega in the prologue to his _auto_ called _The Voyage of the
+Soul_:--
+
+               "_Y es hoy Pedro Angel un divino artifice
+                 con el buril en oro, plata, o cobre._"
+
+By far the greater part of all Toledo's gold and silver work was made
+for service in her mighty temple. Such were the statue of Saint Helen,
+presented by Philip the Second; the crown of the Virgen del Sagrario,
+wrought by Hernando de Carrion and Alejo de Montoya; the bracelets or
+_ajorcas_ made for the image of the same Madonna by Julian Honrado; and
+the exquisite chests carved in 1569 and 1598 by Francisco Merino from
+designs by the two Vergaras, father and son, as reliquaries for the
+bones of San Eugenio and Santa Leocadia, patrons of this ancient
+capital.[47] A magnificent silver lamp was also, in 1565, offered by the
+chapter of the cathedral to the church of Saint Denis in France, in
+gratitude for the surrender of the bones of San Eugenio to the city of
+his birth. These and other objects of Toledan gold and silver work are
+stated to be "worthy of comparison with the very best of what was then
+produced in Germany, Italy, and France."[48]
+
+  [47] A full description of these chests will be found in Cean Bermudez,
+       vol. iii. pp. 135-137.
+
+  [48] Rada y Delgado, in his reply to the Count of Cedillo's address in
+       the Royal Academy of History. For particulars of the silver lamp,
+       which was made by Marcos and Gonzalo Hernandez, Toledanos, and by
+       Diego Davila, see Zarco del Valle, _Documentos Ineditos para la
+       Historia de las Bellas Artes en Espana_, vol. lv. p. 580.
+
+Baron Davillier also held a high opinion of the Spanish _orfebreros_ of
+this time. After remarking that the Italian influence was powerful among
+the Spaniards in the sixteenth century, and more particularly for some
+fifty years at Barcelona, he says: "A cette epoque les _plateros_
+espagnols pouvaient rivaliser sans desavantage avec les Italiens, les
+Francais, les Flamands, et les Allemands."
+
+The same authority also says that the Spanish _plateros_ of this period
+were skilled enamellers on gold and silver, and quotes some entries from
+French inventories of the time in which we read of cups, salt-cellars,
+washing-basins, and other objects executed or enamelled "a la mode
+d'Espagne."[49]
+
+  [49] _Recherches sur l'Orfevrerie en Espagne_, pp. 61 _et seq._
+
+As we have seen, the exodus of the Moriscos lost to Spain a great
+proportion of her total wealth, although, conjointly with this loss, new
+wealth flowed into her in marvellous abundance from the New World.[50]
+Thus, the silver-mines of Potosi, discovered in 1545, sent over to the
+mother-country, between that year and 1633, no less than eight hundred
+and forty-five millions of _pesos_. And yet this mighty influx of new
+riches cannot be said, except in the artistic sense, to have enriched
+the nation. She had renounced the service of the most industrious and,
+in many instances, the most ingenious of her native craftsmen; while on
+the other hand the Christians, with but limited exceptions, were far too
+proud and far too indolent to set their hand to any form of manual
+exercise; just as (I much regret to add) a great proportion of them are
+this very day. Foreign artificers in consequence (particularly after the
+royal pragmatic of 1623 encouraging their immigration), attracted by the
+treasure fleets that anchored in the bay of Cadiz, came trooping into
+Spain and filled their pockets from the national purse, fashioning, in
+return for money which they husbanded and sent abroad, luxurious gold
+and silver objects that were merely destined to stagnate within her
+churches and cathedrals.
+
+  [50] Ulloa, _Memorias Sevillanas_, vol. i. p. 199.
+
+Riano and Baron de la Vega de Hoz extract from Cean Bermudez a copious
+list of silversmiths who worked in Spain all through the Middle Ages.
+This long array of isolated names and dates is neither interesting nor
+informative. Newer and more attractive notices have been discovered
+subsequently. Thus, in the National Library at Madrid, Don Manuel G.
+Simancas has disinterred quite recently the copy made by a Jesuit of a
+series of thirteenth-century accounts relating to various craftsmen of
+the reign of Sancho the Fourth ("the Brave"). Two of them are concerning
+early _orfebreros_:--
+
+"Juan Yanez. By letters of the king and queen to Johan Yanez, goldsmith,
+brother of Ferran Garcia, scrivener to the king; for three chalices
+received from him by the king, CCCCLXXVIII _maravedis_."
+
+The second entry says:--
+
+"Bartolome Rinalt. And he paid Bartolome Rinalt for jewels which the
+queen bought from him to present to Dona Marina Suarez, nurse of the
+Infante Don Pedro, MCCCL _maravedis_."[51]
+
+  [51] _Libro de diferentes Cuentas y gasto de la Casa Real en el Reynado
+       de Don Sancho IV. Sacado de un tomo original en folio que se guarda
+       en la Libreria de la Santa Iglesia de Toledo._ Anos de 1293-1294.
+       Por el P. Andres Marcos Burriel de la Comp^a de Jesus.
+
+Among Spain's gold and silver craftsmen of the fifteenth century we
+find the names of Juan de Castelnou, together with his son Jaime, who
+worked at Valencia; of Lope Rodriguez de Villareal, Ruby, and Juan
+Gonzalez, all three of whom worked at Toledo; and of Juan de Segovia, a
+friar of Guadalupe. Papers concerning Juan Gonzalez, and dated 1425,
+1427, and 1431, are published among the _Documentos Ineditos_ of Zarco
+del Valle. One of Segovia's masterpieces was a silver salt-cellar in the
+form of a lion tearing open a pomegranate--clearly allusive to the
+conquest of Granada from the Moors. Upon their visiting the monastery,
+Ferdinand and Isabella saw and, as was natural, conceived a fancy for
+this salt-cellar; and so, whether from inclination or necessity, the
+brotherhood induced them to accept it.
+
+Sixteenth-century _plateros_ of renown were Juan Donante, Mateo and
+Nicolas (whose surnames are unknown)--all three of whom worked at
+Seville; and Duarte Rodriguez and Fernando Ballesteros, natives of that
+city. In or about the year 1524 were working at Toledo the silversmiths
+Pedro Herreros and Hernando de Valles, together with Diego Vazquez,
+Andres Ordonez, Hernando de Carrion, Diego de Valdivieso, Juan Domingo
+de Villanueva, Diego Abedo de Villandrando, Juan Tello de Morata,
+Francisco de Reinalte, Hans Belta, and Francisco Merino. Several of
+these men were natives of Toledo.
+
+Among the silversmiths of sixteenth-century Cordova were Diego de Alfaro
+and his son Francisco, Francisco de Baena, Alonso Casas, Alonso del
+Castillo, Luis de Cordoba, Sebastian de Cordoba, Cristobal de Escalante,
+Juan Gonzalez, Diego Fernandez, Diego Hernandez Rubio (son of Sebastian
+de Cordoba), Rodrigo de Leon, Gomez Luque, Gines Martinez, Melchor de
+los Reyes (silversmith and enameller), Andres de Roa, Pedro de Roa,
+Alonso Sanchez, Jeronimo Sanchez de la Cruz, Martin Sanchez de la Cruz
+(Jeronimo's son), Pedro Sanchez de Luque, Alonso de Sevilla, Juan
+Urbano, and Lucas de Valdes.
+
+Not much is told us of the lives and labours of these artists. The best
+reputed of them as a craftsman was Rodrigo de Leon, who stood next after
+Juan Ruiz, _el Sandolino_. Ramirez de Arellano, from whom I have
+collected these data, publishes a number of Leon's agreements or
+contracts, which from their length and dryness I do not here repeat. In
+1603 we find him official silversmith to the cathedral, under the title
+of "_platero de martillo_ ("silversmith of hammered work") _de la obra
+de la catedral desta ciudad_."
+
+Francisco de Alfaro, although a Cordovese by birth, resided commonly at
+Seville. In 1578 he received 446,163 _maravedis_ for making four silver
+candlesticks for use in celebrating divine service. These candlesticks
+are still in the cathedral.
+
+Sebastian de Cordoba was one of the foremost artists of his age. He died
+in 1587, leaving, together with other children, a son, Diego, who also
+won some reputation as a silversmith. Ramirez de Arellano publishes a
+full relation of the property which Sebastian de Cordoba bequeathed at
+his decease, as well as of the money which was owing to him. Among the
+former, or the "movable effects," we read of "Isabel, a Morisco woman,
+native of the kingdom of Granada; her age thirty-four years, a little
+less or more." The same inventory includes a curious and complete
+account of all the tools and apparatus in Sebastian's workshop.
+
+But the quaintest notice of them all, though it does not apprise us of
+his merit as a silversmith, is that concerning Cristobal de Escalante.
+Cristobal suffered, we are told, from "certain sores produced by humours
+in his left leg; wherefore the said leg undergoes a change and swells."
+He therefore makes a contract with one Juan Jimenez, "servant in the
+Royal Stables of His Majesty the King," and duly examined as a herbalist
+("licensed," in the actual phrase, "to remedy this kind of ailments"),
+who is to heal his leg "by means of the divine will of the cure." As
+soon as Cristobal shall be thoroughly well, "in so much that his ailing
+leg shall be the other's equal in the fatness and the form thereof," he
+is to pay Jimenez five-and-fifty _reales_, "having already given him ten
+_reales_ on account."
+
+Probably, as Senor Ramirez de Arellano facetiously supposes, Cristobal,
+after such a course of treatment, would be lame for all his life. At any
+rate, he died in 1605, though whether from the gentle handling of the
+stableman and herbalist is not recorded in these entries.
+
+Still keeping to the sixteenth century, in other parts of Spain we find
+the silversmiths Baltasar Alvarez and Juan de Benavente, working at
+Palencia; Alonso de Duenas at Salamanca; and Juan de Orna at Burgos,
+about the same time that the foreigners Jacomi de Trezzo and Leo Leoni
+were engaged at the Escorial. Cuenca, too, boasted three excellent
+silver-workers in the family of Becerril, mentioned by Juan de Arfe in
+company with other craftsmen of the time of the Renaissance.[52]
+Stirling says of Cuenca and the Becerriles: "They made for the cathedral
+its great _custodia_, which was one of the most costly and celebrated
+pieces of church plate in Spain. They began it in 1528, and, though
+ready for use in 1546, it was not finished till 1573. It was a
+three-storied edifice, of a florid classical design, crowned with a
+dome, and enriched with numberless groups and statues, and an inner
+shrine of jewelled gold; it contained 616 marks of silver, and cost
+17,725-1/2 ducats, a sum which can barely have paid the ingenious
+artists for the labour of forty-five years. In the War of Independence,
+this splendid prize fell into the hands of the French General
+Caulaincourt, by whom it was forthwith turned into five-franc pieces,
+bearing the image and superscription of Napoleon."[53]
+
+  [52]         "_Con estos fue mi padre en seguimiento
+               Joan Alvarez tambien el Salmantino,
+               Becerril, que tambien fue deste cuento,
+               Juan de Orna, y Juan Ruiz el Vandolino._"
+
+  [53] _Annals of the Artists of Spain_, vol. i. pp. 161, 162.
+
+A more reliable notice says that this _custodia_ was begun by Alonso
+Becerril and finished by his brother Francisco. The third member of
+this family of artists, Cristobal, who flourished towards the end of the
+sixteenth century, was Francisco's son.
+
+                           [Illustration: XVI
+                           GOTHIC _CUSTODIA_
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+Towards the close of the Gothic and during the earlier phases of the
+Renaissance movement in this country, enormous quantities of gold and
+silver began to be employed in making these _custodias_ or monstrances
+of her temples; so that the fifteenth century may well be called, in
+Spanish craftsmanship, the "age of the _custodia_." A century ago the
+reverend Townsend, loyal to the Low Church prejudices of his day, spoke
+of this object with something of a sneer as "the depository of the Host,
+or, according to the ideas of a Catholic, the throne of the Most High,
+when, upon solemn festivals, He appears to command the adoration of
+mankind." Riano's description is more technical. "The name of
+_custodia_," he says, "is given in Spain, not only to the monstrance or
+ostensoir where the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but also to a sort of
+temple or tabernacle, of large size, made also of silver, inside which
+is placed the monstrance, which is carried in procession on Corpus
+Christi day (Plate xvi.). In order to distinguish these objects one from
+another, the name of _viril_ is given to the object which holds the
+consecrated Host; it is generally made of rock crystal, with a gold stem
+and mount ornamented with precious stones. The small tabernacles are
+generally objects of the greatest importance, both from their artistic
+and intrinsic value." A third description of the monstrance, written in
+quaint and antiquated Spanish verse by Juan de Arfe, is truthfully if
+not melodiously translated into English rhyme by Stirling:--
+
+               "Custodia is a temple of rich plate,
+               Wrought for the glory of our Saviour true,
+               Where, into wafer transubstantiate,
+               He shows his Godhead and his Manhood too,
+               That holiest ark of old to imitate,
+               Fashioned by Bezaleel, the cunning Jew,
+               Chosen of God to work His sov'ran will,
+               And greatly gifted with celestial skill."[54]
+
+  [54] _Op. cit._, p. 159, note.
+
+Notwithstanding that the monstrance of Toledo, surmounted by a cross of
+solid gold, turns the scale at ten thousand nine hundred ounces, and
+that of Avila at one hundred and forty pounds, the weight of nearly all
+of these _custodias_ is far exceeded by the value of their workmanship.
+The style employed in their construction is the Gothic, the Renaissance,
+or the two combined. _Custodias_ of the eastern parts of Spain are more
+affected than the others by Italian influence, noticeable both in
+decorative motives which recall the Florentine, and in the use, together
+with the silver-work, of painting and enamels. In other parts of Spain
+the dominating influence is the later Gothic. Among the former or
+Levantine class of monstrances, the most important are those of
+Barcelona, Vich, Gerona, and Palma de Mallorca; and of the others, those
+of Cordova, Cadiz, Sahagun, Zamora, Salamanca, and Toledo--this last,
+according to Bertaut de Rouen, "a la maniere d'un clocher perce a jour,
+d'ouvrage de filigrane, et plein de figures." _Custodias_ in the purest
+classic or Renaissance style are those of Seville, Valladolid, Palencia,
+Avila, Jaen, Madrid, Segovia, Zaragoza, Santiago, and Orense.
+
+Juan de Arfe y Villafane, who may be called the Cellini of Spain's
+_custodia_-makers, was born at Leon in 1535. He was the son of Antonio
+de Arfe, and grandson of Enrique de Arfe, a German who had married a
+Spanish wife and made his home in Spain. The family of Juan, including
+his brother Antonio, were all distinguished craftsmen, and he himself
+informs us that his grandfather excelled in Gothic _plateria_, as may
+be judged from the _custodias_, by Enrique's hand, of Cordova, Leon,
+Toledo, and Sahagun, and many smaller objects, such as incensories,
+crosiers, and paxes.
+
+The father of Juan, Antonio de Arfe, worked in silver in the Renaissance
+or Plateresque styles, and executed in the florid manner the _custodias_
+of Santiago de Galicia and Medina de Rioseco; but the training and
+tastes of Juan himself were sternly classical. His work in consequence
+has a certain coldness, largely atoned for by its exquisite correctness
+of design and unimpeachable proportions. Arfe's ideal in these matters
+may readily be judged of from his written verdict on the Greco-Roman
+architecture. "The Escorial," he says, in the preface to his description
+of the _custodia_ of Seville cathedral, "_because it follows the rules
+of ancient art_, competes in general perfection, size, or splendour with
+the most distinguished buildings of the Asiatics, Greeks, and Romans,
+and displays magnificence and truth in all its detail."
+
+In point of versatility Juan de Arfe was a kind of Spanish Leonardo. His
+book, _De Varia Conmensuracion_, etc., published in 1585, is divided
+into four parts, and deals, the first part with the practice of
+geometry, the second with human anatomy, the third with animals, and
+the fourth with architecture and silver-work for use in churches.
+
+[Illustration: IOAN DE ARFE]
+
+This book is prefaced by the portrait of the author, given above. It
+shows us--what he really was--a quiet, cultured, gentle-hearted man.
+Indeed, while Arfe was studying anatomy at Salamanca, it gave him pain
+to lacerate the bodies even of the dead. "I was witness," he records,
+"to the flaying of several pauper men and women whom the law had
+executed; but these experiments, besides being horrible and cruel, I saw
+to be of little service to my studies in anatomy."
+
+Arfe's workmanship of the _custodia_ of Avila cathedral, which he began
+in 1564 and terminated in 1571, won for him an early and extended fame.
+He also made the _custodia_ of Burgos (brutally melted during the
+Spanish War of Independence), and those of Valladolid (finished in
+1590), Lugo, Osma, and the Hermandad del Santisimo at Madrid. The
+_custodia_ of Palencia is also thought by some to be his handiwork.
+
+But Arfe's crowning labour was the Greco-Roman _custodia_ of Seville
+cathedral (Plate xvii.). The chapter of this temple selected his design
+in 1580, and nominated the licentiate Pacheco to assist him with the
+statuettes. Pacheco also carried out his portion of the task with skill
+and judgment. A rare pamphlet, written by Arfe and published at Seville
+in 1587, gives a minute description of the whole _custodia_. In Appendix
+C, I render this description into English, together with a similarly
+detailed notice of the _custodia_ (1513 A.D.) of Cordova. This last,
+which we have seen to be the work of Juan de Arfe's grandfather,
+Enrique, is not to be surpassed for fairy grace and lightness, seeming,
+in the eloquent metaphor of a modern writer, "to have been conceived in
+a dream, and executed with the breath."
+
+                           [Illustration: XVII
+                    _CUSTODIA_ OF SEVILLE CATHEDRAL
+                (_By Juan de Arfe. Late 16th Century_)]
+
+Spain in the seventeenth century had reached the lowest depth of her
+decadence and impoverishment; and yet we find that century an age--to
+quote a Spanish term--of "gallantries and pearls," in which a craze for
+reckless luxury continued to prevail in every quarter. Narratives
+innumerable inform us of the life and doings of that prodigal court and
+prodigal aristocracy; their ruinous and incessant festivals; the
+fortunes that were thrown away on furniture, and jewels, and costume.
+True, we are told by Bertaut de Rouen that, except upon their numerous
+holidays, the costume of the Spanish men was plain enough. This author,
+who calls them otherwise "debauched and ignorant," says that their
+clothes were all of "mechante frise," and adds that they continually
+took snuff, "dont ils ont toujours les narines pleines, ce qui fait
+qu'ils n'ont que des mouchoirs de laine, de toile grise, et peinte comme
+de la toile de la Chine." The same traveller, attending an ordinary
+reception in the royal palace at Madrid, was unable to distinguish the
+nobles from the lower orders, except that, by the privilege peculiar to
+this country, the former kept their hats on in the presence of the
+sovereign. Even of Philip himself he says: "Le Roy d'Espagne estoit
+debout avec un habit fort simple et fort ressemblant a tous ses
+portraits"; alluding, probably, to those of Philip the Fourth by
+Velazquez, in which the monarch wears a plain cloth doublet.
+
+But when the Spaniard dressed himself for any scene of gala show, his
+spendthrift inclinations swelled into a positive disease. The women,
+too, squandered enormous sums on finery. The Marchioness of Liche, said
+to have been the loveliest Espanola of that day, is spoken of by Bertaut
+as wearing "un corps de brocard d'argent avec de grandes basques a leur
+mode, la jupe d'une autre etoffe avec grand nombre de pierreries, et
+cela luy fetoit fort bien." An anonymous manuscript of the period,
+published by Gayangos in the _Revista de Espana_ for 1884, describes the
+_fiestas_ celebrated at Valladolid in 1605, in honour of the English
+ambassador and his retinue. In this relation the Duke of Lerma is quoted
+as possessing a yearly income of three hundred thousand _cruzados_,
+besides "as much again in jewellery and furniture, and gold and silver
+services." At the state banquets which were given at that wasteful
+court, even the pies and tarts were washed with gold or silver; and at a
+single feast the dishes of various kinds of fare amounted to two
+thousand and two hundred. At the banquet given by the Duke of Lerma,
+three special sideboards were constructed to sustain the weight of four
+hundred pieces of silver, "all of them of delicate design and
+exquisitely wrought of silver, gold, and enamel, together with
+innumerable objects of glass and crystal of capricious form, with
+handles, lids, and feet of finest gold."
+
+The whole of Spain's nobility was congregated at these festivals,
+"richly attired with quantities of pearls and oriental gems," while
+everybody, young and old alike, wore "diamond buttons and brooches on
+cloaks and doublets," feather plumes with costly medals, gold chains
+with emeralds, and other ornaments. The ladies of the aristocracy were
+also "clothed in costliest style, as well as loaded with diamonds and
+pearls and hair-ornaments of pearls and gold, such as the women of
+Castile lay by for these solemnities."
+
+The Spanish churches, too, continued to be veritable storehouses of
+treasure. The manuscript published by Gayangos says that in 1605 the
+church of La Merced at Valladolid had its altars "covered with beautiful
+gold and silver vessels, of which there are a great many in the whole of
+Castilla la Vieja, and particularly here at Valladolid." Bertaut de
+Rouen's notice of the shrine of Montserrat in Cataluna has been inserted
+previously. In 1775 Swinburne wrote of the same temple:--"In the
+sacristy and passages leading to it are presses and cupboards full of
+relics and ornaments of gold, silver, and precious stones; they pointed
+out to us, as the most remarkable, two crowns for the Virgin and her
+Son, of inestimable value, some large diamond rings, an excellent cameo
+of Medusa's head, the Roman emperors in alabaster, the sword of Saint
+Ignatius, and the chest that contains the ashes of a famous brother,
+John Guarin, of whom they relate the same story as that given in the
+_Spectator_ of a Turkish santon and the Sultan's daughter.... Immense is
+the quantity of votive offerings to this miraculous statue; and as
+nothing can be rejected or otherwise disposed of, the shelves are
+crowded with the most whimsical _ex votos_, viz., silver legs, fingers,
+breasts, earrings, watches, two-wheeled chaises, boats, carts, and
+such-like trumpery."
+
+Many pragmatics from the Crown vainly endeavoured to suppress or
+mitigate the popular extravagance. Such was the royal letter of 1611,
+which forbade, among the laity, the wearing of "gold jewels with
+decoration or enamel in relief, or points with pearls or other stones."
+Smaller jewels, of the kind known as _joyeles_ and _brincos_,[55] were
+limited to a single stone, together with its pearl pendant. The
+jewellery of the women was exempted from these laws, though even here
+were certain limitations. Rings for the finger might, however, bear
+enamel-work, or any kind of stone. Enamel was also allowed in gold
+buttons and chains for the men's caps, as well as in the badges worn by
+the knights of the military orders.
+
+  [55] _Brinco_ (_brincar_, to jump or spring). These jewels were so
+       called from their vibrating as the wearer walked. The Balearic
+       Islands were famous for their manufacture; and the late Marquis of
+       Arcicollar possessed a case of valuable examples, most of which
+       proceeded from this locality.
+
+"It is forbidden," continues this pragmatic, "to make any object of
+gold, silver, or other metal with work in relief, or the likeness of a
+person; nor shall any object be gilt, excepting drinking vessels, and
+the weight of these shall not exceed three marks. All other silver
+shall be flat and plain, without gilding; but this does not apply to
+objects intended for religious worship."
+
+"All niello-work is prohibited, as are silver brasiers and buffets."[56]
+
+  [56] _Suma de Leyes_, 1628, p. 116 (2).
+
+What I may call the private jewel-work of Spain, largely retains
+throughout its history the characteristic lack of finish of all the
+Visigothic treasure found at Guarrazar. From first to last, until
+extinguished or absorbed by foreign influences two centuries ago, it
+strives to compensate in ponderous and bulky splendour for what it lacks
+in delicacy, elegance, and taste. It is just the jewellery we should
+expect to find among a military people who once upon a time possessed
+great riches simultaneously with little education, and who, from this
+and other causes, such as the strenuous opposition of the national
+church to pagan sentiments expressed in fleshly form, were never
+genuinely or profoundly art-loving. Long residence and observation in
+their midst induce me to affirm that as a race the Spaniards are and
+always have been hostile, or at least indifferent, to the arts; and that
+their most illustrious artists have made their power manifest and raised
+themselves to eminence despite the people--not, as in Italy, on the
+supporting shoulders of the people.
+
+Dazzle and show monopolized, and to a great extent monopolize still, the
+preference of this race. The Spanish breast-ornaments of the seventeenth
+century, preserved at South Kensington and reproduced by Riano on pages
+37 and 39 of his handbook, are strongly reminiscent of the Visigothic
+ornaments. Who would imagine that a thousand years had come and gone
+between the execution of the new and of the old? As late as the reign of
+Charles the Second the culture of a Spanish lady of high birth was
+little, if at all, superior to a savage's. "False stones enchant them,"
+wrote Countess d'Aulnoy. "Although they possess many jewels of
+considerable value and the finest quality, it is their whim to carry on
+their person wretched bits of glass cut in the coarsest fashion, just
+like those which pedlars in my country sell to country girls who have
+seen nobody but the village curate, and nothing but their flocks of
+sheep. Dames of the aristocracy adorn themselves with these pieces of
+glass, that are worth nothing at all; yet they purchase them at high
+prices. When I asked them why they like false diamonds, they told me
+they prefer them to the genuine as being larger. Indeed, they sometimes
+wear them of the bigness of an egg." Even where the stones were real,
+the Spanish taste in setting and in wearing them was no less execrable.
+The Countess says: "the ladies here possess great stores of beautiful
+precious stones, and do not wear, like Frenchwomen, a single article of
+jewellery, but nine or ten together, some of diamonds, others of rubies,
+pearls, emeralds, and turquoises, wretchedly mounted, since they are
+almost wholly covered with the gold. When I inquired the cause of this,
+they told me the jewels were so made because the gold was as beautiful
+as the gems. I suppose, however, the real reason is the backwardness of
+the craftsmen, who can do no better work than this, excepting Verbec,
+who has no lack of skill, and would turn out excellent jewels if he took
+the trouble to finish them."
+
+"In the neck of their bodices the ladies fasten pins profusely set with
+precious stones. Hanging from the pin, and fastened at the lower end to
+the side of their dress, is a string of pearls or diamonds. They wear no
+necklace, but bracelets on their wrists and rings on their fingers, as
+well as long earrings of so great a weight that I know not how they can
+support them. Hanging from these earrings they display whatever finery
+they may fancy. I have seen some ladies who wore good-sized watches
+hanging from their ears, strings of precious stones, English keys of
+dainty make, and little bells. They also wear the _agnus_, together with
+little images about their neck and arms, or in their hair. They dress
+their hair in various ways, and always go with it uncovered, using many
+hairpins in the form of coloured flies or butterflies of diamonds,
+emeralds, and rubies."
+
+Book-worm authorities, addicted to "dry bones" of letters, are prone
+just now to doubt this visit of Countess d'Aulnoy to the capital of
+Spain. But if such patient doubters will compare her narrative with
+those of other foreigners, _e.g._ Bertaut de Rouen, or the manuscript
+description of Valladolid, written by a Portuguese, and now in the
+British Museum library, their scepticism will--or should--be done away
+with on the moment. The letters of the countess make it plain by copious
+inner testimony that she actually performed her Spanish visit; and
+though from time to time she over-colours or misreads the truth, it was
+the very usages of Spain that were absurd and out of joint, and not,
+except in isolated instances, the sprightly and observant Frenchwoman's
+account of them.[57]
+
+  [57] But on the other hand I much suspect that the following passage in
+       Alvarez de Colmenar's _Annales d'Espagne et de Portugal_
+       (vol. iii. p. 326) is stolen from Countess d'Aulnoy. "Elles ne
+       portent point de colier, mais en echange elles ont des bracelets,
+       des bagues, et des pendans d'oreille, plus gros que tous ceux qu'on
+       voit en Hollande. Telle est la diversite des gouts des nations
+       differentes, en matiere de beaute. Il y en a meme quelques-unes,
+       qui attachent quelque beau joli bijou a leurs pendans d'oreilles,
+       quelque ornement de pierreries, par exemple, ou d'autres choses
+       semblables, selon leur quantite ou leur pouvoir."
+
+Elsewhere the Countess says: "Utensils of common metal are not employed
+here, but only those of silver or of ware. I hear that a little while
+ago, upon the death of the Duke of Alburquerque, six weeks were needed
+to make out an inventory of his gold and silver services. His house
+contained fourteen hundred dozen plates, five hundred large dishes, and
+seven hundred of a smaller size, with all the other pieces in
+proportion, and forty silver ladders for climbing his sideboard, made in
+grades like an altar in a spacious hall."
