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@@ -1,38 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Modern Painting, Volume 2 -(of 4), by Richard Muther - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The History of Modern Painting, Volume 2 (of 4) - Revised edition continued by the author to the end of the XIX century - -Author: Richard Muther - -Release Date: October 5, 2013 [EBook #43894] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Laszlo, P. G. Mate and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43894 *** THE HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING @@ -92,10 +58,10 @@ CHAPTER XVI "Punch," John Leech, George du Maurier, Charles Keene.--Germany: Johann Adam Klein, Johann Christian Erhard, Ludwig Richter, Oscar Pletsch, Albert Hendschel, Eugen Neureuther, "Die Fliegende - Blaetter," Wilhelm Busch, Adolf Oberlaender.--France: Louis - Philibert Debucourt, Carle Vernet, Bosio, Henri Monnier, Honore - Daumier, Gavarni, Guys, Gustave Dore, Cham, Marcellin, Randon, - Gill, Hadol, Draner, Leonce Petit, Grevin.--Need of a fresh + Blätter," Wilhelm Busch, Adolf Oberländer.--France: Louis + Philibert Debucourt, Carle Vernet, Bosio, Henri Monnier, Honoré + Daumier, Gavarni, Guys, Gustave Doré, Cham, Marcellin, Randon, + Gill, Hadol, Draner, Léonce Petit, Grévin.--Need of a fresh discovery of the world by painters.--Incitement to this by the English 1 @@ -122,13 +88,13 @@ CHAPTER XVIII THE MILITARY PICTURE Why the victory of modernity on the Continent came only by - degrees.--Romantic conceptions.--AEsthetic theories and the + degrees.--Romantic conceptions.--Æsthetic theories and the question of costume.--Painting learns to treat contemporary costume by first dealing with uniform.--France: Gros, Horace - Vernet, Hippolyte Bellange, Isidor Pils, Alexander Protais, - Charlet, Raffet, Ernest Meissonier, Guillaume Regamey, Alphonse de - Neuville, Aime Morot, Edouard Detaille.--Germany: Albrecht Adam, - Peter Hess, Franz Krueger, Karl Steffeck, Th. Horschelt, Franz + Vernet, Hippolyte Bellangé, Isidor Pils, Alexander Protais, + Charlet, Raffet, Ernest Meissonier, Guillaume Régamey, Alphonse de + Neuville, Aimé Morot, Edouard Détaille.--Germany: Albrecht Adam, + Peter Hess, Franz Krüger, Karl Steffeck, Th. Horschelt, Franz Adam, Joseph v. Brandt, Heinrich Lang 92 CHAPTER XIX @@ -137,9 +103,9 @@ CHAPTER XIX Why painters sought their ideal in distant countries, though they did not plunge into the past.--Italy discovered by Leopold Robert, - Victor Schnetz, Ernest Hebert, August Riedel.--The East was for + Victor Schnetz, Ernest Hébert, August Riedel.--The East was for the Romanticists what Italy had been for the Classicists.--France: - Delacroix, Decamps, Prosper Marilhat, Eugene Fromentin, Gustave + Delacroix, Decamps, Prosper Marilhat, Eugène Fromentin, Gustave Guillaumet.--Germany: H. Kretzschmer, Wilhelm Gentz, Adolf Schreyer, and others.--England: William Muller, Frederick Goodall, F. J. Lewis.--Italy: Alberto Pasini 118 @@ -151,15 +117,15 @@ CHAPTER XX After seeking exotic subjects painting returns home, and finds amongst peasants a stationary type of life which has preserved picturesque costume.--Munich: The transition from the military - picture to the painting of peasants.--Peter Hess, Heinrich Buerkel, + picture to the painting of peasants.--Peter Hess, Heinrich Bürkel, Carl Spitzweg.--Hamburg: Hermann Kauffmann.--Berlin: Friedrich Eduard Meyerheim.--The influence of Wilkie, and the novel of - village life.--Munich: Johann Kirner, Carl Enhuber.--Duesseldorf: + village life.--Munich: Johann Kirner, Carl Enhuber.--Düsseldorf: Adolf Schroedter, Peter Hasenclever, Jacob Becker, Rudolf Jordan, Henry Ritter, Adolf Tidemand.--Vienna: Peter Krafft, J. Danhauser, - Ferdinand Waldmueller.--Belgium: Influence of Teniers.--Ignatius + Ferdinand Waldmüller.--Belgium: Influence of Teniers.--Ignatius van Regemorter, Ferdinand de Braekeleer, Henri Coene, Madou, Adolf - Dillens.--France: Francois Biard 140 + Dillens.--France: François Biard 140 CHAPTER XXI @@ -170,7 +136,7 @@ CHAPTER XXI pictures comes into conflict with the revolutionary temper of the age.--France: Delacroix' "Freedom," Jeanron, Antigna, Adolphe Leleux, Meissonier's "Barricade," Octave Tassaert.--Germany: - Gisbert Flueggen, Carl Huebner.--Belgium: Eugene de Block, Antoine + Gisbert Flüggen, Carl Hübner.--Belgium: Eugène de Block, Antoine Wiertz 175 CHAPTER XXII @@ -179,17 +145,17 @@ CHAPTER XXII Germany: Louis Knaus, Benjamin Vautier, Franz Defregger, Mathias Schmidt, Alois Gabl, Eduard Kurzbauer, Hugo Kauffmann, Wilhelm - Riefstahl.--The Comedy of Monks: Eduard Gruetzner.--Tales of the + Riefstahl.--The Comedy of Monks: Eduard Grützner.--Tales of the Exchange and the Manufactory: Ludwig Bokelmann, Ferdinand - Bruett.--Germany begins to transmit the principles of _genre_ + Brütt.--Germany begins to transmit the principles of _genre_ painting to other countries.--France: Gustave Brion, Charles Marchal, Jules Breton.--Norway and Sweden stand in union with - Duesseldorf: Karl D'Uncker, Wilhelm Wallander, Anders Koskull, + Düsseldorf: Karl D'Uncker, Wilhelm Wallander, Anders Koskull, Kilian Zoll, Peter Eskilson, August Jernberg, Ferdinand Fagerlin, V. Stoltenberg-Lerche, Hans Dahl.--Hungary fructified by Munich: - Ludwig Ebner, Paul Boehm, Otto von Baditz, Koloman Dery, Julius - Agghazi, Alexander Bihari, Ignaz Ruskovics, Johann Janko, Tihamer - Margitay, Paul Vago, Arpad Fessty, Otto Koroknyai, D. + Ludwig Ebner, Paul Boehm, Otto von Baditz, Koloman Déry, Julius + Aggházi, Alexander Bihari, Ignaz Ruskovics, Johann Jankó, Tihamér + Margitay, Paul Vagó, Arpad Fessty, Otto Koroknyai, D. Skuteczky.--Difference between these pictures and those of the old Dutch masters.--From Hogarth to Knaus.--Why Hogarth succumbed, and _genre_ painting had to become painting pure and simple.--This new @@ -207,8 +173,8 @@ CHAPTER XXIII artists from Denmark and Norway: J. C. Dahl, Christian Morgenstern, Ludwig Gurlitt.--Andreas Achenbach, Eduard Schleich.--The German landscape painters begin to travel - everywhere.--Influence of Calame.--H. Gude, Niels Bjoernson Moeller, - August Cappelen, Morten-Mueller, Erik Bodom, L. Munthe, E. A. + everywhere.--Influence of Calame.--H. Gude, Niels Björnson Möller, + August Cappelen, Morten-Müller, Erik Bodom, L. Munthe, E. A. Normann, Ludwig Willroider, Louis Douzette, Hermann Eschke, Carl Ludwig, Otto v. Kameke, Graf Stanislaus Kalkreuth, Oswald Achenbach, Albert Flamm, Ascan Lutteroth, Ferdinand Bellermann, @@ -224,7 +190,7 @@ CHAPTER XXIV Classical landscape painting in France: Hubert Robert, Henri Valenciennes, Victor Bertin, Xavier Bidault, Michallon, Jules - Cogniet, Watelet, Theodore Aligny, Edouard Bertin, Paul Flandrin, + Cogniet, Watelet, Théodore Aligny, Edouard Bertin, Paul Flandrin, Achille Benouville, J. Bellel.--Romanticism and the resort to national scenery: Victor Hugo, Georges Michel, the Ruysdael of Montmartre, Charles de la Berge, Camille Roqueplan, Camille Flers, @@ -244,16 +210,16 @@ CHAPTER XXV LANDSCAPE FROM 1830 Constable in the Louvre and his influence on the creators of the - French _paysage intime_.--Theodore Rousseau, Corot, Jules Dupre, + French _paysage intime_.--Théodore Rousseau, Corot, Jules Dupré, Diaz, Daubigny and their followers.--Chintreuil, Jean Desbrosses, - Achard, Francais, Harpignies, Emile Breton, and others.--Animal - painting: Carle Vernet, Gericault, R. Brascassat, Troyon, Rosa - Bonheur, Jadin, Eugene Lambert, Palizzi, Auguste Lancon, Charles + Achard, Français, Harpignies, Émile Breton, and others.--Animal + painting: Carle Vernet, Géricault, R. Brascassat, Troyon, Rosa + Bonheur, Jadin, Eugène Lambert, Palizzi, Auguste Lançon, Charles Jacque 294 CHAPTER XXVI - JEAN FRANCOIS MILLET + JEAN FRANÇOIS MILLET His importance, and the task left for those who followed him.--Millet's principle _Le beau c'est le vrai_ had to be @@ -275,9 +241,9 @@ CHAPTER XXVII Cinquecento the study of the old Germans, the Lombards, the Spaniards, the Flemish artists, and the _Rococo_ masters becomes now a formative influence.--Gustave Ricard, Charles Chaplin, - Gaillard, Paul Dubois, Carolus Duran, Leon Bonnat, Roybet, Blaise - Desgoffe, Philippe Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Francois Bonvin, - Theodule Ribot 391 + Gaillard, Paul Dubois, Carolus Duran, Léon Bonnat, Roybet, Blaise + Desgoffe, Philippe Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, François Bonvin, + Théodule Ribot 391 BIBLIOGRAPHY 435 @@ -297,8 +263,8 @@ PLATES IN COLOUR MORLAND: Horses in a Stable 69 LANDSEER: Jack in Office 76 FROMENTIN: Algerian Falconers 132 - ROTTMANN: Lake Kopais 234 - TURNER: The old Temeraire 268 + ROTTMANN: Lake Kopaïs 234 + TURNER: The old Téméraire 268 CONSTABLE: Willy Lott's House 275 BONINGTON: La Place de Molards, Geneva 290 COROT: Landscape 316 @@ -338,15 +304,15 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Reading Aloud 291 Portrait of Richard Parkes Bonington 293 - BONNAT, LEON. + BONNAT, LÉON. Adolphe Thiers 423 Victor Hugo 424 - BONVIN, FRANCOIS. + BONVIN, FRANÇOIS. The Cook 427 The Work-Room 428 - BRETON, EMILE. + BRETON, ÉMILE. The Return of the Reapers 225 The Gleaner 226 @@ -356,8 +322,8 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE BUNBURY, WILLIAM HENRY. Richmond Hill 9 - BUeRKEL, HEINRICH. - Portrait of Heinrich Buerkel 143 + BÜRKEL, HEINRICH. + Portrait of Heinrich Bürkel 143 Brigands Returning 144 A Downpour in the Mountains 145 A Smithy in Upper Bavaria 146 @@ -376,7 +342,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Portrait of Countess Aimery de la Rochefoucauld 419 CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUISSAINT. - Un homme qui boit seul n'est pas digne de vivre 95 + Un homme qui boît seul n'est pas digne de vivre 95 CHINTREUIL, ANTOINE. Landscape: Morning 343 @@ -437,20 +403,20 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE DANHAUSER, JOSEF. The Gormandizer 179 - DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANCOIS. - Portrait of Charles Francois Daubigny 335 + DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANÇOIS. + Portrait of Charles François Daubigny 335 Springtime 336 A Lock in the Valley of Optevoz 337 On the Oise 338 Shepherd and Shepherdess 339 Landscape: Evening 341 - DAUMIER, HONORE. - Portrait of Honore Daumier 37 + DAUMIER, HONORÉ. + Portrait of Honoré Daumier 37 The Connoisseurs 38 The Mountebanks 39 In the Assize Court 40 - "La voila ... ma Maison de Campagne" 41 + "La voilà ... ma Maison de Campagne" 41 Menelaus the Victor 42 DEBUCOURT, LOUIS PHILIBERT. @@ -470,8 +436,8 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE The Prize Horse 213 Andreas Hofer appointed Governor of the Tyrol 215 - DETAILLE, EDOUARD. - Salut aux Blesses 111 + DÉTAILLE, EDOUARD. + Salut aux Blessés 111 DIAZ, NARCISSE VIRGILIO. Portrait of Narcisse Diaz 328 @@ -483,9 +449,9 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE DUBOIS, PAUL. Portrait of my Sons 421 - DUPRE, JULES. - Portrait of Jules Dupre 318 - The House of Jules Dupre at L'isle-Adam 319 + DUPRÉ, JULES. + Portrait of Jules Dupré 318 + The House of Jules Dupré at L'isle-Adam 319 The Setting Sun 320 The Bridge at L'isle-Adam 321 Near Southampton 322 @@ -506,17 +472,17 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE A Peasant Scene 22 A Peasant Family 23 - FLAMM, ALBERT. + FLÀMM, ALBERT. A Summer Day 251 - FLUeGGEN, GISBERT. + FLÜGGEN, GISBERT. The Decision of the Suit 186 FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL. Poverty and Wealth 89 - FROMENTIN, EUGENE. - Portrait of Eugene Fromentin 133 + FROMENTIN, EUGÈNE. + Portrait of Eugène Fromentin 133 Arabian Women returning from drawing Water 134 The Centaurs 135 @@ -527,21 +493,21 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Portrait of Gavarni 43 Thomas Vireloque 44 Fourberies de Femmes 45 - Phedre at the Theatre Francais 48 - "Ce qui me manque a moi? Une t'ite mere comme ca, + Phèdre at the Théâtre Français 48 + "Ce qui me manque à moi? Une t'ite mère comme ça, qu'aurait soin de mon linge" 49 GILLRAY, JAMES. Affability 5 - GREVIN, ALFRED. + GRÉVIN, ALFRED. Nos Parisiennes 51 - GRUeTZNER, EDUARD. + GRÜTZNER, EDUARD. Twelfth Night 219 GUILLAUMET, GUSTAVE. - The Seguia, near Biskra 136 + The Séguia, near Biskra 136 A Dwelling in the Sahara 137 GURLITT, LUDWIG. @@ -553,14 +519,14 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE HARPIGNIES, HENRI. Moonrise 344 - HEBERT, ERNEST. + HÉBERT, ERNEST. The Malaria 123 HESS, PETER. The Reception of King Otto in Nauplia 114 A Morning at Partenkirche 142 - HUeBNER, CARL. + HÜBNER, CARL. July 187 HUET, PAUL. @@ -568,7 +534,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE The Inundation at St. Cloud 266 HUGO, VICTOR. - Ruins of a Mediaeval Castle on the Rhine 261 + Ruins of a Mediæval Castle on the Rhine 261 JACQUE, CHARLES. The Return to the Byre (Etching) 355 @@ -675,7 +641,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT. George du Maurier 12 - MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS. + MILLET, JEAN FRANÇOIS. Portrait of Himself 361 The House at Gruchy 363 The Winnower 367 @@ -721,11 +687,11 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE NEWTON, GILBERT STUART. Yorick and the Grisette 83 - OBERLAeNDER, ADOLF. + OBERLÄNDER, ADOLF. Variations on the Kissing Theme. Rethel 30 Variations on the Kissing Theme. Gabriel Max 30 Variations on the Kissing Theme. Hans Makart 31 - Portrait of Adolf Oberlaender 31 + Portrait of Adolf Oberländer 31 Variations on the Kissing Theme. Genelli 32 Variations on the Kissing Theme. Alma Tadema 32 @@ -749,7 +715,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE REID, SIR GEORGE. Portrait of Charles Keene 18 - RIBOT, THEODULE. + RIBOT, THÉODULE. The Studio 429 At a Norman Inn 430 Keeping Accounts 431 @@ -785,8 +751,8 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Portrait of Karl Rottmann 232 The Coast of Sicily 233 - ROUSSEAU, THEODORE. - Portrait of Theodore Rousseau 295 + ROUSSEAU, THÉODORE. + Portrait of Théodore Rousseau 295 Morning 296 Landscape, Morning Effect 297 The Village of Becquigny in Picardy 299 @@ -813,7 +779,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE STEVENS, ALFRED. The Lady in Pink 413 - La Bete a bon Dieu 414 + La Bête à bon Dieu 414 The Japanese Mask 415 The Visitors 416 @@ -838,7 +804,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Portrait of J. M. W. Turner 267 A Shipwreck 268 Dido building Carthage 269 - Jumieges 270 + Jumièges 270 Landscape with the Sun rising in a Mist 271 Venice 272 @@ -855,7 +821,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Portrait of Antoine Vollon 425 A Carnival Scene 426 - WALDMUeLLER, FERDINAND. + WALDMÜLLER, FERDINAND. The First Step 171 WALLANDER, WILHELM. @@ -903,11 +869,11 @@ set itself in opposition to all the great epochs that had gone before. All works known to the history of art, from the cathedral pictures of Stephan Lochner down to the works of the followers of Watteau, stand in the closest relationship with the people and times amid which they have -originated. Whoever studies the works of Duerer knows his home and his +originated. Whoever studies the works of Dürer knows his home and his family, the Nuremberg of the sixteenth century, with its narrow lanes and gabled houses; the whole age is reflected in the engravings of this one artist with a truth and distinctness which put to shame those of the -most laborious historian. Duerer and his contemporaries in Italy stood in +most laborious historian. Dürer and his contemporaries in Italy stood in so intimate a relation to reality that in their religious pictures they even set themselves above historical probability, and treated the miraculous stories of sacred tradition as if they had been commonplace @@ -929,7 +895,7 @@ the art of painting. It cannot be supposed that later generations will be able to form a conception of life in the nineteenth century from pictures produced in this period, or that these pictures will become approximately such documents as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries -possess in the works of Duerer, Bellini, Rubens, or Rembrandt. The old +possess in the works of Dürer, Bellini, Rubens, or Rembrandt. The old masters were the children of their age to the very tips of their fingers. They were saturated with the significance, the ideals, and the aims of their time, and they saturated them with their own aims, ideals, @@ -948,7 +914,7 @@ use of the figures of Roman heroes. The political freedom of the people, so recently won, so fresh in men's minds, he illustrated by examples from Roman history. At a later time, when the allied forces entered Paris after the defeat of Napoleon, he made use of the story of Leonidas -at Thermopylae. Only in portrait painting was any kind of justice done to +at Thermopylæ. Only in portrait painting was any kind of justice done to modern life by the painters in "the grand style." True it is that there lived, at the time, a few "little masters" who furtively turned out for the market modest little pictures of the life around them, paintings of @@ -978,7 +944,7 @@ with the picture and the crowd pressing round it. His speciality, however, was little portrait groups of honest _bourgeois_ in their stiff Sunday finery. Boilly knew with accuracy the toilettes of his age, the gowns of the actresses, and the way they dressed their heads; he cared -nothing whatever about aesthetic dignity of style, but represented each +nothing whatever about æsthetic dignity of style, but represented each subject as faithfully as he could, and as honestly and sincerely as possible. For that reason he is of great historical value, but he is not painter enough to lay claim to great artistic interest. The execution of @@ -991,7 +957,7 @@ Terborg and Metsu, but the contemporaries of Van der Werff. He and Drolling and Granet were rather the last issue of the fine old Dutch schools, rather descendants of Chardin than pioneers, and amongst the younger men there was at first no one who ventured to sow afresh the -region which had been devastated by Classicism. Gericault certainly was +region which had been devastated by Classicism. Géricault certainly was incited to his "Raft of the Medusa" not by Livy or Plutarch, but by an occurrence of the time which was reported in the newspapers; and he ventured to set an ordinary shipwreck in the place of the Deluge or a @@ -1062,12 +1028,12 @@ as yet no counterpart in painting. [Illustration: BUNBURY. RICHMOND HILL.] The Belgians preserved the same silence. During the whole maturity of -Classicism, from 1800 to 1830, Francois, Paelinck, van Hanselaere, +Classicism, from 1800 to 1830, François, Paelinck, van Hanselaere, Odevaere, de Roi, Duvivier, etc., with their coloured Greek statues, ruled the realm of figure painting as unmitigated dictators; and amongst the historical painters who followed them, Wappers, in his "Episode," was the only one who drew on modern life for a subject. There was a -desire to revive Rubens. Decaisne, Wappers, de Keyzer, Biefve, and +desire to revive Rubens. Decaisne, Wappers, de Keyzer, Bièfve, and Gallait lit their candle at his sun, and were hailed as the holy band who were to lead Belgian art to a glorious victory. But their original national tendency deviated from real life instead of leading towards it. @@ -1087,7 +1053,7 @@ explanation. [Illustration: LEECH. LITTLE SPICEY AND TATER SAM.] -In France, as in all other countries, the end of the _ancien regime_, +In France, as in all other countries, the end of the _ancien régime_, the tempest of the Revolution, and the consequent modification of the whole of life--of sentiments, habits, and ideas, of dress and social conditions--at first implied such a sudden change in the horizon that @@ -1150,18 +1116,18 @@ art out of the novel elements which the century placed at its disposal. It still needed to be carried in the arms of a Venetian or Flemish nurse. -And aesthetic criticism bestowed its blessing on these attempts. The +And æsthetic criticism bestowed its blessing on these attempts. The Romanticists had been forced to the treatment of history and the deification of the past by disgust with the grey and colourless present; the younger generation were long afterwards held captive in this -province by aesthetic views of the dignity of history. To paint one's own +province by æsthetic views of the dignity of history. To paint one's own age was reckoned a crime. One had to paint the age of other people. For this purpose the _prix de Rome_ was instituted. The spirit which produced the pictures of Cabanel and Bouguereau was the same that induced David to write to Gros, that the battles of the empire might afford the material for occasional pictures done under the inspiration of chance, but not for great and earnest works of art worthy of an -historical painter. That aesthetic criticism which taught that, whatever +historical painter. That æsthetic criticism which taught that, whatever the subject be, and whatever personages may be represented, if they belong to the present time the picture is merely a _genre_ picture, still held the field. Whilst the world was laughing and crying, the @@ -1187,7 +1153,7 @@ direct observation of the world, and lent them the aptitude of rendering their impressions with ease; and that at a time when the academical methods of depicting physiognomy obtained elsewhere in every direction. It necessitated their representing subjects to which, in accordance with -the aesthetic views of the period, they would not otherwise have +the æsthetic views of the period, they would not otherwise have addressed themselves; it led them to discover beauties in spheres of life by which they would otherwise have been repelled. London, the capital of a free people ruling in all quarters of the globe, the home @@ -1388,7 +1354,7 @@ Leech_, who between 1841 and 1864 was the leading artist on _Punch_. In his drawings there is already to be found the high-bred and fragrant delicacy of the English painting of the present time. They stand in relation to the whimsical and vigorous works of Rowlandson as the fine -_esprit_ of a rococo abbe to the coarse and healthy wit of Rabelais. The +_esprit_ of a rococo abbé to the coarse and healthy wit of Rabelais. The mildness of his own temperament is reflected in his sketches. Others have been the cause of more laughter, but he loved beauty and purity. Men are not often drawn by him, or if he draws them they are always @@ -1418,7 +1384,7 @@ everything has a significance. [Illustration: ERHARD. A PEASANT SCENE.] Leech's successor, _George du Maurier_, is less delicate--that is to -say, not so entirely and loftily aesthetic. He is less exclusively +say, not so entirely and loftily æsthetic. He is less exclusively poetic, but lives more in actual life, and suffers less from the raw breath of reality. At the same time, his drawing is pithier and more incisive; one discerns his French training. In 1857 du Maurier was a @@ -1434,8 +1400,8 @@ race about the lawn at tennis in large hats and bright dresses, or sit by the fire in fashionable apartments, or hover through a ball-room waltzing in their airy skirts of tulle. The coquettishness of his little ones is entirely charming, and so too is the superior and comical -exclusiveness of his aesthetically brought-up children, who will -associate with no children not aesthetic. +exclusiveness of his æsthetically brought-up children, who will +associate with no children not æsthetic. [Illustration: ERHARD. A PEASANT FAMILY.] @@ -1500,7 +1466,7 @@ diligently engraved upon copper with sympathetic care, and so left posterity a picture of German life in the beginning of the century that seems the more sincere and earnest because it has paid toll neither to style in composition nor to idealism. This invaluable Klein was a -healthy and sincere realist, from whom the aesthetic theories of the time +healthy and sincere realist, from whom the æsthetic theories of the time recoiled without effect, and he had no other motive than to render faithfully whatever he saw. Even in Vienna, whither he came as a young man in 1811, it was not the picture galleries which roused him to his @@ -1544,7 +1510,7 @@ newer German art. Klein and Erhard having set out in advance, others, such as Haller von Hallerstein, L. C. Wagner, F. Rechberger, F. Moessmer, K. Wagner, E. A. -Lebschee, and August Geist, each after his own fashion, made little +Lebschée, and August Geist, each after his own fashion, made little voyages of discovery into the world of nature belonging to their own country. But Erhard, who died in 1822, has found his greatest disciple in a young Dresden master, whose name makes the familiar appeal of an @@ -1559,7 +1525,7 @@ like the exercises of a gifted amateur: they have a petty correctness and a _bourgeois_ neatness of line. But Germans are quite willing to forget the artistic point of view in relation to their Ludwig Richter. Sunny and childlike as he is, they love him too much to care to see his -artistic failings. Here is really that renowned German "_Gemueth_" of +artistic failings. Here is really that renowned German "_Gemüth_" of which others make so great an abuse. [Illustration: L. RICHTER. SPRING.] @@ -1606,7 +1572,7 @@ on his eightieth birthday. Through his works there echoes a humming and chiming like the joyous cry of children and the twitter of birds. Even his landscapes are filled with that blissful and solemn feeling that Sunday and the spring produce -together in a lonely walk over field and meadow. The "_Gemuethlichkeit_," +together in a lonely walk over field and meadow. The "_Gemüthlichkeit_," the cordiality, of German family-life, with a trait of contemplative romance, could find such a charming interpreter in none but him, the old man who went about in his long loose coat and had the face of an @@ -1659,7 +1625,7 @@ dale into the sunny distance. In the midst of this free rejoicing world the artist is seated with his pencil. And above stands the motto written by Richter's hand-- - "Und die Sonne Homer's, siehe sie laechelt auch uns." + "Und die Sonne Homer's, siehe sie lächelt auch uns." By the success of Richter certain disciples were inspired to tread the same ground, although none of them equalled him in his charming human @@ -1675,7 +1641,7 @@ immortalised the joy and sorrow of youth in such a delicious way. [Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - OBERLAeNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. + OBERLÄNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. RETHEL.] @@ -1686,7 +1652,7 @@ quatrains. [Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - OBERLAeNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. + OBERLÄNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. GABRIEL MAX.] @@ -1696,9 +1662,9 @@ topical papers of no artistic importance, periodical publications, which soon brought a large number of vigorous caricaturists into notice, began to appear from that time, owing to the political agitations of the period. _Kladderadatsch_ was brought out in Berlin, and _Fliegende -Blaetter_ was founded in Munich, and side by side with it _Muenchener +Blätter_ was founded in Munich, and side by side with it _Münchener Bilderbogen_. But later generations will be referred _par excellence_ to -_Fliegende Blaetter_ for a picture of German life in the nineteenth +_Fliegende Blätter_ for a picture of German life in the nineteenth century. What the painters of those years forgot to transmit is here stored up: a history of German manners which could not imaginably be more exact or more exhaustive. From the very first day it united on its @@ -1708,7 +1674,7 @@ others whom the German people will not forget, won their spurs here, and were inexhaustible in pretty theatre scenes, satires on German and Italian singing, memorial sketches of Fanny Elsler, of the inventor of the dress coat, etc., which enlivened the whole civilized world at that -time. This elder generation of draughtsmen on _Fliegende Blaetter_ were, +time. This elder generation of draughtsmen on _Fliegende Blätter_ were, indeed, not free from the guilt of producing stereotyped figures. The travelling Englishman, the Polish Jew, the counter-jumper, the young painter, the rich boor, the stepmother, the housemaid, and the nervous @@ -1720,14 +1686,14 @@ reserved for men of later date. [Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - OBERLAeNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. + OBERLÄNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. HANS MAKART.] -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ ADOLF OBERLAeNDER.] +[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ ADOLF OBERLÄNDER.] Two of the greatest humorists of the world in illustrative art, _Wilhelm -Busch_ and _Adolf Oberlaender_, stand at the head of those who ushered in +Busch_ and _Adolf Oberländer_, stand at the head of those who ushered in the flourishing period of German caricature. They are masters, and take in with their glance the entire social world of our time, and in their brilliant prints they have made a history of civilisation for the epoch @@ -1742,19 +1708,19 @@ That is Wilhelm Busch. [Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - OBERLAeNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. + OBERLÄNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. GENELLI.] [Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - OBERLAeNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. + OBERLÄNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. ALMA TADEMA.] In the large orbs of the other--orbs which seem to grow strangely wide by long gazing as at some fixed object--there is no smile of deliberate -mischief, and it is not easy to associate the name of Oberlaender with +mischief, and it is not easy to associate the name of Oberländer with this Saturnian round face, with its curiously timid glance. One is reminded of the definition of humour as "smiling amid tears." @@ -1767,11 +1733,11 @@ inhabitants. He lives in the house of his brother-in-law, the clergyman of the parish, and gives himself up to the culture of bees. His laughter has fallen silent, and it is only a journal on bees that now receives contributions from his hand. But what works this hermit of Wiedensahl -produced in the days when he migrated from Duesseldorf and Antwerp to +produced in the days when he migrated from Düsseldorf and Antwerp to Munich, and began in 1859 his series of sketches for _Fliegende -Blaetter_! The first were stiff and clumsy, the text in prose and not +Blätter_! The first were stiff and clumsy, the text in prose and not particularly witty. But the earliest work with a versified text, _Der -Bauer und der Windmueller_, contains in the germ all the qualities which +Bauer und der Windmüller_, contains in the germ all the qualities which later found such brilliant expression in _Max und Moritz_, in _Der Heilige Antonius_, _Die Fromme Helene_, and _Die Erlebnisse Knopps,_ _des Junggesellen_, and made Busch's works an inexhaustible fountain of @@ -1799,21 +1765,21 @@ caricaturists, _le roi de la charge et la bouffonnerie_. DEBUCOURT. IN THE KITCHEN.] -_Oberlaender_, without whom it would be impossible to imagine _Fliegende -Blaetter_, has not fallen silent. He works on, "fresh and splendid as on +_Oberländer_, without whom it would be impossible to imagine _Fliegende +Blätter_, has not fallen silent. He works on, "fresh and splendid as on the first day." A gifted nature like Busch, he possesses, at the same -time, that fertility of which Duerer said: "A good painter is inwardly +time, that fertility of which Dürer said: "A good painter is inwardly complete and opulent, and were it possible for him to live eternally, then by virtue of those inward ideas of which Plato writes he would be always able to pour something new into his works." It is now thirty -years ago that he began his labours for _Fliegende Blaetter_, and since +years ago that he began his labours for _Fliegende Blätter_, and since that time some drawing of his, which has filled every one with delight, has appeared almost every week. Kant said that Providence has given men three things to console them amid the miseries of life--hope, sleep, and -laughter. If he is right, Oberlaender is amongst the greatest benefactors +laughter. If he is right, Oberländer is amongst the greatest benefactors of mankind. Every one of his new sketches maintains the old precious qualities. It might be said that, by the side of the comedian Busch, -Oberlaender seems a serious psychologist. Wilhelm Busch lays his whole +Oberländer seems a serious psychologist. Wilhelm Busch lays his whole emphasis on the comical effects of simplicity; he knows how to reduce an object in a masterly fashion to its elemental lines, which are comic in themselves by their epigrammatic pregnancy. He calls forth peals of @@ -1821,7 +1787,7 @@ laughter by the farcical spirit of his inventions and the boldness with which he renders his characters absurd. He is also the author of his own letterpress. His drawings are unimaginable without the verse, without the finely calculated and dramatic succession of situations growing to a -catastrophe. Oberlaender gets his effect purely by means of the pictorial +catastrophe. Oberländer gets his effect purely by means of the pictorial elements in his representation, and attains a comical result, neither by the distorted exaggeration of what is on the face of the matter ridiculous, nor by an elementary simplification, but by a refined @@ -1831,8 +1797,8 @@ picks out of everything the determining feature of its being. And whilst he faintly exaggerates what is characteristic and renders it distinct, his picture is given a force and power of conviction to which no previous caricaturist has attained, with so much discretion at the same -time. No one has attained the drollness of Oberlaender's people, animals, -and plants. He draws _a la_ Max, _a la_ Makart, Rethel, Genelli, or +time. No one has attained the drollness of Oberländer's people, animals, +and plants. He draws _à la_ Max, _à la_ Makart, Rethel, Genelli, or Piloty, hunts in the desert or theatrical representations, Renaissance architecture run mad or the most modern European mashers. He is as much at home in the Cameroons as in Munich, and in transferring the droll @@ -1848,13 +1814,13 @@ which the history of drawing has anywhere to show. [Illustration: DEBUCOURT. THE PROMENADE.] -The _Charivari_ takes its place with _Punch_ and _Fliegende Blaetter_. +The _Charivari_ takes its place with _Punch_ and _Fliegende Blätter_. In the land of Rabelais also caricature has flourished since the opening of the century, in spite of official masters who reproached her with desecrating the sacred temple of art, and in spite of the gendarmes who put her in gaol. Here, too, it was the draughtsmen who first broke with -aesthetic prejudices, and saw the laughing and the weeping dramas of life +æsthetic prejudices, and saw the laughing and the weeping dramas of life with an unprejudiced glance. Debucourt and Carle Vernet, the pair who made their appearance @@ -1870,16 +1836,16 @@ surpass them by the added charm of colour. _Carle Vernet_, originally an historical painter, remembered that he had married the daughter of the younger Moreau, and set himself to portray -the doings of the _jeunesse doree_ of the end of the eighteenth century +the doings of the _jeunesse dorée_ of the end of the eighteenth century in his _incroyables_ and his _merveilleuses_. Crazy, eccentric, and superstitious, he divided his time afterwards between women and his club-fellows, horses and dogs. He survives in the history of art as the -chronicler of sport, hunting, racing, and drawing-room and cafe scenes. +chronicler of sport, hunting, racing, and drawing-room and café scenes. _Louis Philibert Debucourt_ was a pupil of Vien, and had painted _genre_ pictures in the spirit of Greuze before he turned in 1785 to colour -engraving. In this year appeared the pretty "Menuet de la Mariee," with -the peasant couples dancing, and the dainty chatelaine who laughingly +engraving. In this year appeared the pretty "Menuet de la Mariée," with +the peasant couples dancing, and the dainty châtelaine who laughingly opens the ball with the young husband. After that he had found his specialty, and in the last decade of the eighteenth century he produced the finest of his colour engravings. In 1792 there is the wonderful @@ -1906,7 +1872,7 @@ while eccentric hats, broad sashes, and high coiffures bedizen the ladies more than is consistent with elegance. At the same time, Debucourt gives this democracy an aristocratic bearing. His prostitutes look like duchesses. His art is an attenuated echo of the _rococo_ -period. In him the _decadence_ is embodied, and all the grace and +period. In him the _décadence_ is embodied, and all the grace and elegance of the century is once more united, although it has become more _bourgeois_. @@ -1924,7 +1890,7 @@ they bent over their paper or their plate of copper, and felt it their duty to suggest the stiff lines of antique statues beneath the folds of modern costume. -[Illustration: _L'Art._ HONORE DAUMIER.] +[Illustration: _L'Art._ HONORÉ DAUMIER.] _Bosio_ was the genuine product of this style. Every one of his pictures has become tedious, because of a spurious classicism to which he adhered @@ -1940,14 +1906,14 @@ an insipidly fluent outline. As soon as Romanticism had broken with the classic system, certain great draughtsmen, who laid a bold hand on modern life without being shackled -by aesthetic formulae, came to the front in France. _Henri Monnier_, the +by æsthetic formulæ, came to the front in France. _Henri Monnier_, the eldest of them, was born a year after the proclamation of the Empire. Cloaks, plumes, and sabretasches were the first impressions of his youth; he saw the return of triumphant armies and heard the fanfare of victorious trumpets. The Old Guard remained his ideal, the inglorious kingship of the Restoration his abhorrence. He was a supernumerary clerk in the Department of Justice when in 1828 his first brochure, _Moeurs -administratives dessinees d'apres nature par Henri Monnier_, disclosed +administratives dessinées d'aprés nature par Henri Monnier_, disclosed to his superiors that the eyes of this poor young man in the service of the Ministry had seen more than they should have done. Dismissed from his post, he was obliged to support himself by his pencil, and became @@ -1955,7 +1921,7 @@ the chronicler of the epoch. In Monnier's prints breathes the happy Paris of the good old times, a Paris which in these days scarcely exists even in the provinces. His "Joseph Proudhomme," from his shoe-buckles to his stand-up collar, from his white cravat to his blue spectacles, is as -immortal as _Eisele und Beisele_, _Schulze und Mueller_, or Moliere's +immortal as _Eisele und Beisele_, _Schulze und Müller_, or Molière's _Bourgeois Gentilhomme_. Monnier himself is his own Proudhomme. He is the Philistine in Paris, enjoying little Parisian idylls with a _bourgeois_ complacency. With him there is no distinction between @@ -1964,7 +1930,7 @@ account. How admirably the different worlds of Parisian society are discriminated in his _Quartiers de Paris_! How finely he has portrayed the grisette of the period, with her following of young tradesmen and poor students! As yet she has not blossomed into the fine lady, the -luxurious _blasee_ woman of the next generation. She is still the +luxurious _blasée_ woman of the next generation. She is still the bashful _modiste_ or dressmaker's apprentice whose outings in the country are described by Paul de Kock, a pretty child in a short skirt who lives in an attic and dresses up only when she goes to the theatre @@ -2008,7 +1974,7 @@ who merit a place beside the greatest. DAUMIER. THE MOUNTEBANKS. - (_By permission of M. Eugene Montrosier, the owner of the picture._)] + (_By permission of M. Eugène Montrosier, the owner of the picture._)] When in his young days Daubigny trod the pavement of the Sistine Chapel in Rome, he is said to have exclaimed in astonishment, "That looks as if @@ -2031,10 +1997,10 @@ painters, the most various and the basest creatures are treated by his pencil, and appear on pages which are often terrible in their depth and truthfulness of observation. The period of Louis Philippe is accurately portrayed in these prints, every one of which belongs to the great -volume of the human tragicomedy. In his "Emotions parisiennes" and -"Bohemiens de Paris" he deals with misfortune, hunger, the impudence of +volume of the human tragicomedy. In his "Émotions parisiennes" and +"Bohémiens de Paris" he deals with misfortune, hunger, the impudence of vice, and the horror of misery. His "Histoire ancienne" ridiculed the -absurdity of Classicism _a la_ David at a time when it was still +absurdity of Classicism _à la_ David at a time when it was still regarded as high treason to touch this sacred fane. These modern figures with the classical pose, which to some extent parodied David's pictures, were probably what first brought his contemporaries to a sense of the @@ -2064,14 +2030,14 @@ other a refined grace; in the one brusque and savage observation and almost menacing sarcasm, in the other the wayward mood of the butterfly flitting lightly from flower to flower. Daumier might be compared with Rabelais; Gavarni, the _spirituel_ journalist of the _grand monde_ and -the _demi-monde_, the draughtsman of elegance and of _roues_ and -_lorettes_, might be compared with Moliere. Born of poor parentage in +the _demi-monde_, the draughtsman of elegance and of _roués_ and +_lorettes_, might be compared with Molière. Born of poor parentage in Paris in 1801, and in his youth a mechanician, he supported himself from the year 1835 by fashion prints and costume drawings. He undertook the conduct of a fashion journal, _Les Gens du Monde_, and began it with a -series of drawings from the life of the _jeunesse doree_: _les +series of drawings from the life of the _jeunesse dorée_: _les Lorettes_, _les Actrices_, _les Fashionables_, _les Artistes_, _les -Etudiants de Paris_, _les Bals masques_, _les Souvenirs du Carnaval_, +Étudiants de Paris_, _les Bals masqués_, _les Souvenirs du Carnaval_, _la Vie des Jeunes Hommes_. A new world was here revealed with bold traits. The women of Daumier are good, fat mothers, always busy, quick-witted, and of an enviable constitution; women who are careful in @@ -2088,7 +2054,7 @@ crystal mirrors. [Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - DAUMIER. "LA VOILA ... MA MAISON DE CAMPAGNE."] + DAUMIER. "LA VOILÀ ... MA MAISON DE CAMPAGNE."] Gavarni was the first who seized the worldly side of modern life; he portrayed elegant figures full of _chic_, and gave them a garb which @@ -2138,7 +2104,7 @@ already worked on these lines. He was an unfortunate and ailing man, who passed his existence, like Verlaine, in hospital, and died in an almshouse. Guys has not left much behind him, but in that little he shows himself the true forerunner of the moderns, and it is not a mere -chance that Baudelaire, the ancestor of the _decadence_, established +chance that Baudelaire, the ancestor of the _décadence_, established Guys' memory. These women who wander aimlessly about the streets with weary movements and heavy eyes deadened with absinthe, and who flit through the ball-room like bats, have nothing of the innocent charm of @@ -2161,8 +2127,8 @@ Daumier is; he has not the feeling for large movement, but with what terrible directness he analyses faces! He has followed woman through all seasons of life and in every grade, from youth to decay, and from brilliant wealth to filthy misery, and he has written the story of the -_lorette_ in monumental strophes: cafe chantant, villa in the Champs -Elysees, equipage, grooms, Bois de Boulogne, procuress, garret, and +_lorette_ in monumental strophes: café chantant, villa in the Champs +Elysées, equipage, grooms, Bois de Boulogne, procuress, garret, and radish-woman, that final incarnation which Victor Hugo called the sentence of judgment. @@ -2178,7 +2144,7 @@ meditated on the miserable, tattered creatures whom he saw around him, with other eyes. He studied the toiling masses, and roamed about in slums and wine-caves amongst pickpockets and bullies. And what Paris had not yet revealed to him, he learnt in 1849 in London. Even there he was -not the first-comer. Gericault, who as early as 1821 dived into the +not the first-comer. Géricault, who as early as 1821 dived into the misery of the vast city, and brought out a series of lithographs, showed him the way. Beggars cowering half dead with exhaustion at a baker's door, ragged pipers slouching round deserted quarters of the town, poor @@ -2198,7 +2164,7 @@ our epoch. By this work Gavarni has come down to us as a contemporary, and by it he has become a pioneer. The enigmatical figure of "Thomas Vireloque" starts up in these times, following step by step in the path of his prototype: he is the philosopher of the back streets, the ragged -scoundrel with dynamite in his pocket, the incarnation of the _bete +scoundrel with dynamite in his pocket, the incarnation of the _bête humaine_, of human misery and human vice. Here Gavarni stands far above Hogarth and far above Callot. The ideas on social politics of the first half of the century are concentrated in "Thomas Vireloque." @@ -2221,29 +2187,29 @@ _Journal amusant_, under which it is known at the present day. GAVARNI. FOURBERIES DE FEMMES. - _Au premier Mosieu._--"Attendez-moi ce soir, de quatre a cinq heures, + _Au premier Mosieu._--"Attendez-moi ce soir, de quatre à cinq heures, quai de l'Horloge du Palais.--_Votre_ AUGUSTINE." - _Au deuxieme Mosieu._--"Ce soir, quai des Lunettes, entre quatre et + _Au deuxième Mosieu._--"Ce soir, quai des Lunettes, entre quatre et cinq heures.--_Votre_ AUGUSTINE." - _Au troisieme Mosieu._--"Quai des Morfondus, ce soir, de quatre heures - a cinq.--_Votre_ AUGUSTINE." + _Au troisième Mosieu._--"Quai des Morfondus, ce soir, de quatre heures + à cinq.--_Votre_ AUGUSTINE." - _A un quatrieme Mosieu._--"Je t'attends ce soir, a quatre + _À un quatrième Mosieu._--"Je t'attends ce soir, à quatre heures.--_Ton_ AUGUSTINE."] -_Gustave Dore_, to the lessening of his importance, moved on this ground +_Gustave Doré_, to the lessening of his importance, moved on this ground only in his earliest period. He was barely sixteen and still at school in his native town Burg, in Alsace, when he made an agreement with Philippon, who engaged him for three years on the _Journal pour rire_. His first drawings date from 1844: "Les animaux socialistes," which were -very suggestive of Grandville, and "Desagrements d'un voyage -d'agrement"--something like the German _Herr und Frau Buchholz in der +very suggestive of Grandville, and "Désagréments d'un voyage +d'agrément"--something like the German _Herr und Frau Buchholz in der Schweiz_--which made a considerable sensation by their grotesque wit. In -his series "Les differents publics de Paris" and "La Menagerie +his series "Les différents publics de Paris" and "La Ménagerie Parisienne" he represented with an incisive pencil the opera, the -_Theatre des Italiens_, the circus, the _Odeon_ and the _Jardin des +_Théâtre des Italiens_, the circus, the _Odéon_ and the _Jardin des Plantes_. But since that time the laurels of historical painting have given him no rest. He turned away from his own age as well as from caricature, and made excursions into all zones and all periods. He @@ -2258,7 +2224,7 @@ figures are academic variations of types originally established by the Greeks and the Cinquescentisti. He forced his talent when he soared into regions where he could not stand without the support of his predecessors. Even in his "Don Quixote" the figures lose in character -the larger they become. Everything in Dore is calligraphic, judicious, +the larger they become. Everything in Doré is calligraphic, judicious, without individuality, without movement and life, composed in accordance with known rules. There is a touch of Wiertz in him, both in his imagination and in his design, and his youthful works, such as the @@ -2269,8 +2235,8 @@ In broad lithographs and charming woodcuts, _Cham_ has been the most exhaustive in writing up the diary of modern Parisian life during the period 1848-78. The celebrated caricaturist--he has been called the most brilliant man in France under Napoleon III--had worked in the studio of -Delaroche at the same time as Jean Francois Millet. After 1842 he came -forward as Cham (his proper name was Count Amadee de Noe) with drawings +Delaroche at the same time as Jean François Millet. After 1842 he came +forward as Cham (his proper name was Count Amadée de Noë) with drawings which soon made him the artist most in demand on the staff of the _Charivari_. Neither so profound nor so serious as Gavarni, he has a constant sparkle of vivacity, and is a draughtsman of wonderful _verve_. @@ -2288,7 +2254,7 @@ spirit, and the International Exhibition of 1867 found in him its classic chronicler. Here all the mysterious Paris of the third Napoleon lives once more. Emperors and kings file past, the band of Strauss plays, gipsies are dancing, equipages roll by, and every one lives, -loves, flirts, squanders money, and whirls round in a maelstrom. But the +loves, flirts, squanders money, and whirls round in a maëlstrom. But the end of the exhibition betokened the end of all that splendour. In Cham's plates which came next one feels that there is thunder in the air. Neither fashions nor theatres, neither women nor pleasure, could prevent @@ -2297,11 +2263,11 @@ drawing near. [Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - GAVARNI. PHEDRE AT THE THEATRE FRANCAIS.] + GAVARNI. PHÈDRE AT THE THÉÂTRE FRANÇAIS.] [Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - GAVARNI. "CE QUI ME MANQUE A MOI? UNE 'TITE MERE COMME CA, QU'AURAIT + GAVARNI. "CE QUI ME MANQUE À MOI? UNE 'TITE MÈRE COMME ÇA, QU'AURAIT SOIN DE MON LINGE."] There was a greater division of labour amongst those who followed Cham, @@ -2312,16 +2278,16 @@ success with his series "Les Contemporains de Nadar." _Marcellin_ is the first who spread over his sketches from the world of fashions and the theatre all the _chic_ and fashionable glitter which lives in the novels of those years. He is the chronicler of the great world, of balls and -_soirees_; he shows the opera and the _Theatre des Italiens_, tells of +_soirées_; he shows the opera and the _Théâtre des Italiens_, tells of hunting and racing, attends the drives in the Corso, and at the call of fashion promptly deserts the stones of Paris to look about him in -chateaux and country-houses, seaside haunts in France, and the little +châteaux and country-houses, seaside haunts in France, and the little watering-places of Germany, where the gaming-tables formed at that time the rendezvous of well-bred Paris. Baden-Baden, where all the lions of the day, the politicians and the artists and all the beauties of the Paris salons, met together in July, offered the draughtsman a specially wide field for studies of fashion and _chic_. Here began the series -"Histoires des variations de la mode depuis le XVI siecle jusqu'a nos +"Histoires des variations de la mode depuis le XVI siècle jusqu'à nos jours." In a place where all classes of society, the great world and the _demi-monde_, came into contact, Marcellin could not avoid the latter, but even when he verged on this province he always knew how to maintain @@ -2337,7 +2303,7 @@ ball-room. _Randon_ is as plebeian as Marcellin is aristocratic. His speciality is the stupid recruit who is marched through the streets with his "squad," or the retired tradesman of small means, as Daudet has hit him off in M. -Chebe, the old gentleman seated on a bench in the Bois de Boulogne: "Let +Chèbe, the old gentleman seated on a bench in the Bois de Boulogne: "Let the little ones come to me with their nurses." His province includes everything that has nothing to do with _chic_. The whole life of the Parisian people, the horse-fairs, the races at Poissy, and all the more @@ -2355,11 +2321,11 @@ curious insects furnished with teeth, feelers, indefatigable feet, and marvellous organs proper for digging, sawing, building, and all things possible, but furnished also with an incessant hunger. -Soon afterwards there came _Hadol_, who made his debut in 1855, with +Soon afterwards there came _Hadol_, who made his début in 1855, with pictures of the fashions; _Stop_, who specially represented the provinces and Italy; _Draner_, who occupied himself with the Parisian ballet and designed charming military uniforms for little dancing girls. -_Leonce Petit_ drew peasants and sketched the charms of the country in a +_Léonce Petit_ drew peasants and sketched the charms of the country in a simple, familiar fashion--the mortal tedium of little towns, poor villages, and primitive inns, the gossip of village beldames before the house-door, the pompous dignity of village magistrates or of the head of @@ -2373,27 +2339,27 @@ existence of the peasant folk. [Illustration: _Journal Amusant._ - GREVIN. NOS PARISIENNES. + GRÉVIN. NOS PARISIENNES. - "Tiens! ne me parle pas de lui, je ne peux pas le souffrir, meme en + "Tiens! ne me parle pas de lui, je ne peux pas le souffrir, même en peinture!" "Cependant, s'il t'offrait de t'epouser?" - "Ca, c'est autre chose."] + "Ça, c'est autre chose."] _Andrieux_ and _Morland_ discovered the _femme entretenue_, though -afterwards her best known delineator was _Grevin_, an able, original, +afterwards her best known delineator was _Grévin_, an able, original, facile, and piquant draughtsman, whom some--exaggerating beyond a -doubt--called the direct successor of Gavarni. Grevin's women are a +doubt--called the direct successor of Gavarni. Grévin's women are a little monotonous, with their ringleted chignons, their expressionless eyes which try to look big, their perverse little noses, their defiant, pouting lips, and the cheap toilettes which they wear with so much _chic_. But they too have gone to their rest with the grisettes of Monnier and Gavarni, and have left the field to the women of Mars and -Forain. In these days Grevin's work seems old-fashioned, since it is no +Forain. In these days Grévin's work seems old-fashioned, since it is no longer modern and not yet historical; nevertheless it marks an epoch, -like that of Gavarni. The _bals publics_, the _bals de l'Opera_, those +like that of Gavarni. The _bals publics_, the _bals de l'Opéra_, those of the _Jardin Mabille_, the _Closerie des Lilas_, the races, the promenades in the _Bois de Vincennes_, the seaside resorts, all places where the _demi-monde_ pitched its tent in the time of Napoleon III, @@ -2401,8 +2367,8 @@ were also the home of the artist. "How they love in Paris" and "Winter in Paris" were his earliest series. His finest and greatest drawings, the scenes from the Parisian hotels and "The English in Paris," appeared in 1867, the year of the Exhibition. His later series, published as -albums--"Les filles d'Eve," "Le monde amusant," "Fantaisies -parisiennes," "Paris vicieux," "La Chaine des Dames"--are a song of +albums--"Les filles d'Ève," "Le monde amusant," "Fantaisies +parisiennes," "Paris vicieux," "La Chaîne des Dames"--are a song of songs upon the refinements of life. It does not lie within the plan of this book to follow the history of @@ -2452,7 +2418,7 @@ it is not hampered by antiquated Greek and Latin theories. What fortunate conditions it has for breaking away into really modern work! whereas in other nations the weight of tradition presses hard on the boldest innovators. The English do not look back; on the contrary, they -look into life around them." So wrote Burger-Thore in one of his Salons +look into life around them." So wrote Burger-Thoré in one of his Salons in 1867. Yet England was not unaffected by the retrospective tendency on the @@ -2495,7 +2461,7 @@ equally mediocre in everything, survives rather by his biographies of Reynolds and Titian than by the great canvases which he painted for Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery. That which became best known was "The Murder of the Children in the Tower." _Henry Fuseli_, who was also much -occupied with authorship and as _preceptor Britanniae_, always mentioned +occupied with authorship and as _preceptor Britanniæ_, always mentioned with great respect by his numerous pupils, produced a series of exceedingly thoughtful and imaginative works, to which he was incited by Klopstock and Lavater. By preference he illustrated Milton and @@ -2728,13 +2694,13 @@ their despite represented the general and his soldiers in their regulation uniform, it seems at the present time no more than the result of healthy common sense, but at that time it was an artistic event of great importance, and one which was only accomplished in France after -the work of several decades. In that country Gerard and Girodet still +the work of several decades. In that country Gérard and Girodet still clung to the belief that they could only raise the military picture to the level of the great style by giving the soldiers of the Empire the appearance of Greek and Roman statues. Gros is honoured as the man who first ceased from giving modern soldiers an air of the antique. But the American Englishman had anticipated him by forty years. As in -Gericault's "Raft of the Medusa," it was only the pyramidal composition +Géricault's "Raft of the Medusa," it was only the pyramidal composition in West's picture that betrayed the painter's alliance with the Classical school; in other respects it forecast the realistic programme for decades to come, and indicated the course of development which leads @@ -2779,7 +2745,7 @@ Dutch studies of shooting matches. That this unhackneyed conception of daily life has its special home in England is further demonstrated by the work of _Daniel Maclise_, who -depicted "The Meeting of Wellington and Bluecher," "The Death of Nelson," +depicted "The Meeting of Wellington and Blücher," "The Death of Nelson," and other patriotic themes upon walls and canvases several yards square, with appalling energy, promptitude, and expenditure of muscle. By these he certainly did better service to national pride than to art. @@ -2879,7 +2845,7 @@ insipid works. In comparison with Morland's broad, liquid, and harmonious painting, that of Ward seems burnished, sparkling, flaunting, anecdotic, and petty. But James Ward was not always old James Ward. In his early days he was one of the greatest and manliest artists of the -English school, with whom only Briton Riviere can be compared amongst +English school, with whom only Briton Rivière can be compared amongst the moderns. When his "Lioness" appeared in the Royal Academy Exhibition of 1816 he was justly hailed as the best animal painter after Snyders, and from that time one masterpiece followed another for ten long years. @@ -2932,8 +2898,8 @@ his way triumphant. The region over which he held sway was narrow, but he stood out in it as in life, powerful and commanding. The exhibition of his pictures which took place after his death in 1873 contained three hundred and fourteen oil paintings and one hundred and forty-six -sketches. The property which he left amounted to L160,000; and a further -sum of L55,000 was realised by the sale of his unsold pictures. Even +sketches. The property which he left amounted to £160,000; and a further +sum of £55,000 was realised by the sale of his unsold pictures. Even Meissonier, the best paid painter of the century, did not leave behind him five and a half million francs. @@ -3045,10 +3011,10 @@ thief. Landseer has made the dog the companion of man, an adjunct of human society, the generous friend and true comrade who is the last mourner at the shepherd's grave. Landseer first studied his noble countenance and his thoughtful eyes, and in doing so he opened a new -province to art, in which Briton Riviere went further at a later period. +province to art, in which Briton Rivière went further at a later period. But yet another and still wider province was opened to continental -nations by the art of England. In an epoch of archaeological +nations by the art of England. In an epoch of archæological resuscitations and romantic regrets for the past, it brought French and German painters to a consciousness that the man of the nineteenth century in his daily life might be a perfectly legitimate subject for @@ -3120,7 +3086,7 @@ never seen more than a dozen good pictures of Teniers, Ostade, Metsu, Jan Steen, and Brouwer. Now he began to copy his travelling sketches in a spiritless fashion; he only represented _pifferari_, smugglers, and monks, who, devoid of all originality, might have been painted by one of -the Duesseldorfers. Even "John Knox Preaching," which is probably the +the Düsseldorfers. Even "John Knox Preaching," which is probably the best picture of his last period, is no exception. "He seemed to me," writes Delacroix, who saw him in Paris after his @@ -3337,10 +3303,10 @@ artistic, and shows study when one thinks of contemporary productions on the Continent. His works ("Lear attended by Cordelia," "The Vicar of Wakefield restoring his Daughter to her Mother," "The Prince of Spain's Visit to Catalina" from _Gil Blas_, and "Yorick and the Grisette" from -Sterne), like the pictures of the Duesseldorfers, would most certainly +Sterne), like the pictures of the Düsseldorfers, would most certainly have lost in actuality but for the interest provided by the literary passages; yet they are favourably distinguished from the literary -illustrations of the Duesseldorfers by the want of any sort of idealism. +illustrations of the Düsseldorfers by the want of any sort of idealism. While the painters of the Continent in such pictures almost invariably fell into a rounded, generalising ideal of beauty, Newton had the scene played by actors and painted them realistically. The result was a @@ -3355,8 +3321,8 @@ art in London about the year 1830. _Charles Robert Leslie_, known as an author by his pleasant book on Constable and a highly conservative _Handbook for Young Painters_, had a -similar _repertoire_, and rendered in oils Shakespeare, Cervantes, -Fielding, Sterne, Goldsmith, and Moliere, with more or less ability. The +similar _repértoire_, and rendered in oils Shakespeare, Cervantes, +Fielding, Sterne, Goldsmith, and Molière, with more or less ability. The National Gallery has an exceedingly prosaic and colourless picture of his, "Sancho Panza in the Apartment of the Duchess." Some that are in the South Kensington Museum are better; for example, "The Taming of the @@ -3383,7 +3349,7 @@ _Mulready_, thirty-two of whose pictures are preserved in the South Kensington Museum, is in his technique almost more delicate than Leslie, and he has learnt a great deal from Metsu. By preference he took his subjects out of Goldsmith. "Choosing the Wedding Gown" and "The -Whistonian Controversy" would make pretty illustrations for an _edition +Whistonian Controversy" would make pretty illustrations for an _édition de luxe_ of _The Vicar of Wakefield_. Otherwise he too had a taste for immortalising children, by turns lazy and industrious, at their tea or playing by the water's edge. @@ -3474,10 +3440,10 @@ gap from the eighteenth century to its own time." [Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - CHARLET. UN HOMME QUI BOIT SEUL N'EST PAS DIGNE DE VIVRE.] + CHARLET. UN HOMME QUI BOÎT SEUL N'EST PAS DIGNE DE VIVRE.] These words, which the well-known Vienna librarian Denis wrote in 1797 -in his _Lesefruechte_, show how early came the problem which was at +in his _Lesefrüchte_, show how early came