+
+These statements have been proved in later years. Dating from 1560, an
+inventory of the ducal house of Alburquerque was found not many years
+ago. In it we find the detailed list of gold and silver; cups and
+dishes, bowls and basins, plates and salt-cellars, trenchers, wine and
+water flagons, sauce-spoons, salad-spoons, conserve-spoons, and
+innumerable other articles. Here, too, we find, upon the mighty
+sideboard mounted by its forty silver stairs, such objects as the
+following:--
+
+"A gold cup with festoon-work above and beneath, wrought with leaves in
+relief. At the top of the foot there issue some leaves that fall down
+over a small gold staple, and below this, about the narrowest part of
+the foot, are leaves in relief and several dolphins. The broad part of
+the foot is decorated with festoons. The lid of this cup is wrought with
+leaves in relief, and on the crest thereof is a lion, crowned. The cup
+weighs three hundred and fifty-one _castellanos_ and a half."
+
+"A Castilian jar from which my lord the duke was wont to drink, weighing
+two marks and five ounces."[58]
+
+  [58] The mark was a standard of eight ounces, and was divided into fifty
+       _castellanos_.
+
+"A cup with a high foot, gilt all over, with the figure of a woman in
+its midst, and decorated in four places in the Roman manner."
+
+"A flagon of white silver, flat beneath the stem, with a screw-top
+surmounted by a small lion; for cooling water."
+
+"A small silver dish, of the kind they call meat-warmers."
+
+"A large silver seal for sealing provisions, with the arms of my lord
+the duke, Don Francisco."
+
+"A large silver vessel, embossed, with a savage on top."
+
+"A gold horse, enamelled in white upon a gold plate enamelled in green
+and open at the top; also a wolf, upon another gold plate enamelled in
+green, with lettering round about it; also a green enamelled lizard upon
+blue enamel; and a gold toothpick with four pieces enamelled in green,
+white, and rose; also a small gold column enamelled in black and rose."
+
+"A silver lemon-squeezer, gilt and chiselled, with white scroll-work
+about the mesh thereof, through which the lemon-juice is strained."
+
+"A large round silver salt-cellar, in two halves, gilt all over, with
+scales about the body, and two thick twisted threads about the flat
+part. One side of it is perforated."
+
+Among the property of the duchess, Dona Mencia Enriquez, we find "a
+small gold padlock, which opens and closes by means of letters"; two
+gold bangles; a gold necklace consisting of forty-two pieces "enamelled
+with some B's";[59] a gold signet ring with the duchess's arms; and "a
+gold and niello box with relics, for wearing round the neck." Also,
+resting on a table covered with silver plates, "a box of combs; the said
+box wrought in gold upon blue leather, containing five combs, a
+looking-glass, a little brush, and other fittings; girt with a cord in
+gold and blue silk."
+
+  [59] For Beltran de la Cueva, ancestor of this family.
+
+The seventeenth century and a race of native Spanish kings declined and
+passed away together. A dynasty of France succeeded to the throne of
+Spain, and with the foreigner came a fresh reactionary movement towards
+the neo-classic art, coupled with the canons of French taste. Henceforth
+a century of slow political reform goes hand in hand with slow
+suppression of the salient parts of Spanish character. Madrid transforms
+or travesties herself into a miniature Versailles, and national arts and
+crafts belong henceforward to a Frenchified society which found its
+painter in Goya, just as the preceding and eminently Spanish society had
+found its painter in Velazquez.
+
+Another of the causes of the falling-off in Spanish _orfebreria_ at this
+time, is stated to have been the craftsmen's overwhelming tendency to
+substitute the slighter though venerable and beautiful gold or silver
+filigree (Plate xviii.), for more artistic and ambitious, if less showy
+work in massive metal. Thus, in 1699, a supplementary chapter of the
+Ordinances of Seville complained in bitter phrases of this tendency,
+denouncing it as "a source of fraud and detriment to the republic," and
+deploring that "of the last few years we have forsaken our goodly usages
+of older times, in the matter of the drawings entrusted to the
+candidates who come before us for examination."
+
+In the same year the goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of Seville
+enacted that none of its members were to work in filigree, unless they
+were qualified to execute the other work as well. Such efforts to
+suppress this evil were not new. More than a century before, on April
+15th, 1567, the inspectors of the guild had entered the shop of Luis de
+Alvarado, silversmith, and seized some filigree earrings "of the work
+that is forbidden," breaking these objects on the spot, and imposing a
+fine of half-a-dozen ducats on the peccant or oblivious Alvarado.[60]
+
+  [60] Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artifices Sevillanos_, vol. ii. p. 134.
+
+The modern gold and silver work of Spain is thus exempted from a lengthy
+notice, seeing that its typical and national characteristics have
+succumbed, or very nearly so. I may, however, mention the giant silver
+candelabra in the cathedral of Palma de Mallorca, which were made at
+Barcelona, between 1704 and 1718, by Juan Matons and three of his
+assistants. They measure eight feet high by four feet and a quarter
+across, weigh more than eight thousand ounces, and cost 21,942 pounds,
+15 _sueldos_, and 11 _dineros_ of Majorcan money. The State seized them
+during the Napoleonic wars, in order to melt them down for money; but
+the chapter of the cathedral bought them back for eleven thousand
+dollars.
+
+                          [Illustration: XVIII
+             EARLY CHALICE AND CROSS IN FILIGREE GOLD-WORK
+                   (_Church of Saint Isidore, Leon_)]
+
+During this century Riano mentions several factories of silver articles
+established at Madrid, including that of Isaac and Michael Naudin (1772)
+and the Escuela de Plateria (1778), protected by Charles the Third; but
+since the work of these was purely in the French or English manner, they
+call for no particular notice. The principal objects they produced were
+"inkstands, dishes, dinner-services, chocolate-stands, cruets, knives
+and forks, together with buckles, needle-cases, brooches, snuff-boxes,
+frames for miniatures, and similar trinkets."
+
+Early in the nineteenth century Laborde wrote that "the fabrication of
+articles of gold and silver might become an important object in a
+country where these metals abound; but it is neglected, and the demand
+is almost entirely supplied from foreign markets. What little they do in
+this branch at home is usually very ill executed, and exorbitantly dear.
+Madrid, however, begins to possess some good workmen; encouragement
+would increase their number and facilitate the means of improvement; but
+manual labour is there excessively dear. Hence the Spaniards prefer
+foreign articles of this kind, which, notwithstanding the expense of
+carriage, the enormous duties that they pay, and the profits of the
+merchants, are still cheaper than those made at home."
+
+Several of the inherent characteristics of the national _orfebreria_ may
+yet be noticed somewhat faintly in the ornaments and jewels of the
+Spanish peasants, though even these are being discarded. A century ago
+Laborde described the dress of the Mauregata women, near Astorga, in the
+kingdom of Leon. "They wear large earrings, a kind of white turban, flat
+and widened like a hat, and their hair parted on the forehead. They have
+a chemise closed over the chest, and a brown corset buttoned, with
+large sleeves opening behind. Their petticoats and veils are also brown.
+Over all they wear immense coral necklaces, which descend from the neck
+to the knee; they twist them several times round the neck, pass them
+over the shoulders, where a row is fastened, forming a kind of bandage
+over the bosom. Then another row lower than this; in short, a third and
+fourth row at some distance from each other. The last falls over the
+knee, with a large cross on the right side. These necklaces or chaplets
+are ornamented with a great many silver medals, stamped with the figure
+of saints. They only wear these decorations when not working, or on
+festivals."
+
+I have a manuscript account in French of Spanish regional costumes at
+the same period. The dress of the peasant women of Valencia is thus
+described: "Elle se coiffe toujours en cheveux, de la maniere appelee
+_castana_, et elle y passe une aiguille en argent que l'on nomme
+_rascamono_; quelque fois elle se pare d'un grand peigne (_peineta_) en
+argent dore. Son cou este orne d'une chaine d'or ou d'argent (_cadena
+del cuello_) a laquelle est suspendue une croix ou un reliquaire." This
+was the Valencian peasant's dress for every day. On festivals the same
+woman would adorn her ears with "pendants (_arracadas_) de pierres
+fausses; mais lorsque la jardiniere est riche, elles sont fines. Une
+relique (_relicario_) dans un petit medaillon en argent, est suspendue a
+son cou; ainsi qu'un chapelet tres mince (_rosario_) en argent dore."
+
+The peasant women of Iviza, in the Balearics, are described in the same
+manuscript as wearing "un collier en verre, quelque fois en argent, et
+rarement en or"; while Laborde wrote of Minorca, another of these
+islands, that "the ladies are always elegantly adorned; their ornaments
+consist of necklaces, earrings, bracelets, rings, and chaplets. _The
+peasants wear these also._" Of the women of Barcelona he said: "Silk
+stockings are very common in every class; and their shoes are
+embroidered with silk, gold, silver, pearls, and spangles."
+
+But Spain, like Italy or Switzerland, or many another country, is
+throwing off her regional costumes, of which these various jewels form a
+prominent and even an essential feature. More rarely now we come across
+the gold and seed-pearl necklaces of Salamanca, the Moorish filigree
+silver-work of Cordova, the silver-gilt necklaces of Santiago, and the
+heavy _arracadas_, hung with emeralds and sapphires, of Cataluna.
+Murcia, nevertheless, retains her Plateria, a street of venerable aspect
+and associations, where to this hour the oriental-looking silver
+pendants of the neighbourhood are made and trafficked in.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+                               IRON-WORK
+
+
+The ancient iron mines of Spain were no less celebrated than her mines
+of silver and of gold. Nevertheless, the history of Spanish iron-work
+begins comparatively late. Excepting certain swords and other weapons
+which require to be noticed under _Arms_, and owing to the commonness
+and cheapness of this metal, as well as to the ease with which it
+decomposes under damp, few of the earliest Spanish objects made of iron
+have descended to our time.[61] Even Riano pays but little notice to
+this craft in the Peninsula before the second half of the fifteenth
+century. Henceforth, he says, "it continued to progress in the
+sixteenth, and produced, undoubtedly, at that period works which were
+unrivalled in Europe."
+
+  [61] A small collection, formed by Don Emilio Rotondo, of primitive iron
+       rings, bracelets, brooches, and other ornaments, is preserved in
+       the Schools of Aguirre at Madrid. Villa-amil y Castro
+       (_Antiguedades prehistoricas y celticas_, and _Castros y Mamoas de
+       Galicia_, published in the _Museo Espanol de Antiguedades_),
+       describes some iron objects of uncertain use discovered in Galicia,
+       together with spear-heads and other weapons or pieces of weapons
+       which will be noticed under _Arms_, and also an object which he
+       says may once have been a candlestick, or else a kind of flute. All
+       these are probably pre-Roman. Dating from the Roman period are an
+       iron ploughshare and some sickles, discovered at Ronda in
+       Andalusia, and now in the Madrid Museum. Gongora, however
+       (_Antiguedades prehistoricas de Andalucia_), inclines to think that
+       previous to the Roman conquest the occupants of Betica were
+       ignorant of this metal, though not of gold, from which they
+       fashioned diadems and other articles of wear. See also Caballero
+       Infante, _Aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados en el pueblo
+       de Santiponce_, Seville, 1898.
+
+The decorative iron-work of Spain may suitably be dealt with in three
+classes: railings, screens, or pulpits of churches, chapels, and
+cathedrals; balconies and other parts or fittings applied to public or
+private buildings of a non-ecclesiastical character; and smaller, though
+not necessarily less attractive or important objects, such as knockers,
+locks and keys, and nail-heads.
+
+The last of these divisions, as embracing Spanish-Moorish craftsmanship,
+shall have, as far as order is concerned, our preferential notice.
+
+Surely, in the whole domain of history, no object has a grander
+symbolism than the key. In mediaeval times the keys of cities, castles,
+towns, and fortresses were held to be significant of ownership, or
+vigilance, or conquest. Especially was this the case in Spain--a nation
+incessantly engaged in war. Probably in no country in the world has the
+ceremony of delivering up this mark of tenure of a guarded and defended
+place occurred so often as here. Do we not read of it in stirring
+stanzas of her literature? Do we not find it in her paintings, on her
+stone and metal _rilievi_, or carved in wood upon the stalls of her
+cathedrals? Therefore the key, just like the sword, seemed, in the warm
+imagination of the Spaniards, to be something almost sacred. The
+legislative codes of Old Castile are most minute in their relation of
+its venerated attributes. Nor were the Spanish Muslims less alive to its
+importance than their foe, taking it also for an emblem of their own,
+and planting it in lordly eminence upon their gates and towers of
+Cordova, and Seville, and Granada. For what was Tarik's Mountain but the
+key of the narrow gate that led to their enchanted land, as sunny as,
+and yet less sultry than, their sandy home; truly a land of promise to
+the fiery children of the desert, panting for the paradise that smiled
+at them across the storied strip of emerald and sapphire water?
+
+So was it that both Moors and Spaniards made their keys of fortresses
+and citadels almost into an object of their worship. In hearing or in
+reading of such keys, the mind at once recurs to those of Seville (Plate
+xix.), two in number, famed throughout the world of mediaeval art, and
+stored among the holiest relics in the sacristy of her cathedral. The
+larger is of silver, in the style now known as Mudejar, and dates from
+the second half of the thirteenth century. The length is rather more
+than eight inches, and the whole key is divided into five compartments,
+ornamented in enamels and in gold. Castles, ships, and lions adorn the
+thicker portion of the stem between the barrel proper and the handle;
+and on the rim of the latter is this inscription, in Hebrew
+characters:--
+
+"_The King of Kings will open; the king of all the land shall
+enter._"[62]
+
+  [62] Riano's reading was, "_the King of the whole Earth will enter_."
+       But is not this contradicted by the other inscription on the same
+       key?
+
+The wards are also beautifully carved into the following legend,
+distributed in two rows, one superposed upon the other, of two words
+and of ten letters apiece:--
+
+               "_Dios abrira; Rey entrara._"
+               "_God will open; the king shall enter._"
+
+The iron key is purely Moorish, smaller than its fellow, and measures
+just over six inches. Like the other, it consists of five divisions, and
+the wards are in the form of an inscription in African Cufic characters,
+which Gayangos and other Arabists have variously interpreted. Five of
+the commonest readings are as follows:--
+
+(1) "_May Allah permit that the rule (of Islam) last for ever in this
+city._"
+
+(2) "_By the grace of God may (this key) last for ever._"
+
+(3) "_May peace be in the King's mansion._"
+
+(4) "_May God grant us the boon of the preservation of the city._"
+
+(5) "_To God (belongs) all the empire and the power._"
+
+Our earliest tidings of this iron key are from the Jesuit Bernal, who
+wrote in the seventeenth century. It was not then the property of the
+cathedral chapter, for Ortiz de Zuniga says that it belonged, in the
+same century, to a gentleman of Seville named Don Antonio Lopez de Mesa,
+who had inherited it from his father. Tradition declares that both this
+key and its companion were laid at the feet of Ferdinand the Third by
+Axataf, governor of Seville, when the city capitulated to the Christian
+prince on November 23rd, 1248. But Ortiz is careful to inform us that he
+neither countenances nor rejects the popular notion that the iron key
+was thus delivered as the token of surrender, "although," he says, "the
+owners of it are strongly of this judgment." What we do know is that on
+June 16th, 1698, the iron key was presented to the cathedral by Dona
+Catalina Basilia Domonte y Pinto, niece of the Senor Lopez de Mesa
+aforesaid; and that the chapter forthwith accepted it with solemn
+gratitude as "one of the keys delivered by the Moors to the Rey Santo on
+the conquest of the city," ordering it to be guarded in a special box.
+
+Such is the popular fancy still accepted by the Sevillanos. However,
+Amador de los Rios has sifted out a good deal of the truth, showing that
+the iron and the silver key are wrought in different styles, and were
+intended for a different purpose. He places the iron instrument among
+the "keys of conquered cities," and its silver neighbour among the "keys
+of honour, or of dedication"; and he declares as certain (although the
+reasons he adduces do not quite convince me) that this iron key is
+actually the one which figured in the ceremony of surrender. The other
+he considers to have been a gift from the Sevillians to the tenth
+Alfonso, son of Ferdinand the saint and conqueror, as a loyal and a
+grateful offering in return for his protection of their industries and
+commerce. However this may be, the decorative aspect of the larger key,
+together with the choice material of which it is made, appears to prove
+that it was not associated with the rigours of a siege, but served in
+some way as a symbol of prosperity and peace. It was a common custom at
+a later age for Spanish cities to present their sovereign, when he came
+among them, with a richly ornamented key. Such keys were offered to
+Charles the Fifth and Philip the Second when, in 1526 and 1570,
+respectively, they visited Seville; while Riano reminds us that "even in
+the present day the ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the
+foreign princes who stay at the royal palace of Madrid." Similarly, as
+an ordinary form of salutation, does the well-bred Spaniard place his
+house at your disposal.
+
+Five Moorish keys--one of bronze and four of iron--are in the Museum of
+Segovia, and bear, as Amador observes, a general resemblance to the iron
+key of Seville. The wards of four of them are shaped into the following
+inscriptions: the first key, "_In Secovia_ (Segovia)"; the second,
+"(_This_) _key was curiously wrought at Medina Huelma, God protect
+her_"; the third, "_Open_"; and the fourth, "_This work is by
+Abdallah._"
+
+The first and smallest of these keys informs us, therefore, that it was
+manufactured at Segovia. The third key is that which is of bronze, and
+bears the word "_Open_," probably addressed to Allah. The second, which
+is also the largest and the most artistic and ornate, belonged, we read
+upon its wards, to Huelma, a fortress-town upon the frontiers of the
+kingdom of Granada. This town was wrested from the Moors on April 20th,
+1438, by Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, first Marquis of Santillana, who
+possibly sent this key to Castile as a present to his sovereign, Juan
+the Second, in company with the usual papers of capitulation.
+
+Other Moorish keys are scattered over Spain in various of her public and
+private collections, though none are so remarkable as those of Seville
+and Segovia. The town of Sepulveda possesses seven early iron keys,
+several of which are Moorish. Others are at Burgos, Valencia, Palma,
+Jaen, and Granada. At the last-named city the following key, dating
+undoubtedly from the period of the Muslim domination, was discovered, in
+1901, among the debris of the Palace of Seti Meriem.[63]
+
+  [63] _La Alhambra_ (from which this sketch is taken) for September 30th,
+       1901; article on the Palace of Seti Meriem, by F. de Paula
+       Valladar.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Keys of awe-inspiring magnitude are still preferred among the Spaniards
+to a handier and slighter instrument, this people seeming to believe
+that the bigger the key the more inviolable is the custody which it
+affords--a theory not at all upheld by modern experts in this venerable
+craft. Perhaps this singular and local preference is derived from
+Barbary. At any rate it still obtains across the Strait. "Our host,"
+wrote Mr Cunninghame Graham in _Mogreb-El-Acksa_, "knocks off great
+pieces from a loaf of cheap French sugar with the key of the house,
+drawing it from his belt and hammering lustily, as the key weighs about
+four ounces, and is eight or nine inches long." Of such a length are
+nearly all the house-keys of contemporary Spain; and with this apparatus
+bulging in his belt the somnolent _sereno_ or night-watchman of this
+sleepy, unprogressive, Latino-Mussulmanic land prowls to this hour along
+the starlit streets of Barcelona, Seville, or Madrid.
+
+The city Ordinances of Granada form a valuable and interesting link
+between the Spanish-Moorish craftsmanship and that of Spaniards
+Christian-born. The _Ordenanzas de Cerrageros_, or Locksmiths'
+Ordinances, though not voluminous, are curious and informative beyond
+the rest, and show us that a general rascality was prevalent in Granada
+after her reconquest from the Moor. Locksmiths were forbidden now to
+make a lock the impression of which was put into their hands in wax,
+even if the order should be sweetened by "a quantity of maravedis,"
+since the effect of such commissions, whose very secrecy betrayed
+illicit and improper ends in view, was stated to be "very greatly
+perilous and mischief-making."
+
+Another Ordinance reveals the Christian locksmiths of Granada as arrant
+scoundrels, almost as troublesome to deal with as the pestering little
+shoeblacks of to-day. "Word is brought us," groaned the aldermen, "how
+many locksmiths, foreigners that dwell within this city as well as
+naturals that go up and down our thoroughfares, in taking locks and
+padlocks to repair, do, at the same time that they set the keys in
+order, contrive to fit them with new wards inferior to the older ones,
+so as to be able to open and close them with the keys they have
+themselves in store, wherein is grave deceitfulness, seeing that the
+aforesaid locks and padlocks may be opened in such wise without a key at
+all."[64]
+
+  [64] _Ordenanzas de Granada_, p. 191.
+
+If we except the vast dimensions of the common keys of houses, this
+branch of Spanish craftsmanship has now no quality to point it from the
+rest of Europe, having become, in Riano's words, "simply practical and
+useful." Laborde observed in 1809 that "locks and various iron utensils
+are made in divers places. Locksmiths are numerous at Vega de Ribadeo in
+Galicia, at Helgoivar in Biscay, at Vergara in Guipuscoa, at Solsona and
+Cardona in Catalonia. Different kinds of iron goods are manufactured at
+Vergara, Solsona, and Cardona. The articles made of iron and steel at
+Solsona are in high estimation, notwithstanding they are destitute of
+taste and elegance, badly finished, and worse polished; and can by no
+means be put in competition with similar articles introduced from other
+countries."[65]
+
+  [65] Those of my readers who have visited Spain will probably have seen
+       the inlaid iron-work of Eibar and Toledo. The objects chiefly
+       manufactured in this style are brooches, bracelets, scarf and hat
+       pins, photograph frames, jewel and trinket boxes, watches, and
+       cigarette cases. The workmanship is often elaborate and costly, nor
+       can it be denied that the red or greenish gold has an effective
+       look against the jet-black surface of the polished or unpolished
+       iron. Upon the other hand, the taste displayed in the design is
+       seldom good; while in a climate with the slightest tendency to
+       damp, the iron is apt to rust and tarnish, and the fine inlay to
+       loosen.
+
+Iron nails with ornamented heads and decorative door-knockers are other
+objects which reveal the influence of Mohammedan Spain. A number of
+artistic Spanish nails are in the South Kensington Museum. "Some doors,"
+says Riano, "still exist at the Alhambra, Granada, covered with enormous
+heads of nails of a half-spherical form with embossed pattern. These
+same nails are constantly to be found on old Spanish houses, to which
+are added in the angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order" (Pl.
+xix.A). In the same city, though not precisely in the Alhambra, I
+have seen upon the doors of private houses nails of a decorative kind
+which appear to consist of a single piece, but which are really formed
+of two--an ornamental boss perforated through its centre, and the nail
+proper, which fastens through it to the woodwork of the door behind.
+Thus, when the nail is hammered tight upon the boss, the effect is
+naturally that of a single piece of metal. Similar nails are on the door
+of Tavera's hospital at Toledo.
+
+                          [Illustration: XIX_a_
+                         DECORATIVE NAIL-HEADS
+                  (_Convent of San Antonio, Toledo_)]
+
+The _Ordenanzas_ of Granada tell us minutely of the nails which were
+produced there in the sixteenth century. They were denominated
+_cabriales_, _costaneros_, _palmares_, _bolayques_, _vizcainos_,
+sabetinos, and _moriscos_; of all of which I can only find that the
+_cabriales_ and _costaneros_ were used for beams and rafters, and the
+_moriscos_ for fixing horse-shoes. In Spain the custom of fastening down
+the decorative coverings of chairs or benches dates from comparatively
+late; and it was probably with this innovation that iron-workers began
+to exercise their ingenuity upon the heads of nails.
+
+Towards the close of the Middle Ages the city of Segovia was celebrated
+for her locks and keys, her knockers, and her _rejas_. In 1892,
+collections of iron objects, chiefly manufactured in this town, were
+shown by the duke of Segovia, Don Nicolas Duque, and Don Adolfo Herrera
+at the Exposicion Historico-Europea of Madrid. Segovia still preserves
+an old door covered with extraordinary iron spikes, that once belonged
+to the castle of Pedraza; many curious balconies, such as that in a
+first floor of the Calle del Carmen; and the grilles--proceeding from
+the old cathedral--of the chapel of the Cristo del Consuelo and the
+chapel of the Piedad.
+
+Another interesting collection of early decorative Spanish iron,
+belonging to the well-known painter, Senor Rusinol, is kept at the town
+of Sitjes, in Cataluna. The late Marquis of Arcicollar possessed a
+number of specimens of Spanish manufactured iron of the later Middle
+Ages, such as boxes, candelabra, locks, nails, door-knockers,
+_braseros_, and a rare and curious iron desk (fourteenth century), with
+leather fittings.
+
+The collection of the late Count of Valencia de Don Juan included four
+door-knockers of Spanish iron, dating from late in the fifteenth century
+or early in the sixteenth. I give a reproduction of these knockers (Pl.
+xx.). The two which occupy the centre are evidently from a sacred
+building; while the other pair are just as evidently _senoriales_, and
+belonged to a noble house. In the former pair, the clumsy carving of the
+saints, Peter and James, is attributed by Serrano Fatigati to the native
+coarseness of the iron.
+
+                            [Illustration: XX
+                             DOOR-KNOCKERS
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+Proceeding from the same collection are a pair of ceremonial maces and a
+ceremonial lantern, which I also reproduce (Pl. xxi.), since the Spanish
+writer from whom I have just quoted pronounces them to be "excellent
+specimens of the iron-work of our country at the close of the Middle
+Ages." He says that, as we notice in the pinnacles, they show a tendency
+to copy architectural detail, and are otherwise characteristic of the
+period. Towards the fourteenth century the file replaced the hammer, and
+the sheet of iron was substituted for the bar. These objects, dating
+from the fifteenth century, duly reveal this change. Also, as was usual
+at the time, they are composed of separate pieces stoutly riveted. In
+the knockers with the figures of the saints "we notice the partial use
+of the chisel, which became general in the sixteenth century, at the
+same time that iron objects were loaded with images, forms of animals,
+and other capricious figures. These may be said to belong to a period
+of transition, culminating in the _rejas_."[66]
+
+  [66] Serrano Fatigati, in the _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de
+       Excursiones_.
+
+The Madrid Museum contains a sixteenth-century cross of _repousse_ iron,
+in the Greek form, and which is certainly of Spanish make. According to
+Villa-amil, it formerly had a gilded border and was painted black, which
+leads this writer to suppose that it was used at funerals. Iron crosses
+may be seen occasionally on churches and on other public buildings, and
+Stirling has inserted cuts of several in his _Annals of the Artists of
+Spain_. Crosses of large size were sometimes planted on the highway.
+Such was the elaborate but ugly iron cross, measuring three yards in
+height, made by Sebastian Conde in 1692 for the Plazuela de la
+Cerrajeria in Seville, and now preserved in her Museum.
+
+The iron balustrade or _verja_ of the marble tomb of Cardinal Cisneros
+is finely wrought in Plateresque-Renaissance, with elaborate designs of
+gryphons, foliage, urns, birds, masks, sheep's heads, swans, coats of
+arms, dolphins, and other ornament in great profusion. The craftsman was
+Nicolas de Vergara the elder. Lesser in size, though not less
+striking in its execution, is the railing, by Francisco de Villalpando,
+which surrounds the _Altar de Prima_ in the choir of Toledo Cathedral.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXI
+                      CEREMONIAL MACES AND LANTERN
+                           (_15th Century_)]
+
+"Iron pulpits," says Riano, "have been made in Spain with great
+success." He mentions five: two in Avila Cathedral (Plate xxii.); two at
+Seville; and one at the church of San Gil at Burgos. The latter is
+described by Street, who says: "It is of very late date, end of the
+fifteenth century, but I think it quite worthy of illustration. The
+support is of iron, resting on stone, and the staircase modern. The
+framework at the angles, top and bottom, is of wood, upon which the
+iron-work is laid. The traceries are cut out of two plates of iron, laid
+one over the other, and the iron-work is in part gilded, but I do not
+think that this is original. The canopy is of the same age and
+character, and the whole effect is very rich at the same time that it is
+very novel. I saw other pulpits, but none so old as this."
+
+The iron pulpits of Salamanca, "covered with bas-reliefs representing
+the Evangelists and subjects taken from the Acts of the Apostles and the
+apocalypse," were made at the same time as the _reja_ by Fray Francisco
+de Zalamea or Salamanca, Fray Juan, and other artists. The two at Avila
+are stationed one on either side of the Capilla Mayor, and are of gilded
+iron, hexagonal in form, and measuring about ten feet in height.