the problem which was at high-water mark for a generation afterwards. The painting of the nineteenth century could only become modern when it succeeded in recognising and expressing the characteristic side of modern costume. @@ -3486,7 +3452,7 @@ natural that to people who had seen the graceful forms and delicate colours of the _rococo_ time, the garb of the first half of the century should seem the most unfortunate and the least enviable in the whole history of costume. "What person of artistic education is not of the -opinion," runs a passage in Putmann's book on the Duesseldorf school in +opinion," runs a passage in Putmann's book on the Düsseldorf school in 1835,--"what person of artistic education is not of the opinion that the dress of the present day is tasteless, hideous, and ape-like? Moreover, can a true style be brought into harmony with hoop-petticoats and @@ -3511,7 +3477,7 @@ to treat contemporary costume, so it was the military picture that first entered the circle of modern painting. By exalting the soldier into a warrior, and the warrior into a hero, it was here possible, even in the times of David and Carstens, to effect a certain compromise with the -ruling classical ideas. Gerard, Girodet--to some extent even Gros--made +ruling classical ideas. Gérard, Girodet--to some extent even Gros--made abundant use of the mask of the Greek or Roman warrior, with the object of admitting the battle-piece into painting in the grand style. The real heroes of the Napoleonic epoch had not this plastic appearance nor these @@ -3522,9 +3488,9 @@ stands to his credit. Together with his son-in-law Paul Delaroche, _Horace Vernet_ is the most genuine product of the _Juste-milieu_ period. The king with the umbrella -founded the Museum of Versailles, that monstrous depot of daubed canvas, +founded the Museum of Versailles, that monstrous depôt of daubed canvas, which is a horrifying memory to any one who has ever wandered through -it. However, it is devoted _a toutes les gloires de la France_. In a few +it. However, it is devoted _à toutes les gloires de la France_. In a few years a suite of galleries, which it takes almost two hours merely to pass through from end to end, was filled with pictures of all sizes, bringing home the history of the country, from Charlemagne to the @@ -3543,7 +3509,7 @@ without hesitation, and is favourably distinguished from many of his contemporaries by his independence: he owes no one anything, and reveals his own qualities without arraying himself in those of other people. Only these qualities are not of an order which gives his pictures -artistic interest. The spark of Gericault's genius, which seems to have +artistic interest. The spark of Géricault's genius, which seems to have been transmitted to him in the beginning, was completely quenched in his later years. Having swiftly attained popularity by the aid of lithography which circulated his "Mazeppa" through the whole world, he @@ -3609,7 +3575,7 @@ arms in the Crimean War and the Italian campaign kept more or less to the blustering official style of Horace Vernet. In the galleries of Versailles the battles of Wagram, Loano, and Altenkirche (1837-39), and an episode from the retreat from Russia (1851), represent the work of -_Hippolyte Bellange_. These are huge lithochromes which have been very +_Hippolyte Bellangé_. These are huge lithochromes which have been very carefully executed. _Adolphe Yvon_, who is responsible for "The Taking of Malakoff," "The Battle of Magenta," and "The Battle of Solferino," is a more tedious painter, and remained during his whole @@ -3642,25 +3608,25 @@ success to the same lachrymose and melodramatic sensibility. [Illustration: RAFFET. THE MIDNIGHT REVIEW. C'est la grande revue - Qu'aux Champs-Elysees + Qu'aux Champs-Elysées A l'heure de minuit - Tient Cesar decede.] + Tient César décédé.] A couple of mere lithographists, soldiers' sons, in whom a repining for the Napoleonic legend still found its echo, were the first great military painters of modern France. "Charlet and Raffet," wrote -Buerger-Thore in his _Salon_ of 1845, "are the two artists who best +Bürger-Thoré in his _Salon_ of 1845, "are the two artists who best understand the representation of that almost vanished type, the trooper of the Empire; and after Gros they will assuredly endure as the principal historians of that warlike era." _Charlet_, the painter of the old bear Napoleon I, might almost be -called the Beranger of painting. The "little Corporal," the "great +called the Béranger of painting. The "little Corporal," the "great Emperor" appears and reappears in his pictures and drawings without intermission; his work is an epic in pencil of the grey coat and the little hat. From his youth he employed himself with military studies, which were furthered in Gros' studio, which he entered in 1817. The -Graeco-Roman ideal did not exist for him, and he was indifferent to +Græco-Roman ideal did not exist for him, and he was indifferent to beauty of form. His was one of those natures which have a natural turn for actual fact; he had a power for characterisation, and in his many water-colours and lithographs he was merely concerned with the proper @@ -3675,7 +3641,7 @@ its gloomy heaven and disconsolate horizon, the picture gave the impression of infinite disaster. After fifty years it had lost none of its value. Since the reappearance of this picture it has been recognised that Charlet was not merely the specialist of old grey heads with their -noses reddened with brandy, the Moliere of barracks and canteens, but +noses reddened with brandy, the Molière of barracks and canteens, but that he understood all the tragical sublimity of war, from which Horace Vernet merely produced trivial anecdotes. @@ -3684,7 +3650,7 @@ Vernet merely produced trivial anecdotes. ERNEST MEISSONIER.] Beside him stands his pupil _Raffet_, the special painter of the _grande -armee_. He mastered the brilliant figure of Napoleon; he followed it +armée_. He mastered the brilliant figure of Napoleon; he followed it from Ajaccio to St. Helena, and never left it until he had said everything that was to be said about it. He showed the "little Corsican" as the general of the Italian campaign, ghastly pale and consumed with @@ -3701,7 +3667,7 @@ beloved battalions, calls fickle fate once more into the lists; and the captive lion who, from the bridge of the ship, casts a last look on the coast of France as it fades in the mist. He has called the Emperor from the grave, as a ghostly power, to hold a midnight review of the _grande -armee_. And with love and passion and enthusiasm he has followed the +armée_. And with love and passion and enthusiasm he has followed the instrument of these victories, the French soldiers, the swordsmen of seven years' service, through bivouac and battle, on the march and on parade, as patrols and outposts. The ragged and shoeless troops of the @@ -3733,7 +3699,7 @@ parallels between himself and his mighty uncle, Meissonier was obliged to depict suitable occasions from the life of the first Napoleon. His admirers were very curious to know how the great "little painter" would acquit himself in such a monumental task. First came the "Battle of -Solferino," that picture of the Musee Luxembourg which represents +Solferino," that picture of the Musée Luxembourg which represents Napoleon III overlooking the battle from a height in the midst of his staff. After lengthy preparations it appeared in the Salon of 1864, and showed that the painter had not been untrue to himself: he had simply @@ -3848,7 +3814,7 @@ staff-officer. Even the works of his old age showed no exhaustion of power, and there is something great in attaining ripe years without outliving one's reputation. As late as the spring of 1890, only a short time before his death, he was the leader of youth, when it transmigrated -from the Palais des Champs Elysees to the Champ de Mars; and he +from the Palais des Champs Elysées to the Champ de Mars; and he exhibited in this new Salon his "October 1806," with which he closed his Napoleonic epic and his general activity as a painter. Halting on a hill, the Emperor in his historical grey coat, mounted on a powerful @@ -3892,7 +3858,7 @@ patience and incredible industry that went to the making of them. One sees everything in them--everything that the painter can have seen--to the slightest detail; only one does not rightly come into contact with the artist himself. His battle-pieces stand high above the scenic -pictures of Horace Vernet and Hippolyte Bellange, but they have nothing +pictures of Horace Vernet and Hippolyte Bellangé, but they have nothing of the warmth of Raffet or the vibrating life of Neuville. There is nothing in them that is contagious and carries one away, or that appeals to the heart. Patience is a virtue: genius is a gift. Precious without @@ -3903,23 +3869,23 @@ one. He was a painter of a distinctness which causes astonishment, but not admiration; an artist for epicures, but for those of the second order, who pay the more highly for works of art in proportion as they value their artifice. His pictures recall the unseasonable compliment -which Charles Blanc made to Ingres: "_Cher maitre, vous avez devine la +which Charles Blanc made to Ingres: "_Cher maître, vous avez deviné la photographie trente ans avant qu'il y eut des photographes._" Or else -one thinks of that malicious story of which Jules Dupre is well known as +one thinks of that malicious story of which Jules Dupré is well known as the author. "Suppose," said he, "that you are a great personage who has just bought a Meissonier. Your valet enters the salon where it is hanging. 'Ah! Monsieur,' he cries, 'what a beautiful picture you have bought! That is a masterpiece!' Another time you buy a Rembrandt, and show it to your valet, in the expectation that he will at any rate be overcome by the same raptures. _Mais non!_ This time the man looks -embarrassed. 'Ah! Monsieur,' he says, '_il faut s'y connaitre_,' and +embarrassed. 'Ah! Monsieur,' he says, '_il faut s'y connaître_,' and away he goes." _Guillaume Regamey_, who is far less known, supplies what is wanting in Meissonier. Sketchy and of a highly strung nervous temperament, he could not adapt himself to the picture-market; but the history of art honours him as the most spirited draughtsman of the French soldier, after -Gericault and Raffet. He did not paint him turned out for parade, ironed +Géricault and Raffet. He did not paint him turned out for parade, ironed and smartened up, but in the worst trim. Syria, the Crimea, Italy, and the East are mingled with the difference of their types and the brightness of their exotic costumes. He had a great love for the @@ -3934,7 +3900,7 @@ painters, who had grown up in the shadow of Meissonier. (_By permission of Messrs. Goupil, the owners of the copyright._)] -[Illustration: DETAILLE. SALUT AUX BLESSES. +[Illustration: DÉTAILLE. SALUT AUX BLESSÉS. (_By permission of Messrs. Goupil, the owners of the copyright._)] @@ -3956,22 +3922,22 @@ eye-glasses. Everything received grace from his dexterous hand; he even saw in the trooper a gallant and ornamental _bibelot_, which he painted with chivalrous verve. -The pictures of Aime Morot, the painter of "The Charge of the +The pictures of Aimé Morot, the painter of "The Charge of the Cuirassiers," possibly smell most of powder. Neuville's frequently -over-praised rival, Meissonier's favourite pupil, _Edouard Detaille_, +over-praised rival, Meissonier's favourite pupil, _Edouard Détaille_, after he had started with pretty little costume pictures from the _Directoire_ period, went further on the way of his teacher with less laboriousness and more lightness, with less calculation and more -sincerity. The best of his works was "Salut aux Blesses"--the +sincerity. The best of his works was "Salut aux Blessés"--the representation of a troop of wounded Prussian officers and soldiers on a country road, passing a French general and his staff, who with graceful -chivalry lift their caps and salute the wounded men. Detaille's great +chivalry lift their caps and salute the wounded men. Détaille's great pictures, such as "The Presentation of the Colours," and his panoramas were as accurate as they were tedious and arid, although they are far superior to most of the efforts which the Germans made to depict scenes from the war of 1870. -[Illustration: _Soldan, Nuernberg._ ALBRECHT ADAM AND HIS SONS.] +[Illustration: _Soldan, Nürnberg._ ALBRECHT ADAM AND HIS SONS.] In Germany the great period of the wars of liberation first inspired a group of painters with the courage to enter the province of @@ -4016,21 +3982,21 @@ they laid the foundation on which future artists built. HESS. THE RECEPTION OF KING OTTO IN NAUPLIA.] -In Berlin Franz Krueger and in Munich Albrecht Adam and Peter Hess were +In Berlin Franz Krüger and in Munich Albrecht Adam and Peter Hess were figures of individual character, belonging to the spiritual family of Chodowiecki and Gottfried Schadow; and, entirely undisturbed by classical theories or romantic reverie, they penetrated the life around them with a clear and sharp glance. They lacked, indeed, the temperament to comprehend either the high poetic tendencies of the old Munich school -or the sentimental enthusiasm of the old Duesseldorf. +or the sentimental enthusiasm of the old Düsseldorf. On the other hand, they were unhackneyed artists, facing facts in a completely unprejudiced spirit: entirely self-reliant, they refused to form themselves upon any model derived from the old masters; they had -never had a teacher and never enjoyed academic instruction. This naive +never had a teacher and never enjoyed academic instruction. This naïve straightforwardness makes their painting a half-barbaric product; something which has been allowed to run wild. But in a period of -archaeological resuscitations, pedantic brooding over the past and +archæological resuscitations, pedantic brooding over the past and slavish imitation of the ancients, it seems, for this very reason, the first independent product of the nineteenth century. As vigorous, matter-of-fact realists they know nothing of more delicate charms, but @@ -4046,7 +4012,7 @@ certain innovating quality. In a pleasantly written autobiography _Albrecht Adam_ has himself described the drift of historical events which made him a painter of battles. -He was a confectioner's apprentice in Noerdlingen when, in the year 1800, +He was a confectioner's apprentice in Nördlingen when, in the year 1800, the marches of the French army began in the neighbourhood. In an inn he began to sketch sergeants and Grenadiers, and went proudly home with the pence that he earned in this way. "Adam, when there's war, I'll take you @@ -4054,10 +4020,10 @@ into the field with me," said an old major-general, who was the purchaser of his first works. That came to pass in 1809, when the Bavarians went with Napoleon against Austria. After a few weeks he was in the thick of raging battle. He saw Napoleon, the Crown-Prince Ludwig, -and General Wrede, was present at the battles of Abensberg, Eckmuehl, and +and General Wrede, was present at the battles of Abensberg, Eckmühl, and Wagram, and came to Vienna with his portfolios full of sketches. There his portraits and pictures of the war found favour with the officers, -and Eugene Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy, took him to Upper Italy and +and Eugène Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy, took him to Upper Italy and afterwards to Russia. He was an eye-witness of the battles at Borodino and on the Moskwa, and saved himself from the conflagration of Moscow by his courage and determination. A true soldier, he mounted a horse when @@ -4101,17 +4067,17 @@ in the new Pinakothek in Munich. In spite of its hard, motley, and quite impossible colouring, and its petty pedantry of execution, this is a picture which will not lose its value as an historical source. -Vigorous _Franz Krueger_ had been long known in Berlin, by his famous +Vigorous _Franz Krüger_ had been long known in Berlin, by his famous pictures of horses, before the Emperor of Russia in 1829 commissioned him to paint, on a huge canvas, the great parade on the _Opernplatz_ in Berlin, where he had reviewed his regiment of Cuirassiers before the -King of Prussia. From that time such parade pictures became Krueger's +King of Prussia. From that time such parade pictures became Krüger's specialty; especially famous is the great parade of 1839, with the likenesses of those who at the time played a political or literary part in Berlin. In these works he has left a true reflection of old Berlin, and bridged over the chasm between Chodowiecki and Menzel: this is specially the case with his curiously objective water-colour portrait -heads. Mention should be made of Karl Steffeck as a pupil of Krueger, and +heads. Mention should be made of Karl Steffeck as a pupil of Krüger, and Theodor Horschelt--in addition to Franz Adam--as a pupil of Adam. By _Steffeck_, a healthy, vigorous realist, there are some well-painted portraits of horses, and by _Th. Horschelt_, who in 1858 took part in @@ -4131,7 +4097,7 @@ the forms of his warriors and of his horses, in his pictures of old Polish cavalry battles. Everything is aristocratic: the distinction of the grey colouring no less than the ductile drawing with its chivalrous sentiment. In everything there breathes life, vigour, fire, and -freshness: the East of Eugene Fromentin translated into Polish. +freshness: the East of Eugène Fromentin translated into Polish. _Heinrich Lang_, a spirited draughtsman, who had the art of seizing the most difficult positions and motions of a horse, embodied the wild tumult of cavalry charges ("The Charge of the Bredow Brigade," "The @@ -4151,7 +4117,7 @@ ITALY AND THE EAST In the beginning of the century the man who did not wear a uniform was not a proper subject for art unless he lived in Italy as a peasant or a -robber. That is to say, painters were either archaeologists or tourists; +robber. That is to say, painters were either archæologists or tourists; when they did not dive into the past they sought their romantic ideal in the distance. Italy, where monumental painting had first seen the light, was the earliest goal for travellers, and satisfied the desire of @@ -4175,7 +4141,7 @@ place in the history of art entirely to the fact that in spite of his strict classical training he was one of the first to interest himself, however little, in contemporary life. Hundreds of artists had wandered into Italy and seen nothing but the antique until this young man set out -from Neufchatel in 1818 and became the painter of the Italian people. +from Neufchâtel in 1818 and became the painter of the Italian people. What struck him at the first glance was the character of the people, together with their curious habits and usages, and their rude and picturesque garb. "He wished to render this with all fidelity," and @@ -4293,11 +4259,11 @@ subjects in a fashion which is not particularly agreeable. [Illustration: SCHNETZ. AN ITALIAN SHEPHERD.] -It was _Ernest Hebert_ who first saw Italy with the eyes of a painter. +It was _Ernest Hébert_ who first saw Italy with the eyes of a painter. He might be called the Perugino of this group. He was the most romantic of the pupils of Delaroche, and owed his conception of colour to that painter. His spiritual father was Ary Scheffer. The latter has -discovered the poetry of sentimentality; Hebert the poetry of disease. +discovered the poetry of sentimentality; Hébert the poetry of disease. His pictures are invariably of great technical delicacy. His style has something femininely gracious, almost languishing: his colouring is delicately fragrant and tenderly melting. He is, indeed, a refined @@ -4307,7 +4273,7 @@ influenced by the subject itself. The barge gliding over the waters of the Pontine Marshes, with its freight of men, women, and children, seems like a gloomy symbol of the voyage of life; the sorrow of the passengers is that of resignation: dying they droop their heads like withering -flowers. But later the fever became chronic in Hebert. The interesting +flowers. But later the fever became chronic in Hébert. The interesting disease returned even where it was out of place, as it does still in the pictures of his followers. The same fate befell the painters of Italy which befalls tourists. What Robert had seen in the country as the first @@ -4317,7 +4283,7 @@ sixties Bonnat came with his individual and realistic vision. [Illustration: _Portfolio._ - HEBERT. THE MALARIA.] + HÉBERT. THE MALARIA.] In Germany, where "the yearning for Italy" had been ventilated in an immoderate quantity of lyrical poems ever since the time of @@ -4460,7 +4426,7 @@ the favourite French painters of the time. Soon afterwards came the picture of the "Pasha on his Rounds," accompanied by a lean troop of running and panting guards, that of the great "Turkish Bazaar," in which he gave such a charming representation of the gay and noisy bustle of an -Oriental fair, those of the "Turkish School," the "Turkish Cafe," "The +Oriental fair, those of the "Turkish School," the "Turkish Café," "The Halt of the Arab Horsemen," and "The Turkish Butcher's Shop." In everything which he painted from this time forward--even in his Biblical pictures--he had before his eyes the East as it is in modern times. Like @@ -4512,7 +4478,7 @@ this disappointment affected him so deeply that he became first hypochondriacal and then mad. His early death at thirty-six set Decamps free from a powerful rival. -_Eugene Fromentin_ went further in the same direction as Marilhat. He +_Eugène Fromentin_ went further in the same direction as Marilhat. He knew nothing of the preference for the glowing hues of the tropics nor of the fantastic colouring of the Romanticists. He painted in the spirit of a refined social period in which no loud voice is tolerated, but only @@ -4545,7 +4511,7 @@ flowers upon a carpet. DECAMPS. COMING OUT FROM A TURKISH SCHOOL. - (_By permission of Mme. Moreau-Nelaton, the owner of the picture._)] + (_By permission of Mme. Moreau-Nélaton, the owner of the picture._)] [Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ @@ -4577,9 +4543,9 @@ which merely recalled the fact that Algiers had become a French town. But after all what does it matter whether pictures of the East are true to nature or not? Other people whose names are not Fromentin can provide such documents. In his works Fromentin has expressed himself, and that -is enough. Take up his first book, _L'ete dans la Sahara_: by its grace +is enough. Take up his first book, _L'été dans la Sahara_: by its grace of style it claims a place in French literature. Or read his classic -masterpiece, _Les maitres d'autrefois_, published in 1876 after a tour +masterpiece, _Les maîtres d'autrefois_, published in 1876 after a tour through Belgium and Holland: it will remain for ever one of the finest works ever written on art. A connoisseur of such refinement, a critic who gauged the artistic works of Belgium and Holland with such subtlety, @@ -4592,7 +4558,7 @@ could be no more than this. His art, compact of grace and distinction, was the outcome of his own nature. He is a descendant of those delicately feminine, seductively brilliant, facile and spontaneous, sparkling and charming painters who were known in the eighteenth century -as _peintres des fetes galantes_. He is the Watteau of the East, and in +as _peintres des fêtes galantes_. He is the Watteau of the East, and in this capacity one of the most winning and captivating products of French art. @@ -4609,33 +4575,33 @@ Fromentin, in what is understood as _chic_. Manet's conception of colour had taught him that nature is everywhere in accord and harmoniously delicate. -He writes: "_Je commence a distinguer quelques formes: des silhouettes -indecises bougent le long des murs enfumes sous des poutres luisantes de -sui. Les details sortent du demi-jour, s'animent graduellement avec la -magie des Rembrandt. Meme mystere des ombres, memes ors dans les -reflets--c'est l'aube.... Des terrains poudreux inondes de soleil; un -amoncellement de murailles grises sous un ciel sans nuage; une cite -somnolente baignee d'une lumiere egale, et dans le fremissement visible -des atomes aeriens quelques ombres venant ca et la detacher une forme, +He writes: "_Je commence à distinguer quelques formes: des silhouettes +indécises bougent le long des murs enfumés sous des poutres luisantes de +sui. Les détails sortent du demi-jour, s'animent graduellement avec la +magie des Rembrandt. Même mystère des ombres, mêmes ors dans les +reflets--c'est l'aube.... Des terrains poudreux inondés de soleil; un +amoncellement de murailles grises sous un ciel sans nuage; une cité +somnolente baignée d'une lumière égale, et dans le frémissement visible +des atomes aériens quelques ombres venant ça et là détacher une forme, accuser un geste parmi les groupes en burnous qui se meuvent sur les places ... tel m'apparait le ksar, vers dix heures du matin...._ -"_L'oeil interroge: rien ne bouge. L'oreille ecoute: aucun bruit. Pas un -souffle, si ce n'est le fremissement presque imperceptible de l'air -au-dessus du sol embrase. La vie semble avoir disparu, absorbee par la -lumiere. C'est le milieu du jour.... Mais le soir approche.... Les -troupeaux rentrent dans les douars; ils se pressent autour des tentes, a -peine visibles, confondus sous cette teinte neutre du crepuscule, faite +"_L'oeil interroge: rien ne bouge. L'oreille écoute: aucun bruit. Pas un +souffle, si ce n'est le frémissement presque imperceptible de l'air +au-dessus du sol embrasé. La vie semble avoir disparu, absorbée par la +lumière. C'est le milieu du jour.... Mais le soir approche.... Les +troupeaux rentrent dans les douars; ils se pressent autour des tentes, à +peine visibles, confondus sous cette teinte neutre du crépuscule, faite avec les gris de la nuit qui vient et les violets tendres du soir qui -s'en va. C'est l'heure mysterieuse, ou les couleurs se melent, ou les -contours se noient, ou toute chose s'assombrit, ou toute voix se tait, -ou l'homme, a la fin du jour, laisse flotter sa pensee devant ce qui -s'eteint, s'efface et s'evanouit._" +s'en va. C'est l'heure mystérieuse, où les couleurs se mèlent, où les +contours se noient, où toute chose s'assombrit, où toute voix se tait, +où l'homme, à la fin du jour, laisse flotter sa pensée devant ce qui +s'éteint, s'efface et s'evanouit._" -[Illustration: _L'Art._ EUGENE FROMENTIN.] +[Illustration: _L'Art._ EUGÈNE FROMENTIN.] This description of a day in Algiers in Guillaumet's _Tableaux -algeriens_ interprets the painter Guillaumet better than any critical +algériens_ interprets the painter Guillaumet better than any critical appreciation could possibly do. For him the East is the land of dreams and melting softness, a far-off health-resort for neurotic patients, where one lies at ease in the sun and forgets the excitements of Paris. @@ -4658,8 +4624,8 @@ spirit with religious delirium. For Decamps and Marilhat the East was a great, red copper-block beneath a blue dome of steel; a beautiful monster, bright and glittering. Guillaumet has no wish to dazzle. His pictures give one the impression -of intense and sultry heat. His light is really "_le fremissement -visible des atomes aeriens_." Moreover, he did not see the chivalry of +of intense and sultry heat. His light is really "_le frémissement +visible des atomes aériens_." Moreover, he did not see the chivalry of the East like Fromentin. The latter was fascinated by the nomad, the pure Arab living in tent or saddle, the true aristocrat of the desert, mounted on his white palfrey, hunting wild beasts through fair blue and @@ -4672,10 +4638,10 @@ existence flows by as idly as in the trance of opium. After the French Romanticists had shown the way, other nations contributed their contingent to the painters of Oriental subjects. In -Germany poetry had discovered the East. Rueckert imitated the measure and +Germany poetry had discovered the East. Rückert imitated the measure and the ideas of the Oriental lyric, and the Greek war of liberation quickened all that passionate love for the soil of old Hellas which -lives in the German soul. _Wilhelm Mueller_ sang his songs of the Greeks, +lives in the German soul. _Wilhelm Müller_ sang his songs of the Greeks, and in 1825 _Leopold Schefer_ brought out his tale _Die Persierin_. But just as the Oriental tale was a mere episode in German literature, an exotic grafted on the native stem, so the Oriental painting produced no @@ -4704,24 +4670,24 @@ with burnished gold. Schreyer was--for a German--a man with an extraordinary gift for technique and a brilliantly effective sense of life. The latter remark is specially true of his sketches. At a later date--in 1875, after being with Lembach and Makart in Cairo--the -Viennese _Leopold Mueller_ found the domain of his art beneath the clear +Viennese _Leopold Müller_ found the domain of his art beneath the clear sky, in the brightly coloured land of the Nile. Even his sketches are often of great delicacy of colour, and the ethnographical accuracy which he also possessed has long made him the most highly valued delineator of Oriental life and a popular illustrator of works on Egypt. The learned -and slightly pedantic vein in his works he shares with Gerome, but by +and slightly pedantic vein in his works he shares with Gérôme, but by his greater charm of colour he comes still nearer to Fromentin. [Illustration: _L'Art._ - GUILLAUMET. THE SEGUIA, NEAR BISKRA.] + GUILLAUMET. THE SÉGUIA, NEAR BISKRA.] [Illustration: _L'Art._ GUILLAUMET. A DWELLING IN THE SAHARA.] The route to the East was shown to the English by the glowing landscapes -of _William Mueller_; but the English were just as unable to find a Byron +of _William Müller_; but the English were just as unable to find a Byron amongst their painters. _Frederick Goodall_ has studied the classical element in the East, and endeavoured to reconstruct the past from the present. Best known amongst these artists was _J. F. Lewis_, who died in @@ -4744,7 +4710,7 @@ was the first who, moving more or less parallel with Guillaumet, succeeded in delicately interpreting the great peace and the mystic silence of the East. -[Illustration: W. MUeLLER. PRAYER IN THE DESERT.] +[Illustration: W. MÜLLER. PRAYER IN THE DESERT.] The East was in this way traversed in all directions. The first comers who beheld it with eager, excited eyes collected a mass of gigantic @@ -4781,7 +4747,7 @@ contemporaries. It was obvious that art's next task was to bring down to earth again the ideal that had hovered so long over the domain of ancient history, and then winged its flight to the realms of the East. "_Ah la vie, la vie! -le monde est la; il rit, crie, souffre, s'amuse, et on ne le rend pas._" +le monde est là; il rit, crie, souffre, s'amuse, et on ne le rend pas._" In these words the necessity of the step has been indicated by Fromentin himself. The successful delivery of modern art was first accomplished, the problem stated in 1789 was first solved, when the subversive @@ -4847,7 +4813,7 @@ themselves; for between them and the older German painting they only met with men who held the ability to paint as a shame and a disgrace. With the example of the old Dutch and Flemish masters before them, they had to knit together the bonds which these men had cut; and considering the -aesthetic ideas of the age, this reference to Netherlandish models was an +æsthetic ideas of the age, this reference to Netherlandish models was an event of revolutionary importance. In doing this they may have been partially influenced by Wilkie, who made his tour in Germany in 1825, and whose pictures had a wide circulation through the medium of @@ -4928,24 +4894,24 @@ more valuable than his battle-pieces, was one of the first to make this transition. In 1820 sturdy _Peter Hess_ painted his "Morning at Partenkirche," in which he depicted a simple scene of mountain life--girls at a well in the midst of a sunny landscape--in a homely but -poetic manner. When this breach had been made, Buerkel was able to take +poetic manner. When this breach had been made, Bürkel was able to take the lead of the Munich painters of rustic subjects. -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ HEINRICH BUeRKEL.] +[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ HEINRICH BÜRKEL.] -_Heinrich Buerkel's_ portrait reveals a square-built giant, whose +_Heinrich Bürkel's_ portrait reveals a square-built giant, whose appearance contrasts strangely with that of his celebrated contemporaries. The academic artists sweep back their long hair and look -upwards with an inspired glance. Buerkel looks down with a keen eye at +upwards with an inspired glance. Bürkel looks down with a keen eye at the hard, rough, and stony earth. The academic artists had a mantle--the mantle of Rauch's statues--picturesquely draped about their shoulders; -Buerkel dressed like anybody else. No attribute is added which could +Bürkel dressed like anybody else. No attribute is added which could indicate that he was a painter; neither palette, nor brush, nor picture; beside him on the table there is--a mug of beer. There he sits without any sort of pose, with his hand resting on his knee--rough, athletic, and pugnacious--for all the world as if he were quite conscious of his peculiarities. Even the photographer's demand for "a pleasant smile" had -no effect upon him. This portrait is itself an explanation of Buerkel's +no effect upon him. This portrait is itself an explanation of Bürkel's art. His was a healthy, self-reliant nature, without a trace of romance, sentimentality, affected humour, or sugary optimism. Amongst all his Munich contemporaries he was the least academic in his whole manner of @@ -4981,20 +4947,20 @@ were visited again and again, on excursions for the week or the day; and he returned from them all with energetic studies, from which were developed pictures that were not less energetic. -[Illustration: BUeRKEL. BRIGANDS RETURNING.] +[Illustration: BÜRKEL. BRIGANDS RETURNING.] -[Illustration: BUeRKEL. A DOWNPOUR IN THE MOUNTAINS.] +[Illustration: BÜRKEL. A DOWNPOUR IN THE MOUNTAINS.] For, as every artist is the result of two factors, of which one lies in himself and the other in his age and surroundings, the performances of -Buerkel are to be judged, not only according to the requirements of the +Bürkel are to be judged, not only according to the requirements of the present day, but according to the conditions under which they were produced. What is weak in him he shares with his contemporaries; what is novel is his own most peculiar and incontestable merit. In a period of false idealism worked up in a museum--false idealism which had aped from the true the way in which one clears one's throat, as Schiller has it, but nothing more indicative of genius--in a period of this -accomplishment Buerkel preferred to expose his own insufficiency rather +accomplishment Bürkel preferred to expose his own insufficiency rather than adorn himself with other people's feathers; at a time which prided itself on representing with brush and pigment things for which pen and ink are the better medium, he looked vividly into life; at a time when @@ -5007,10 +4973,10 @@ himself to the level of the old masters by superficial imitation, he was the more industrious in penetrating the spirit of nature and showing his love for everything down to its minutest feature; weak in the sentiment for colour, he was great in his feeling for nature. That was -Heinrich Buerkel, and his successors had to supplement what was wanting +Heinrich Bürkel, and his successors had to supplement what was wanting in him, but not to wage war against his influence. -[Illustration: BUeRKEL. A SMITHY IN UPPER BAVARIA.] +[Illustration: BÜRKEL. A SMITHY IN UPPER BAVARIA.] The peculiarity of all his works, as of those of the early Dutch and Flemish artists, is the equal weight which he lays on figures and on @@ -5022,7 +4988,7 @@ paint interiors, almost always preferring to move in free and open nature. But here his field is extraordinarily wide. Those works in which he handled Italian subjects form a group by -themselves. Buerkel was in Rome from 1829 to 1832, the very years in +themselves. Bürkel was in Rome from 1829 to 1832, the very years in which Leopold Robert celebrated his triumphs there; but curious is the difference between the works of the Munich and those of the Swiss painter. In the latter are beautiful postures, poetic ideas, and all @@ -5033,7 +4999,7 @@ nature of the artist. He saw nothing in Italy that he had not met with at home, and he painted things as he saw them, honestly and without beatification. -To find material Buerkel did not need to go far. Picture to yourself a +To find material Bürkel did not need to go far. Picture to yourself a man wandering along the banks of the Isar, and gazing about him with a still and thoughtful look. A healthy peasant lass with a basket, or a plough moving slowly in the distance behind a sweating yoke of horses, @@ -5063,7 +5029,7 @@ path a team drew near to a forge or a lonely charcoal-burner's hut, where the light flickered, and over which there soared a bare and snowy mountain peak. -Such pictures of snow-clad landscape were a specialty of Buerkel's art, +Such pictures of snow-clad landscape were a specialty of Bürkel's art, and in their simplicity and harmony are to be ranked with the best that he has done. Heavily freighted wood-carts passing through a drift, waggons brought to a standstill in the snow, raw-boned woodmen @@ -5085,18 +5051,18 @@ as a house, with fresh trusses. In this enumeration all the rustic life of Bavaria has been described. It is only the Sunday and holiday themes, the peculiar motives of the _genre_ painter, that are wanting. And in itself this is an indication -of what gives Buerkel his peculiar position. +of what gives Bürkel his peculiar position. By their conception his works are out of keeping with everything which the contemporary generation of "great painters" and the younger _genre_ painters were attempting. The great painters had their home in museums; -Buerkel lived in the world of nature. The _genre_ painters, under the +Bürkel lived in the world of nature. The _genre_ painters, under the influence of Wilkie, were fond of giving their motive a touch of narrative interest, like the English. Cheerful or mournful news, country funerals, baptisms, and public dinners offered an excuse for representing the same sentiment in varying keys. Their starting-point was that of an illustrator; it might be very pretty in itself, but it -was too jovial or whimpering for a picture. Buerkel's works have no +was too jovial or whimpering for a picture. Bürkel's works have no literary background; they are not composed of stories with a humorous or sentimental tinge, but depict with an intimate grasp of the subject the simplest events of life. He neither offered the public lollipops, nor @@ -5129,7 +5095,7 @@ things which can be grasped and understood at a glance. [Illustration: SPITZWEG. A MORNING CONCERT.] -But, after all, Buerkel occupies a position which is curiously +But, after all, Bürkel occupies a position which is curiously intermediate. His colour relegates him altogether to the beginning of the century. He was himself conscious of the weakness of his age in this respect, and stands considerably above the school of Cornelius, even @@ -5150,16 +5116,16 @@ the plain reproduction of what is given in nature. The hands of his peasants are the real hands of toil--weather-stained, heavy, and awkward. There are no movements that are not simple and -actual. Others have told droller stories; Buerkel unrolls a true picture +actual. Others have told droller stories; Bürkel unrolls a true picture of the surroundings of the peasant's life. Others have made their rustics persons suitable for the drawing-room, and cleaned their nails; -Buerkel preaches the strict, austere, and pious study of nature. An +Bürkel preaches the strict, austere, and pious study of nature. An entirely new age casts its shadow upon this close devotion to life. In their intimacy and simplicity his pictures contain the germ of what afterwards became the task of the moderns. All who came after him in Germany were the sons of Wilkie until Wilhelm Leibl, furnished with a better technical equipment, started in spirit from the point at which -Buerkel had left off. +Bürkel had left off. _Carl Spitzweg_, in whose charming little pictures tender and discreet sentiment is united with realistic care for detail, must likewise be @@ -5332,10 +5298,10 @@ few German productions of their time which it is a delight to possess, and they have the savour of rare delicacies when one comes across them in the dismal wilderness of public galleries. -Buerkel's realistic programme was taken up with even greater energy by +Bürkel's realistic programme was taken up with even greater energy by _Hermann Kauffmann_, who belonged to the Munich circle from 1827 to 1833, and then painted until his death in 1888 in his native Hamburg. -His province was for the most part that of Buerkel: peasants in the +His province was for the most part that of Bürkel: peasants in the field, waggoners on the road, woodmen at their labour, and hunters in the snowy forest. For the first few years after his return home he used for his pictures the well-remembered motives taken from the South German @@ -5353,7 +5319,7 @@ perception which one meets with in all his works. In Berlin the excellent _Eduard Meyerheim_ went on parallel lines with these masters. An old tradition gives him the credit of having introduced the painting of peasants and children into German art. But in -artistic power he is not to be compared with Buerkel or Kauffmann. They +artistic power he is not to be compared with Bürkel or Kauffmann. They were energetic realists, teeming with health, and in everything they drew they were merely inspired by the earnest purpose of grasping life in its characteristic moments. But Meyerheim, good-humoured and @@ -5374,7 +5340,7 @@ of the old free imperial city, amid trumpery shops, general dealers, and artisans. Later, when he settled down in Berlin, he painted the things which had delighted him in his youth. The travels which he made for study were not extensive: they hardly led him farther beyond the -boundaries of the Mark than Hesse, the Harz district, Thueringen, +boundaries of the Mark than Hesse, the Harz district, Thüringen, Altenburg, and Westphalia. Here he drew with indefatigable diligence the pleasant village houses and the churches shadowed by trees; the cots, yards, and alleys; the weather-beaten town ramparts, with their @@ -5429,7 +5395,7 @@ merriment, their humorous peculiarities, and their hot-headed love of quarrelling; and he led the Romanticists from their idyllic or sombre world of dreams nearer to the reality and its poetry. A generation later Immermann created this department of literature in Germany by the -Oberhof-Episode of his _Muenchhausen_. "The Village Magistrate" was soon +Oberhof-Episode of his _Münchhausen_. "The Village Magistrate" was soon one of those typical figures which in literature became the model of a hundred others. In 1837 Jeremias Gotthelf began in his _Bauernspiegel_ those descriptions of Bernese rustic life which found general favour @@ -5480,10 +5446,10 @@ the mountains--were also a source of highly comical situations. [Illustration: MEYERHEIM. THE KNITTING LESSON.] -In Duesseldorf the reaction against the prevailing sentimentality +In Düsseldorf the reaction against the prevailing sentimentality necessarily gave an impulse to art on these humorous lines. When it seemed as if the mournfulness of the thirties would never be ended, -_Adolf Schroedter_, the satirist of the band of Duesseldorf artists in +_Adolf Schroedter_, the satirist of the band of Düsseldorf artists in those times, broke the spell when he began to parody the works of the "great painters." When Lessing painted "The Sorrowing Royal Pair," Schroedter painted "The Triumphal Procession of King Bacchus"; when @@ -5518,7 +5484,7 @@ Lightning" that for a long time the interest of the public was often concentrated on this picture in the collection of the Staedel Institute. _Rudolf Jordan_ of Berlin settled on Heligoland, and became by his "Proposal of Marriage in Heligoland" one of the most esteemed painters -of Duesseldorf. And in 1852 _Henry Ritter_, his pupil, who died young, +of Düsseldorf. And in 1852 _Henry Ritter_, his pupil, who died young, enjoyed a like success with his "Middy's Sermon," which represents a tiny midshipman with comical zeal endeavouring to convert to temperance three tars who are staggering against him. A Norwegian, _Adolf @@ -5548,7 +5514,7 @@ bridal garb, and naturally took away with him the mere impressions of a tourist. As he only went to Norway for recreation, it is always holiday-tide and Sabbath peace in his pictures. He represents the same idyllic optimism and the same kindly view of "the people" as did -Bjoernson in his earliest works; and it is significant that the latter +Björnson in his earliest works; and it is significant that the latter felt himself at the time so entirely in sympathy with Tidemand that he wrote one of his tales, _The Bridal March_, as text to Tidemand's picture "Adorning the Bride." @@ -5559,14 +5525,14 @@ Tidemand's method of presentation; he did not live amongst the people sufficiently long to penetrate to their depths. The sketches that resulted from his summer journeys often reveal a keen eye for the picturesque, as well as for the spiritual life of this peasantry; but -later in Duesseldorf, when he composed his studies for pictures with the +later in Düsseldorf, when he composed his studies for pictures with the help of German models, all the sharp characterisation was watered down. What ought to have been said in Norwegian was expressed in a German -translation, where the emphasis was lost. His art is Duesseldorf art with +translation, where the emphasis was lost. His art is Düsseldorf art with Norwegian landscapes and costumes; a course of lectures on the manners and customs of Norwegian villages composed for Germans. The only thing which distinguishes Tidemand to his advantage from the German -Duesseldorfers is that he is less humorously and sentimentally disposed. +Düsseldorfers is that he is less humorously and sentimentally disposed. Pictures of his, such as "The Lonely Old People," "The Catechism," "The Wounded Bear Hunter," "The Grandfather's Blessing," "The Sectarians," etc., create a really pleasant and healthy effect by a certain actual @@ -5582,8 +5548,8 @@ In Vienna the _genre_ painters seem to owe their inspiration especially to the theatre. What was produced there in the province of grand art during the first half of the century was neither better nor worse than elsewhere. The Classicism of Mengs and David was represented by -_Heinrich Fueger_, who had a more decided leaning towards the operatic. -The representative-in-chief of Nazarenism was _Josef Fuehrich_, whose +_Heinrich Füger_, who had a more decided leaning towards the operatic. +The representative-in-chief of Nazarenism was _Josef Führich_, whose frescoes in the Altlerchenfeld Church are, perhaps, better in point of colour than the corresponding efforts of the Munich artists, though they are likewise in a formal way derivative from the Italians. Vienna had @@ -5591,7 +5557,7 @@ its Wilhelm Kaulbach in _Carl Rahl_, its Piloty in _Christian Ruben_, who, like the Munich artist, had a preference for painting Columbus, and was meritorious as a teacher. It was only through portrait painting that Classicism and Romanticism were brought into some sort of relation -with life; and the Vienna portraitists of this older regime are even +with life; and the Vienna portraitists of this older régime are even better than their German contemporaries, as they made fewer concessions to the ruling idealism. Amongst the portrait painters was _Lampi_, after whom followed _Moritz Daffinger_ with his delicate miniatures; but the @@ -5641,7 +5607,7 @@ Just at this time Tschischka and Schottky began to collect the popular songs of the Viennese. Castelli gave a poetic representation of _bourgeois_ life, and Ferdinand Raimund brought it upon the stage in his dramas. Bauernfeld's types from the life of the people enjoyed a rapid -popularity. Josef Danhauser, Peter Fendi, and Ferdinand Waldmueller went +popularity. Josef Danhauser, Peter Fendi, and Ferdinand Waldmüller went on parallel lines with these authors. In their _genre_ pictures they represented the Austrian people in their joys and sorrows, in their merriment and heartiness and good-humour; the people, be it understood, @@ -5664,18 +5630,18 @@ of the havoc caused by a butcher's dog storming into a studio. In his last period he turned with Collins to the nursery, or wandered through the suburbs with a sketch-book, immortalising the doings of children in the streets, and drawing "character heads" of the school-teacher tavern -_habitues_ and the lottery adventurer. +_habitués_ and the lottery adventurer. [Illustration: TIDEMAND. ADORNING THE BRIDE.] -And this was likewise the province to which _Waldmueller_ devoted +And this was likewise the province to which _Waldmüller_ devoted himself. Chubby peasant children are the heroes of almost all his pictures. A baby is sprawling with joy on its mother's lap, while it is contemplated with proud satisfaction by its father, or it is sleeping under the guardianship of a little sister; a boy is despatched upon the rough path which leads to school, and brings the reward of his conduct home with rapturous or dejected mien, or he stammers "Many happy returns -of the day" to grandpapa. Waldmueller paints "The First Step," the joys +of the day" to grandpapa. Waldmüller paints "The First Step," the joys of "Christmas Presents," and "The Distribution of Prizes to Poor School Children"; he follows eager juveniles to the peep-show; he is to be met at "The Departure of the Bride" and at "The Wedding"; he is our guide to @@ -5691,7 +5657,7 @@ that time. _Friedrich Gauermann_ wandered in the Austrian Alps, in Steiermark, and Salzkammergut, making studies of nature, the inhabitants, and the animal -world. In contradistinction from Waldmueller, painter of idylls, and the +world. In contradistinction from Waldmüller, painter of idylls, and the humorist Danhauser, he aimed above all at ethnographical exactness. With sincere and unadorned observation Gauermann represents the local peculiarities of the peasantry, differentiated according to their @@ -5730,7 +5696,7 @@ way to a polished porcelain painting which hardly bore a trace of the work of the hand. Harsh and gaudy reds and greens were especially popular. -[Illustration: WALDMUeLLER. THE FIRST STEP.] +[Illustration: WALDMÜLLER. THE FIRST STEP.] The first who began a modest career on these lines was _Ignatius van Regemorter_. As one recognises the pictures of Wouwerman by the @@ -5769,7 +5735,7 @@ Menzel in Germany. But Madou lingered for a still briefer period in the Pantheon of history; the tavern had for him a yet greater attraction. The humorous books which he published in Paris and Brussels first showed him in his true light. Having busied himself for several years -exclusively with drawings, he made his _debut_ in 1842 as a painter. It +exclusively with drawings, he made his _début_ in 1842 as a painter. It is difficult to decide how much Madou produced after that date. The long period between 1842 and 1877 yields a crowded chronicle of his works. Even in the seventies he was just as vigorous as at the beginning, and @@ -5826,7 +5792,7 @@ skating, scenes in cobblers' workshops, a gust of wind blowing an umbrella inside out; and if he embellishes them with little episodic details, this tendency is so innocent that nobody can quarrel with him. -In France it was _Francois Biard_, the Paul de Kock of French painting, +In France it was _François Biard_, the Paul de Kock of French painting, who attained most success in the thirties by humorous anecdote. He devoted his whole life to the comical representation of the minor trespasses and misfortunes of the commonplace _bourgeoisie_. He had the @@ -5864,14 +5830,14 @@ THE PICTURE WITH A SOCIAL PURPOSE That modern life first entered art, in all countries, under the form of -humorous anecdote is partly the consequence of the one-sided aesthetic +humorous anecdote is partly the consequence of the one-sided æsthetic ideas of the period. In an age that was dominated by idealism it was forgotten that Murillo had painted lame beggars sitting in the sun, Velasquez cripples and drunkards, and Holbein lepers; that Rembrandt had so much love for humble folk, and that old Breughel with a strangely sombre pessimism turned the whole world into a terrible hospital. The modern man was hideous, and art demanded "absolute beauty." If he was to -be introduced into painting, despite his want of _beaute supreme_, the +be introduced into painting, despite his want of _beauté suprême_, the only way was to treat him as a humorous figure which had to be handled ironically. Mercantile considerations were also a power in determining this form of humour. At a time when painting was forced to address @@ -5882,14 +5848,14 @@ drollness of mien, typical stupidity, and absurdity of situation. The choice of figures was practically made according as they were more or less serviceable for a humorous purpose. Children, rustics, and provincial Philistines seemed to be most adapted to it. The painter -treated them as strange and naive beings, and brought them before the +treated them as strange and naïve beings, and brought them before the public as a sort of performing dogs, who could go through remarkable tricks just as if they were human beings. And the public laughed over whimsical oddities from another world, as the courtiers of Louis XIV had laughed in Versailles when M. Jourdain and M. Dimanche were acted by the -king's servants upon the stage of Moliere. +king's servants upon the stage of Molière. -Meanwhile painters gradually came to remark that this humour _a l'huile_ +Meanwhile painters gradually came to remark that this humour _à l'huile_ was bought at too dear a price. For humour, which is like a soap-bubble, can only bear a light method of representation, such as Hokusai's drawing or Brouwer's painting, but becomes insupportable where it is @@ -5971,7 +5937,7 @@ decisive battle of 1848. With the _roi bourgeois_, whom Lafayette called position to which it had long aspired; it rose from the ranks of the oppressed to that of the privileged classes. As a new ruling class it made such abundant capital with the fruits of the Revolution of July -that even in 1830 Boerne wrote from Paris: "The men who fought against +that even in 1830 Börne wrote from Paris: "The men who fought against all aristocracy for fifteen years have scarcely conquered--they have not yet wiped the sweat from their faces--and already they want to found for themselves a new aristocracy, an aristocracy of money, a knighthood of @@ -5985,14 +5951,14 @@ more ungraciously than the old, has its primary cause in money-making." There the radical ideas of modern socialism were touched. The proletariat and its misery became henceforward the subject of French poetry, though they were not observed with any naturalistic love of -truth, but from the romantic standpoint of contrast. Beranger, the +truth, but from the romantic standpoint of contrast. Béranger, the popular singer of _chansons_, composed his _Vieux Vagabond_, the song of the old beggar who dies in the gutter; Auguste Barbier wrote his Ode to Freedom, where _la sainte canaille_ are celebrated as immortal heroes, and with the scorn of Juvenal "lashes those who drew profit from the Revolution, those _bourgeois_ in kid gloves who watched the sanguinary -street fights comfortably from the window." In 1842-43 Eugene Sue -published his _Mysteres de Paris_, a forbidding and nonsensical book, +street fights comfortably from the window." In 1842-43 Eugène Sue +published his _Mystères de Paris_, a forbidding and nonsensical book, but one which made an extraordinary sensation, just because of the disgusting openness with which it unveiled the life of the lower strata of the people. Even the great spirits of the Romantic school began to @@ -6011,7 +5977,7 @@ mastered these seething ideas and founded the artisan novel in her _Compagnon du Tour de France_. It is the first book with a real love of the people--the people as they actually are, those who drink and commit deeds of violence as well as those who work and make mental progress. In -her periodical, _L'Eclaireur de l'Indre_, she pleads the cause both of +her periodical, _L'Éclaireur de l'Indre_, she pleads the cause both of the artisan in great towns and of the rustic labourer; in 1844 she declared herself as a Socialist, without qualification, in her great essay _Politics and Socialism_, and she brought out her celebrated @@ -6061,7 +6027,7 @@ For this reason peasants were invariably painted in neat and cleanly dress, with their faces beaming with joy, an embodiment of the blessing of work and the delights of country life. Even beggars were harmless, peacefully cheerful figures, sparkling with health and beauty, and -enveloped in aesthetic rags. But as political, religious, and social +enveloped in æsthetic rags. But as political, religious, and social movements have always had a vivid and forcible effect on artists, painters in the nineteenth century could not in the long run hold themselves aloof from this influence. The voice of the disinherited made @@ -6097,20 +6063,20 @@ his arm: it is the people that hastens by, exulting to die the death for the great ideas of liberty and equality. The painter himself had an entirely unpolitical mind. He had drawn his -inspiration for the picture, not from experience, but out of _La Curee_, +inspiration for the picture, not from experience, but out of _La Curée_, those verses of Auguste Barbier that are ablaze with wrath-- - "C'est que la Liberte n'est pas une comtesse + "C'est que la Liberté n'est pas une comtesse Du noble faubourg Saint-Germain, Une femme qu'un cri fait tomber en faiblesse, Qui met du blanc et du carmin; C'est un forte femme aux puissantes mamelles, - A la voix rauque, aux durs appas, + À la voix rauque, aux durs appas, Qui, du brun sur la peau, du feu dans les prunelles, - Agile et marchant a grands pas, - Se plait aux cris du peuple, aux sanglantes melees, + Agile et marchant à grands pas, + Se plait aux cris du peuple, aux sanglantes mêlées, Aux longs roulements des tambours, - A l'odeur de la poudre, aux lointaines volees + À l'odeur de la poudre, aux lointaines volées Des cloches et des canons sourds." And by this allegorical figure he has certainly weakened its grip and @@ -6142,7 +6108,7 @@ rugged heads without idealisation. For him the aim of art was not beauty, but the expression of truth--a truth, no doubt, which made political propaganda. It was Jeanron's purpose to have a socialistic influence. One sees it in his blacksmiths and peasants, and in that -picture "The Worker's Rest" which in 1847 induced Thore's utterance: "It +picture "The Worker's Rest" which in 1847 induced Thoré's utterance: "It is a melancholy and barren landscape from the neighbourhood of Paris, a plebeian landscape which hardly seems to belong to itself, and which gives up all pretensions to beauty merely to be of service to man. @@ -6166,7 +6132,7 @@ incited by the sad aspect of the streets of Paris during the rising of 1848. The men who, driven by hunger and misery, fought upon the barricades may be found in Leleux's "Mot d'Ordre." -After the _coup d'etat_ of 1851 even _Meissonier_, till then exclusively +After the _coup d'état_ of 1851 even _Meissonier_, till then exclusively a painter of _rococo_ subjects, encroached on this province. In his picture of the barricades (2 December 1851) heaps of corpses are lying stretched out in postures which could not have been merely invented. The @@ -6197,7 +6163,7 @@ Tassaert was a Fleming, a grandson of that Tassaert who educated Gottfried Schadow and died as director of the Berlin Academy in 1788. His name has been for the most part forgotten; it awakes only a dim recollection in those who see "The Unhappy Family" in the Luxembourg -_Musee_. But forty years ago he was amongst the most advanced of his +_Musée_. But forty years ago he was amongst the most advanced of his day, and enjoyed the respect of men like Delacroix, Rousseau, Troyon, and Diaz. He took Chardin and Greuze as his models, and is a real master in talent. He was the poet of the suburbs, who spoke in tender @@ -6240,12 +6206,12 @@ another Netherlander, _Charles de Groux_, whose sombre pessimism dominates modern Belgian art. In Germany, where the socialistic writings of the French and English had -a wide circulation, _Gisbert Flueggen_, in Munich known as the German +a wide circulation, _Gisbert Flüggen_, in Munich known as the German Wilkie, was perhaps the first who as early as the forties went somewhat further than the humorous representation of rustics, and entered into a certain relation with the social ideas of his age in such pictures as "The Interrupted Marriage Contract," "The Unlucky Gamester," "The -_Mesalliance_," "Decision of the Suit," "The Disappointed Legacy +_Mésalliance_," "Decision of the Suit," "The Disappointed Legacy Hunter," "The Execution for Rent," and the like. Under his influence Danhauser in Vienna deserted whimsicalities for the representation of social conflicts in middle-class life. To say nothing of his @@ -6263,7 +6229,7 @@ whereon the rich give way to transports of rage. Yet more clearly, although similarly transposed into a sentimental key, is the mood of the time just previous to 1848, reflected in the works of -_Carl Huebner_ of Duesseldorf. Ernest Wilkomm in the beginning of the +_Carl Hübner_ of Düsseldorf. Ernest Wilkomm in the beginning of the forties had represented in his sensational _genre_ pictures, particularly in the "White Slaves," the contrast between afflicted serfs and cruel landlords, between rich manufacturers and famishing artisans; @@ -6273,18 +6239,18 @@ afterwards the famine among the Silesian weavers, the intelligence of which in 1844 flew through all Germany, set numbers of people reflecting on the social question. Freiligrath made it the subject of his verses, _Aus dem Schlesischen Gebirge_, the song of the poor weaver's child who -calls on Ruebezahl--one of his most popular poems. And yet more +calls on Rübezahl--one of his most popular poems. And yet more decisively does the social and revolutionary temper of the age find an echo in Heine's _Webern_, composed in 1844. Even Geibel was impelled to his poem _Mene Tekel_ by the spread of the news, though it stands in -curious opposition to his manner of writing elsewhere. Carl Huebner +curious opposition to his manner of writing elsewhere. Carl Hübner therefore was acting very seasonably when he likewise treated the distress of the Silesian weavers in his first picture of 1845. -Huebner knew the life of the poor and the heavy-laden; his feelings were +Hübner knew the life of the poor and the heavy-laden; his feelings were with them, and he expressed what he felt. This gives him a position above and apart from the rest in the insipidly smiling school of -Duesseldorf, and sets his name at the beginning of a new chapter in the +Düsseldorf, and sets his name at the beginning of a new chapter in the history of German _genre_ painting. His next picture, "The Game Laws," sprang from an occasion which was quite as historical: a gamekeeper had shot a