+Gryphons or other beasts support the pulpit on its stem or column. The
+body of each pulpit bears the arms of the cathedral, namely, the _Agnus
+Dei_, a lion, and a castle--the whole surmounted by a crown--and is
+divided lengthways by a central band into a double tier, closed by a
+richly decorated cornice at the upper and the lower border. Otherwise
+the pulpits are quite dissimilar. In one the decorative scheme is almost
+purely geometrical, while in the other it consists of foliage, birds and
+beasts, and niches containing statuettes of saints. The stair-railings
+are modern; but the primitive carving still adorns the end of every
+step.[67]
+
+  [67] For a detailed account of these pulpits see Villa-amil y Castro's
+       article in the _Museo Espanol de Antiguedadess_.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXII
+                              IRON PULPIT
+                          (_Avila Cathedral_)]
+
+We do not know who was the maker of these pulpits. Some believe him to
+have been a certain Juan Frances, to whom our notice will again be
+called as figuring among the earliest masters of this eminently Spanish
+craft, and who, on strongish evidence, is thought to be the author of
+the _rejas_ in the same cathedral which enclose the choir, and the
+front and sides of the Capilla Mayor. This is the only reason for
+supposing him to have made the pulpits also. One of these, however, is
+in the Flamboyant, and the other in the Renaissance style; so it may
+well be doubted whether both were produced by the same hand, or even at
+exactly the same period.[68]
+
+  [68] Payments made to "Master Juan Frances" are recorded by Zarco del
+       Valle, _Documentos Ineditos para la Historia de las Bellas Artes
+       en Espana_, pp. 320, 321.
+
+It is, however, in the _rejas_ that the craftsmanship of older Spain
+attains its loftiest pinnacle. They consist, says Banister Fletcher, of
+"rich and lofty grilles in hammered and chiselled iron ... strongly
+characteristic of the national art. The formality of the long and
+vertical bars is relieved by figures beaten in _repousse_, in
+duplicates, attached back to back, and by crestings and traceries
+adapted to the material, and freely employed. Few things in Spain are
+more original and artistic."[69]
+
+  [69] _History of Architecture_, p. 303. They possess, too, the
+       advantage, from their ponderous solidity and fixedness, that most
+       of them are still extant and in the best of preservation, although
+       Napoleon's Vandals rooted up the chapel _rejas_ of the Church of
+       Santo Domingo at Granada, and turned them into bullets; just as
+       their general, Sebastiani, threw down the tower of San Jeronimo to
+       make a trumpery bridge across the trickling stream of the Genil.
+       Scores of thousands of such crimes, not to forget the blowing up
+       of the gate and tower of the Siete Suelos, were perpetrated by the
+       French all over Spain; yet Washington Irving, in a strangely
+       infelicitous passage of his _Tales of the Alhambra_, congratulates
+       the invaders for their reverential treatment of the noblest
+       monuments of Spanish art!
+
+The _reja_ generally was not, as many have supposed, of late invention.
+It existed from the earliest days of Christianity; but it was only in
+the Gothic and Renaissance ages that Spain converted it into a vehicle
+for decorative art. The growth of these ornamental _rejas_ may be traced
+in cities of Old Castile, together with Seville, Salamanca, Cuenca, and
+Toledo. Spain, it is idle to observe, was at no moment so appreciative
+of her craftsmen as was Italy, so that our information as to mediaeval
+Spanish craftsmen and the process of their lives and labours is, upon
+the whole, deplorably deficient. Nevertheless, among the oldest of her
+artists known in Spanish as _rejeros_, or (a finer and more venerable
+term) _"reja_-masters"--_maestros de rexas_--appears Juan Frances,
+working in 1494 in Toledo Cathedral and, in the same capacity (for he
+seems to have been an armourer besides, and to have held the title of
+"master-maker of iron arms in Spain")[70] at Alcala de Henares, as well
+as, in 1505, at Osma, in whose cathedral he made the _rejas_ of the
+choir and high chapel.[71]
+
+  [70] So, in Spain, does war appear to have been connected even with the
+       peaceful _reja_. Similarly, in 1518, the contractors for the grille
+       of the Chapel Royal of Granada were Juan Zagala and Juan de
+       Cubillana, "master-artillerymen to their highnesses." Valladar,
+       _Guia de Granada_, 1st ed., p. 302, note.
+
+  [71] A quaint but somewhat tautological and prosy letter
+       concerning matters of his craft, addressed by Frances to the
+       cardinal-archbishop of Toledo, is published in the _Museo Espanol
+       de Antiguedades_, article _Los Pulpitos de la Catedral de Avila_,
+       by Villa-amil y Castro. The _reja_ of the presbytery at Burgo de
+       Osma is thus inscribed: "_Izo esta obra maestre Joan Frances
+       maestre mayor._" The top consists of repetitions of a shield
+       containing five stars and supported by angels, lions, and gryphons.
+       Two iron pulpits project from the lower part of the grille, and a
+       swan of the same metal, with extended wings, rests upon either
+       pulpit.
+
+Although the craftsman's name has rarely been recorded, we know that
+excellent _rejeria_ was made at Barcelona in the fifteenth century. Also
+dating from the fifteenth century, and therefore prior to the
+Plateresque, is the _reja_, ornamented with leaves and figures of
+centaurs and other creatures, mythical and real, enclosing the sepulchre
+of the Anayas in the old cathedral of Salamanca. During the first
+quarter of the sixteenth century much work in decorative _rejeria_ was
+completed in Seville Cathedral by Fernando Prieto, Fray Francisco de
+Salamanca,[72] Sancho Munoz, Diego de Adrobo, and others (_vide_
+Frontispiece). Taught by these, while yet belonging to a slightly later
+time, and linking in this way the riper and decadent Gothic with the new
+Renaissance and the Plateresque, were Pedro de Andino, Antonio de
+Palencia, and Juan Delgado. Rosell observes that without doubt these
+artists, excepting only Juan Frances--the pioneer of them all--were
+Spanish-born; and they in their turn were succeeded by other Spaniards
+who worked most regularly at Toledo; such as Bartolome Rodriguez, Luis
+de Penafiel, and Francisco de Silva.
+
+  [72] A Dominican friar, summoned to Seville in 1518, to make her
+       cathedral _rejas_. He also made the pulpits of the high altar in
+       1531, and was working in this city as late as 1547. Account-sheets
+       penned by his hand were still extant a century ago, and Cean
+       conveys to us some knowledge of Fray Francisco, receiving as the
+       wages of his labour, now a score or so of ducats, now a bushel or
+       two of corn. The friar, whom the canons spoke of with affection for
+       his many virtues, seems to have been a handy man, seeing that
+       between his spells of _reja_-making he put the clock of the Giralda
+       into trim, and built an alarum apparatus to rouse the cathedral
+       bell-ringer at early morning.
+
+       For the sums paid to Fray Francisco and to Sancho Munoz for their
+       work, see Gestoso, _Diccionario de Artifices Sevillanos_, vol. ii.
+       pp. 365 _et seq._
+
+An excellent _rejero_ named Hernando de Arenas completed the grille of
+Cuenca Cathedral in 1557. Three years before, a Cordovese, Fernando de
+Valencia, had made the intricate Renaissance _reja_ of the Chapel of the
+Asuncion in the mosque of that most ancient capital--a noble piece of
+work, which still exists. Other _rejeros_ who were either natives of, or
+who resided in, this city were Pedro Sanchez, Alonso Perez, Pedro
+Sanchez Cardenosa, Francisco Lopez, Juan Martinez Cano, and Diego de
+Valencia.
+
+One of these men, Alonso Perez, a native of Jaen, contracted, on April
+13th, 1576, to make the _rejas_ of the Capilla Mayor in the church of
+the convent of the Trinity at Cordova. He was to finish them within one
+year, at a cost of fifty-one _maravedis_ for every pound of iron, of
+sixteen ounces to the pound. Ramirez de Arellano, who has extracted
+these notices of Cordovese artists from the city archives[73], says that
+the _reja_ in question is no longer standing; but a document of the time
+informs us that it was of an elaborate character, and carried
+architraves, cornices, and the usual decorative detail of the Spanish
+Renaissance.
+
+  [73] Consult his valuable studies, _Artistas exhumados_, published in
+       various numbers of the _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de
+       Excursionistas_.
+
+In 1593 Pedro Sanchez agreed to make, within four years, a grille for
+the old chapel of the Concepcion, also in Cordova, at a cost of
+forty-nine maravedis for every pound of iron that the finished _reja_
+should contain; and a year later the same artist signed a contract for
+what is thought to be his masterpiece--the _reja_ of the chapel of the
+Holy Cross, in the nave of the _sagrario_ of the same temple. The
+stipulated time was two years only; but the cost amounted in this
+instance to one hundred maravedis for every pound of the completed
+_reja_.
+
+Marvels of power and of patience are among the _rejas_ of this land. In
+them, obedient to the genius of the craftsman, the ponderous metal
+assumes the gossamer lightness of the finest gauze, now seeming to be
+breathed rather than built across the entrance to some side-chapel, now
+tapering skyward till we fancy it to melt away, like vapour, on the
+surface of the lofty roof. Such are the screens--which here demand a
+brief description--of Toledo and Palencia and Granada; that of Cuenca,
+where Arenas plied his master-hand; and, first in merit of them all,
+the peerless _reja_, royal in magnificence and faultless taste, that
+closes in at Burgos the no less royal-looking chapel of a Count of Haro,
+sometime Constable of all Castile.
+
+The _reja_ of the Capilla Mayor of Toledo Cathedral is twenty-one feet
+high by forty-six in breadth. "Armies of workmen," wrote Mendez Silva,
+referring to this screen and to its neighbour, that of the _coro_, "were
+toiling at them for ten years, nor would their cost have been greater
+had they been of founded silver." The cost of which he speaks was more
+than a quarter of a million _reales_, although the workmen's daily wage
+was only two _reales_ and a half, or, in the case of the particularly
+skilled, four _reales_.
+
+The author of this admirable screen was Francisco de Villalpando, whose
+plans and estimate were approved by Cardinal Tavera in 1540. "The _reja_
+consists of two tiers resting on different kinds of marble. Attic
+columns ornamented with handsome _rilievi_ and terminated by bronze
+caryatides, divide these tiers into several spaces. The upper tier is
+formed by seven columns of ornate pattern, containing, on a frieze of
+complicated tracery, figures of animals and angels, and other
+delicately drawn and executed objects in relief. Upon the cornice are
+coats of arms, angels, and other decoration; and in the centre, the
+imperial arms of Charles the Fifth, together with a large crucifix
+pendent from a massive gilded chain. On the frieze of the second tier
+are the words, ADORATE DOMINUM IN ATRIO SANCTO EJUS KALENDAS APRILIS
+1548, and on the inner side, PLUS ULTRA." [74]
+
+  [74] Rosell y Torres; _La Reja de la Capilla del Condestable en la
+       Catedral de Burgos_, published in the _Museo Espanol de
+       Antiguedades_.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXIII
+                         _REJA_ OF CHAPEL ROYAL
+                         (_Granada Cathedral_)]
+
+The other of the larger _rejas_ in this temple--that of the choir--is
+not inferior in a great degree to Villalpando's masterpiece. It was made
+by "Maestre" Domingo (de Cespedes),[75] who, in his estimate of June
+18th, 1540, engaged to finish it at a total cost of 5000 ducats, "he to
+be given the necessary gold and silver for the plating" (_Archives of
+Toledo Cathedral_, quoted by Rosell). This Maestre Domingo was
+aided by his son-in-law, Fernando Bravo, and both of them, says de la
+Rada y Delgado, were probably natives of Toledo.[76] In the same city
+they also made the _rejas_ for the Baptismal Chapel, and for the chapels
+of the Reyes Viejos and Reyes Nuevos.
+
+  [75] He is called Domingo de Cespedes by Cean Bermudez, although, as
+       Zarco del Valle remarks, the surname does not appear in any of the
+       documents relating to this craftsman which are yet preserved in the
+       archives of Toledo cathedral. These documents merely tell us that
+       Domingo was his Christian name, that his own signature was _Maestre
+       Domingo_, and that he and Fernando Bravo were required to find
+       surety to the value of 375,000 _maravedis_ for the faithful and
+       expert performance of their work, which they were to complete
+       within two years, receiving for it the sum of six thousand ducats.
+
+  [76] Conde de Cedillo, _Toledo en el Siglo XVI_. Reply to the Count's
+       address, by J. de Dios de la Rada y Delgado.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXIV
+                         _REJA_ OF CHAPEL ROYAL
+               (_View from interior. Granada Cathedral_)]
+
+Excellent Plateresque _rejas_ are those of the Capilla Mayor and Coro of
+Palencia Cathedral--the latter from the hand of Gaspar Rodriguez of
+Segovia, who finished it in 1571 at a cost of 3400 ducats. In the same
+city is the _reja_ of the chapel of Nuestra Senora la Blanca, finished
+in 1512 by Juan Relojero, a Palencian, who received for his labour
+25,000 _maravedis_ and a load and a half of wheat.
+
+The noble and colossal gilt and painted[77] _reja_ of the Chapel Royal
+of Granada Cathedral was wrought between the years 1518 and 1523 by one
+Master Bartholomew, whose name is near the keyhole. This was a person of
+obscure life though mighty powers as a craftsman. We know that he
+resided at Jaen, and, from a document which still remains,[78] that he
+petitioned Charles the Fifth for payment (sixteen hundred ducats) of
+this grille, because the clergy had continually refused to liquidate it.
+He made, besides the work I herewith describe, the _reja_ of the
+presbytery for Seville cathedral,[79] and possibly, as Sentenach
+suggests, the iron tenebrarium, ten feet high by five across, for the
+cathedral of Jaen.
+
+  [77] The painting of a _reja_ was commonly executed by the
+       "image-painter" (_pintor de imagineria_). As the term implies, it
+       was this artist's business to gild or colour sacred furniture,
+       such as altars, panels, images, and decorative doors and ceilings.
+
+  [78] Archives of Simancas. _Descargos de las R.C._; _Legajo 23 prov._
+       Valladar, _Guia de Granada_ (1st ed.), p. 302, note.
+
+  [79] "To Master Bartholomew, _rexero_, twenty gold ducats for the days
+       he took in travelling from Jaen, and for those on which he was at
+       work upon the _reja_ of the high altar here in Seville." On
+       March 18th, 1524, the same craftsman was paid 13,125 _maravedis_
+       for making the "samples and other things belonging to the _reja_
+       of the high altar."--_Libro de Fabrica_ of Seville Cathedral.
+       Gestoso, _Sevilla Monumental y Artistica_, and _Diccionario de
+       Artifices Sevillanos_, vol. xi. p. 362.
+
+The _reja_ of the Chapel Royal of Granada, "of two faces, the finest
+that was ever made of this material," [80] has three tiers. "The first
+tier contains six Corinthian pilasters and a broad frieze covered with
+Plateresque ornamentation, as are the pedestals on which the pilasters
+rest. In the second tier are the arms of Ferdinand and Isabella within
+a garland supported by two lions, and other crowns together with the
+yoke and arrows;[81] all intertwined with stems, leaves, and little
+angels of an exquisite effect. Before the pilasters of this tier and of
+the one immediately above it are figures of the apostles on Gothic
+brackets--a style we also notice on the fastening of the gate and on the
+twisted railing; but every other detail of the grille is Plateresque.
+Upon the top are scenes of martyrdoms and of the life of Christ, the
+whole surmounted by a decorative scheme of leaves and candelabra, and,
+over this, a crucifix together with the figures of the Virgin and Saint
+John. The designing of the figures is only moderately good, but all
+remaining detail and the craftsmanship are admirable" [82] (Plates
+xxiii. and xxiv.).
+
+  [80] Pedraza, _Historia de Granada_ (1636), p. 40.
+
+  [81] The yoke and sheaf of arrows were the emblems of these princes--the
+       yoke, of Ferdinand; the arrows, of his queen. Shields of their
+       reign, whether employed in architecture or on title-pages, almost
+       invariably include these emblems and the well-known motto,
+       _Tanto Monta_.
+
+  [82] Gomez Moreno, _Guia de Granada_, p. 291.
+
+Last on my list of Spanish _reja_-makers I place the greatest and most
+honoured of them all--Cristobal de Andino, who, as a modern writer has
+expressed it, "uttered the last word in the matter of giving shape to
+iron." Cristobal, son of Pedro de Andino--himself an artist of no mean
+capacity--excelled in architecture, sculpture, _rejeria_, and probably
+in silver-work as well. "Good craftsmen," wrote his contemporary, Diego
+de Sagredo, "and those who wish their work to breathe the spirit of
+authority and pass without rebuke, should follow--like your
+fellow-townsman, Cristobal de Andino--ancient precepts, in that his
+works have greater elegance and beauty than any others that I witnessed
+heretofore. If this (you think) be not the case, look at that _reja_ he
+is making for my lord the Constable, which _reja_ is well known to be
+superior to all others of this kingdom."
+
+Such is the _reja_ thought, both then and now, to be the finest ever
+made. The style is pure Renaissance. Two tiers of equal height consist
+of four-and-twenty ornamented rails or balusters disposed, above,
+between four columns; below, between four pilasters. An attic is upon
+the cornice, and contains two central, semi-naked, kneeling figures
+which support a large, crowned shield. This is surmounted by a bust of
+God the Father, enclosed in a triangular frame, and raising the hand to
+bless. On either side of the attic are S-shaped crests sustaining
+circular medallions with the likenesses, in bold relief, of Christ and
+Mary. Along the friezes are the legends; EGO SUM ALPHA ET [Greek:
+omega]; EGO SUM LUX VERA; and ECCE ANCILLA DOMINI, together with the
+words, referring to the artist, AB ANDINO, and the date A.D. MDXXIII.
+The decorative scheme is spirited and delicate at once, whether we
+observe it on the railing, pilasters, and columns, or on the horizontal
+parts and members of the _reja_. The attic which surmounts the double
+tier and cornice is finally surmounted by a gilt Saint Andrew's cross;
+and the entire screen is lavishly painted and gilded throughout.
+
+Here is a thing--almost a being--created out of iron, so intensely
+lovely that the eye would wish to contemplate it to the end of time;
+and, as we linger in its presence, if perchance the dead are privileged
+to hear their earthly praises echoed in the silence of the tomb, surely
+from his marble sepulchre Cristobal de Andino listens to such praises at
+this hour. For yonder, in the neighbouring parish church of San Cosme,
+beside a wife devoted and well-loved the great artificer is laid to
+rest, where Latin words (although of idle purport while the _reja_ of
+the Constable remains) are deep engraved to thus remind us of his
+worth:--
+
+               CHRISTOPHORUS ANDINO EGREGIUS
+               ARTIFEX ET IN ARCHITECTURA OMNIUM
+               SUI SECULI FACILE PRINCEPS
+               MONUMENTUM SIBI PONENDUM LE
+               GAVIT ET CATERINA FRIAS EJUS
+               UXOR HONESTISSIMA STATIM MARITI
+               VOTIS ET SUIS SATISFACIENDUM B
+               ENIGNE CHRISTIANEQUE CURAVIT URNAM CU
+               JUS LAPIDES SOLUM AMBORUM OSSA TEGUNT
+               SED ADMONET ETIAM CERTIS ANNUI HE
+               BDOMADE CUJUSQUE DIEBUS SACRIFICIA
+               PRO EIS ESSE PERPETUO FACIENDA
+
+But if these splendid _rejas_ of her temples constitute to-day a special
+glory of this nation, her private balconies and window-gratings were in
+former times, though from profaner motives, almost or quite as notable.
+Between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries, few of the
+foreigners who visited Spain omitted to record their admiration of these
+balconies, crowded upon a holiday with pretty women. "Il y avoit," wrote
+Bertaut de Rouen in 1659, "autant de foule a proportion qu'a Paris; et
+mesme ce qu'il y avoit de plus beau, c'estoit que comme il y avoit des
+balcons a toutes les fenestres et qu'elles estoient occupees par
+toutes les dames de la ville, cela faisoit un plus bel effet que les
+echaffauts que l'on fait dans les rues de Paris en semblables
+rencontres."
+
+                           [Illustration: XXV
+                                 _REJA_
+                     (_Casa de Pilatos, Seville_)]
+
+Pinheiro da Veiga, in his queer _Pincigraphia_, or "Description and
+Natural and Moral History of Valladolid," written earlier in the same
+century, and published twenty years ago by Gayangos from a manuscript in
+the British Museum, is more plain-spoken than the Frenchman on the
+various merits and peculiarities of the Spanish balconies and _rejas_.
+"All of these churches have the most beautiful iron balustrades and iron
+open-work doors (_cancelas_) that can be found in Europe, for nowhere is
+iron worked so skilfully as here in Valladolid. These objects are made
+by the Moriscos with turned balusters, foliage, boughs, fruits,
+war-material, trophies, and other contrivances, which afterwards they
+gild and silver into the very likeness of these metals. I say the same
+of window-balconies; for nearly every window has its balcony. There are
+in Valladolid houses up which one might clamber to the very roof from
+balcony to balcony, as though these were a hand-ladder. So too from
+balcony to balcony (for the distance from one to other is never greater
+than a palm's breadth) one might climb round the whole Plaza. By reason
+of this, we Portuguese were wont to say that if there were as many
+thieves or lovers in Valladolid as in Portugal, verily both one and
+other of this kind of folks would have but little need of hand-ladders.
+Yet here the thieves content themselves with stealing by the light of
+day, while as for the women (crafty creatures that they are!), they
+perpetrate their thefts away from home; and, having all the day at their
+disposal, prefer to thieve while daylight lasts, rather than pass the
+night uncomfortably. To this I heard a lady of Castile declare, when one
+of my friends, a Portuguese, petitioned her for leave to speak with her
+at night across her _reja_: 'That would be tantamount to passing from
+one _hierro_ to another _yerro_;[83] and in my house (which is also your
+worship's) it would not look well for you to seem a window-climbing
+thief.'"
+
+  [83] _Hierro_ means _iron_; _yerro_, a _fault, faux pas_. Thus glossed,
+       the somewhat feeble pleasantry or pun is able to explain itself.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXVI
+                  _REJA_ OF THE _CASA DE LAS CONCHAS_
+                             (_Salamanca_)]
+
+It is curious, in the foregoing narrative, to read of Morisco craftsmen
+working as late as 1600, and as far north as Castile. Perhaps the notice
+of Moriscos doing Spanish iron-work may be traced to certain
+Ordinances of Granada, published about three-quarters of a century
+before. On October 14th, 1522, the councillors of that town confabulated
+very lengthily and seriously as to the damage caused by "balconies and
+_rejas_ in the streets, fixed in the basements and the lower rooms of
+houses, or projecting portals which extend beyond the level of the wall.
+For we have witnessed, and do witness daily, numerous mishaps to
+wayfarers, alike on horseback and on foot, whether by day or night,
+because the highways, narrow in themselves, are rendered yet more narrow
+by such balconies and _rejas_. Whereas in winter persons seeking to
+escape the filth by keeping to the wall are thwarted, or at night-time
+injured, by these _rejas_. Or yet in summer, when the waters swell, and
+conduits burst and overflow the middle of the street, then neither can
+they keep the middle of the way, nor pass aside (by reason of the
+balconies aforesaid) to its edges."
+
+Having regard to all these grievances, the councillors decreed that
+"none of whatsoever order or condition shall dare henceforth to place,
+or cause to be placed, about the lower floors or entrance of their
+dwelling, _rejas_ or iron balconies, or anything projecting much or
+little from the level of the wall. But all projections shall be set
+three yards, not any less, above the street. If not so much, they shall
+be set within the wall, on pain of a fine of ten thousand _maravedis_,
+and five thousand _maravedis_ to the mason and the carpenter that shall
+repair their fixing. Further, we order that all balconies and _rejas_
+now at a height of less than the aforesaid three yards be taken away
+within three days from the crying in public of these Ordinances."[84]
+
+  [84] These laws affecting balconies were not, or not as time went on,
+       restricted to Granada. "Nobody," prescribes the general Spanish
+       code in force in 1628, "shall make a balcony or oversailing part
+       to fall upon the street, nor yet rebuild or repair any that shall
+       fall."--Pradilla, _Suma de Todas las Leyes Penales, Canonicas,
+       Civiles, y destos Reynos_.
+
+For this deplorable state of things a double influence was to blame;
+namely, the oriental narrowness of the street, and also the elaborate
+ornamentation, proceeding very largely from a northern Gothic and
+non-Spanish source, of these annoying yet impressive gratings. Some of
+them, sweeping the very soil, and boldly and fantastically curved, may
+yet be seen at Toro. Those of Granada are no more. Indeed, not only have
+the _rejas_ of the Spanish private house long ceased to show the
+decorative cunning of the craftsman, but even in their present
+unartistic form are largely limited to Andalusia. Yet even thus, they
+seem to guard a typical and national air, mixed with a subtle,
+semi-Mussulmanic poetry. Across them, while the term of courtship lasts,
+the lover whispers with his mistress, oblivious of the outer world,
+fixing his gaze within, until his sultaness emerges from the gloom, and
+holds his hand, and looks into his eyes, and listens to his vow.
+Therefore, in "April's ivory moonlight," beneath the velvet skies of
+Andalusia, one always is well pleased to pass beside these children of
+romantic Spain, warming the frigid iron with the breath of youth, and
+hope, and happiness, and telling to each other a secret that is known
+unto us all--at once the sweetest and the saddest, the newest and the
+oldest story of all stories.
+
+
+
+
+                                BRONZES
+
+
+The earliest objects of bronze discovered in this country are
+comparatively few. As in other parts of Europe, they consist mostly of
+weapons, such as spear-heads and hatchets (which will be noticed under
+_Arms_), or bracelets, necklaces, and clasps or brooches. Earrings
+(_inaures_), brooches (_fibulae_), and other objects of a similar purpose
+dating from the Roman period have been discovered in Galicia, while
+plates of the same alloy[85] which imitate a shell were used as personal
+ornaments by the men and women of the ancient Spanish tribes.
+
+  [85] Le Hon reminds us, in _L'homme fossile_, that before the Iron Age
+       all bronzes of our western world contained one part of tin to nine
+       of copper.
+
+The province of Palencia is a fertile field for archaeological discovery.
+Here have been found some curious clasps, intended, it would seem, to
+represent the old Iberian mounted warrior, sometimes brandishing the
+typical Iberian lance. The following is a sketch in outline of an
+object of this kind, fashioned as clumsily and crudely as the cheapest
+wooden plaything of our time:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Two parts--the figure of the horseman, and a four-wheeled stand on which
+the warrior's steed is resolutely set--compose this comical antiquity.
+The rider's only article of clothing is a helmet; while the horse,
+without a saddle or a bridle, is completely nude. This toy, or table
+ornament, or whatever it may be, was found not far from Badajoz, where
+other prehistoric bronzes are preserved in the museum of the
+province;[86] and Mr E. S. Dodgson says that in possession of an
+Englishman at Comillas he has seen another bronze rider of primitive
+workmanship, with the head of a wild boar under his left arm. Those who
+are interested in the meaning of these early bronzes should consult
+an article, _El jinete iberico_, by Senor Melida, published in Nos.
+90-92 of the _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_.
+
+  [86] See Romero de Castilla, _Inventarios de los objetos recogidos en
+       el Museo Arqueologico de la Comision de Monumentos de Badajoz_.
+       Badajoz, 1896. Plate xxvii. represents another of these objects.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVII
+                           "MELEAGER'S HUNT"
+                     (_Primitive Spanish Bronze_)]
+
+We know that the use of Roman lamps grew to be general in this land--a
+fact which justifies my noticing the specimens preserved in the museum
+of Madrid; and more particularly so because their shape and general
+character have been perpetuated through the Spanish Moors and Christians
+of the Middle Ages till this very moment.
+
+The Roman lamp, shaped somewhat like a boat by reason of the _rostrum_
+or beakish receptacle for the wick, consisted of an earthenware or metal
+vessel with a circular or oblong body and a handle, together with at
+least one hole for pouring in the oil. The commonest material was
+earthenware, and next to this, bronze. The lamp was either suspended by
+a chain or chains, or else was rested on a stand. Plato and Petronius
+tell us that the stand was borrowed from the rustic makeshift of a
+stick, or the stout stem of a plant, thrust into the ground. As time
+went on, the stem or stick in imitative metal-work was rendered more or
+less artistic and ornate. But there was more than a single kind of
+lampstand. The _lychnuchus_ ([Greek: lychnouchos]), invented by the
+Greeks, held various lamps suspended from its branches, while, on the
+other hand, the Roman _candelabrum_ supported but a solitary lamp upon
+the disc or platform at its top extremity.[87] The island of Egina was
+famed for the production of these discs, and Pliny tells us that the
+decorated stem or _scapus_ was chiefly manufactured at Tarentum.
+
+  [87] Undoubtedly the use of the Roman _candelabrum_ was continued by the
+       Spanish Visigoths. "_Candelabrum_," says Saint Isidore, "_a
+       candelis dictum, quasi candela feram, quod candelam ferat_"
+       (_Originum_, book xx., chap. x.). The Spanish word _candela_ is
+       loosely used to-day for almost any kind of light or fire, or even
+       for a match; but an ordinary candle is generally called a _vela_ or
+       _bugia_ (_bougie_).
+
+The Roman lampstands also varied in their height. When the stem was long
+they stood upon the ground--a fashion we have seen revived in recent
+years, and even where electricity replaces oil. When, on the contrary,
+the stem was short, the stand was known as a _candelabrum humile_, and
+rested on a table or a stool.