poacher. In 1846 followed "The Emigrants," "The Execution for @@ -6307,7 +6273,7 @@ own child. The rich child, already dressed out like a little lady, is exuberant in health, whilst her own is languishing in a dark and cold room without food or warm clothing. -In Belgium _Eugene de Block_ first took up these lines. The artistic +In Belgium _Eugène de Block_ first took up these lines. The artistic development of his character is particularly interesting, inasmuch as he went through various transformations. First he had come forward in 1836 with the representation of a brawl amongst peasants, a picture which @@ -6330,13 +6296,13 @@ those days was filling Brussels with his fame. [Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - FLUeGGEN. THE DECISION OF THE SUIT.] + FLÜGGEN. THE DECISION OF THE SUIT.] It was in 1835 that a young man wrote to one of his relatives from Italy the proud words: "I will measure my strength with Rubens and Michael Angelo." -[Illustration: HUeBNER. JULY.] +[Illustration: HÜBNER. JULY.] Having gained the _Prix de Rome_, he was enabled to make a sojourn in the Eternal City. He was thinking of his return. He was possessed of a @@ -6352,8 +6318,8 @@ young man is a giant." And the young man was himself of that opinion. With the gait of a conqueror he entered Paris, in the belief that artists would line the streets to receive him. But when the portals of the _Salon_ of 1839 were opened he did not see his picture there. It was -skied over a door, and no one noticed it. Theophile Gautier, Gustave -Planche, and Buerger-Thore wrote their articles without even mentioning +skied over a door, and no one noticed it. Théophile Gautier, Gustave +Planché, and Bürger-Thoré wrote their articles without even mentioning it with one word of praise or blame. For one moment he thought of exhibiting it out of doors in front of the @@ -6425,7 +6391,7 @@ careless portraits, _pour la soupe_, when he was in pressing need of money. These brought him at first from three to four hundred, and later a thousand francs. He indulged in colossal sketches, for the completion of which the State built him in 1850 a tremendous studio, the present -_Musee Wiertz_. It stands a few hundred paces from the Luxembourg +_Musée Wiertz_. It stands a few hundred paces from the Luxembourg station, to the extreme north of the town, in a beautiful though rather neglected little park, a white building with a pillared portico and a broad perron leading up to it. Here he sat in a fantastically gorgeous @@ -6439,7 +6405,7 @@ and earth are in commotion. Giants hurl rocks at one another, and try, like Jupiter, to shake the earth with their frown. All of them delight in force, and bring their muscles into play like athletes. But the painter himself is no athlete, no giant as Thorwaldsen called him, and -no genius as he fancied himself to be. _Le singe des genies_, he +no genius as he fancied himself to be. _Le singe des génies_, he conceived the notion of "great art" purely in its relation to space, and believed himself greater than the greatest because his canvases were of greater dimensions. When the ministry thought of making him Director of @@ -6503,7 +6469,7 @@ has destroyed. [Illustration: WIERTZ. THE FIGHT ROUND THE BODY OF PATROCLUS.] In his "Thoughts and Visions of a Decapitated Head", Wiertz, moved by -Victor Hugo's _Le dernier jour d'un condamne_, makes capital punishment +Victor Hugo's _Le dernier jour d'un condamné_, makes capital punishment a subject of more lengthy disquisition. The picture, which is made up of three parts, is supposed to represent the feelings of a man, who has been guillotined, during the first three minutes after execution. The @@ -6518,7 +6484,7 @@ instrument the guillotine is one day actually abolished, may God be praised," and so on. Beside this painted plea against capital punishment hangs "The Burnt -Child," as an argument in favour of _creches_. A poor working woman has +Child," as an argument in favour of _crêches_. A poor working woman has for one moment left her garret. Meanwhile a fire has broken out, and she returns to find the charred body of her boy. In the picture "Hunger, Madness, and Crime" he treats of human misery in general, and touches on @@ -6592,10 +6558,10 @@ Piloty. Subjects of greater refinement were united with a treatment of colour which was less offensive. The childlike innocence which had given pleasure in Meyerheim and -Waldmueller was now thought to be too childlike by far. The merriment +Waldmüller was now thought to be too childlike by far. The merriment which radiated from the pictures of Schroedter or Enhuber found no echo amidst a generation which was tired of such cheap humour: the works of -Carl Huebner were put aside as lachrymose and sentimental efforts. When +Carl Hübner were put aside as lachrymose and sentimental efforts. When the world had issued from the period of Romanticism there was no temptation to be funny over modern life nor to make socialistic propaganda; for after the Revolution of 1848 people had become @@ -6680,7 +6646,7 @@ by geese in "In Great Distress,"--they have all the same deliberate comicality, they are all treated with the same palpable carefulness, the same pointed and impertinently satirical sharpness. Even in "The Funeral" he is not deserted by the humorous proclivity of the -anecdotist, and the schoolmaster has to brandish the baton with which he +anecdotist, and the schoolmaster has to brandish the bâton with which he is conducting the choir of boys and girls as comically as possible. Knaus uses too many italics, and underlines as if he expected his public to be very dull of understanding. In this way he appeals to @@ -6736,7 +6702,7 @@ modern French reached its highest point in Knaus. Even in his youth the great Netherlandish painters, Ostade, Brouwer, and Teniers, must have had more effect upon him than his teachers, Sohn and Schadow, since his very first pictures, "The Peasants' Dance" of 1850 and "The Card -Sharpers" of 1850, had little in common with the Duesseldorf school, and +Sharpers" of 1850, had little in common with the Düsseldorf school, and therefore so much the more with the Netherlandish _chiaroscuro_. "The Card Sharpers" is precisely like an Ostade modernised. By his migration to Paris in 1852 he sought to acquire the utmost perfection of finish; @@ -6746,7 +6712,7 @@ knowledge of colour, and such a disciplined and refined taste, that his works indicate an immeasurable advance on the motley harshness of his predecessors. His "Golden Wedding" of 1858--perhaps his finest picture--had nothing of the antiquated technique of the older type of -Duesseldorf pictures of peasant life; technically it stood on a level +Düsseldorf pictures of peasant life; technically it stood on a level with the works of the French. [Illustration: KNAUS. THE GOLDEN WEDDING. @@ -6791,19 +6757,19 @@ observation. Vautier gives pleasure by characterisation, more delicately reserved in its adjustment of means, and profound as it is simple, by his wealth of individual motives and their charm, and by the sensitiveness with which he renders the feelings and relationship of his -figures. A naive, good-humoured, and amiable temperament is betrayed in +figures. A naïve, good-humoured, and amiable temperament is betrayed in his works. He is genially idyllic where Knaus creates a pungently satirical effect, and a glance at the portraits of the two men explains this difference. -[Illustration: _Kunst fuer Alle._ +[Illustration: _Kunst für Alle._ BENJAMIN VAUTIER.] Knaus with his puckered forehead, and his searching look shooting from under heavy brows, is like a judge or a public prosecutor. Vautier, with his thoughtful blue eyes, resembles a prosperous banker with a turn for -idealism, or a writer of village tales _a la_ Berthold Auerbach. Knaus +idealism, or a writer of village tales _à la_ Berthold Auerbach. Knaus worried himself over many things, brooded much and made many experiments; Vautier was content with the acquisition of a plain and simple method of painting, which appeared to him a perfectly sufficient @@ -6861,7 +6827,7 @@ has it even in the loving familiarity with which he penetrates minute detail. In their religious pictures the old German and Netherlandish masters painted everything, down to the lilies worked on the Virgin's loom, or the dust lying on the old service-book; and this thoroughly -German delight in still life, this complacent rendering of minutiae, is +German delight in still life, this complacent rendering of minutiæ, is found again in Vautier. Men and their dwellings, animated nature and atmosphere, combine to make @@ -7122,7 +7088,7 @@ fiddle, or quarrelling over cards. Another North German, _Wilhelm Riefstahl_, showed how the peasants in Appenzell or Bregenz conduct themselves at mournful gatherings, at their devotions in the open air, and at All Souls' Day Celebrations, and -afterwards extended his artistic dominion over Ruegen, Westphalia, and +afterwards extended his artistic dominion over Rügen, Westphalia, and the Rhine country with true Mecklenburg thoroughness. He was a careful, conscientious worker, with a discontent at his own efforts in his composition, a certain ponderousness in his attempts at _genre_; but his @@ -7131,7 +7097,7 @@ German manner--are highly prized in public galleries on account of their instructive soundness. After the various classes of the German peasantry had been naturalised -in the picture market by these narrative painters, _Eduard Gruetzner_, +in the picture market by these narrative painters, _Eduard Grützner_, when religious controversy raged in the seventies, turned aside to discover drolleries in monastic life. This he did with the assistance of brown and yellowish white cowls, and the obese and copper-nosed models @@ -7141,17 +7107,17 @@ monastery is employed at the vintage, at the broaching of a wine cask or the brewing of the beer; how they tipple; how bored they are over their chess or their dice, their cards or their dominoes; how they whitewash old frescoes or search after forbidden books in the monastery library. -This, according to Gruetzner, is the routine in which the life of monks +This, according to Grützner, is the routine in which the life of monks revolves. At times amidst these figures appear foresters who tell of their adventures in the chase, or deliver hares at the cloister kitchen. -And the more Gruetzner was forced year after year to make up for his +And the more Grützner was forced year after year to make up for his decline as a colourist, by cramming his pictures with so-called humour, the greater was his success. It was only long afterwards that _genre_ painting in broad-cloth came into vogue by the side of this _genre_ in peasant blouse and monastic cowl, and stories of the exchange and the manufactory by the side of -village and monastic tales. Here Duesseldorf plays a part once more in +village and monastic tales. Here Düsseldorf plays a part once more in the development of art. The neighbourhood of the great manufacturing towns on the Rhine could not but lead painters to these subjects. _Ludwig Bokelmann_, who began by painting tragical domestic scenes--card @@ -7176,11 +7142,11 @@ justice, the emigrants' farewell, the gaming-table at Monte Carlo, and a village fire, were other newspaper episodes from the life of great towns which he rendered in paint. -His earlier associate in Duesseldorf, _Ferdinand Bruett_, after first +His earlier associate in Düsseldorf, _Ferdinand Brütt_, after first painting _rococo_ pictures, owed his finest successes to the Stock Exchange. It, too, had its types: the great patrician merchants and bankers of solid reputation, the jobbers, break-neck speculators, and -decayed old stagers; and, as Bruett rendered these current figures in a +decayed old stagers; and, as Brütt rendered these current figures in a very intelligible manner, his pictures excited a great deal of attention. Acquittals and condemnations, acts of mortgage, emigration agents, comic electors, and prison visits, as further episodes from the @@ -7218,7 +7184,7 @@ flowed by, without toil, in gentle, patriarchal quietude, interrupted only by marriage feasts, birthdays, and funeral solemnities. He appears to have been rather fond of melancholy and solemn subjects. His interiors, with their sturdy and honest people, bulky old furniture, and -large green faience stoves, which are so dear to him, are delightful in +large green faïence stoves, which are so dear to him, are delightful in their familiar homeliness and their cordial Alsatian and German character, and recall Vautier; in fact, he might well be termed the French Vautier. He lives in them himself--the quiet old man, who in his @@ -7235,12 +7201,12 @@ bodices for a Parisian toilette. His chief picture was "The Hiring Fair" of 1864: pretty peasant girls are standing in a row along the street, bargaining with prospective masters before hiring themselves out. -[Illustration: GRUeTZNER. TWELFTH NIGHT.] +[Illustration: GRÜTZNER. TWELFTH NIGHT.] The most famous of this group of artists is _Jules Breton_, who after various humorous and sentimental pieces placed himself in 1853 in the front rank of the French painters of rustics by his "Return of the -Reapers" (Musee Luxembourg). His "Gleaners" in 1855, "Blessing the +Reapers" (Musée Luxembourg). His "Gleaners" in 1855, "Blessing the Fields" in 1857, and "The Erection of the Picture of Christ in the Churchyard" were pretty enough to please the public, and sufficiently sound in technique not to be a stumbling-block to artists. After 1861 he @@ -7267,12 +7233,12 @@ like flat lemonade; it is monotonous and only too carefully composed, destitute of all masculinity and seldom avoiding the reef of affectation. -Norway and Sweden were fructified from Duesseldorf immediately. When +Norway and Sweden were fructified from Düsseldorf immediately. When Tidemand had shown the way, the academy on the Rhine was the high school for all the sons of the North during the fifties. They set to translating Knaus and Vautier into Swedish and Norwegian, and caught the tone of their originals so exactly that they almost seem more -Duesseldorfian than the Duesseldorfers themselves. +Düsseldorfian than the Düsseldorfers themselves. _Karl D'Uncker_, who arrived in 1851 and died in 1866, was led by the influence of Vautier to turn to little humorous incidents. After "The @@ -7309,7 +7275,7 @@ upper hand. His pictures are like saucy street ditties sung to a barrel-organ. The crowd at the market-place, the gossip in the spinning-room on a holiday evening, hop-pickings, dances, auctions on old estates, weddings, and the guard turning out, are his favourite -scenes. Even when he came to Duesseldorf he was preceded by his fame as a +scenes. Even when he came to Düsseldorf he was preceded by his fame as a jolly fellow and a clever draughtsman, and when he exhibited his "Market in Vingaker" he was greeted as another Teniers. His "Hop-Harvest" is like a waxwork show of teasing lads and laughing lasses. He was an @@ -7333,7 +7299,7 @@ Jernberg's_ study was the Westphalian peasant with his slouching hat, long white coat, flowered waistcoat, and large silver buttons. He was specially fond of painting dancing bears surrounded by a crowd of amused spectators, or annual fairs, for which a picturesque part of old -Duesseldorf served as a background. _Ferdinand Fagerlin_ has something +Düsseldorf served as a background. _Ferdinand Fagerlin_ has something attractive in his simplicity and good-humour. If he laughs, as he delights in doing, his laughter is cordial and kind-hearted, and if he touches an elegiac chord he can guard against sentimentalism. In @@ -7353,7 +7319,7 @@ Stoltenberg-Lerche_, who with the aid of appropriate accessories adapted the interiors of cloisters and churches to _genre_ pictures, such as "Tithe Day in the Cloister," "The Cloister Library," and "The Visit of a Cardinal to the Cloister," and so forth. _Hans Dahl_, a _juste-milieu_ -between Tidemand and Emanuel Spitzer, carried the Duesseldorf village +between Tidemand and Emanuel Spitzer, carried the Düsseldorf village idyll down to the present time. "Knitting the Stocking" (girls knitting on the edge of a lake), "Feminine Attraction" (a lad with three peasant maidens who are dragging a boat to shore in spite of his resistance), "A @@ -7393,9 +7359,9 @@ cattle,--such are the elements worked up, as the occasion demanded, either into little tales or great and thrilling romances. And the names of the painters are as thoroughly Magyar as are the figures. Beside _Ludwig Ebner_, _Paul Boehm_, and _Otto von Baditz_, which have a German -sound, one comes across such names as _Koloman Dery_, _Julius Agghazi_, -_Alexander Bihari_, _Ignaz Ruskovics_, _Johann Janko_, _Tihamer -Margitay_, _Paul Vago_, _Arpad Fessty_, _Otto Koroknyai_, _D. +sound, one comes across such names as _Koloman Déry_, _Julius Aggházi_, +_Alexander Bihari_, _Ignaz Ruskovics_, _Johann Jankó_, _Tihamér +Margitay_, _Paul Vagó_, _Arpad Fessty_, _Otto Koroknyai_, _D. Skuteczky_, etc. [Illustration: _L'Art._ @@ -7444,7 +7410,7 @@ those of the Paris Salon created, comparatively early, a certain ground for the comprehension of art, the _genre_ painters of other countries worked up to and into the sixties without the appropriate social combinations. After 1828 the Art Unions began to usurp the position of -that refined society which had formerly played the Maecenas as the +that refined society which had formerly played the Mæcenas as the leading dictators of taste. [Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ @@ -7711,7 +7677,7 @@ characteristic lines, and did not unsuccessfully go through the school of Claude with his finely moulded, rhythmically perfected, and yet simple conception of nature. -[Illustration: _Graephische Kuenst._ +[Illustration: _Gräphische Künst._ KARL ROTTMANN.] @@ -7721,8 +7687,8 @@ only was it granted to assure his name a lasting importance by exhaustively working out a felicitous subject. The _Odyssey_ landscapes extend through his whole life. During a sojourn in Naples in 1830 he was struck by the first idea. After his return home he composed for Doctor -Haertel in Leipzig the first series as wall decoration in tempera in -1832-34. Then there followed his journeys to Ruegen and Norway, where he +Härtel in Leipzig the first series as wall decoration in tempera in +1832-34. Then there followed his journeys to Rügen and Norway, where he painted wild strand and fell landscapes of a sombre austerity. After this interruption, so profitably extending his feeling for nature, he returned to the _Odyssey_. The series grew from seven to sixteen @@ -7752,7 +7718,7 @@ architecture, it directed one's thoughts to the antique: shepherds had to sit with their flock around them on the ruins of the temple of Vesta, or cows to find pasture between the truncated pillars of the Roman Forum. But now it could only find its justification by allying itself -with mediaeval German history, by the portrayal of castles and +with mediæval German history, by the portrayal of castles and strongholds. [Illustration: ROTTMANN. THE COAST OF SICILY.] @@ -7766,7 +7732,7 @@ which are too high, rude or dilapidated buildings, with their ruins lying strewn in heaps, a sky with heavy clouds, stagnant water, lean cattle in the field, and ungraceful wayfarers." -In these words Gerard de Lairesse, the ancestor of Classicism, defined +In these words Gérard de Lairesse, the ancestor of Classicism, defined his ideal of landscape, and in the last clause, where he speaks of ugliness, he prophetically indicated the landscape ideal of the Romanticists, as this is given for the first time in literature in @@ -7788,10 +7754,10 @@ neither to be seen in Berlin nor in Breslau, and to be a Romanticist was to love the opposite of all that one sees around one. Tieck, who lived in the cold daylight of Berlin with its modern North German rationalism, has therefore--and not by chance--first felt the yearning for moonlight -landscapes of primaeval forest; _Lessing_, from Breslau, was the first to +landscapes of primæval forest; _Lessing_, from Breslau, was the first to give it pictorial expression. -[Illustration: K. ROTTMANN. LAKE KOPAIS.] +[Illustration: K. ROTTMANN. LAKE KOPAÏS.] Even in the twenties Koch's classical heroic landscapes, executed with an ideal sweep of line, were contrasted with castle chapels, ruins, and @@ -7826,7 +7792,7 @@ weary, grey-headed crusader, riding on a weary horse through a lonely mountain district, probably meant as an illustration to Uhland's ballad _Das Rosennest_-- - "Ruehe hab ich nie gefunden, + "Rühe hab ich nie gefunden, Als ein Jahr im finstern Thurm"; and then came the desolate tableland with the robbers' den burnt to @@ -7834,25 +7800,25 @@ ashes, and the landscape with the oak and the shrine of the Virgin, before which a knight and noble lady are making their devotions. As yet all these pictures were an arbitrary _potpourri_ from Walter Scott, Tieck, and Uhland, and their ideal was the Wolf's Glen in the -_Freischuetz_. +_Freischütz_. [Illustration: FRIEDRICH PRELLER.] The next step which Romanticism had to take was to discover such -primaeval woodland scenes in actual nature, and as Italian landscape +primæval woodland scenes in actual nature, and as Italian landscape seems, as it were, to have been made for Claude, nature, as she is in Germany, makes a peculiar appeal to this romantic temperament. In certain parts of Saxon Switzerland the rocks look as if giants of the prime had played ball with them or piled them one on top of the other in sport. Lessing found in 1832 a landscape corresponding to the romantic ideal of nature in the Eifel district, whither he had been induced to go -by a book by Noeggerath, _Das Gebirge im Rheinland und Westfalen nach +by a book by Nöggerath, _Das Gebirge im Rheinland und Westfalen nach Mineralogischem und Chemischem Bezuge_. Up to that time he had only known the romantic ideal of nature through Scott, Tieck, and Uhland, just as the Classicists had taken their ideal from Homer, Theocritus, and Virgil: in the Eifel district it came before him in tangible form. Flat, swampy tracts of shrub and spruce alternated with dark woods, -where gigantic firs, weird pines, and primaeval oaks raised their +where gigantic firs, weird pines, and primæval oaks raised their branches to the sky. At the same time he beheld the rude and lonely sublimity of nature in union with a humanity which was as yet uncultivated, and for that reason all the simpler and the healthier, @@ -7946,12 +7912,12 @@ dignity." [Illustration: CARL FRIEDRICH LESSING.] Lessing's most celebrated follower, _Schirmer_, appears in general as a -weakened and sentimental Lessing. He began in 1828 with "A Primaeval +weakened and sentimental Lessing. He began in 1828 with "A Primæval German Forest," but a journey to Italy caused him in 1840 to turn aside from this more vigorous path. Henceforth his efforts were directed to nobility of form and line, to turning out Southern ideal landscapes with classically romantic accessories. The twenty-six Biblical landscapes -drawn in charcoal, belonging to the Duesseldorf Kunsthalle, the four +drawn in charcoal, belonging to the Düsseldorf Kunsthalle, the four landscapes in oil with the history of the Good Samaritan in the Kunsthalle of Carlsruhe, and the twelve pictures on the history of Abraham in the Berlin National Gallery, are the principal results of @@ -7984,7 +7950,7 @@ by the ideal, at nature in their own country, after the aberrations of Classicism and the one-sidedness of the Romanticists. Under Eckersberg the Academy of Copenhagen was the centre of a healthy realism founded on the Dutch, and some of the painters who received their training there -and laboured in later years in Dresden, Duesseldorf, and Munich spread +and laboured in later years in Dresden, Düsseldorf, and Munich spread abroad the principles of this school. [Illustration: SCHIRMER. AN ITALIAN LANDSCAPE.] @@ -8080,7 +8046,7 @@ For Munich a similar importance was won by the Hamburg painter _Christian Morgenstern_, who, like all artists of this group, imitated the Dutch in the tone of his colour, though as a draughtsman he remained a fresh and healthy son of nature. Even what he accomplished in all -naivete between 1826 and 1829, through direct study of Hamburg +naïveté between 1826 and 1829, through direct study of Hamburg landscape, is something unique in the German production of that age. His sketches and etchings of these years assure him a high place amongst the earliest German "mood" painters, and show that as a landscapist he had @@ -8096,7 +8062,7 @@ style, and is able properly to indicate the nature of the tree. He discovered the beauty of the Bavarian plateau for the Munich school. Even the first picture that he brought with him from Hamburg displayed a -wide plain shadowed by clouds--a part of the Lueneberg heath--and to this +wide plain shadowed by clouds--a part of the Lüneberg heath--and to this type of subject he remained faithful even in later days. Himself a child of the plains, he sought for kindred motives in Bavaria, and found them in rich store on the shore of the Isar, in the quarries near Polling, at @@ -8120,7 +8086,7 @@ These pictures have something petty and dismembered, and not the great, simple stroke of his plains and skies. What Morgenstern was for Munich, _Ludwig Gurlitt_ was for -Duesseldorf--the most eminent of the great Northern colony which migrated +Düsseldorf--the most eminent of the great Northern colony which migrated thither in the thirties. His name is not to be found in manuals, and the pictures of his later period which represent him in public galleries seldom give a full idea of his importance. After a journey to Greece in @@ -8136,9 +8102,9 @@ Gurlitt was a native of Holstein, and, like Morgenstern, received his first instruction in Hamburg, where at that time Bendixen, Vollmer, the Lehmanns, and the Genslers formed an original group of artists. After this, as in the case of Morgenstern also, there followed a longer -sojourn in Norway and Copenhagen. In Duesseldorf, where he then went, a +sojourn in Norway and Copenhagen. In Düsseldorf, where he then went, a Jutland heath study made some sensation on his arrival. It was the first -landscape seen in Duesseldorf which had not been composed, and Schadow is +landscape seen in Düsseldorf which had not been composed, and Schadow is said to have come to Gurlitt's studio, accompanied by his pupils, to behold the marvel. In 1836 he migrated to Munich, where Morgenstern had worked before him, and here he produced a whole series of works, which @@ -8159,7 +8125,7 @@ Canaletto, at another on the fine grey of Constable. [Illustration: GURLITT. ON THE SABINE MOUNTAINS.] Realism begins in German art with the entry of these Northern painters -into Duesseldorf and Munich. They were less affected by aesthetic +into Düsseldorf and Munich. They were less affected by æsthetic prejudices, and fresher and healthier than the Germans. Gurlitt was specially their intellectual leader, the soul, the driving force of the great movement which now followed. Roused by him, _Andreas Achenbach_ @@ -8181,7 +8147,7 @@ of a poet; and his pictures correspond to his outward appearance. Each one of his earlier good pictures was a battle fought and won. Realism incarnate, a man from whom all visionary enthusiasm lay at a world-wide distance, he conquered nature by masculine firmness and unexampled -perseverance. He appears as a _maitre-peintre_, a man of cool, exact +perseverance. He appears as a _maître-peintre_, a man of cool, exact talent with a clear and sober vision. The chief characteristic of his organism was his eminent capacity for appreciating the artistic methods of other artists, and adapting what was essential in them to his own @@ -8289,7 +8255,7 @@ Undoubtedly amongst the younger group of artists there was a great difference in regard to choice of subject. The modern rendering of mood has only had its origin in Germany; it could not finally develop itself there. Just as figure painting, after making so vigorous a beginning -with Buerkel, turned to _genre_ painting in the hands of Enhuber and +with Bürkel, turned to _genre_ painting in the hands of Enhuber and Knaus, until it returned to its old course in Leibl, landscape also went through the apprentice period of interesting subject, until it once more recognised the poetry of simpleness. The course of civilisation itself @@ -8301,13 +8267,13 @@ been greatly circumscribed by the difficulties of traffic. But facilitated arrangements of traffic brought with them such a desire for travel as had never been before. In literature the revolution displayed itself by the rise of books of travels as a new branch of fiction. -Hacklaender sent many volumes of touring sketches into the market. -Theodor Muegge made Norway, Sweden, and Denmark the scene of his tales. +Hackländer sent many volumes of touring sketches into the market. +Theodor Mügge made Norway, Sweden, and Denmark the scene of his tales. But America was the land where the Sesame was to be found, for Germany had been set upon the war-trail with Cooper's Indians, it had Charles Sealsfield to describe the grotesque mountain land of Mexico, the magic of the prairie, and the landscapes of Susquehannah and the Mississippi, -and read Gerstaecker's, Balduin Moellhausen's, and Otto Ruppius' +and read Gerstäcker's, Balduin Möllhausen's, and Otto Ruppius' transatlantic sketches with unwearying excitement. The painters who found their greatest delight in seeing the world with the eyes of a tourist also became cosmopolitan. @@ -8331,14 +8297,14 @@ his Alpine summits, there is always to be seen the illuminator who has first drawn the contours with a neat pencil and pedantic correctness. His pictures are grandiose scenes of nature felt in a petty way--in science too it is often the smallest spirit that seeks the greatest -heroes. "The Ruins of Paestum," like "The Thunderstorm on the Handeck" +heroes. "The Ruins of Pæstum," like "The Thunderstorm on the Handeck" and "The Range of Monte-Rosa at Sunrise," merely attain an external, scenical effect which is not improved by crude and unnatural contrasts of light. And as, in later years, when orders accumulated, he fell a victim to an astounding fertility, many of his works give one the impression of a dexterous calligrapher incessantly repeating the same ornamental letters. "_Un Calame, deux Calame, trois Calame--que de -calamites_," ran the phrase every year in the Paris Salon. +calamités_," ran the phrase every year in the Paris Salon. [Illustration: FLAMM. A SUMMER DAY.] @@ -8378,7 +8344,7 @@ makes a far more attractive effect than in those which are wild and ambitious, for his diffident, petty execution is, as a rule, but little suited to restless and, as it were, dramatic scenes of nature. -Having come to Duesseldorf in 1841, _Hans Gude_ became the Calame of the +Having come to Düsseldorf in 1841, _Hans Gude_ became the Calame of the North. Achenbach taught him to approach the phenomena of nature boldly and realistically, and not to be afraid of a rich and soft scale of colour. Schirmer, the representative of Italian still landscape, guided @@ -8398,14 +8364,14 @@ their very solidity run the risk of becoming tedious. His landscapes are good gallery pictures, soberly and prosaically correct, and never irritating, though at the same time they seldom kindle any warm feeling. -Like Gude, _Niels Bjoernson Moeller_ devoted himself to pictures of the +Like Gude, _Niels Björnson Möller_ devoted himself to pictures of the shore and the sea. Undisturbed by men in his sequestered retreat, _August Capellen_ gave way to the melancholy charms of the Norwegian forest. He represented the tremulous clarity of the air above the cliffs, old, shattered tree-trunks and green water plants, sleepy ponds, and far prospects bounded by blue mountains; but he would have made an effect of greater originality had he thought less of Schirmer's noble -line and compositions arranged in the grand style. _Morten-Mueller_ +line and compositions arranged in the grand style. _Morten-Müller_ became the specialist of the fir forest. His native woods where the valleys stretch towards the high mountain region offered him motives, which he worked up in large and excessively scenical pictures. His @@ -8439,7 +8405,7 @@ once more on the pilgrimage to the South, where, in contrast to their predecessors, they studied no longer the classic lines of nature in Italy, but the splendour of varied effects of colour in the neighbourhood of Vesuvius and the Bay of Naples. The most enterprising -turned their backs on Europe altogether, and began to paint the primaeval +turned their backs on Europe altogether, and began to paint the primæval forests of South America, to which Alexander Humboldt had drawn attention, the azure and scarlet wonders of the tropics, and the gleam and sparkle of the icy world at the ultimate limits of the Polar @@ -8474,7 +8440,7 @@ best reckon on the sale of their productions. At the same time, their pictures betray that, during this generation, historical painting was throned on a summit whence it could dictate the -aesthetic catechism. The historical picture represented a humanity that +æsthetic catechism. The historical picture represented a humanity that carried about with it the consciousness of its outward presence, draped itself in front of the glass, and made an artificial study of every gesture and every expression of emotion. _Genre_ painting followed, and @@ -8505,7 +8471,7 @@ landscapes in the Munich Exhibition of 1869. What would first strike the inhabitant of a Northern country in foreign lands was made the theme of the majority of the pictures. But as the historical painting, in illustrating all the great dramatic scenes from the Trojan War to the -French Revolution, yielded at one time to a paedagogical doctrinaire +French Revolution, yielded at one time to a pædagogical doctrinaire tendency and at another to theatrical impassionedness, so landscape painting on its cosmopolitan excursions became partly a dry synopsis of famous regions, only justifiable as a memento of travel, partly a @@ -8611,12 +8577,12 @@ laboured effort at style, as it had been worked into the human form and the flow of drapery. A _prix de Rome_ was founded for historical landscapes. -_Henri Valenciennes_ was the Lenotre of this Classicism, the admired +_Henri Valenciennes_ was the Lenôtre of this Classicism, the admired teacher of several generations. The beginner in landscape painting -modelled himself upon Valenciennes as the figure painter upon Guerin. -His _Traite elementaire de perspective pratique_, in which he formulated +modelled himself upon Valenciennes as the figure painter upon Guérin. +His _Traité élémentaire de perspective pratique_, in which he formulated the principles of landscape, contains his personal views as well as the -aesthetics of the age. Although, as he premises, he "is convinced that +æsthetics of the age. Although, as he premises, he "is convinced that there is in reality only one kind of painting, historical painting, it is true that an able historical painter ought not entirely to neglect landscape." Rembrandt, of course, and the old Dutch painters were @@ -8636,21 +8602,21 @@ Plutarch," Valenciennes advised his own pupils to study Theocritus, Virgil, and Ovid: only from these authors might be learnt what were the regions suitable for gods and heroes. - "Vos exemplaria graeca + "Vos exemplaria græca Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna." If, for example, the landscapist would paint Morning, let him portray the moment when Aurora rises laughing from the arms of her aged spouse, when the hours are yoking four fiery steeds to the car of the sun-god, or Ulysses kneels imploring before Nausicaa. For Noon the myth of Icarus -or of Phaeton might be turned to account. Evening may be represented by +or of Phaëton might be turned to account. Evening may be represented by painting Phoebus hastening his course as he nears the horizon in flaming desire to cast himself into the arms of Thetis. Having once got his themes from the old poets, the landscape painter must know the laws of perspective to execute his picture; he must be familiar with Poussin's rules of composition, and occasionally he ought even to study nature. Then he needs a weeping willow for an elegy, a rock for the death of -Phaeton, and an oak for the dance of the nymphs. To find such motives he +Phaëton, and an oak for the dance of the nymphs. To find such motives he should make journeys to the famed old lands of civilisation; best of all on the road which art itself has traversed--first to Asia Minor, then to Greece, and then to Italy. @@ -8659,18 +8625,18 @@ Greece, and then to Italy. HUBERT ROBERT. MONUMENTS AND RUINS.] -These aesthetics produced _Victor Bertin_ and _Xavier Bidault_, admired +These æsthetics produced _Victor Bertin_ and _Xavier Bidault_, admired by their contemporaries for "richness of composition and a splendid selection of sites." Their methodical commonplaces, their waves and valleys and temples, bear the same relation to nature as the talking machine of Raimundus Lullus does to philosophy. The scholastic landscape painter triumphed; a school it was which nourished itself on empty -formulas, and so died of anaemia. Bidault, who in his youth made very +formulas, and so died of anæmia. Bidault, who in his youth made very good studies, is, with his stippled leaves and polished stems, his grey skies looking sometimes like lead and sometimes like water, the peculiar essence of a tiresome Classicism; and he is the same Bidault who, as president of the hanging committee, for years rejected the landscapes of -Theodore Rousseau from the Salon. It is only the figure of _Michallon_, +Théodore Rousseau from the Salon. It is only the figure of _Michallon_, who died young, that still survives from this group. He too belongs to the school of Valenciennes, through his frigid, meagre, and pedantically correct style; but he is distinguished from the rest, for he endeavoured @@ -8690,7 +8656,7 @@ reflected in their painting. Even in 1822, when Delacroix exhibited his "Dante's Bark," the ineffable Watelet shone in his full splendour. Amongst his pictures there was a view of Bar-sur-Seine, which the catalogue appropriately designated not simply as a _vue_, but as a _vue -ajustee_. Till his last breath Watelet was convinced that nature did not +ajustée_. Till his last breath Watelet was convinced that nature did not understand her own business, and was always in need of a painter to revise her errors and correct them. @@ -8698,7 +8664,7 @@ Beside this group who adapted French localities for classical landscapes there arose in the meantime another group, and they proceeded in the opposite direction. Their highest aim was to go on pilgrimage to sacred Italy, the classic land, which, with their literary training and their -one-sided aesthetics, they invariably thought more beautiful and more +one-sided æsthetics, they invariably thought more beautiful and more worthy of veneration than any other. But they tried to break with Valenciennes' arbitrary rules of composition, and to seize the great lines of Italian landscape with fidelity to fact. In going back from @@ -8707,7 +8673,7 @@ landscape painting which was its own justification, compromised as it had been by the Classic school. They made a very heretical appearance in the eyes of the strictly orthodox pupils of Valenciennes. They were called the Gothic school, which was as much as to say Romanticists, and -the names of _Theodore Aligny_ and _Edouard Bertin_ were for years +the names of _Théodore Aligny_ and _Edouard Bertin_ were for years mentioned with that of Corot in critiques. They brought home very pretty drawings from Greece, Italy, Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, and Bertin did this especially. Aligny is even not without importance as a painter. He @@ -8729,7 +8695,7 @@ under the brush of Flandrin into arid still-life, into landscapes of pasteboard and wadding. But not from this quarter could the health of a school which had become -anaemic be in any way restored. French landscape had to draw a new power +anæmic be in any way restored. French landscape had to draw a new power of vitality from the French soil itself. It was saved when its eyes were opened to the charms of home, and this revelation was brought about by Romanticism. In the Salon notices, from 1822 onwards, the complaints of @@ -8750,7 +8716,7 @@ nature, and that amid which they lived seemed the less to forego its charms the more Italy came under suspicion as the home of all these ugly, unpleasant, and academical pictures. That was the birthday of French landscape. At the very time when Delacroix renewed the -_repertoire_ of grand painting, enriching art with a world of feeling +_répertoire_ of grand painting, enriching art with a world of feeling which was not merely edited, a parallel movement began in landscape. "Dante's Bark" was painted in 1822, "The Massacre of Chios" in 1824. Almost at the same hour a tornado swept through the branches of the old @@ -8764,7 +8730,7 @@ landscape painting broke with its sadness and its smiles. [Illustration: _L'Art._ - VICTOR HUGO. RUINS OF A MEDIAEVAL CASTLE ON THE RHINE.] + VICTOR HUGO. RUINS OF A MEDIÆVAL CASTLE ON THE RHINE.] This is where the development of French art diverges from that of German. After it had stood under the influence of Poussin, the German @@ -8798,7 +8764,7 @@ initiator. _Victor Hugo_, the father of Romanticism in literature, cannot be passed over in the history of landscape painting. Since 1891, when that remarkable exhibition of painter-poets was opened in Paris--an -exhibition in which Theophile Gautier, Prosper Merimee, the two de +exhibition in which Théophile Gautier, Prosper Merimée, the two de Goncourts, and others were represented by more or less important works--the world learnt what a gifted draughtsman, what a powerful dramatist in landscape, was this great Romanticist. Even in the @@ -8860,7 +8826,7 @@ merely that, but the most powerful, bold, and ideal artists." Every day he made a study in the precincts of Paris, without any idea that he would count in these times among the forerunners of modern art. He shares the glory of having discovered Montmartre with Alphonse Karr, -Gerard de Nerval, and Monselet. After his death such studies were found +Gérard de Nerval, and Monselet. After his death such studies were found in the shops of all the second-hand dealers of the Northern Boulevard; they were invariably without a frame, as they had never seemed worth framing, and when they were very dear they were to be had for forty @@ -8875,7 +8841,7 @@ would have delighted Albert Cuyp. A genuine offspring of the old Dutch masters--of the grand and broad masters, not of those who worked with a fine brush--already he was aiming at _l'expression par l'ensemble_, and since the Paris Universal Exhibition he has been fittingly honoured as -the forerunner of Theodore Rousseau. His pictures, as it seems, were +the forerunner of Théodore Rousseau. His pictures, as it seems, were early received in various studios, and there they had considerable effect in setting artists thinking. But as he ceased to date his pictures after 1814 it is, nevertheless, difficult to be more precise in @@ -8970,7 +8936,7 @@ Guard, for now a pleiad of much brighter stars beamed in the sky. [Illustration: TURNER. A SHIPWRECK.] -[Illustration: J. M. W. TURNER. THE OLD TEMERAIRE.] +[Illustration: J. M. W. TURNER. THE OLD TÉMÉRAIRE.] But we must not forget that Michel and Huet showed the way. Rousseau and his followers left them far behind, as Columbus threw into oblivion all @@ -9036,7 +9002,7 @@ expression. [Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - TURNER. JUMIEGES.] + TURNER. JUMIÈGES.] [Illustration: _L'Art._ @@ -9133,7 +9099,7 @@ gained by the neat and exact preparation of little views of English castles and country places--drawings which, at the time, took the place of photographs, and for which he received half a crown apiece and his supper. Thus he went over a great part of England, and upon one of his -excursions he is said to have had a love-affair _a la_ Lucy of +excursions he is said to have had a love-affair _à la_ Lucy of Lammermoor, and to have so taken it to heart that he resolved to remain a bachelor for the rest of his life. In 1808 he became Professor of Perspective at the Academy, and delivered himself, it is said, of the @@ -9169,7 +9135,7 @@ did things which bordered on trickery in the sale of his _Liber Studiorum_, and kept for himself all those works by which he could have made a fortune. He left them--taken altogether, three hundred and sixty-two oil-paintings and nineteen thousand drawings--to the nation, -and L20,000 to the Royal Academy, and merely stipulated that the two +and £20,000 to the Royal Academy, and merely stipulated that the two best pictures should be hung in the National Gallery between two Claude Lorrains. Another thousand pounds was set aside for the erection of a monument in St. Paul's. There, in that temple of fame, he lies buried @@ -9198,7 +9164,7 @@ simplicity, modest grace, and virginal quietude. England has nothing romantic. At the very time when Lessing painted his landscapes, Ludwig Tieck experienced a bitter disappointment when he trod the soil where Shakespeare wrote the witch scenes in _Macbeth_. A sombre, melancholy, -primaeval maze was what he had expected, and there lay before him a soft, +primæval maze was what he had expected, and there lay before him a soft, luxuriant, and cultivated country. What distinguishes English landscape is a singular luxuriance, an almost unctuous wealth of vegetation. Drive through the country on a bright day on the top of a coach, and look @@ -9211,7 +9177,7 @@ hedges, where splendid cattle lie chewing the cud. The moist atmosphere surrounds the trees and plants like a shining vapour. There is nothing more charming in the world, and nothing more delicate than these tones of colour; one might stand for hours looking at the clouds of satin, the -fine aerial bloom, and the soft transparent gauze which catches the +fine ærial bloom, and the soft transparent gauze which catches the sunbeams in its silver net, softens them, and sends them smiling and toying to the earth. On both sides of the carriage the fields extend, each more beautiful than the last, in constant succession, interwoven @@ -9270,7 +9236,7 @@ offer him--weather-beaten oaks, old woods, fishers' huts, lonely pools, wastes of heath. The way he painted trees is extraordinary. Each has its own physiognomy, and looks like a living thing, like some gloomy Northern personality. Oaks were his peculiar specialty, and in later -years they only found a similarly great interpreter in Theodore +years they only found a similarly great interpreter in Théodore Rousseau. At the same time his pictures of the simplest scenes have a remarkable largeness of conception, and a subtlety of colour recalling the old masters, and reached by no other painter in that age. An @@ -9387,10 +9353,10 @@ before him had observed the sky with the same attention. A certain Dunthorne, an eccentric personage to whom the boy often came, gave him--always in the open air--his first instruction; and another of -his patrons, Sir George Beaumont, as an aesthetically trained +his patrons, Sir George Beaumont, as an æsthetically trained connoisseur, criticised what he painted. When Constable showed him a study he asked: "Where do you mean to place your brown tree?" For the -first law in his aesthetics was this: a good painting must have the +first law in his æsthetics was this: a good painting must have the colour of a good fiddle; it must be brown. Sojourn in London was without influence on Constable. He was twenty-three years of age, a handsome young fellow with dark eyes and a fine expressive countenance, when, in @@ -9541,7 +9507,7 @@ I work only for the future." And that belonged to him. [Illustration: _Portfolio._ - MUeLLER. THE AMPHITHEATRE AT XANTHUS.] + MÜLLER. THE AMPHITHEATRE AT XANTHUS.] Constable's powerful individuality has brought forth enduring fruit, and helped English landscape painting to attain that noble prime which it @@ -9587,7 +9553,7 @@ landscapist. His small pictures are pure and delicate in colour, and fresh and breezy in atmospheric effect. It is only in large pictures that power is at times denied him. In his later years he began to paint in oils, and in this medium he is a less important artist, though a very -great painter. _William Mueller_, who died young, stood as leader at his +great painter. _William Müller_, who died young, stood as leader at his side. [Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ @@ -9606,7 +9572,7 @@ to give to the most familiar subject a tinge of preciosity. His pictures are grandiose in form, and show an admirable lightness of hand, but light and air are wanting in them, the local colour of England and its atmosphere. As a foreigner--he was the son of a Danzig scholar, who had -migrated to Bristol--Mueller has not seen English landscape with +migrated to Bristol--Müller has not seen English landscape with Constable's native sentiment. He was not content with an English cornfield or an English village; the familiar homeliness of the country in its work-a-day garb excited no emotion in him. @@ -9615,7 +9581,7 @@ in its work-a-day garb excited no emotion in him. BONINGTON. THE WINDMILL OF SAINT-JOUIN.] -Something in Mueller's imagination, which caused him to love decided +Something in Müller's imagination, which caused him to love decided colours and sudden contrasts rather than delicate gradations, attracted him to Southern climes. His natural place was in the East, which had not at that time been made the vogue. Here, like Decamps and Marilhat, he @@ -9708,7 +9674,7 @@ quickly satisfied; on the contrary, he often began over again perfectly finished pieces which seemed wonderful to us. But his dexterity was so great that in a moment he produced with his brush new effects, which were as charming as the first." With these words his friend and comrade, -the great Eugene Delacroix, drew the portrait of Bonington. Bonington +the great Eugène Delacroix, drew the portrait of Bonington. Bonington was at once the most natural and the most delicate in that Romantic school in which he was one of the first to make an appearance. He had a fine eye for the charm of nature, saw grace and beauty in her @@ -9792,9 +9758,9 @@ Germany from thence only at a much later time. [Illustration: _L'Art._ - THEODORE ROUSSEAU.] + THÉODORE ROUSSEAU.] -"Do you remember the time," asks Buerger-Thore of Theodore Rousseau in +"Do you remember the time," asks Bürger-Thoré of Théodore Rousseau in the dedicatory letter to his _Salon_ of 1844,--"do you still recall the years when we sat on the window-ledges of our attics in the Rue de Taitbout, and let our feet dangle at the edge of the roof, contemplating @@ -9852,7 +9818,7 @@ Cinquecento; but the heart is not touched till one stands outside in the forest on the soil where Rousseau and Corot and Millet and Diaz painted. How much may be felt and thought when one saunters of a dreamy evening, lost in one's own meditations, across the heath of the _plateau de la -Belle Croix_ and through the arching oaks of _Bas Breau_ to Barbizon, +Belle Croix_ and through the arching oaks of _Bas Bréau_ to Barbizon, the Mecca of modern art, where the secrets of _paysage intime_ were revealed to the Parisian landscape painters by the nymph of Fontainebleau! There was a time when men built their Gothic cathedrals @@ -9871,9 +9837,9 @@ more a fire-worshipper, as in his childhood; the church has become the world, and the world has become the church. How the spirit soars at the trill of a blackbird beneath the leafy roof -of mighty primaeval oaks! One feels as though one had been transplanted +of mighty primæval oaks! One feels as though one had been transplanted into the Saturnian age, when men lived a joyous, unchequered life in -holy unison with nature. For this park is still primaeval, in spite of +holy unison with nature. For this park is still primæval, in spite of all the carriage roads by which it is now traversed, in spite of all the guides who lounge upon the granite blocks of the hollows of Opremont. Yellowish-green ferns varying in tint cover the soil like a carpet. The @@ -9911,7 +9877,7 @@ Corot, Rousseau, Diaz, Brascassat, and many others alighted when they came to follow their studies in Barbizon from the spring to the autumn. Of an evening they clambered up to their miserable bedroom, and fastened to the head of the bed with drawing-pins the studies made in the course -of the day. It was only later that Pere Copain, an old peasant, who had +of the day. It was only later that Père Copain, an old peasant, who had begun life as a shepherd with three francs a month, was struck with the apt idea of buying in a few acres and building upon them small houses to let to painters. By this enterprise the man became rich, and gradually @@ -9959,7 +9925,7 @@ create preconceived decorative harmonies, and not simply to interpret reality. Following the English, the masters of Fontainebleau made the discovery of air and light. They did not paint the world, like the other Romanticists, in exuberantly varying hues recalling the old masters: -they saw it _entoure d'air_, and tempered by the tones of the +they saw it _entouré d'air_, and tempered by the tones of the atmosphere. And since their time the "harmony of light and air with that of which they are the life and illumination" has become the great problem of painting. Through this art grew young again, and works of art @@ -9999,7 +9965,7 @@ inward eye. Any poet before Goethe's time would have made a broad and epical description, and produced a picture by the addition of details; but here the very music of the words creates a picture of rest and quietude. The works of the Fontainebleau artists are Goethe-like poems -of nature in pigments. They are as far removed from the aesthetic +of nature in pigments. They are as far removed from the æsthetic aridness of the older landscape of composition, pieced together from studies, as from the flat, prosaic fidelity to nature of that "entirely null and void, spuriously realistic painting of the so-called guardians @@ -10028,7 +9994,7 @@ nature, should have to be gone through before they reached this height. ROUSSEAU. A POND, FOREST OF FONTAINEBLEAU.] In the presence of nature one saturates one's self with truth; and after -returning to the studio one squeezes the sponge, as Jules Dupre +returning to the studio one squeezes the sponge, as Jules Dupré expressed it. Only after they had satiated themselves with the knowledge of truth, only after nature with all her individual phenomena had been interwoven with their inmost being, could they, without effort, and @@ -10049,25 +10015,25 @@ are dim. Each one obeyed his peculiar temperament, and adapted his technique to the altogether personal expression of his way of seeing and feeling. Each one is entirely himself, each one an original mind, each picture a spiritual revelation, and often one of touching -simplicity and greatness: _homo additus naturae_. And having dedicated +simplicity and greatness: _homo additus naturæ_. And having dedicated themselves, more than all their predecessors, to personality creating in and for itself, they have become the founders of the new creed in art. -That strong and firmly rooted master _Theodore Rousseau_ was the epic -poet, the plastic artist of the Pleiades. "_Le chene des roches_" was +That strong and firmly rooted master _Théodore Rousseau_ was the epic +poet, the plastic artist of the Pleïades. "_Le chêne des roches_" was one of his masterpieces, and he stands himself amid the art of his time like an oak embedded in rocks. His father was a tailor who lived in the -Rue Neuve-Saint Eustache, Nr. 4 _au quatrieme_. As a boy he is said to +Rue Neuve-Saint Eustache, Nr. 4 _au quatrième_. As a boy he is said to have specially devoted himself to mathematics, and to have aimed at becoming a student at the Polytechnic Institute. Thus the dangerous, doctrinaire tendency, which beset him in his last years, of making art more of a science than is really practicable, and of referring everything to some law, lay even in his boyish tastes. He grew up in the -studio of the Classicist Lethiere, and looked on whilst the latter +studio of the Classicist Lethière, and looked on whilst the latter painted both his large Louvre pictures, "The Death of Brutus" and "The Death of Virginia." He even thought himself of competing for the _Prix de Rome_. But the composition of his "historical landscape" was not a -success. Then he took his paint-boxes, left Lethiere's studio, and +success. Then he took his paint-boxes, left Lethière's studio, and wandered over to Montmartre. Even his first little picture, "The Telegraph Tower" of 1826, announced the aim which he was tentatively endeavouring to reach. @@ -10082,7 +10048,7 @@ plains within the precincts of Paris, with little brooks in the neighbourhood which had nothing that deserved the name of waves. His first excursion to Fontainebleau occurred in the year 1833, and in -1834 he painted his first masterpiece, the "Cotes de Grandville," that +1834 he painted his first masterpiece, the "Côtés de Grandville," that picture, replete with deep and powerful feeling for nature, which seems the great triumphant title-page of all his work. A firm resolve to accept reality as it is, and a remarkable eye for the local character of @@ -10096,9 +10062,9 @@ dangerous to the academicians. Two pictures, "Cows descending in the Upper Jura" and "The Chestnut Avenue," which he had destined for the Salon of 1835, were rejected by the hanging committee, and during twelve years his works met with a similar fate, although the leading critical -intellects of Paris, Thore, Gustave Planche, and Theophile Gautier, +intellects of Paris, Thoré, Gustave Planché, and Théophile Gautier, broke their lances in his behalf. Amongst the rejected of the present -century, Theodore Rousseau is probably the most famous. At that period +century, Théodore Rousseau is probably the most famous. At that period he was selling his pictures for five and ten louis-d'or. It was only after the February Revolution of 1848, when the Academic Committee had fallen with the _bourgeois_ king, that the doors of the Salon were @@ -10117,7 +10083,7 @@ and the forest, all the seasons of the year and all the hours of the day. The succession of his moods is as inexhaustible as boundless nature herself. Skies gilded by the setting sun, phases of dewy morning, plains basking in light, woods in the russet-yellow foliage of autumn: these -are the subjects of Theodore Rousseau--an endless procession of poetic +are the subjects of Théodore Rousseau--an endless procession of poetic effects, expressed at first by the mere instinct of emotion and later with a mathematical precision which is often a little strained, though always irresistibly forcible. Marvellous are his autumn landscapes with @@ -10132,7 +10098,7 @@ almost coldly and dispassionately. It is an artistic or psychological anomaly that in this romantic generation a man could be born in whom there was nothing of the -Romanticist. Theodore Rousseau was an experimentalist, a great worker, a +Romanticist. Théodore Rousseau was an experimentalist, a great worker, a restless and seeking spirit, ever tormented and unsatisfied with itself, a nature wholly without sentimentality and impassionless, the very opposite of his predecessor Huet. Huet made nature the mirror of the @@ -10177,7 +10143,7 @@ opposite way: for him characterisation depended on his revealing his own character as little as possible; he completely subordinated himself to his subject, surrendered himself, and religiously painted all that he saw, leaving it to others to carry away from the picture what they -pleased. And Theodore Rousseau, too, was possessed by the spirit of the +pleased. And Théodore Rousseau, too, was possessed by the spirit of the old German portrait painter. He set his whole force of purpose to the task of letting nature manifest herself, free from any preconceived interpretation. His pictures are absolutely without effective point, but @@ -10187,7 +10153,7 @@ her intense and forceful life, that they have become great works of art by this alone, like the portraits of Holbein. More impressive tones, loftier imagination, more moving tenderness, and more intoxicating harmonies are at the command of other masters, but few had truer or more -profound articulation, and not one has been so sincere as Theodore +profound articulation, and not one has been so sincere as Théodore Rousseau. Rousseau saw into the inmost being of nature, as Holbein into Henry VIII, and the impression he received, the emotion he felt, is a thing which he communicates broadly, boldly, and entirely. He is a @@ -10215,7 +10181,7 @@ and full of repose: moss-grown stones, oaks of the growth of centuries, marshes and standing water, rude granite blocks of the forest of Fontainebleau, and trees bedded in the rocks of the glens of Opremont. In a quite peculiar sense was the oak his favourite tree--the mighty, -wide-branching, primaeval oak which occupies the centre of one of his +wide-branching, primæval oak which occupies the centre of one of his masterpieces, "A Pond," and spreads its great gnarled boughs to the cloudy sky in almost every one of his pictures. It is only Rembrandt's three oaks that stand in like manner, firm and broad of stem, as though @@ -10233,7 +10199,7 @@ great harmony of universal nature. "By the harmony of air and light with that of which they are the life and the illumination I will make you hear the trees moaning beneath the North wind and the birds calling to their young." To achieve that aim he thought that he could not do too -much. As Duerer worked seven times on the same scenes of the Passion +much. As Dürer worked seven times on the same scenes of the Passion until he had found the simplest and most speaking expression, so Rousseau treated the same motives ten and twenty times. Restless are his efforts to discover different phases of the same subject, to approach @@ -10256,7 +10222,7 @@ energy. "It ought to be: in the beginning was the Power." COROT. THE RUIN.] -From his youth upwards Theodore Rousseau was a masculine spirit; even as +From his youth upwards Théodore Rousseau was a masculine spirit; even as a stripling he was a man above all juvenile follies--one might almost say, a philosopher without ideals. In literature Turgenief's conception of nature might be most readily compared with that of Rousseau. In @@ -10283,7 +10249,7 @@ one Mother. So Turgenief came to the same point as Spinoza. [Illustration: COROT. EVENING.] -And Rousseau did the same. The nature of Theodore Rousseau was devoid of +And Rousseau did the same. The nature of Théodore Rousseau was devoid of all excitable enthusiasm. Thus the world he painted became something austere, earnest, and inaccessible beneath his hands. He lived in it alone, fleeing from his fellows, and for this reason human figures are @@ -10360,9 +10326,9 @@ this bizarre work one feels astonishment at the artist's endurance and strength of will, but disappointment at the result. He wanted to win the secret of its being from every undulation of the ground, from every blade of grass, and from every leaf; he was anxiously bent upon what he -called _planimetrie_, upon the importance of horizontal planes, and he +called _planimétrie_, upon the importance of horizontal planes, and he accentuated detail