+
+The Madrid Museum contains a remarkable bronze lamp in the form of an
+ass's head adorned with flowers and with ivy. The ass is holding in its
+mouth the _rostrum_ for the wick. The hole for the oil is shaped like a
+flower with eleven petals, under one of which is the monogram M[dagger]R.
+The back of this lamp consists of an uncouth human male figure, in a
+reclining posture, wearing a Phrygian cap and holding the ass's head
+between his legs.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXVIII
+                               A _CANDIL_
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+Other lamps of bronze, including several of an interesting character,
+are in the same collection. One of these represents a sea-deity; another
+has its handle shaped like a horse's head and neck; and in a third the
+orifice for the oil is heart-shaped, while the handle terminates in the
+head of a swan.
+
+There is also a series of three pensile lamps--two in the likeness of
+the head and neck of a griffin, and the third in that of a theatrical
+mask; as well as a candelabrum fourteen inches high, terminating beneath
+in three legs with lions' claws (foreshadowing or repeating oriental
+motives), and above in a two-handled vessel on which to place the lamp.
+This vessel supports at present a fine _lucerna_ in the form of a
+peacock.
+
+Probably no people in the world have kept extant, or rather, kept alive,
+their oldest forms of pottery or instruments for giving light more
+steadfastly or more solicitously than the Spaniards. Their iron
+_candil_[88] and brass _velon_ of nowadays (Pls. xxviii. and
+xxix.)--the one of these the primitive lamp that hangs; the other, the
+primitive lamp that rests upon a table or the ground--are borrowed with
+but a minimum of alteration from the lighting apparatus of the ancient
+Greeks and Romans, and possess, for all their coarse and cheap and
+unpretentious workmanship, a subtle interest and elegance attributable
+only to the inspiration of antiquity.
+
+  [88] "A small open lamp with a beak, and a hook to hang it, within which
+       is another of the same make that contains oil and a wick to give
+       light, commonly used in kitchens, stables, and inns."--Fathers
+       Connelly and Higgins, _Spanish-English and English-Spanish
+       Dictionary_. Swinburne wrote of these _candiles_:--"The Spaniards
+       delight in wine that tastes strong of the pitched skin, and of oil
+       that has a rank smell and taste; indeed, the same oil feeds their
+       lamp, swims in their pottage, and dresses their salad; in inns the
+       lighted lamp is frequently handed down to the table, that each man
+       may take the quantity he chooses."
+
+                           [Illustration: XXIX
+                               A _VELON_
+                              (_Modern_)]
+
+More than the shape of these old objects seems to have passed to modern
+Spain--if any phase at all of Spanish life can ever justly be accounted
+modern. The ancients had an almost superstitious reverence for a lighted
+lamp, and were accustomed to declare that "_lucerna, cum extinguitur,
+vocem emittit, quasi necata_"; "a lamp, on being put out, utters
+a sound as though it were being murdered." Now, it may be a
+coincidence--although I cannot but regard it as distinctly more than a
+coincidence--that even at this day a large proportion of the
+Andalusian people are markedly averse to blowing out a kindled match;
+nor do they think it of good augury to be in a room where three
+lights--candles, matches, or whatever they may be--are simultaneously
+aflame. I have noticed, too, that, whether from utter carelessness or
+whether from ancestral superstition handed down from Rome, one rarely
+sees upon the staircase or the doorstep of a Spanish public building a
+vesta that has been (if I may be allowed the term) extinguished
+_artificially_.[89]
+
+  [89] Perhaps it is not foreign to my theme to add that the current name
+       in Spanish for an oil lamp is _quinque_, from Quinquet, the
+       Parisian chemist who invented the _tuyau-cheminee_ a hundred and
+       odd years ago. The same word passes also into Spanish slang,
+       "_tener quinque_"--_i.e._ to be quick-witted and perceptive.
+
+In the Madrid Museum are several military bronze _signa_ which were
+found in Spain and date from the Roman era, as well as a _vexillum_, or
+one of the T-shaped frames on which the warriors of that people used to
+hang their standards. One of these _signa_ is in the form of a wild
+boar; another in that of a saddled and bridled horse. Beneath this
+latter is the word VIVA and a cross, which shows that the object dates
+from a period not earlier than the reign of Constantine.
+
+It is strange--or rather, would be strange in any country that had been
+less constantly afflicted both with civil and external warfare--that
+hardly anything remains of all the bronze artistic objects manufactured
+by the Spanish Moors. Poets of this race have sung of gold and silver
+fountains, door-knockers, and statues that adorned the buildings of
+Cordova. In many of these instances the hyperbolic gold and silver of
+the writers would undoubtedly be bronze. Al-Makkari quotes an Arab poet
+who extols in passionate terms Almanzor's dazzling mansion of Az-zahyra.
+"Lions of metal," sang this poet, "bite the knockers of thy doors, and
+as those doors resound appear to be exclaiming _Allahu akbar_" ("God is
+great"). Another bard describes the fountains of the same enchanted
+palace. "The lions who repose majestically in this home of princes,
+instead of roaring, allow the waters to fall in murmuring music from
+their mouths. _Their bodies seem to be covered with gold_, and in their
+mouths crystal is made liquid.
+
+"Though in reality these lions are at rest, they seem to move and, when
+provoked, to grow enraged. One would imagine that they remembered their
+carnage of past days, and bellowing turned once more to the attack.
+
+"When the sun is reflected from their _bronze_ surface, they seem to be
+of fire, with tongues of flame that issue from their mouths.
+
+"Nevertheless, when we observe them to be vomiting water, one would
+think this water to be swords which melt without the help of fire, and
+are confounded with the crystal of the fountain."
+
+                           [Illustration: XXX
+                              BRONZE LION
+                 (_Found in the Province of Palencia_)]
+
+Figures in bronze, of eagles, peacocks, swans, stags, dragons, lions,
+and many other creatures were set about in garden and in hall, to
+decorate these splendid palaces of ancient Cordova.
+
+A specimen of this class of objects is a bronze lion of small dimensions
+(Plate xxx.) found not many years ago in the province of Palencia, and
+believed to date from the reign of Al-Hakem the Second of Cordova. It
+belonged for some time to the painter Fortuny--a diligent and lucky
+hunter of antiquities,--and was subsequently purchased in 1875 by M.
+Piot. The modelling and decoration of this beast, especially the
+mannered and symmetrical curls which are supposed to form its mane, are
+quite conventional and strongly reminiscent of Assyrian art, such as
+pervades the various lions rudely wrought in stone and still existing at
+Granada; whether the celebrated dozen that support and guard the
+fountain in the courtyard of the Moorish palace,[90] or else the
+greater pair of grinning brutes proceeding from the ruins of the palace
+of Azaque (miscalled the Moorish Mint), which may be noticed squatting
+with their rumps towards the road, beside the garden entrance to the
+Carmen de la Mezquita.
+
+  [90] Swinburne fell into a comical error concerning these. "In the
+       centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions _muzzled_, their
+       fore-parts smooth, their hind-parts rough, which bear upon their
+       backs an enormous bason, out of which a lesser rises."--_Travels
+       through Spain_, p. 180.
+
+This little bronze lion measures about twelve inches high by fourteen
+inches long. The legs and part of the body are covered with a pattern
+representing flowers. The mane is described by comma-shaped marks. The
+tail, bent not ungracefully along the animal's back, is decorated with a
+kind of plait through nearly all its length. The eyes are now two
+cavities, but seem in other days to have contained two coloured stones
+or gems. Upon the back and flanks is a Cufic inscription which says,
+"_Perfect blessing. Complete happiness._"
+
+                           [Illustration: XXXI
+                              BRONZE STAG
+                    (_Moorish. Museum of Cordova._)]
+
+Mussulman historians have described, in terms of cloying praise, the
+"red gold animals contrived with subtle skill and spread with precious
+stones" which Abderrahman placed at Cordova upon the fountains of his
+palaces. "Rivers of water issued from the mouth of every animal, and
+fell into a jasper basin." The words "red gold" are patently an oriental
+term for bronze. In view of this, and of the fact that the lion of
+Palencia is hollow-bellied, with his mouth wide open for ejecting water,
+and with a tail of cunning craftsmanship, which would avail, on being
+rotated, to produce or check the current of the "liquid crystal," we may
+conclude that it was intended both to form a part of, and to decorate a
+Moorish fountain of old days, and is the kind of beast "with precious
+stones for eyes" so often and so ecstatically lauded by the Muslim
+writers.
+
+Similar to the foregoing object, and dating from about the same period,
+is a small bronze stag (Pl. xxxi.) in the provincial museum of Cordova.
+It is believed to proceed originally from the famous palace (tenth
+century) of Az-zahra, and used to be kept, some centuries ago, in the
+convent of San Jeronimo de Valparaiso.
+
+The museum of Granada contains some interesting Moorish bronzes, found
+on the site of the ancient city of Illiberis, abandoned by its occupants
+on their removal to Granada at the beginning of the eleventh century.
+The most remarkable of these discoveries are pieces of a fountain, a
+small temple (Plate xxxii.), an _almirez_ or mortar (Plate xxxiii.),
+similar to one (not mentioned by Riano) which was discovered at Monzon,
+and a few lamps. The fragments of a fountain end in the characteristic
+Assyrian-looking lions' heads, with lines in regular zones to represent
+the eyes and other features. One of the lamps (Pl. xxxiii.) is far
+superior to the rest. Notwithstanding Riano's assertion that all of
+these antiquities are "incomplete and mutilated," this lamp is well
+preserved, and still retains, secured by a chain, the little metal
+trimming-piece or _emunctorium_ of the Romans. The small bronze temple
+is sometimes thought (but this hypothesis seems rather fanciful) to be a
+case, or part of a case, designed for keeping jewellery. The height of
+it is two-and-twenty inches, and the form hexagonal, "with twelve small
+columns supporting bands of open work, frescoes, cupola, and turrets; in
+the angles are birds" (Riano).
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXII
+                             BRONZE TEMPLE
+                    (_Moorish. Museum of Granada_)]
+
+The most important object in this substance now extant in any part of
+Spain is probably the huge and finely decorated lamp of Mohammed the
+Third of Granada (Pl. xxxiv.), called sometimes "the lamp of Oran,"
+from a mistaken belief that it had formed part of the booty yielded by
+this city after her capture in 1509 by Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros.
+
+The material of this lamp is bronze, possibly provided by the bells of
+Christian churches taken and pillaged by the Moors. It has four parts or
+tiers of varying shape, delicately wrought in open-work, and reaching a
+height of nearly seven feet in all. The third and largest tier,
+corresponding to the shade, is in the form of a truncated pyramid, and
+shows a different design on each of its four sides. The lamp bears
+several inscriptions, interrupted here and there through breakage of the
+metal. The longest of these legends is interpreted as follows:--
+
+"In the name of God the Merciful. (May) the blessing of God be on our
+lord Mohammed and his kin; health and peace. (This lamp) was ordered (to
+be made) by our Lord the egregious sultan, the favoured, the victorious,
+the just, the happy, the conqueror of cities, and the extreme boundary
+of just conduct among the servants (of God); the emir of the Mussulmans
+Abu-Abdillah, son of our lord the emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah,
+son of our lord Al-Galib-Billah, the conqueror through God's
+protection, the emir of the Mussulmans Abu-Abdillah; (may) God aid him
+(praised be God)." Here is a breakage and a corresponding gap in the
+inscription, which continues, "beneath it, lighted by my light for its
+magnificence and the care of its _xeque_, with righteous purpose and
+unerring certainty. And this was in the month of Rabie the first
+blessed, in the year 705.[91] May (God) be praised."
+
+  [91] September 20th to October 19th, A.D. 1305.
+
+The history of this lamp has been explored with scholarly care by
+Rodrigo Amador de los Rios, whose monograph will be found in the _Museo
+Espanol de Antiguedades_. He says that the lamp was formerly suspended
+from the ceiling of the chapel of San Ildefonso in the university of
+Alcala de Henares. Here, too, he has discovered entries which relate to
+it in two separate inventories, dated 1526 and 1531, from which we
+gather that the lamp, excepting the lowest part or tier, which probably
+proceeded from Oran, was brought to Alcala by Cardinal Cisneros from the
+mosque of the Alhambra of Granada.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIII
+                        MOORISH LAMP AND MORTAR
+                         (_Museum of Granada_)]
+
+All of the lamp (continues Amador) that properly belongs to it, is the
+open-work shade, together with the graduated set of spheres which we
+now observe on top.[92] The lowest part is clearly an inverted bell,
+from which project four decorative pieces. This is believed by Amador to
+be a Spanish bell, dating from the fifteenth century, designed for
+striking with a hammer, and proceeding from some monastery or convent
+plundered by the Moors. Indeed, one of the two inventories discovered at
+Alcala mentions "a bell with a hole in it, _which used to belong to a
+Moorish lamp_," thus countenancing the widespread supposition that the
+lamps of the mosque of Cordova were made of the Christian bells of
+Compostela, which the fierce Almanzor caused to be conveyed upon the
+aching backs of Christian captives to the Moorish court and capital of
+Andalusia.
+
+  [92] These spheres recall the four great gilded globes of bronze,
+       tapering from the bottom to the top, that crowned in olden days the
+       Giralda tower of Seville. According to the _Cronica General_ the
+       glitter of these globes "de tan grande obra, e tan grandes, que no
+       se podrien hacer otras tales," could be distinguished at a distance
+       of eight leagues. On August 24th, 1395, when Seville was assailed
+       by a frightful tempest accompanied by an earthquake, the metal rod
+       which pierced and held the globes was snapped, and the globes
+       themselves were dashed into a myriad pieces on the _azotea_, scores
+       of yards below.
+
+It is probable, therefore, that the lamp of the third Mohammed of
+Granada is now composed of two lamps, and that the primitive
+arrangement of its parts was altered by the ignorant. Eight chains
+would formerly suspend it, in the following order of its tiers or
+stages, from the dome of the _mezquita_. First and uppermost would come
+the shade; then, next to this, the set of tapering spheres; and, last
+and lowest, the saucer or _platillo_, which has disappeared. Further,
+and as Koranic law prescribed, the lamp would hold two lights--one to be
+kindled on the saucer, and the other underneath the shade.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Other articles of Spanish-Moorish ornamented bronze are thimbles,
+buckets, and the spherical perfume-burners which were used to roll upon
+the stone or marble pavement of a dwelling. Moorish thimbles, conical
+and uncouthly large, are not uncommonly met with at Granada. I have one,
+of which the above is an outline sketched to size.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIV
+                       LAMP OF MOHAMMED THE THIRD
+                           (_Madrid Museum_)]
+
+Sometimes these Moorish thimbles are inscribed in Cufic lettering
+with phrases such as--"(May) the blessing of God and every kind of
+happiness (be destined for the owner of this thimble)"; or else the
+maker's name--"The work of Saif"; or a single word--"Blessing."
+
+The thimbles from which I quote these legends are in the National
+Museum. The same collection includes a very finely wrought bronze bucket
+or _acetre_ (Latin _situlus_; Arabic _as-setl_, the utensil for drawing
+water for a bath). The outside is covered with delicate ornamentation,
+varied with inscriptions of no great interest, invoking Allah's blessing
+on the owner or employer of the bucket, which is thought by Amador to be
+of Granadino workmanship, and to date from about the middle of the
+fourteenth century.
+
+Not many specimens remain of early mediaeval Spanish bronzes wrought by
+Christian hands. Riano, who admits that "we can hardly trace any bronze
+of this period other than cathedral bells," mentions as probably
+proceeding from abroad the altar-fronts and statuettes, in gilt
+enamelled bronze, of Salamanca and elsewhere,[93] and gives a short
+description of the bell, about six inches high (Pl. xxxv.), known as the
+Abbot Samson's, now in Cordova Museum. This object bears an early date
+(875 A.D.), and is inscribed, "_Offert hoc munus Samson abbatis in domum
+Sancti Sebastiani martyris Christi, Era_ D.C.C.C.C.XIII."
+
+  [93] See p. 50.
+
+It is curious that Riano should make no mention of Spanish bronze
+processional crosses. In my chapter on gold, silver, and jewel work I
+mentioned those belonging to churches in the north of Spain. A bronze
+crucifix (Plate xxxvi.), believed to date from the beginning of the
+twelfth century, and proceeding from the monastery of Arbos, in the
+province of Leon, is now in the possession of Don Felix Granda Builla.
+It is undoubtedly of Spanish make, and probably was carried in
+processions. The style is pure Romanic, and the drawing of the ribs,
+extremities, and limbs is typically primitive. The _sudarium_ is secured
+by the belt or _parazonium_. The feet, unpierced, rest on a
+_supedaneum_.
+
+A bronze Renaissance parish cross of the sixteenth century, once hidden
+in a village of Asturias, was bought some thirty years ago by the museum
+of Madrid. The body of the cross is wood, covered on both sides with
+bronze plates wrought with figures of the Saviour as the holy infant and
+as full-grown man, and also with a figure of the Virgin. These
+figures were formerly painted, and traces of the colour yet remain. The
+cross was also silvered. The rest of the ornamentation consists of
+vases, flowers, and other subjects proper to Renaissance art.
+
+                           [Illustration: XXXV
+                          ABBOT SAMSON'S BELL
+                  (_9th Century. Museum of Cordova_)]
+
+A similar cross belongs to the parish church of San Julian de Recare, in
+the province of Lugo, while San Pedro de Donas, near Santiago in
+Galicia, possesses a processional cross of bronze, pierced along the
+edges in a pattern of trefoils and _fleurs-de-lis_, but otherwise
+undecorated.
+
+Sometimes in Spanish bronze we find the handiwork of Moors and
+Christians picturesquely intermingled, as in the gates of Toledo
+cathedral (1337), and the Puertas del Perdon--forming the principal
+entrance to the Court of Orange Trees--of the mosque of Cordova, made of
+wood and covered with bronze plating decorated with irregular hexagons
+and Gothic and Arabic inscriptions. The knockers contain a scroll and
+flowers, and on the scroll the words, _Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel_.
+The gate of the same name of Seville cathedral (Pl. xxxvii.) is similar
+in workmanship, and is considered by Riano to be a good example of
+Moresque bronze-work.
+
+While speaking of these doors, we should remember that Moorish
+craftsmen were employed to decorate or to repair the mosque of Cordova
+long after it had been converted to the worship of the Christians. When
+he was acting as viceroy in the year 1275, the Infante Don Fernando
+confirmed a letter of his father, King Alfonso, remitting tolls and
+taxes that would otherwise be leviable upon four Moors who worked in the
+cathedral. The Infante's confirmation, after recording that "one (of the
+four Moors) is dead and the other blind, in such wise that he can work
+no more," consents to the engagement of another two, Famet and Zahec by
+name, to fill their places, and who also are hereby exempted from the
+payment of all dues. Five years afterwards this privilege was
+reconfirmed by King Alfonso, and we are further told on this occasion
+that two of the Moorish four were _albanis_, or masons, and the others
+_anaiares_, or carpenters. As time progressed, the situation of the
+vanquished and humiliated Mussulmans grew more irksome. On October 25th,
+1320, the Infante Don Sancho, who had usurped the throne, proclaimed, in
+ratification of a letter issued by his father, that all the Moorish
+carpenters, masons, sawyers, and other workmen and artificers of Cordova
+must work in the cathedral (presumably without a wage) for two days
+in every year.[94]
+
+  [94] _Libro de las Tablas_, pp. 17, 18. See Madrazo, _Cordova_, pp. 273
+       _et seq._
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXVI
+                            BRONZE CRUCIFIX
+                           (_12th Century_)]
+
+In the latter half of the sixteenth century, Bartolome Morel, a
+Sevillano, produced some notable work in bronze.[95] Three objects by
+his hand--namely, the choir lectern and the tenebrarium of Seville
+cathedral, and the weathercock or _Giraldillo_ which crowns the
+celebrated tower of the same enormous temple--are specially
+distinguished for their vigour and effectiveness.
+
+  [95] In documents which relate to him (see Gestoso's _Dictionary of
+       Sevillian Artificers_) Morel is often called an _artillero_. His
+       father, Juan Morel, was also a founder of cannon, and signed a
+       contract in 1564 to cast two bronze pieces or _tiros_, with the
+       royal arms on them.
+
+The least important of these objects is the choir lectern, for which
+Morel was paid six hundred ducats. The decoration is of statuettes and
+_rilievi_, well designed and better executed. The tenebrarium, aptly
+defined by Amador as "an article of church furniture intended to make a
+show of light,"[96] is more ambitious and original. "It was designed
+and made by Morel in the year 1562. Juan Giralte, a native of Flanders,
+and Juan Bautista Vazquez helped him to make the statues at the head of
+this candelabrum, and Pedro Delgado, another noted sculptor of Seville,
+worked at the foot of it. It is eight and a half yards high, and the
+triangular head is three yards across. Upon this upper part are fifteen
+statues, representing the Saviour, the apostles, and two other disciples
+or evangelists. In the vacant space of the triangle is a circle adorned
+with leaves, and in the centre of this circle is a bust of the Virgin in
+relief, and, lower down, the figure of a king. All of this part is of
+bronzed wood, and rests upon four small bronze columns. The remainder of
+the candelabrum is all of this material, and the small columns are
+supported by four caryatides, resting upon an order of noble design
+decorated with lions' heads, scrolls, pendants, and other ornamentation,
+the whole resting upon a graceful border enriched with harpies."
+
+  [96] The efficacy of light in illuminating, or may be in dazzling and
+       confounding, Christian worshippers is too self-evident to call for
+       illustration. The symbolic meaning of church candles is, however,
+       neatly indicated by the wise Alfonso in his compilation of the
+       seven _Partidas_. "Because three virtues dwell in candles, namely,
+       wick, wax, and flame, so do we understand that persons three dwell
+       in the Trinity--Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; and we may understand
+       three other things that dwell in Jesus Christ; to wit, body, soul,
+       and godhead. Hence the twelve lighted candles manifested to each
+       quarter of the church exhibit unto us the twelve apostles who
+       preached the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ through all the earth,
+       and manifesting truest wisdom illumined all the world."
+
+This description of the Seville tenebrarium is translated from Cean
+Bermudez, and is the one most commonly quoted, though Amador complains
+that it is not precise, and fails to dwell upon the symbolism of this
+mighty mass of bronze.[97] Thus, what Cean affirms to be the bust of a
+king is declared by Amador to be the head of a pope, probably Saint
+Gregory the Great. Metal, as Cean remarks, is not employed throughout.
+In order to preserve its balance, the upper part of the tenebrarium,
+containing the triangle which is said by some to symbolize "the divinity
+of Jesus as God the triple and the one," is merely wood bronzed over.
+Amador adds that the foot and stem are intended to represent "the people
+of Israel in their perfidy and ingratitude." He also says that the
+statue in the centre of the triangle is that of Faith, and that which
+crowns the entire tenebrarium, of the Virgin Mary.
+
+  [97] The English rendering of Cean's description inserted by Riano is
+       inaccurate throughout.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXVII
+                        THE _PUERTA DEL PERDON_
+                         (_Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+Morel, like Brunelleschi, was an architect as well as a craftsman in
+bronze.[98] He completed this tenebrarium in 1562, and the chapter of
+the cathedral were so contented with it that instead of paying him the
+stipulated price, namely, eight hundred ducats, they added of their own
+accord a further two hundred and fifty. They also commissioned him to
+make a handsome case to keep it in; but the case has disappeared, and
+the naked tenebrarium now stands in the Sacristy of Chalices of the
+cathedral.[99] It is still used at the Matin service during the last
+three days of Holy Week, and still, in the _Oficio de Tinieblas_, the
+custom is observed of extinguishing the fifteen tapers, one by one, at
+the conclusion of each psalm.
+
+  [98] As architect, he made a monument (which exists no longer) for the
+       festivals of Holy Week at Seville.
+
+  [99] In 1565 Juan del Pozo, an ironsmith, received one hundred _reales_
+       "on account of an engine which he made of iron for moving the
+       tenebrarium of the cathedral, and other heavy things."--Gestoso,
+       _Diccionario de Artifices Sevillanos_, vol. i. p. 313.
+
+The title of the object which surmounts the famed Giralda tower of
+Seville is properly "the Statue of Faith, the triumph of the Church"
+(Pl. xxxviii.); but it is known in common language as the Giraldillo
+(weathercock), which name has passed into the word Giralda, now applied
+to all the tower. The populace of Seville also call it, in the _argot_
+of their cheerful town, the _muneco_ or "doll," the "Victory," and the
+"Santa Juana."
+
+                         [Illustration: XXXVIII
+                  THE WEATHERCOCK OF THE GIRALDA TOWER
+                  (_16th Century. Seville Cathedral_)]
+
+This statue, made of hollow bronze, rotates upon an iron rod piercing
+the great bronze globe which lies immediately beneath the figure's feet.
+The globe is nearly six feet in diameter. The figure itself represents a
+Roman matron wearing a flowing tunic partly covering her legs and arms.
+Sandals are secured to her feet by straps. Upon her head she wears a
+Roman helmet crested by a triple plume. In her right hand she holds the
+semicircular Roman standard of the time of Constantine, which points the
+direction of the wind and causes the figure to revolve, excepting when
+the air is very faint, in which case it is caught by two diminutive
+banners springing from the large one.[100] So huge are the proportions
+of this metal lady that the medal on her breast contains a life-size
+head which represents an angel.
+
+  [100] The statue, which looks so tiny from the street, measures nearly
+        fourteen feet in height, and weighs more than two thousand two
+        hundred pounds. The banner alone weighs close upon four hundred
+        pounds. The figure was raised into its place in 1568, in which
+        year I find that eighteen Moriscos were paid seventy-eight
+        _reales_ between them all for doing the work of carriage (Gestoso,
+        _Diccionario_). Gestoso also mentions a large bronze plate made
+        by Morel for the pavement of the cathedral, and which has
+        disappeared. It weighed 2269 pounds, or about the same as the
+        weathercock of the Giralda, and Morel was paid for it the sum of
+        289,361 _maravedis_.
+
+The Spanish Moors were also well acquainted with the use of
+weathercocks. During the reign, in the eleventh century, of the Zirite
+kingling of Granada, Badis ben Habbus, a weathercock of strange design
+surmounted his _alcazar_. The historian Marmol wrote in the sixteenth
+century that it was still existing on a little tower, and consisted of a
+horseman in Moorish dress, with a long lance and his shield upon his
+arm, the whole of bronze, with an inscription on the shield which says:
+"Badis ben Habbus declares that in this attitude should the Andalusian
+be discovered (at his post)."
+
+Not many other objects in this substance can be instanced as the work of
+Spanish craftsmen of the sixteenth and succeeding centuries, or of the
+later-Gothic age immediately preceding. Among them are the pulpits of
+Santiago cathedral, made by Celma, an Aragonese, in 1563; the
+choir-screen (1574-1579) in the cathedral of Zaragoza, made by Juan
+Tomas Cela, also a native of Aragon; the gilt lecterns of Toledo
+cathedral, which are the work of Nicolas Vergara and his son; the Gothic
+lectern of the mosque of Cordova; the choir-lectern (1557) of Cuenca,
+made by Hernando de Arenas, who will also be remembered as having made
+the _reja_ of the same cathedral; and the octagonal gilt-bronze pulpits
+of Toledo, wrought by Francisco de Villalpando, as are the bas-reliefs
+(1564) upon the door of Lions, executed by the same craftsman from
+designs by Berruguete.
+
+These last-named pulpits are associated with a legend. Within this
+temple, once upon a time, rested the metal sepulchre of the great Don
+Alvaro de Luna, so constructed by his orders that upon the touching of a
+secret spring the statue of the Constable himself would rise into a
+kneeling posture throughout the celebration of the mass. His lifelong
+and relentless foe, the Infante Enrique of Aragon, tore up the tomb in
+1449; and from its fragments, superstition says, were made these
+pulpits.
+
+Spanish Renaissance door-knockers in bronze are often curious. Fifteen
+large bronze rings adorned with garlands, heads of lions and of eagles,
+or with the pair of columns and the motto PLUS OULTRE of Charles the
+Fifth, were formerly upon the pilasters of the roofless, semi-ruined
+palace of that emperor at Granada. Removed elsewhere for greater
+safety,[101] they will now be found among the couple of dozen
+curiosities preserved in a chamber of the Moorish royal residence of the
+Alhambra.
+
+  [101] Spaniards have a very scanty confidence in one another's honesty,
+        as well as in the competence of their police. Often, at Madrid,
+        and at this day, the porter of a house, as soon as it is dark,
+        unscrews the knockers from the downstairs door, and guards them
+        in his _conciergerie_ until the morning.