and accessory work beyond measure. His pantheistic -faith in nature brought Theodore Rousseau to his fall. Those who did not +faith in nature brought Théodore Rousseau to his fall. Those who did not know him spoke of his childish stippling and of the decline of his talent. Those who did know him saw in this stippling the issue of the same endeavours which poor Charles de la Berge had made before him, and @@ -10385,10 +10351,10 @@ had obtained entry into the Salon, were a source of irritation there for years, simply because they were green. The public was so accustomed to brown trees and brown grass, that every other colour in the landscape was an offence against decency, and before a green picture the -Philistine immediately cried out, "Spinage!" "_Allez, c'etait dur -d'ouvrir la breche_," said he, in his later years. And at last, at the +Philistine immediately cried out, "Spinage!" "_Allez, c'était dur +d'ouvrir la brêche_," said he, in his later years. And at last, at the World Exhibition of 1855, when he had made it clear to Europe who -Theodore Rousseau was, the evening of his life was saddened by pain and +Théodore Rousseau was, the evening of his life was saddened by pain and illness. He had married a poor unfortunate creature, a wild child of the forest, the only feminine being that he had found time to love during his life of toil. After a few years of marriage she became insane, and @@ -10406,9 +10372,9 @@ the words: COROT. LA ROUTE D'ARRAS.] -THEODORE ROUSSEAU, PEINTRE. +THÉODORE ROUSSEAU, PEINTRE. -"_Rousseau c'est un aigle. Quant a moi, je ne suis qu'une alouette qui +"_Rousseau c'est un aigle. Quant à moi, je ne suis qu'une alouette qui pousse de petites chansons dans mes nuages gris._" With these words _Camille Corot_ has indicated the distinction between Rousseau and himself. They denote the two opposite poles of modern landscape. What @@ -10416,7 +10382,7 @@ attracted the plastic artists, Rousseau, Ruysdael, and Hobbema--the relief of objects, the power of contours, the solidity of forms--was not Corot's concern. Whilst Rousseau never spoke about colour with his pupils, but as _ceterum censeo_ invariably repeated, "_Enfin, la forme -est la premiere chose a observer_," Corot himself admitted that drawing +est la première chose à observer_," Corot himself admitted that drawing was not his strong point. When he tried to paint rocks he was but moderately effective, and all his efforts at drawing the human figure were seldom crowned with real success, although in his last years he @@ -10455,7 +10421,7 @@ greater: he loved the soft vapours which gather in the gloom, thickening until they become pale grey velvet mantles, as peace and rest descend upon the earth with the drawing on of night. -[Illustration: _L'Art._ JULES DUPRE.] +[Illustration: _L'Art._ JULES DUPRÉ.] In contradistinction from Rousseau his specialty was everything soft and wavering, everything that has neither determined form nor sharp lines, @@ -10471,7 +10437,7 @@ he had a season-ticket at the _Conservatoire_, never missed a concert, and played upon the violin himself. Indeed, there is something of the tender note of this instrument in his pictures, which make such a sweetly solemn appeal through their delicious silver tone. Beside -Rousseau, the plastic artist, Pere Corot is an idyllic painter of +Rousseau, the plastic artist, Père Corot is an idyllic painter of melting grace; beside Rousseau, the realist, he seems a dreamy musician; beside Rousseau, the virile spirit earnestly making experiments in art, he appears like a bashful schoolgirl in love. Rousseau approached nature @@ -10481,11 +10447,11 @@ till she descended to meet him in the twilight hours, and whispered to him, her beloved, the secrets which Rousseau was unable to wring from her by violence. -[Illustration: _L'Art._ THE HOUSE OF JULES DUPRE AT L'ISLE-ADAM.] +[Illustration: _L'Art._ THE HOUSE OF JULES DUPRÉ AT L'ISLE-ADAM.] _Corot_ was sixteen years senior to Rousseau. He still belonged to the eighteenth century, to the time when, under the dictatorship of David, -Paris transformed herself into imperial Rome. David, Gerard, Guerin, and +Paris transformed herself into imperial Rome. David, Gérard, Guérin, and Prudhon, artists so different in talent, were the painters whose works met his first eager glances, and no particular acuteness is needed to recognise in the Nymphs and Cupids with which Corot in after-years, @@ -10504,13 +10470,13 @@ Corot, a polite and very correct little man, raised the business to great prosperity. The Tuileries were opposite, and under Napoleon I Corot became Court "modiste." As such he must have attained a certain celebrity, as even the theatre took his name in vain. A piece which was -then frequently played at the Comedie Francaise contains the passage: "I +then frequently played at the Comédie Française contains the passage: "I have just come from Corot, but could not speak to him; he was locked up in his private room occupied in composing a new spring hat." [Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - DUPRE. THE SETTING SUN.] + DUPRÉ. THE SETTING SUN.] Camille went to the high school in Rouen, and was then destined, according to the wish of his father, to adopt some serious calling "by @@ -10574,7 +10540,7 @@ if they were heavily cased in iron. [Illustration: _Baschet._ - DUPRE. NEAR SOUTHAMPTON. + DUPRÉ. NEAR SOUTHAMPTON. (_By permission of M. Jules Beer, the owner of the picture._)] @@ -10609,7 +10575,7 @@ the ground,--these have no more to do with the false and already announce the true Corot. From this time he found the way on which he went forward resolute and emancipated. -[Illustration: DUPRE. THE PUNT.] +[Illustration: DUPRÉ. THE PUNT.] For five-and-twenty years it was permitted to him to labour in perfect ripeness, freedom, and artistic independence. One thinks of Corot as @@ -10633,7 +10599,7 @@ is not without importance to remember this. [Illustration: _Baschet._ - DUPRE. SUNSET. + DUPRÉ. SUNSET. (_By permission of M. Jules Beer, the owner of the picture._)] @@ -10650,7 +10616,7 @@ recollected vision! [Illustration: _L'Art._ - DUPRE. THE HAY-WAIN.] + DUPRÉ. THE HAY-WAIN.] For a young man this would be a very dangerous method. For Corot it was the only one which allowed him to remain Corot, because in this way no @@ -10672,48 +10638,48 @@ merely to see nature, but to feel her presence, like that of a beloved woman, to receive her very breath and to hear the beating of her heart. One knows the marvellous letter in which he describes the day of a -landscape painter to Jules Dupre: "_On se leve de bonne heure, a trois +landscape painter to Jules Dupré: "_On se lève de bonne heure, à trois heures du matin, avant le soleil; on va s'asseoir au pied d'un arbre, on regarde et on attend. On ne voit pas grand'chose d'abord. La nature -ressemble a une toile blanchatre ou s'esquissent a peine les profils de -quelques masses: tout est embaume, tout frisonne au souffle fraichi de -l'aube. Bing! le soleil s'eclaircit ... le soleil n'a pas encore dechire -la gaze derriere laquelle se cachent la prairie, le vallon, les collines +ressemble à une toile blanchâtre où s'esquissent à peine les profils de +quelques masses: tout est embaumé, tout frisonne au souffle fraîchi de +l'aube. Bing! le soleil s'éclaircit ... le soleil n'a pas encore déchiré +la gaze derrière laquelle se cachent la prairie, le vallon, les collines de l'horizon.... Les vapeurs nocturnes rampent encore commes des flocons -argentes sur les herbes d'un vert transi. Bing!... Bing!... un premier +argentés sur les herbes d'un vert transi. Bing!... Bing!... un premier rayon de soleil ... un second rayon de soleil.... Les petites fleurettes -semblent s'eveiller joyeuses.... Elles out toutes leur goutte de rosee +semblent s'éveiller joyeuses.... Elles out toutes leur goutte de rosée qui tremble ... les feuilles frileuses s'agitent au souffle du matin ... -dans la feuillee, les oiseaux invisibles chantent.... Il semble que ce -sont les fleurs qui font la priere. Les Amours a ailes de papillons -s'ebattent sur la prairie et font onduler les hautes herbes.... On ne -voit rien ... tout y est. Le paysage est tout entier derriere la gaze -transparente du brouillard, qui, au reste ... monte ... monte ... aspire -par le soleil ... et laisse, en se levant, voir la riviere lamee -d'argent, les pres, les arbres, les maisonettes, le lointain fuyant.... +dans la feuillée, les oiseaux invisibles chantent.... Il semble que ce +sont les fleurs qui font la prière. Les Amours à ailes de papillons +s'ébattent sur la prairie et font onduler les hautes herbes.... On ne +voit rien ... tout y est. Le paysage est tout entier derrière la gaze +transparente du brouillard, qui, au reste ... monte ... monte ... aspiré +par le soleil ... et laisse, en se levant, voir la rivière lamée +d'argent, les prés, les arbres, les maisonettes, le lointain fuyant.... On distingue enfin tout ce que l'on divinait d'abord._" [Illustration: _Baschet._ - DUPRE. THE OLD OAK.] + DUPRÉ. THE OLD OAK.] At the end there is an ode to evening which is perhaps to be reckoned amongst the most delicate pages of French lyrics: "_La nature s'assoupit -... cependant l'air frais du soir soupire dans les feuilles ... la rosee +... cependant l'air frais du soir soupire dans les feuilles ... la rosée emperle le velours des gazons.... Les nymphes fuient ... se cachent ... -et desirent etre vues.... Bing! une etoile du ciel qui pique une tete -dans l'etang.... Charmante etoile, dont le fremissement de l'eau +et désirent être vues.... Bing! une étoile du ciel qui pique une tête +dans l'étang.... Charmante étoile, dont le frémissement de l'eau augmente le scintillement, tu me regardes ... tu me souris en clignant -de l'oeil.... Bing! une seconde etoile apparait dans l'eau; un second -oeil s'ouvre. Soyez les bienvenues, fraiches et charmantes etoiles.... -Bing! Bing! Bing! trois, six, vingt etoiles.... Toutes les etoiles du -ciel se sont donne rendez-vous dans cet heureux etang.... Tout -s'assombrit encore.... L'etang seul scintille.... C'est un fourmillement -d'etoiles.... L'illusion se produit.... Le soleil etant couche, le -soleil interieur de l'ame, le soleil de l'art se leve.... Bon! voila mon +de l'oeil.... Bing! une seconde étoile apparaît dans l'eau; un second +oeil s'ouvre. Soyez les bienvenues, fraîches et charmantes étoiles.... +Bing! Bing! Bing! trois, six, vingt étoiles.... Toutes les étoiles du +ciel se sont donné rendez-vous dans cet heureux étang.... Tout +s'assombrit encore.... L'étang seul scintille.... C'est un fourmillement +d'étoiles.... L'illusion se produit.... Le soleil étant couché, le +soleil intérieur de l'âme, le soleil de l'art se lève.... Bon! voilâ mon tableau fait_." -[Illustration: DUPRE. THE POOL.] +[Illustration: DUPRÉ. THE POOL.] Any one who has never read anything about Corot except these lines may know him through them alone. Even that little word "Bing" comprises and @@ -10866,7 +10832,7 @@ meadows of Ville d'Avray. In his pictures he dreamed of pillars and altars near which mythical figures moved once more, dryads sleeping by the stream, dancing fauns, -_junctaeque nymphis gratiae decentes_ in classical raiment. In this sense +_junctæque nymphis gratiæ decentes_ in classical raiment. In this sense he was a Classicist all his life. His nymphs, however, are no mere accessories; they have nothing in common with the faded troop of classic beings whose old age in the ruins of forsaken temples was so long tended @@ -10878,7 +10844,7 @@ than the nymphs and tritons, the radiant children of the Greek idyllic poets, desert the faded leaves of books to populate Corot's groves, and refresh themselves in the evening shadows of his forests. -[Illustration: CHARLES FRANCOIS DAUBIGNY.] +[Illustration: CHARLES FRANÇOIS DAUBIGNY.] For the evening dusk, the hour after sunset, is peculiarly the hour of Corot; his very preference for the harmonious beauty of dying light was @@ -10903,13 +10869,13 @@ ce n'est plus un peintre, c'est le bon Dieu et c'est le soir._" Elysian airs began to breathe, and the faint echo of the prattling streamlet sounded gently murmuring in the wood; the soft arms of the nymphs clung round him, and from the neighbouring thicket tender, melting melodies -chimed forth like AEolian harps-- +chimed forth like Æolian harps-- - "Rege dich, du Schilfgefluester; + "Rege dich, du Schilfgeflüster; Hauche leise, Rohrgeschwister; - Saeuselt, leichte Weidenstraeuche; + Säuselt, leichte Weidensträuche; Lispelt, Pappelzitterzweige - Unterbroch'nen Traeumen zu." + Unterbroch'nen Träumen zu." His end was as harmonious as his life and his art. "_Rien ne trouble sa fin, c'est le soir d'un beau jour._" His sister, with whom the old @@ -10918,7 +10884,7 @@ endure loneliness. On 23rd February 1875--when he had just completed his seventy-ninth year--he was heard to say as he lay in bed drawing with his fingers in the air: "_Mon Dieu_, how beautiful that is; the most beautiful landscape I have ever seen." When his old housekeeper wanted -to bring him his breakfast he said with a smile: "To-day Pere Corot will +to bring him his breakfast he said with a smile: "To-day Père Corot will breakfast above." Even his last illness robbed him of none of his cheerfulness, and when his friends brought him as he lay dying the medal struck to commemorate his jubilee as an artist of fifty years' standing, @@ -10926,20 +10892,20 @@ he said with tears of joy in his eyes: "It makes one happy to know that one has been so loved; I have had good parents and dear friends. I am thankful to God." With those words he passed away to his true home, the land of spirits--not the paradise of the Church, but the Elysian fields -he had dreamt of and painted so often: "_Largior hic campos aether et +he had dreamt of and painted so often: "_Largior hic campos æther et lumine vestit purpureo._" [Illustration: _L'Art._ DAUBIGNY. SPRINGTIME.] -When they bore him from his house in the Faubour-Poissoniere and a +When they bore him from his house in the Faubour-Poissonière and a passer-by asked who was being buried, a fat shopwoman standing at the door of her house answered: "I don't know his name, but he was a good man." Beethoven's Symphony in C minor was played at his funeral, according to his own direction, and as the coffin was being lowered a lark rose exulting to the sky. "The artist will be replaced with -difficulty, the man never," said Dupre at Corot's grave. On 27th May +difficulty, the man never," said Dupré at Corot's grave. On 27th May 1880 an unobtrusive monument to his memory was unveiled at the border of the lake at Ville d'Avray, in the midst of the dark forest where he had so often dreamed. He died in the fulness of his fame as an artist, but @@ -10954,29 +10920,29 @@ eighteenth. DAUBIGNY. A LOCK IN THE VALLY OF OPTEVOZ.] -_Jules Dupre_, a melancholy spirit, who was inwardly consumed by a +_Jules Dupré_, a melancholy spirit, who was inwardly consumed by a lonely existence spent in passionate work, stands as the Beethoven of -modern painting beside Corot, its Mozart. If Theodore Rousseau was the -epic poet of the Fontainebleau school, and Corot the idyllic poet, Dupre +modern painting beside Corot, its Mozart. If Théodore Rousseau was the +epic poet of the Fontainebleau school, and Corot the idyllic poet, Dupré seems its tragic dramatist. Rousseau's nature is hard, rude, and indifferent to man. For Corot God is the great philanthropist, who wishes to see men happy, and lets the spring come and the warm winds blow only that children may have their pleasure in them. His soul is, as Goethe has it in _Werther_, "as blithe as those of sweet spring -mornings." Jules Dupre has neither Rousseau's reality nor Corot's +mornings." Jules Dupré has neither Rousseau's reality nor Corot's tenderness; his tones are neither imperturbable nor subdued. "_Quant -derriere un tronc d'arbre ou derriere une pierre, vous ne trouvez pas un -homme a quoi ca sert-il de faire du paysage._" In Corot there is a charm -as of the light melodies of the _Zauberfloete_; in Dupre the ear is +derrière un tronc d'arbre ou derrière une pierre, vous ne trouvez pas un +homme à quoi ça sert-il de faire du paysage._" In Corot there is a charm +as of the light melodies of the _Zauberflöte_; in Dupré the ear is struck by the shattering notes of the _Sinfonie Eroica_. Rousseau looks into the heart of nature with widely dilated pupils and a critical -glance. Corot woos her smiling, caressing, and dallying; Dupre courts +glance. Corot woos her smiling, caressing, and dallying; Dupré courts her uttering impassioned complaint and with tears in his eyes. In him are heard the mighty fugues of Romanticism. The trees live, the waves laugh and weep, the sky sings and wails, and the sun, like a great conductor, determines the harmony of the concert. Even the two pictures with which he made an appearance in the Salon in 1835, after he had left -the Sevres china manufactory and become acquainted with Constable +the Sèvres china manufactory and become acquainted with Constable during a visit to England--the "Near Southampton" and "Pasture-land in the Limousin"--displayed him as an accomplished master. In "Near Southampton" everything moves and moans. Across an undulating country a @@ -11004,16 +10970,16 @@ lights, hurrying clouds, fluttering branches, and trembling grass. an admirable picture in 1835, and it is admirable still. The fine old trees stand like huge pillars; the grass, drenched with rain, is of an intense green; nature seems to shudder as if in a fever. And through his -whole life Dupre was possessed by the lyrical fever of Romanticism. As +whole life Dupré was possessed by the lyrical fever of Romanticism. As the last champion of Romanticism he bore the banner of the proud generation of 1830 through well-nigh two generations, and until his death in 1889 stood on the ground where Paul Huet had first placed French landscape; but Huet attained his pictorial effects by combining -and by calculation, while Dupre is always a great, true, and convincing +and by calculation, while Dupré is always a great, true, and convincing poet. Every evening he was seen in L'Isle Adam, where he settled in 1849, wandering alone across the fields, even in drenching rain. One of his pupils declares that once, when they stood at night on the bridge of -the Oise during a storm, Dupre broke into a paroxysm of tears at the +the Oise during a storm, Dupré broke into a paroxysm of tears at the magnificent spectacle. He was a fanatic rejoicing in storms, one who watched the tragedies of the heaven with quivering emotion, a passionate spirit consumed by his inward force, and, like his literary counterpart @@ -11038,10 +11004,10 @@ burst. He celebrates the commotion of the sky, nature in her angry majesty, and the most brilliant phenomena of atmospheric life. Rousseau's highest aim was to avoid painting for effect, and Corot only cared for grace of tone; a picture of his consists "of a little grey and -a certain _je ne sais quoi_." Jules Dupre is peculiarly the colour-poet +a certain _je ne sais quoi_." Jules Dupré is peculiarly the colour-poet of the group, and sounds the most resonant notes in the romantic concert. His light does not beam in gently vibrating silver tones, but -is concentrated in glaring red suns. "_Ah, la lumiere, la lumiere!_" +is concentrated in glaring red suns. "_Ah, la lumière, la lumière!_" Beside the flaming hues of evening red he paints the darkest shadows. He revels in contrasts. His favourite key of colour is that of a ghostly sunset, against which a gnarled oak or the dark sail of a tiny vessel @@ -11053,17 +11019,17 @@ in night, rain, and storm. Corot's gentle rivulets become a rolling and whirling flood in his pictures, a headlong stream carrying all before it. The wind no longer sighs, but blusters across the valley, spreading ruin in its path. The clouds which in Corot are silvery and gentle, like -white lambs, are in Dupre black and threatening, like demons of hell. In +white lambs, are in Dupré black and threatening, like demons of hell. In Corot the soft morning breeze faintly agitates the tender clouds in the -sky; in Dupre a damp, cold wind of evening blows a spectral grey mist +sky; in Dupré a damp, cold wind of evening blows a spectral grey mist into the valley, and the hurricane tears apart the thunderclouds. "Wenn ich fern auf nackter Haide wallte, - Wo aus daemmernder Gekluefte Schooss - Der Titanensang der Stroeme schallte + Wo aus dämmernder Geklüfte Schooss + Der Titanensang der Ströme schallte Und die Nacht der Wolken mich umschloss, Wenn der Sturm mit seinen Wetterwogen - Mir vorueber durch die Berge fuhr + Mir vorüber durch die Berge fuhr Und des Himmels Flammen mich umflogen, Da erscheinst du, Seele der Natur." @@ -11074,14 +11040,14 @@ into the valley, and the hurricane tears apart the thunderclouds. CHINTREUIL. LANDSCAPE: MORNING.] The first of the brilliant pleiad who did not come from Paris itself is -_Diaz_, who in his youth worked with Dupre in the china manufactory of -Sevres. Of noble Spanish origin--Narciso Virgilio Diaz de la Pena ran +_Diaz_, who in his youth worked with Dupré in the china manufactory of +Sèvres. Of noble Spanish origin--Narciso Virgilio Diaz de la Peña ran his high-sounding name in full--he was born in Bordeaux in 1807, after his parents had taken refuge from the Revolution across the Pyrenees, and in his landscapes, too, perhaps, his Spanish blood betrays him now and then. Diaz has in him a little of Fortuny. Beside the great genius wrestling for truth and the virile seriousness of Rousseau, beside the -gloomy, powerful landscapes of Dupre with their deep, impassioned +gloomy, powerful landscapes of Dupré with their deep, impassioned poetry, the sparkling and flattering pictures of Diaz seem to be rather light wares. For him nature is a keyboard on which to play capricious fantasies. His pictures have the effect of sparkling diamonds, and one @@ -11097,7 +11063,7 @@ _enfant terrible_, the centre of all that was witty and spirited in the circle of Fontainebleau. He, too, was long acquainted with poverty, as were his great -brother-artists Rousseau and Dupre. Shortly after his birth he lost his +brother-artists Rousseau and Dupré. Shortly after his birth he lost his father. Madame Diaz, left entirely without means, came to Paris, where she supported herself by giving lessons in Spanish and Italian. When he was ten years old the boy was left an orphan alone in the vast city. A @@ -11107,7 +11073,7 @@ his wanderings through the wood he was bitten by a poisonous insect, and from that time he was obliged to hobble through life with a wooden leg, which he called his _pilon_. From his fifteenth year he worked, at first as a lame errand boy, and afterwards as a painter on china, together -with Dupre, Raffet, and Cabat, in the manufactory of Sevres. Before long +with Dupré, Raffet, and Cabat, in the manufactory of Sèvres. Before long he was dismissed as incompetent, for one day he took it into his head to decorate a vase entirely after his own taste. Then poverty began once more. Often when the evening drew on he wandered about the boulevards @@ -11170,7 +11136,7 @@ as he did, its beauty of golden sunlight and verdant leaves. Others remained at the entrance of the forest; he was the first who really penetrated to its depths. The branches met over his head like the waves of the sea, the blue heaven vanished, and everything was shrouded. The -sunbeams fell like the rain of Danae through the green leaves, and the +sunbeams fell like the rain of Danaë through the green leaves, and the moss lay like a velvet mantle on the granite piles of rock. He settled down like a hermit in his verdant hollow. The leaves quivered green and red, and covered the ground, shining like gold in the furtive rays of @@ -11223,14 +11189,14 @@ dark, shining eyes for ever, at dawn on 18th November 1876, a breath of sadness went through the tree-tops of the old royal forest of Fontainebleau. The forest had lost its hermit, the busy woodsman who penetrated farthest into its green depths; and it preserves his memory -gratefully. Only go, in October, through the copse of Bas Breau, lose +gratefully. Only go, in October, through the copse of Bas Bréau, lose yourself amid the magnificent foliage of these century-old trees that glimmer with a thousand hues like gigantic bouquets, dark green and brown, or golden and purple, and at the sight of this brilliant gleam of autumn tones you can only say, A Diaz! The youngest of the group, _Daubigny_, came when the battle was over, -and plays a slighter _role_, since he cannot be reckoned any longer +and plays a slighter _rôle_, since he cannot be reckoned any longer among the discoverers; nevertheless he has a physiognomy of his own, and one of peculiar charm. The others were painters of nature; Daubigny is the painter of the country. If one goes from Munich to Dachau to see the @@ -11260,7 +11226,7 @@ older artists, their magnificent simplicity in treating objects: the feminine element, the susceptibility to natural beauty, preponderates in him, and not the virile, creative power of embodiment, which at once discovers in itself a telling force of expression for the image received -from nature. He seeks after no poetic emotions, like Dupre; he has not +from nature. He seeks after no poetic emotions, like Dupré; he has not the profound, penetrative eye for nature, like Rousseau; in his charm and amiability he approaches Corot, except that mythological beings are no longer at home in his landscapes. They would take no pleasure in this @@ -11272,8 +11238,8 @@ technically better equipped, has more power and less grace; he dreams less and paints more. Corot made the apotheosis of nature: his silvery grey clouds bore him to the Elysian fields, where nothing had the heaviness of earth and everything melted in poetic vapour. Daubigny, -borne by no wings of Icarus, seems like Antaeus beside him; he is bodily -wedded to the earth. Dupre made the earth a mirror of the tears and +borne by no wings of Icarus, seems like Antæus beside him; he is bodily +wedded to the earth. Dupré made the earth a mirror of the tears and passions of men. Corot surprised her before the peasant is up of a morning, in the hours when she belongs altogether to the nymphs and the fairies. In Daubigny the earth has once more become the possession of @@ -11287,7 +11253,7 @@ betray that fishers are in the neighbourhood; even when they are empty his little houses suggest that their inhabitants are not far off, that they are but at work in the field and may come back at any moment. In Rousseau man is merely an atom of the infinite; here he is the lord of -creation. Rousseau makes an effect which is simple and powerful, Dupre +creation. Rousseau makes an effect which is simple and powerful, Dupré one which is impassioned and striking, Corot is divine, Diaz charming, and Daubigny idyllic, intimate, and familiar. He closed a period and enjoyed the fruits of what the others had called into being. One does @@ -11330,11 +11296,11 @@ with a magical charm of peace, regions with the moon above them, shedding its clear, silver light--refined etchings which assure him a place of honour in the history of modern etching. The painter of the banks of the Oise saw everything with the curiosity and the love of a -child, and remained always a naive artist in spite of all his dexterity. +child, and remained always a naïve artist in spite of all his dexterity. [Illustration: ROSA BONHEUR. THE HORSE-FAIR. - (_By permission of Mr. L. H. Lefevre, the owner of the copyright._)] + (_By permission of Mr. L. H. Lefèvre, the owner of the copyright._)] [Illustration: ROSA BONHEUR. PLOUGHING IN NIVERNOIS.] @@ -11356,18 +11322,18 @@ instant through a dense mist; the effect of green fields touched by the first soft beams of the sun, or that of a rainbow spanning a fresh spring landscape. His pupil _Jean Desbrosses_ was the painter of hills and valleys. _Achard_ followed Rousseau in his pictures of lonely, -austere, and mournful regions. _Francais_ painted familiar corners in +austere, and mournful regions. _Français_ painted familiar corners in the neighbourhood of Paris with grace, although more heavily than Corot, and without the shining light which is poured through the works of that rare genius. The pictures of _Harpignies_ are rather dry, and betray a heavy hand. He is rougher than his great predecessors, less seductive and indeed rather staid, but he has a convincing reality, and is loyal and simple. He is valuable as an honest, genial artist, a many-sided and -sure-footed man of talent, somewhat inclined to Classicism. _Emile +sure-footed man of talent, somewhat inclined to Classicism. _Émile Breton_, the brother of Jules, delighted in the agitation of the elements, wild, out-of-the-way regions, and harsh climate. His execution is broad, his tones forcible, and he has both simplicity and -largeness. Apart from his big, gloomy landscapes, _Leonce Chabry_ has +largeness. Apart from his big, gloomy landscapes, _Léonce Chabry_ has also painted sea-pieces, with dark waves dashing against the cleft rocks. @@ -11388,7 +11354,7 @@ themselves with adapting to French taste the light and superficial art of Nicolaus Berghem. Demarne, one of the last heirs of this Dutch artist, brought, even in the period of the Revolution, a little sunshine, blitheness, and country air amongst the large pictures in the -classical manner. The animal painting of the _ancien regime_ expired in +classical manner. The animal painting of the _ancien régime_ expired in his arms, and the "noble style" of Classicism obstructed the rise of the new animal painting. The fact that the great Jupiter, father of gods and men, assumed the form of a four-footed creature when he led weak, @@ -11404,13 +11370,13 @@ horses--beings which the old tragedians were fond of turning to account--are occasionally allowed to exist in the pictures of Bertin and Paul Flandrin. _Carle Vernet_, who composed cavalry charges and hunting scenes, had not talent enough seriously to make a breach, or to find -disciples to follow his lead. _Gericault_, the forerunner of +disciples to follow his lead. _Géricault_, the forerunner of Romanticism, was likewise the first eminent painter of horses; and although his great "Raft of the Medusa" is heavily fettered by the system of Classicism, his jockey pictures and horse races are as fresh, as vivid, and as unforced as if they had been painted yesterday instead of seventy years ago. In dashing animation, verve, and temperament -Gericault stands alone in these pictures; he is the very opposite of +Géricault stands alone in these pictures; he is the very opposite of Raymond Brascassat, who was the first specialist of animal pieces with a landscape setting, and was much praised in the thirties on account of his neat and ornamental style of treatment. _Brascassat_ was the @@ -11423,17 +11389,17 @@ made with all the accuracy possible. [Illustration: CHARLES JACQUE. THE RETURN TO THE BYRE (ETCHING). - (_By permission of M. Frederic Jacque, the owner of the copyright._)] + (_By permission of M. Frédéric Jacque, the owner of the copyright._)] [Illustration: _L'Art._ CHARLES JACQUE. A FLOCK OF SHEEP ON THE ROAD. - (_By permission of M. Frederic Jacque, the owner of the copyright._)] + (_By permission of M. Frédéric Jacque, the owner of the copyright._)] It was only when the landscape school of Fontainebleau had initiated a new method of vision, feeling, and expression that France produced a new -great painter of animals. As Dupre and Rousseau tower over their +great painter of animals. As Dupré and Rousseau tower over their predecessors Cabat and Flandrin in landscape, so _Constant Troyon_ rises above Brascassat in animal painting. In the latter there may be found a scrupulous pedantic observation in union with a thin, polished, @@ -11444,11 +11410,11 @@ Brascassat belongs to the same category as Denner, Troyon to that of Frans Hals and Brouwer. There would be no purpose in saying anything of his labours in the china -manufactory of Sevres, of his industrial works, and of the little +manufactory of Sèvres, of his industrial works, and of the little classical views with which he made a first appearance in the Salon in 1833, or of the impulse which he received from Roqueplan. He first found -his own powers when he made the acquaintance of Theodore Rousseau and -Jules Dupre, and migrated with them into the forest of Fontainebleau. At +his own powers when he made the acquaintance of Théodore Rousseau and +Jules Dupré, and migrated with them into the forest of Fontainebleau. At the headquarters of the new school his ideas underwent a revolution. Here, in the first instance, as a landscape painter, he was attracted by the massive forms of cattle, which make such a harmonious effect of @@ -11487,7 +11453,7 @@ sends his heavy, fattened droves in the afternoon across field-paths bright in the sunlight and dark green meadows, or places them beneath a sky where dense thunderclouds are swiftly rolling up. Troyon is no poet, but a born painter, belonging to the irrepressibly forceful family of -Jordaens and Courbet, a _maitre peintre_ of strength and plastic genius, +Jordaens and Courbet, a _maître peintre_ of strength and plastic genius, as healthy as he is splendid in colour. His "Cow scratching Herself" and his "Return to the Farm" will always be counted amongst the most forcible animal pictures of all ages. @@ -11515,8 +11481,8 @@ has painted pictures so good as the "Hay Harvest in Auvergne" of 1853, with its brutes which are almost life-size, or the "Horse Fair" of 1855, which is perhaps her most brilliant work, and for which she made studies, going in man's clothes for eighteen months, at all the Parisian -_maneges_, amongst stable-boys and horse-dealers. Until her death, from -the Chateau By, between Thomery and Fontainebleau, she carried on an +_manèges_, amongst stable-boys and horse-dealers. Until her death, from +the Château By, between Thomery and Fontainebleau, she carried on an extensive transpontine export, and her pictures are by no means the worst of those which find their way from the Continent to England and America. She was perhaps the only feminine celebrity of the century who @@ -11527,8 +11493,8 @@ heavy clouds, are the embodiment of power. Rosa Bonheur is an admirable painter with largeness of style and beauty of drawing, whose artistic position is between Troyon and Brascassat. -Troyon's only pupil was _Emile van Marcke_, half a Belgian, who met the -elder master in Sevres, and for a long time worked by his side at +Troyon's only pupil was _Émile van Marcke_, half a Belgian, who met the +elder master in Sèvres, and for a long time worked by his side at Fontainebleau. He united the occupation of a painter with that of a landed proprietor. The cattle which he bred on an extensive scale at his property, Bouttencourt in Normandy, had a celebrity amongst French @@ -11544,7 +11510,7 @@ _Jadin_ is a painter of horses and dogs who had once a great reputation, though to-day his name is almost, if not entirely forgotten. He was fond of painting hunting scenes, and is not wanting in life and movement; but he is too impersonal to play a part in the history of painting. Having -named him, some mention must likewise be made of _Eugene Lambert_, the +named him, some mention must likewise be made of _Eugène Lambert_, the painter of cats, and _Palizzi_, who painted goats. Lambert, who was fond of introducing his little heroes as the actors of comical scenes, is by admission the chief amongst all those who were honoured amongst the @@ -11552,12 +11518,12 @@ different nations with the title of "Raphaels of the Cat." Palizzi, an incisive master of almost brutal energy, a true son of the wild Abruzzo hills, delighted, like his compatriots Morelli and Michetti, in the blazing light of noon, shining over rocky heights, and throwing a -dazzle of gold on the dark green copse. _Lancon_, a rather arid painter, +dazzle of gold on the dark green copse. _Lançon_, a rather arid painter, though a draughtsman with a broad and masculine stroke, was the greatest descendant of Delacroix in the representation of tigers, lions, bears, and hippopotamuses. An unobtrusive artist, though one of very genial talent, was _Charles Jacque_, the Troyon of sheep. He has been compared -with the _rageur_ of Bas Breau, the proud oak which stands alone in a +with the _rageur_ of Bas Bréau, the proud oak which stands alone in a clearing. A man of forcible character, over whom age had no power, he survived until 1894 as the last representative of the noble school of Barbizon. He has painted sheep in flocks or separately, in the pasture, @@ -11570,7 +11536,7 @@ the wind upon the sea, murmuring brooks, and quiet haunts of the wood. Like Millet, he had in an eminent degree the gift of simplification, the greatest quality that an artist can have. With three or four strokes he could plant a figure on its feet, give life to an animal, or construct a -landscape. He was the most intimate friend of Jean Francois Millet, and +landscape. He was the most intimate friend of Jean François Millet, and painted part of what Millet painted also. @@ -11578,7 +11544,7 @@ painted part of what Millet painted also. CHAPTER XXVI -JEAN FRANCOIS MILLET +JEAN FRANÇOIS MILLET Whence has _Millet_ come? @@ -11602,7 +11568,7 @@ the first time the new gospel of art before which the people of all nations bow at the present date. What others did later was merely to advance on the path opened by Millet. And as time passes the figure of this powerful man shines more and more brilliantly. The form of Jean -Francois Millet rises so powerfully, so imperiously, and so suddenly +François Millet rises so powerfully, so imperiously, and so suddenly that one might almost imagine him to have come from Ibsen's third kingdom; for he is without forerunners in art. An attempt has been made to bring him into relation with the social and political movement of @@ -11623,7 +11589,7 @@ artist lies the source of his strength, the secret of his greatness. [Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - JEAN FRANCOIS MILLET. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] + JEAN FRANÇOIS MILLET. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] Even the circumstances over which he triumphed necessitated his being the painter that he actually was, if he became one at all. He was not @@ -11655,7 +11621,7 @@ of creation. Everything seemed new to him; he was charmed and astonished, and a wild flood of impressions burst in upon him. He did not come under the influence of any tradition, but approached art like the man in the age of stone who first scratched the outline of a mammoth -on a piece of ivory, or like the primaeval Greek who, according to the +on a piece of ivory, or like the primæval Greek who, according to the legend, invented painting by making a likeness of his beloved with a charred stick upon a wall. No one encouraged him in his first attempts. No one dreamt that this young man was destined to any life other than @@ -11669,7 +11635,7 @@ when going to church. And he drew so correctly that every one recognised the likenesses. A family council was held upon the matter. His father brought one of his son's drawings to a certain M. Mouchel in Cherbourg, a strange personage who had once been a painter and had the reputation -of being a connoisseur; and he was to decide whether Francois "had +of being a connoisseur; and he was to decide whether François "had really enough talent for painting to gain his bread by it." So Millet, the farm-hand, was twenty when he received his first lessons in drawing. He was learning the A B C of art, but humanly speaking he was already @@ -11743,7 +11709,7 @@ But the attempt was vain, for he satisfied neither others nor himself. The peasant of Gruchy could not be piquant, easy, and charming; on the contrary, he remained helpless, awkward, and crude. "Your women bathing come from the cow-house" was the appropriate remark of Diaz in reference -to these pictures. When Burger-Thore, who was the first to take notice +to these pictures. When Burger-Thoré, who was the first to take notice of Millet, declared, on the occasion of "The Milkmaid" being exhibited in 1844, that Boucher himself was surpassed in this picture, the critic took a literary licence, because he had a human pity for the poor @@ -11803,7 +11769,7 @@ decide from the ascending rings of smoke whether the new-comer was to be reckoned amongst the "Classicists" or the "Colourists." Jacque was with one voice declared to be a "Colourist." As to Millet's relation to the schools, there was a discrepancy of opinion. "_Eh bien_," said Millet, -"_si vous etes embarrasses, placez-moi dans la mienne_." Whereupon +"_si vous êtes embarrassés, placez-moi dans la mienne_." Whereupon Diaz, as the others would not let this pass, cried: "Be quiet; it is a good retort, and the fellow looks powerful enough to found a school which will bury us all." He was right, even though it was late before @@ -11826,9 +11792,9 @@ he had felt himself called to fulfil. Neither criticism, mockery, nor contempt could lead him any more astray; even if he had wished it, he would have been incapable of following the paths of official art. "_Mes critiques_," said he as though by way of excuse, "_sont gens instruits -et de gout, mais je ne peux me mettre dans leur peau, et comme je n'ai -jamais vu de ma vie autre chose que les champs, je tache de dire comme -je peux ce que j'y ai eprouve quand j'y travaillais_." When such a man +et de goût, mais je ne peux me mettre dans leur peau, et comme je n'ai +jamais vu de ma vie autre chose que les champs, je tâche de dire comme +je peux ce que j'y ai éprouvé quand j'y travaillais_." When such a man triumphs, when he succeeds in forcing upon the world his absolutely personal art, it is not Mahomet who has come to the mountain, but the mountain to Mahomet. @@ -11859,7 +11825,7 @@ just at the right time; neither my wife nor I had tasted food for four-and-twenty hours. It is a blessing that the little ones, at any rate, have not been in want." -[Illustration: _Neurdein Freres, photo._ +[Illustration: _Neurdein Frères, photo._ MILLET. A MAN MAKING FAGGOTS.] @@ -11880,7 +11846,7 @@ which as many thousands are now offered. It was only from the middle of the fifties that he began to sell at the rate of from two hundred and fifty to three hundred francs a picture. Rousseau was the first to offer him a large sum, buying his "Woodcutter" for four thousand francs, on -the pretext that an American was the purchaser. Dupre helped him to +the pretext that an American was the purchaser. Dupré helped him to dispose of "The Gleaners" for two thousand francs. An agreement which the picture-dealer Arthur Stevens, brother of Stevens the painter, concluded with him had to be dissolved six months afterwards, since @@ -11904,11 +11870,11 @@ the younger children made too much noise, Jeanne, who was seven years old, would say with gravity, "_Chut! Papa travaille._" After the evening meal he danced his youngest boy upon his knee and told Norman tales, or they all went out together into the forest, which the children -called _la foret noire_, because it was so wild, gloomy, and +called _la forêt noire_, because it was so wild, gloomy, and magnificent. Millet's poverty was not quite so great as might be supposed from -Sensier's book. Chintreuil, Theodore Rousseau, and many others were +Sensier's book. Chintreuil, Théodore Rousseau, and many others were acquainted with poverty likewise, and bore it with courage. It may even be said that, all things considered, success came to Millet early. The real misfortune for an artist is to have had success, to have been rich, @@ -11922,9 +11888,9 @@ artists honoured him like a god. In the Salon of 1869 he was on the hanging committee. The picture-dealers, who had passed him by in earlier days, now beset his doors; he lived to see his "Woman with the Lamp" for which he had received a hundred and fifty francs, sold for thirty-eight -thousand five hundred at Richard's sale. "_Allons, ils commencent a -comprendre que c'est de la peinture serieuse._" M. de Chennevieres -commissioned him to take part in the paintings in the Pantheon, and he +thousand five hundred at Richard's sale. "_Allons, ils commencent à +comprendre que c'est de la peinture serieuse._" M. de Chennevières +commissioned him to take part in the paintings in the Panthéon, and he began the work. But strength was denied him; he was prostrated by a violent fever, and on 20th January 1875, at six o'clock in the morning, Millet was dead. He was then sixty. @@ -11937,14 +11903,14 @@ His funeral, indeed, was celebrated with no great parade, for it took place far from Paris. It was a cold, dull morning, and there was mist and rain. Not many friends had come, only a few painters and critics. At eleven o'clock the procession was set in order. And it moved in the rain -quickly over the two _centimetres_ from Barbizon to Chailly. Even those +quickly over the two _centimètres_ from Barbizon to Chailly. Even those who had hastened from various villages, drawn by curiosity, could not half fill the church. But in Paris the announcement of death raised all the greater stir. When forty newspapers were displayed in a picture-dealer's shop on the morning after his demise, all Paris assembled and the excitement was universal. In the critical notices he was named in the same breath with Watteau, Leonardo, Raphael, and -Michael Angelo. The auction which was held soon afterwards in the Hotel +Michael Angelo. The auction which was held soon afterwards in the Hôtel Drouot for the disposal of the sketches which he had left behind him brought his family three hundred and twenty-one thousand francs. And in these days, the very drawings and pastels which were bought for six @@ -12021,16 +11987,16 @@ trouble and exhaustion. He had not that easy spirit which _amara lento temperat risu_. The passage beneath the peasant-picture in Holbein's "Dance of Death" might stand as motto for his whole work-- - "A la sueur de ton visage + "À la sueur de ton visage Tu gagneras ta pauvre vie; - Apres travail et long usage + Après travail et long usage Voici la mort qui te convie." [Illustration: _Mansell, photo._ MILLET. AT THE WELL.] -[Illustration: _Neudein Freres, photo._ +[Illustration: _Neudein Frères, photo._ MILLET. BURNING WEEDS.] @@ -12052,7 +12018,7 @@ misshapen, and rheumatic thing; and perhaps he has been one-sided in seeing only this in the life of the peasant. Nevertheless, it is inapposite to cite as a parallel to Millet's paintings of the peasant that cruel description of the rustic made in the time of Louis XIV by -Labruyere: "One sees scattered over the field dwarfed creatures that +Labruyère: "One sees scattered over the field dwarfed creatures that look like some strange kind of animal, black, withered, and sun-burnt, fastened to the earth, in which they grub with invincible stubbornness; they have something resembling articulate language, and when they raise @@ -12223,10 +12189,10 @@ and subservient to his own purposes. "Il marche dans la plaine immense, Va, vient, lance la graine au loin, Rouvre sa main et recommence; - Et je medite, obscur temoin, - Pendant que deployant ses voiles - L'ombre ou se mele une rumeur - Semble elargir jusqu'aux etoiles + Et je médite, obscur témoin, + Pendant que déployant ses voiles + L'ombre où se mêle une rumeur + Semble élargir jusqu'aux étoiles Le geste auguste du semeur." Note the epical quietude of "The Gleaners," the three Fates of poverty, @@ -12272,7 +12238,7 @@ almost by heart, and cites them continually in his letters. When he came to Paris he spent long hours in the galleries, not copying this or that portion of a picture, but fathoming works of art to their inmost core with a clear eye. In Cherbourg he devoured the whole of Vasari in the -library, and read all he could find about Duerer, Leonardo, Michael +library, and read all he could find about Dürer, Leonardo, Michael Angelo, and Poussin. Even in Barbizon he remained throughout his whole life an eager reader. Shakespeare fills him with admiration; Theocritus and Burns are his favourite poets. "Theocritus makes it evident to me," @@ -12302,38 +12268,38 @@ Mingle them and they both lose, and become a mixture which is neither fish nor flesh. This was what brought about the decadence of modern art. "_Au lieu de naturaliser l'art, ils artialisent la nature._" The Luxembourg Gallery had shown him that he ought not to go to the theatre -to create true art. "_Je voudrais que les etres que je represente aient -l'air voues a leur position; et qu'il soit impossible d'imaginer qu'il -leur puisse venir a l'idee d'etre autre chose que ce qu'ils sont. On est -dans un milieu d'un caractere ou d'un autre, mais celui qu'on adopte -doit primer. On devrait etre habitue a ne recevoir de la nature ses +to create true art. "_Je voudrais que les êtres que je représente aient +l'air voués à leur position; et qu'il soit impossible d'imaginer qu'il +leur puisse venir à l'idée d'être autre chose que ce qu'ils sont. On est +dans un milieu d'un caractère ou d'un autre, mais celui qu'on adopte +doit primer. On devrait être habitué à ne recevoir de la nature ses impressions de quelque sorte qu'elles soient et quelque temperament -qu'on ait. Il faut etre impregne et sature d'elle, et ne penser que ce +qu'on ait. Il faut être imprégné et saturé d'elle, et ne penser que ce qu'elle vous fait penser. Il faut croire qu'elle est assez riche pour -fournir a tout. Et ou puiserait-on, sinon a la source? Pourquoi donc a -perpetuite proposer aux gens, comme but supreme a atteindre, ce que de -hautes intelligences ont decouvert en elle. Voila donc qu'on rendrait +fournir à tout. Et où puiserait-on, sinon à la source? Pourquoi donc à +perpétuité proposer aux gens, comme but suprême à atteindre, ce que de +hautes intelligences ont découvert en elle. Voila donc qu'on rendrait les productions de quelques-uns le type et le but de toutes les -productions a venir. Les gens de genie sont comme doues de la baguette -divinatoire; les uns decouvrent que, dans la nature, ici se trouve cela, +productions à venir. Les gens de génie sont comme doués de la baguette +divinatoire; les uns découvrent que, dans la nature, ici se trouve cela, les autres autre chose ailleurs, selon le temperament de leur flair. -Leurs productions vous assurent dans cette idee que celui-la trouve qui -est fait pour trouver, mais il est plaisant de voir, quand le tresor est -deterre et enleve, que des gens viennent a perpetuite gratter a cette -place-la. Il faut savoir decouvrir ou il y a des truffes. Un chien qui +Leurs productions vous assurent dans cette idée que celui-là trouve qui +est fait pour trouver, mais il est plaisant de voir, quand le trésor est +déterré et enlevé, que des gens viennent à perpétuité gratter à cette +place-là. Il faut savoir découvrir où il y a des truffes. Un chien qui n'a pas de flair ne peut que faire triste chasse, puisqu'il ne va qu'en -voyant chasser celui qui sent la bete et qui naturellement va le +voyant chasser celui qui sent la bête et qui naturellement va le premier.... Un immense orgueil ou une immense sottise seulement peut -faire croire a certains hommes qu'ils sont de force a redresser les -pretendus manques de gout et les erreurs de la nature. Les oeuvres que -nous aimons, ce n'est qu'a cause qu'elles procedent d'elle. Les autres -ne sont que des oeuvres pedantes et vides. On peut partir de tous les -points pour arriver au sublime, et tout est propre a l'exprimer, si on a -une assez haute visee. Alors ce que vous aimez avec le plus -d'emportement et de passion devient votre beau a vous et qui s'impose +faire croire à certains hommes qu'ils sont de force à redresser les +prétendus manques de goût et les erreurs de la nature. Les oeuvres que +nous aimons, ce n'est qu'à cause qu'elles procèdent d'elle. Les autres +ne sont que des oeuvres pédantes et vides. On peut partir de tous les +points pour arriver au sublime, et tout est propre à l'exprimer, si on a +une assez haute visée. Alors ce que vous aimez avec le plus +d'emportement et de passion devient votre beau à vous et qui s'impose aux autres. Que chacun apporte le sien. L'impression force l'expression. -Tout l'arsenal de la nature est a la disposition des hommes. Qui oserait -decider qu'une pomme de terre est inferieure a une grenade._" +Tout l'arsenal de la nature est à la disposition des hommes. Qui oserait +décider qu'une pomme de terre est inférieure à une grenade._" [Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ @@ -12353,7 +12319,7 @@ truth for beauty." For the art of the nineteenth century Millet's words mean the erection of a new principle, of a principle that had the effect of a novel force, that gave the consciousness of a new energy of artistic endeavour, that was a return to that which the earth was to -Antaeus. And by formulating this principle--the principle that +Antæus. And by formulating this principle--the principle that everything is beautiful so far as it is true, and nothing beautiful so far as it is untrue, that beauty is the blossom, but truth the tree--by clearly formulating this principle for the first time, Millet has become @@ -12362,7 +12328,7 @@ than by his own pictures. For--and here we come to the limitations of his talent--has Millet as a painter really achieved what he aimed at? No less a person than -Fromentin has put this question in his _Maitres d'autrefois_. On his +Fromentin has put this question in his _Maîtres d'autrefois_. On his visit to Holland he chances for a moment to speak of Millet, and he writes:-- @@ -12390,7 +12356,7 @@ Terborch and Metsu, and he has something peculiarly noble compared with the trivialities of Steen, Ostade, and Brouwer. As a man he puts them all to the blush. Does he outweigh them as a painter?" -[Illustration: _Neurdein Freres, photo._ +[Illustration: _Neurdein Frères, photo._ MILLET. THE RAINBOW.] @@ -12407,7 +12373,7 @@ etchings, his drawings in chalk, pencil, and charcoal, are astonishing through their eminent delicacy of technique. The simpler the medium the greater is the effect achieved. "The Woman Churning" in the Louvre; the quietude of his men reaping, and of his woman-reaper beside the heaps of -corn; "The Water Carriers," who are like Greek kanephorae; the peasant +corn; "The Water Carriers," who are like Greek kanephoræ; the peasant upon the potato-field, lighting his pipe with a flint and a piece of tinder; the woman sewing by the lamp beside her sleeping child; the vine-dresser resting; the little shepherdess sitting dreamily on a @@ -12492,7 +12458,7 @@ and never as a painter. His painting is often anxiously careful, heavy, and thick, and looks as if it had been filled in with masonry; it is dirty and dismal, and wanting in free and airy tones. Sometimes it is brutal and hard, and occasionally it is curiously indecisive in effect. -Even his best pictures--"The Angelus" not excepted--give no aesthetic +Even his best pictures--"The Angelus" not excepted--give no æsthetic pleasure to the eye. The most ordinary fault in his painting is that it is soft, greasy, and woolly. He is not light enough with what should be light, nor fleeting enough with what is fleeting. And this defect is @@ -12613,7 +12579,7 @@ an exhibition of his works, and quietly suffered the rejections of the hanging committee and the derision of the public. Courbet blustered, beat the big drum, threw himself into forcible postures like a strong man juggling with cannon-balls, and announced in the press that he was -the only serious artist of the century. No one could ever _embeter le +the only serious artist of the century. No one could ever _embêter le bourgeois_ with such success, no one has called forth such a howl of passion, no one so complacently surrendered his private life to the curiosity of the great public, with the swaggering attitude of an @@ -12659,8 +12625,8 @@ like the men he painted, he has done a serviceable day's work. [Illustration: _L'Art._ GUSTAVE COURBET.] -Gustave Courbet, the strong son of Franche-Comte, was born in 1819, in -Ornans, a little town near Besancon. Like his friend and +Gustave Courbet, the strong son of Franche-Comté, was born in 1819, in +Ornans, a little town near Besançon. Like his friend and fellow-countryman Proudhon, the socialist, he had a strain of German blood in his veins, and in their outward appearance it gave them both something Teutonic, rugged, and heavy, contrasting with French ease and @@ -12671,7 +12637,7 @@ never been stinted, he was of medium height, broad-shouldered, bluff, ruddy like a slaughterman, and, as the years passed, disposed to acquire a more liberal circumference of body. He went about working like Sisyphus, and never without a short pipe in his mouth, the classic -_brule-gueule_, loaded with strong caporal. His movements were broad and +_brûle-gueule_, loaded with strong caporal. His movements were broad and heavy, and, being a little short in his breathing, he wheezed when he was excited, and perspired over his painting. His dress was comfortable, but not elegant; and his head was formed for a cap rather than the @@ -12710,7 +12676,7 @@ young man, who made free use of the drastic slang of the studios. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF AS A YOUTH.] -"His notable features," writes Theophile Silvestre of Courbet at this +"His notable features," writes Théophile Silvestre of Courbet at this time,--"his notable features seem as though they had been modelled from an Assyrian bas-relief. His well-shaped and brilliant dark eyes, shadowed by long silken lashes, have the soft quiet light of an @@ -12745,7 +12711,7 @@ feel veneration. As for M. Raphael, there is no doubt that he has painted some interesting portraits, but I cannot find any ideas in him. And the artistic kin, the heirs, or more properly the slaves of this great man, are really preceptors of the lowest art. What do they teach -us? Nothing. A good picture will never come from their _Ecole des +us? Nothing. A good picture will never come from their _École des Beaux-Arts_. The most precious thing is the originality, the independence of an artist. Schools have no right to exist; there are only painters. Independently of system and without attaching myself to @@ -12759,7 +12725,7 @@ according to an appreciation of my own, not merely to be a painter, but a man also--in a word, to practise living art is the compass of my design. I am not only a socialist, but also a democrat and a republican--that is to say, a supporter of every revolution; and -moreover, a sheer realist, which means a loyal adherent to the _verite +moreover, a sheer realist, which means a loyal adherent to the _vérité vraie_. But the principle of realism is the negation of the ideal. And following all that comes from this negation of the ideal, I shall arrive at the emancipation of the individual, and, finally, at democracy. @@ -12824,7 +12790,7 @@ his realistic aim, and with the date 1849 there are seven portraits, landscapes, and pictures from popular national life: "The Painter," "M. H. T---- looking over Engravings," "The Vintage in Ornans below the Roche du Mont," "The Valley of the Bue seen from the Roche du Mont," -"View of the Chateau of Saint-Denis," "Evening in the Village of +"View of the Château of Saint-Denis," "Evening in the Village of Scey-en-Varay," and "Peasants returning from Mass near Flagey." All these works had passed the doors of the Salon without demur. @@ -12843,7 +12809,7 @@ to the barracks and made sketches by torch-light. But he had reckoned without the police; scarcely was the picture finished before it was seized, as the Government recognised in it, for reasons which did not appear, "an incitement to the people of the town." This was after the -_coup d'etat_ of 1851. +_coup d'état_ of 1851. So Courbet's manifesto was not "The Fire in Paris." "The Stone-breakers," two men in the dress of artisans, in a plain evening @@ -12858,7 +12824,7 @@ native town. Courbet, just arrived, is alighting from a carriage in his travelling costume, looking composedly about him with a pipe in his mouth. A respectable prosperous gentleman, accompanied by a servant in livery, who is carrying his overcoat, is stretching out his hand to him. -This gentleman is M. Bryas, the Maecenas of Ornans, who for long was +This gentleman is M. Bryas, the Mæcenas of Ornans, who for long was Courbet's only patron, and who had a whim for having his portrait taken by forty Parisian painters in order to learn the "manners" of the various artists. And there was further to be seen the "Demoiselles de @@ -12897,12 +12863,12 @@ Courbet did not trouble himself over such ridicule, but painted quietly on, the many-sidedness of his talent soon giving him a firm seat in every saddle. After the scandal of the separate exhibition of 1855 he was excluded from the Salon until 1861, and during this time exhibited -in Paris and Besancon upon his own account. "The Funeral at Ornans" was +in Paris and Besançon upon his own account. "The Funeral at Ornans" was followed by "The Return from Market," a party of peasants on the high-road, and in 1860 by "The Return from the Conference," in which a number of French country priests have celebrated their meeting with a hearty lunch and set out on the way back in a condition which is far too -jovial. In 1861, when the gates of the Champs Elysees were thrown open +jovial. In 1861, when the gates of the Champs Elysées were thrown open to him once more, he received the medal for his "Battle of the Stags," and regularly contributed to the Salon until 1870. In these years he attempted pictures with many figures less frequently, and painted by @@ -12925,11 +12891,11 @@ sixties. These works gradually made him so well known that after 1866 his pictures came to have a considerable sale. The critics began to take him -seriously. Castagnary made his debut in the _Siecle_ with a study of +seriously. Castagnary made his début in the _Siècle_ with a study of Courbet; Champfleury, the apostle of literary realism, devoted to him a -whole series of _feuilletons_ in the _Messager de l'Assemblee_, and from +whole series of _feuilletons_ in the _Messager de l'Assemblée_, and from his intercourse with him Proudhon derived the fundamental principles of -his book on Realism. The son of Franche-Comte triumphed, and there was a +his book on Realism. The son of Franche-Comté triumphed, and there was a beam in his laughing eyes, always like those of a deer. His talent began more and more to unfold its wings in the sun of success, and his power of production seemed inexhaustible. When the custom arose of publishing @@ -12954,7 +12920,7 @@ before, and he stretched his powerful limbs, prepared to do battle against all existing opinions. Naturally the events of the following years found no idle spectator in such a firebrand as Courbet; and accordingly he rushed into those follies which embittered the evening of -his life. The _maitre peintre d'Ornans_ became Courbet _le colonnard_. +his life. The _maître peintre d'Ornans_ became Courbet _le colonnard_. First came the sensational protest with which he returned to the Emperor Napoleon the Order of the Legion of Honour. Four weeks after Courbet had plunged into this affair the war broke out. Eight weeks later came Sedan @@ -12962,12 +12928,12 @@ and the proclamation of the Republic, and shortly afterwards the siege of Paris and the insurrection. On 4th September 1870 the Provisional Government appointed him Director of the Fine Arts. Afterwards he became a member of the Commune, and dominated everywhere, with the -_brule-gueule_ in his mouth, by the power of his voice; and France has +_brûle-gueule_ in his mouth, by the power of his voice; and France has to thank him for the rescue of a large number of her most famous treasures of art. He had the rich collections of Thiers placed in the Louvre, to protect them from the rough and ready violence of the populace. But to save the Luxembourg he sacrificed the column of the -Vendome. When the Commune fell, however, Courbet alone was held +Vendôme. When the Commune fell, however, Courbet alone was held responsible for the destruction of the column. He was brought before the court-martial of Versailles, and, although Thiers undertook his defence, he was condemned to six months' imprisonment. Having undergone @@ -12982,11 +12948,11 @@ held morally unworthy to take part in the exhibition. Soon after this an action was brought against him, on the initiative of certain reactionary papers, for the payment of damages connected with -the overthrow of the Vendome column, and the painter lost his case. For +the overthrow of the Vendôme column, and the painter lost his case. For the recovery of these damages, which were assessed at three hundred and thirty-four thousand francs, the Government brought to the hammer his furniture and the pictures that were in his studio, at a compulsory sale -at the Hotel Drouot, where they fetched the absurdly trifling figure of +at the Hôtel Drouot, where they fetched the absurdly trifling figure of twelve thousand one hundred and eighteen francs fifty centimes. The loss of his case drove him from France to Switzerland. He gave the town of Vevay, where he settled, a bust of Helvetia, as a mark of his gratitude @@ -12994,7 +12960,7 @@ for the hospitality it had extended towards him. But the artist was crushed in him. "They have killed me," he said; "I feel that I shall never do anything good again." And thus the jovial, laughing Courbet, that honoured leader of a brilliant pleiad of disciples, the friend and -companion of Corot, Decamps, Gustave Planche, Baudelaire, Theophile +companion of Corot, Decamps, Gustave Planché, Baudelaire, Théophile Gautier, Silvestre, Proudhon, and Champfleury; the enthusiastic patriot and idol of the fickle Parisians, passed his last years in melancholy solitude, forgotten by his adherents and scorned by his adversaries. He @@ -13022,7 +12988,7 @@ The Lake of Geneva, over which he looked from his window in Vevay, was the subject of the last picture that he painted in Switzerland. Far from home and amid indifferent strangers he closed his eyes, which had once been so brilliant, in endless grief of spirit. The apostle of Realism -died of a broken heart, the herculean son of Franche-Comte could not +died of a broken heart, the herculean son of Franche-Comté could not suffer disillusionment. Courbet passed away, more or less forgotten, upon New Year's Eve in 1877, in that chilly hour of morning when the lake which he had learnt to love trembles beneath the first beams of the @@ -13054,10 +13020,10 @@ him." All this, he continued, suggested a masquerade funeral, six metres long, in which there was more to laugh at than to weep over. Even Paul Mantz declared that the most extravagant fancy could not descend to such a degree of jejune triviality and repulsive hideousness. In a _revue -d'annee_ produced at the Odeon, the authors, Philoxene Hoyer and -Theodore de Banville, make "a realist" say-- +d'année_ produced at the Odéon, the authors, Philoxène Hoyer and +Théodore de Banville, make "a realist" say-- - "Faire vrai ce n'est rien pour etre realiste, + "Faire vrai ce n'est rien pour être réaliste, C'est faire laid qu'il faut! Or, monsieur, s'il vous plait, Tout ce que je dessine est horriblement laid! Ma peinture est affreuse, et, pour qu'elle soit vraie, @@ -13066,13 +13032,13 @@ Theodore de Banville, make "a realist" say-- Les fillettes avec de la barbe au menton, Les trognes de Varasque et de coquecigrues, Les dorillons, les cors aux pieds et les verrues! - Voila le vrai!" + Voilà le vrai!" [Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ COURBET. THE HIND ON THE SNOW.] -So it went on through the sixties also. When the Empress Eugenie passed +So it went on through the sixties also. When the Empress Eugénie passed through the exhibition on the opening day of the Salon of 1866, with an elegant walking-stick in her hand, she was so indignant at Courbet's "Naked Women" that the picture had to be immediately removed. In the @@ -13166,7 +13132,7 @@ one's inherent nature, as old Navez, the pupil of David, was in the habit of saying. Courbet was honest, and he was also a somewhat unwieldy being, and therefore his painting too has something bluff and cumbrous. But where in all French art is there such a sound painter, so sure of -his effects and with such a large bravura, a _maitre peintre_ who was so +his effects and with such a large bravura, a _maître peintre_ who was so many-sided, extending his dominion as much over figure-painting as landscape, over the nude as over _nature morte_? There is no artist so many of whose pictures may be seen together without surfeit, for he is @@ -13231,17 +13197,17 @@ pictorial masterpieces if not as analyses of character. [Illustration: _L'Art._ - STEVENS. LA BETE A BON DIEU.] + STEVENS. LA BÊTE À BON DIEU.] To these his landscapes and animal pieces must be added as the works on which his talent displayed itself in the greatest purity and most inherent vigour: "The Battle of the Stags," that most admirable picture "The Hind on the Snow," "Deer in Covert," views of the moss-grown rocks -and sunlit woods of Ornans and the green valleys of the Franche-Comte. +and sunlit woods of Ornans and the green valleys of the Franche-Comté. He had the special secret of painting with a beautiful tone and a broad, sure stroke dead plumage and hunting-gear, the bristling hide of wild-boars, and the more delicate coat of deer and of dogs. As a -landscape painter he does not belong to the family of Corot and Dupre. +landscape painter he does not belong to the family of Corot and Dupré. His landscapes are green no doubt, but they have limitations; the leaves hang motionless on the branches, undisturbed by a breath of wind. Courbet has forgotten the most important thing, the air. Whatever the @@ -13270,10 +13236,10 @@ creations, and was always glad to return to his parents' house. The patriotism of the church-spire, provincialism, and a touching and vivid sense of home are peculiar to all his landscapes. But in his sea-pieces, to which he was incited by a residence in Trouville in the summer of -1865, he has opened an altogether new province to French art. _Eugene Le +1865, he has opened an altogether new province to French art. _Eugène Le Poittevin_, who exhibited a good deal in Berlin in the forties, and therefore became very well known in Germany, cannot count as a painter. -_Theodore Gudin_, whose signature is likewise highly valued in the +_Théodore Gudin_, whose signature is likewise highly valued in the market, was a frigid and rough-and-ready scenical painter. His little sea-pieces have a professional manner, and the large naval battles and fires at sea which he executed by the commission of Louis Philippe for @@ -13322,7 +13288,7 @@ his art as his eyes and his brain. And as, like all sincere artists, he rendered himself, he was the creator of an art which has an irrepressible health and overflows with an exuberant opulence. His pictures brought a savour of the butcher's shop into French painting, -which had become anaemic. He delighted in plump shoulders and sinewy +which had become anæmic. He delighted in plump shoulders and sinewy necks, broad breasts heaving over the corset, the glow of the skin dripping with warm drops of water in the bath, the hide of deer and the coat of hares, the iridescent shining of carp and cod-fish. Delacroix, @@ -13332,7 +13298,7 @@ _gourmet_, gloats over the shining vision of things which can be devoured--a Gargantua with a monstrous appetite, he buried himself in the navel of the generous earth. Plants, fruit, and vegetables take voluptuous life beneath his brush. He triumphs when he has to paint a -_dejeuner_ with oysters, lemons, turkeys, fish, and pheasants. His mouth +_déjeuner_ with oysters, lemons, turkeys, fish, and pheasants. His mouth waters when he heaps into a picture of still-life all manner of delicious eatables. The only drama that he has painted is "The Battle of the Stags," and this will end in brown sauce amid a cheerful clatter of @@ -13396,7 +13362,7 @@ picture-dealer; he was one of the first who brought home to the public comprehension the noble art of Rousseau, Corot, and Millet. Stevens' father fought as an officer in the great army at the battle of Waterloo, and is said to have been an accomplished critic. Some of the ablest -sketches of Delacroix, Deveria, Charlet, and Roqueplan found their way +sketches of Delacroix, Devéria, Charlet, and Roqueplan found their way into his charming home. Roqueplan, who often came to Brussels, took the younger Stevens with him to his Parisian studio. He was a tall, graceful young man, who, with his vigorous upright carriage, his finely chiselled @@ -13446,7 +13412,7 @@ painter of the _Parisienne_. CHAPLIN. PORTRAIT OF COUNTESS AIMERY DE LA ROCHEFOUCAULD.] -In his whole work he sounds a paean to the delicate and all-powerful +In his whole work he sounds a pæan to the delicate and all-powerful mistress of the world, and it is significant that it was through woman that art joined issue with the interests of the present. Millet, the first who conquered a province of modern life, was at the same time the @@ -13454,7 +13420,7 @@ first great painter of women in the century. Stevens shows the other side of the medal. In Millet woman was a product of nature; in Stevens she is the product of modern civilisation. The woman of Millet lives a large animal life, in the sweat of her brow, bowed to the earth. She is -the primaeval mother who works, bears children, and gives them +the primæval mother who works, bears children, and gives them nourishment. She stands in the field like a caryatid, like a symbol of fertile nature. In Stevens woman does not toil and is seldom a mother. He paints the woman who loves, enjoys, and knows nothing of the great @@ -13504,7 +13470,7 @@ made up of all the most capricious products of art. A new world was discovered, a painting which was in touch with life; the symphony of the salon was developed in a delicate style. A tender feminine perfume, something at once melancholy and sensuous, was exhaled from the pictures -of Stevens, and by this shade of _demi-monde haut-gout_ he won the great +of Stevens, and by this shade of _demi-monde haut-goût_ he won the great public. They could not rise to Millet and Courbet, and Stevens was the first who gave general pleasure without paying toll to the vicious taste for melodramatic, narrative, and humorous _genre_ painting. Even in the @@ -13525,7 +13491,7 @@ Frenchman, the Englishwoman. It was not till they went into foreign countries that these artists perceived the grace of what was not deemed suitable to art at home. In Paris from the year 1859 Tissot had painted scenes from the fifteenth century, to which he was moved by Leys, and he -studied with archaeological accuracy the costume and furniture of the +studied with archæological accuracy the costume and furniture of the late Gothic period. When he migrated to England in 1871 he gave up the romantic proclivities of his youth, and devoted himself to the representation of fashionable society. His oil paintings fascinate us by @@ -13555,25 +13521,25 @@ attractive golden gallery-tone of great distinction. In _Charles Chaplin_ Fragonard was revived. He was the specialist of languishing flesh and _poudre de riz_, the refined interpreter of aristocratic beauty, one on whose palette there might still be found a -delicate reflection of the _fetes galantes_ of the eighteenth century. +delicate reflection of the _fêtes galantes_ of the eighteenth century. In Germany he was principally known by those dreamy, frail, and sensual -maidens, well characterised by the phrase of the Empress Eugenie. "M. +maidens, well characterised by the phrase of the Empress Eugénie. "M. Chaplin," she said, "I admire you. Your pictures are not merely indecorous, they are more." But Chaplin had likewise the other qualities of the _rococo_ painter. He was a decorative artist of the first rank, and, like Fragonard, he carelessly scattered round him on all sides grace and beauty, charm and fascination. In 1857 he decorated the _Salon des Fleurs_ in the Tuileries, in 1861-65 the bathroom of the Empress in -the _Palais de l'Elysee_, and from 1865 a number of private houses in +the _Palais de l'Elysée_, and from 1865 a number of private houses in Paris, Brussels, and New York; and there is in all these works a refined -_haut-gout_ of modern Parisian elegance and fragrant _rococo_ grace. He +_haut-goût_ of modern Parisian elegance and fragrant _rococo_ grace. He revived no nymphs, and made no pilgrimage to the island of Cythera; he was more of an epicurean. But Fragonard's fine tones and Fragonard's sensuousness were peculiar to him. He had a method of treating the hair, of introducing little patches, of setting a dimple in the chin, and painting the arms and bosom, which had vanished since the _rococo_ period from the power of French artists. Rosebuds and full-blown roses -blossom like girls _a la_ Greuze, and fading beauties, who are all the +blossom like girls _à la_ Greuze, and fading beauties, who are all the more irresistible, are the elements out of which his refined, indecorous, and yet fragrant art is constituted. @@ -13601,7 +13567,7 @@ allowed a mysterious sphinx-like smile to play round the lips of his women. Manifestly he has studied Prudhon and had much intercourse with Henner in those years when the latter, after his return from Italy, directed attention once more to the old Lombards. From the time when he -made his debut in 1879, with the portrait of his sons, he received great +made his début in 1879, with the portrait of his sons, he received great encouragement, and stands out in these days as the most mature painter of women that the present age has to show. Only the great English portrait painters Watts and Millais, who are inferior to him in @@ -13619,7 +13585,7 @@ turn of the head as he was in the management of drapery and the play of its hues. Then, again, he made a gradual transition from delicate and discreetly coquettish works to the crude arts of upholstery. Yet even in his last period he has painted some masculine portraits--those of -Pasteur, and of the painters Francais, Fritz Thaulow, and Rene +Pasteur, and of the painters Français, Fritz Thaulow, and René Billotte--which are striking in their vigorous simplicity and unforced characterisation after the glaring virtuosity of his pictures of women. @@ -13629,7 +13595,7 @@ characterisation after the glaring virtuosity of his pictures of women. (_By permission of the Artist._)] -_Leon Bonnat_, the pupil of Madrazos, brought about the fruitful +_Léon Bonnat_, the pupil of Madrazos, brought about the fruitful connection between French painting and that of the old Spaniards. By this a large quantity of the fresh blood of naturalism was poured into it once more. Born in the South of France and educated in Spain, he had @@ -13654,7 +13620,7 @@ parts of the body, whilst others remained dark and colourless in the gloomy background. He applied the same principles to his portraits. A French Lenbach, he painted in France a gallery of celebrated men. With an almost tangible reality he painted Hugo, Madame Pasta, Dumas, Gounod, -Thiers, Grevy, Pasteur, Puvis de Chavannes, Jules Ferry, Carnot, +Thiers, Grévy, Pasteur, Puvis de Chavannes, Jules Ferry, Carnot, Cardinal Lavigerie, and others. Over two hundred persons, famous or not, have sat to him, and he has painted them with an exceedingly intelligent power, masculine taste, and a learning which never loses itself in @@ -13677,8 +13643,8 @@ intention of saying all things he often forgets the most important--the spirit of the man and the grace of the woman. His pictures are great pieces of still-life--exceedingly conscientious, but having something of the conscientiousness of an actuary copying a tedious protocol. The -portrait of Leon Cogniet, the teacher of the master, with his aged face, -his spectacled eyes, and his puckered hands (Musee Luxembourg), is +portrait of Léon Cogniet, the teacher of the master, with his aged face, +his spectacled eyes, and his puckered hands (Musée Luxembourg), is perhaps the only likeness in which Bonnat rivals Lenbach in depth of characterisation. His pictorial strength is always worthy of respect; but, for the sake of variety, the _esprit_ is for once on the side of @@ -13689,7 +13655,7 @@ _Roybet_ painted cavaliers of the seventeenth century, and other historical pictures of manners, which are distinguished, to their advantage, from older pictures of their type, because it is not the historical anecdote but the pictorial idea which is their basis. All the -earlier painters were rather bent upon archaeological accuracy than on +earlier painters were rather bent upon archæological accuracy than on pictorial charm in the treatment of such themes. Roybet revelled in the rich hues of old costumes, and sometimes attained, before he strained his talent in the Procrustean bed of pictures of great size, a bloom and @@ -13763,7 +13729,7 @@ harmony of colour which he chiefly loved in his figure-pictures. On the same purely pictorial grounds nuns became very popular in painting, as their white hoods and collars standing out against a black dress gave the opportunity for such a fine effect of tone. This was the -province in which poor _Francois Bonvin_ laboured. Deriving from the +province in which poor _François Bonvin_ laboured. Deriving from the Dutch, he conceived an enthusiasm for work, silence, the subdued shining of light in interiors, cold days, the slow movements and peaceful faces of nuns, and painted kitchen scenes with a strong personal accent. @@ -13789,7 +13755,7 @@ recalling the old masters. BONVIN. THE WORK-ROOM.] -Even _Theodule Ribot_, the most eminent of the group, one of the most +Even _Théodule Ribot_, the most eminent of the group, one of the most dexterous executants of the French school, a master who for power of expression is worthy of being placed between Frans Hals and Ribera, made a beginning with still-life. He was born in 1823, in a little town of @@ -13816,7 +13782,7 @@ there followed a number of religious pictures which, in their hard, peasant-like veracity and their impressive, concentrated life, stood in the most abrupt contrast with the conventionally idealised figures of the academicians. His "Jesus in the Temple," no less than "Saint -Sebastian" and "The Good Samaritan"--all three in the Musee +Sebastian" and "The Good Samaritan"--all three in the Musée Luxembourg--are works of simple and forceful grandeur, and have a thrilling effect which almost excites dismay. Sebastian is no smiling saint gracefully embellished with wounds, but a suffering man, with the @@ -13874,7 +13840,7 @@ veneration. As for M. Raphael, there is no doubt that he has painted some interesting portraits, but I cannot find any ideas in him." In these words he had prophesied as early as 1855 the course which French art would take in the next decade. When Courbet appeared the grand -painting stood in thraldom to the _beaute supreme_, and the aesthetic +painting stood in thraldom to the _beauté suprême_, and the æsthetic conceptions of the time affected the treatment of contemporary subjects. Artists had not realism enough to give truth and animation to these themes. When Cabanel, Hamon, and Bouguereau occasionally painted beggars @@ -13962,11 +13928,11 @@ On the History of Caricature in General: Th. Wright: A History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art. London, 1875. - Arsene Alexandre: L'Art du rire. Paris, 1892. + Arsène Alexandre: L'Art du rire. Paris, 1892. E. Bayard: La caricature et les caricaturistes. Paris, 1900. - Fuchs und Kraemer: Die Karikatur der europaeischen Voelker vom Altertum + Fuchs und Krämer: Die Karikatur der europäischen Völker vom Altertum bis zur Neuzeit. Berlin, 1901. On the English Caricaturists: @@ -13974,7 +13940,7 @@ On the English Caricaturists: Victor Champier: La caricature anglaise contemporaine, "L'Art," 1875, i 29, 293, ii 300, iii 277 and 296. - Ernest Chesneau: Les livres a caricatures en Angleterre, "Le Livre," + Ernest Chesneau: Les livres à caricatures en Angleterre, "Le Livre," Novembre 1881. Augustin Filon: La caricature en Angleterre, W. Hogarth, "Revue des @@ -14044,7 +14010,7 @@ Charles Keene: On the German Draughtsmen: - Beitraege zur Geschichte der Caricatur, "Zeitschrift fuer Museologie," + Beiträge zur Geschichte der Caricatur, "Zeitschrift für Museologie," 1881, 13 ff. J. Grand-Carteret: Les moeurs et la caricature en Allemagne, en @@ -14062,7 +14028,7 @@ Johann Christian Erhard: Johann Adam Klein: F. M.: Verzeichniss der von Johann Adam Klein gezeichneten und - radirten Blaetter. Stuttgart, 1853. + radirten Blätter. Stuttgart, 1853. John: Das Werk von Johann Adam Klein. Munich, 1863. @@ -14070,7 +14036,7 @@ Ludwig Richter: Richter-Album. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1861. - Jahn, in Richter-Album, and in the Biographische Aufsaetze. Leipzig, + Jahn, in Richter-Album, and in the Biographische Aufsätze. Leipzig, 1867. W. Heinrichsen: Ueber Richters Holzschnitte. Carlsruhe, 1870. @@ -14079,45 +14045,45 @@ Ludwig Richter: description of his works, with a biographical sketch by H. Steinfeld. Dresden, 1871. - L. Richter's Landschaften. Text by H. Luecke. Leipzig, 1875. + L. Richter's Landschaften. Text by H. Lücke. Leipzig, 1875. Georg Scherer: Aus der Jugendzeit. Leipzig, 1875. Ernst und Scherz. Leipzig, 1875. Deutsche Art und Sitte. Published by G. Scherer. Leipzig, 1876. - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, i. Noerdlingen, + Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, i. Nördlingen, 1877, pp. 57 ff. - A. Springer: Zum 80 Geburtstag Ludwig Richter's, "Zeitschrift fuer + A. Springer: Zum 80 Geburtstag Ludwig Richter's, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1883, pp. 377-386. J. E. Wessely: Adrian Ludwig Richter zum 80 Geburtstag. A Monograph. - "Graphische Kuenste," 1884, vi 1. + "Graphische Künste," 1884, vi 1. Obituary: "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1884, No. 175; "Allgemeine - Kunst-Chronik," 1884, 26; G. Weisse, "Deutsches Kuenstlerblatt," iii 1. + Kunst-Chronik," 1884, 26; G. Weisse, "Deutsches Künstlerblatt," iii 1. Lebenserinnerungen eines deutschen Malers: Autobiography of Ludwig Richter. Published by Heinrich Richter. Frankfurt a. M., 1886. - Robert Waldmueller: Ludwig Richter's religioese Entwickelung. + Robert Waldmüller: Ludwig Richter's religiöse Entwickelung. "Gegenwart," 37, pp. 198, 218. - Veit Valentin: Kunst, Kuenstler, und Kunstwerke. 1889. + Veit Valentin: Kunst, Künstler, und Kunstwerke. 1889. Richard Meister: Land und Leute in Ludwig Richter's Holzschnitt-Bildern. Leipzig, 1889. - Die vervielfaeltigende Kunst der Gegenwart. Edited by C. v. Luetzow. + Die vervielfältigende Kunst der Gegenwart. Edited by C. v. Lützow. Vol. i. Woodcut Engravings. Wien, 1890. - H. Gerlach: Ludwig Richters Leben, dem deutschen Volke erzaehlt. + H. Gerlach: Ludwig Richters Leben, dem deutschen Volke erzählt. Dresden, 1891. - Budde: Ludwig Richter, "Preussische Jahrbuecher." Bd. 87. Berlin, 1897. + Budde: Ludwig Richter, "Preussische Jahrbücher." Bd. 87. Berlin, 1897. - P. Mohn: Ludwig Richter, "Kuenstlermonographien," Edited by Knackfuss. + P. Mohn: Ludwig Richter, "Künstlermonographien," Edited by Knackfuss. Bd. 14. 2 Aufl. Bielefeld, 1898. J. Erler: Ludwig Richter, der Maler des deutschen Hauses. Leipzig, @@ -14136,62 +14102,62 @@ Albert Hendschel: W. Busch: - Paul Lindau: "Nord und Sued," 1878, iv 257. + Paul Lindau: "Nord und Süd," 1878, iv 257. - Eduard Daelen: W. Busch, "Kunst fuer Alle," 1887, ii 217. + Eduard Daelen: W. Busch, "Kunst für Alle," 1887, ii 217. See Busch-Album, Humoristischer Hausschatz. Collection of the twelve - most popular works, with 1400 pictures. Muenchen, 1885. + most popular works, with 1400 pictures. München, 1885. -Adolf Oberlaender: +Adolf Oberländer: - Adolf Bayersdorfer: Adolf Oberlaender, "Kunst fuer Alle," 1888, iv 49. + Adolf Bayersdorfer: Adolf Oberländer, "Kunst für Alle," 1888, iv 49. Robert Stiassny: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Caricatur, "Neue Freie Presse," 20th August 1889. - Hermann Essenwein: Adolf Oberlaender, "Moderne Illustratoren." Bd. 5. + Hermann Essenwein: Adolf Oberländer, "Moderne Illustratoren." Bd. 5. Munich, 1903. - See Oberlaender-Album. 7 vols. Munich, Braun & Schneider, 1881-89. + See Oberländer-Album. 7 vols. Munich, Braun & Schneider, 1881-89. On the French Draughtsmen: - Champfleury: Histoire generale de la caricature. 5 vols. Paris, + Champfleury: Histoire générale de la caricature. 5 vols. Paris, 1856-80. J. Grand-Carteret: Les moeurs et la caricature en France. Paris, 1888. - Armand Dayot: Les Maitres de la caricature au XIX siecle. 115 - facsimiles de grand caricatures en noir, 5 facsimiles de lithographies + Armand Dayot: Les Maîtres de la caricature au XIX siècle. 115 + facsimilés de grand caricatures en noir, 5 facsimilés de lithographies en couleurs. Paris, 1888. - Henri Beraldi: Les graveurs du XIX siecle. Paris, 1885. + Henri Béraldi: Les graveurs du XIX siècle. Paris, 1885. Paul Mantz: La caricature moderne, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1888, i 286. - Augustin de Buisseret: Les caricaturistes francais, "L'Art," 1888, ii + Augustin de Buisseret: Les caricaturistes français, "L'Art," 1888, ii 91. Moreau: - J. F. Maherault: L'oeuvre de Moreau le jeune. Paris, 1880. + J. F. Mahérault: L'oeuvre de Moreau le jeune. Paris, 1880. - A. Moureau: Les Moreau in "Les artistes celebres." 1903. + A. Moureau: Les Moreau in "Les artistes célèbres." 1903. Emanuel Bocher: Jean Michel Moreau le jeune. Paris, 1882. Debucourt: - Roger Portalis and Henri Beraldi: Les graveurs du XVIII siecle, vol. + Roger Portalis and Henri Béraldi: Les graveurs du XVIII siècle, vol. i. Paris, 1880. - Henri Bouchot, in "Les artistes celebres." 1905. + Henri Bouchot, in "Les artistes célèbres." 1905. Carle Vernet: - Amedee Durande: Joseph Carle, et Horace Vernet. Paris, 1865. + Amédée Durande: Joseph Carle, et Horace Vernet. Paris, 1865. A. Genevay: Carle Vernet, "L'Art," 1877, i 73, 96. @@ -14208,12 +14174,12 @@ Daumier: Champfleury: L'oeuvre de Daumier, Essai de catalogue, "L'Art," 1878, ii 217, 252, 294. - Eugene Montrosier: La caricature politique, H. Daumier, "L'Art," 1878, + Eugène Montrosier: La caricature politique, H. Daumier, "L'Art," 1878, ii 25. H. Billung: H. Daumier, "Kunstchronik," 24, 1879. - Arsene Alexandre: Honore Daumier, l'homme et son oeuvre. Paris, 1890. + Arsène Alexandre: Honoré Daumier, l'homme et son oeuvre. Paris, 1890. H. Frantz: Daumier and Gavarni. London, 1904. @@ -14226,52 +14192,52 @@ Guys: Gavarni: - Manieres de voir et facons de penser, par Gavarni, precede d'une etude + Manières de voir et façons de penser, par Gavarni, précédé d'une étude par Charles Yriarte. Paris, 1869. Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Gavarni, l'Homme et l'Oeuvre. Paris, 1873. - Armelhault et Bocher: Catalogue raisonne de l'Oeuvre de Gavarni. + Armelhault et Bocher: Catalogue raisonné de l'Oeuvre de Gavarni. Paris, 1873. G. A. Simcox: "Portfolio," 1874, p. 56. Georges Duplessis: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1875, ii 152, 211. - Georges Duplessis: Gavarni, Etude, ornee de 14 dessins inedits. Paris, + Georges Duplessis: Gavarni, Étude, ornée de 14 dessins inédits. Paris, 1876. - Ph. de Chennevieres: Souvenirs d'un Directeur des Beaux-Arts, IIIieme + Ph. de Chennevières: Souvenirs d'un Directeur des Beaux-Arts, IIIième partie. Paris, 1876. Bruno Walden: "Unsere Zeit," 1881, ii 926. - Eugene Forgues: Gavarni, in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1887. + Eugène Forgues: Gavarni, in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1887. - See also Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis. Henri Beraldi, Graveurs du XIX - siecle. Oeuvres choisies de Gavarni. 4 vols. Paris, 1845-48. + See also Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis. Henri Béraldi, Graveurs du XIX + siècle. Oeuvres choisies de Gavarni. 4 vols. Paris, 1845-48. -Gustave Dore: +Gustave Doré: - K. Delorme, Gustave Dore, peintre, sculpteur, dessinateur, graveur. + K. Delorme, Gustave Doré, peintre, sculpteur, dessinateur, graveur. Avec gravures et photographies hors texte. Paris, Baschet, 1879. - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Serie. Paris, + Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 105. Obituary: "Magazine of Art," March 1883; Fernand Brouet: "Revue artistique," March 1883; Dubufe: "Nouvelle Revue," March and April 1883; A. Michel: "Revue Alsacienne," February 1883; "Chronique des - Arts," 1883, p. 4; "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1883; A. Hustin, + Arts," 1883, p. 4; "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1883; A. Hustin, "L'Art," 1883, p. 424. - Van Deyssel: Gustave Dore, "De Dietsche Warande," iv 5. + Van Deyssel: Gustave Doré, "De Dietsche Warande," iv 5. - Blanche Roosevelt: Life and Reminiscences of Gustave Dore. London, + Blanche Roosevelt: Life and Reminiscences of Gustave Doré. London, 1885. - Claude Phillips: Gustave Dore, "Portfolio," 1891, p. 249. + Claude Phillips: Gustave Doré, "Portfolio," 1891, p. 249. Cham: @@ -14281,7 +14247,7 @@ Cham: Cham-Album. 3 vols. Paris. Without date. -Grevin: +Grévin: Ad. Racot: Portraits d'aujourd'hui. Paris, 1891. @@ -14380,7 +14346,7 @@ Romney: Lord Ronald Gower: Romney and Lawrence. London, 1882. T. H. Ward and W. Roberts: Romney, A biographical and critical essay, - with a catalogue raisonne of his works. London, 1904. + with a catalogue raisonné of his works. London, 1904. G. Paston: George Romney, etc. (Little Books on Art). London, 1903. @@ -14394,7 +14360,7 @@ Thomas Lawrence: A. Genevay: "L'Art," 1875, iii 385. - Th. de Wyzewa: Thomas Lawrence et la Societe anglaise de son temps, + Th. de Wyzewa: Thomas Lawrence et la Société anglaise de son temps, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1891, i 119, ii 112, 335. Lord Ronald Gower: Romney and Lawrence. London, 1882. @@ -14454,7 +14420,7 @@ Landseer: Catalogue of the Works of Sir Edwin Landseer, "Art Journal," 1875, p. 317. - J. Beavington-Atkinson: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1875, pp. + J. Beavington-Atkinson: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1875, pp. 129 and 163. M. M. Heaton: "Academy," 1879, p. 378. @@ -14486,7 +14452,7 @@ Wilkie: Feuillet de Conches: Sir David Wilkie, "Artiste," August 1883. - F. Rabbe, in "Les artistes celebres." + F. Rabbe, in "Les artistes célèbres." E. Pinnington: Sir David Wilkie, etc. (Famous Scots Series). London, 1900. @@ -14529,7 +14495,7 @@ CHAPTER XVIII In General: - Arsene Alexandre: Histoire de la peinture militaire en France. Paris, + Arsène Alexandre: Histoire de la peinture militaire en France. Paris, 1890. Horace Vernet: @@ -14537,10 +14503,10 @@ Horace Vernet: L. Ruutz-Rees: Horace Vernet and Paul Delaroche. Illustrations. London, 1879. - Amedee Durande: Josephe, Carle, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et + Amédée Durande: Josephe, Carle, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et Biographies. Paris, 1865. - Theophile Silvestre: Les artistes francais, p. 355. + Theophile Silvestre: Les artistes français, p. 355. Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, p. 65. @@ -14551,9 +14517,9 @@ Charlet: De la Combe: Charlet, sa vie et ses lettres. Paris, 1856. - Eugene Veron: "L'Art," 1875, i 193, 217. + Eugène Veron: "L'Art," 1875, i 193, 217. - F. L'homme, in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1893. + F. L'homme, in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1893. Raffet: @@ -14561,29 +14527,29 @@ Raffet: Georges Duplessis: "L'Art," 1879, i 76. - Notes et croquis de Raffet, mis en ordre et publies par Auguste Raffet + Notes et croquis de Raffet, mis en ordre et publiés par Auguste Raffet fils. Paris, Amand-Durand, 1879. - Henri Beraldi: Raffet, Peintre National. Paris, 1891. + Henri Béraldi: Raffet, Peintre National. Paris, 1891. - F. L'homme, in "Les artistes celebres." + F. L'homme, in "Les artistes célèbres." A. Dayot: Raffet et son oeuvre, etc. Paris, 1892. <f><b><b>On the Young Military Painters:</b></f> - Eugene Montrosier: Les Peintres militaires, contenant les biographies + Eugène Montrosier: Les Peintres militaires, contenant les biographies de Neuville, Detaille, Berne-Bellecour, Protais, etc. Paris, 1881. Jules Richard: En campagne. Tableaux et dessins de Meissonier, Detaille, Neuville, etc. 2 vols. Paris, 1889. -Bellange: +Bellangé: - Francis Wey: Exposition des oeuvres d'Hippolyte Bellange, Etude + Francis Wey: Exposition des oeuvres d'Hippolyte Bellangé, Étude biographique. Paris, 1867. - Jules Adeline: Hippolyte Bellange et son oeuvre. Paris, 1880. + Jules Adeline: Hippolyte Bellangé et son oeuvre. Paris, 1880. Protais: @@ -14592,7 +14558,7 @@ Protais: Pils: - L. Becq de Fouquieres: Isidore Pils, sa vie et ses oeuvres. Paris, + L. Becq de Fouquières: Isidore Pils, sa vie et ses oeuvres. Paris, 1876. Roger-Ballu: L'oeuvre de Pils, "L'Art," 1876, i 232-258. @@ -14603,76 +14569,76 @@ Neuville: Detaille: - Jules Claretie: L'Art et les artistes francais contemporains. Paris, + Jules Claretie: L'Art et les artistes français contemporains. Paris, 1876, p. 56. - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Serie. Paris, + Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 249. G. Goetschy: Les jeunes peintres militaires. Paris, 1878. -Regamey: +Régamey: - E. Chesneau: Notice sur G. Regamey. Paris, 1870. + E. Chesneau: Notice sur G. Régamey. Paris, 1870. - Eugene Montrosier: "L'Art," 1879, ii 25. + Eugène Montrosier: "L'Art," 1879, ii 25. Albrecht Adam: Albrecht Adam: Autobiography, 1786-1862. Edited by H. Holland. Stuttgart, 1886. - Das Werk der Muenchener Kuenstlerfamilie Adam. Reproductions after + Das Werk der Münchener Künstlerfamilie Adam. Reproductions after originals by the painters Albrecht, Benno, Emil, Eugen, Franz and Julius Adam. Text by H. Holland. Nuremberg, Soldan, 1890. P. Hess: - H. Holland: P. v. Hess. Muenchen, 1871. Originally in "Oberbayerisches + H. Holland: P. v. Hess. München, 1871. Originally in "Oberbayerisches Archiv," vol. xxxi. -F. Krueger: +F. Krüger: - A. Rosenberg: Aus dem alten Berlin, Franz Krueger-Ausstellung, - "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 337. + A. Rosenberg: Aus dem alten Berlin, Franz Krüger-Ausstellung, + "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 337. H. Mackowski, in "Das Museum," vi 41. See Vor 50 Jahren, - Portraetskizzen beruehmter und bekannter Persoenlickkeiten von F. Krueger. + Porträtskizzen berühmter und bekannter Persönlickkeiten von F. Krüger. Berlin, 1883. Franz Adam: - Friedrich Pecht: Franz Adam, "Kunst fuer Alle," 1887, ii 120. + Friedrich Pecht: Franz Adam, "Kunst für Alle," 1887, ii 120. -Theodor Horschelt: +Théodor Horschelt: - Ed. Ille: Zur Erinnerung an den Schlachtenmaler Theodor Horschelt. - Muenchen, 1871. + Ed. Ille: Zur Erinnerung an den Schlachtenmaler Théodor Horschelt. + München, 1871. - H. Holland: Theodor Horschelt, sein Leben und seine Werke. Muenchen, + H. Holland: Théodor Horschelt, sein Leben und seine Werke. München, 1889. Heinrich Lang: - H. E. von Berlepsch: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1892. + H. E. von Berlepsch: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1892. -On the more recent Duesseldorf Painters: +On the more recent Düsseldorf Painters: - Adolf Rosenberg: Duesseldorfer Kriegs- und Militaermaler, "Zeitschrift - fuer bildende Kunst," 1889, xxiv 228. + Adolf Rosenberg: Düsseldorfer Kriegs- und Militärmaler, "Zeitschrift + für bildende Kunst," 1889, xxiv 228. CHAPTER XIX Leopold Robert: - E. J. Delecluze: Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Leopold Robert. + E. J. Delécluze: Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Leopold Robert. Paris, 1838. Feuillet de Conches: Leopold Robert, sa vie, ses oeuvres, et sa correspondance. Paris, 1848. - Charles Clement: Leopold Robert d'apres sa correspondance inedite. + Charles Clement: Leopold Robert d'après sa correspondance inédite. Paris, 1875. Riedel: @@ -14682,10 +14648,10 @@ Riedel: On the Painters of the East in General: - Charles Gindriez: L'Algerie et les artistes, "L'Art," 1875, iii 396; + Charles Gindriez: L'Algérie et les artistes, "L'Art," 1875, iii 396; 1876, i 133. - Hermann Helferich: Moderne Orientmaler, "Freie Buehne," 1892. + Hermann Helferich: Moderne Orientmaler, "Freie Bühne," 1892. Decamps: @@ -14693,13 +14659,13 @@ Decamps: Ernest Chesneau: Mouvement moderne en peinture: Decamps. Paris, 1861. - Ad. Moreau: Decamps et son oeuvre, avec des gravures en facsimile des + Ad. Moreau: Decamps et son oeuvre, avec des gravures en facsimilé des planches originales les plus rares. Paris, 1869. - M. E. Im-Thurn: Scheffer et Decamps. Nimes, 1876. (Extr. des Mem. de - l'Academie du Gard, annee 1875.) + M. E. Im-Thurn: Scheffer et Decamps. Nîmes, 1876. (Extr. des Mém. de + l'Académie du Gard, année 1875.) - Charles Clement, in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1886. + Charles Clement, in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1886. Marilhat: @@ -14710,19 +14676,19 @@ Fromentin: Jean Rousseau: "L'Art," 1877, i 11, 25. L. Gonse: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1878-1880. Published separately - under the title "Eugene Fromentin peintre et ecrivain. Ouvrage - augmente d'un Voyage en Egypte et d'autres notes et morceaux inedits - de Fromentin, et illustre de 16 gravures hors texte et 45 dans le + under the title "Eugène Fromentin peintre et écrivain. Ouvrage + augmenté d'un Voyage en Egypte et d'autres notes et morçeaux inédits + de Fromentin, et illustré de 16 gravures hors texte et 45 dans le texte." Paris, Quantin, 1881. Guillaumet: Paul Leroi: "L'Art," 1882, iii 228. - Exposition des oeuvres de Guillaumet. Preface par Roger-Ballu. Paris, + Exposition des oeuvres de Guillaumet. Préface par Roger-Ballu. Paris, 1888. - Gustave Guillaumet: Tableaux algeriens. Precede d'une notice sur la + Gustave Guillaumet: Tableaux algériens. Précédé d'une notice sur la vie et les oeuvres de Guillaumet. Paris, 1888. Adolphe Badin: "L'Art," 1888, i 3, 39, 53. @@ -14736,43 +14702,43 @@ Wilhelm Gentz: Obituary in "Chronique des Arts," 1890, 29. - Adolf Rosenberg: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1891, p. 8. + Adolf Rosenberg: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1891, p. 8. Adolf Schreyer: - Richard Graul: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1888, xxiii 153. + Richard Graul: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1888, xxiii 153. - Richard Graul, in "Graphische Kuenste," 1889, xii 121, and in "Velhagen + Richard Graul, in "Graphische Künste," 1889, xii 121, and in "Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte," 1893. CHAPTER XX -H. Buerkel: +H. Bürkel: - C. A. R.: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1870, v 161. + C. A. R.: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1870, v 161. - Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg. Muenchen, + Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg. München, 1893. Spitzweg: - C. A. Regnet: "Muenchener Kuenstler," 1871, ii 268-276. + C. A. Regnet: "Münchener Künstler," 1871, ii 268-276. - Graf Schack: "Meine Gemaeldegalerie," 1881, pp. 189-191. + Graf Schack: "Meine Gemäldegalerie," 1881, pp. 189-191. - O. Berggruen: "Graphische Kuenste," 1883, v. + O. Berggruen: "Graphische Künste," 1883, v. F. Pecht, Supplement "Allgemeine Zeitung," October 1885, and - "Geschichte der Muenchener Kunst," 1888, p. 154. + "Geschichte der Münchener Kunst," 1888, p. 154. - "Muenchener Kunstvereinsbericht," 1885, p. 69. + "Münchener Kunstvereinsbericht," 1885, p. 69. - C. A. Regnet: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1886, xxi 77. + C. A. Regnet: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1886, xxi 77. - Spitzweg-Album. Muenchen, Hanfstaengl, 1890. + Spitzweg-Album. München, Hanfstaengl, 1890. - Spitzweg-Mappe, with preface by F. Pecht. Muenchen, Braun & Schneider, + Spitzweg-Mappe, with preface by F. Pecht. München, Braun & Schneider, 1890. H. Holland: Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, 1893. @@ -14780,7 +14746,7 @@ Spitzweg: Hermann Kauffmann: Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg, - 1800-1850. Muenchen, 1893. + 1800-1850. München, 1893. Eduard Meyerheim: @@ -14788,22 +14754,22 @@ Eduard Meyerheim: Pietsch. With preface by B. Auerbach and the likeness of Eduard Meyerheim. Berlin, Stilke, 1880. - A. Rosenberg: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 1. + A. Rosenberg: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 1. - Ludwig Pietsch: Die Kuenstlerfamilie Meyerheim, "Westermanns + Ludwig Pietsch: Die Künstlerfamilie Meyerheim, "Westermanns Monatshefte," 1889, p. 397. Enhuber: - Friedrich Pecht: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1868, iii 53 + Friedrich Pecht: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1868, iii 53 On the Viennese Genre Picture: - C. v. Luetzow: Geschichte der k. k. Akademie der bildenden Kuenste. + C. v. Lützow: Geschichte der k. k. Akademie der bildenden Künste. Vienna, 1877. R. v. Eitelberger: Das Wiener Genrebild vor dem Jahre 1848, - "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1877, xii 106. Also in his collected + "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1877, xii 106. Also in his collected studies on the history of art, i 66. Dr. Cyriak Bodenstein: Hundert Jahre Kunstgeschichte Wiens, 1788-1888. @@ -14812,7 +14778,7 @@ On the Viennese Genre Picture: Albert Ilg: Kunstgeschichtliche Charakterbilder aus Oesterreich-Ungarn (The Nineteenth Century, by A. Nossig). Wien, 1893. - Ludwig Hevesi: Die oesterreichische Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert. Leipzig, + Ludwig Hevesi: Die österreichische Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert. Leipzig, 1902. Danhauser: @@ -14820,23 +14786,23 @@ Danhauser: Albert Ilg: Raimund und Danhauser, in Kabdebo's "Osterreichisch-ungarische Kunstchronik." Vienna, 1880, iii 161. -Waldmueller: +Waldmüller: - "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1866, i 33. + "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1866, i 33. - Oskar Berggruen: "Graphische Kuenste," x 57. + Oskar Berggruen: "Graphische Künste," x 57. - R. v. Eitelberger: J. Danhauser und Ferdinand Waldmueller, in "Kunst - und Kuenstler Wiens," p. 73. (Vol. i of his works on the history of + R. v. Eitelberger: J. Danhauser und Ferdinand Waldmüller, in "Kunst + und Künstler Wiens," p. 73. (Vol. i of his works on the history of art. Vienna, 1879.) Gauermann: - R. v. Eitelberger: Friedrich Gauermann, in "Kunst und Kuenstler Wiens," + R. v. Eitelberger: Friedrich Gauermann, in "Kunst und Künstler Wiens," 1878, p. 92. (Vol. i of his works on the history of art. Vienna, 1879.) -Schroedter: +Schrödter: Obituary by Kaulen in the "Deutsches Kunstblatt," 1884, 11 and 12. @@ -14848,7 +14814,7 @@ Hasenclever: Rudolf Jordan: - Friedrich Pecht: "Kunst fuer Alle," 1887, ii 241. + Friedrich Pecht: "Kunst für Alle," 1887, ii 241. Tidemand: @@ -14872,7 +14838,7 @@ Biard: L. Boivin: Notice sur M. Biard, ses aventures, son voyage en Japonie avec Mme. Biard, Examen critique de ses tableaux. Paris, 1842. - Obituary in the "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," ix 1874. + Obituary in the "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," ix 1874. Supplementary Sheet, p. 769. @@ -14880,22 +14846,22 @@ CHAPTER XXI In General: - Emil Reich: Die buergerliche Kunst und die besitzlosen Klassen. + Emil Reich: Die bürgerliche Kunst und die besitzlosen Klassen. Leipzig, 1892. Tassaert: Bernard Prost: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1886, i 28. -Carl Huebner: +Carl Hübner: - M. Blanckarts: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," xv 1312. + M. Blanckarts: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xv 1312. Wiertz: - Louis Labarre: Antoine Wiertz, etude biographique. Brussels, 1866. + Louis Labarre: Antoine Wiertz, étude biographique. Brussels, 1866. - Ed. F.: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1866, i 273. + Ed. F.: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1866, i 273. H. Grimm: Der Maler Wiertz, in "15 Essays," New Series, Berlin, 1875, p. 1. @@ -14904,7 +14870,7 @@ Wiertz: C. E. Clement: Antoine Jos. Wiertz, "American Art Review," 1881, 13. - Catalogue du Musee Wiertz, precede d'une notice biographique par Em. + Catalogue du Musée Wiertz, précédé d'une notice biographique par Em. de Laveleye. Brussels, 1882. L. Schulze Waldhausen: Anton Wiertz, "Deutsches Kunstblatt," 1882, 5; @@ -14932,22 +14898,22 @@ Knaus: L. Pietsch: Ludwig Knaus. Photographs after originals by the master. Berlin Photographische Gesellschaft. - Friedrich Pecht: Zu Knaus 60 Geburtstag, "Kunst fuer Alle," 1890, v 65. + Friedrich Pecht: Zu Knaus 60 Geburtstag, "Kunst für Alle," 1890, v 65. - G. Voss: "Taegliche Rundschau," 1889, p. 233. + G. Voss: "Tägliche Rundschau," 1889, p. 233. - L. Pietsch, Louis Knaus in the "Kuenstlermonographien," ed. by + L. Pietsch, Louis Knaus in the "Künstlermonographien," ed. by Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1896. Vautier: - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. - Noerdlingen, 1881, p. 351. + Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. + Nördlingen, 1881, p. 351. E. Heilbuth: Knaus und Vautier. Text to Behrens' work upon the - gallery, reprinted in "Kunst fuer Alle," 1892, 2. + gallery, reprinted in "Kunst für Alle," 1892, 2. - Adolf Rosenberg, Vautier in the "Kuenstlermonographien," ed. by + Adolf Rosenberg, Vautier in the "Künstlermonographien," ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. 23. Bielefeld, 1897. Defregger: @@ -14963,39 +14929,39 @@ Defregger: Ludwig Pietsch: Franz Defregger, "Westermanns Monatshefte," February 1889. - F. Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Muenchen, 1888. + F. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. München, 1888. - Adolf Rosenberg, in the "Kuenstlermonographien," ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. + Adolf Rosenberg, in the "Künstlermonographien," ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. 18. Bielefeld, 1893. Franz Hermann Meissner in the "Kunstlerbuch." Berlin, 1901. - See also Karl Stieler und F. Defregger, Von Dahoam. Muenchen, 1888. + See also Karl Stieler und F. Defregger, Von Dahoam. München, 1888. Riefstahl: H. Holland: Wilhelm Riefstahl. Altenburg, 1889. - M. Haushofer: "Kunst fuer Alle," 1889, iv 97. + M. Haushofer: "Kunst für Alle," 1889, iv 97. - W. Luebke: "Nord und Sued," 1890, 163. + W. Lübke: "Nord und Süd," 1890, 163. - H. E. v. Berlepsch: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1890, 8. + H. E. v. Berlepsch: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1890, 8. -Gruetzner: +Grützner: G. Ramberg: "Vom Fels zum Meer," 1890, 2. - Friedrich Pecht: "Kunst fuer Alle," 1890, 12. + Friedrich Pecht: "Kunst für Alle," 1890, 12. - J. Janitsch: "Nord und Sued," 1892, 182. + J. Janitsch: "Nord und Süd," 1892, 182. - Fritz von Ostini, in the "Kuenstlermonographien," ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. + Fritz von Ostini, in the "Künstlermonographien," ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. 58. Leipzig, 1902. Bokelmann: - Adolf Rosenberg: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1892. + Adolf Rosenberg: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1892. Gustave Brion: @@ -15007,7 +14973,7 @@ Jules Breton: The Swedish Genre Painters: - Georg Nordensvan: Svensk Konst och Svenska Konstnaerer i 19^de + Georg Nordensvan: Svensk Konst och Svenska Konstnärer i 19^de Arhundradet. Stockholm, 1892. (German Translation:) Die schwedische Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert. Leipzig, 1903. @@ -15015,9 +14981,9 @@ The Hungarian Genre Painters: A. Ipolyi: Die bildende Kunst in Ungarn, "Ungarische Revue," 1882, 5. - Szana Tamaz: Magyar Mueveszek. Budapest, 1887. + Szana Tamáz: Magyar Müvészek. Budapest, 1887. - Heinrich Gluecksmann: Die ungarische Kunst der Gegenwart, "Kunst fuer + Heinrich Glücksmann: Die ungarische Kunst der Gegenwart, "Kunst für Alle," 1892, vii 129, 145. @@ -15029,14 +14995,14 @@ J. A. Koch: literarischen, und kunstgeschichtlichen Inhalts. Leipzig, 1862, p. 303. - Th. Frimmel, in Dohmes Kunst und Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. 9. + Th. Frimmel, in Dohmes Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. 9. Leipzig, 1884. - C. v. Luetzow: Aus Kochs Jugendzeit, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," + C. v. Lützow: Aus Kochs Jugendzeit, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1874, ix 65. See also J. A. Koch: Moderne Kunstchronik. Briefe zweier Freunde in - Rom und in der Tartarei ueber das moderne Kunstleben. Karlsruhe, 1834. + Rom und in der Tartarei über das moderne Kunstleben. Karlsruhe, 1834. Reinhart: @@ -15048,31 +15014,31 @@ Reinhart: Rottmann: - A. Teichlein: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1869, iv 7, 72. + A. Teichlein: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1869, iv 7, 72. - A. Bayersdorfer: Karl Rottmann. Muenchen, 1871. Reprinted in A. - Bayersdorfer's Leben und Schriften. Muenchen, 1902. + A. Bayersdorfer: Karl Rottmann. München, 1871. Reprinted in A. + Bayersdorfer's Leben und Schriften. München, 1902. - O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, "Graphische Kuenste," v 1. + O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, "Graphische Künste," v 1. - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Noerdlingen, + Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nördlingen, 1879, ii pp. 1-26. - C. A. Regnet, in Dohmes Kunst und Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. + C. A. Regnet, in Dohmes Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. 10. See also Rottmann's Italienische Landschaften. After the Frescoes in the Arcades of the Royal Garden in Munich, carried out by Steinbock. - Muenchen, Bruckmann, 1876. + München, Bruckmann, 1876. Preller: - R. Schoene: Fr. Preller's Odysseelandschaften. Leipzig, 1863. + R. Schöne: Fr. Preller's Odysseelandschaften. Leipzig, 1863. - L. v. Donop: Der Genelli-Fries von Fr. Preller. "Zeitschrift fuer + L. v. Donop: Der Genelli-Fries von Fr. Preller. "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1874, ix 321. - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Noerdlingen, + Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nördlingen, 1877, vol. i pp. 271-289. C. Ruland: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Preller. Weimar, 1878. @@ -15082,19 +15048,19 @@ Preller: M. Jordan: Katalog der Preller Ausstellung in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, 1879. - A. Duerr: Preller und Goethe, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1881, + A. Dürr: Preller und Goethe, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 357-365. J. Beavington-Atkinson: Frederick Preller, "Art Journal," 1881, 9. - W. Luebke: Friedrich Preller, "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1882, No. 117. + W. Lübke: Friedrich Preller, "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1882, No. 117. Preller und Goethe, "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1882, No. 342. O. Roquette: Preller und Goethe, "Gegenwart," 1883, 42. Friedrich J. Frommann: Zur Charakteristik Friedrich Prellers, - "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1884, No. 31. + "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1884, No. 31. See also Homer's Odyssee mit 40 Original compositionen von Friedrich Preller. Leipzig, 1872. Popular edition with biography, Leipzig, 1881. @@ -15106,23 +15072,23 @@ Preller: K. F. Lessing: - Karl Koberstein: Karl Friedrich Lessing, "Nord und Sued," 14, 1880, p. + Karl Koberstein: Karl Friedrich Lessing, "Nord und Süd," 14, 1880, p. 312. - K. F. Lessing's Briefe mitgetheilt von Th. Frimmel, "Zeitschrift fuer + K. F. Lessing's Briefe mitgetheilt von Th. Frimmel, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1881, 6. - Rudolf Redtenbacher: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 2. + Rudolf Redtenbacher: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 2. M. Schasler: "Unsere Zeit," 1880, 10. W. Dohme: "Westermanns illustrierte Monatshefte," 1880, ix 729. A. Rosenberg: Lessing-Ausstellung in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, - "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1880, No. 5. + "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1880, No. 5. - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, iii. - Noerdlingen, 1881, p. 294. + Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, iii. + Nördlingen, 1881, p. 294. Blechen: @@ -15134,7 +15100,7 @@ Blechen: Schirmer: - Johann Wilhelm Schirmer: Duesseldorfer Lehrjahre, "Deutsche Rundschau," + Johann Wilhelm Schirmer: Düsseldorfer Lehrjahre, "Deutsche Rundschau," 1878. Alfred Woltmann, in "Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie." Works cited in @@ -15147,36 +15113,36 @@ Dahl: Morgenstern: - Obituary by Pecht: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1867, ii 80. + Obituary by Pecht: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1867, ii 80. Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg von 1800 - _bis_ 1850. Muenchen, 1893. + _bis_ 1850. München, 1893. Andreas Achenbach: - Ludwig Pietsch: "Nord und Sued," 1880, xv 381. + Ludwig Pietsch: "Nord und Süd," 1880, xv 381. - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. - Noerdlingen, 1881, p. 328. + Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. + Nördlingen, 1881, p. 328. - Theodor Levin: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1886, xxi, No. 1. + Theodor Levin: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1886, xxi, No. 1. Eduard Schleich: - C. A. Regnet: Zu Eduard Schleichs Gedaechtniss, "Zeitschrift fuer + C. A. Regnet: Zu Eduard Schleichs Gedächtniss, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1874, ix 161. - O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, "Graphische Kuenste," v 1. + O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, "Graphische Künste," v 1. Alexander Calame: - E. H. Gaullier: Alexander Calame. Geneve, 1854. (Le Musee Suisse, vol. + E. H. Gaullier: Alexander Calame. Genève, 1854. (Le Musée Suisse, vol. i.) H. Delaborde: La peinture de paysage en Suisse; Alexander Calame: - "Revue des Deux Mondes," Fevrier, 1865. + "Revue des Deux Mondes," Février, 1865. - J. M. Ziegler: Mittheilungen ueber den Landschaftsmaler Alexander + J. M. Ziegler: Mittheilungen über den Landschaftsmaler Alexander Calame. Zurich, 1866. C. Meyer: Alexander Calame, "Dioskuren." Stuttgart, 1866. @@ -15186,20 +15152,20 @@ Alexander Calame: Wilhelm Rossmann, in the text to work of engravings from the Dresden Gallery. 1881, etc. - E. Rambert: Alexander Calame, sa vie et son oeuvre d'apres les sources + E. Rambert: Alexander Calame, sa vie et son oeuvre d'après les sources originales. Paris, 1884. Adolf Rosenberg: "Grenzboten," 1884, ii 371. Gude: - A. Rosenberg: Die Duesseldorfer Schule. "Grenzboten," 1881, 35. + A. Rosenberg: Die Düsseldorfer Schule. "Grenzboten," 1881, 35. Af. Dietrichson: H. Gude liv og voerker. Kristiania, 1899. Eduard Hildebrandt: - Bruno Meyer: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1869, iv 261, 336. + Bruno Meyer: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1869, iv 261, 336. F. Arndt: Eduard Hildebrandt, der Maler des Kosmos, Sein Leben und seine Werke. Second Edition. Berlin, 1869. @@ -15208,7 +15174,7 @@ Eduard Hildebrandt: Louis Douzette: - Adolf Rosenberg: "Graphische Kuenste," 1891, xiv 13. + Adolf Rosenberg: "Graphische Künste," 1891, xiv 13. CHAPTER XXIV @@ -15222,24 +15188,24 @@ Aligny: Aligny et la paysage historique, "L'Art," 1882, i 251; ii 33. - See also the etchings Vues des Sites les plus celebres de la Grece + See also the etchings Vues des Sites les plus célèbres de la Grèce antique. Paris, 1845. Victor Hugo: Les dessins de Victor Hugo, "L'Art," 1877, i 50. - H. Helferich: Malende Dichter, "Kunst fuer Alle," 1891, 21. + H. Helferich: Malende Dichter, "Kunst für Alle," 1891, 21. Paul Huet: Philippe Burty: Paul Huet, Notice biographique. Paris, 1869. - E. Legouve: Notice sur Paul Huet. Paris, 1878. + E. Legouvé: Notice sur Paul Huet. Paris, 1878. Ernest Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques. Paris, 1880. - Leon Mancino: Un precurseur, "L'Art," 1883, i 49. + Léon Mancino: Un précurseur, "L'Art," 1883, i 49. On the English: @@ -15293,10 +15259,10 @@ Turner: G. Radford: Turner in Wharfedale, "Portfolio," May, 1884. - Philip G. Hamerton: J. M. W. Turner, in "Les artistes celebres." + Philip G. Hamerton: J. M. W. Turner, in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1889. - Robert de la Sizeranne: Deux heures a la Turner Gallery. Paris, 1890. + Robert de la Sizeranne: Deux heures à la Turner Gallery. Paris, 1890. F. Wedmore: Turner and Ruskin. 