+
+Herewith I end my sketch of Spanish bronzes, without delaying to
+describe the tasteless _transparente_ behind the altar of Toledo
+cathedral, or the neo-classic, Frenchified productions of the reign of
+Charles the Third, such as the table-mountings of the Buen Retiro, or
+trifles from the silver factory of Antonio Martinez. At the Escorial,
+the shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa Forma and the altar-front of the
+pantheon of the kings of Spain, wrought by Fray Eugenio de la Cruz, Fray
+Juan de la Concepcion, and Fray Marcos de Perpignan, are meritorious
+objects of their time. But the history of Spanish bronzes properly ends
+with the Renaissance. This material, possibly from its cost, has not at
+any time been greatly popular in Spain. Wood, plain or painted, was
+preferred to bronze in nearly all her statuary. Her mediaeval and
+Renaissance _reja_ and _custodia_ makers can challenge all the world. So
+can her potters, armourers, leather-workers, and wood-carvers. But if
+we look for masterpieces in the art of shaping bronze, our eyes must
+turn to Italy, where, to astonish modern men, the powers of a Donatello
+or Ghiberti vibrate across all ages in the bas-reliefs of Saint Anthony
+at Padua, or in the gates of the Baptistery of Florence.
+
+
+
+
+                                  ARMS
+
+
+Lovers of the old-time crafts approach a fertile field in Spanish arms;
+for truly with this warworn land the sword and spear, obstinately
+substituted for the plough, seem to have grown well-nigh into her
+regular implements of daily bread-winning; and from long before the age
+of written chronicle her soil was planted with innumerable weapons of
+her wrangling tribesmen.
+
+The history of these ancient Spanish tribes is both obscure and
+complicated. If Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy, and other authors may be
+credited, the Celtic race invaded the Peninsula some seven centuries
+before the Christian era, crossing the river Ebro, founding settlements,
+and fusing with the natives into the composite people known henceforward
+as the Celtiberians. Thus strengthened, they extended over nearly all
+the land, and occupied, by a dominative or assimilative policy, the
+regions corresponding to the modern Andalusia, Portugal, Galicia, and
+the flat and central elevations of Castile.
+
+These Spanish tribes were ever quarrelling, and knew, in Strabo's words,
+"no entertainment save in horsemanship and in the exercise of arms."
+Quantities of their weapons have been found all over Spain, such as the
+heads of spears and arrows, or the blades of daggers, hatchets, knives,
+and swords. With these Iberian tribesmen, as with other peoples of the
+ancient world, the truly prehistoric age is that of stone; hence they
+advanced to bronze, and finally to iron. Beuter, the historian of
+Valencia, wrote in 1534 that near to the town of Carinena, in Aragon, on
+digging out some earthen mounds the excavators came upon enormous bones,
+flint lance and arrow heads, and knives the size of half an ordinary
+sword; all these in company with "many skulls transfixed by the said
+stones." In the collection at Madrid, formed by Don Emilio Rotondo y
+Nicolau, these primitive Spanish weapons number several thousands; and
+many more are in the National Museum.[102]
+
+  [102] According to Tubino, the existence of a prehistoric age of stone
+        was not suspected in Spain until the year 1755, when Mann y
+        Mendoza affirmed that a state of society had existed in the
+        Peninsula before the age of metals. Since then the Celtic remains
+        of Spain and Portugal have been investigated by many scientists,
+        including Assas, Mitjana, Murguia, and Casiano de Prado, who
+        discovered numbers of these weapons. Towards the middle of last
+        century Casiano de Prado, aided by the Frenchmen Verneuil and
+        Lartet, explored the neighbourhood of San Isidro on the
+        Manzanares, and found large quantities of arms and implements of
+        stone. Valuable service in the cause of prehistoric Spanish
+        archaeology has also been performed by Vilanova, Torrubia, and
+        Machado.
+
+Discoveries of ancient Spanish arms of bronze occur less often and in
+smaller quantities than those of stone or iron. Bronze hatchets,
+principally of the straight-edged class (_a bords droites_) have been
+found in Galicia and certain other provinces. Villa-amil y Castro
+describes a bronze dagger of curious workmanship, which was found in
+Galicia in 1869. The point of the blade is missing. If this were
+included, the length of the weapon would be about six inches.
+
+Other examples, now in the Madrid Museum, include two swords, two
+daggers, and two arrowheads. The swords, sharp-pointed, narrow in the
+blade, and used by preference for thrusting, were found not far from
+Calatayud--the ancient town renowned, as Roman Bilbilis, for weapons of
+incomparable temper. The daggers were probably used for fighting hand to
+hand.
+
+At the time of the Roman invasion we find, of course, the Spaniards
+using iron weapons. I shall not tax the patience of my readers by
+enumerating all these weapons. Their names are many, and the comments
+and descriptions of old authors which refer to them are constantly at
+variance. Nevertheless, the sword most popular with the Celtiberians at
+the period of the Roman conquest seems to have been a broad, two-handed
+weapon with a point and double edge, and therefore serviceable both for
+cutting and for thrusting. Another of the Celtiberian swords, called the
+_falcata_, was of a sickle shape. It terminated in the kind of point we
+commonly associate with a scimitar, and which is found to-day in Spanish
+knives produced at Albacete. One of these swords, in good condition, is
+in the National Museum. It has a single edge, upon the concave side of
+the blade, and measures rather less than two feet. Other weapons in
+common use among the Celtiberians were an iron dart--the _sannion_ or
+_soliferrea_; the javelin; the lance--a weapon so immemorially old in
+Spain that patriotic writers trace its origin to the prehistoric town of
+Lancia in Asturias; and the _trudes_ or _bidente_, a crescent blade
+mounted upon a pole, mentioned by Strabo and Saint Isidore, and
+identical with the cruel weapon used until about a quarter of a
+century ago for houghing coward cattle in the bull-ring.
+
+                          [Illustration: XXXIX
+                        CREST OF JOUSTING HELMET
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Thus, when the Romans entered Spain the natives of this country were
+experienced in the use of arms, and made their own from such materials
+as their own soil yielded. Their tempering was excellent, for Diodorus
+Siculus tells us that they had already discovered the secret of burying
+the metal in order that the moisture of the earth might eat away its
+baser portions. Besides the ancient Bilbilis in Aragon, a Spanish city
+famous for her faultless tempering of implements and weapons was Toledo.
+Martial,[103] the most illustrious son of Bilbilis, has sung the praises
+of the one; less celebrated poets, such as Gracio Falisco, of the
+other.[104] Even the armourers of Rome were found to be less skilful and
+successful swordsmiths than the Spaniards;[105] and so, before the
+second Punic War, the model or the models of the Spanish sword had been
+adopted by the Roman army.
+
+  [103] "_Gerone qui ferrum gelat._" This river, the purity and coldness
+        of whose waters lent, or so it is supposed, its virtues to the
+        steel, rolls past the walls of Calatayud, and is called in later
+        ages the Jalon.
+
+  [104] "_Imo Toletano praecingant ilia cultro._"
+
+  [105] "_Romani patriis gladiis depositis Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium
+        assumpserunt ... sed ferri bonitatem et fabrica solertiam imitari
+        non potuerunt._"--Suidas.
+
+Various of the native peoples of Iberia were distinguished by a special
+instrument or mode of fighting. Strabo says that the Iberians as a
+general rule employed two lances and a sword. Those of Lusitania were
+especially adroit in hurling darts. Each of their warriors kept a number
+of these darts contained within his shield. Upon the head they wore a
+helmet of a primitive pattern strapped beneath the chin. This helmet,
+called the _bacula_, protected all the wearer's face, and had a mitred
+shape, with three red feathers on the crest. Together with these arms,
+the Lusitanians used a copper-headed lance and the typical form of
+Celtiberian sword. More singular and celebrated in their mode of
+fighting were the Balearic islanders, who carried, through persistent
+exercise, the art of slinging stones and leaden plummets to the utmost
+limit of perfection. The beaches of these islands, we are told,
+abounded, then as now, in small, smooth pebbles, "weapons of Nature's
+own contrivance," rarely suited to the sling.[106] These slings were of
+three patterns, severally designed for near, far, and middling
+distances. The lead or stone projectile sometimes weighed a pound.
+Accordingly--so strenuous was their zeal to be unrivalled in the
+practice of this arm--even as little children the Baleares went without
+their dinner, till, with the formidable _funda_ in their hand, they
+struck the stick their parents planted for them in the soil. Pliny and
+Polybius, notwithstanding, state that the sling itself was not
+indigenous in this region, but imported from Ph[oe]nicia. However this
+may be, the islanders within a little time contributed to swell the
+power of the Roman legions.
+
+  [106] _Descripciones de las Islas Pithiusas y Baleares._ Madrid, 1787.
+
+The Visigoths continued using many of the Roman or Ibero-Roman arms.
+Nevertheless, the solid armour of the Romans, such as their greaves and
+thigh-pieces and breastplates, was now replaced by primitive chain-mail
+resembling scales of fishes. According to Saint Isidore, Procopius, and
+other writers, the favourite weapons of the Spanish Visigoths were the
+sword or _spatha_, long, broad-bladed, with a double edge; the hatchet,
+the bow, the sling, the lance, the scythe, the mace, the _pilum_ or
+javelin (used extensively in Spain throughout the Middle Ages),[107] the
+_dolon_, a dagger which concealed itself within a wooden staff, and
+took the name of "treacherous" or "wily" from this circumstance; and the
+_conto_, a keenly pointed pike. We also find among the military engines
+of the Visigoths the _balista_, for hurling stones and darts of large
+size, and the _ariete_ or battering-ram, constructed from a gnarled and
+powerful tree-trunk braced with iron and suspended by a cable. Their
+defensive body-armour consisted of a coat of mail composed of bronze or
+iron scales, and called the _loriga_ or _perpunte_. This was worn above
+the _thorachomachus_, a kind of tunic made of felt, in order to shield
+the body from the roughness of the mail. Upon their heads they wore an
+ample helmet.
+
+  [107] A javelin made throughout of iron was found in Spain some years
+        ago, completely doubled up, so as to admit of its being thrust
+        into a burial urn. The javelin in question is now in the Madrid
+        museum, and a similar weapon may be seen in the provincial museum
+        of Granada.
+
+A fragment of stone carving preserved in Seville museum shows us two
+Visigothic Spanish warriors who wear a tunic and helmet of a simple
+pattern, and carry a two-edged sword and a large shield. Garcia Llanso
+says, however, that the nobles of this people wore close-fitting mail
+tunics covered with steel scales, a kind of bronze bassinet, tight
+breeches, and high boots, and carried, besides the sword which was slung
+from their belts, a large, oval shield.[108]
+
+  [108] _Historia General del Arte_: Garcia Llanso; _Armas_, pp. 439, 440.
+
+                           [Illustration: XL
+                          SPANISH CROSSBOWMAN
+             (_Late 15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+From about the time of the Moorish invasion, the changes in the arms and
+armour of the Spaniards coincided in the main with those in other parts
+of western Europe. Nevertheless, as late as the eleventh century the
+Spanish sword retained the characteristic which had endeared it to the
+Roman legionaries--namely, a hilt of small dimensions and a broad and
+shortish blade. In course of time the blade grows narrower and begins to
+taper towards the point. The _quillons_ or crossbars (Spanish
+_arriaces_, from the Arabic _arrias_, a sword-hilt) were originally
+straight or semicircular, and ended in a knob (_manzana_, literally
+"apple"; Latin _pomum_, English _pommel_). Thus, in the _Poem of the
+Cid_ we find the verse:--
+
+           "_Las manzanas e los arriaces todos de oro son._"
+
+Throughout these early times the scabbard was of wood lined with leather
+or with velvet, and strengthened and adorned with leather bands; but
+when the owner was of high estate, it often bore enamels in the
+_cloisonne_ style; that is, with patches of the coloured, vitreous
+substance bordered and fastened in by metal wire. In Spain this style,
+undoubtedly of foreign origin, was superseded in the thirteenth century
+by _champleve_ enamelling, in which the enamel lies within a hollowed
+ground.
+
+Spanish mediaeval weapons down to the fourteenth century are specified in
+the _fuero_ of Caceres and other documents contemporary with their use.
+Next always in importance to the sword we find the hatchet, lance,
+crossbow, and mace. Montaner's _Chronicle of the Kings of Aragon_ tells
+us that the sovereign, mace in hand, dealt one of his enemies "such a
+blow upon his iron hat that his brains came oozing out at his ears."
+Covarrubias mentions a dart-shaped missile called the _azcona_--a word
+which some authorities derive from the Arabic, and others from the
+Basque _gascona_, an arm employed by the natives of Gascony. The former
+derivation seems the likelier. The _fuero_ of Caceres mentions the
+_taragulo_, described by the Count of Clonard as a kind of dagger; and
+at the close of the thirteenth century appears in Spain the poniard,
+which was called among the Germans _Panzerbrecher_, or "breaker of
+cuirasses," and among the French the _misericorde_.
+
+The _fuero_ of Caceres tells us, furthermore, what was the regular
+equipment of the Spanish foot and mounted soldier of that period. "Each
+horseman shall go forth to battle with a shield, a lance, a sword, and
+spurs; and he that carries not all these shall pay each time five sheep
+wherewith to feed the soldiers.... Each mounted man or pawn that
+trotteth not or runneth not to quit his town or village as he hears the
+call,--the first shall have his horse's tail cut off; the other shall
+have his beard clipped."
+
+Defensive arms included various kinds of coverings for the head; the
+_loriga_ or covering for the body, the _calcias_ or covering for the
+legs, and the shield.
+
+The _loriga_ (Latin _lorica_) was the ordinary hauberk or shirt of mail,
+such as was worn all over military Europe, made of rings or scales sewed
+strongly on a linen or leather under-tunic consisting of a single piece,
+and reaching to the knee. The _Gran Conquista de Ultramar_ of Alfonso el
+Sabio also informs us that it was tied at certain openings known as
+_ventanas_ ("windows"), and that the collar of the tunic was called the
+_gorguera_. The resistance of the Spanish _loriga_ to a pointed weapon
+does not seem to have been great, for the Chronicle of the Monk of Silos
+says that at the siege of Viseo the arrows of the Moorish bowmen went
+through the triple _lorigas_ of their foe.
+
+Towards the twelfth century the custom arose of wearing over the coat of
+mail a loose, sleeveless frock (the _Waffenrock_ of Germany), woven of
+linen or some other light material, painted or embroidered with the
+owner's arms. As the Count of Clonard observes, it is clearly this kind
+of frock that is referred to in the following passage of the _Leyes de
+Partida_: "For some (of the knights) placed upon the armour carried by
+themselves and by their horses,[109] signs that were different one from
+another, in order to be known thereby; while others placed them on their
+heads, or on their helmets."
+
+  [109] The horse was also covered with a _loriga_, on which, from about
+        the twelfth century, were thrown the decorative trappings of
+        _cendal_ or thin silk, painted or embroidered with the warrior's
+        arms.
+
+                           [Illustration: XLI
+                      THE BATTLE OF LA HIGUERUELA
+            (_Wall painting. Hall of Battles, El Escorial_)]
+
+The Normans used a form of hauberk with attached mail-stockings. In
+Spain we find in lieu of this leg-covering, the Roman _calcia_ (Latin
+_caliga_), extending from the foot to just below the thigh, and
+subsequently called the _brafonera_.[110] This was, in fact, a separate
+mail-stocking, made of closely interlacing steel rings, and worn above
+the leather boots or _trebuqueras_.
+
+  [110]        "_Calzo las brafoneras que eran bien obradas
+                Con sortijas de acero, sabet bien enlazadas;
+                Asi eran presas e bien trabadas,
+                Que semejaban calzas de las tiendas taiadas._"
+                                                     _Poem of the Cid._
+
+The Spanish _escudo_ or shield was usually made of wood covered with
+leather, and painted with the arms or the distinguishing emblem of its
+lord. Sometimes it was made of parchment. Thus the Chronicle of the Cid
+informs us that this hero after death was equipped with "a painted
+parchment helm and with a shield in the same wise." Another form of
+Spanish shield, the _adarga_ (_atareca_, _atarca_; Arabic _ad-darka_, to
+hold upon the arm), of which I shall subsequently notice specimens in
+the Royal Armoury, was commonly in the shape of a rough oval or of a
+heart, and made of various folds of leather sewn and glued together. The
+Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh speaks of a certain famine which broke
+out among the Spanish troops, and caused them such privation that "they
+chewed the leather of their shields."[111]
+
+  [111] Count of Clonard, _op. cit._
+
+The battle headgear of this people passed through many changes. "The
+helmet of the eighth century," says the Count of Clonard, "was the same
+which had been used by the Cantabrians and Vascones before the general
+peace proclaimed by Augustus Caesar. Helmets of this design are engraved
+upon the medals (reproduced by Florez) of the imperial legate Publius
+Carisius. They covered the entire head and face, leaving only two holes
+for the eyes, as we see upon the carved stone fragments in relief at the
+door of the church of San Pedro de Villanueva, representing the struggle
+of King Froila with a bear."
+
+Another form of helmet which the Spaniards began to use about this time
+was the _almofar_ (Arabic _al-mejfar_), made of iron scales. It covered
+all the head, with the exception of the eyes, nose, and mouth, and
+corresponds to the _camail_ of the Normans. Beneath it was worn the
+linen _cofia_, a kind of bag or cap in which the warrior gathered up his
+hair. After about another century a round or conical iron helmet
+(_capacete_), fitted with cheek-pieces, was superposed on the _almofar_
+and fastened round the chin with straps. The _capacete_ of a noble was
+often adorned with precious stones and coronets of pure gold, while a
+spike projecting from the top was tipped with a large carbuncle, in
+order to catch and to reflect the flashing sunbeams.
+
+The substitution for this spike of multiform and multicolor figures or
+devices dates from a later age. The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh
+describes as something altogether novel and surprising, the crests upon
+the helmets of the foreign knights who flocked, in 1343, to Algeciras to
+aid the cause of Christianity against the Moor. "All of them," says this
+narrative, "placed their helmets at the door of their dwellings,
+supporting them on stout and lofty staves; and the figures on the
+helmets were of many kinds. On some was the figure of a lion; on others
+that of a wolf, or ass's head, or ox, or dog, or divers other beasts;
+while others bore the likeness of the heads of men; faces, beards, and
+all. Others, too, had wings as those of eagles or of crows; and so,
+between these various kinds there were in all as many as six hundred
+helmets."
+
+This brings us to the celebrated helmet or _cimera_ (Plate xxxix.), now
+in the Royal Armoury of Madrid, believed till recently to have belonged
+to Jayme the First, conqueror of Palma and Valencia, and the greatest,
+both in spirit and in stature, of the old-time kings of Aragon.
+
+Such part of this interesting helmet as is left consists of two pieces,
+one of them resting loosely on the other. Baron de las Cuatro Torres
+infers, from a detail which will presently be noted, that the lower of
+these two pieces is not original; and his opinion was shared by the
+Count of Valencia de Don Juan, who, notwithstanding, thought the
+spurious part to be coeval with the actual crest. The upper part
+consists of a fragment of a helm, made, like some flimsy theatre
+property, of linen, card, and parchment, and surmounted with the figure
+of the mythical monster known in the Lemosin language as the
+_drac-pennat_, or winged dragon, which formed, conjointly with the royal
+crown, the emblem or device of all the Aragonese sovereigns from Pedro
+the Fourth to Ferdinand the Second.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLII
+                   PARADE HARNESS OF PHILIP THE THIRD
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+There is, however, no reason to doubt the helmet's authenticity. It is
+known to have remained for centuries at Palma, in the Balearics, where
+it was worn upon the day of Saint Sylvester in each year, by a person
+who walked in the procession of the _Standart_ to celebrate the capture
+of the city by Don Jayme. This would explain the lower piece contrived
+and added to the crest itself, in order to adjust the incomplete and
+upper portion to the subsequent wearer's head. The helmet as originally
+made was meant for tourneying only, and is therefore fashioned, not of
+metal, but of the frail theatrical materials I have stated. Copper and
+wood, says Viollet-le-Duc, were also used in making these objects. The
+earliest wearer of the helm cannot have been Don Jayme. Baron de las
+Cuatro Torres remarks that on an Aragonese coin of the reign of Pedro
+the Fourth, the monarch is wearing on his head something which looks
+identical with this _cimera_.[112] Demay has further told us that the
+vogue of such _cimeras_, whose principal purpose was to distinguish
+seigniories, lasted from 1289 till the introduction of movable visors at
+the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century. The
+present helmet, therefore, probably belonged to Don Pedro the Fourth of
+Aragon ("the Ceremonious"), and was made at some time in his
+reign--that is, between 1335 and 1387. A document has been discovered in
+which this monarch's son, Don Martin of Aragon, commands that year by
+year his own helmet, "_nostram emprissiam sive cimbram_," together with
+the banner of Jayme the Conqueror, is to be publicly exhibited in
+commemoration of the capture of Majorca. Therefore we may conclude from
+these important facts that here is the crest of a tourneying helmet
+which belonged either to Don Pedro the Fourth of Aragon, or else to
+either of, or possibly both, his sons, Don Juan and Don Martin.
+
+  [112] _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_; Nos. 16 and 17.
+
+The changes which occur in Spanish arms and armour between the
+fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries keep pace, upon the whole, with
+those in other parts of Europe. It is, however, opportune to notice how
+the Spanish armies of this time were organized. Their regular cavalry
+consisted of: (1) the force directly mustered by the king and under his
+immediate leadership; (2) the mounted burghers who defrayed the whole or
+part of their expenses, being in certain instances assisted by a stipend
+which had been created by municipal and local _fueros_; (3) the knights
+belonging to the military orders; and (4) the barons, together with the
+men these last were called upon, obedient to the summons of the royal
+_mandadero_ (messenger), to mount, equip, provision, and bring to war
+with them. Such was the heavy cavalry of later mediaeval Spain. A lighter
+class, said by the Count of Clonard to have been recruited from the
+southern regions of the land, was known as _alfaraces_, _almogavares_,
+or _omes de la gineta_.
+
+These latter lived in frugal fashion. Water was their only drink; bread
+and the roots of plants their only food. Their clothing, too, was of the
+slightest, consisting merely of a shirt, high boots, and a kind of net
+upon the head. They wore no armour, and carried as their only weapons an
+_azagaya_ and a lance. Their principal value was in skirmishing.
+
+The infantry were also of two kinds. The first, collective or
+stipendiary, was levied by the towns and cities, and from them received
+its maintenance. The second was the _almogavares_, who served for
+scouting, like their mounted comrades of the same denomination. The
+stipendiary or regular troops proceeded chiefly from the northern
+provinces--Alava, Guipuzcoa, the Asturias, and the mountains of Leon,
+and carried commonly the lance, sword, sling, crossbow, and the
+_azagaya_--this last a dart-shaped missile borrowed from the Berber
+tribesmen,--the ancient Moorish _azgaya_, the modern _assagai_ or
+_assegai_ of Zululand.[113]
+
+  [113] One of these weapons may be seen in the Royal Armoury (No. I. 95).
+        It is made of iron covered with leather, and has a laurel-shaped
+        blade with sharpened edges. The other end consists of two
+        projecting pieces of the metal, shaped to resemble the plumes of
+        an arrow. The length of this arm is 5 feet 8 inches.
+
+In a country which was plunged in ruinous and almost unremitting
+internecine strife; which was (and is) inherently averse to commerce or
+to agriculture; and where the bulk of all the national wealth was either
+locked away in churches and in convents, or in the coffers of great
+nobles who were frequently as wealthy as, or even wealthier than, the
+Crown, the armour of the common mediaeval Spanish soldier consisted of
+the plain and necessary parts and nothing more. The aristocracy, upon
+the other hand, often adorned their battle-harness with the finest gold
+and silver work, and studded it with precious stones. Even the esquires
+would sometimes imitate their masters in this costly mode. "We command,"
+said Juan the First in one of his pragmatics dating from the end of the
+fourteenth century, "that no shield-bearer shall carry cloth of gold or
+any manner of gold ornament upon his trappings, scarf, or saddle; or
+on his badge or arms, excepting only on the edges of his bassinet and
+his cuisses, together with the bit and poitral of his horse, which may
+be gilded."
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIII
+                      MOORISH CROSSBOW AND STIRRUP
+                         (_Museum of Granada_)]
+
+It is also evident from Royal Letters of this time, that the kings of
+Spain depended very largely for the flower of their forces on the
+private fortune or resources of the Spanish noblemen or even commoners;
+nor did they ever hesitate to turn these means of other people to their
+own particular good. The Ordinance of Juan the First, dated Segovia,
+1390, commands that, "Every man who possesses 20,000 _maravedis_ and
+upward shall have his proper set of harness, habergeons and
+scale-pieces, and lappet-piece, cuisses and vantbrasses, bassinet,
+camail, and war-cap[114] with its gorget; or else a helmet, together
+with sword and dagger, glaive and battle-axe. And whoso possesses 3000
+_maravedis_ and upward shall have his lance and javelin and shield, his
+lappet-piece and coat of mail, and iron bassinet without a camail, and a
+_capellina_, together with his sword, _estoque_, and knife. And whoso
+has between 2000 and 3000 _maravedis_ shall have his lance and sword or
+_estoque_ and knife, or a bassinet or _capellina_, together with a
+shield. And whoso has from 600 to 2000 _maravedis_ shall have a crossbow
+with its nut and cord and stirrup, quiver and strap, and three dozen
+shafts. And whoso has from 400 to 600 _maravedis_ shall have a lance, a
+javelin, and a shield. And whoso has 400 _maravedis_ shall have a
+javelin and a lance."
+
+  [114] _Capellina_. The Count of Clonard says that this was in the shape
+        of half a lemon, and fitted with a visor with a cutting edge.
+
+The wealthier classes responded lavishly to this command. Describing the
+battle of Olmedo and the forces of Don Alvaro de Luna sent against the
+Navarrese, the chronicle of the Constable declares that among his entire
+host could hardly have been found a single cavalier whose horse was not
+covered with trappings, and its neck with mail. "For some there were
+that carried divers figures painted on the aforesaid trappings, and
+others that bore upon their helmets jewels that were a token from their
+mistresses. And others carried gold or silver bells suspended from their
+horses' necks by thick chains; or plates upon their helmets studded with
+precious stones, or small targes richly garnished with strange figures
+and devices. Nor was there less variety in the crests upon their
+helmets; for some bore likenesses of savage beasts, and others plumes of
+various colours; while others carried but a plume or two upon their
+helmet crest, like unto those upon the forehead of their horses."
+
+The fifteenth century is often called in Spain her golden age of
+arms--not in the sense that she invented anything new relating to this
+craft, but that her warriors were more fully and more frequently
+equipped with what had been imported from elsewhere. As in the case of
+crested helmets, foreign initiative brought about the substitution of
+plate or German armour--developed from the chain armour and the coat of
+mail--for the earlier sets of disconnected pieces. Possibly, as a
+chronicle which describes the Englishmen and Gascons who were present at
+the siege of Lerma in 1334 would seem to indicate, it was in consequence
+of this direct association with the foreigner that the older form of
+Spanish harness yielded to the new. However this may be, plate armour
+certainly appeared in Spain at some time in the fourteenth century, and
+grew in vogue throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries.
+Suits of armour worn by Spanish pikemen and crossbowmen of this period
+may be profitably studied in the Royal Armoury (Plate xl.); and the same
+harness is reproduced in the choir-stalls of Toledo cathedral, carved by
+Maestre Rodrigo in 1495. It is also useful to consult the prolix
+description of the _Passo Honroso_ (1433) of Suero de Quinones, held at
+the bridge of Orbigo, as well as the painting of the battle of La
+Higueruela (Plate xli.) in the Sala de las Batallas of the Escorial. We
+find from these authoritative sources that Spanish harness then
+consisted of the war-hat or _capacete_, with its _barbote_ or piece to
+cover the mouth and cheeks, and fringe of mail (_mantillos_) to protect
+the neck: the _coracina_ or korazin of tinned steel plates;[115] the
+coat of mail; armlets and gauntlets; leg-pieces with closed greaves; and
+steel-pointed mail shoes.
+
+  [115] The following armourers' marks are stamped on various korazins in
+        the Royal Armoury, made in Aragon and dating from the fifteenth
+        century:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Spanish man-at-arms of the sixteenth century is well described by
+Martin de Eguiluz, in his book, _Milicia, Discursos, y Regla Militar_.
+"The man is mounted and bears a lance. His head is covered with a
+visored helmet. He wears a double breastplate, of which the outer piece
+is called _volante_. His thighs are guarded by cuisses, his legs by
+greaves, and his feet by shoes of mail or iron. His horse's face, neck,
+breast, and haunches are covered with iron or with doubled leather.
+These coverings are called _bardas_, and the horses protected by them
+_bardados_, of which each man-at-arms is called upon to possess two."
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIV
+                             MOORISH SWORD
+                    (_Casa de los Tiros, Granada_)]
+
+These plainer sets of war-harness for horses were made in Spain. The
+costlier bards, whether for war or tournament, were made in Italy and
+Germany, and often match the outfit of the rider in the splendour and
+luxuriance of their decoration. Striking examples of these bards are in
+the Royal Armoury, including one (Plate xlii.) which formerly belonged
+to Philip the Third. Probably it is the same referred to in the
+manuscript account of Valladolid from which I have already quoted
+curious notices of other crafts. Speaking of the Duke of Lerma in 1605,
+this narrative says; "He rode a beautiful horse with richly decorated
+arms and gold-embroidered bard, fringed, and with medallions in relief.
+The trappings, reaching to the ground, were of black velvet covered with
+silver plates as large as dinner-plates, and others of a smaller size
+that represented arms and war-trophies, all of them gilt, and studded
+with precious stones. I heard say that this armour which the Duke now
+wore, had once belonged to the Emperor, and is now the King's."[116]
+
+  [116] My theory that this harness and the one in the Royal Armoury are
+        the same is strengthened by the official inventory, which
+        specifies "a band of gold and silver, striped, and with devices
+        in relief, studded with lapis lazuli, and yellow gems and luminous
+        crystals." The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that this fine
+        outfit, except the portions which are represented in the plate,
+        was mutilated and dispersed in later years, and that he has
+        discovered fragments in the museums of Paris and Vienna, and in
+        the collection of Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild.
+
+The crossbow was an arm of great importance from about the eleventh
+century until the seventeenth, and Spain, throughout the latter of these
+centuries, was celebrated for their manufacture. Roquetas, a Catalan,
+"master-maker of crossbows," constructed them of steel, so skilfully and
+finely that they could be carried concealed inside the sleeve of a coat,
+and discharged without awaking the suspicion of the victim. A letter of
+Rene of Anjou, quoted by the Count of Valencia de Don Juan, also refers
+to the skill of the Catalans in making crossbows, and mentions one of
+these weapons constructed by "Saracen," of Barcelona, "who refuses to
+teach his craft to Christians." The letter further states that this arm
+was of a curious shape, and that, "despite its small dimensions, it
+carries to a greater distance than any other I have yet possessed."
+
+A handsome Moorish crossbow, inlaid with bronze (Plate xliii.), exists
+in the provincial museum of Granada. The Royal Armoury has no example of
+the rare form of crossbow fitted with wheeled gear, but all the commoner
+kinds employed for hunting or for war are represented here, including
+those with the _armatoste_ or goat's-foot lever, stirruped crossbows,
+and those which have the _torno_ or windlass (French _cranequin_).
+Demmin appends the following note to an illustration in his handbook of
+a crossbow with a goat's-foot lever fixed to the stock:--"A similar
+weapon in ironwood, sixteenth century, belonged to Ferdinand the First,
+proved by the inscription on the bow: DOM FERNANDO REI DE ROMANO,
+followed by four Golden Fleeces. It bears the name of the Spanish
+armourer Juan Deneinas. This valuable crossbow once belonged to M.
+Spengel, at Munich, but it is at present in the collection of the Count
+of Nieuwerkerke."
+
+There is also in the Royal Armoury a crossbow of the scarcer kind known
+in Spanish as _ballestas de palo_, in which the gaffle is not of steel,
+but put together from slips of springy woods, including yew. The wings
+are tipped with horn, and traces of heraldic and Renaissance decoration,
+painted on parchment, yet remain upon the weapon. Other portions are
+inlaid. Except for the erasure of the painting, this arm is splendidly
+preserved, and still retains its double cord, nut, and pins, together
+with the separate lever.
+
+Another interesting crossbow in this armoury belonged to Charles the
+Fifth, who used it for the chase. It has a _verja_ or yard of steel
+engraved with the letter C four times repeated and surmounted by a
+crown, and bears the inscription, PRO . IMPERATORE . SEMPER . AVGVSTO .
+PLVS . VLTRA ., together with . IV DE LA FVETE ., for Juan de la
+Fuente, the name of a celebrated maker of these parts of a crossbow. The
+shaft (_tablero_), ornamented in bone and iron, is from the hand of
+another master, Juan Hernandez, whose signature is IO: HRZ. The Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan supposed that this was the one crossbow which
+Charles took with him to the rustic solitude of Yuste, and which is
+mentioned in a document at Simancas as "a crossbow with its gear and
+gaffles (it is in His Majesty's possession, but he has not paid for
+it)."
+
+                           [Illustration: XLV
+                       SWORD OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+                    (_Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+Hitherto I have traced the war-equipment of the Spanish Christians only.
+In the early period of Mohammedan rule, the conquerors used a simple
+dress for war, consisting of the _capacete_ or _almofar_ for the head,
+secured by a chain beneath the chin and covered by a piece of cloth
+called _schasch_, hanging to just below the shoulders; a wide sleeveless
+tunic; a shirt of mail; tight breeches, and leather shoes. Their weapons
+were the lance and sword. The foot-soldiery wore the _djobba_, a
+tight-sleeved tunic of white wool, bound to the body by a scarf, and
+leather shoes, and carried as their arms a _capacete_ of beaten iron,
+without a crest or cheek-pieces; a large round shield with its
+projecting umbo; and either a lance, or a double-edged and double-handed
+sword. Such are the details represented in the _Codex of the
+Apocalypse_, preserved in the cathedral of Gerona. As time progressed,
+the weapons and defensive armour of these Spanish Moors grew more
+luxurious and ornate, being often decorated with enamels, precious
+stones, or inlaid metals such as silver, gold, and bronze. Prominent
+centres of this industry were Murcia, Zaragoza, and Toledo, which are
+even said to have surpassed Damascus. Andalusia, too, was celebrated for
+her gold-inlaid cuirasses and coats of mail; while, according to El
+Idrisi, the town of Jativa enjoyed a widespread fame for every kind of
+decorative armour.[117]
+
+  [117] _Historia General del Arte_: Garcia Llanso; _Armas_; pp. 440, 441.
+
+The military outfit of the Spanish Moors was, therefore, much the same
+as that of Christian Spain. Toledo under Muslim rule continued to be
+famous for her swords. Moorish Seville, Ronda, and Valencia were also
+favourably known for weapons, household knives, and scissors. Cutlery in
+the Moorish style is still produced in certain parts of eastern Spain,
+and in his _History of the Mohammedan Dynasties_ of this country,
+Gayangos tells us of a knife which bore upon one side of the blade the
+inscription in Arabic characters, "_With the help of God I will inflict
+death upon thy adversary_," and upon the other side, in Castilian, the
+words, "_Knife-factory of Antonio Gonzalez. Albacete, 1705._"
+
+The primitive Spanish-Moorish sword was an arm of moderate breadth used
+both for cutting and for thrusting. As time went on, this people
+gradually adopted swords of Spanish make or pattern, such as the
+ponderous _brandimartes_ and _montantes_ made for wielding with both
+hands. The Granadino writer Aben Said complains that the adoption of the
+arms, and even of the costume of the Spanish Christians, was prevalent
+at Granada in the thirteenth century. "Sultans and soldiers alike," he
+said, "dress in the manner of the Christians, even to their arms and
+armour, crimson cloaks, standards, and saddlery. They wield in battle a
+shield and a long lance,[118] which serves them to attack with; nor do
+they seem to care for Arab bows or maces, but prefer to use the Frankish
+ones."
+
+  [118] This weapon can have been no other than the typical Iberian lance.
+
+Nevertheless, the warriors of Granada carried several weapons which were
+not of Christian origin. The tribe of the Beni-Merines brought across
+from Africa a kind of sword called often in the Christian chronicles the
+_espada gineta_, used principally, as we gather from its name, by those
+addicted to the Moorish mode of horsemanship, or riding with short
+stirrups. The use of it extended later to the Christian Spaniards, and
+it is said to have contributed in later times to the victory of the
+Spanish army at Pavia. Other swords in use among the Granadinos were the
+_alfange_, the _chifarra_, the _chifarote_, and the _nammexi_. The last
+of these is described in an old dictionary of the Valencian and
+Castilian languages as a kind of scimitar, although Quatremere and
+Fleischer believe it to have been a dagger.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVI
+                       DAGGER OF BOABDIL EL CHICO
+                    (_Museum of Artillery, Madrid_)]
+
+Another author who describes the arms and armour of the Granadinos is
+Al-Jattib, who says in his _Splendour of the New Moon_; "There are in
+Granada two kinds of soldiery--those of Al-Andalus and those of Africa.
+Their leader is a prince of royal blood, or some exalted personage at
+court. Formerly they used the Christian arms; that is, ample coats of
+mail, heavy shields, thick iron helmets, lances with broad points, and
+insecure saddles.... Now they have discarded that equipment, and are
+beginning to use short cuirasses, light helmets, Arab saddles, leather
+shields, and thin lances." Of the African troops the same historian
+adds; "Their weapons for attacking are spears, either short or long,
+which they propel by pressing with the finger. These arms they call
+_marasas_; but for daily exercise they use the European bow."
+
+Descriptions of the Spanish-Moorish swords inserted in the chronicles
+and poems of the Middle Ages, together with the few examples that have
+been preserved until our time, enable us to form an accurate idea of the
+shape and decoration of these weapons generally. Those of the sultans
+and the Muslim aristocracy were, as a rule, profusely ornamented, either
+with precious stones or with enamels, or else with delicate and lavish
+damascening, or with the characteristic Oriental _ataujia_-work of gold
+and silver inlay. Inscriptions, too, were freely used upon the hilt or
+scabbard. Thus we are told that the great Almanzor kept for daily use a
+sword which bore the legend; "_Strive in warfare till ye win great
+victories. Battle with the infidels till ye win them over to Islam_";
+and similar inscriptions may be quoted in great number. But four or five
+of these magnificent arms have proved superior to the ravages of time,
+and naturally tell us more than any weapons whose renown survives in
+written records merely. Among such extant Spanish-Moorish swords are two
+attributed respectively to Aliatar and Abindarraez; two others which are
+known to have belonged to the last ill-fated monarch of the Moors of
+Spain, Boabdil el Chico; and another, considered to have also been
+Boabdil's property, now in possession of the Marquises of Campotejar,
+owners of the Generalife and of the Casa de los Tiros at Granada.
+
+The "sword of Aliatar," preserved in the Museum of Artillery at Madrid,
+is said to have been wrested from the clenched hand of that warrior,
+father-in-law of Boabdil and governor of Loja, as his corpse was swept
+away down stream after the rout of the Moorish expedition at Lucena.
+This arm is richly damascened as well as decorated with the
+characteristic _ataujia_. The centre of the hilt is made of ivory, and
+the pommel and crossbars--which latter terminate in elephants' heads
+with slightly upturned trunks--of damascened and inlaid iron, ornamented
+here and there with _ataujia_. Part of the blade--probably about an
+eighth--is broken off. The sheath has disappeared.
+
+An idle superstition has attributed the so-called "sword of Abindarraez"
+to the hero of the well-known sixteenth-century romance entitled _The
+Abencerraje and the Beautiful Jarifa._ This weapon, which for many years
+was in possession of the Narvaez family, belongs at present to the
+Marquis of La Vega de Armijo. The decoration is not particularly rich,
+and part of it is worn away; but the narrow blade is still engraved
+with figures or portraits from the story which has given the sword its
+name.
+
+The sword (Pl. xliv.) belonging to the Marquises of Campotejar, and
+which is preserved in the Casa de los Tiros at Granada, bears some
+resemblance to the "sword of Aliatar," and has about the same
+dimensions. Although it is commonly believed that Boabdil was the
+original owner of this sword, Gomez Moreno considers that more probably
+it belonged to one of the Moorish princes of Almeria. The handle and
+crossbars, as well as the shape of the sheath, are silver-gilt, covered
+with minute arabesque ornamentation forming leaves and stems, and
+further decorated with enamel. The sheath is of Morocco leather worked
+with silver thread. The crossbars, curving abruptly down,[119] terminate
+in elephants' trunks boldly upturned towards the pommel. The blade is
+stamped with a Toledo mark consisting of Castilian letters and a
+pomegranate.
+
+  [119] In the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, this characteristically
+        eastern downward curve of the crossbars grew to be popular even
+        with the Christian Spaniards, as we observe from the swords of
+        Ferdinand himself, preserved in the Royal Armoury at Madrid, and
+        the Chapel Royal of the cathedral of Granada.
+
+But the most important, interesting, and beautiful specimens of
+Spanish-Moorish arms preserved to-day are those which were captured from
+Boabdil at the battle of Lucena (1482), when the monarch was made
+prisoner by the young Alcaide de los Donceles, Don Diego Fernandez de
+Cordova. A manuscript _History of the House of Cordova_, quoted by
+Eguilaz Yanguas,[120] says that upon the day in question, irretrievably
+disastrous to the Moorish cause in Spain, Boabdil carried "a short,
+silver-handled sword, a damascened dagger, and a lance and buckler of
+great strength" (Plates xlv. and xlvi.). These arms, together with
+another and a larger sword (_montante_ or _estoque real_) for wielding
+with both hands, and certain articles of Boabdil's clothing, continued
+in the captor's family for centuries, and were, some years ago,
+presented by the Marquises of Villaseca, his direct descendants, to the
+National Museum of Artillery.
+
+  [120] _Las Pinturas de la Alhambra_, p. 15.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLVII
+                             MOORISH SWORD
+                   (_Hilt and upper part of sheath_)]
+
+The smaller or _gineta_ sword[121] is handsomer and more important
+than the large _estoque_. The crossbars, as we find so often in weapons
+of this character and date, are bent abruptly down, and then curve up in
+a design of dragons' heads--the well-known emblem of the Nasrite sultans
+of Granada. Part of the handle is of solid gold adorned with crimson,
+white, and blue enamel distributed about the top and bottom of the hilt,
+the pommel, and the _arriaces_ or crossbars. The centre of the hilt
+consists of ivory, richly carved. On either side of it are two octagonal
+intersecting figures, bearing upon one side, in semi-Cufic characters,
+the words, "_Achieve thy aim_," and on the other, "_in preserving his_
+(_i.e._ the owner's) _life_." Round the upper border of the ivory is
+carved the sentence; "_In the name of God; the power belongs to Him, and
+there is no Divinity but He. Happiness proceeds from God alone_"; and
+round the lower border, "_The marvellous belongs to God. Assuredly at
+the outset the ignorant do not know their God; seeing that error is
+their custom._"
+
+  [121] The Count of Valencia de Don Juan states that seven
+        Hispano-Moresque _gineta_ swords are known to exist to-day: the
+        one vwhich is here described, and those belonging to the Marquises
+        of Viana and Pallavicino, Baron de Sangarren, the Duke of Dino,
+        Senor Sanchez Toscano, the archaeological museum at Madrid, the
+        museum of Cassel in Germany, and the national library at Paris, A
+        _gineta_ sword in the Madrid Armoury popularly attributed to
+        Boabdil can never have belonged to him. The hilt is modern, and
+        the blade proceeds from Barbary.
+
+Other inscriptions of a sacred character, combined with delicate
+_ataujia_-work, are on the pommel and the upper portion of the hilt; but
+it has been remarked that, although the entire decoration is amazingly
+elaborate and rich, these inscriptions nowhere indicate that the weapon
+belonged to a personage of royal blood.
+
+The sheath of this most sumptuous arm is also lavishly adorned with
+silver and enamel on a purple leather ground. The blade is of a later
+date than either sheath or hilt, and bears the letter S, believed to be
+the mark of Alonso Sahagun the elder, of Toledo. The total length of
+this weapon is thirty-nine inches; and Gayangos declares that it was
+worn suspended by a belt between the shoulders.[122]
+
+  [122] A number of Moorish swords are mentioned in the inventory,
+        compiled in 1560, of the Dukes of Alburquerque. One is
+        particularly interesting. It is described as "a Moorish _gineta_
+        sword which belongs to the Count of Monteagudo, and is pawned for
+        six thousand _maravedis_. The sheath is of bay leather, worked in
+        gold thread. The chape and fittings are of silver, decorated with
+        green, blue, purple, and white enamel. There are two serpents'
+        heads upon the fitting, together with the figure of a monster
+        worked in gold thread on a little plate, and two large scarlet
+        tassels: the little plate has three ends of the same enamel and a
+        silver-gilt buckle." A note at the margin adds; "The chape is
+        wanting, and is owed us by the Marquis of Comares, who lost it at
+        the cane-play at Madrid."
+
+        The two serpents' heads formed part of the arms of the Alahmar
+        sultans of Granada; so that from this and from the richness of
+        this weapon we may infer that it had once belonged to Mussulman
+        royalty. The same inventory describes "a Moorish scimitar with
+        gilded hilt; the cross and pommel, and a great part of the
+        scimitar itself, being of gilded _ataujia_ work. The sheath is
+        green inside, and black and gilt upon the face; and hanging from
+        the hilt is a gold and purple cord with a button and a black
+        tassel."
+
+The large _montante_ which belonged to the same ill-fated monarch has a
+cylindrical hilt, narrower in the centre of the handle than at either
+end. This hilt is made of steel inlaid with _laceria_ or network
+ornament in ivory. In a small shield within the decoration of the
+pommel, appear the words "_To God_"; and in the centre of the handle,
+the familiar motto of the Nasrite sultans of Granada; "_The only
+Conqueror is God._"
+
+Part of the blade is broken off. That which is left is broad and
+straight, with two grooves (one of which extends about three inches
+only) on each side, and bears an oriental mark consisting of five
+half-moons. The sheath is of brown Morocco decorated with a small gilt
+pattern forming shells and flowers. The mouth and chape are silver-gilt.
+
+In beautiful and skilful craftsmanship Boabdil's dagger or _gumia_
+matches with his swords. The handle is of steel inlaid in ivory with
+floral patterns, and terminates in a large sphere, similarly decorated.
+The blade has a single edge, and is exquisitely damascened in gold
+designs which cover more than half of all its surface. Along one side we
+read the inscription; "_Health, permanent glory, lasting felicity,
+permanent glory, lasting felicity, and lasting and permanent glory
+belong to God_"; and on the other side, "_It was made by Reduan._"
+
+The sheath of this little arm is made of crimson velvet richly
+embroidered with gold thread, and hanging from it is a large tassel of
+gold cord and crimson silk. The chape and mouth are silver-gilt,
+profusely decorated, and the latter of these pieces is embellished with
+circular devices of a lightish green enamel, in addition to the chasing.
+
+The small, plain knife, also preserved among the spoil, was carried in
+this sheath, together with the dagger.[123]
+
+  [123] To-day the craft of finely decorating arms is not forgotten in
+        Morocco. "A silversmith advanced to show a half-completed
+        silver-sheathed and hafted dagger, engraved with pious sentences,
+        as, "God is our sufficiency and our best bulwark here on earth,"
+        and running in and out between the texts a pattern of a rope with
+        one of the strands left out, which pattern also ran round the
+        cornice of the room we sat in, and round the door, as it runs
+        round the doors in the Alhambra and the Alcazar, and in thousands
+        of houses built by the Moors, and standing still, in Spain. The
+        dagger and the sheath were handed to me for my inspection, and on
+        my saying that they were beautifully worked, the Caid said keep
+        them, but I declined, not having anything of equal value to give
+        in return."--Cunninghame Graham; _Mogreb-El-Acksa_, p. 234.
+
+                         [Illustration: XLVIII
+                    WAR HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The Royal Armoury at Madrid is often thought by foreigners[124] to
+contain a representative collection of the arms, offensive and
+defensive, used by the Spanish people through all their mediaeval and
+post-mediaeval history. This is not so. Although it is the choicest and
+the richest gallery in Europe, the Armeria Real was formed almost
+entirely from the _camaras de armas_ or private armouries of Charles the
+Fifth and of his son, and is, as Melida describes it, "a splendid
+gallery of royal arms," dating, with very few exceptions, from the
+sixteenth century.
+
+  [124] _E.g._, by Townsend, who wrote of it, with ill-informed
+        enthusiasm, as "an epitome of Spanish history." Swinburne's notice
+        of the same armoury is also curious: "At the bottom of the
+        palace-yard is an old building, called the Armeria, containing a
+        curious assortment of antique arms and weapons, kept in a manner
+        that would have made poor Cornelius Scriblerus swoon at every
+        step; no notable housemaid in England has her fire-grates half so
+        bright as these coats of mail; they show those of all the heroes
+        that dignify the annals of Spain; those of Saint Ferdinand,
+        Ferdinand the Catholic, his wife Isabella, Charles the Fifth, the
+        great Captain Gonsalo, the king of Granada, and many others. Some
+        suits are embossed with great nicety. The temper of the sword
+        blades is quite wonderful, for you may lap them round your waist
+        like a girdle. The art of tempering steel in Toledo was lost about
+        seventy years ago, and the project of reviving and encouraging it
+        is one of the favourite schemes of Charles the Third, who has
+        erected proper works for it on the banks of the Tagus."
+
+The greater part of its contents were made within a limited interval, as
+well as not produced in Spain. Such are the glittering and gorgeous
+harnesses constructed for the actual use of Charles the Fifth by
+celebrated German and Italian armourers, ponderous suits for jousting or
+parade, or lighter suits for combat in the field, whether on foot or
+horseback (Plate xlviii.), fashioned, chiselled, and inlaid by craftsmen
+such as the Negroli and Piccini of Milan, Bartolommeo Campi of Pesaro,
+or Kollman of Augsburg, bombastically called, by a Spanish poet in the
+mode of Gongora, "the direct descendant of Vulcanus."
+
+This German and Italian armour, with its multitude of accessorial
+pieces,[125] falls outside the province of a book on Spanish arts and
+crafts. Nevertheless, I reproduce, as being too little known outside
+Madrid, the sumptuous jousting harness (Plate xlix.), of Charles the
+Fifth, made for the emperor when he was a lad of only eighteen years by
+Kollman Helmschmied of Augsburg.[126] Laurent Vital, describing the
+royal jousts at Valladolid in 1518, relates that "apres marchait le Roy
+bien gorgiasement monte et arme d'un fin harnais d'Alemaigne, plus
+reluisant que d'argent brunti." This is the very harness told of by the
+chronicler. The helmet turns the scale at forty pounds; the entire suit
+at two hundred and fifty-three pounds; and the length of the lance
+exceeds eleven feet.
+
+  [125] Throughout this time, the full equipment of the knight consisted
+        of no less than four complete suits, for tournament or battle, or
+        for foot or mounted fighting, together with their lances, swords,
+        and targes. The Alburquerque inventory describes in detail a
+        complete set ("all of it kept in a box") of war and tourneying
+        harness belonging to the duke. Although the warriors of that day
+        were short of stature, their muscular strength is undeniable, for
+        one of their lances has to be lifted nowadays by several men. When
+        the author of _Mogreb-El-Acksa_ wrote contemptuously of the
+        "scrofulous champions tapping on each other's shields," he was
+        perhaps, forgetful for a moment of this fact.
+
+  [126] The Count of Valencia de Don Juan has found, from documents at
+        Simancas, that in the year 1525 Kollman visited Toledo to measure
+        Charles for armour. It is also certain, adds the Count, that, in
+        order to produce this armour of a perfect fit, Kollman first
+        moulded Charles' limbs in wax, and then transferred the moulds to
+        lead. In a budget of accounts which coincides with Kollman's visit
+        to Toledo appears the following item: "Pour trois livres de cire
+        et de plomb pour faire les patrons que maitre Colman, armoyeur,
+        a fait"--followed by details of the cost.
+
+There is, however, also in this armoury a jousting harness (Plate l.)
+formerly the property of Philip the First of Spain, a part of which,
+including the cuirass, is known to be of Spanish make. The cuirass in
+question bears the mark of a Valencia armourer, and the harness
+generally dates from about the year 1500, at which time Gachard tells us
+in his _Chroniques Belges_ that Philip was learning to joust "a la mode
+d'Espaigne." Besides the enormous helmet and the Spanish-made cuirass,
+covered with gold brocade, this ornament includes a tourneying lance
+with a blunt three-pointed head,[127] and a curious form of rest, said
+by the Count of Valencia de Don Juan to be peculiar to the Spaniards and
+Italians. This rest is stuffed with cork, on which, just as the fray
+began, the iron extremity of the lance was firmly driven. Another
+interesting detail is the _cuja_, fastened to the right side of the
+cuirass, and also stuffed with cork, made use of to support the lance
+upon its passage over to the rest. Nor in this instance was the _cuja_ a
+superfluous device, seeing that the lance is over fifteen feet in
+length.
+
+  [127] This, in the later Middle Ages, was a favourite form of tourneying
+        lance.
+
+These are the principal portions of the harness. The seemingly
+insufficient protection for the arms is explained by the fact that the
+solid wooden shield completely covered the fighter's left arm, while
+the right would be defended by the shield-like disc or _arandela_ of the
+lance.
+
+                          [Illustration: XLIX
+                 JOUSTING HARNESS OF CHARLES THE FIFTH
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Spanish shields and swords of great antiquity and interest are also in
+this armoury. The oldest of the shields dates from the twelfth century,
+and proceeds from the monastery of San Salvador de Ona, Burgos. The
+material is a wood resembling cedar, although much eaten by moth, and is
+covered on both sides with parchment bearing traces of primitive
+painting of a non-heraldic character. Inside the shield, this decoration
+consisted of a black ground crossed diagonally by a broad red band, and
+outside, of a red ground covered with rhomboid figures, some in gilt and
+some in colour. Such figures were a popular pattern at this time and on
+this class of objects. The general stoutness of this shield shows that
+it was meant for war. It still retains the strap which slung it from the
+warrior's neck, as well as fragments of the braces--made of buffalo
+leather covered with crimson velvet--for the hand.
+
+Another shield, proceeding from the same monastery, dates from the
+thirteenth century. The material, here again, is wood and parchment; but
+in this hundred years formal heraldic ornament had superseded fancy or
+conventional devices. Accordingly, this shield is painted with a
+blazon, now much worn, of which, however, enough remains to show that it
+consisted once upon a time of four black chaperons crowned with gold
+_fleurs-de-lis_ upon a gold ground--said to have been the arms of Don
+Rodrigo Gomez, Count of Bureba.
+
+The _scut_, or polished metal shield, with painted blazonry or other
+decoration, was limited to Aragon and Cataluna.[128]
+
+  [128] _Historia General del Arte; Armas_, by Garcia Llanso; p. 445.
+
+Among the smaller and more modern shields preserved in this collection
+are two wooden bucklers dating from the sixteenth century. One is in the
+Spanish-Moorish style and of a convex shape, with iron bordering and
+umbo, and a lining of yellow brocade. The other, of the Christian
+Spaniards, is small and lined with painted parchment, and was intended,
+so the inventory says, "for going about at night."[129]
+
+  [129] "Des que le soir arrive, on ne va point n'y a Madrid ny ailleurs,
+        sans cotte de maille et sans _broquet_ qui est une
+        rondache."--Bertaut de Rouen, _Voyage d'Espagne_ (1659 A.D.),
+        p. 294.
+
+        The arms of Spaniards promenading after dark were even fixed by
+        law. The _Suma de Leyes_ of 1628 ordains that after ten o'clock
+        nobody is to carry arms at all unless he also bears a lighted
+        torch or lantern. No arquebus, on pain of a fine of ten thousand
+        _maravedis_, may have a barrel less than a yard long. Nobody may
+        carry a sword or rapier the length of whose blade exceeds a yard
+        and a quarter, or wear a dagger unless a sword accompanies it.
+        Sometimes these prohibitions extended even to seasons of the year.
+        In 1530 an Ordinance of Granada proclaims that from the first of
+        March until the last day of November nobody may carry a hatchet,
+        sickle, or dagger, "except the dagger which is called a
+        _barazano_, of a palm in length, even if the wearer be a
+        shepherd." The penalty for infringement of this law was a fine of
+        ten thousand _maravedis_; but labourers who worked upon a farm
+        were exempted from the prohibition.
+
+        Swinburne wrote from Cataluna, in 1775, that "amongst other
+        restrictions, the use of slouched hats, white shoes, and large
+        brown cloaks is forbidden. Until of late they durst not carry any
+        kind of knife; but in each public house there was one chained to
+        the table, for the use of all comers."
+
+There is also a richly gilt and silvered buckler of the seventeenth
+century, made at Eugui in Navarre, and covered with a scene--decadent
+in design and workmanship--which represents the judgment of Paris.
+Defensive armour, chiefly of a highly decorative kind, was made all
+through this century at the capital of Navarre, Pamplona. The Royal
+Armoury contains a Pamplonese parade harness (Plate lii.), offered as a
+gift to Philip the Third, as well as six diminutive sets of armour made
+to his order for the youthful princes Don Felipe, Don Fernando, and Don
+Carlos.