2 vols. London, 1900. @@ -15351,7 +15317,7 @@ Constable: Charles Robert Leslie: The Memoirs of John Constable. London, 1845. - H. Perrier: De Hugo v. d. Goes a Constable, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," + H. Perrier: De Hugo v. d. Goes à Constable, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," March, 1873. Frederick Wedmore, "L'Art," 1878, ii 169. @@ -15361,7 +15327,7 @@ Constable: P. G. Hamerton: Constable's Sketches, "Portfolio," 1890, p. 162. - Robert Hobart: in "Les artistes celebres." + Robert Hobart: in "Les artistes célèbres." _Reproductions:_ @@ -15414,12 +15380,12 @@ John Linnell: Bonington: - Al. Bouvenne: Catalogue de l'oeuvre grave et lithographie de R. P. + Al. Bouvenne: Catalogue de l'oeuvre gravé et lithographié de R. P. Bonington. Paris, 1873. Paul Mantz: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1876, ii 288. - Edmond Saint-Raymond: Bonington et les cotes normandes de Saint Jouin, + Edmond Saint-Raymond: Bonington et les côtes normandes de Saint Jouin, "L'Art," 1879, i 197. P. G. Hamerton: A Sketchbook of Bonington at the British Museum, @@ -15430,10 +15396,10 @@ CHAPTER XXV In General: - Roger-Ballu: Le paysage francais au XIX siecle, "Nouvelle Revue," + Roger-Ballu: Le paysage français au XIX siècle, "Nouvelle Revue," 1881. - John W. Mollet: The Painters of Barbizon. (1. Corot, Daubigny, Dupre; + John W. Mollet: The Painters of Barbizon. (1. Corot, Daubigny, Dupré; 2. Millet, Rousseau, Diaz.) In "Illustrated Biographies of the Great Artists." London, Low, 1890. @@ -15444,70 +15410,70 @@ In General: See also the articles by G. Gurlitt in "Die Gegenwart," 1891, the Text of H. Helferich to Behrens' work on the gallery, etc. -Theodore Rousseau: +Théodore Rousseau: - A. Teichlein: Theodore Rousseau und die Anfaenge des Paysage intime, - "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1868, iii 281. + A. Teichlein: Théodore Rousseau und die Anfänge des Paysage intime, + "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1868, iii 281. - Alfred Sensier: Souvenirs sur Theodore Rousseau, suivis d'une - conference sur le Paysage et orne du portrait du maitre. Paris, 1872. + Alfred Sensier: Souvenirs sur Théodore Rousseau, suivis d'une + conférence sur le Paysage et orné du portrait du maître. Paris, 1872. - Philippe Burty: Theodore Rousseau, paysagiste, "L'Art," 1881, p. 374. + Philippe Burty: Théodore Rousseau, paysagiste, "L'Art," 1881, p. 374. - Emile Michel, in "Les artistes celebres." + Emile Michel, in "Les artistes célèbres." Walter Gensel: Millet und Rousseau, Bd. 57 in the - "Kuenstlermonographien" ed. by Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1902. + "Künstlermonographien" ed. by Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1902. Corot: - Edmond About: Voyage a travers L'Exposition des Beaux-Arts. Paris, + Edmond About: Voyage à travers L'Exposition des Beaux-Arts. Paris, 1855. - Henri Dumesnil: Corot, souvenirs intimes: avec un portrait dessine par - Aime Millet, grave par Alphonse Leroy. Paris, Rapilly, 1875. + Henri Dumesnil: Corot, souvenirs intimes: avec un portrait dessiné par + Aimé Millet, gravé par Alphonse Leroy. Paris, Rapilly, 1875. Charles Blanc: Les Artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1879. - Leleux: Corot a Montreux, "Bibliotheque universelle et Revue suisse," + Leleux: Corot à Montreux, "Bibliothèque universelle et Revue suisse," September 1883. - Alfred Robaut: Corot, peintures decoratives, "L'Art," 1883, p. 407. + Alfred Robaut: Corot, peintures décoratives, "L'Art," 1883, p. 407. Jean Rousseau: Camille Corot: avec gravures. Paris, 1884. - Armand Silvestre: Galerie Durand-Ruel: avec 28 gravures a l'eauforte - d'apres des tableaux de Corot. Paris. No date. + Armand Silvestre: Galerie Durand-Ruel: avec 28 gravures à l'eauforte + d'après des tableaux de Corot. Paris. No date. Albert Wolff: La capitale de l'Art. Paris, 1886. Charles Bigot: Peintres contemporains. Paris, 1888. - L. Roger-Miles: Corot, in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1891. + L. Roger-Milès: Corot, in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1891. Album classique des chefs d'oeuvre de Corot. Paris, 1896. - Julius Meier-Graefe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906. + Julius Meier-Gräfe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906. -Dupre: +Dupré: - Les hommes du jour: M. Jules Dupre, 1811-1879, par un critique d'art. + Les hommes du jour: M. Jules Dupré, 1811-1879, par un critique d'art. Paris, 1879. - R. Menard: "L'Art," 1879, iii 311; iv 241. + R. Ménard: "L'Art," 1879, iii 311; iv 241. A. Michel: "L'Art," 1883, p. 460. - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Serie. Paris, + Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 177. - A. Hustin, in "Les artistes celebres." + A. Hustin, in "Les artistes célèbres." Diaz: Jules Claretie: Narcisse Diaz, "L'Art," 1875, iii 204. - Exposition des oeuvres de Narcisse Diaz a l'ecole des Beaux-Arts. + Exposition des oeuvres de Narcisse Diaz à l'école des Beaux-Arts. Notice biographique par M. Jules Claretie. Paris, 1877. Roger-Ballu: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1877, i 290. @@ -15517,28 +15483,28 @@ Diaz: T. Chasrel: L'exposition de Narcisse Diaz, "L'Art," 1877, ii 189. Hermann Billung: Narcisse Virgilio Diaz, ein Lebensbild, "Zeitschrift - fuer bildende Kunst," 1879, xiv 97. + für bildende Kunst," 1879, xiv 97. - A. Hustin, in "Les artistes celebres." + A. Hustin, in "Les artistes célèbres." Daubigny: Karl Daubigny: Ch. Daubigny et son oeuvre. Paris, 1875. - Frederic Henriet: Charles Daubigny et son oeuvre. Paris, 1878. + Frédéric Henriet: Charles Daubigny et son oeuvre. Paris, 1878. - Frederic Henriet, in "L'Art," 1881, p. 330. + Frédéric Henriet, in "L'Art," 1881, p. 330. - A. Hustin, in "Les artistes celebres." + A. Hustin, in "Les artistes célèbres." - Robert J. Wickenden: Charles Francois Daubigny, "Century Magazine," + Robert J. Wickenden: Charles François Daubigny, "Century Magazine," July 1892. Chintreuil: - Frederic Henriet: Chintreuil: Esquisse biographique. Paris, 1858. + Frédéric Henriet: Chintreuil: Esquisse biographique. Paris, 1858. - A. de la Fiseliere, Champfleury, et F. Henriet: La vie et l'oeuvre de + A. de la Fisèliere, Champfleury, et F. Henriet: La vie et l'oeuvre de Chintreuil. Paris, 1874. "Portfolio," 1874, p. 99. @@ -15547,9 +15513,9 @@ Harpignies: Charles Tardieu: Henry Harpignies, "L'Art," 1879, xvi 269, 281. -Francais: +Français: - J. G. Prat: Francois Louis Francais, "L'Art," 1882, i 48, 81, 368. + J. G. Prat: François Louis Français, "L'Art," 1882, i 48, 81, 368. Brascassat: @@ -15563,22 +15529,22 @@ Troyon: A. Hustin: "L'Art," 1889, i 77; ii 85. - A. Hustin, in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1893. + A. Hustin, in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1893. Rosa Bonheur: Laruelle: Rosa Bonheur, sa vie, ses oeuvres. Paris, 1885. - Rene Peyrol: Rosa Bonheur, her Life and Work. With three engraved + René Peyrol: Rosa Bonheur, her Life and Work. With three engraved Plates and Illustrations, "The Art Annual." London, 1889. - Roger-Miles: Rosa Bonheur. Paris, 1901. + Roger-Milès: Rosa Bonheur. Paris, 1901. Emile van Marcke: Emile Michel: "L'Art," 1891, i 145. -Eugene Lambert: +Eugène Lambert: Chiens et chats, Text by G. de Cherville. Paris, 1888. @@ -15589,50 +15555,50 @@ Lancon: Charles Jacque: - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Serie. Paris, + Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 297. CHAPTER XXVI - Ernest Chesneau: Jean Francois Millet, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1875, + Ernest Chesneau: Jean François Millet, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1875, i 429. Ph. L. Couturier: Millet et Corot. Saint-Quentin, 1876. - A. Piedagnel: Jean Francois Millet. Souvenirs de Barbizon. Avec 1 - portrait, 9 Eaux-fortes, et un facsimile d'autographe. Paris, 1876. + A. Piedagnel: Jean François Millet. Souvenirs de Barbizon. Avec 1 + portrait, 9 Eaux-fortes, et un facsimilé d'autographe. Paris, 1876. - A. Sensier: La vie et l'oeuvre de Jean Francois Millet. Manuscrit - publie par P. Mantz, avec de nombreux fascimiles, 12 heliographies + A. Sensier: La vie et l'oeuvre de Jean François Millet. Manuscrit + publié par P. Mantz, avec de nombreux fascimilés, 12 heliographies hors texte, et 48 gravures. Paris, Quantin, 1881. W. E. H.: Millet as an Art-Critic, "Magazine of Art," 1883, p. 27. - Charles Yriarte: Jean Francois Millet. Portrait et 24 Gravures. Paris, + Charles Yriarte: Jean François Millet. Portrait et 24 Gravures. Paris, 1885. - Andre Michel: Jean Francois Millet et l'exposition de ses oeuvres a - l'ecole des Beaux-Arts, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1887, ii 5. + André Michel: Jean François Millet et l'exposition de ses oeuvres a + l'école des Beaux-Arts, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1887, ii 5. Charles Bigot: Peintres contemporains. Paris, 1888. - R. Graul: Jean Francois Millet, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," New + R. Graul: Jean François Millet, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," New Series, ii 29. - Le livre d'or de Jean Francois Millet. Illustre de 17 Eaux-fortes par - Frederic Jacque. Paris, 1892. + Le livre d'or de Jean François Millet. Illustré de 17 Eaux-fortes par + Frédéric Jacque. Paris, 1892. - Emile Michel, in "Les artistes celebres." + Emile Michel, in "Les artistes célèbres." H. Naegely: Millet and Rustic Art. London, 1897. W. Gensel: Millet und Rousseau. Leipzig, 1902. - Julia Cartwright: Jean Francois Millet, His Life and Letters. London, + Julia Cartwright: Jean François Millet, His Life and Letters. London, 1901. German Edition. Leipzig, 1902. - Arthur Thomson: Jean-Francois Millet and the Barbizon School. London, + Arthur Thomson: Jean-François Millet and the Barbizon School. London, 1903. Richard Muther in his series "Die Kunst." Berlin, 1904. @@ -15645,9 +15611,9 @@ Courbet: Champfleury: Grandes figures d'hier et d'aujourd'hui. (Balzac, Wagner, Courbet.) Paris, Poulet-Malassis, 1861. - Th. Silvestre: Les artistes francais, p. 109. Paris, 1878. + Th. Silvestre: Les artistes français, p. 109. Paris, 1878. - P. d'Abrest: Artistische Wanderungen durch Paris, "Zeitschrift fuer + P. d'Abrest: Artistische Wanderungen durch Paris, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1876, xi 183, 209. Comte H. d'Jdeville: Gustave Courbet: Notes et documents sur sa vie et @@ -15658,33 +15624,33 @@ Courbet: Paul Mantz: Gustave Courbet, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1878, i 514; ii 17, 371. - Emile Zola: Mes Haines. Proudhon et Courbet. Paris, 1879, p. 21. + Émile Zola: Mes Haines. Proudhon et Courbet. Paris, 1879, p. 21. Gros-Kost: Courbet, Souvenirs intimes. Paris, 1880. H. Billung: Supplement to the "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1880, p. 240. - Eug. Veron: G. Courbet, Un enterrement a Ornans, "L'Art," 1882, i 363, + Eug. Véron: G. Courbet, Un enterrement à Ornans, "L'Art," 1882, i 363, 390; ii 226. A. de Lostalot: L'exposition des oeuvres de Courbet, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1882, i 572. - Carl v. Luetzow: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1889. + Carl v. Lützow: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1889. Camille Lemonnier: Les peintres de la vie. Cap. I, Courbet et son oeuvre. Paris, 1888. - Abel Patoux, in "Les artistes celebres." + Abel Patoux, in "Les artistes célèbres." - Julius Meier-Graefe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906. + Julius Meier-Gräfe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906. Stevens: Paul d'Abrest: Artistische Wanderungen durch Paris. Ein Besuch bei - Alfred Stevens, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1875, x 310. + Alfred Stevens, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1875, x 310. - L. Cardon: Les modernistes: Alfred Stevens, "La federation + L. Cardon: Les modernistes: Alfred Stevens, "La fédération artistique," 23-26. Camille Lemonnier: Alfred Stevens, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1878, i @@ -15695,17 +15661,17 @@ Stevens: Ricard: - Moriz Hartmann: Buesten und Bilder. Frankfurt-a-M., 1860. + Moriz Hartmann: Büsten und Bilder. Frankfurt-a-M., 1860. Paul de Musset: Notice sur la vie de Gustave Ricard. Paris, 1873. - Louis Bres: Gustave Ricard et son oeuvre. Paris, 1873. + Louis Brés: Gustave Ricard et son oeuvre. Paris, 1873. Bonvin: L. Gauchez, "L'Art," 1888, i 249, ii 41, 61. - Paul Lefort: Philippe Rousseau et Francois Bonvin, "Gazette des + Paul Lefort: Philippe Rousseau et François Bonvin, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1888, i 132. Charles Chaplin: @@ -15719,10 +15685,10 @@ Gaillard: L. Gonse: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1887, i 221. V. Guillemin: F. Gaillard, graveur et peinture, originaire de la - Franche-Comte, 1834-1887. Notice sur sa vie et son oeuvre. Besancon, + Franche-Comté, 1834-1887. Notice sur sa vie et son oeuvre. Besançon, 1891. - Georges Duplessis, in "Les artistes celebres." + Georges Duplessis, in "Les artistes célèbres." Bonnat: @@ -15730,17 +15696,17 @@ Bonnat: B. Day: L'atelier Bonnat, "Magazine of Art," 1881, p. 6. - Jules Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Serie. Paris, + Jules Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 129. Carolus Duran: - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Serie. Paris, + Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 153. Vollon: - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Serie. Paris, + Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 201. Philippe Rousseau: @@ -15749,7 +15715,7 @@ Philippe Rousseau: Paul Dubois: - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Serie. Paris, + Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 321. Delaunay: @@ -15759,15 +15725,15 @@ Delaunay: Ribot: - E. Veron: Theodule Ribot, Exposition generale de ses oeuvres, "L'Art," + E. Véron: Théodule Ribot, Exposition générale de ses oeuvres, "L'Art," 1880, p. 281. - Firmin Javel: Theodule Ribot, "Revue des Musees," 1890, iii 55. + Firmin Javel: Théodule Ribot, "Revue des Musées," 1890, iii 55. - L. Fourcaud: Maitres modernes: Theodule Ribot, sa vie et ses oeuvres. + L. Fourcaud: Maîtres modernes: Théodule Ribot, sa vie et ses oeuvres. With Illustrations. Paris, 1890. - Paul Lefort: Theodule Ribot, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1891, ii 298. + Paul Lefort: Théodule Ribot, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1891, ii 298. @@ -15781,362 +15747,4 @@ Ribot: End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Modern Painting, Volume 2 (of 4), by Richard Muther -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING *** - -***** This file should be named 43894.txt or 43894.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/8/9/43894/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Laszlo, P. G. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The History of Modern Painting, Volume 2 (of 4) - Revised edition continued by the author to the end of the XIX century - -Author: Richard Muther - -Release Date: October 5, 2013 [EBook #43894] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Lszl, P. G. Mt and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - -THE HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING - -[Illustration: _Mansell Photo_ - - LESLIE MY UNCLE TOBY AND THE WIDOW WADMAN] - - THE HISTORY OF - MODERN PAINTING - - - BY RICHARD MUTHER - PROFESSOR OF ART HISTORY - AT THE UNIVERSITY - OF BRESLAU - - - IN FOUR - VOLUMES - - [Illustration] - - VOLUME - TWO - - - - - REVISED EDITION - CONTINUED BY THE AUTHOR - TO THE END OF THE XIX CENTURY - - LONDON: PUBLISHED BY J. M. DENT & CO. - NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO. MCMVII - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix - -BOOK III - - THE TRIUMPH OF THE MODERNS - -CHAPTER XVI - - THE DRAUGHTSMEN - - The general alienation of painting from the interests of life - during the first half of the nineteenth century.--The draughtsmen - and caricaturists the first who brought modern life into the - sphere of art.--England: Gillray, Rowlandson, George Cruikshank, - "Punch," John Leech, George du Maurier, Charles Keene.--Germany: - Johann Adam Klein, Johann Christian Erhard, Ludwig Richter, Oscar - Pletsch, Albert Hendschel, Eugen Neureuther, "Die Fliegende - Bltter," Wilhelm Busch, Adolf Oberlnder.--France: Louis - Philibert Debucourt, Carle Vernet, Bosio, Henri Monnier, Honor - Daumier, Gavarni, Guys, Gustave Dor, Cham, Marcellin, Randon, - Gill, Hadol, Draner, Lonce Petit, Grvin.--Need of a fresh - discovery of the world by painters.--Incitement to this by the - English 1 - -CHAPTER XVII - - ENGLISH PAINTING TO 1850 - - England little affected by the retrospective tendency of the - Continent.--James Barry, James Northcote, Henry Fuseli, William - Etty, Benjamin Robert Haydon.--Painting continues on the course - taken by Hogarth and Reynolds.--The portrait painters: George - Romney, Thomas Lawrence, John Hoppner, William Beechey, John - Russell, John Jackson, Henry Raeburn.--Benjamin West and John - Singleton Copley paint historical pictures from their own - time.--Daniel Maclise.--Animal painting: John Wootton, George - Stubbs, George Morland, James Ward, Edwin Landseer.--The painting - of _genre_: David Wilkie, W. Collins, Gilbert Stuart Newton, - Charles Robert Leslie, W. Mulready, Thomas Webster, W. Frith.--The - influence of these _genre_ pictures on the painting of the - Continent 53 - -CHAPTER XVIII - - THE MILITARY PICTURE - - Why the victory of modernity on the Continent came only by - degrees.--Romantic conceptions.--sthetic theories and the - question of costume.--Painting learns to treat contemporary - costume by first dealing with uniform.--France: Gros, Horace - Vernet, Hippolyte Bellang, Isidor Pils, Alexander Protais, - Charlet, Raffet, Ernest Meissonier, Guillaume Rgamey, Alphonse de - Neuville, Aim Morot, Edouard Dtaille.--Germany: Albrecht Adam, - Peter Hess, Franz Krger, Karl Steffeck, Th. Horschelt, Franz - Adam, Joseph v. Brandt, Heinrich Lang 92 - -CHAPTER XIX - - ITALY AND THE EAST - - Why painters sought their ideal in distant countries, though they - did not plunge into the past.--Italy discovered by Leopold Robert, - Victor Schnetz, Ernest Hbert, August Riedel.--The East was for - the Romanticists what Italy had been for the Classicists.--France: - Delacroix, Decamps, Prosper Marilhat, Eugne Fromentin, Gustave - Guillaumet.--Germany: H. Kretzschmer, Wilhelm Gentz, Adolf - Schreyer, and others.--England: William Muller, Frederick Goodall, - F. J. Lewis.--Italy: Alberto Pasini 118 - -CHAPTER XX - - THE PAINTING OF HUMOROUS ANECDOTE - - After seeking exotic subjects painting returns home, and finds - amongst peasants a stationary type of life which has preserved - picturesque costume.--Munich: The transition from the military - picture to the painting of peasants.--Peter Hess, Heinrich Brkel, - Carl Spitzweg.--Hamburg: Hermann Kauffmann.--Berlin: Friedrich - Eduard Meyerheim.--The influence of Wilkie, and the novel of - village life.--Munich: Johann Kirner, Carl Enhuber.--Dsseldorf: - Adolf Schroedter, Peter Hasenclever, Jacob Becker, Rudolf Jordan, - Henry Ritter, Adolf Tidemand.--Vienna: Peter Krafft, J. Danhauser, - Ferdinand Waldmller.--Belgium: Influence of Teniers.--Ignatius - van Regemorter, Ferdinand de Braekeleer, Henri Coene, Madou, Adolf - Dillens.--France: Franois Biard 140 - -CHAPTER XXI - - THE PICTURE WITH A SOCIAL PURPOSE - - Why modern life in all countries entered into art only under the - form of humorous anecdote.--The conventional optimism of these - pictures comes into conflict with the revolutionary temper of the - age.--France: Delacroix' "Freedom," Jeanron, Antigna, Adolphe - Leleux, Meissonier's "Barricade," Octave Tassaert.--Germany: - Gisbert Flggen, Carl Hbner.--Belgium: Eugne de Block, Antoine - Wiertz 175 - -CHAPTER XXII - - THE VILLAGE TALE - - Germany: Louis Knaus, Benjamin Vautier, Franz Defregger, Mathias - Schmidt, Alois Gabl, Eduard Kurzbauer, Hugo Kauffmann, Wilhelm - Riefstahl.--The Comedy of Monks: Eduard Grtzner.--Tales of the - Exchange and the Manufactory: Ludwig Bokelmann, Ferdinand - Brtt.--Germany begins to transmit the principles of _genre_ - painting to other countries.--France: Gustave Brion, Charles - Marchal, Jules Breton.--Norway and Sweden stand in union with - Dsseldorf: Karl D'Uncker, Wilhelm Wallander, Anders Koskull, - Kilian Zoll, Peter Eskilson, August Jernberg, Ferdinand Fagerlin, - V. Stoltenberg-Lerche, Hans Dahl.--Hungary fructified by Munich: - Ludwig Ebner, Paul Boehm, Otto von Baditz, Koloman Dry, Julius - Agghzi, Alexander Bihari, Ignaz Ruskovics, Johann Jank, Tihamr - Margitay, Paul Vag, Arpad Fessty, Otto Koroknyai, D. - Skuteczky.--Difference between these pictures and those of the old - Dutch masters.--From Hogarth to Knaus.--Why Hogarth succumbed, and - _genre_ painting had to become painting pure and simple.--This new - basis of art created by the landscapists 194 - -CHAPTER XXIII - - LANDSCAPE PAINTING IN GERMANY - - The significance of landscape for nineteenth-century - art.--Classicism: Joseph Anton Koch, Leopold Rottmann, Friedrich - Preller and his followers.--Romanticism: Karl Friedrich Lessing, - Karl Blechen, W. Schirmer, Valentin Ruths.--The discovery of - Ruysdael and Everdingen.--The part of mediation played by certain - artists from Denmark and Norway: J. C. Dahl, Christian - Morgenstern, Ludwig Gurlitt.--Andreas Achenbach, Eduard - Schleich.--The German landscape painters begin to travel - everywhere.--Influence of Calame.--H. Gude, Niels Bjrnson Mller, - August Cappelen, Morten-Mller, Erik Bodom, L. Munthe, E. A. - Normann, Ludwig Willroider, Louis Douzette, Hermann Eschke, Carl - Ludwig, Otto v. Kameke, Graf Stanislaus Kalkreuth, Oswald - Achenbach, Albert Flamm, Ascan Lutteroth, Ferdinand Bellermann, - Eduard Hildebrandt, Eugen Bracht.--Why many of their pictures, - compared with those of the old Dutch masters, indicate an - expansion of the geographical horizon, rather than a refinement of - taste.--The victory over interesting-subject-matter and - sensational effect by the "_paysage intime_" 230 - -CHAPTER XXIV - - THE BEGINNINGS OF "PAYSAGE INTIME" - - Classical landscape painting in France: Hubert Robert, Henri - Valenciennes, Victor Bertin, Xavier Bidault, Michallon, Jules - Cogniet, Watelet, Thodore Aligny, Edouard Bertin, Paul Flandrin, - Achille Benouville, J. Bellel.--Romanticism and the resort to - national scenery: Victor Hugo, Georges Michel, the Ruysdael of - Montmartre, Charles de la Berge, Camille Roqueplan, Camille Flers, - Louis Cabat, Paul Huet.--The English the first to free themselves - from composition and the tone of the galleries: Turner.--John - Crome, the English Hobbema, and the Norwich school: Cotman, Crome - junior, Stark, Vincent.--The water colour artists: John Robert - Cozens, Girtin, Edridge, Prout, Samuel Owen, Luke Clennel, Howitt, - Robert Hills.--The influence of aquarelles on the English - conception of colour.--John Constable and open-air - painting.--David Cox, William Muller, Peter de Wint, Creswick, - Peter Graham, Henry Dawson, John Linnell.--Richard Parkes - Bonington as the link between England and France 257 - -CHAPTER XXV - - LANDSCAPE FROM 1830 - - Constable in the Louvre and his influence on the creators of the - French _paysage intime_.--Thodore Rousseau, Corot, Jules Dupr, - Diaz, Daubigny and their followers.--Chintreuil, Jean Desbrosses, - Achard, Franais, Harpignies, mile Breton, and others.--Animal - painting: Carle Vernet, Gricault, R. Brascassat, Troyon, Rosa - Bonheur, Jadin, Eugne Lambert, Palizzi, Auguste Lanon, Charles - Jacque 294 - -CHAPTER XXVI - - JEAN FRANOIS MILLET - - His importance, and the task left for those who followed - him.--Millet's principle _Le beau c'est le vrai_ had to be - transferred from peasant painting to modern life, from Barbizon to - Paris 360 - - -BOOK IV - - THE REALISTIC PAINTERS AND THE MODERN IDEALISTS - -CHAPTER XXVII - - REALISM IN FRANCE - - Gustave Courbet and the modern painting of artisan life.--Alfred - Stevens and the painting of "Society."--His followers Auguste - Toulmouche, James Tissot, and others.--In opposition to the - Cinquecento the study of the old Germans, the Lombards, the - Spaniards, the Flemish artists, and the _Rococo_ masters becomes - now a formative influence.--Gustave Ricard, Charles Chaplin, - Gaillard, Paul Dubois, Carolus Duran, Lon Bonnat, Roybet, Blaise - Desgoffe, Philippe Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, - Thodule Ribot 391 - -BIBLIOGRAPHY 435 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - -PLATES IN COLOUR - - - PAGE - LESLIE: My Uncle Toby and the Widow Wadman _Frontispiece_ - ROMNEY: Serena 53 - LAWRENCE: Caroline of Brunswick, Queen of George IV 60 - MACLISE: The Waterfall, Cornwall 64 - MORLAND: Horses in a Stable 69 - LANDSEER: Jack in Office 76 - FROMENTIN: Algerian Falconers 132 - ROTTMANN: Lake Kopas 234 - TURNER: The old Tmraire 268 - CONSTABLE: Willy Lott's House 275 - BONINGTON: La Place de Molards, Geneva 290 - COROT: Landscape 316 - MILLET: The Wood-Sawyers 370 - - -IN BLACK AND WHITE - - ACHENBACH, ANDREAS. - Sea Coast after a Storm 247 - Fishing Boats in the North Sea 249 - - ADAM, ALBRECHT. - Albrecht Adam and his Sons 112 - A Stable in Town 113 - - BAADE, KNUT. - Moonlight Night on the Coast 253 - - BECKER, JACOB. - A Tempest 165 - - BERGE, CHARLES DE LA. - Landscape 263 - - BOILLY, LEOPOLD. - The Toilette 2 - The Newsvendor 3 - The Marionettes 4 - - BONHEUR, ROSA. - The Horse-Fair 351 - Ploughing in Nivernois 353 - - BONINGTON, RICHARD PARKES. - The Windmill of Saint-Jouin 290 - Reading Aloud 291 - Portrait of Richard Parkes Bonington 293 - - BONNAT, LON. - Adolphe Thiers 423 - Victor Hugo 424 - - BONVIN, FRANOIS. - The Cook 427 - The Work-Room 428 - - BRETON, MILE. - The Return of the Reapers 225 - The Gleaner 226 - - BRION, GUSTAVE. - Jean Valjean 221 - - BUNBURY, WILLIAM HENRY. - Richmond Hill 9 - - BRKEL, HEINRICH. - Portrait of Heinrich Brkel 143 - Brigands Returning 144 - A Downpour in the Mountains 145 - A Smithy in Upper Bavaria 146 - - BUSCH, WILHELM. - Portrait of Wilhelm Busch 29 - - CABAT, LOUIS. - Le Jardin Beaujon 264 - - CALAME, ALEXANDRE. - Landscape 250 - - CHAPLIN, CHARLES. - The Golden Age 418 - Portrait of Countess Aimery de la Rochefoucauld 419 - - CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUISSAINT. - Un homme qui bot seul n'est pas digne de vivre 95 - - CHINTREUIL, ANTOINE. - Landscape: Morning 343 - - CONSTABLE, JOHN. - Portrait of John Constable 274 - Church Porch, Bergholt 275 - Dedham Vale 277 - The Romantic House 278 - The Cornfield 279 - Cottage in a Cornfield 283 - The Valley Farm 285 - - COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON. - The Death of the Earl of Chatham 65 - - COROT, CAMILLE. - Portrait of Camille Corot 306 - The Bridge of St. Angelo, Rome 307 - Corot at Work 308 - Daphnis and Chloe 309 - Vue de Toscane 310 - At Sunset 311 - The Ruin 312 - Evening 313 - An Evening in Normandy 314 - The Dance of the Nymphs 315 - A Dance 316 - La Route d'Arras 317 - - COURBET, GUSTAVE. - Portrait of Gustave Courbet 393 - The Man with a Leather Belt. Portrait of Himself as - a Youth 394 - A Funeral at Ornans 395 - The Stone-Breakers 397 - The Return from Market 400 - The Battle of the Stags 401 - A Woman Bathing 402 - Deer in Covert 403 - Girls lying on the Bank of the Seine 404 - A Recumbent Woman 405 - Berlioz 406 - The Hind on the Snow 407 - My Studio after Seven Years of Artistic Life 409 - The Wave 412 - - COX, DAVID. - Crossing the Sands 286 - The Shrimpers 287 - - CROME, JOHN (OLD CROME). - A View near Norwich 273 - - CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE. - Monstrosities of 1822 6 - - DANHAUSER, JOSEF. - The Gormandizer 179 - - DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANOIS. - Portrait of Charles Franois Daubigny 335 - Springtime 336 - A Lock in the Valley of Optevoz 337 - On the Oise 338 - Shepherd and Shepherdess 339 - Landscape: Evening 341 - - DAUMIER, HONOR. - Portrait of Honor Daumier 37 - The Connoisseurs 38 - The Mountebanks 39 - In the Assize Court 40 - "La voil ... ma Maison de Campagne" 41 - Menelaus the Victor 42 - - DEBUCOURT, LOUIS PHILIBERT. - In the Kitchen 33 - The Promenade 34 - - DECAMPS, ALEXANDRE. - The Swineherd 127 - Coming out from a Turkish School 129 - The Watering-Place 131 - - DEFREGGER, FRANZ. - Portrait of Franz Defregger 208 - Speckbacher and his Son 209 - The Wrestlers 210 - Sister and Brothers 211 - The Prize Horse 213 - Andreas Hofer appointed Governor of the Tyrol 215 - - DTAILLE, EDOUARD. - Salut aux Blesss 111 - - DIAZ, NARCISSE VIRGILIO. - Portrait of Narcisse Diaz 328 - The Descent of the Bohemians 329 - Among the Foliage 331 - The Tree Trunk 332 - Forest Scene 333 - - DUBOIS, PAUL. - Portrait of my Sons 421 - - DUPR, JULES. - Portrait of Jules Dupr 318 - The House of Jules Dupr at L'isle-Adam 319 - The Setting Sun 320 - The Bridge at L'isle-Adam 321 - Near Southampton 322 - The Punt 323 - Sunset 324 - The Hay-Wain 325 - The old Oak 326 - The Pool 327 - - DURAN, CAROLUS. - Portrait of Carolus Duran 422 - - ENHUBER, CARL. - The Pensioner and his Grandson 163 - - ERHARD, JOHANN CHRISTOPH. - Portrait of Johann Christoph Erhard 21 - A Peasant Scene 22 - A Peasant Family 23 - - FLMM, ALBERT. - A Summer Day 251 - - FLGGEN, GISBERT. - The Decision of the Suit 186 - - FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL. - Poverty and Wealth 89 - - FROMENTIN, EUGNE. - Portrait of Eugne Fromentin 133 - Arabian Women returning from drawing Water 134 - The Centaurs 135 - - GAILLARD, FERDINAND. - Portrait 420 - - GAVARNI (SULPICE GUILLAUME CHEVALIER). - Portrait of Gavarni 43 - Thomas Vireloque 44 - Fourberies de Femmes 45 - Phdre at the Thtre Franais 48 - "Ce qui me manque moi? Une t'ite mre comme a, - qu'aurait soin de mon linge" 49 - - GILLRAY, JAMES. - Affability 5 - - GRVIN, ALFRED. - Nos Parisiennes 51 - - GRTZNER, EDUARD. - Twelfth Night 219 - - GUILLAUMET, GUSTAVE. - The Sguia, near Biskra 136 - A Dwelling in the Sahara 137 - - GURLITT, LUDWIG. - On the Sabine Mountains 245 - - GUYS, CONSTANTIN. - Study of a Woman 50 - - HARPIGNIES, HENRI. - Moonrise 344 - - HBERT, ERNEST. - The Malaria 123 - - HESS, PETER. - The Reception of King Otto in Nauplia 114 - A Morning at Partenkirche 142 - - HBNER, CARL. - July 187 - - HUET, PAUL. - Portrait of Paul Huet 265 - The Inundation at St. Cloud 266 - - HUGO, VICTOR. - Ruins of a Medival Castle on the Rhine 261 - - JACQUE, CHARLES. - The Return to the Byre (Etching) 355 - A Flock of Sheep on the Road 356 - Millet at Work in his Studio 365 - Millet's House at Barbizon 366 - - KAUFFMANN, HERMANN. - Woodcutters Returning 154 - A Sandy Road 155 - Returning from the Fields 156 - - KEENE, CHARLES. - The Perils of the Deep 17 - From "Our People" 19 - - KIRNER, JOHANN. - The Fortune Teller 162 - - KLEIN, JOHANN ADAM. - A Travelling Landscape Painter 20 - - KNAUS, LOUIS. - Portrait of Louis Knaus 195 - In great Distress 196 - The Card-Players 197 - The Golden Wedding 199 - Behind the Scenes 201 - - KOBELL, WILLIAM. - A Meeting 141 - - KOCH, JOSEPH ANTON. - Portrait of Josef Anton Koch 231 - - KRAFFT, PETER. - The Soldier's Return 170 - - LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN. - A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society 72 - The last Mourner at the Shepherd's Grave 73 - High Life 74 - Low Life 75 - - LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS. - Mrs. Siddons 57 - Princess Amelia 58 - The English Mother 59 - The Countess Gower 61 - - LEECH, JOHN. - The Children of Mr. and Mrs. Blenkinsop 11 - Little Spicey and Tater Sam 11 - From "Children of the Mobility" 12 - - LELEUX, ADOLPHE. - Mot d'ordre 181 - - LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT. - Sancho and the Duchess 87 - - LESSING, CARL FRIEDRICH. - Portrait of Carl Friedrich Lessing 239 - The Wayside Madonna 240 - - MACLISE, DANIEL. - Noah's Sacrifice 67 - Malvolio and the Countess 68 - - MADOU, JEAN BAPTISTE. - In the Ale-house 172 - The Drunkard 173 - - MARCHAL, CHARLES. - The Hiring Fair 223 - - MARCKE, EMILE VAN. - La Falaise 354 - - MARILHAT, PROSPER. - A Halt 132 - - DU MAURIER, GEORGE. - The Dancing Lesson 13 - A Recollection of Dieppe 14 - Down to Dinner 15 - A Wintry Walk 16 - - MEISSONIER, ERNEST. - Portrait of Ernest Meissonier 101 - 1814 103 - The Outpost 105 - - MEYERHEIM, FRIEDRICH EDUARD. - Portrait of Friedrich Eduard Meyerheim 157 - Children at Play 158 - The King of the Shooting Match 159 - The Morning Hour 160 - The Knitting Lesson 161 - - MICHEL, GEORGES. - A Windmill 262 - - MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT. - George du Maurier 12 - - MILLET, JEAN FRANOIS. - Portrait of Himself 361 - The House at Gruchy 363 - The Winnower 367 - A Man making Faggots 368 - The Gleaners 369 - Vine-dresser Resting 371 - At the Well 373 - Burning Weeds 375 - The Angelus 377 - The Shepherdess and her Sheep 378 - The Shepherd at the Pen at Nightfall 379 - A Woman feeding Chickens 380 - The Shepherdess 381 - The Labourer Grafting a Tree 383 - A Woman Knitting 384 - The Rainbow 385 - The Barbizon Stone 387 - - MONNIER, HENRI. - A Chalk Drawing 35 - Joseph Proudhomme 36 - - MORGENSTERN, CHRISTIAN. - A Peasant Cottage (Etching) 243 - - MORLAND, GEORGE. - The Corn Bin 69 - Going to the Fair 70 - The Return from Market 71 - - MULLER, WILLIAM. - Prayer in the Desert 138 - The Amphitheatre at Xanthus 288 - - MULREADY, WILLIAM. - Fair Time 88 - Crossing the Ford 91 - - DE NEUVILLE, ALPHONSE. - Portrait of Alphonse de Neuville 107 - Le Bourget 109 - - NEWTON, GILBERT STUART. - Yorick and the Grisette 83 - - OBERLNDER, ADOLF. - Variations on the Kissing Theme. Rethel 30 - Variations on the Kissing Theme. Gabriel Max 30 - Variations on the Kissing Theme. Hans Makart 31 - Portrait of Adolf Oberlnder 31 - Variations on the Kissing Theme. Genelli 32 - Variations on the Kissing Theme. Alma Tadema 32 - - PETTENKOFEN, AUGUST VON. - A Hungarian Village (Pencil Drawing) 224 - - PRELLER, FRIEDRICH. - Portrait of Friedrich Preller 235 - Ulysses and Leucothea 237 - - RAEBURN, SIR HENRY. - Sir Walter Scott 63 - - RAFFET, AUGUSTE MARIE. - Portrait of Auguste Marie Raffet 96 - The Parade 97 - 1807 98 - Polish Infantry 99 - The Midnight Review 100 - - REID, SIR GEORGE. - Portrait of Charles Keene 18 - - RIBOT, THODULE. - The Studio 429 - At a Norman Inn 430 - Keeping Accounts 431 - St. Sebastian, Martyr 432 - - RICARD, GUSTAVE. - Madame de Calonne 417 - - RICHTER, LUDWIG. - Portrait of Ludwig Richter 24 - Home 25 - The End of the Day 26 - Spring 27 - After Work it's good to rest 28 - - RIEDEL, AUGUST. - The Neapolitan Fisherman's Family 124 - Judith 125 - - ROBERT, HUBERT. - Monuments and Ruins 259 - - ROBERT, LEOPOLD. - Portrait of Leopold Robert 119 - Fishers of the Adriatic 120 - The Coming of the Reapers to the Pontine Marshes 121 - - ROMNEY, GEORGE. - Portrait of George Romney 55 - Lady Hamilton as Euphrosyne 56 - - ROTTMANN, KARL. - Portrait of Karl Rottmann 232 - The Coast of Sicily 233 - - ROUSSEAU, THODORE. - Portrait of Thodore Rousseau 295 - Morning 296 - Landscape, Morning Effect 297 - The Village of Becquigny in Picardy 299 - La Hutte 301 - Evening 302 - Sunset 303 - The Lake among the Rocks at Barbizon 304 - A Pond, Forest of Fontainebleau 305 - - ROWLANDSON, THOMAS. - Harmony 7 - - SCHIRMER, JOHANN WILHELM. - An Italian Landscape 241 - - SCHNETZ, VICTOR. - An Italian Shepherd 122 - - SPITZWEG, CARL. - Portrait of Carl Spitzweg 147 - At the Garret Window 148 - A Morning Concert 149 - The Postman 151 - - STEVENS, ALFRED. - The Lady in Pink 413 - La Bte bon Dieu 414 - The Japanese Mask 415 - The Visitors 416 - - TASSAERT, OCTAVE. - Portrait of Octave Tassaert 182 - After the Ball 183 - The Orphans 184 - The Suicide 185 - - TIDEMAND, ADOLF. - The Sectarians 167 - Adorning the Bride 169 - - TROYON, CONSTANT. - Portrait of Constant Troyon 345 - In Normandy: Cows Grazing 346 - Crossing the Stream 347 - The Return to the Farm 348 - A Cow scratching Herself 349 - - TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM. - Portrait of J. M. W. Turner 267 - A Shipwreck 268 - Dido building Carthage 269 - Jumiges 270 - Landscape with the Sun rising in a Mist 271 - Venice 272 - - VAUTIER, BENJAMIN. - Portrait of Benjamin Vautier 202 - The Conjurer 203 - The Dancing Lesson 205 - November 207 - - VERNET, HORACE. - The Wounded Zouave 93 - - VOLLON, ANTOINE. - Portrait of Antoine Vollon 425 - A Carnival Scene 426 - - WALDMLLER, FERDINAND. - The First Step 171 - - WALLANDER, WILHELM. - The Return 227 - - WEBSTER, THOMAS. - The Rubber 85 - - WEST, BENJAMIN. - The Death of Nelson 64 - - WIERTZ, ANTOINE. - The Orphans 189 - The Things of the Present as seen by Future Ages 191 - The Fight round the Body of Patroclus 192 - - WILKIE, DAVID. - Blind-Man's-Buff 77 - A Guerilla Council of War in a Spanish Posada 79 - The Blind Fiddler 80 - The Penny Wedding 81 - The First Earring 82 - - DE WINT, PETER. - Nottingham 289 - - - - -BOOK III - -THE TRIUMPH OF THE MODERNS - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -THE DRAUGHTSMEN - - -Inasmuch as modern art, in the beginning of its career, held commerce -almost exclusively with the spirits of dead men of bygone ages, it had -set itself in opposition to all the great epochs that had gone before. -All works known to the history of art, from the cathedral pictures of -Stephan Lochner down to the works of the followers of Watteau, stand in -the closest relationship with the people and times amid which they have -originated. Whoever studies the works of Drer knows his home and his -family, the Nuremberg of the sixteenth century, with its narrow lanes -and gabled houses; the whole age is reflected in the engravings of this -one artist with a truth and distinctness which put to shame those of the -most laborious historian. Drer and his contemporaries in Italy stood in -so intimate a relation to reality that in their religious pictures they -even set themselves above historical probability, and treated the -miraculous stories of sacred tradition as if they had been commonplace -incidents of the fifteenth century. Or, to take another instance, with -what a striking realism, in the works of Ostade, Brouwer, and Steen, has -the entire epoch from which these great artists drew strength and -nourishment remained vivid in spirit, sentiment, manners, and costume. -Every man whose name has come down to posterity stood firm and unshaken -on the ground of his own time, resting like a tree with all its roots -buried in its own peculiar soil; a tree whose branches rustled in the -breeze of its native land, while the sun which fell on its blossoms and -ripened its fruits was that of Italy or Germany, of Spain or the -Netherlands, of that time; never the weak reflection of a planet that -formerly had shone in other zones. - -It was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century that this -connection with the life of the present and the soil at home was lost to -the art of painting. It cannot be supposed that later generations will -be able to form a conception of life in the nineteenth century from -pictures produced in this period, or that these pictures will become -approximately such documents as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries -possess in the works of Drer, Bellini, Rubens, or Rembrandt. The old -masters were the children of their age to the very tips of their -fingers. They were saturated with the significance, the ideals, and the -aims of their time, and they saturated them with their own aims, ideals, -and significance. On the other hand, if any one enters a modern picture -gallery and picks out the paintings produced up to 1850, he will often -receive the impression that they belong to earlier centuries. They are -without feeling for the world around, and seem even to know nothing of -it. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ BOILLY. THE TOILETTE.] - -Even David, the first of the moderns, has left no work, with the -exception of his "Marat," which has been baptized with the blood of the -French Revolution. To express the sentiment of Liberty militant he made -use of the figures of Roman heroes. The political freedom of the people, -so recently won, so fresh in men's minds, he illustrated by examples -from Roman history. At a later time, when the allied forces entered -Paris after the defeat of Napoleon, he made use of the story of Leonidas -at Thermopyl. Only in portrait painting was any kind of justice done to -modern life by the painters in "the grand style." True it is that there -lived, at the time, a few "little masters" who furtively turned out for -the market modest little pictures of the life around them, paintings of -buildings and kitchen interiors. The poor Alsatian painter _Martin -Drolling_, contemptuously designated a "dish painter" by the critics, -showed in his kitchen pictures that, in spite of David, something of the -spirit of Chardin and the great Dutchmen was still alive in French art. -But he has given his figures and his pots and pans and vegetables the -pose and hard outline of Classicism. A few of his portraits are better -and more delicate, particularly that of the actor Baptiste, with his -fine head, like that of a diplomatist. At the exhibition of 1889, this -picture, with its positive and firmly delineated characterisation, made -the appeal of a Holbein of 1802. Another "little master," _Granet_, -painted picturesque ruins, low halls, and the vaults of churches; he -studied attentively the problem of light in inner chambers, and thereby -drew upon himself the reproach of David, that "his drawing savoured of -colour." In _Leopold Boilly_ Parisian life--still like that of a country -town--and the arrival of the mail, the market, and the busy life of the -streets, found an interpreter,--_bourgeois_ no doubt, but true to his -age. In the time of the Revolution he painted a "Triumph of Marat," the -tribune of the people, who is being carried on the shoulders of his -audience from the _palais de justice_ in Paris, after delivering an -inflammatory oration. In 1807, when the exhibition of David's Coronation -picture had thrown all Paris into excitement, Boilly conceived the -notion of perpetuating in a rapid sketch the scene of the exhibition, -with the picture and the crowd pressing round it. His speciality, -however, was little portrait groups of honest _bourgeois_ in their stiff -Sunday finery. Boilly knew with accuracy the toilettes of his age, the -gowns of the actresses, and the way they dressed their heads; he cared -nothing whatever about sthetic dignity of style, but represented each -subject as faithfully as he could, and as honestly and sincerely as -possible. For that reason he is of great historical value, but he is not -painter enough to lay claim to great artistic interest. The execution of -his pictures is petty and diffidently careful, and his neat, Philistine -painting has a suggestion of china and enamel, without a trace of the -ease and spirit with which the eighteenth century carolled over such -work. The heads of his women are the heads of dolls, and his silk looks -like steel. His forerunners are not the Dutchmen of the good periods, -Terborg and Metsu, but the contemporaries of Van der Werff. He and -Drolling and Granet were rather the last issue of the fine old Dutch -schools, rather descendants of Chardin than pioneers, and amongst the -younger men there was at first no one who ventured to sow afresh the -region which had been devastated by Classicism. Gricault certainly was -incited to his "Raft of the Medusa" not by Livy or Plutarch, but by an -occurrence of the time which was reported in the newspapers; and he -ventured to set an ordinary shipwreck in the place of the Deluge or a -naval battle, and a crew of unknown mortals in the place of Greek -heroes. But then his picture stands alone amongst the works of the -Romanticists, and is too decidedly transposed into a classical key to -count as a representation of modern life. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ BOILLY. THE NEWSVENDOR.] - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ BOILLY. THE MARIONETTES.] - -In its striving after movement and colour, Romanticism put forward the -picturesque and passionate Middle Ages in opposition to the stiff and -frigid neo-Greek or neo-Roman ideal; but it joined with Classicism in -despising the life of the present. Even the political excitement at the -close of the Restoration and the Revolution of July had but little -influence on the leading spirits of the time. Accustomed to look for the -elements of pictorial invention in religious myths, in the fictions of -poets, or in the events of older history, they paid no attention to the -mighty social drama enacted so near to them. The fiery spirit of -Delacroix certainly led him to paint his picture of the barricades, but -he drew his inspiration from a poet, from an ode of Auguste Barbier, and -he gave the whole an air of romance and allegory by introducing the -figure of Liberty. He lived in a world of glowing passions, amid which -all the struggles of his age seemed to have for him only a petty -material interest. For that reason he has neither directly nor -indirectly drawn on what he saw around him. He painted the soul, but not -the life of his epoch. He was attracted by Teutonic poets and by the -Middle Ages. He set art free from Greek subject-matter and Italian form, -to borrow his ideas from Englishmen and Germans and his colour from the -Flemish school. He is inscrutably silent about French society in the -nineteenth century. - -[Illustration: Queen Charlotte. George III. - - GILLRAY. AFFABILITY. - - "Well, Friend, where a' you going, hay?--what's your name, hay?--where - d'ye live, hay?--hay?"] - -And this alienation from the living world is even more noticeable in -Ingres. His "Mass of Pius VII in the Sistine Chapel" is the only one of -his many works which deals with a subject of contemporary life, and it -was blamed by the critics because it deviated so far from the great -style. As an historical painter, and when better employed as a painter -of portraits, Ingres has crystallised all the life and marrow of the -past in his icy works, and he appears in the midst of the century like a -marvellous and sterile sphinx. Nothing can be learnt from him concerning -the needs and passions and interests of living men. His own century -might writhe and suffer and struggle and bring forth new thoughts, but -he knew nothing about them, or if he did he never allowed it to be seen. - -[Illustration: CRUICKSHANK. MONSTROSITIES OF 1822.] - -Delaroche approached somewhat nearer to the present, for he advanced -from antiquity and the Middle Ages to the seventeenth century; and the -historical picture, invented by him, virtually dominated French art -under Napoleon III, in union with the dying Classicism. Even then there -was no painter who yet ventured to portray the manners and types of his -age with the fresh insight and merciless observation of Balzac. All -those scenes from the life of great cities, their fashion and their -misery, which then began to form the substance of drama and romance, had -as yet no counterpart in painting. - -[Illustration: ROWLANDSON. HARMONY.] - -[Illustration: BUNBURY. RICHMOND HILL.] - -The Belgians preserved the same silence. During the whole maturity of -Classicism, from 1800 to 1830, Franois, Paelinck, van Hanselaere, -Odevaere, de Roi, Duvivier, etc., with their coloured Greek statues, -ruled the realm of figure painting as unmitigated dictators; and amongst -the historical painters who followed them, Wappers, in his "Episode," -was the only one who drew on modern life for a subject. There was a -desire to revive Rubens. Decaisne, Wappers, de Keyzer, Bifve, and -Gallait lit their candle at his sun, and were hailed as the holy band -who were to lead Belgian art to a glorious victory. But their original -national tendency deviated from real life instead of leading towards it. -For the sake of painting cuirasses and helmets they dragged the most -obscure national heroes to the light of day, just as the Classicists had -done with Greeks and Romans. German painting wandered through the past -with even less method, taking its material, not from native, but from -French, English, and Flemish history. From Carstens down to Makart, -German painters of influence carefully shut their eyes to reality, and -drew down the blinds so as to see nothing of the life that surged below -them in the street, with its filth and splendour, its laughter and -misery, its baseness and noble humanity. And from an historical point of -view this alienation from the world is susceptible of an easy -explanation. - -[Illustration: LEECH. THE CHILDREN OF MR. AND MRS. BLENKINSOP.] - -[Illustration: LEECH. LITTLE SPICEY AND TATER SAM.] - -In France, as in all other countries, the end of the _ancien rgime_, -the tempest of the Revolution, and the consequent modification of the -whole of life--of sentiments, habits, and ideas, of dress and social -conditions--at first implied such a sudden change in the horizon that -artists were necessarily thrown into confusion. When the monarchy -entered laughingly upon its struggle of life and death, the survivors -from the time of Louis XVI, charming "little masters" who had been great -masters in that careless and graceful epoch, were suddenly made -witnesses of a revolution more abrupt than the world had yet seen. -Savage mobs forced their way into gardens, palaces, and reception-rooms, -pike in hand, and with the red cap upon their heads. The walls echoed -with their rude speech, and plebeian orators played the part of oracles -of freedom and brotherhood like old Roman tribunes of the people. What -was there yesterday was no longer to be seen; a thick powder-smoke hung -between the past and the present. And the present itself had not yet -assumed determinate shape; it hovered, as yet unready, between the old -and the new forms of civilization. The storms of the Revolution put an -end to the comfortable security of private life. Thus it was that the -ready-made and more easily intelligible shapes and figures of a world -long buried out of sight, with which men believed themselves to have an -elective affinity, at first seemed to the artists to have an infinitely -greater value than the new forms which were in the throes of birth. -Painters became Classicists because they had not yet the courage to -venture on the ground where the century itself was going through a -process of fermentation. - -[Illustration: LEECH. FROM "CHILDREN OF THE MOBILITY."] - -[Illustration: _Magazine of Art._ - - SIR JOHN MILLAIS PINXT. GEORGE DU MAURIER.] - -The Romanticists despised it, for they thought the fermenting must had -yielded flat lemonade instead of fiery wine. The artist must live in art -before he can produce art. And the more the life of nations has been -beautiful, rich, and splendid, the more nourishment and material has art -been able to derive from it. But when they came the Romanticists -found--in France as in Germany--everything, except a piece of reality -which they could deem worthy of being painted. The whole of existence -seemed to this generation so poor and bald, the costume so inartistic -and so like a caricature, the situation so hopeless and petty, that they -were unable to tolerate the portrayal of themselves either in poetry or -art. It was the time of that wistfully sought phantom which, as they -believed, was to be found only in the past. The powerful passions of the -Middle Ages were set in opposition to a flaccid period that was barren -of action. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DU MAURIER. THE DANCING LESSON.] - -And then came the overwhelming pressure of the old masters. After the -forlorn condition of colouring brought about by David and Carstens, it -was so vitally necessary to restore the artistic tradition and technique -of the old masters, that it was at first thought necessary to adopt the -old subject-matter also--especially the splendid robes of the city of -the lagoons--in order to test the newly acquired secrets of the palette. -Faltering unsteadily under influences derived from the old artists, -modern painting did not yet feel itself able to create finished works of -art out of the novel elements which the century placed at its disposal. -It still needed to be carried in the arms of a Venetian or Flemish -nurse. - -And sthetic criticism bestowed its blessing on these attempts. The -Romanticists had been forced to the treatment of history and the -deification of the past by disgust with the grey and colourless present; -the younger generation were long afterwards held captive in this -province by sthetic views of the dignity of history. To paint one's own -age was reckoned a crime. One had to paint the age of other people. For -this purpose the _prix de Rome_ was instituted. The spirit which -produced the pictures of Cabanel and Bouguereau was the same that -induced David to write to Gros, that the battles of the empire might -afford the material for occasional pictures done under the inspiration -of chance, but not for great and earnest works of art worthy of an -historical painter. That sthetic criticism which taught that, whatever -the subject be, and whatever personages may be represented, if they -belong to the present time the picture is merely a _genre_ picture, -still held the field. Whilst the world was laughing and crying, the -painter, with the colossal power of doing everything, amused himself by -trying not to appear the child of his own time. No one perceived the -refinement and grace, the corruption and wantonness, of modern life as -it is in great cities. No one laid hold on the mighty social problems -which the growing century threw out with a seething creative force. -Whoever wishes to know how the men of the time lived and moved, what -hopes and sorrows they bore in their breasts, whoever seeks for works in -which the heart-beat of the century is alive and throbbing, must have -his attention directed to the works of the draughtsmen, to the -illustrations of certain periodicals. It was in the nineteenth century -as in the Middle Ages. As then, when painting was still an -ecclesiastical art, the slowly awakening feeling for nature, the joy of -life was first expressed in miniatures, woodcuts, and engravings, so -also the great draughtsmen of the nineteenth century were the first who -set themselves with their whole strength to bring modern life and all -that it contained earnestly and sincerely within the range of art, the -first who held up the glass to their own time and gave the abridged -chronicle of their age. Their calling as caricaturists led them to -direct observation of the world, and lent them the aptitude of rendering -their impressions with ease; and that at a time when the academical -methods of depicting physiognomy obtained elsewhere in every direction. -It necessitated their representing subjects to which, in accordance with -the sthetic views of the period, they would not otherwise have -addressed themselves; it led them to discover beauties in spheres of -life by which they would otherwise have been repelled. London, the -capital of a free people ruling in all quarters of the globe, the home -of millions, where intricate old corners and back streets left more -space than in other cities for old-fashioned "characters," for odd, -eccentric creatures and better-class charlatans of every description, -afforded a ground peculiarly favourable for caricature. In this -province, therefore, England holds the first place beyond dispute. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DU MAURIER. A RECOLLECTION OF DIEPPE.] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DU MAURIER. DOWN TO DINNER.] - -Direct from Hogarth come the group of political caricaturists, in whom -the sour, bilious temper of John Bull lives on in a new and improved -edition. Men like _James Gillray_ were a power in the political warfare -of their time; bold liberals who fought for the cause of freedom with a -divine rage and slashing irony, while at the same time they were -masterly draughtsmen in a vehement and forceful style. The worst of it -is, that the interest excited by political caricature is always of a -very ephemeral nature. The antagonism of Pitt and Fox, Shelburne and -Burke, the avarice and stupidity of George III, the Union, the conjugal -troubles of the Prince of Wales, and the war with France, seem very -uninteresting matters in these days. On the other hand, _Rowlandson_, -who was not purely a politician, appeals to us in an intelligible -language even after a hundred years have gone by. - -Like Hogarth, he was the antithesis of a humorist. Something bitter and -gloomily pessimistic runs through all he touches. He is brutal, with an -inborn power and an indecorous coarseness. His laughter is loud and his -cursing barbarous. Ear-piercing notes escape from the widely opened lips -of his singers, and the tears come thickly from the eyes of his -sentimental old ladies who are hanging on the declamation of a tragic -actress. His comedy is produced by the simplest means. As a rule any -sort of contrast is enough: fat and thin, big and little, young wife and -old husband, young husband and old wife, shying horse and helpless rider -on a Sunday out. Or else he brings the physical and moral qualities of -his figures into an absurd contrast with their age, calling, or -behaviour: musicians are deaf, dancing masters bandy-legged, servants -wear the dresscoats and orders of lords, hideous old maids demean -themselves like coquettes, parsons get drunk, and grave dignitaries of -state dance the cancan. And so, when the servant gets a thrashing, and -the coquette a refusal, and the diplomatist loses his orders by getting -a fall, it is their punishment for having forgotten their proper place. -They are all of them "careers on slippery ground," with the same -punishments as Hogarth delighted to depict. But Rowlandson became -another man when he set himself to represent the life of the people. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DU MAURIER. A WINTRY WALK.] - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - KEENE. FROM "OUR PEOPLE." THE PERILS OF THE DEEP.] - -Born in July 1756, in a narrow alley of old London, he grew up amidst -the people. As a young man he saw Paris, Germany, and the Low Countries. -He went regularly to all clubs where there was high play. As man, -painter, and draughtsman alike, he stood in the midst of life. Street -scenes in Paris and London engage his pencil, especially scenes from -Vauxhall Gardens, the meeting-place of fashionable London, and there is -often a touch of Menzel in the palpitating life of these pictures--in -these lords and ladies, fops and ballad-singers, who pass through the -grounds of the gardens in a billowy stream. His illustrations include -everything: soldiers, navvies, life at home and in the tavern, in town -and in village, on the stage and behind the scenes, at masquerades and -in Parliament. When he died at seventy, on 22nd April 1827, the -obituaries were able to say of him with truth that he had drawn all -England in the years between 1774 and 1809. And all these leaves torn -from the life of sailors and peasants, these fairs and markets, beggars, -huntsmen, smiths, artizans, and day labourers, were not caricatures, but -sketches keenly observed and sharply executed from life. His countrymen -have at times a magnificent Michelangelesque stir of life which almost -suggests Millet. He was fond of staying at fashionable watering-places, -and came back with charming scenes from high life. But his peculiar -field of observation was the poor quarter of London. Here are the -artizans, the living machines. Endurance, persistence, and resignation -may be read in their long, dismal, angular faces. Here are the women of -the people, wasted and hectic. Their eyes are set deep in their sockets, -their noses sharp and their skin blotched with red spots. They have -suffered much and had many children; they have a sodden, depressed, -stoically callous appearance; they have borne much, and can bear still -more. And then the devastations of gin! that long train of wretched -women who of an evening prostitute themselves in the Strand to pay for -their lodging! those terrible streets of London, where pallid children -beg, and tattered spectres, either sullen or drunken, rove from -public-house to public-house, with torn linen and rags hanging about -them in shreds! The cry of misery rising from the pavement of great -cities was first heard by Rowlandson, and the pages on which he drew the -poor of London are a living dance of death of the most ghastly veracity. - -But, curiously enough, this same man, who as an observer could be so -uncompromisingly sombre, and so rough and brutal as a caricaturist, had -also a wonderfully delicate feeling for feminine charm. In the pages he -has devoted to the German waltz there lives again the chivalrous -elegance of the period of Werther, and that peculiarly English grace -which is so fascinating in Gainsborough. His young girls are graceful -and wholesome in their round straw hats with broad ribbons; his pretty -little wives in their white aprons and coquettish caps recall Chardin. -One feels that he has seen Paris and appreciated the fine fragrance of -Watteau's pictures. - -[Illustration: _Mag. of Art._ - - SIR GEO. REID. PORTRAIT OF CHARLES KEENE.] - -Mention should also be made of _Henry William Bunbury_, who excelled in -the drawing of horses and ponies. "A long Story" is an excellent example -of his powers as a caricaturist pure and simple. The variations rung on -the theme of boredom and the self-centred and animated stupidity of the -narrator have been vividly observed, and are earnestly rendered. -Rowlandson has the savage indignation of Swift; Bunbury is not savage, -but he has the same English seriousness and something of the same -brutality. The faces here are crapulous and distorted, and the subject -is treated without lightness or good-nature. Perhaps the English do not -take their pleasures so very seriously, but undoubtedly they jest in -earnest. Yet Bunbury's incisiveness and his thorough command of what it -is his design to express assure him a distinct position as an artist. -His "Richmond Hill" shows the pleasanter side of English character. The -breeze billowing in the trees, the little lady riding by on her cob, the -buxom dames in the shay, and the man spinning past on his curricle, -give the scene a spirit of life and movement, besides rendering it an -historical document of the period of social history that lies between -_The Virginians_ and _Vanity Fair_. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - KEENE. FROM "OUR PEOPLE."] - -As a political caricaturist _George Cruikshank_ has the same -significance for England as Henri Monnier has for France, and the -drawings of the latter often go straight back to the great English -artist. But his first works in 1815 were children's books, and such -simple delineations from the world of childhood and the life of society -have done more to preserve his name than political caricatures. Their -touch of satire is only very slight. Cruikshank's ladies panting under -heavy chignons, his serious and exceedingly prosy dames pouring out tea -for serious and not less ceremonious gentlemen, whilst the girls are -galloping round Hyde Park on their thoroughbreds, accompanied by a -brilliant escort of fashionable young men--they are all of them not so -much caricatures as pictures freshly caught from life. He had a great -sense for toilettes, balls, and parties. And he could draw with -artistic observation and tender feeling the babbling lips and shining -eyes of children, the shy confidence of the little ones, their timid -curiosity and their bashful advances. And thus he opened up the way -along which his disciples advanced with so much success. - -[Illustration: KLEIN. A TRAVELLING LANDSCAPE PAINTER.] - -The style of illustration has adapted itself to the altered character of -English life. What at first constituted the originality of English -caricaturists was their mordant satire. Everything was painted in -exceedingly vivid colours. Whatever was calculated to bring out an idea -in comic or brutal relief--great heads and little bodies, an absurd -similarity between persons and animals, the afflorescence of -costume--was seized upon eagerly. These artists fought for the weary and -heavy-laden, and mercilessly lashed the cut-throats and charlatans. They -delighted in spontaneous obscenity, exuberant vigour, and undisguised -coarseness. Men were shaken by a broad Aristophanic laughter till they -seemed like epileptics. At the time when the Empire style came into -England, Gillray could dare to represent by speaking likenesses some of -the best-known London beauties, in a toilette which the well developed -Madame Tallien could not have worn with more assurance. Such things were -no longer possible when England grew out of her awkward age. After the -time of Gillray a complete change came over the spirit of English -caricature. Everything brutal or bitterly personal was abandoned. The -clown put on his dress-clothes, and John Bull became a gentleman. Even -by Cruikshank's time caricature had become serious and well-bred. And -his disciples were indeed not caricaturists at all, but addressed -themselves solely to a delicately poetic representation of subjects. -They know neither Rowlandson's innate force and bitter laughter, nor the -gallows humour and savagery of Hogarth; they are amiable and tenderly -grave observers, and their drawings are not caricatures, but charming -pictures of manners. - -_Punch_, which was founded in 1841, has perhaps caught the social and -political physiognomy of England in the middle of the nineteenth century -with the greatest delicacy. It is a household paper, a periodical read -by the youngest girls. All the piquant things with which the Parisian -papers are filled are therefore absolutely excluded. It scrupulously -ignores the style of thing to which the _Journal Amusant_ owes -three-fourths of its matter. Every number contains one big political -caricature, but otherwise it moves almost entirely in the region of -domestic life. Students flirting with pretty barmaids, neat little -dressmakers carrying heavy bonnet-boxes and pursued by old -gentlemen--even these are scenes which go a little too far for the -refined tone of the paper which has been adapted to the drawing-room. - -[Illustration: JOHANN CHRISTOPH ERHARD.] - -Next to Cruikshank, the Nestor of caricature, must be mentioned _John -Leech_, who between 1841 and 1864 was the leading artist on _Punch_. In -his drawings there is already to be found the high-bred and fragrant -delicacy of the English painting of the present time. They stand in -relation to the whimsical and vigorous works of Rowlandson as the fine -_esprit_ of a rococo abb to the coarse and healthy wit of Rabelais. The -mildness of his own temperament is reflected in his sketches. Others -have been the cause of more laughter, but he loved beauty and purity. -Men are not often drawn by him, or if he draws them they are always -"pretty fellows," born gentlemen. His young women are not coquettish and -_chic_, but simple, natural, and comely. The old English brutality and -coarseness have become amiable, subtle, refined, mild, and seductive in -John Leech. He is a fine and delicate spirit, who seems very ethereal -beside Hogarth and Rowlandson, those giants fed on roast-beef; he -prefers to occupy himself with sport and boating, the season and its -fashions, and is at home in public gardens, at balls, and at the -theatre. Here a pretty baby is being taken for an airing in Hyde Park by -a tidy little nurse-maid, and there on mamma's arm goes a charming -schoolgirl, who is being enthusiastically greeted by good-looking boys; -here again a young wife is sitting by the fireside with a novel in her -hand and her feet out of her slippers, while she looks dreamily at the -glimmering flame. Or a girl is standing on the shore in a large straw -hat, with her hand shading her eyes and the wind fluttering her dress. -Even his "Children of the Mobility" are little angels of grace and -purity, in spite of their rags. The background, be it room, street, or -landscape, is merely given with a few strokes, but it is of more than -common charm. Every plate of Leech has a certain fragrance and lightness -of touch and a delicacy of line which has since been attained only by -Frederick Walker. His simplicity of stroke recalls the old Venetian -woodcuts. There is not an unnecessary touch. Everything is in keeping, -everything has a significance. - -[Illustration: ERHARD. A PEASANT SCENE.] - -Leech's successor, _George du Maurier_, is less delicate--that is to -say, not so entirely and loftily sthetic. He is less exclusively -poetic, but lives more in actual life, and suffers less from the raw -breath of reality. At the same time, his drawing is pithier and more -incisive; one discerns his French training. In 1857 du Maurier was a -pupil of Gleyre, and returned straight to England when Leech's place on -_Punch_ became vacant by his death. Since that time du Maurier has been -the head of the English school of drawing--of the diarists of that -society which is displayed in Hyde Park during the season, and found in -London theatres and dining-rooms, and in well-kept English pleasure -grounds, at garden parties and tennis meetings, the leaders of clubs and -drawing-rooms. His snobs rival those of Thackeray, but he has also a -special preference for the fair sex--for charming women and girls who -race about the lawn at tennis in large hats and bright dresses, or sit -by the fire in fashionable apartments, or hover through a ball-room -waltzing in their airy skirts of tulle. The coquettishness of his little -ones is entirely charming, and so too is the superior and comical -exclusiveness of his sthetically brought-up children, who will -associate with no children not sthetic. - -[Illustration: ERHARD. A PEASANT FAMILY.] - -But the works of _Charles Keene_ are the most English of all. Here the -English reveal that complete singularity which distinguishes them from -all other mortals. Both as a draughtsman and as a humorist Keene stands -with the greatest of the century, on the same level as Daumier and -Hokusai. An old bachelor, an original, a provincial living in the vast -city, nothing pleased him better than to mix with the humbler class, to -mount on the omnibus seat beside the driver, to visit a costermonger, or -sit in a dingy suburban tavern. He led a Bohemian life, and was, -nevertheless, a highly respectable, economical, and careful man. Trips -into the country and little suppers with his friends constituted his -greatest pleasures. He was a member of several glee clubs, and when he -sat at home played the Scotch bagpipes, to the horror of all his -neighbours. During his last years his only company was an old dog, to -which he, like poor Tassaert, clung with a touching tenderness. All the -less did he care about "the world." Grace and beauty are not to be -sought in his drawings. For him "Society" did not exist. As du Maurier -is the chronicler of drawing-rooms, Keene was the fine and unsurpassed -observer of the people and of humble London life, and he extended -towards them a friendly optimism and a brotherly sympathy. An endless -succession of the most various, the truest, and the most animated types -is contained in his work: mighty guardsmen swagger, cane in hand, burly -and solemn; cabmen and omnibus drivers, respectable middle-class -citizens, servants, hairdressers, the City police, waiters, muscular -Highlanders, corpulent self-made City men, the seething discontent of -Whitechapel; and here and there amidst them all incomparable old -tradesmen's wives, and big, raw-boned village landladies in the -Highlands. Keene has something so natural and self-evident in his whole -manner of expression, that no one is conscious of the art implied by -such drawing. Amongst those living in his time only Menzel could touch -him as a draughtsman, and it was not through chance that each, in spite -of their differences of temperament, greatly admired the other. Keene -bought every drawing of Menzel's that he could get, and Menzel at his -death possessed a large collection of Keene's sketches. - -[Illustration: LUDWIG RICHTER.] - -In the beginning of the century Germany had no draughtsmen comparable -for realistic impressiveness with Rowlandson. At a time when the great -art lay so completely bound in the shackles of the Classic school, -drawing, too, appeared only in traditional forms. The artist ventured to -draw as he liked just as little as he ventured to paint anything at all -as he saw it; for both there were rules and strait-waistcoats. Almost -everything that was produced in those years looks weak and flat to-day, -forced in composition and amateurish in drawing. Where Rowlandson with -his brusque powerful strokes recalls Michael Angelo or Rembrandt, the -Germans have something laboured, diffident, and washed out. Yet even -here a couple of unpretentious etchers rise as welcome and surprising -figures out of the tedious waste of academic production, though they -were little honoured by their contemporaries. In their homely sketches, -however, they have remained more classic than those who put on the -classical garment as if for eternity. What the painter refused to paint, -and the patrons of art who sought after ideas would not allow to count -as a picture, because the subject seemed to them too poor, and the form -too commonplace and undignified--military scenes at home and abroad, -typical and soldierly figures from the great time of the war of -Liberation, the life of the people, the events of the day--was what the -Nuremberg friends, _Johann Adam Klein_ and _Johann Christoph Erhard_, -diligently engraved upon copper with sympathetic care, and so left -posterity a picture of German life in the beginning of the century that -seems the more sincere and earnest because it has paid toll neither to -style in composition nor to idealism. This invaluable Klein was a -healthy and sincere realist, from whom the sthetic theories of the time -recoiled without effect, and he had no other motive than to render -faithfully whatever he saw. Even in Vienna, whither he came as a young -man in 1811, it was not the picture galleries which roused him to his -first studies, but the picturesque national costumes of the Wallachians, -Poles, and Hungarians, and their horses and peculiar vehicles. A sojourn -among the country manors of Styria gave him opportunity for making a -number of pretty sketches of rural life. In the warlike years 1813 and -1814, with their marching and their bivouacs, he went about all day long -drawing amongst the soldiers. Even in Rome it was not the statues that -fascinated him, but the bright street scenes, the ecclesiastical -solemnities, and the picturesque caravans of country people. And when he -settled down in Nuremburg, and afterwards in Munich, he did not cease to -be sensitive to all impressions that forced themselves on him in varying -fulness. The basis of his art was faithful and loving observation of -life as it was around him, the pure joy the genuine artist has in making -a picture of everything he sees. - -[Illustration: L. RICHTER. HOME.] - -Poor Erhard, who at twenty-six ended his life by suicide, was a yet more -delicate and sensitive nature. The marching of Russian troops through -his native town roused him to his first works, and even in these early -military and canteen scenes he shows himself an exceptionally sharp and -positive observer. The costumes, the uniforms, the teams and waggons, -are drawn with decision and accuracy. From Vienna he made walking tours -to the picturesque regions of the Schneeberg, wandered through Salzburg -and Pinzgau, and gazed with wonder at the idyllic loveliness of nature -as she is in these regions, on the cosy rooms of the peasants with their -great tiled stoves and the sun-burnt figures of the country people. He -had a heart for nature, an intimate, poetic, and profound love for what -is humble and familiar--for homely meadows, trees, and streams, for -groves and hedgerows, for quiet gardens and sequestered spots. He -approached everything with observation as direct as a child's. Both -Klein and he endeavoured to grasp a fragment of nature distinctly, and -without any kind of transformation or generalisation; and this fresh, -unvarnished, thoroughly German feeling for nature gives them, rather -than Mengs and Carstens, the right to be counted as ancestors of the -newer German art. - -[Illustration: L. RICHTER. THE END OF THE DAY.] - -Klein and Erhard having set out in advance, others, such as Haller von -Hallerstein, L. C. Wagner, F. Rechberger, F. Moessmer, K. Wagner, E. A. -Lebsche, and August Geist, each after his own fashion, made little -voyages of discovery into the world of nature belonging to their own -country. But Erhard, who died in 1822, has found his greatest disciple -in a young Dresden master, whose name makes the familiar appeal of an -old lullaby which suddenly strikes the ear amid the bustle of the -world--in _Ludwig Richter_, familiar to all Germans. Richter himself has -designated Chodowiecki, Gessner, and Erhard as those whose contemplative -love of nature guided him to his own path. What Leech, that charming -draughtsman of the child-world, was to the English, Ludwig Richter -became for the Germans. Not that he could be compared with Leech in -artistic qualities. Beside those of the British artist his works are -like the exercises of a gifted amateur: they have a petty correctness -and a _bourgeois_ neatness of line. But Germans are quite willing to -forget the artistic point of view in relation to their Ludwig Richter. -Sunny and childlike as he is, they love him too much to care to see his -artistic failings. Here is really that renowned German "_Gemth_" of -which others make so great an abuse. - -[Illustration: L. RICHTER. SPRING.] - -"I am certainly living here in a rather circumscribed fashion, but in a -very cheerful situation outside the town, and I am writing you this -letter (it is Sunday afternoon) in a shady arbour, with a long row of -rose-bushes in bloom before me. Now and then they are ruffled by a -pleasant breeze--which is also the cause of a big blot being on this -sheet, as it blew the page over." This one passage reveals the whole -man. Can one think of Ludwig Richter living in any town except Dresden, -or imagine him except in this dressing-gown, seated on a Sunday -afternoon in his shady arbour with the rose-bushes, and surrounded by -laughing children? That profound domestic sentiment which runs through -his works with a biblical fidelity of heart is reflected in the -homeliness of the artist, who has remained all his life a big, -unsophisticated child; and his autobiography, in its patriarchal -simplicity, is like a refreshing draught from a pure mountain spring. -Richter survived into the present as an original type from a time long -vanished. What old-world figures did he not see around him as a boy, -when he went about, eager for novelty, with his grandfather, the -copperplate printer, who in his leisure hours studied alchemy and the -art of producing gold, and was surrounded by an innumerable quantity of -clocks, ticking, striking, and making cuckoo notes in his dark workroom; -or as he listened to his blind, garrulous grandmother, around whom the -children and old wives of the neighbourhood used to gather to hear her -tales. That was in 1810, and two generations later, as an old man -surrounded by his grandsons, he found once more the old, merry child -life of his own home. And it was once more a fragment of the good old -times, when on Christmas Eve the little band came shouting round the -house of gingerbread from _Hansel and Gretel_ which grandfather had -built out of real gingerbread after his own drawing. - -[Illustration: L. RICHTER. AFTER WORK IT'S GOOD TO REST.] - -"If my art never entered amongst the lilies and roses on the summit of -Parnassus, it bloomed by the roads and banks, on the hedges and in the -meadows, and travellers resting by the wayside were glad of it, and -little children made wreaths and crowns of it, and the solitary lover of -nature rejoiced in its colour and fragrance, which mounted like a prayer -to Heaven." Richter had the right to inscribe these words in his diary -on his eightieth birthday. - -Through his works there echoes a humming and chiming like the joyous cry -of children and the twitter of birds. Even his landscapes are filled -with that blissful and solemn feeling that Sunday and the spring produce -together in a lonely walk over field and meadow. The "_Gemthlichkeit_," -the cordiality, of German family-life, with a trait of contemplative -romance, could find such a charming interpreter in none but him, the old -man who went about in his long loose coat and had the face of an -ordinary village schoolmaster. Only he who retained to his old age that -childlike heart--to which the kingdom of heaven is given even in -art--could really know the heart of the child's world, which even at a -later date in Germany was not drawn more simply or more graciously. - -His illustrations present an almost exhaustive picture of the life of -the German people at home and in the world, at work and in their -pleasure, in suffering and in joy. He follows it through all grades and -all seasons of the year. Everything is true and genuine, everything -seized from life in its fulness: the child splashing in a tub; the lad -shouting as he catches the first snowflake in his hat; the lovers seated -whispering in their cosy little chamber, or wandering arm in arm on -their "homeward way through the corn" amid the evening landscape touched -with gold; the girl at her spinning-wheel and the hunter in the forest, -the travelling journeyman, the beggar, the well-to-do Philistine. The -scene is the sitting-room or the nursery, the porch twined with vine, -the street with old-fashioned overhanging storeys and turrets, the -forest and the field with splendid glimpses into the hazy distance. -Children are playing round a great tree, labourers are coming back from -the field, or the family is taking its rest in some hour of relaxation. -A peaceful quietude and chaste purity spread over everything. Certainly -Richter's drawing has something pedantic and unemphatic, that weak, -generalising roundness which, beside the sharp, powerful stroke of the -old artists, has the spirit of a drawing-master. But what he has to give -is always influenced by delicate and loving observation, and never -stands in contradiction to truth. He does not give the whole of nature, -but neither does he give what is unnatural. He is one of the first of -Germans whose art did not spring from a negation of reality, produced by -treating it on an arbitrary system, but rested instead upon tender -reverie, transfigured into poetry. When in the fifties he stayed a -summer in pleasant Loschwitz, he wrote in his diary: "O God, how -magnificent is the wide country round, from my little place upon the -hill! So divinely beautiful, and so sensuously beautiful! The deep blue -heaven, the wide green world, the bright and fair May landscape alive -with a thousand voices." - -[Illustration: WILHELM BUSCH.] - -In all that generation, to whom existence seemed so sad, Ludwig Richter -is one of the few who really felt content with the earth, and held the -life around them to be the best and healthiest material for the artist. -And that is the substance of the plate to which he gave the title "Rules -of Art." A wide landscape stretches away with mighty oaks slanting down, -and a purling spring from which a young girl is drawing water, whilst a -high-road, enlivened by travellers young and old, runs over hill and -dale into the sunny distance. In the midst of this free rejoicing world -the artist is seated with his pencil. And above stands the motto written -by Richter's hand-- - - "Und die Sonne Homer's, siehe sie lchelt auch uns." - -By the success of Richter certain disciples were inspired to tread the -same ground, although none of them equalled him in his charming human -qualities. And least of all _Oskar Pletsch_, whose self-sufficient smile -is soon recognised in all its emptiness. Everything which in Richter was -genuine and original is in him flat, laboured, and prearranged. His -landscapes, which in part are very pretty, are derived from R. Schuster; -what seems good in the children is Richter's property, and what Pletsch -contributed is the conventionality. _Albert Hendschel_ also stood on -Richter's shoulders, but his popularity is more justifiable. Even in -these days one takes pleasure in his sketch-books, in which he -immortalised the joy and sorrow of youth in such a delicious way. - -[Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - - OBERLNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. - - RETHEL.] - -_Eugen Neureuther_ worked in Munich, and as an etcher revelled in the -charming play of arabesques and ornamental borders, and told of pleasant -little scenes from the life of the Bavarian people in his pretty peasant -quatrains. - -[Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - - OBERLNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. - - GABRIEL MAX.] - -The rise of caricature in Germany dates from the year 1848. Though there -are extant from the first third of the century no more than a few -topical papers of no artistic importance, periodical publications, which -soon brought a large number of vigorous caricaturists into notice, began -to appear from that time, owing to the political agitations of the -period. _Kladderadatsch_ was brought out in Berlin, and _Fliegende -Bltter_ was founded in Munich, and side by side with it _Mnchener -Bilderbogen_. But later generations will be referred _par excellence_ to -_Fliegende Bltter_ for a picture of German life in the nineteenth -century. What the painters of those years forgot to transmit is here -stored up: a history of German manners which could not imaginably be -more exact or more exhaustive. From the very first day it united on its -staff of collaborators almost all the most important names in their own -peculiar branch. Schwind, Spitzweg, that genial humorist, and many -others whom the German people will not forget, won their spurs here, and -were inexhaustible in pretty theatre scenes, satires on German and -Italian singing, memorial sketches of Fanny Elsler, of the inventor of -the dress coat, etc., which enlivened the whole civilized world at that -time. This elder generation of draughtsmen on _Fliegende Bltter_ were, -indeed, not free from the guilt of producing stereotyped figures. The -travelling Englishman, the Polish Jew, the counter-jumper, the young -painter, the rich boor, the stepmother, the housemaid, and the nervous -countess are everywhere the same in the first volumes. In caricature, -just as in "great art," they still worked a little in accordance with -rules and conventions. To observe life with an objective unprejudiced -glance, and to hold it fast in all its palpitating movement, was -reserved for men of later date. - -[Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - - OBERLNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. - - HANS MAKART.] - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ ADOLF OBERLNDER.] - -Two of the greatest humorists of the world in illustrative art, _Wilhelm -Busch_ and _Adolf Oberlnder_, stand at the head of those who ushered in -the flourishing period of German caricature. They are masters, and take -in with their glance the entire social world of our time, and in their -brilliant prints they have made a history of civilisation for the epoch -which will be more vivid and instructive for posterity than the most -voluminous works of the greatest historians. Their heads are known by -Lenbach's pictures. One has an exceptionally clever, expressive -countenance--a thorough painter's head. The humorist may be recognised -by the curious narrowing of one eye, the well-known eye of the humorist -that sees everything, proves everything, and holds fast every absurdity -in the gestures, every eccentricity in the bearing of his neighbour. -That is Wilhelm Busch. - -[Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - - OBERLNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. - - GENELLI.] - -[Illustration: _Braun, Munich._ - - OBERLNDER. VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. - - ALMA TADEMA.] - -In the large orbs of the other--orbs which seem to grow strangely wide -by long gazing as at some fixed object--there is no smile of deliberate -mischief, and it is not easy to associate the name of Oberlnder with -this Saturnian round face, with its curiously timid glance. One is -reminded of the definition of humour as "smiling amid tears." - -Even in those days when he came every year to Munich and painted in -Lenbach's studio, Busch was a shy and moody man, who thawed only in the -narrowest circle of his friends: now he has buried himself in a -market-town in the province of Hanover, in Wiedensahl, which, according -to Ritter's _Gazetteer_, numbers eight hundred and twenty-eight -inhabitants. He lives in the house of his brother-in-law, the clergyman -of the parish, and gives himself up to the culture of bees. His laughter -has fallen silent, and it is only a journal on bees that now receives -contributions from his hand. But what works this hermit of Wiedensahl -produced in the days when he migrated from Dsseldorf and Antwerp to -Munich, and began in 1859 his series of sketches for _Fliegende -Bltter_! The first were stiff and clumsy, the text in prose and not -particularly witty. But the earliest work with a versified text, _Der -Bauer und der Windmller_, contains in the germ all the qualities which -later found such brilliant expression in _Max und Moritz_, in _Der -Heilige Antonius_, _Die Fromme Helene_, and _Die Erlebnisse Knopps,_ -_des Junggesellen_, and made Busch's works an inexhaustible fountain of -mirth and enjoyment. - -Busch unites an uncommonly sharp eye with a marvellously flexible hand. -Wild as his subjects generally are, he solves the greatest difficulties -as easily as though they were child's play. His heroes appear in -situations of the most urgent kind, which place their bodily parts in -violent and exceedingly uncomfortable positions: they thrash others or -get thrashed themselves, they stumble or fall. And in what a masterly -way are all these anomalies seized, the boldest foreshortenings and the -most flying movements! Untrained eyes see only a scrawl, but for those -who know how to look, a drawing by Busch is life itself, freed from all -unnecessary detail, and marked down in its great characteristic lines. -And amid all this simplification, what knowledge there is under the -guise of carelessness, and what fine calculation! Busch is at once -simpler and more inventive than the English. With a maze of flourishes -run half-mad, and a few points and blotches, he forms a sparkling -picture. With the fewest possible means he hits the essential point, and -for that reason he is justly called by Grand Cartaret the classic of -caricaturists, _le roi de la charge et la bouffonnerie_. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - DEBUCOURT. IN THE KITCHEN.] - -_Oberlnder_, without whom it would be impossible to imagine _Fliegende -Bltter_, has not fallen silent. He works on, "fresh and splendid as on -the first day." A gifted nature like Busch, he possesses, at the same -time, that fertility of which Drer said: "A good painter is inwardly -complete and opulent, and were it possible for him to live eternally, -then by virtue of those inward ideas of which Plato writes he would be -always able to pour something new into his works." It is now thirty -years ago that he began his labours for _Fliegende Bltter_, and since -that time some drawing of his, which has filled every one with delight, -has appeared almost every week. Kant said that Providence has given men -three things to console them amid the miseries of life--hope, sleep, and -laughter. If he is right, Oberlnder is amongst the greatest benefactors -of mankind. Every one of his new sketches maintains the old precious -qualities. It might be said that, by the side of the comedian Busch, -Oberlnder seems a serious psychologist. Wilhelm Busch lays his whole -emphasis on the comical effects of simplicity; he knows how to reduce an -object in a masterly fashion to its elemental lines, which are comic in -themselves by their epigrammatic pregnancy. He calls forth peals of -laughter by the farcical spirit of his inventions and the boldness with -which he renders his characters absurd. He is also the author of his own -letterpress. His drawings are unimaginable without the verse, without -the finely calculated and dramatic succession of situations growing to a -catastrophe. Oberlnder gets his effect purely by means of the pictorial -elements in his representation, and attains a comical result, neither by -the distorted exaggeration of what is on the face of the matter -ridiculous, nor by an elementary simplification, but by a refined -sharpening of character. It seems uncanny that a man should have such -eyes in his head; there is something almost visionary in the way he -picks out of everything the determining feature of its being. And whilst -he faintly exaggerates what is characteristic and renders it distinct, -his picture is given a force and power of conviction to which no -previous caricaturist has attained, with so much discretion at the same -time. No one has attained the drollness of Oberlnder's people, animals, -and plants. He draws _ la_ Max, _ la_ Makart, Rethel, Genelli, or -Piloty, hunts in the desert or theatrical representations, Renaissance -architecture run mad or the most modern European mashers. He is as much -at home in the Cameroons as in Munich, and in transferring the droll -scenes of human life to the animal world he is a classic. He sports with -hens, herrings, dogs, ducks, ravens, bears, and elephants as Hokusai -does with his frogs. Beside such animals all the Reinecke series of -Wilhelm Kaulbach look like "drawings from the copybook of little -Moritz." And landscapes which in their tender intimacy of feeling seem -like anticipations of Cazin sometimes form the background of these -creatures. One can scarcely err in supposing that posterity will place -certain plates from the work of this quiet, amiable man beside the best -which the history of drawing has anywhere to show. - -[Illustration: DEBUCOURT. THE PROMENADE.] - -The _Charivari_ takes its place with _Punch_ and _Fliegende Bltter_. - -In the land of Rabelais also caricature has flourished since the opening -of the century, in spite of official masters who reproached her with -desecrating the sacred temple of art, and in spite of the gendarmes who -put her in gaol. Here, too, it was the draughtsmen who first broke with -sthetic prejudices, and saw the laughing and the weeping dramas of life -with an unprejudiced glance. - -Debucourt and Carle Vernet, the pair who made their appearance -immediately after the storms of the Revolution, are alike able and -charming artists, who depict the pleasures of the salon in a graceful -style; and they rival the great satirists on the other side of the -Channel in the incisiveness of their drawing, and frequently even -surpass them by the added charm of colour. - -[Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - - MONNIER. A CHALK DRAWING.] - -_Carle Vernet_, originally an historical painter, remembered that he had -married the daughter of the younger Moreau, and set himself to portray -the doings of the _jeunesse dore_ of the end of the eighteenth century -in his _incroyables_ and his _merveilleuses_. Crazy, eccentric, and -superstitious, he divided his time afterwards between women and his -club-fellows, horses and dogs. He survives in the history of art as the -chronicler of sport, hunting, racing, and drawing-room and caf scenes. - -_Louis Philibert Debucourt_ was a pupil of Vien, and had painted _genre_ -pictures in the spirit of Greuze before he turned in 1785 to colour -engraving. In this year appeared the pretty "Menuet de la Marie," with -the peasant couples dancing, and the dainty chtelaine who laughingly -opens the ball with the young husband. After that he had found his -specialty, and in the last decade of the eighteenth century he produced -the finest of his colour engravings. In 1792 there is the wonderful -promenade in the gallery of the Palais Royal, with its swarming crowd of -young officers, priests, students, shop-girls, and _cocottes_; in 1797 -"Grandmother's Birthday," "Friday Forenoon at the Parisian Bourse," and -many others. The effects of technique which he achieved by means of -colour engraving are surprising. A freshness like that of water colour -lies on these yellow straw hats, lightly rouged cheeks, and rosy -shoulders. To white silk cloaks trimmed with fur he gives the -iridescence of a robe by Netscher. If there survived nothing except -Debucourt from the whole art of the eighteenth century, he would alone -suffice to give an idea of the entire spirit of the time. Only one note -would be wanting, the familiar simplicity of Chardin. The smiling grace -of Greuze, the elegance of Watteau, and the sensuousness of Boucher--he -has them all, although they are weakened in him, and precisely by his -affectation is he the true child of his epoch. The crowd which is -promenading beneath the trees of the Palais Royal in 1792 is no longer -the same which fills the drawing-rooms of Versailles and Petit Trianon -in the pages of Cochin. The faces are coarser and more plebeian. Red -waistcoats with _breloques_ as large as fists, and stout canes with -great gold tops, make the costume of the men loud and ostentatious, -while eccentric hats, broad sashes, and high coiffures bedizen the -ladies more than is consistent with elegance. At the same time, -Debucourt gives this democracy an aristocratic bearing. His prostitutes -look like duchesses. His art is an attenuated echo of the _rococo_ -period. In him the _dcadence_ is embodied, and all the grace and -elegance of the century is once more united, although it has become more -_bourgeois_. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - MONNIER. JOSEPH PROUDHOMME.] - -The Empire again was less favourable to caricature. Not that there was -any want of material, but the censorship kept a strict watch over the -welfare of France. Besides, the artists who made their appearance after -David lived on Olympus, and would have nothing to do with the common -things of life. Neither draughtsmen nor engravers could effect anything -so long as they saw themselves overlooked by a Greek or Roman phantom as -they bent over their paper or their plate of copper, and felt it their -duty to suggest the stiff lines of antique statues beneath the folds of -modern costume. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ HONOR DAUMIER.] - -_Bosio_ was the genuine product of this style. Every one of his pictures -has become tedious, because of a spurious classicism to which he adhered -with inflexible consistency. He cannot draw a grisette without seeing -her with David's eyes. It deprives his figures of truth and interest. -Something of the correctness of a schoolmistress is peculiar to them. -His grace is too classic, his merriment too well-bred, and everything in -them too carefully arranged to give the idea of scenes rapidly depicted -from life. Beauty of line is offered in place of spontaneity of -observation, and even the character of the drawing is lost in a pedantic -elegance which envelopes everything with the uniformly graceful veil of -an insipidly fluent outline. - -As soon as Romanticism had broken with the classic system, certain great -draughtsmen, who laid a bold hand on modern life without being shackled -by sthetic formul, came to the front in France. _Henri Monnier_, the -eldest of them, was born a year after the proclamation of the Empire. -Cloaks, plumes, and sabretasches were the first impressions of his -youth; he saw the return of triumphant armies and heard the fanfare of -victorious trumpets. The Old Guard remained his ideal, the inglorious -kingship of the Restoration his abhorrence. He was a supernumerary clerk -in the Department of Justice when in 1828 his first brochure, _Moeurs -administratives dessines d'aprs nature par Henri Monnier_, disclosed -to his superiors that the eyes of this poor young man in the service of -the Ministry had seen more than they should have done. Dismissed from -his post, he was obliged to support himself by his pencil, and became -the chronicler of the epoch. In Monnier's prints breathes the happy -Paris of the good old times, a Paris which in these days scarcely exists -even in the provinces. His "Joseph Proudhomme," from his shoe-buckles to -his stand-up collar, from his white cravat to his blue spectacles, is as -immortal as _Eisele und Beisele_, _Schulze und Mller_, or Molire's -_Bourgeois Gentilhomme_. Monnier himself is his own Proudhomme. He is -the Philistine in Paris, enjoying little Parisian idylls with a -_bourgeois_ complacency. With him there is no distinction between -beautiful and ugly; he finds that everything in nature can be turned to -account. How admirably the different worlds of Parisian society are -discriminated in his _Quartiers de Paris_! How finely he has portrayed -the grisette of the period, with her following of young tradesmen and -poor students! As yet she has not blossomed into the fine lady, the -luxurious _blase_ woman of the next generation. She is still the -bashful _modiste_ or dressmaker's apprentice whose outings in the -country are described by Paul de Kock, a pretty child in a short skirt -who lives in an attic and dresses up only when she goes to the theatre -or into the country on a Sunday. Monnier gives her an air of -good-nature, something delightfully childlike. In the society of her -adorers she is content with the cheapest pleasures, drinks cider and -eats cakes, rides on a donkey or breakfasts amid the trees, and hardly -coquets at all when a fat old gentleman follows her on the boulevards. -These innocent flirtations remind one as little of the more recent -_lorettes_ of Gavarni as these in their turn anticipate the drunken -street-walkers of Rops. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DAUMIER. THE CONNOISSEURS.] - -Under Louis Philippe began the true modern period of French caricature, -the flourishing time when really great artists devoted themselves to it. -It never raised its head more proudly than under the _bourgeois_ king, -whose onion head always served the relentless Philippon as a target for -his wit. It was never armed in more formidable fashion; it never dealt -more terrible blows. Charles Philippon's famous journal _La Caricature_ -was the most powerful lever that the republicans used against the "July -government"; it was equally feared by the Ministry, the _bourgeoisie_, -and the throne. When the _Charivari_ followed _La Caricature_ in 1832, -political cartoons began to give way to the simple portraiture of -manners in French life. The powder made for heavy guns exploded in a -facile play of fireworks improvised for the occasion. - -French society in the nineteenth century has to thank principally -_Daumier_ and _Gavarni_ for being brought gradually within the sphere of -artistic representation. These men are usually called caricaturists, yet -they were in reality the great historians of their age. Through long -years they laboured every week and almost every day at their great -history, which embraced thousands of chapters--at a true zoology of the -human species; and their work, drawn upon stone in black and white, -proves them not merely genuine historians, but really eminent artists -who merit a place beside the greatest. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DAUMIER. THE MOUNTEBANKS. - - (_By permission of M. Eugne Montrosier, the owner of the picture._)] - -When in his young days Daubigny trod the pavement of the Sistine Chapel -in Rome, he is said to have exclaimed in astonishment, "That looks as if -it had been done by Daumier!" and from that time Daumier was aptly -called the Michael Angelo of caricature. Even when he is laughing there -is a Florentine inspiration of the terrible in his style, a grotesque -magnificence, a might suggestive of Buonarotti. In the period before -1848 he dealt the constitutional monarchy crushing blows by his -drawings. "Le Ventre legislatif" marks the furthest point to which -political caricature ever ventured in France. But when he put politics -on one side and set himself free from Philippon, this same man made the -most wonderful drawings from life. His "Robert Macaire" giving -instructions to his clerk as a tradesman, sending his patients -exorbitant bills as doctor to the poor, lording it over the bourse as -banker, taking bribes as juryman, and fleecing a peasant as land-agent, -is the incarnation of the _bourgeois_ monarchy, a splendid criticism on -the money-grubbing century. Politicians, officials, artists, actors, -honest citizens, old-clothes-mongers, newspaper-boys, impecunious -painters, the most various and the basest creatures are treated by his -pencil, and appear on pages which are often terrible in their depth and -truthfulness of observation. The period of Louis Philippe is accurately -portrayed in these prints, every one of which belongs to the great -volume of the human tragicomedy. In his "motions parisiennes" and -"Bohmiens de Paris" he deals with misfortune, hunger, the impudence of -vice, and the horror of misery. His "Histoire ancienne" ridiculed the -absurdity of Classicism _ la_ David at a time when it was still -regarded as high treason to touch this sacred fane. These modern figures -with the classical pose, which to some extent parodied David's pictures, -were probably what first brought his contemporaries to a sense of the -stiffness and falsity of the whole movement; and at a later period -Offenbach also contributed his best ideas with much the same result. -Moreover, Daumier was a landscape-painter of the first order. No one has -more successfully rendered the appearance of bridges and houses, of -quays and streets under a downpour, of nature enfeebled as it is in the -precincts of Paris. He was an instantaneous photographer without a -rival, a physiognomist such as Breughel was in the sixteenth century, -Jan Steen and Brouwer in the seventeenth, and Chodowiecki in the -eighteenth, with the difference that his drawing was as broad and -powerful as Chodowiecki's was delicate and refined. This inborn force of -line, suggestive of Jordaens, places his sketches as high, considered as -works of art, as they are invaluable as historical documents. The -treatment is so summary, the outline so simplified, the pantomime, -gesticulation, and pose always so expressive; and Daumier's influence on -several artists is beyond doubt. Millet, the great painter of peasants, -owes much to the draughtsman of the _bourgeois_. Precisely what -constitutes his "style," the great line, the simplification, the -intelligent abstention from anecdotic trifles, are things which he -learnt from Daumier. - -During the years when he drew for the _Charivari_, _Gavarni_ was the -exact opposite of Daumier. In the one was a forceful strength, in the -other a refined grace; in the one brusque and savage observation and -almost menacing sarcasm, in the other the wayward mood of the butterfly -flitting lightly from flower to flower. Daumier might be compared with -Rabelais; Gavarni, the _spirituel_ journalist of the _grand monde_ and -the _demi-monde_, the draughtsman of elegance and of _rous_ and -_lorettes_, might be compared with Molire. Born of poor parentage in -Paris in 1801, and in his youth a mechanician, he supported himself from -the year 1835 by fashion prints and costume drawings. He undertook the -conduct of a fashion journal, _Les Gens du Monde_, and began it with a -series of drawings from the life of the _jeunesse dore_: _les -Lorettes_, _les Actrices_, _les Fashionables_, _les Artistes_, _les -tudiants de Paris_, _les Bals masqus_, _les Souvenirs du Carnaval_, -_la Vie des Jeunes Hommes_. A new world was here revealed with bold -traits. The women of Daumier are good, fat mothers, always busy, -quick-witted, and of an enviable constitution; women who are careful in -the management of their household, and who go to market and take their -husband's place at his office when necessary. In Gavarni the women are -piquant and given to pouting, draped in silk and enveloped in soft -velvet mantles. They are fond of dining in the _cabinet particulier_, -and of scratching the name of their lover, for the time being, upon -crystal mirrors. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DAUMIER. IN THE ASSIZE COURT.] - -[Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - - DAUMIER. "LA VOIL ... MA MAISON DE CAMPAGNE."] - -Gavarni was the first who seized the worldly side of modern life; he -portrayed elegant figures full of _chic_, and gave them a garb which -fitted them exactly. In his own dress he had a taste for what was -dandified, and he plunged gaily into the enjoyment of the Parisian life -which eddied around in a whirl of pleasure. The present generation feels -that the air in such old journals of fashion is heavy. In every work of -art there is, in addition to what endures, a fine perfume that -evaporates after a certain number of years, and is no longer perceptible -to those who come afterwards. What is fresh and modern to-day looks -to-morrow like the dried flowers which the botanist keeps in a -herbarium. And those who draw the fashions of their age are specially -liable to this swift decay. Thus many of Gavarni's lithographs have the -effect of pallid pictures of a vanished world. But the generation of -1830 honoured in him the same _charmeur_, the same master of enamoured -grace, which that of 1730 had done in Watteau. He was sought after as an -inventor of fashions, whom the tailor Humann, the Worth of the "July -Monarchy," regarded as his rival. He was the discoverer of all the fairy -costumes which formed the chief attraction at masquerades and theatres, -the delicate _gourmet_ of the eternal feminine; and having dangled much -after women, he knew how to render the wave of a petticoat, the -seductive charm of a well-proportioned leg, and the coquettishness of a -new _coiffure_ with the most familiar connoisseurship. He has been -called the Balzac of draughtsmen. And the sentences at the bottom of his -sketches, for which he is also responsible, are as audacious as the -pictures themselves. Thus, when the young exquisite in the series "La -Vie des Jeunes Hommes" stands with his companion before a skeleton in -the anthropological museum, the little woman opines with a shudder, -"When one thinks that this is a man, and that women love _that_"! - -[Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - - DAUMIER. MENELAUS THE VICTOR.] - -But that is only one side of the sphinx. He is only half known when one -thinks only of the draughtsman of ladies' fashions who celebrated the -free and easy graces of the _demi-monde_ and the wild licence of the -carnival. At bottom Gavarni was not a frivolous butterfly, but an artist -of a strangely sombre imagination, a profound and melancholy philosopher -who had a prescience of all the mysteries of life. All the mighty -problems which the century produced danced before his spirit like -spectral notes of interrogation. - -The transition was made when, as an older man, he depicted the cold, -sober wakening that follows the wild night. _Constantin Guys_ had -already worked on these lines. He was an unfortunate and ailing man, who -passed his existence, like Verlaine, in hospital, and died in an -almshouse. Guys has not left much behind him, but in that little he -shows himself the true forerunner of the moderns, and it is not a mere -chance that Baudelaire, the ancestor of the _dcadence_, established -Guys' memory. These women who wander aimlessly about the streets with -weary movements and heavy eyes deadened with absinthe, and who flit -through the ball-room like bats, have nothing of the innocent charm of -Monnier's grisettes. They are the uncanny harbingers of death, the -demoniacal brides of Satan. Guys exercised on Gavarni an influence which -brought into being his _Invalides du sentiment_, his _Lorettes -vieilles_, and his _Fourberies de femmes_. "The pleasure of all -creatures is mingled with bitterness." The frivolous worldling became a -misanthrope from whom no secret of the foul city was hidden; a pessimist -who had begun to recognise the human brute, the swamp-flower of -over-civilisation, the "bitter fruit which is inwardly full of ashes," -in the queen of the drawing-room as in the prostitute of the gutter. -Henceforth he only recognises a love whose pleasures are to be reckoned -amongst the horrors of death. His works could be shown to no lady, and -yet they are in no sense frivolous: they are terrible and puritanic. - -If Daumier by preference showed mastery in his men, Gavarni showed it in -his women as no other has done. He is not the powerful draughtsman that -Daumier is; he has not the feeling for large movement, but with what -terrible directness he analyses faces! He has followed woman through all -seasons of life and in every grade, from youth to decay, and from -brilliant wealth to filthy misery, and he has written the story of the -_lorette_ in monumental strophes: caf chantant, villa in the Champs -Elyses, equipage, grooms, Bois de Boulogne, procuress, garret, and -radish-woman, that final incarnation which Victor Hugo called the -sentence of judgment. - -[Illustration: GAVARNI.] - -And Gavarni went further on this road. His glance became sharper and -sharper, and the seriousness of meditation subdued his merriment; he -came to the study of his age with the relentless knife of a -vivisectionist. Fate had taught him the meaning of the struggle for -existence. A journal he had founded in the thirties overwhelmed him with -debts. In 1835 he sat in the prison of Clichy, and from that time he -meditated on the miserable, tattered creatures whom he saw around him, -with other eyes. He studied the toiling masses, and roamed about in -slums and wine-caves amongst pickpockets and bullies. And what Paris had -not yet revealed to him, he learnt in 1849 in London. Even there he was -not the first-comer. Gricault, who as early as 1821 dived into the -misery of the vast city, and brought out a series of lithographs, showed -him the way. Beggars cowering half dead with exhaustion at a baker's -door, ragged pipers slouching round deserted quarters of the town, poor -crippled women wheeled in barrows by hollow-eyed men past splendid -mansions and surrounded by the throng of brilliant equipages--these are -some of the scenes which he brought home with him from London. But -Gavarni excels him in trenchant incisiveness. "What is to be seen in -London gratis," runs the heading of a series of sketches in which he -conjures up on paper, in such a terrible manner, the new horrors of this -new period: the starvation, the want, and the measureless suffering that -hides itself with chattering teeth in the dens of the great city. He -went through Whitechapel from end to end, and studied its drunkenness -and its vice. How much more forcible are his beggars than those of -Callot! The grand series of "Thomas Vireloque" is a dance of death in -life; and in it are stated all the problems which have since disturbed -our epoch. By this work Gavarni has come down to us as a contemporary, -and by it he has become a pioneer. The enigmatical figure of "Thomas -Vireloque" starts up in these times, following step by step in the path -of his prototype: he is the philosopher of the back streets, the ragged -scoundrel with dynamite in his pocket, the incarnation of the _bte -humaine_, of human misery and human vice. Here Gavarni stands far above -Hogarth and far above Callot. The ideas on social politics of the first -half of the century are concentrated in "Thomas Vireloque." - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - GAVARNI. THOMAS VIRELOQUE.] - -Of course the assumption of government by Napoleon III marked a new -phase in French caricature. It became more mundane and more highly -civilised. All the piquancy and brilliance, waywardness and corruption, -looseness and amenity, mirth and affectation of this refined city life, -which in those days threw its dazzling splendour over all Europe, found -intelligent and subtle interpreters in the young generation of -draughtsmen. The _Journal pour rire_ comes under consideration as the -leading paper. It was founded in 1848, and in 1856 assumed the title of -_Journal amusant_, under which it is known at the present day. - -[Illustration: _Hetzel, Paris._ - - GAVARNI. FOURBERIES DE FEMMES. - - _Au premier Mosieu._--"Attendez-moi ce soir, de quatre cinq heures, - quai de l'Horloge du Palais.--_Votre_ AUGUSTINE." - - _Au deuxime Mosieu._--"Ce soir, quai des Lunettes, entre quatre et - cinq heures.--_Votre_ AUGUSTINE." - - _Au troisime Mosieu._--"Quai des Morfondus, ce soir, de quatre heures - cinq.--_Votre_ AUGUSTINE." - - _ un quatrime Mosieu._--"Je t'attends ce soir, quatre - heures.--_Ton_ AUGUSTINE."] - -_Gustave Dor_, to the lessening of his importance, moved on this ground -only in his earliest period. He was barely sixteen and still at school -in his native town Burg, in Alsace, when he made an agreement with -Philippon, who engaged him for three years on the _Journal pour rire_. -His first drawings date from 1844: "Les animaux socialistes," which were -very suggestive of Grandville, and "Dsagrments d'un voyage -d'agrment"--something like the German _Herr und Frau Buchholz in der -Schweiz_--which made a considerable sensation by their grotesque wit. In -his series "Les diffrents publics de Paris" and "La Mnagerie -Parisienne" he represented with an incisive pencil the opera, the -_Thtre des Italiens_, the circus, the _Odon_ and the _Jardin des -Plantes_. But since that time the laurels of historical painting have -given him no rest. He turned away from his own age as well as from -caricature, and made excursions into all zones and all periods. He -visited the Inferno with Dante, lingered in Palestine with the -patriarchs of the Old Testament, and ran through the world of wonders -with Perrault. The facility of his invention was astonishing, and so too -was the aptness with which he seized for illustration on the most vivid -scenes from all authors. But he has too much Classicism to be -captivating for very long. His compositions dazzle by an appearance of -the grand style, but attain only an outward and scenical effect. His -figures are academic variations of types originally established by the -Greeks and the Cinquescentisti. He forced his talent when he soared into -regions where he could not stand without the support of his -predecessors. Even in his "Don Quixote" the figures lose in character -the larger they become. Everything in Dor is calligraphic, judicious, -without individuality, without movement and life, composed in accordance -with known rules. There is a touch of Wiertz in him, both in his -imagination and in his design, and his youthful works, such as the -"Swiss Journey," in which he merely drew from observation without -pretensions to style, will probably last the longest. - -In broad lithographs and charming woodcuts, _Cham_ has been the most -exhaustive in writing up the diary of modern Parisian life during the -period 1848-78. The celebrated caricaturist--he has been called the most -brilliant man in France under Napoleon III--had worked in the studio of -Delaroche at the same time as Jean Franois Millet. After 1842 he came -forward as Cham (his proper name was Count Amade de No) with drawings -which soon made him the artist most in demand on the staff of the -_Charivari_. Neither so profound nor so serious as Gavarni, he has a -constant sparkle of vivacity, and is a draughtsman of wonderful _verve_. -In his reviews of the month and of the year, everything which interested -Paris in the provinces of invention and fashion, art and literature, -science and the theatre, passes before us in turn: the omnibuses with -their high imperials, table-turning and spirit-rapping, the opening of -the _Grands Magasins du Louvre_, Madame Ristori, the completion of the -Suez Canal, the first newspaper kiosks, New Year's Day in Paris, the -invention of ironclads, the tunnelling of Mont Cenis, Gounod's _Faust_, -Patti and Nilsson, the strike of the tailors and hat-makers, jockeys and -racing. Everything that excited public attention had a close observer -in Cham. His caricatures of the works of art in the Salon were full of -spirit, and the International Exhibition of 1867 found in him its -classic chronicler. Here all the mysterious Paris of the third Napoleon -lives once more. Emperors and kings file past, the band of Strauss -plays, gipsies are dancing, equipages roll by, and every one lives, -loves, flirts, squanders money, and whirls round in a malstrom. But the -end of the exhibition betokened the end of all that splendour. In Cham's -plates which came next one feels that there is thunder in the air. -Neither fashions nor theatres, neither women nor pleasure, could prevent -politics from predominating more and more: the fall of Napoleon was -drawing near. - -[Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - - GAVARNI. PHDRE AT THE THTRE FRANAIS.] - -[Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - - GAVARNI. "CE QUI ME MANQUE MOI? UNE 'TITE MRE COMME A, QU'AURAIT - SOIN DE MON LINGE."] - -There was a greater division of labour amongst those who followed Cham, -since one chose "little women" as a speciality, another the theatre, -and another high-life. Assisted by photography, _Nadar_ turned again to -portraiture, which had been neglected since Daumier, and enjoyed a great -success with his series "Les Contemporains de Nadar." _Marcellin_ is the -first who spread over his sketches from the world of fashions and the -theatre all the _chic_ and fashionable glitter which lives in the novels -of those years. He is the chronicler of the great world, of balls and -_soires_; he shows the opera and the _Thtre des Italiens_, tells of -hunting and racing, attends the drives in the Corso, and at the call of -fashion promptly deserts the stones of Paris to look about him in -chteaux and country-houses, seaside haunts in France, and the little -watering-places of Germany, where the gaming-tables formed at that time -the rendezvous of well-bred Paris. Baden-Baden, where all the lions of -the day, the politicians and the artists and all the beauties of the -Paris salons, met together in July, offered the draughtsman a specially -wide field for studies of fashion and _chic_. Here began the series -"Histoires des variations de la mode depuis le XVI sicle jusqu' nos -jours." In a place where all classes of society, the great world and the -_demi-monde_, came into contact, Marcellin could not avoid the latter, -but even when he verged on this province he always knew how to maintain -a correct and distinguished bearing. He was peculiarly the draughtsman -of "society," of that brilliant, pleasure-loving, tainted, and yet -refined society of the Second Empire which turned Paris into a great -ball-room. - -[Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - - GUYS. STUDY OF A WOMAN.] - -_Randon_ is as plebeian as Marcellin is aristocratic. His speciality is -the stupid recruit who is marched through the streets with his "squad," -or the retired tradesman of small means, as Daudet has hit him off in M. -Chbe, the old gentleman seated on a bench in the Bois de Boulogne: "Let -the little ones come to me with their nurses." His province includes -everything that has nothing to do with _chic_. The whole life of the -Parisian people, the horse-fairs, the races at Poissy, and all the more -important occurrences by which the appearance of the city has been -transformed, may be followed in his drawings. When he travelled he did -not go to watering-places, but to the provinces, to Cherbourg and -Toulon, or to the manufacturing towns of Belgium and England, where he -observed life at the railway stations and the custom-house, at markets -and in barracks, at seaports and upon the street. Goods that are being -piled together, sacks that are being hoisted, ships being brought to -anchor, storehouses, wharfs, and docks--everywhere there is as much life -in his sketches as in a busy beehive. Nature is a great manufactory, and -man a living machine. The world is like an ant-hill, the dwelling of -curious insects furnished with teeth, feelers, indefatigable feet, and -marvellous organs proper for digging, sawing, building, and all things -possible, but furnished also with an incessant hunger. - -Soon afterwards there came _Hadol_, who made his dbut in 1855, with -pictures of the fashions; _Stop_, who specially represented the -provinces and Italy; _Draner_, who occupied himself with the Parisian -ballet and designed charming military uniforms for little dancing girls. -_Lonce Petit_ drew peasants and sketched the charms of the country in a -simple, familiar fashion--the mortal tedium of little towns, poor -villages, and primitive inns, the gossip of village beldames before the -house-door, the pompous dignity of village magistrates or of the head of -the fire brigade. He is specially noteworthy as a landscape artist. The -trees on the straight, monotonous road rise softly and delicately into -the air, and the sleepy sameness of tortuous village streets is -pregnantly rendered by a few strokes of the pencil. The land is like a -great kitchen garden. The fields and the arable ground with their dusty, -meagre soil chant a mighty song of hard labour, of the earnest, toilsome -existence of the peasant folk. - -[Illustration: _Journal Amusant._ - - GRVIN. NOS PARISIENNES. - - "Tiens! ne me parle pas de lui, je ne peux pas le souffrir, mme en - peinture!" - - "Cependant, s'il t'offrait de t'epouser?" - - "a, c'est autre chose."] - -_Andrieux_ and _Morland_ discovered the _femme entretenue_, though -afterwards her best known delineator was _Grvin_, an able, original, -facile, and piquant draughtsman, whom some--exaggerating beyond a -doubt--called the direct successor of Gavarni. Grvin's women are a -little monotonous, with their ringleted chignons, their expressionless -eyes which try to look big, their perverse little noses, their defiant, -pouting lips, and the cheap toilettes which they wear with so much -_chic_. But they too have gone to their rest with the grisettes of -Monnier and Gavarni, and have left the field to the women of Mars and -Forain. In these days Grvin's work seems old-fashioned, since it is no -longer modern and not yet historical; nevertheless it marks an epoch, -like that of Gavarni. The _bals publics_, the _bals de l'Opra_, those -of the _Jardin Mabille_, the _Closerie des Lilas_, the races, the -promenades in the _Bois de Vincennes_, the seaside resorts, all places -where the _demi-monde_ pitched its tent in the time of Napoleon III, -were also the home of the artist. "How they love in Paris" and "Winter -in Paris" were his earliest series. His finest and greatest drawings, -the scenes from the Parisian hotels and "The English in Paris," appeared -in 1867, the year of the Exhibition. His later series, published as -albums--"Les filles d've," "Le monde amusant," "Fantaisies -parisiennes," "Paris vicieux," "La Chane des Dames"--are a song of -songs upon the refinements of life. - -It does not lie within the plan of this book to follow the history of -drawing any further. Our intention was merely to show that painting had -to follow the path trodden by Rowlandson and Cruikshank, Erhard and -Richter, Daumier and Gavarni, if it was to be art of the nineteenth -century, and not to remain for ever dependent on the old masters. -Absolute beauty is not good food for art; to be strong it must be -nourished on the ideas of the century. When the world had ceased to draw -inspiration from the masterpieces of the past merely with the object of -depicting by their aid scenes out of long-buried epochs, there was for -the first time a prospect that mere discipleship would be overcome, and -that a new and original painting would be developed through the fresh -and independent study of nature. The passionate craving of the age had -to be this: to feel at home on the earth, in this long-neglected world -of reality, which hides the unsuspected treasure of vivid works of art. -The rising sun is just as beautiful now as on the first day, the streams -flow, the meadows grow green, the vibrating passions are at war now as -in other times, the immortal heart of nature still beats beneath its -rough covering, and its pulsation finds an echo in the heart of man. It -was necessary to descend from ideals to existing fact, and the world had -to be once more discovered by painters as in the days of the first -Renaissance. The question was how by the aid of all the devices of -colour to represent the multifarious forms of human activity: the phases -and conditions of life, fashion as well as misery, work and pleasure, -the drawing-room and the street, the teeming activity of towns and the -quiet labour of peasants. The essential thing was to write the entire -natural history of the age. And this way, the way from museums to -nature, and from the past to the world of living men, was shown by the -English to the French and German painters. - -[Illustration: _Mansell Photo._ - - ROMNEY. SERENA.