+
+The _adarga_ was a kind of targe used by the light cavalry, and had its
+origin in Africa. Those which were stored in the palace of the Nasrite
+sultans of Granada are described by Al-Makkari as "solid, without pores,
+soft to the touch, and famed for their imperviousness." The material was
+strong leather, such as cowhide, often embroidered with a scutcheon or
+with arabesques. Two Spanish-made _adargas_ in this armoury are
+particularly handsome. One is of Moorish craftsmanship, and dates from
+the end of the fifteenth century. The other (Plate liii.), apparently
+the work of a Spanish Christian and dating from a century later, is
+embroidered in silver thread and coloured silk with arabesque devices
+and also with four coats of arms, one of which belongs to the noble
+family of Fernandez de Cordova. The dimensions of this shield are a yard
+in height by thirty inches in breadth.
+
+                            [Illustration: L
+                JOUSTING HARNESS OF PHILIP THE HANDSOME
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+There also are preserved in this collection a shield (late sixteenth
+century) adorned by Mexican Indians with a most elaborate "mosaic of
+feather-work," and a number of Spanish _adargas_ of the same period, for
+playing the _juego de canas_ or "game of canes." The armoury contained
+in former days as many as forty-two _adargas_; but the fire of 1884
+completely destroyed sixteen and badly damaged twenty-three,
+obliterating their heraldic and other decoration. A yet more sinister
+event befell on December 1st, 1808, when the Spanish mob, exasperated by
+the French, broke in and seized three hundred swords, not one of which
+was afterwards recovered. Mention of these disasters leads me to recall
+the quantity of beautiful or historic military gear that Spain has lost
+through many tribulations and vicissitudes. Formerly her noble families
+had excellent collections in their palaces or castles. Such were the
+private armouries of the Dukes of Pastrana at Guadalajara, and of the
+Dukes of Alburquerque at Cuellar Castle, near Segovia. Bertaut de Rouen
+describes the first as "une des plus belles qui se voyent pour un
+seigneur particulier. Il y a quantite d'armes anciennes, et l'on y void
+une epee qui s'allonge et s'accourcit quand on veut, de deux pieds et
+demy."[130] The Cuellar armoury was pulled to pieces by Philip the
+Fourth to arm his troops against the French. "Send me," he wrote to the
+Duke from Madrid, in a letter dated April 16th, 1637, "all your pistols,
+carbines, harness for horses, breastplates and other arms for mounted
+fighting"; and the loyal nobleman complied upon the spot, despatching
+more than five hundred pieces, many of which were doubtless of the
+greatest interest.[131]
+
+  [130] _Voyage d'Espagne_, p. 199.
+
+  [131] Gonzalo de la Torre de Trassierra; Articles on Cuellar published
+        in the _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_.
+
+Had I the erudition and the time, I would attempt to write, as it
+deserves to be written, an introduction to the history of Spanish
+swords. Of all the objects mentioned in these volumes, here is the most
+inherently symbolic of the Spanish character and history. The Spanish
+Moors and Spanish Christians spoke of it as something superhuman. "Once
+the sword is in the hand of man," observed, in solemn tones, the Wise
+Alfonso, "he hath it in his power to raise or lower it, to strike with
+it, or to abandon it." The Spanish Mussulmans talked of putting "clothes
+and breeches" on a sword that had a sheath, as though it were a
+breathing person; while a Spaniard of the time of Gongora would often
+use such language as the following: "Truly in point of look there is as
+great a difference between a costly sword and a _Toledan Loyalty_ or
+_Soldier's Dream_, as between a marquis and a muleteer, or a washerwoman
+and the Infanta. Yet every sword is virtually an hidalgo. Does not the
+basest of our Toledanas, even to the _perrillos_ and _morillos_, which
+have no core, and cost a dozen _reales_ merely, afford a chivalrous
+lesson to its wearer, as it bids him _no me saques sin razon, ni me
+envaines sin honor_?[132] The horse and the sword," he continued, taking
+a magnificently damascened rapier, and stroking it caressingly, "are the
+noblest friends of man, albeit the nobler is the sword; for the horse at
+times is obstinate or faint-hearted, but the sword is ready continually.
+The sword, moreover, possesses the chiefest of all virtues--justice, or
+the power of dividing right and wrong; a soul of iron, which is
+strength; and, last and greatest, the Cross, which is the symbol of the
+blessed Catholic Faith."[133]
+
+  [132] "Draw me not without a cause, nor sheathe me without honour." A
+        sword with this inscription is in the Royal Armoury--(G. 71 of
+        the official catalogue).
+
+  [133] Leonard Williams; _Toledo and Madrid: their Records and Romances_;
+        p. 102.
+
+Notices of early Spanish sword-makers are far from common. Don Manuel G.
+Simancas quotes the following, dated in the thirteenth century:--
+
+"_Master Almerique._ By letters of the King and Queen, to Master
+Almerique, for making the (sword) blades for the King; out of the MCC
+_maravedis_ of his salary he received CCCC _maravedis_."
+
+"_Master Enrique._ By letters of the King and Queen, to Master Enrique,
+for making the swords, MCCCC, (of which) he received CCCCXII
+_maravedis_."
+
+Other entries of the same period relate to Juan Ferrandez, armourer, who
+received a sum for making coverings for arms and saddles; and to Master
+Jacomin, who was paid three gold _doblas_, or sixty-three _maravedis_,
+for making a breastplate.
+
+In the inventory (1560) of the Dukes of Alburquerque occurs a very
+curious notice which seems to show that mediaeval Spanish swords were
+manufactured even in the rural districts. The entry runs; "an old
+grooved sword of a broad shape, bearing the words _Juanes me fezio_
+("John made me"). In the middle of the same a P within a parted wave,
+with Portuguese fittings, varnished, black silk hilt and fringes, and
+double straps of black leather, with varnished ends and buckles and
+black leather sheath. _Juan de Lobinguez made this sword at Cuellar._"
+
+                           [Illustration: LI
+                            MOORISH BUCKLER
+              (_Osier and metal. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The Spanish guilds of armourers enjoyed high favour,[134] since the
+examination for admission to this craft was very strict, as well as
+fenced about with curious prohibitions. Thus at Seville, "no Moor, Jew,
+black man, or other person such as the law debars, shall set up a shop
+for making and selling defensive arms, or undergo examination in this
+craft."[135] The penalty for infringement of this law was confiscation
+of the arms, together with a fine of twenty thousand _maravedis_.
+
+  [134] In the Corpus Christi festival at Granada the banner which
+        preceded all the rest was that of the armourers and knife-makers,
+        followed by that of the silk-mercers. _Ordenanzas de Granada_;
+        tit. 126.
+
+  [135] _Armourers' Ordinances of Seville_, extant in ms. (quoted by
+        Gestoso; _Diccionario de Artifices Sevillanos_; vol. I.,
+        p. xxxvi).
+
+Throughout these times the armourer's and the gilder's crafts are found
+in closest union; just as the armourer's craft would often alternate
+with that of the goldsmith or the silversmith. At Seville, the Ordinance
+of 1512 prescribed that every candidate who came to be examined must
+make "a set of horse harness, complete with stirrups, headstalls, spurs,
+poitral, and the fittings of a sword; and he must silver several of
+these pieces and blue them with fine blue; and make of iron, and gild
+the spurs and fittings of the sword. Thus shall he make, and gild, and
+silver the aforesaid pieces."
+
+Equally severe and comprehensive are the swordsmiths' Ordinances (1527
+to 1531) of Granada. The aspirant to the title of _oficial_ "shall mount
+a sword for wear with ordinary clothes, fitted in black, together with
+its straps, and fringed and corded hilt; besides a sword gilded a low
+gold, together with its straps and other parts, all of a single colour.
+Also he shall fit a velvet-scabbarded, silver-hilted sword, and a
+two-handed sword, fully decorated, with the knife attaching to the same,
+one-edged and with a smooth hilt; also a sword whose scabbard shall be
+fitted with knives numbering not less than three; and a hilt of
+_laceria_ (network ornament); and another sword in a white sheath, with
+woven hilt; and another of a hand and a half."[136]
+
+  [136] "_De mano y media_"; _i.e._ for wielding either with one hand or
+        both. Specimens of this kind of sword existing at Madrid will be
+        described immediately.
+
+The Royal Armoury at Madrid contains an excellent collection of these
+weapons. Among the earliest known to be of Spanish make are two which
+date from the thirteenth century. One of them (Plate liv., No. 1), with
+fittings of a later time, is frequently miscalled the "Cid's Colada,"
+and seems to have been confounded with the genuine weapon of that hero
+which was acquired in the thirteenth century by one of the sovereigns of
+Castile, and which has probably disappeared.
+
+The blade of this remarkable sword has two edges and tapers gradually to
+the point. Part of the blade is slightly hollowed, and bears, extending
+through about a quarter of the hollow or _canal_, the following
+inscription or device:--
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This is believed by some authorities to represent the words SI, SI, NO,
+NON ("Yes, yes, no, no"); and by others to be a purely meaningless and
+decorative pattern. The weapon, in any case, is in the best of
+preservation, and is especially interesting from the fact that engraved
+blades dating from this early period are very seldom met with. The Count
+of Valencia de Don Juan believes this weapon to be the same _Lobera_
+which belonged to Ferdinand the Third, and aptly quotes the following
+passage from the chronicle. When Ferdinand, conqueror of Seville, was
+lying on his death-bed in that capital, surrounded by his children, he
+gave his blessing to his younger son, the Infante Don Manuel, and
+addressed him in these words. "I can bequeath no heritage to you; but I
+bestow upon you my sword Lobera, that is of passing worth, and wherewith
+God has wrought much good to me." If the Count's surmise be accurate,
+another passage which he quotes from the work _Nobleza y Lealtad_,
+written by the twelve councillors of Ferdinand, fully explains the
+legend on the blade. "_Sennor, el tu si sea asi, e el tu non, sea non;
+que muy gran virtud es al Principe, o a otro qualquier ome ser
+verdadero, e grand seguranza de sus vasallos, e de sus cosas._"[137]
+
+  [137] "Senor, let thy yea be yea, and thy nay be nay; for of great
+         virtue is it in the prince, or any man, to be a speaker of the
+         truth, and of great security to his vassals and to his property."
+
+I said that the chiselled and gilded iron fittings to the blade are of a
+later period. They date from the earlier part of the sixteenth century,
+and are the work of Salvador de Avila, of Toledo.
+
+                           [Illustration: LII
+                        ARMOUR MADE AT PAMPLONA
+                (_17th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The other sword in this collection, and which also belongs to the
+thirteenth century, has a long, broad blade with two edges and a central
+groove, thinly engraved with circles (Pl. liv., No. 3, and Pl. lv.). The
+crossbars are of silver-gilt, engraved with _ataurique_, curving towards
+the blade and terminating in trefoils. A shield midway between them
+bears the arms of Castile upon one side, and those of Leon upon the
+other. The grip is of wood, covered with silver plates with decorated
+borders, and the pommel is of iron, also covered with ornamental plates
+of silver-gilt. Formerly this arm was studded with precious stones, but
+all of these excepting one have disappeared.
+
+The scabbard is of wood lined with sheepskin, and is covered with a
+series of five silver-gilt plates, profusely decorated with
+Hispano-Moresque _laceria_, studded with various kinds of gems. These
+gems upon the scabbard amounted once upon a time to seventy-six, which
+sum, through pilfering or accident (probably the former, since the
+finest stones are gone), has been diminished by one-half. An inventory,
+made in the reign of Philip the Second, states that the inner side of
+the sheath, now wholly worn away, was covered with lions and castles,
+and that the belt was of broad orange-coloured cloth, with silver
+fittings.
+
+This sword has been absurdly attributed to the nephew of Charlemagne,
+who lived not less than half a thousand years before its date of
+manufacture. The Count of Valencia de Don Juan thought that it may have
+been the property of a Spanish monarch of the thirteenth
+century,--perhaps Alfonso the Learned, or Ferdinand the Third, Alfonso's
+father. Ferdinand, we know, possessed a sword which he delivered with
+due ceremony to his elder son, the Infante Don Fernando, upon his
+leading out a force against the town of Antequera. This sword the
+chronicler Alvar Garcia de Santa Maria described as having "a sheath in
+pieces, with many precious stones."
+
+Of even greater interest than the foregoing weapon is the great
+two-handed and two-edged _estoque_ or ceremonial sword of Ferdinand and
+Isabella, which measures forty-two inches in length. The fittings are of
+iron, gilded and engraved. The crossbars, terminating in small
+half-moons, with the concave side directed outward, are inscribed with
+the well-known motto of the Catholic sovereigns, TANTO MONTA, and with
+a supplication to the Virgin, MEMENTO MEI O MATER DEI MEI. The pommel is
+a flat disc, suggestive in its outline of a Gothic cross, and bears upon
+one side the figure of Saint John together with the yoke, emblem of
+Ferdinand the Catholic, and upon the other the sheaf of arrows, emblem
+of his consort Isabella. The hilt is covered with red velvet bound with
+wire.
+
+The sheath of this most interesting sword--affirmed by the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan to have been used by Ferdinand and Isabella, and
+subsequently by Charles the Fifth, in the ceremony of conferring
+knighthood, and also, during the Hapsburg monarchy, to have been carried
+by the master of the horse before the king upon his formal visit to a
+city of his realm--is made of wood covered with crimson silk, bearing in
+"superposed" embroidery the arms of Spain posterior to the conquest of
+Granada, together with a repetition of the emblems of the Catholic
+sovereigns (Plate liv., No. 2).
+
+In the same collection are two other swords which probably belonged to
+Ferdinand the Catholic. One of them (Pl. lvii., No. 1), has a discoid
+pommel and a gilded iron handle. The flat crossbars grow wider and bend
+down towards the blade, and on the hilt we read the words PAZ COMIGO
+NVNCA VEO, Y SIEMPRE GVERA DESEO ("Never does peace attend me, and
+always do I yearn for war").
+
+This sword has been attributed to Isabella. The evidence for this belief
+is slight, although the Count of Valencia de Don Juan discovered that in
+the year 1500 Isabella was undoubtedly the possessor of certain weapons
+and armour which she sometimes actually wore. Among these objects were
+several Milanese breastplates, a small dagger with a gold enamelled hilt
+in the shape of her emblem of the sheaf of arrows, and two swords, one
+fitted with silver and enamel, and the other with iron.
+
+The other sword, which probably belonged to Ferdinand the Catholic, is
+of the kind known as "of a hand and a half" (_de mano y media_; see p.
+248, _note_), and also of the class denominated _estoques de arzon_, or
+"saddle-bow swords," being commonly slung from the forepart of the
+saddle upon the left side of the rider. Ferdinand, however, had reason
+to be chary of this usage, for Lucio Marineo Siculo affirms that at the
+siege of Velez-Malaga the sword which he was wearing thus suspended,
+jammed at a critical moment of the fray, and very nearly caused his
+death. Siculo adds that after this experience Ferdinand invariably wore
+his sword girt round his person, just as he wears it in the carving on
+the choir-stalls of Toledo.
+
+                          [Illustration: LIII
+                                _ADARGA_
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The Royal Armoury contains another sword improperly attributed both to
+Ferdinand the Third and Ferdinand the Catholic. It dates from the
+fifteenth century, and has a blade of unusual strength intended to
+resist plate armour. This blade, which has a central ridge continued to
+the very point, is very broad towards the handle, tapers rapidly, and
+measures thirty-two inches. At the broader end, and on a gilded ground
+embellished with concentric circles, are graven such legends as:--
+
+"The Lord is my aid. I will not fear what man may do to me, and will
+despise my enemies. Superior to them, I will destroy them utterly."
+
+"Make me worthy to praise thee, O sweet and blessed Virgin Mary."
+
+The handle is of iron, with traces of gilded decoration, and corded with
+black silk. The Count of Valencia de Don Juan says that no reliable
+information can be found concerning this fine arm. Its length and
+general design would allow of its being used with one hand or with
+both, and either slung from the saddle-bow or round the middle of a
+warrior on foot.
+
+Another handsome sword, wrongly attributed by the ignorant to Alfonso
+the Sixth, is kept at Toledo, in the sacristy of the cathedral. The
+scabbard is adorned with fourteenth-century enamel in the _champleve_
+style. Baron de las Cuatro Torres considers that this sword belonged to
+the archbishop Don Pedro Tenorio (see p. 269), and adduces his proofs in
+the _Boletin de la Sociedad Espanola de Excursiones_ for March 1897. The
+prelate in question, appointed to command an army sent against Granada,
+was, like so many of the Spanish mediaeval clerics, of a warlike temper,
+and "exchanged with great alacrity his rochet for his harness, and his
+mitre for his helm."
+
+One of the most ridiculous and barefaced forgeries in the Royal Armoury
+is a sixteenth-century sword which has inscribed upon its blade the name
+of the redoubtable Bernardo del Carpio. The Count of Valencia de Don
+Juan says he remembers to have met with other blades of later mediaeval
+make, engraved with such legends as "belonging to Count
+Fernan-Gonzalez," or even "Recaredus Rex Gothorum," while others in
+this armoury are ascribed, without the least authority of fact or common
+sense, to Garcia de Paredes, Alvaro de Sande, and Hernando de Alarcon.
+Others, again, with less extravagance, though not on solid proof, are
+said to have belonged to Hernan Cortes, the Count of Lemos, and Diego
+Hurtado de Mendoza.
+
+Some, upon the other hand, belonged undoubtedly to celebrated Spanish
+warriors of the olden time. Such are the swords of the Count of Coruna,
+of Gonzalo de Cordova, and of the conqueror of Peru, Francisco Pizarro.
+The first of these weapons (Pl. lvii., No. 4) has a superb hilt carved
+in the style of the Spanish Renaissance, with crossbars curving down, a
+_pas d'ane_, and a Toledo blade of six _mesas_ ("tables") or surfaces,
+grooved on both sides, and ending in a blunt point. The armourer's mark,
+which seems to represent a _fleur-de-lis_ four times repeated, is that
+of the swordsmith Juan Martinez, whose name we read upon the blade,
+together with the words IN TE DOMINE SPERAVI, and on the other side, in
+Spanish, PARA DON BERNARDINO XVAREZ DE MENDOZA, CONDE DE CORVNA.
+
+The sword of "the great captain," Gonzalo de Cordova (1453-1515), is
+not of Spanish make (Plate lvii., No. 3). It has a straight blade with
+bevelled edges. The pommel and _quillons_ are decorated with Renaissance
+carving, and the bars, which are of gilded iron, grow wider at their end
+and curve towards the blade. The pommel, of gilded copper, is spherical,
+and bears, upon one side, a scene which represents a battle, together
+with the words GONSALVI AGIDARI VICTORIA DE GALLIS AD CANNAS. Upon the
+other side are carved his arms. Other inscriptions in Latin are also on
+the pommel and the blade.
+
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan believed that this sword was a present
+to Gonzalo from the corporation of some Italian town, and that it
+replaced, as an _estoque real_, or sword of ceremony, the state sword
+(see p. 252) of Ferdinand and Isabella.
+
+                           [Illustration: LIV
+                             SPANISH SWORDS
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Pizarro's sword remained in possession of his descendants, the Marquises
+of La Conquista, until as recently as 1809, in which year this family
+presented it to a Scotch officer named John Downie, who had fought in
+the Peninsular War against the French. Downie, in turn, bequeathed it to
+his brother Charles, lieutenant-colonel in the Spanish army, from
+whom it passed into the hands of Ferdinand the Seventh. The appearance
+of this sword is not remarkable. It has a stout, four-surfaced blade,
+with a powerful _recazo_ or central ridge, engraved with the Christian
+name of Mateo Duarte, a swordsmith who was living at Valencia in the
+middle of the sixteenth century. The hilt is of blued (_pavonado_)
+steel, inlaid with leaves and other ornament in gold. The pommel is a
+disc; the _quillons_ are straight, or very nearly so, and there is a
+_pas d'ane_ (Plate lvii., No. 2).
+
+The sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries are famous as the epoch of
+the Spanish rapier. Toledo, as the world is well aware, enjoyed an
+undisputed name for the production of these weapons. Within this ancient
+and historic capital generations of artists bequeathed, from father to
+son, and son to grandson, the secret (if there were a secret) of the
+tempering of these matchless arms; nor have Toledo blades deteriorated
+to this day. Many an idle superstition seeks to justify the talent and
+dexterity of these swordsmiths; though probably the key to all their
+skill was merely in the manual cunning, based on constant practice, of
+the craftsman, as well as in the native virtues of the water of the
+Tagus.
+
+In one of my books I have described the workshop of an armourer of
+Toledo in the sixteenth century. "After a few moments we entered the
+Calle de las Armas, which struck me as having grown a good deal
+narrower; and my companion, pausing beside an open doorway topped with a
+sign depicting a halberd and a sword, invited me to enter. Two or three
+steps led downwards to a dark, damp passage, and at the end of this was
+a low but very large room, blackened by the smoke from half a dozen
+forges. The walls were hung with a bewildering variety of arms and parts
+of armour--gauntlets and cuirasses; morions, palettes, and
+lobster-tails; partisans and ranseurs; halberds, bayonets, and
+spontoons; as well as swords and daggers without number. Several anvils,
+with tall, narrow buckets filled with water standing beside them, were
+arranged about the stone-paved floor; and beside each forge was a large
+heap of fine, white sand.
+
+"The showers of sparks, together with a couple of ancient-looking lamps
+whose flames shook fitfully to and fro in the vibration, showed thirty
+or forty workmen busily engaged; and what with the clanging of the
+hammers, the roaring of the bellows, and the strident hissing of the hot
+metal as it plunged into the cold water, the racket was incessant.
+
+"My cicerone surveyed the discordant scene with all the nonchalance of
+lifelong custom, daintily eluding the columns of scalding steam, or
+screening his _chambergo_ from the sparks. Finding, however, that I was
+powerless to understand the remarks he kept addressing to me, he finally
+held up his finger and gave the signal to cease work; upon which the
+_oficial_ handed him a bundle of papers which I took to be accounts, and
+the men, doffing their leathern aprons, and hanging them in a corner,
+filed eagerly away.
+
+"'It is quite simple,' said my companion, as though divining the query I
+was about to put to him; 'and indeed, I often wonder why we are so
+famous. They say it is the water; but any water will do. Or else they
+say it is the sand; and yet this sand, though clean and pure, is just
+the same as any other. Look! The blade of nearly all our swords is
+composed of three pieces--two strips of steel, from Mondragon in
+Guipuzcoa, and an iron core. This latter is the _alma_, or soul. The
+three pieces are heated and beaten together; and when they grow red-hot
+and begin to throw out sparks, they are withdrawn from the fire, and a
+few handfuls of sand are thrown over them. The welding of the pieces is
+then continued on the anvil; and, finally, the file is brought to bear
+on all unevennesses, and the weapon passes on to the temperer, the
+grinder, and the burnisher.'
+
+"'It is in the tempering that we have earned our principal renown,
+although this process is quite as simple as the rest. Upon the
+forge--see, here is one still burning--a fire is made in the form of a
+narrow trench, long enough to receive four-fifths of the length of the
+weapon. As soon as the metal reaches a certain colour' (I thought I
+noted a mischievous twinkle in the armourer's eyes, as though this
+_certain colour_ were the key to all our conversation), 'I take these
+pincers, and, grasping the portion which had remained outside the fire,
+drop the weapon so, point downwards, into the bucket of water. Any curve
+is then made straight by beating upon the concave side, and the part
+which had been previously kept outside the trench of fire returns to the
+forge and is duly heated. The entire blade is next smeared with mutton
+fat, and rested against the wall to cool, point upwards. There is
+nothing more except the finishing. Your sword is made.'"[138]
+
+  [138] _Toledo and Madrid: their Records and Romances_; pp. 99-101.
+
+                           [Illustration: LV
+                                 SWORD
+                (_13th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The following passage from Bowles' _Natural History of Spain_, written
+in 1752, is also of especial interest here:--"At a league's distance
+from Mondragon is a mine of varnished, or, as miners term it, frozen
+iron. It lies in the midst of soft red earth, and produces natural
+steel--a very curious circumstance, seeing that, as I am assured, there
+is no other mine of this description in the kingdom. A tradition exists
+that the iron from this mine was used for making the swords, so
+celebrated for their tempering, presented by Dona Catalina, daughter of
+the Catholic Sovereigns, to her husband, Henry the Eighth of England. A
+few of these swords are yet extant in Scotland, where the natives call
+them _Andre Ferrara_,[139] and esteem them greatly. The famous
+sword-blades of Toledo, and the Perrillo blades of Zaragoza, which are
+still so highly valued, as well as others made elsewhere, are said to
+have been forged from the iron of this mine, which yields forty per
+cent. of metal. It is, however, somewhat hard to melt. With a little
+trouble it is possible to secure excellent steel, because this mine,
+like many another, possesses in itself the quality of readily taking
+from the coal of the forge the spirit which is indispensable for making
+first-rate swords; but without cementation I do not think it would serve
+for making good files or razors."
+
+  [139] Andres Ferrara was a well-known armourer of Zaragoza.
+
+"The swords of which I spoke as being so famed were generally either of
+a long shape, for wearing with a ruff; or broad, and known as the
+_arzon_, for use on horseback. It is probable that when the ruff was
+suddenly abandoned at the beginning of this century, large quantities of
+ready-fitted swords began to be imported from abroad, of such a kind as
+was demanded by the novel clothing. This would account for the decline
+and the eventual collapse of our factories, and the loss of our art of
+tempering swords. Concerning the mode of executing this, opinions
+differ. It is said by some that the blades were tempered in winter only,
+and that when they were withdrawn for the last time from the furnace,
+the smiths would shake them in the air at great speed three times on a
+very cold day. Others say that the blades were heated to a
+cherry-colour, then plunged for a couple of seconds into a deep jar
+filled with oil or grease, and changed forthwith to another vessel of
+lukewarm water, after which they were set to cool in cold water; all
+these operations being performed at midwinter. Others, again, declare
+that the blades were forged from the natural iron of Mondragon by
+placing a strip of ordinary iron along their core so as to give them
+greater elasticity; and that they were then tempered in the ordinary
+manner, though always in the winter. Such are the prevailing theories
+about the iron swords of Mondragon, which are, in truth, of admirable
+quality."
+
+Magnificent examples of Toledo sword-blades, produced while her craft
+was at the zenith of its fame--that is, throughout the sixteenth and the
+seventeenth centuries--are in the Royal Armoury (Pl. lvii., Nos. 5, 6,
+7). Among them are a series of _montantes_ made for tournament or war,
+and a superb blade, dated 1564, forged for Philip the Second by Miguel
+Cantero. The Count of Valencia de Don Juan considered this to be one of
+the finest weapons ever tempered; adding that the sword-blades of the
+city of the Tagus were held in such esteem all over Europe that he had
+seen, in numerous museums of the Continent, weapons professing to be
+Toledo-made, in which the blade and mark are evidently forged; bearing,
+for instance, _Ernantz_ for Hernandez, _Johanos_ for Juanes, and _Tomas
+Dailae_ for Tomas de Ayala.
+
+It is generally agreed that the changes in the national costume,
+together with the importation of a lighter make of sword from France,
+were directly responsible for the decline of the Toledo sword-blades
+early in the eighteenth century. However, this decline was only
+temporary. Townsend wrote in 1786: "From the Alcazar we went to visit
+the royal manufactory of arms, with which I was much pleased. The steel
+is excellent, and so perfectly tempered, that in thrusting at a target,
+the swords will bend like whalebone, and yet cut through a helmet
+without turning their edge. This once famous manufacture had been
+neglected, and in a manner lost, but it is now reviving."
+
+Laborde endorsed these praises subsequently: "Within a few years the
+fabrication of swords has been resumed at Toledo; the place allotted to
+this object is a handsome edifice, a quarter of a league distant from
+the city, which commands the banks of the Tagus. This undertaking has
+hitherto been prosperous; the swords are celebrated for the excellence
+of their blades, which are of finely tempered steel."
+
+                           [Illustration: LVI
+                               OLD SWORD
+            (_Erroneously attributed to the Cid. Collection
+                      of the Marquis of Falces_)]
+
+The modern small-arms factory of Toledo, situated on the right bank of
+the Tagus, a mile from the city walls, had, in fact, been opened in
+1783, when the same industry was also reviving at Vitoria, Barcelona,
+and elsewhere. Toledo worthily maintains to-day her ancient and
+illustrious reputation for this craft. The Tagus still supplies its
+magic water for the tempering, while part of the prime material of the
+steel itself proceeds from Solingen and Styria, and the rest from Trubia
+and Malaga.
+
+Cutlery continued to be made in Spain all through the eighteenth
+century. Colmenar says that the knives of Barcelona were considered
+excellent. According to Laborde, cutlery was made at Solsona and Cardona
+in Cataluna, at Mora in New Castile, and at Albacete in Murcia. "The
+cutlery of Solsona is in great repute; but the largest quantity is made
+at Albacete. In the latter place are about twenty-eight working cutlers,
+each of whom employs five or six journeymen, who respectively
+manufacture annually six or seven thousand pieces, amounting in the
+whole to about one hundred and eighty thousand pieces."[140]
+
+  [140] Vol. iv. p. 358.
+
+
+                                FIREARMS
+
+Cannon of a primitive kind were used in Spain comparatively early. A
+large variety of names was given to these pieces, such as _cerbatanas_,
+_ribadoquines_, _culebrinas_, _falconetes_, _pasavolantes_, _lombardas_
+or _bombardas_, and many more; but the oldest, commonest, and most
+comprehensive name of all was _trueno_, "thunder," from the terrifying
+noise of the discharge. This word was used for both the piece and the
+projectile. The Count of Clonard quotes Pedro Megia's _Silva de Varias
+Lecciones_ to show that gunpowder was known in Spain as early as the
+eleventh century. "Thunders" of some description seem to have been used
+at the siege of Zaragoza in 1118; and a Moorish author, writing in 1249,
+describes in fearsome terms "the horrid noise like thunder, vomiting
+fire in all directions, destroying everything, reducing everything to
+ashes." Al-Jattib, the historian of Granada, wrote at the beginning of
+the fourteenth century that the sultan of that kingdom used at the siege
+of Baza "a mighty engine, applying fire thereto, prepared with naphtha
+and with balls." The Chronicle of Alfonso the Eleventh describes in a
+quaint and graphic passage the crude artillery of that period, and the
+panic it occasioned. At the siege of Algeciras in 1342, "the Moors that
+were within the city threw many 'thunders' at the (Christian) host,
+together with mighty balls of iron, to such a distance that several
+overpassed the army, and some did damage to our host. Also, by means of
+'thunders' they threw arrows exceeding great and thick, so that it was
+as much as a man could do to lift them from the ground. And as for the
+iron balls these 'thunders' hurled, men were exceedingly afraid thereof;
+for if they chanced to strike a limb they cut it off as clean as with a
+knife, and though the wound were but a slight one, yet was the man as
+good as dead; nor was any chirurgery that might avail him, both because
+the balls came burning hot, like flame, and because the powder which
+discharged them was of such a kind that any wound it made was surely
+mortal; and such was the violence of these balls, that they went through
+a man, together with all his armour."
+
+Towards the close of the same century the testament of Don Pedro Tenorio
+(see p. 256), the bellicose archbishop of Alcala de Henares, who
+ruled that diocese from 1376 to 1399, contains the following
+passage:--"_Item_. We bought crossbows and bassinets both for foot and
+horse, together with shields, pikes, javelins, darts, lombards, hemp,
+powder, and other munitions for the castles of our Church; of which
+munitions we stored the greater quantity at Talavera and at Alcala de
+Henares, purposing to deposit them at Cazorla and in the castles of
+Canales and of Alhamin, which we are now repairing after they were
+thrown down by the King Don Pedro, and for the tower of Cazorla, which
+we are now erecting. And it is our will that all of these munitions be
+for the said castles and tower; and that no one lay his hand on them, on
+pain of excommunication, excepting only the bishop elected and confirmed
+who shall succeed us; and he shall distribute them as he holds best
+among the aforesaid castles. And all the best of these munitions shall
+be for the governorship of Cazorla, as being most needed there to
+overthrow the enemies of our faith; and we have duly lodged the shields
+and crossbows, parted from the rest, upon the champaign of Toledo;
+whither should arrive more shields from Valladolid, that all together
+may be carried to Cazorla."
+
+                          [Illustration: LVII
+                             SPANISH SWORDS
+                       (_Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+The article from which I quote this passage adds that the palace of the
+archbishop at Alcala de Henares was fortified with cannon until the
+beginning of the nineteenth century.[141]
+
+  [141] Escudero de la Pena; _Claustros, Escalera, y Artesonados del
+        Palacio Arzobispal de Alcala de Henares_; published in the _Museo
+        Espanol de Antiguedades_.
+
+Cannon are mentioned with increasing frequency throughout the fifteenth
+century; and in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella we read of lombards
+of enormous size, which had to be dragged across the Andalusian hills
+and plains by many scores of men and beasts; which frequently stuck fast
+and had to be abandoned on the march; and which, even in the best of
+circumstances, could only be discharged some twice or thrice a day.
+
+In reading documents and chronicles of older Spain, it is easy to
+confound the early forms of cannon with the engines similar to those
+employed by the Crusaders in the Holy Land, and built for hurling stones
+or arrows of large size. Such engines were the _trabuco_, the
+_almajanech_ or _almojaneque_, the _algarrada_, and the _fundibalo_ or
+Catalan _fonevol_. Beuter, in his _Chronicle of Spain and of Valencia_,
+describes the latter as "a certain instrument which has a sling made
+fast to an extremity of wood ... made to revolve so rapidly that the
+arm, on being released, projects the stone with such a force as to
+inflict much harm, even in distant places, whither could reach no
+missile slung by the hand of man."
+
+Turning to portable Spanish firearms, we find that the precursor of the
+arquebus, musket, and rifle seems to have been a weapon which was
+introduced about the middle of the fifteenth century, and called the
+_espingarda_. Alfonso de Palencia says it was employed against the
+rebels of Toledo in 1467; and the Chronicle of Don Alvaro de Luna
+relates that when this nobleman was standing beside Don Inigo
+d'Estuniga, upon a certain occasion in 1453, "a man came out in his
+shirt and set fire to an _espingarda_, discharging the shot thereof
+above the heads of Don Alvaro and of Inigo d'Estuniga, but wounding an
+esquire."
+
+                          [Illustration: LVIII
+         MARKS OF TOLEDAN ARMOURERS (15TH-17TH CENTURIES), FROM
+                 SWORDS IN THE ROYAL ARMOURY AT MADRID]
+
+As time advanced, portable firearms of first-rate quality were made
+throughout the northern Spanish provinces, and also in Navarra,
+Cataluna, Aragon, and Andalusia. The inventory of the Dukes of
+Alburquerque mentions, in 1560, "four flint arquebuses of Zaragoza
+make ... another arquebus of Zaragoza, together with its fuse," and
+"arquebuses of those that are made within this province" (_i.e._ of
+Segovia). Cristobal Frisleva, of Ricla in Aragon, and Micerguillo of
+Seville were celebrated makers of this arm; but probably these and all
+the other Spanish masters of this craft derived their skill from foreign
+teaching, such as that of the brothers Simon and Peter Marckwart (in
+Spanish the name is spelt _Marcuarte_,) who were brought to Spain by
+Charles the Fifth.[142]
+
+  [142] The brothers Marckwart, or possibly one or other of them, are
+        believed to have stamped their arquebuses with a series of small
+        sickles, thus:
+
+        [Illustration]
+
+The Royal Armoury contains some finely decorated guns, made for the
+kings of Spain at the close of the seventeenth century and early in the
+eighteenth, by Juan Belen, Juan Fernandez, Francisco Baeza y Bis, and
+Nicolas Bis. The last-named, pupil of Juan Belen, was a German; but all
+these gunsmiths lived and worked at Madrid. Nicolas was arquebus-maker
+to Charles the Second from 1691, and afterwards held the same post from
+Philip the Fifth. He died in 1726, and the Count of Valencia de Don Juan
+says that in 1808--that is, before it was plundered by the mob--the
+Royal Armoury contained no fewer than fifty-three weapons of his
+manufacture. One of the guns which bear his mark, and still exist, is
+inscribed with the words, "I belong to the Queen our lady" (Isabel
+Farnese, first wife of Philip the Fifth), combined with the arms of Leon
+and Castile, and of the Bourbon family. This weapon was used, or
+intended to be used, for hunting.
+
+Diego Esquivel, another gunsmith of Madrid, was also famous early in the
+eighteenth century, as, later on, were Manuel Sutil, Jose Cano,
+Francisco Lopez, Salvador Cenarro, Isidro Soler (author of a
+_Compendious History of the Arquebus-makers of Madrid_), Juan de Soto,
+and Sebastian Santos.
+
+Swinburne wrote from Cataluna in 1775; "the gun-barrels of Barcelona are
+much esteemed, and cost from four to twenty guineas, but about five is
+the real value; all above is paid for fancy and ornament; they are made
+out of the old shoes of mules."
+
+                           [Illustration: LIX
+                            _BRIDONA_ SADDLE
+                (_15th Century. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+Until 1793, the smaller firearms of the Spanish army were made at
+Plasencia in Guipuzcoa. In that year the government factory, where
+hand-labour alone continued to be used till 1855, was removed to Oviedo.
+To-day this factory employs about five hundred workmen. In 1809 Laborde
+wrote that "firearms, such as fusees, musquets, carbines, and pistols
+are manufactured at Helgoivar, Eybor, and Plasencia; at Oviedo,
+Barcelona, Igualada, and at Ripoll; the arms made at the latter city
+have long had a distinguished reputation. Seven hundred and sixty-five
+gunsmiths, it is estimated, find employment in the factories of
+Guipuzcoa."
+
+Both Townsend and the foregoing writer give a good account of Spanish
+cannon at this time. According to Laborde, "two excellent founderies for
+brass cannon are royal establishments at Barcelona and Seville; in the
+latter city copper cannon are cast, following the method recommended by
+M. Maritz. Iron ordnance are made at Lierganez and Cavada." Townsend
+wrote of Barcelona, in 1786; "The foundery for brass cannon is
+magnificent, and worthy of inspection. It is impossible anywhere to see
+either finer metal, or work executed in a neater and more perfect
+manner. Their method of boring was, in the present reign, introduced by
+Maritz, a Swiss. Near two hundred twenty-four pounders are finished
+every year, besides mortars and field-pieces."
+
+
+                          SADDLERY AND COACHES
+
+Probably no relic of the former of these crafts in Spain is older or
+more curious than the iron bit (Plate lvii., No. 8), inlaid with silver
+dragons' heads and crosses, and attributed, from cruciform monograms
+which also decorate it, to the Visigothic King Witiza (who died in 711),
+or sometimes to the conqueror of Toledo, Alfonso the Sixth (eleventh
+century). The spurs or _acicates_ (Plate lvii., No. 9) of Ferdinand the
+Third of Castile, who conquered Seville from the Moors, are also
+treasured in the Royal Armoury, and bear upon an iron ground remains of
+gold and silver decoration representing castles. The Count of Valencia
+de Don Juan believed these spurs to be authentic, because they are
+identical with the ones which Ferdinand wears in his equestrian seal,
+preserved among the National Archives of France, and dating from the
+year 1237.
+
+Saddles of various kinds were used in Spain throughout the Middle Ages.
+Among them were the ordinary travelling-saddle or _silla de barda_
+(Arabic _al-barda_); saddles _de palafren_,[143] the _silla de la
+guisa_, or _de la brida_ or _bridona_, for riding with long stirrups,
+and consequently the antithesis of the _gineta_ saddle;[144] or saddles
+made for use exclusively in war, on which the rider was accustomed to
+make the sign of the cross before or after mounting, such as the
+_lidona_, _gallega_ ("_siellas gallegas_" are mentioned in the _Poem of
+the Cid_), and _corsera_ or _cocera_ (Arabic _al-corsi_), or else the
+_silla de conteras_, "whose hindmost bow," according to the Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan, "terminated in converging pieces to protect the
+wearer's thighs."
+
+  [143] An old account copied into a book (see p. 89, _note_) in the
+        National Library at Madrid, and dating from the reign of Sancho
+        the Fourth, states that Pedro Ferrandez, saddler, received a
+        certain sum for making various saddles, including two "_de
+        palafres_, wrought in silk with the devices of the king."
+
+  [144] "In mediaeval Spain, good riders were often designated as 'Ginete
+        en ambas sillas,' that is, accustomed to either saddle, _i.e._
+        the Moorish and the Christian, and I now understand why
+        chroniclers have taken the trouble to record the fact. Strangely
+        enough, the high-peaked and short-stirruped saddle does not cross
+        the Nile, the Arabs of Arabia riding rather flat saddles with an
+        ordinary length of leg. The Arab saddle of Morocco, in itself, is
+        perhaps the worst that man has yet designed; but, curiously
+        enough, from it was made the Mexican saddle, perhaps the most
+        useful for all kinds of horses and of countries that the world has
+        seen." Cunninghame Graham: _Mogreb-El-Acksa_, p. 66. The same
+        writer naively adds the following footnote to the words _Ginete en
+        ambas sillas_. "This phrase often occurs in Spanish chronicles,
+        after along description of a man's virtues, his charity, love of
+        the church, and kindness to the poor, and it is apparently
+        inserted as at least as important a statement as any of the
+        others. In point of fact, chronicles being written for posterity,
+        it is the most important."
+
+A saddle known as the _silla de rua_, or "street saddle," was generally
+used in Spain throughout the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. It
+was intended, not for war, but promenade and show, and therefore richly
+decorated. The Royal Armoury has nineteen of these saddles, all of which
+are Spanish-made. In the same collection is a plain _bridona_ saddle
+(Plate lix.), with iron stirrups and two gilt-metal bells, such as were
+commonly used in tournaments or other festivals. This saddle has been
+erroneously ascribed to the thirteenth century. It dates from the
+beginning of the fifteenth century, and proceeds from Majorca.
+
+                           [Illustration: LX
+                      HANGING _JAECES_ FOR HORSES]
+
+The old belief that one of the saddles in this armoury, whose bows are
+chased with a design in black and gilt of leaves and pilgrim's shells,
+was once upon a time the Cid Campeador's, has been exploded recently.
+The saddle in question is known to be Italian, dates from the sixteenth
+century, and bears the arms of a town in the duchy of Montferrato.
+
+The inventory (1560) of the dukes of Alburquerque mentions some curious
+saddles, including one "_de la brida_, of blue velvet, with the bows
+painted gold, and on the front bow a cannon with its carriage, and on
+the hind bow another cannon with flames of fire." Among the rest were "a
+_gineta_ saddle of red leather, used by my lord the duke," together with
+saddles of bay leather, of dark brown leather, of "smooth leather with
+trappings of blue cloth," of Cordova leather, and "a date-coloured
+_gineta_-saddle, complete."
+
+The same inventory specifies innumerable smaller articles of harness,
+such as stirrups, spurs, reins, headstalls, and poitrals or
+breast-leathers. Many of these pieces were richly ornamented; _e.g._,
+"some silver headstalls of small size, enamelled in blue, with gilt
+supports of iron,"[145] as well as "some silver headstalls, gilded and
+enamelled green and rose, with shields upon the temples." Others of
+these headstalls were made of copper, and nearly all were
+colour-enamelled.
+
+  [145] As I have stated in another chapter, the precious stones and
+        metals were continually employed in arms and harness, both of
+        Spanish Moors and Spanish Christians. In 1062 Pedro Ruderiz
+        bequeathed to the Monastery of Arlanza all his battle harness,
+        together with his silver bit (_frenum argenteum_). Thousands of
+        such bequests have been recorded. The Chronicle of Alfonso the
+        Eleventh says that after the victory of the Rio Salado, this
+        monarch found among his spoil "many swords with gold and silver
+        fittings, and many spurs, all of enamelled gold and silver....
+        And all this spoil was gathered by the king into his palaces
+        of Seville (_i.e._ the Alcazar), the doubloons in one part, and
+        the swords in another part." The testament (sometimes considered
+        to be a forgery) of Pedro the Cruel mentions "my sword in the
+        Castilian manner, that I caused to be made here in Seville with
+        gems and with _aljofar_." In 1409 Yusuf, King of Granada,
+        presented Juan the Second and the Infante Don Enrique with
+        silver-fitted swords. Referring to a later age, Davillier
+        discovered at Simancas a detailed list of weapons sumptuously
+        decorated with gold and coloured enamels, made for Philip the
+        Second by Juan de Soto, "_orfebrero de su Alteza_." _Recherches_,
+        pp. 149-151.
+
+The stirrups included "two Moorish stirrups of gilded tin, for a woman's
+use";[146] "some large Moorish stirrups, gilt, with two silver plates
+upon their faces, enamelled gold, green, and blue, and eight nails on
+either face"; "some other Moorish stirrups, wrought inside with
+_ataujia_-work in gold, and outside with plates of copper enamelled in
+green, blue, and white; the handles gilt, with coverings of red
+leather"; and "some silver stirrups with three bars upon the floor
+thereof, round-shaped in the manner of an urinal, with open sides
+consisting of two bars, a flower within a small shield on top, and, over
+this, the small face of a man."
+
+  [146] The women of mediaeval Spain had few amusements besides riding.
+        Another--though owing to the temperate climate it must have been
+        on few occasions--was skating, since this inventory mentions
+        "two pairs of skates, for a man, for travelling over ice. Two
+        pairs of skates, for the same purpose, for a woman." This entry
+        almost matches in its quaintness with the "irons for mustaches,"
+        or the "triggers for extracting teeth," set forth in Spanish
+        documents such as the _Tassa General_ of 1627.
+
+The many sets of reins included several of Granada make, coloured in
+white, red, and bay; while one of the most elaborate of the poitrals was
+of "red leather, embroidered with gold thread, with fringes of
+rose-coloured silk, buckles, ends, and rounded knobs; the whole of
+copper enamelled green, and blue, and white."
+
+Small but attractive accessories to these handsome sets of mediaeval
+Spanish harness were the decorative medals (Plate lx.) hung from the
+horse's breast in tourneying or in war. In France these medals were
+known as _annelets volants_, _branlants_, or _pendants_; although in
+Spain, where it is probable that they were used more widely than in
+other countries, they have no definite name. The term _jaeces_ is
+sometimes applied to them; but _jaez_ properly means the entire harness
+for a horse, and the word is thus employed by classic Spanish authors,
+such as Tirso de Molina. A recent term, invented by a living writer, is
+_jaeces colgantes_, or "hanging _jaeces_."
+
+These ornaments, which had their origin among the Romans and Byzantines,
+are figured in certain of the older Spanish codices such as the
+_Cantigas de Santa Maria_. In Christian Spain, however, their vogue was
+greatest in the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. They
+disappeared altogether in the sixteenth century; and among the Spanish
+Moors their use, though not unknown, was always quite exceptional.
+
+The mottoes and devices on these little plates are very varied.
+Sometimes the motto has an amorous, sometimes a religious import.
+Sometimes the vehicle of the motto is Latin, sometimes Spanish,
+sometimes French. Sometimes the device contains, or is composed of, a
+blazon, and commonly there is floral or other ornament. A collection of
+nearly three hundred of these medals belonged to the late Count of
+Valencia de Don Juan, all of which were probably made in Spain. The
+material as a rule is copper, adorned with _champleve_ enamelling, and
+the colours often used to decorate and relieve the interspaces of the
+gilded metal are red, blue, black, white, and green.
+
+                           [Illustration: LXI
+                           TRAVELLING LITTER
+      (_Attributed to Charles the Fifth. Royal Armoury, Madrid_)]
+
+According to Florencio Janer, coaches were not known in Spain until the
+middle of the sixteenth century. Before that time the usual conveyance
+was the litter. The Madrid Armoury contains an object which is thought
+to have been the campaigning-litter of Charles the Fifth (Plate lxi.).
+The Count of Valencia de Don Juan also inclined to this belief from the
+circumstance that an engraving exists in the British Museum which
+represents a German litter of the sixteenth century, identical in all
+respects with this one. Probably, however, these litters were the same
+all over Europe. The inventory of the Dukes of Alburquerque includes, in
+1560, a "cowhide litter, black, lined with black serge; also poles
+stained black, and harness for mules." This, together with other
+travelling gear, belonged to "my lady the duchess"; and it is worth
+noting that the litter attributed to Charles, though cased with a
+protective covering of whitish canvas, is also of black leather and
+lined with black serge, besides being evidently built for carriage by
+two mules. The interior contains a small armchair rising some inches
+only from the floor, and which, requiring him to keep his legs
+continually outstretched, could hardly fail to prove excruciatingly
+uncomfortable to the traveller.
+
+Mendez Silva says that the precise date of the introduction of coaches
+into Spain was 1546, and other writers do not greatly differ from him.
+The Alburquerque inventory includes "two four-wheeled coaches," as well
+as "a triumphal car with four wheels, its body painted with red and gold
+stripes." Vanderhamen, who says that the first coach ever seen in Spain
+was brought here by a servant of Charles the Fifth in 1554, adds that
+within a little time their use became "a hellish vice that wrought
+incalculable havoc to Castile." Certainly this vehicle for many years
+was far from popular among the Spaniards, and was assailed with special
+vehemence by all who lacked the income to support one. The Duke of
+Berganza is said to have remarked that "God had fashioned horses for the
+use of men, and men had fashioned coaches for the use of women"; while a
+priest, Tomas Ramon, declared that it was "a vast disgrace to see
+bearded men, with rapiers at their side, promenading in a coach." Even
+the governing powers thought fit to interfere. In 1550, 1563, and 1573
+the Cortes demanded the total prohibition of these modish yet detested
+vehicles, while the Cortes of 1578 decreed four horses as the statutory
+and invariable number for a private carriage. A further law enacted in
+1611 that coaches must be strictly private property, and not, on pain of
+rigorous chastisement, be lent or hired by their owner;[147] while the
+owner, to own or use a coach at all, required a special licence from the
+Crown.
+
+  [147] This prohibition was not inopportune. Swinburne wrote towards the
+        end of the eighteenth century; "Having occasion one day for a
+        coach to carry us about, the stable-boy of our inn offered his
+        services, and in a quarter of an hour brought to the door a coach
+        and four fine mules, with two postillions and a lacquey, all in
+        flaming liveries; we found they belonged to a countess, who, like
+        the rest of the nobility, allows her coachman to let out her
+        equipage when she has no occasion for it; it cost us about nine
+        shillings, which no doubt was the perquisite of the servants."
+
+Some curious facts relating to these vehicles in older Spain are
+instanced by Janer. In the seventeenth century a Spanish provincial town
+would normally contain a couple of hundred coaches. Among such boroughs
+was Granada. Here, in 1615, the authorities, backed by nearly all the
+citizens, protested that the coaches ploughed the highway into muddy
+pits and channels, and gave occasion, after nightfall, to disgraceful
+and immoral scenes.[148] After a while the protest grew so loud that the
+use of coaches in this capital was totally suppressed. One of the first
+persons to employ a coach in Granada had been the Marquis of Mondejar;
+and yet, in spite of his extensive influence, this nobleman, each time
+he wished to drive abroad, required to sue for licence from the town
+authorities, and these, in making out the written permit, took care to
+specify the streets through which he was allowed to pass.
+
+  [148] Towns still exist in Spain where vehicles are not allowed to
+        proceed at more than a walking-pace through any of the streets.
+        One of such towns is Argamasilla de Alba (of _Don Quixote_ fame),
+        where I remember to have read a notice to this effect, painted,
+        by order of the mayor, on a house-wall of the principal
+        thoroughfare.
+
+Assailed by numerous pragmatics,[149] chiefly of a sumptuary tenor and
+repeated at spasmodic intervals until as late as 1785, the private coach
+became at last an undisputed adjunct to the national life of Spain.
+Doubtless the use by royalty of gala-coaches or _carrozas_ went far to
+sanction and extend their vogue. However, I will not describe these
+lumbering, uncouth, and over-ornamented gala-carriages (some of which
+were made in Spain) belonging to the Spanish Crown, but quote the
+following pragmatic, dated 1723, as aptly illustrative of the progress
+of this industry, and other industries akin to it, in the Peninsula:--
+
+"In order to restrain the immoderate use of coaches, state-coaches,
+_estufas_, litters, _furlones_,[150] and calashes, we order that from
+this time forth no one of these be decorated with gold embroidery or any
+kind of silk containing gold, nor yet with bands or fringes that have
+gold or silver points; but only with velvets, damasks, and other simple
+silken fabrics made within this realm and its dependencies, or else in
+foreign countries that have friendly commerce with us. Also, the fringes
+and galloons shall be of silk alone; and none, of whatsoever dignity and
+degree, shall cause his coach, state-coach, etc., to be decorated with
+the fringes that are known as net-work, tassel-pointed, or bell-pointed;
+but only with undecorated, simple fringes, or with those of Santa
+Isabel; nor shall the breadth of either kind of these exceed four
+fingers. Also, he shall not cause his coach, state-coach, etc., to be
+overlaid with any gilt or silvered work, or painted with any manner of
+design--meaning by such, historic scenes, marines, landscapes, flowers,
+masks, knots of the pattern known as coulicoles, coats of arms, war
+devices, perspectives, or any other painting, except it imitate marble,
+or be marbled over of one single colour chosen at the owner's fancy; and
+further, we allow in every coach, state-coach, etc., only a certain
+moderate quantity of carving. And this our order and pragmatic shall
+begin to rule upon the day it is made public; from which day forth no
+person shall construct, or buy, or bring from other countries, coaches
+or _estufas_ that infringe our law herein expressed; wherefore we order
+the _alcaldes_ of this town, our court and capital, to make a register
+of all such vehicles that each house contains, without excepting any.
+Nevertheless, considering that if we should prohibit very shortly those
+conveyances that now be lawful, the owners would be put to great
+expense, we grant a period of two years wherein they may consume or rid
+themselves thereof; upon the expiration of which term our law shall be
+again made public, and thenceforward all, regardless of their quality
+and rank, shall be compelled to pay obedience to the same. Also we
+order that no person make or go abroad in hand-chairs fitted with
+brocade, or cloth of gold or silver, or yet with any silk containing
+gold and silver; nor shall the lining be embroidered or adorned with any
+of the stuffs aforesaid; but the covering of the chair, inside and out,
+shall only be of velvet, damask, or other unmixed silk, with a plain
+fringe of four fingers' breadth and button-holes of the same silk, and
+not of silver, gold, or thread, or any covering other than those
+aforesaid; but the columns of such chairs may be adorned with silken
+trimmings nailed thereto. And we allow, as in the case of coaches, a
+period of two years for wearing out the hand-chairs now in use.... Also,
+we order that the coverings of coaches, _estufas_, litters, calashes,
+and _furlones_ shall not be made of any kind of silk, or yet the harness
+of horses or mules for coaches and travelling litters; and that the said
+coaches, gala-coaches, _estufas_, litters, calashes, and _furlones_
+shall not be back-stitched (_pespuntados_), even if they should be of
+cowhide or of cordwain (goatskin); nor shall they contain any fitting of
+embroidered leather."
+
+  [149] A royal degree of 1619 disposed that "every one who sows and tills
+        twenty-five _fanegas_ of land each year, may use a coach."
+
+  [150] The _estufa_ (literally _stove_) was a form of family-coach. The
+        _furlon_ is described in an old dictionary as "a coach with four
+         seats and hung with leather curtains."
+
+
+
+
+                               PRINTED BY
+
+                      NEILL AND COMPANY, LIMITED,
+
+                               EDINBURGH.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+The original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and
+formatting have been maintained.
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked
+as an misprint.
+
+The text decoration above IV DE LA FVETE has been omitted on page 222.
+
+The table below lists all corrections applied to the original text.
+
+  p. xii: Old Keys; Seville Cathedral    126 -> 131
+  p. 11: for securing the cloak; the _torquis_ -> _torques_
+  p. 12: _Fibulae_ -> _Fibulae_
+  p. 17: Amador de los Rios -> Rios
+  p. 28: Amador de los Rios -> Rios
+  p. 28: de joyaux les plus precieux -> precieux
+  p. 65: is generally of the fifteeenth -> fifteenth
+  p. 70: He carried, too, a -> "a
+  p. 72: The goldsmiths' and the silversmiths -> silversmiths'
+  p. 82: Mores ont cache leurs tresors -> tresors
+  p. 90: a friar of Guadelupe -> Guadalupe
+  p. 91: Juan Gonzalez -> Gonzalez
+  p. 93: As soon as Cristobal -> Cristobal
+  p. 94: fue deste cuento, Jan -> Juan
+  p. 102: et cela luy feioit -> fetoit
+  p. 105: pearls or other stones. -> stones."
+  p. 123: in the _Museo Espanol de Antiguedades_ -> Antiguedades_)
+  p. 140: Museo Espanol de Antiguedades -> Antiguedades
+  p. 143: Museo Espanol de Antiguedades -> Antiguedades
+  p. 176: the emir of the Mussulmans Abi-Abdillah -> Abu-Abdillah
+  p. 180: D.C.C.C.C.XIII. -> D.C.C.C.C.XIII."
+  p. 181: and the Puertas del Perdon -> Perdon
+  p. 188: consisted of "a -> a !!!
+  p. 205: among the Germans _panzerbrecher_ -> _Panzerbrecher_
+  p. 206: frock (the _waffenrock_ -> _Waffenrock_
+  p. 220: which specifies "a bard -> band
+  p. 222: It has a _verga_ -> _verja_
+  p. 229: as well as the chape -> shape
+  p. 232: button and a black tassel. -> tassel."
+  p. 244: published in the _Boletin -> _Boletin
+  p. 262: and the burnisher. -> burnisher.
+  p. 264: making good files or razors. -> making good files or razors."
+  p. 273: of Segovia). Cristobal -> Cristobal
+
+
+
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