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -ENGLISH PAINTING TO 1850 - - -"The English school has an advantage over others in being young: its -tradition is barely a century old, and, unlike the Continental schools, -it is not hampered by antiquated Greek and Latin theories. What -fortunate conditions it has for breaking away into really modern work! -whereas in other nations the weight of tradition presses hard on the -boldest innovators. The English do not look back; on the contrary, they -look into life around them." So wrote Burger-Thor in one of his Salons -in 1867. - -Yet England was not unaffected by the retrospective tendency on the -Continent. Perhaps it might even be demonstrated that this movement had -its earliest origin on British soil. England had its "Empire style" in -architecture fifty years before there was any empire in France; it had -its Classical painting when David worked at Cupids with Boucher, and it -gave the world a Romanticist at the very time when the literature of the -Continent became "Classical." _The Lady of the Lake_, _Marmion_, _The -Lord of the Isles_, _The Fair Maid of Perth_, _Old Mortality_, -_Ivanhoe_, _Quentin Durward_, who is there that does not know these -names by heart? We have learnt history from Walter Scott, and that -programme of the artistic crafts which Lorenz Gedon drew up in 1876, -when he arranged the department _Works of our Fathers_ in the Munich -Exhibition, had been carried out by Scott as early as 1816. For Scott -laid out much of the money he received for his romances in building -himself a castle in the style of the baronial strongholds of the Middle -Ages: "Towers and turrets all imitated from a royal building in -Scotland, windows and gables painted with the arms of the clans, with -lions couchant," rooms "filled with high sideboards and carved chests, -targes, plaids, Highland broadswords, halberts, and suits of armour, and -adorned with antlers hung up as trophies." Here was a Makartesque studio -very many years before Makart. - -Amongst the painters there were Classicists and Romanticists; but they -were neither numerous nor of importance. What England produced in the -way of "great art" in the beginning of last century could be erased from -the complete chart of British painting without any essential gap being -made in the course of its development. Reynolds had had to pay dear for -approaching the Italians in his "Ugolino," his "Macbeth," and his "Young -Hercules." And a yet more arid mannerism befell all the others who -followed him on the way to Italy, among them _James Barry_, who, after -studying for years in Italy, settled down in London in 1771, with the -avowed intention of providing England with a classical form of art. He -believed that he had surpassed his own models, the Italian classic -painters, by six pompous representations of the "Culture and Progress of -Human Knowledge," which he completed in 1783, in the theatre of the -Society for the Encouragement of Arts. The many-sided _James Northcote_, -equally mediocre in everything, survives rather by his biographies of -Reynolds and Titian than by the great canvases which he painted for -Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery. That which became best known was "The -Murder of the Children in the Tower." _Henry Fuseli_, who was also much -occupied with authorship and as _preceptor Britanni_, always mentioned -with great respect by his numerous pupils, produced a series of -exceedingly thoughtful and imaginative works, to which he was incited by -Klopstock and Lavater. By preference he illustrated Milton and -Shakespeare, and amongst this series of pictures his painting of -"Titania with the Ass," from Shakespeare's _Midsummer Night's Dream_, in -the London National Gallery, is probably the best. His pupil _William -Etty_ was saturated with the traditions of the Venetian school; he is -the British Makart, and followed rather heavily and laboriously in the -track of Titian, exploring the realms of nude beauty, and toiling to -discover that secret of blooming colour which gleams from the female -forms of the Venetians. The assiduous _Benjamin Robert Haydon_, a spirit -ever seeking, striving, and reflecting, became, like Gros in France, a -victim of the grand style. He would naturally have preferred to paint -otherwise, and more simply. The National Gallery possesses a charming -picture by him of a London street (for some years past on loan at -Leicester), which represents a crowd watching a Punch and Judy show. -But, like Gros, he held it a sin against the grand style to occupy -himself with such matters. He thought it only permissible to paint -sacred subjects or subjects from ancient history upon large spaces of -canvas; and he sank ever deeper into his theories, reaching the -profoundest abyss of abstract science when he made diligent anatomical -studies of the muscles of a lion, in order to fashion the heroic frames -of warriors on the same plan. His end, on 26th June 1846, was like that -of the Frenchman. There was found beside his body a paper on which he -had written: "God forgive me. Amen. Finis," with the quotation from -Shakespeare's _Lear_: "Stretch me no longer on the rack of this rough -world." All these masters are more interesting for their human qualities -than for their works, which, with their extravagant colour, forced -gestures, and follies of every description, contain no new thing worthy -of further development. Even when they sought to make direct copies from -Continental performances, they did not attain the graceful sweep of -their models. The refinements which they imitated became clumsy and -awkward in their hands, and they remained half _bourgeois_ and half -barbaric. - -The liberating influence of English art was not found in the province of -the great painting, and it is probably not without significance that the -few who tried to import it came to grief in the experiment. There can be -no doubt that such art goes more against the grain of the English -nature than of any other. Even in the days of scholastic philosophy the -English asserted the doctrine that there are only individuals in nature. -In the beginning of modern times a new era, grounded on the observation -of nature, was promulgated from England. Bacon had little to say about -beauty: he writes against the proportions and the principle of selection -in art, and therefore against the ideal. Handsome men, he says, have -seldom possessed great qualities. And in the same way the English stage -had just as little bent for the august and rhythmical grandeur of -classical literature. When he stabbed Polonius, Garrick never dreamed of -moving according to the taste of Boileau, and was probably as different -from the Greek leader of a chorus as Hogarth from David. The peculiar -merits of English literature and science have been rooted from the time -of their first existence in their capacity for observation. This -explains the contempt for regularity in Shakespeare, the feeling for -concrete fact in Bacon. English philosophy is positive, exact, -utilitarian, and highly moral. Hobbes and Locke, John Stuart Mill and -Buckle, in England take the place of Descartes, Spinoza, Leibnitz, and -Kant upon the Continent. Amongst English historians Carlyle is the only -poet: all the rest are learned prose-writers who collect observations, -combine experiences, arrange dates, weigh possibilities, reconcile -facts, discover laws, and hoard and increase positive knowledge. The -eighteenth century had seen the rise of the novel as the picture of -contemporary life; in Hogarth this national spirit was first turned to -account in painting. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, again, -the good qualities of English art consisted not in bold ideality, but in -sharpness of observation, sobriety, and flexibility of spirit. - -[Illustration: GEORGE ROMNEY.] - -Their proper domain was still to be found in portraiture, and if none of -the new portrait painters can be compared with the great ancestors of -English art, they are none the less superior to all their contemporaries -on the Continent. _George Romney_, who belongs rather to the eighteenth -century, holds the mean course between the refined classic art of Sir -Joshua and the imaginative poetic art of Thomas Gainsborough. Less -personal and less profound in characterisation, he was, on the other -hand, the most dexterous painter of drapery in his age: a man who knew -all the secrets of the trade, and possessed, at the same time, that art -which is so much valued in portrait painters--the art of beautifying his -models without making his picture unlike the original. Professional -beauties beheld themselves presented in their counterfeit precisely as -they wished to appear, and accorded him, therefore, a fervent adoration. -And after his return from Italy in 1775 his fame was so widespread that -it outstripped Gainsborough's and equalled that of Reynolds. Court -beauties and celebrated actresses left no stone unturned to have their -portraits introduced into one of his "compositions"; for Romney eagerly -followed the fashion of allegorical portraiture which had been set by -Reynolds, representing persons with the emblem of a god or of one of the -muses. Romney has painted the famous Lady Hamilton, to say nothing of -others, as Magdalen, Joan of Arc, a Bacchante, and an Odalisque. - -[Illustration: _Mag. of Art._ - - ROMNEY. LADY HAMILTON AS EUPHROSYNE.] - -Great as his reputation had been at the close of the eighteenth century, -it was outshone twenty years later by that of _Sir Thomas Lawrence_. -Born in Bristol in 1769, Lawrence had scarcely given up the calling of -an actor before he saw all England in raptures over his genius as a -painter. The catalogue of his portraits is a complete list of all who -were at the time pre-eminent for talent or beauty. He received fabulous -sums, which he spent with the grace of a man of the world. In 1815 he -was commissioned to paint for the Windsor Gallery the portraits of all -the "Victors of Waterloo," from the Duke of Wellington to the Emperor -Alexander. The Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle gave him an opportunity for -getting the portraits of representatives of the various Courts. All the -capitals of Europe, which he visited for this purpose, received him with -princely honours. He was member of all the Academies under the sun, and -President of that in London; but, as a natural reaction, this -over-estimation of earlier years has been followed by an equally -undeserved undervaluation of his works in these days. Beneath the -fashionable exterior of his ceremonial pictures naturalness and -simplicity are often wanting, and so too are the deeper powers of -characterisation, firm drawing, and real vitality. A feminine coquetry -has taken the place of character. His drawing has a banal effect, and -his colouring is monotonous in comparison with that realism which -Reynolds shares with the old masters. It is easy to confound the -majority of his pictures of ceremonies with those of Winterhalter, and -his smaller portraits with pretty fashion plates; yet one cannot but -admire his ease of execution and nobility of composition. Several of his -pictures of women, in particular, are touched by an easy grace and a -fine charm of poetic sensuousness in which he approaches Gainsborough. -Not many at that time could have painted such pretty children's heads, -or given young women such an attractive and familiar air of life. With -what a girlish glance of innocence and melancholy does Mrs. Siddons look -out upon the world from the canvas of Lawrence: how piquant is her white -Greek garment, with its black girdle and the white turban. And what -subtle delicacy there is in the portrait of Miss Farren as she flits -with muff and fur-trimmed cloak through a bright green summer landscape. -The reputation of Lawrence will rise once more when his empty formal -pieces have found their way into lumber-rooms, and a greater number of -his pictures of women--pictures so full of indescribable fascination, so -redolent of mysterious charm--are accessible to the public. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - LAWRENCE. MRS. SIDDONS.] - -As minor stars, the soft and tender _John Hoppner_, the attractively -superficial _William Beechey_, the celebrated pastellist _John Russell_, -and the vigorously energetic _John Jackson_ had their share with him in -public favour, whilst _Henry Raeburn_ shone in Scotland as a star of the -first magnitude. - -He was a born painter. Wilkie says in one of his letters from Madrid, -that the pictures of Velasquez put him in mind of Raeburn; and certain -works of the Scot, such as the portrait of Lord Newton, the famous _bon -vivant_ and doughty drinker, are indeed performances of such power that -comparison with this mighty name is no profanation. At a time when there -was a danger that portrait painting would sink in the hands of Lawrence -into an insipid painting of prettiness, Raeburn stood alone by the -simplicity and naturalistic impressiveness of his portraiture. The three -hundred and twenty-five portraits by him which were exhibited in the -Royal Scottish Academy in 1876, gave as exhaustive a picture of the life -of Edinburgh at the close of the century as those of Sir Joshua gave of -the life of London. All the celebrated Scotchmen of his time--Robertson, -Hume, Ferguson, and Scott--were painted by him. Altogether he painted -over six hundred portraits; and, small though the number may seem -compared with the two thousand of Reynolds, Raeburn's artistic qualities -are almost the greater. The secret of his success lies in his vigorous -healthiness, in the indescribable _furia_ of his brush, in the harmony -and truth of his colour-values. His figures are informed by a startling -intensity of life. His old pensioners, and his sailors in particular, -have something kingly in the grand air of their calm and noble -countenances. Armstrong has given him a place between Frans Hals and -Velasquez, and occasionally his conception of colour even recalls the -modern Frenchmen, as it were Manet in his Hals period. He paints his -models, just as they come into contact with him in life, in the frank -light of day and without any attempt at the dusk of the old masters; of -raiment he gives only as much as the comprehension of the picture -demands, and depicts character in large and simple traits. - -[Illustration: LAWRENCE. PRINCESS AMELIA.] - -The importance of West and Copley, two Americans who were active in -England, is that they were the first to apply the qualities acquired in -English portrait painting to pictures on a large scale. - -_Benjamin West_ has undoubtedly been over-praised by his contemporaries, -and by a critic of the present day he has, not unfairly, been designated -"the king of mediocrity." At his appearance he was interesting to -Europeans merely as an anthropological curiosity,--as the first son of -barbaric America who had used a paint brush. A thoroughly American puff -preceded his entry into the Eternal City in 1760. It was reported that -as the son of a quaker farmer he had grown up amongst his father's -slaves in the immediate neighbourhood of the Indians, and had painted -good portraits in Philadelphia and New York without having ever seen a -work of art. People were delighted when, on being brought into the -Vatican, he clapped his hands and compared the Apollo Belvidere to an -Indian chief. In the art of making himself interesting "the young -savage" was ahead of all his patrons; and as he followed the ruling -classical tendency with great aptitude, within the course of a year he -was made an honorary member of the Academies of Parma, Bologna, and -Florence, and praised by the critics of Rome as ranking with Mengs as -the first painter of his day. In 1763, at a time when Hogarth and -Reynolds, Wilson and Gainsborough, were in the fulness of their powers, -he went to London; and as people are always inclined to value most -highly what they do not possess, he soon won an important position for -himself, even beside these masters. Hogarth produced nothing but -"_genre_ pictures," Wilson only landscapes, and Reynolds and -Gainsborough portraits: West brought to the English what they did not as -yet possess--a "great art." - -[Illustration: LAWRENCE. THE ENGLISH MOTHER.] - -His first picture--in the London National Gallery--"Pylades and Orestes -brought as Hostages before Iphigenia," is a tiresome product of that -Classicism which upon the Continent found its principal representatives -in Mengs and David: it is stiff in drawing, its composition is -suggestive of a bas-relief, and its cold grey colouring is classically -academic. His other pictures from antique and sacred history stand much -on the same level as those of Wilhelm Kaulbach, with whose works they -share their stilted dignity, their systematically antiquarian structure, -and their mechanical combination of forms borrowed in a spiritless -fashion from the Cinquecentisti. - -Fortunately West has left behind him something different from these -ambitious attempts; for on the occasions when he turned away from the -great style he created works of lasting importance. This is specially -true of some fine historical pictures dealing with his own age, which -will preserve his name for ever. "The Death of General Wolfe" at the -storming of Quebec on 13th September 1759--exhibited at the opening of -the Royal Academy in 1768--is by its very sobriety a sincere, honest, -and sane piece of work, which will maintain its value as an historical -document. It was just at this time that so great a part was played by -the question of costume, and West encountered the same difficulties -which Gottfried Schadow was obliged to face when he represented Ziethen -and the Old Dessauer in the costume of their age. The connoisseurs held -that such a sublime theme would only admit of antique dress. If West in -their despite represented the general and his soldiers in their -regulation uniform, it seems at the present time no more than the result -of healthy common sense, but at that time it was an artistic event of -great importance, and one which was only accomplished in France after -the work of several decades. In that country Grard and Girodet still -clung to the belief that they could only raise the military picture to -the level of the great style by giving the soldiers of the Empire the -appearance of Greek and Roman statues. Gros is honoured as the man who -first ceased from giving modern soldiers an air of the antique. But the -American Englishman had anticipated him by forty years. As in -Gricault's "Raft of the Medusa," it was only the pyramidal composition -in West's picture that betrayed the painter's alliance with the -Classical school; in other respects it forecast the realistic programme -for decades to come, and indicated the course of development which leads -through Gros onwards. If in Gros men are treated purely as accessories -to throw a hero into relief, in West they stand out in action. They -behave in the picture spontaneously as they do in life. That is to say, -there is in West's work of 1768 the element through which Horace -Vernet's pictures of 1830 are to be distinguished from those of Gros. - -This realistic programme was carried out with yet greater consistency by -West's younger compatriot _John Singleton Copley_, who after a short -sojourn in Italy migrated to England in 1775. His chief works in the -London National Gallery depict in the same way events from contemporary -history--"The Death of the Earl of Chatham, 7th April 1778" and "The -Death of Major Pierson, 6th January 1781,"--and it is by no means -impossible that when David, in the midst of the classicising tendencies -of his age, ventured to paint "The Death of Marat" and "The Death of -Lepelletier," he was led to do so by engravings after Copley. In the -representation of such things other painters of the epoch had draped -their figures in antique costume, called genii and river-gods into -action, and given a Roman character to the whole. Copley, like West, -offers a plain, matter-of-fact representation of the event, without any -rhetorical pathos. And what raises him above West is his liquid, massive -colour, suggestive of the old masters. In none of his works could West -set himself free from the dead grey colour of the Classical school, -whereas Copley's "Death of William Pitt" is the result of intimate -studies of Titian and the Dutch. The way the light falls on the perukes -of the men and the brown, wainscoted walls puts one in mind of -Rembrandt's "Anatomical Lecture"; only, instead of a pathetic scene from -the theatre, we have a collection of good portraits in the manner of the -Dutch studies of shooting matches. - -[Illustration: _Mansell Photo_ - - LAWRENCE. CAROLINE OF BRUNSWICK, QUEEN OF GEORGE IV.] - -[Illustration: LAWRENCE. THE COUNTESS GOWER.] - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - RAEBURN. SIR WALTER SCOTT.] - -That this unhackneyed conception of daily life has its special home in -England is further demonstrated by the work of _Daniel Maclise_, who -depicted "The Meeting of Wellington and Blcher," "The Death of Nelson," -and other patriotic themes upon walls and canvases several yards square, -with appalling energy, promptitude, and expenditure of muscle. By these -he certainly did better service to national pride than to art. -Nevertheless, with their forcible, healthy realism they contrast -favourably with the mythological subjects so universally produced on the -Continent at that time. - -Beside the portrait painters of men stand the portrait painters of -animals. Since the days of Elias Riedinger animal painting had fallen -into general disesteem on the Continent. Thorwaldsen, the first of the -Classicists who allowed animals to appear in his works (as he did in his -Alexander frieze), dispensed with any independent studies of nature, and -contented himself with imitating the formal models on the frieze of the -Parthenon; or, in lack of a Grecian exemplar, simply drew out of the -depths of his inner consciousness. Especially remarkable is the sovran -contempt with which he treated the most familiar domestic creatures. -German historical painting knew still less what to make of the brute -creation, because it only recognised beauty in the profundity of ideas, -and ideas have nothing to do with beasts. Its four-footed creatures have -a philosophic depth of contemplation, and are bad studies after nature. -Kaulbach's "Reinecke" and the inclination to transplant human -sentiments into the world of brutes delayed until the sixties any -devoted study of the animal soul. France, too, before the days of -Troyon, had nothing to show worth mentioning. But in England, the land -of sport, animal painting was evolved directly from the old painting of -the chase, without being seduced from its proper course. Fox-hunting has -been popular in England since the time of Charles I. Racing came into -fashion not long after, and with racing came that knowledge of -horseflesh which has been developed in England further than elsewhere. -Since the seventeenth century red deer have been preserved in the -English parks. It is therefore comprehensible that English art was early -occupied with these animals, and since it was sportsmen who cared most -about them, the painter was at first their servant. He had not so much -to paint pictures as reminiscences of sport and the chase. His first -consideration in painting a horse was to paint a fine horse; as to its -being a fine picture, that was quite a secondary matter. _John Wootton_ -and _George Stubbs_ were in this sense portrayers of racehorses. The -latter, however, took occasion to emancipate himself from his patrons by -representing the noble animal, not standing at rest by his manger, or -with a groom on his back and delighting in the consciousness of his own -beauty, but as he was in action and amongst pictorial surroundings. - -[Illustration: WEST. THE DEATH OF NELSON.] - -[Illustration: _Mansell Photo_ - - MACLISE. THE WATERFALL, CORNWALL.] - -[Illustration: COPLEY. THE DEATH OF THE EARL OF CHATHAM.] - -[Illustration: MACLISE. NOAH'S SACRIFICE.] - -Soon afterwards _George Morland_ made his appearance. He made a -specialty of old nags, and was perhaps the most important master of the -brush that the English school produced at all. His pictures have the -same magic as the landscapes of Gainsborough. He painted life on the -high-road and in front of village inns--scenes like those which Isaac -Ostade had represented a century before: old horses being led to water -amid the sunny landscape of the downs, market carts rumbling heavily -through the rough and sunken lanes, packhorses coming back to their -stalls of an evening tired out with the day's exertions, riders pulling -up at the village inn or chatting with the pretty landlady. And he has -done these things with the delicacy of an old Dutch painter. It is -impossible to say whether Morland had ever seen the pictures of Adriaen -Brouwer; but this greatest master of technique amongst the Flemings can -alone be compared with Morland in verve and artistic many-sidedness; and -Morland resembled him also in his adventurous life and his early death. -To the spirit and dash of Brouwer he joins the refinement of -Gainsborough in his landscapes, and Rowlandson's delicate feeling for -feminine beauty in his figures. He does not paint fine ladies, but women -in their everyday clothes, and yet they are surrounded by a grace -recalling Chardin: young mothers going to see their children who are -with the nurse, smart little tavern hostesses in their white aprons and -coquettish caps busily serving riders with drink, and charming city -madams in gay summer garb sitting of a Sunday afternoon with their -children at a tea-garden. Over the works of Morland there lies all the -chivalrous grace of the time of Werther, and that fine Anglo-Saxon aroma -exhaled by the works of English painters of the present day. Genuine as -is the fame which he enjoys as an animal painter, it is these little -social scenes which show his finest side; and only coloured engraving, -which was brought to such a high pitch in the England of those days, is -able to give an idea of the delicacy of hue in the originals. - -[Illustration: MACLISE. MALVOLIO AND THE COUNTESS.] - -[Illustration: _Mansell & Co._ - - MORLAND. HORSES IN A STABLE.] - -Morland's brother-in-law, the painter and engraver _James Ward_, born in -1769 and dying in 1859, united this old English school with the modern. -The portrait which accompanies the obituary notice in the _Art Journal_ -is that of a very aged gentleman, with a grey beard and thick, white, -bristly hair. The pictures which he painted when he had this -appearance--and they are the most familiar--were exceedingly weak and -insipid works. In comparison with Morland's broad, liquid, and -harmonious painting, that of Ward seems burnished, sparkling, flaunting, -anecdotic, and petty. But James Ward was not always old James Ward. In -his early days he was one of the greatest and manliest artists of the -English school, with whom only Briton Rivire can be compared amongst -the moderns. When his "Lioness" appeared in the Royal Academy Exhibition -of 1816 he was justly hailed as the best animal painter after Snyders, -and from that time one masterpiece followed another for ten long years. -What grace and power there are in his horses and dogs! In pictures of -this sort Stubbs was graceful and delicate; Ward painted the same horse -in as sporting a manner and with the same knowledge, but with an -artistic power such as no one had before him. His field of work was -wide-reaching. He painted little girls with the thoroughly English -feeling of Morland, and had the whole animal world for his domain. -Lions, snakes, cats, pigs, oxen, cows, sheep, swans, fowls, frogs are -the characters in his pictures. And characters they were, for he never -humanised the looks of his four-footed models, as others did later. The -home of his animals is not the drawing-room, but the woods and meadows, -the air and the gardens. His broad, weighty manner was transformed first -into extravagant virtuosity and then into pettiness of style during the -last thirty years of his life, when he became senile. His reputation -paled more than he deserved before the star of the world-famous -Landseer. - -[Illustration: MORLAND. THE CORN BIN.] - -The most popular animal painter, not merely of England but of the whole -century, was _Edwin Landseer_. For fifty years his works formed the -chief features of attraction in the Royal Academy. Engravings from him -had such a circulation in the country that in the sixties there was -scarcely a house in which there did not hang one of his horses or dogs -or stags. Even the Continent was flooded with engravings of his -pictures, and Landseer suffered greatly from this popularity. He is -much better than the reproductions with their fatal gloss allow any one -to suppose, and his pictures can be judged by them just as little as can -Raphael's "School of Athens" from Jacobi's engraving. - -[Illustration: _Portfolio._ - - MORLAND. GOING TO THE FAIR.] - -Edwin Landseer came of a family of artists. His father, who was an -engraver, sent him out into the free world of nature as a boy, and made -him sketch donkeys and goats and sheep. When he was fourteen he went to -Haydon, the prophet on matters of art; and, on the advice of this -singular being, studied the sculptures of the Parthenon. He "anatomised -animals under my eyes," writes Haydon, "copied my anatomical drawings, -and applied my principles of instruction to animal painting. His genius, -directed in this fashion, has, as a matter of fact, arrived at -satisfactory results." Landseer was the spoilt child of fortune. There -is no other English painter who can boast of having been made a member -of the Royal Academy at twenty-four. In high favour at Court, honoured -by the fashionable world, and tenderly treated by criticism, he went on -his way triumphant. The region over which he held sway was narrow, but -he stood out in it as in life, powerful and commanding. The exhibition -of his pictures which took place after his death in 1873 contained three -hundred and fourteen oil paintings and one hundred and forty-six -sketches. The property which he left amounted to 160,000; and a further -sum of 55,000 was realised by the sale of his unsold pictures. Even -Meissonier, the best paid painter of the century, did not leave behind -him five and a half million francs. - -One reason of Landseer's artistic success is perhaps due to that in him -which was inartistic--to his effort to make animals more beautiful than -they really are, and to make them the medium for expressing human -sentiment. All the dogs and horses and stags which he painted after -1855, and through which he was made specially familiar to the great -public, are arrayed in their Sunday clothes, their glossiest hide and -their most magnificent horns. And in addition to this he "Darwinises" -them: that is to say, he tries to make his animals more than animals; he -lends a human sentimental trait to animal character; and that is what -distinguishes him to his disadvantage from really great animal painters -like Potter, Snyders, Troyon, Jadin, and Rosa Bonheur. He paints the -human temperament beneath the animal mask. His stags have expressive -countenances, and his dogs appear to be gifted with reason and even -speech. At one moment there is a philosophic dignity in their behaviour, -and at another a frivolity in their pleasures. Landseer discovered the -sentimentality of dogs, and treated them as capable of culture. His -celebrated picture "Jack in Office" is almost insulting in its -characterisation: there they are, Jack the sentry, an old female dog -like a poor gentlewoman, another dog like a professional beggar, and so -on. And this habit of bringing animals on the stage, as if they were the -actors of tragical, melodramatic, or farcical scenes, made him a -peculiar favourite with the great mass of people. Nor were his -picture-stories merely easy to read and understand; the characteristic -titles he invented for each of them--"Alexander and Diogenes," "A -Distinguished Member of the Humane Society," and the like--excited -curiosity as much as the most carefully selected name of a novel. But -this search after points and sentimental anecdotes only came into -prominence in his last period, when his technique had degenerated and -given way to a shiny polish and a forced elegance which obliged him to -provide extraneous attractions. His popularity would not be so great, -but his artistic importance would be quite the same, if these last -pictures did not exist at all. - -[Illustration: MORLAND. THE RETURN FROM MARKET.] - -But the middle period of Landseer, ranging from 1840 to 1850, contains -masterpieces which set him by the side of the best animal painters of -all times and nations. The well-known portrait of a Newfoundland dog of -1838; that of the Prince Consort's favourite greyhound of 1841; "The -Otter Speared" of 1844, with its panting and yelping pack brought to a -standstill beneath a high wall of rock; the dead doe which a fawn is -unsuspectingly approaching, in "A Random Shot," 1848; "The Lost Sheep" -of 1850, that wanders frightened and bleating through a wide and lonely -landscape covered with snow,--these and many other pictures, in their -animation and simple naturalness, are precious examples of the fresh and -delicate observation peculiar to him at that time. Landseer's portrait -reveals to us a robust and serious man, with a weather-beaten face, a -short white beard, and a snub bulldog nose. Standing six feet high, and -having the great heavy figure of a Teuton stepping out of his aboriginal -forest, he was indeed much more like a country gentleman than a London -artist. He was a sportsman who wandered about all day long in the air -with a gun on his arm, and he painted his animal pictures with all the -love and joy of a child of nature. That accounts for their strength, -their convincing power, and their vivid force. It is as if he had become -possessed of a magic cap with which he could draw close to animals -without being observed, and surprise their nature and their inmost life. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - LANDSEER. A DISTINGUISHED MEMBER OF THE HUMANE SOCIETY.] - -Landseer's subject-matter and conception of life are indicated by the -pictures which have been named. Old masters like Snyders and Rubens had -represented the contrast between man and beast in their boar and lion -hunts. It was not wild nature that Landseer depicted, but nature tamed. -Rubens, Snyders, and Delacroix displayed their horses, dogs, lions, and -tigers in bold action, or in the flame of passion. But Landseer -generally introduced his animals in quiet situations--harmless and -without fear--in the course of their ordinary life. - -[Illustration: _Mag. of Art._ - - LANDSEER. THE LAST MOURNER AT THE SHEPHERD'S GRAVE.] - -Horses, which Leonardo, Rubens, Velasquez, Wouwerman, and the earlier -English artists delighted to render, he painted but seldom, and when he -painted them it was with a less penetrating comprehension. But lions, -which had been represented in savage passion or in quiet dignity by -artists from Rubens to Decamps, were for him also a subject of long and -exhaustive studies, which had their results in the four colossal lions -round the base of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square. Here the -Englishman makes a great advance on Thorwaldsen, who designed the model -for the monument in Lucerne without ever having seen a lion. Landseer's -brutes, both as they are painted and as they are cast in bronze, are -genuine lions, cruel and catlike, although in savageness and bold -passion they are not to be compared with those of Delacroix, nor with -those of his elder compatriot, James Ward. On the other hand, stags and -roes were really first introduced into painting by Landseer. Those of -Robert Hills, who had previously been reckoned the best painter of -stags, are timid, suspicious creatures, while Landseer's are the true -kings of the forest, the shooting of which ought to be punished as an -act of assassination. His principal field of study was the Highlands. -Here he painted these proud creatures fighting on the mountain slopes, -swimming the lake, or as they stand at a gaze in their quiet beauty. -With what a bold spirit they raise their heads to snuff the mountain -air, whilst their antlers show their delight in battle and the joy of -victory. And how gentle and timid is the noble, defenceless roe in -Landseer's pictures. - -[Illustration: LANDSEER. HIGH LIFE.] - -He had also a delight in painting sheep lost in a snow-storm. But dogs -were his peculiar specialty. Landseer discovered the dog. That of -Snyders was a treacherous, snarling cur; that of Bewick a robber and a -thief. Landseer has made the dog the companion of man, an adjunct of -human society, the generous friend and true comrade who is the last -mourner at the shepherd's grave. Landseer first studied his noble -countenance and his thoughtful eyes, and in doing so he opened a new -province to art, in which Briton Rivire went further at a later period. - -But yet another and still wider province was opened to continental -nations by the art of England. In an epoch of archological -resuscitations and romantic regrets for the past, it brought French and -German painters to a consciousness that the man of the nineteenth -century in his daily life might be a perfectly legitimate subject for -art. Engravings after the best pictures of Wilkie hang round the walls -of Louis Knaus's reception-room in Berlin. And that in itself betrays to -us a fragment of the history of art. The painters who saw the English -people with the eyes of Walter Scott, Fielding, Goldsmith, and Dickens -were a generation in advance of those who depicted the German people in -the spirit of Immermann, Auerbach, Gustav Freytag, and Fritz Reuter. The -English advanced quietly on the road trodden by Hogarth in the -eighteenth century, whilst upon the Continent the nineteenth century had -almost completed half its course before art left anything which will -allow future generations to see the men of the period as they really -were. Since the days of Fielding and Goldsmith the novel of manners had -been continually growing. Burns, the poet of the plough, and -Wordsworth, the singer of rustic folk, had given a vogue to that poetry -of peasant life and those village tales which have since gone the round -of all Europe. England began at that time to become the richest country -in the world, and great fortunes were made. Painters were thus obliged -to provide for the needs of a new and wealthy middle class. This fact -gives us the explanation both of the merits and the faults which are -characteristic of English _genre_ painting. - -[Illustration: LANDSEER. LOW LIFE.] - -In the first quarter of the nineteenth century _David Wilkie_, the -English Knaus, was the chief _genre_ painter of the world. Born in 1785 -in the small Scotch village of Cults, where his father was the -clergyman, he passed a happy childhood, and possibly had to thank his -youthful impressions for the consistent cheerfulness, the good-humour -and kindliness that smile out of his pictures, and make such a contrast -with Hogarth's biting acerbity. At fourteen he entered the Edinburgh -School of Art, where he worked for four years under the historical -painter John Graham. Having returned to Cults, he painted his -landscapes. A fair which he saw in the neighbouring village gave the -impulse for his earliest picture of country life, "Pitlessie Fair." He -sold it for five and twenty pounds, and determined in 1805 to try his -luck with this sum in London. In the very next year his "Village -Politicians" excited attention in the exhibition. From that time he was -a popular artist. Every one of his numerous pictures--"The Blind -Fiddler," "The Card Players," "The Rent Day," "The Cut Finger," "The -Village Festival"--called forth a storm of applause. After a short -residence in Paris, where the Louvre gave him a more intimate knowledge -of the Dutch, came his masterpieces, "Blind-Man's Buff," "Distraining -for Rent," "Reading the Will," "The Rabbit on the Wall," "The Penny -Wedding," "The Chelsea Pensioners," and so forth. Even later, after he -had become an Academician, he kept to plain and simple themes, in spite -of the reproaches of his colleagues, who thought that art was vulgarised -by the treatment of subjects that contained so little dignity. It was -only at the end of his life that he became untrue to himself. His -reverence for Teniers and Ostade was not sufficient to outweigh the -impression made on him during a tour taken in 1825 through Italy, Spain, -Holland, and Germany, by the artistic treasures of the Continent, and -especially Murillo and Velasquez. He said he had long lived in darkness, -but from that time forth could say with the great Correggio: "_Anch' io -sono pittore._" He renounced all that he had painted before which had -made him famous, and showed himself to be one of the many great artists -of those years who had no individuality, or ventured to have none. He -would have been the Burns of painting had he remained as he was. And -thus he offered further evidence that the museums and the Muses are -contradictory conceptions; since the modern painter always runs the risk -of falling helplessly from one influence into another, where he is bent -on combining the historical student of art with the artist. Of the -pictures that he exhibited after his return in 1829, two dealt with -Italian and three with Spanish subjects. The critics were loud in -praise; he had added a fresh branch of laurel to his crown. Yet, -historically considered, he would stand on a higher pedestal if he had -never seen more than a dozen good pictures of Teniers, Ostade, Metsu, -Jan Steen, and Brouwer. Now he began to copy his travelling sketches in -a spiritless fashion; he only represented _pifferari_, smugglers, and -monks, who, devoid of all originality, might have been painted by one of -the Dsseldorfers. Even "John Knox Preaching," which is probably the -best picture of his last period, is no exception. - -"He seemed to me," writes Delacroix, who saw him in Paris after his -return from Spain,--"he seemed to me to have been carried utterly out of -his depth by the pictures he had seen. How is it that a man of his age -can be so influenced by works which are radically opposed to his own? -However, he died soon after, and, as I have been told, in a very -melancholy state of mind." Death overtook him in 1841, on board the -steamer _Oriental_, just as he was returning from a tour in Turkey. At -half-past eight in the evening the vessel was brought to, and as the -lights of the beacon mingled with those of the stars the waters passed -over the corpse of David Wilkie. - -[Illustration: _Mansell Photo_ - - LANDSEER. JACK IN OFFICE.] - -[Illustration: WILKIE. BLIND-MAN'S BUFF.] - -In judging his position in the history of art, only those works come -into consideration which he executed before that journey of 1825. Then -he drew as a labour of love the familiar scenes of the household hearth, -the little dramas, the comic or touching episodes that take place in the -village, the festivals, the dancing, and the sports of the country-folk, -and their meeting in the ale-house. At this time, when as a young -painter he merely expressed himself and was ignorant of the efforts of -continental painting, he was an artist of individuality. In the village -he became a great man, and here his fame was decided; he painted -rustics. Even when he first saw the old masters in the National Gallery -their immediate effect on him was merely to influence his technique. And -by their aid Wilkie gradually became an admirable master of technical -detail. His first picture, "Pitlessie Fair," in its hardness of colour -recalled a Dutch painter of the type of Jan Molenaer; but from that time -his course was one of constant progress. In "The Village Politicians" -the influence of Teniers first made itself felt, and it prevailed until -1816. In this year, when he painted the pretty sketch for "Blind-Man's -Buff," a warm gold hue took the place of the cool silver tone; and -instead of Teniers, Ostade became his model. The works in his Ostade -manner are rich in colour and deep and clear in tone. Finally, it was -Rembrandt's turn to become his guiding-star, and "The Parish Beadle," in -the National Gallery--a scene of arrest of the year 1822--clearly shows -with what brilliant success he tried his luck with Rembrandt's dewy -_chiaroscuro_. It was only in his last period that he lost all these -technical qualities. His "Knox" of 1832 is hard and cold and -inharmonious in colour. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - - WILKIE. A GUERILLA COUNCIL OF WAR IN A SPANISH POSADA.] - -So long as he kept from historical painting, art meant for him the same -thing as the portrayal of domestic life. Painting, he said, had no other -aim than to reproduce nature and to seek truth. Undoubtedly this must be -applied to Wilkie himself with considerable limitation. Wilkie painted -simple fragments of nature just as little as Hogarth; he invented -scenes. Nor was he even gifted with much power of invention. But he had -a fund of innocent humour, although there were times when it was in -danger of becoming much too childlike. "Blind-Man's Buff," "The Village -Politicians," and "The Village Festival," pictures which have become so -popular through the medium of engraving, contain all the characteristics -of his power of playful observation. He had no ambition to be a -moralist, like Hogarth, but just as little did he paint the rustic as he -is. He dealt only with the absurdities and minor accidents of life. His -was one of those happy dispositions which neither sorrow nor dream nor -excite themselves, but see everything from the humorous side: he enjoyed -his own jests, and looked at life as at a pure comedy; the serious part -of it escaped him altogether. His peasantry know nothing of social -problems; free from want and drudgery, they merely spend their time over -trifles and amuse themselves--themselves and the frequenters of the -exhibition, for whom they are taking part in a comedy on canvas. If -Hogarth had a biting, sarcastic, scourging, and disintegrating genius, -Wilkie is one of those people who cause one no lasting excitement, but -are always satisfied to be humorous, and laugh with a contented -appreciation over their own jokes. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - WILKIE. THE BLIND FIDDLER.] - -And in general such is the keynote of this English _genre_. All that was -done in it during the years immediately following is more or less -comprised in the works of the Scotch "little master"; otherwise it -courts the assistance of English literature, which is always rich in -humorists and excellent writers of anecdote and story. In painting, as -in literature, the English delight in detail, which by its dramatic, -anecdotic, or humorous point is intended to have the interest of a short -story. Or perhaps one should rather say that, since the English came to -painting as novices, they began tentatively on that first step on which -art had stood in earlier centuries as long as it was still "the people's -spelling-book." It is a typical form of development, and repeats itself -constantly. All painting begins in narrative. First it is the subject -which has a fascination for the artist, and by the aid of it he casts a -spell over his public. The simplification of motives, the capacity for -taking a thing in at a single glance, and finding a simple joy in its -essentially pictorial integrity, is of later growth. Even with the -Dutch, who were so eminently gifted with a sense for what is pictorial, -the picture of manners was at first epical. Church festivals, skating -parties, and events which could be represented in an ample and detailed -fashion were the original materials of the _genre_ picture, which only -later contented itself with a purely artistic study of one out of -countless groups. This period of apprenticeship, which may be called the -period of interesting subject-matter, was what England was now going -through; and England had to go through it, since she had the -civilisation by which it is invariably produced. - -[Illustration: WILKIE. THE PENNY WEDDING.] - -Just as the first _genre_ pictures of the Flemish school announced the -appearance of a _bourgeoisie_, so in the England of the beginning of the -century a new plebeian, middle-class society had taken the place of the -patrons of earlier days, and this middle class set its seal upon manners -and communicated its spirit to painting. Prosperity, culture, travel, -reading, and leisure, everything which had been the privilege of -individuals, now became the common property of the great mass of men. -They prized art, but they demanded from it substantial nourishment. That -two colours in connection with straight and curved lines are enough for -the production of infinite harmonies was still a profound secret. "You -are free to be painters if you like," artists were told, "but only on -the understanding that you are amusing and instructive; if you have no -story to tell we shall yawn." When they comply with these demands, -artists are inclined to grow fond of sermonising and develop into -censors of the public morals, almost into lay preachers. - -Or, if the aim of painting lies in its narrative power, there is a -natural tendency to represent the pleasant rather than the unpleasant -facts of life, which is the cause of this one-sided character of _genre_ -painting. Everything that is not striking and out of the way--in other -words, the whole poetry of ordinary life--is left untouched. Wilkie only -paints the rustic on some peculiar occasion, at merry-making and -ceremonial events; and he depicts him as a being of a different species -from the townsman, because he seeks to gain his effects principally by -humorous episodes, and aims at situations which are proper to a novel. - -[Illustration: WILKIE. THE FIRST EARRING.] - -Baptisms and dances, funerals and weddings, carousals and bridal visits -are his favourite subjects; to which may be added the various contrasts -offered by peasant life where it is brought into contact with the -civilisation of cities--the country cousin come to town, the rustic -closeted with a lawyer, and the like. A continual roguishness enlivens -his pictures and makes comical figures out of most of these good people. -He amuses himself at their expense, exposes their little lies, their -thrift, their folly, their pretensions, and the absurdities with which -their narrow circle of life has provided them. He pokes fun, and is sly -and farcical. But the hard and sour labour of ordinary peasant life is -left on one side, since it offers no material for humour and anecdote. - -[Illustration: NEWTON. YORICK AND THE GRISETTE.] - -Through this limitation painting renounced the best part of its -strength. To a man of pictorial vision nature is a gallery of -magnificent pictures, and one which is as wide and far-reaching as the -world. But whoever seeks salvation in narrative painting soon reaches -the end of his material. In the life of any man there are only three or -four events that are worth the trouble of telling; Wilkie told more, and -he became tiresome in consequence. We are willing to accept these -anecdotes as true, but they are threadbare. Things of this sort may be -found in the gaily-bound little books which are given as Christmas -presents to children. It is not exhilarating to learn that worldly -marriages have their inconveniences, that there is a pleasure in talking -scandal about one's friends behind their backs, that a son causes pain -to his mother by his excesses, and that egoism is an unpleasant failing. -All that is true, but it is too true. We are irritated by the -intrusiveness of this course of instruction. Wilkie paints insipid -subjects, and by one foolery after another he has made painting into a -toy for good children. And good children play the principal parts in -these pictures. - -As a painter, one of George Morland's pupils, _William Collins_, threw -the world into ecstasies by his pictures of children. Out of one hundred -and twenty-one which he exhibited in the Academy in the course of forty -years the principal are: the picture of "The Little Flute-Player," "The -Sale of the Pet Lamb," "Boys with a Bird's Nest," "The Fisher's -Departure," "Scene in a Kentish Hop-Garden," and the picture of the -swallows. The most popular were "Happy as a King"--a small boy whom his -elder playmates have set upon a garden railing, from which he looks down -laughing proudly--and "Rustic Civility"--children who have drawn up like -soldiers, by a fence, so as to salute some one who is approaching. But -it is clear from the titles of such pictures that in this province -English _genre_ painting did not free itself from the reproach of being -episodic. Collins was richer in ideas than Meyer of Bremen. His children -receive earrings, sit on their mother's knee, play with her in the -garden, watch her sewing, read aloud to her from their spelling-book, -learn their lessons, and are frightened of the geese and hens which -advance in a terrifying fashion towards them in the poultry-yard. He is -an admirable painter of children at the family table, of the pleasant -chatter of the little ones, of the father watching his sleeping child of -an evening by the light of the lamp, with his heart full of pride and -joy because he has the consciousness of working for those who are near -to him. Being naturally very fond of children, he has painted the life -of little people with evident enjoyment of all its variations, and yet -not in a thoroughly credible fashion. Chardin painted the poetry of the -child-world. His little ones have no suspicion of the painter being near -them. They are harmlessly occupied with themselves, and in their -ordinary clothes. Those of Collins look as if they were repeating a -copybook maxim at a school examination. They know that the eyes of all -the sightseers in the exhibition are fixed upon them, and they are doing -their utmost to be on their best behaviour. They have a lack of -unconsciousness. One would like to say to them: "My dear children, -always be good." But no one is grateful to the painter for taking from -children their childishness, and for bringing into vogue that codling -which had its way for so long afterwards in the pictures of children. - -_Gilbert Stuart Newton_, an American by birth, who lived in England from -1820 to 1835, devoted himself to the illustration of English authors. -Like Wilkie, he has a certain historical importance, because he devoted -himself with great zeal to a study of the Dutchmen of the seventeenth -century and to the French painters of the eighteenth, at a time when -these masters were entirely out of fashion on the Continent and sneered -at as representatives of "the deepest corruption." Dow and Terborg were -his peculiar ideals; and although the colour of his pictures is -certainly heavy and common compared with that of his models, it is -artistic, and shows study when one thinks of contemporary productions on -the Continent. His works ("Lear attended by Cordelia," "The Vicar of -Wakefield restoring his Daughter to her Mother," "The Prince of Spain's -Visit to Catalina" from _Gil Blas_, and "Yorick and the Grisette" from -Sterne), like the pictures of the Dsseldorfers, would most certainly -have lost in actuality but for the interest provided by the literary -passages; yet they are favourably distinguished from the literary -illustrations of the Dsseldorfers by the want of any sort of idealism. -While the painters of the Continent in such pictures almost invariably -fell into a rounded, generalising ideal of beauty, Newton had the scene -played by actors and painted them realistically. The result was a -theatrical realism, but the way in which the theatrical effects are -studied and the palpableness of the histrionic gestures are so -convincingly true to nature that his pictures seem like records of stage -art in London about the year 1830. - -[Illustration: WEBSTER. THE RUBBER.] - -[Illustration: C. R. LESLIE. SANCHO AND THE DUCHESS.] - -_Charles Robert Leslie_, known as an author by his pleasant book on -Constable and a highly conservative _Handbook for Young Painters_, had a -similar _reprtoire_, and rendered in oils Shakespeare, Cervantes, -Fielding, Sterne, Goldsmith, and Molire, with more or less ability. The -National Gallery has an exceedingly prosaic and colourless picture of -his, "Sancho Panza in the Apartment of the Duchess." Some that are in -the South Kensington Museum are better; for example, "The Taming of the -Shrew," "The Dinner at Mr. Page's House" from _The Merry Wives of -Windsor_, and "Sir Roger de Coverley." His finest and best-known work is -"My Uncle Toby and the Widow Wadman," which charmingly illustrates the -pretty scene in _Tristram Shandy_: "'I protest, madam,' said my Uncle -Toby, 'I can see nothing whatever in your eye.' 'It is not in the -white!' said Mrs. Wadman. My Uncle Toby looked with might and main into -the pupil." As in Newton's works, so in Leslie's too, there is such a -strong dose of realism that his pictures will always keep their value as -historical documents--not for the year 1630 but for 1830. As a colourist -he was--in his later works at any rate--a delicate imitator of the -Dutch _chiaroscuro_; and in the history of art he occupies a position -similar to that of Diez in Germany, and was esteemed in the same way, -even in later years, when the young Pre-Raphaelite school began its -embittered war against "brown sauce"--the same war which a generation -afterwards was waged in Germany by Liebermann and his followers against -the school of Diez. - -[Illustration: MULREADY. FAIR TIME.] - -_Mulready_, thirty-two of whose pictures are preserved in the South -Kensington Museum, is in his technique almost more delicate than Leslie, -and he has learnt a great deal from Metsu. By preference he took his -subjects out of Goldsmith. "Choosing the Wedding Gown" and "The -Whistonian Controversy" would make pretty illustrations for an _dition -de luxe_ of _The Vicar of Wakefield_. Otherwise he too had a taste for -immortalising children, by turns lazy and industrious, at their tea or -playing by the water's edge. - -From _Thomas Webster_, the fourth of these kindly, childlike masters, -yet more inspiriting facts are to be obtained. He has informed the world -that at a not very remote period of English history all the agricultural -labourers were quite content with their lot. No one ever quarrelled with -his landlord, or sat in a public-house and let his family starve. The -highest bliss of these excellent people was to stay at home and play -with their children by the light of a wax-candle. Webster's rustics, -children, and schoolmasters are the citizens of an ideal planet, but the -little country is a pleasant world. His pictures are so harmless in -intention, so neat and accurate in drawing, and so clear and luminous in -colour that they may be seen with pleasure even at the present day. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - FRITH. POVERTY AND WEALTH.] - -The last of the group, _William Powell Frith_, was the most copious in -giving posterity information about the manners and costumes of his -contemporaries, and would be still more authentic if life had not seemed -to him so genial and roseate. His pictures represent scenes of the -nineteenth century, but they seem like events of the good old times. At -that period people were undoubtedly good and innocent and happy. They -had no income-tax and no vices and worries, and all went to heaven and -felt in good spirits. And so they do in Frith's pictures, only not so -naturally as in Ostade and Beham. For example, he goes on the beach at a -fashionable English watering-place during the season, in July or August. -The geniality which predominates here is quite extraordinary. Children -are splashing in the sea, young ladies flirting, niggers playing the -barrel-organ and women singing ballads to its strains; every one is -doing his utmost to look well, and the pair of beggars who are there for -the sake of contrast have long become resigned to their fate. In his -racecourse pictures everything is brought together which on such -occasions is representative of London life: all types, from the baronet -to the ragman; all beauties, from the lady to the street-walker. A -rustic has to lose his money, or a famished acrobat to turn his pockets -inside out to assure himself that there is really nothing in them. His -picture of the gaming-table in Homburg is almost richer in such examples -of dry observation and humorous and spirited episode. - -[Illustration: MULREADY. CROSSING THE FORD.] - -This may serve to exemplify the failures of these painters of _genre_. -Not light and colour, but anecdote, comedy, and genial tale-telling are -the basis of their labours. And yet, notwithstanding this attempt to -express literary ideas through the mediums of a totally different art, -their work is significant. While continental artists avoided nothing so -much as that which might seem to approach nature, the English, revolting -from the thraldom of theory, gathered subjects for their pictures from -actual life. These men, indeed, pointed out the way to painters from -every country; and they, once on the right road, were bound ultimately -to arrive at the point from which they no longer looked on life through -the glasses of the anecdotist, but saw it with the eye of the true -artist. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -THE MILITARY PICTURE - - -While English painting from the days of Hogarth and Wilkie embraced -rustic and middle-class life, the victory of modernity on the Continent -could only be accomplished slowly and by degrees. The question of -costume played an important part in it. "Artists love antiquated costume -because, as they say, it gives them greater sweep and freedom. But I -should like to suggest that in historical representations of their own -age an eye should be kept on propriety of delineation rather than on -freedom and sweep. Otherwise one might just as well allow an historian -to talk to us about phalanxes, battlements, triarii, and argyraspids in -place of battalions, squadrons, grenadiers, and cuirassiers. The -painters of the great events of the day ought, especially, to be more -true to fact. In battle-pieces, for example, they ought not to have -cavalry shooting and sabreing about them in leather collars, in round -and plumed hats, and the vast jack-boots which exist no longer. The old -masters drew, engraved, and painted in this way because people really -dressed in such a manner at the time. It is said that our costume is not -picturesque, and therefore why should we choose it? But posterity will -be curious to know how we clothed ourselves, and will wish to have no -gap from the eighteenth century to its own time." - -[Illustration: VERNET. THE WOUNDED ZOUAVE.] - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - CHARLET. UN HOMME QUI BOT SEUL N'EST PAS DIGNE DE VIVRE.] - -These words, which the well-known Vienna librarian Denis wrote in 1797 -in his _Lesefrchte_, show how early came the problem which was at -high-water mark for a generation afterwards. The painting of the -nineteenth century could only become modern when it succeeded in -recognising and expressing the characteristic side of modern costume. -But to do that it took more than half a century. It was, after all, -natural that to people who had seen the graceful forms and delicate -colours of the _rococo_ time, the garb of the first half of the century -should seem the most unfortunate and the least enviable in the whole -history of costume. "What person of artistic education is not of the -opinion," runs a passage in Putmann's book on the Dsseldorf school in -1835,--"what person of artistic education is not of the opinion that the -dress of the present day is tasteless, hideous, and ape-like? Moreover, -can a true style be brought into harmony with hoop-petticoats and -swallow-tail coats and such vagaries? In our time, therefore, art is -right in seeking out those beautiful fashions of the past, about which -tailors concern themselves so little. How much longer must we go about, -unpicturesque beings, like ugly black bats, in swallow-tail coats and -wide trousers? The peasant's blouse, indeed, can be accepted as one of -the few picturesque dresses which have yet been preserved in Germany -from the inauspicious influence of the times." The same plaint is sung -by Hotho in his history of German and Netherlandish painting; the -costume of his age he declares to be thoroughly prosaic and tiresome. It -is revolting to painters and an offence to the educated eye. Art must -necessarily seek salvation in the past, unless it is to wait, and give -brush and palette a holiday, until that happy time when the costume of -nations comes to its pictorial regeneration. Only one zone, the realm of -blouse and military uniform, was beyond the domain of tail-coat and -trousers, and still furnished art with rich material. - -Since it was by working on uniform that plastic artists first learnt how -to treat contemporary costume, so it was the military picture that first -entered the circle of modern painting. By exalting the soldier into a -warrior, and the warrior into a hero, it was here possible, even in the -times of David and Carstens, to effect a certain compromise with the -ruling classical ideas. Grard, Girodet--to some extent even Gros--made -abundant use of the mask of the Greek or Roman warrior, with the object -of admitting the battle-piece into painting in the grand style. The real -heroes of the Napoleonic epoch had not this plastic appearance nor these -epic attitudes. Classicism altered their physiognomies and gave them, -most illogically, the air of old marble statues. It was Horace Vernet -who freed battle painting from this anathema. This, but little else, -stands to his credit. - -Together with his son-in-law Paul Delaroche, _Horace Vernet_ is the most -genuine product of the _Juste-milieu_ period. The king with the umbrella -founded the Museum of Versailles, that monstrous dept of daubed canvas, -which is a horrifying memory to any one who has ever wandered through -it. However, it is devoted _ toutes les gloires de la France_. In a few -years a suite of galleries, which it takes almost two hours merely to -pass through from end to end, was filled with pictures of all sizes, -bringing home the history of the country, from Charlemagne to the -African expedition of Louis Philippe, under all circumstances which are -in any way flattering to French pride. For miles numberless -manufacturers of painting bluster from the walls. As _pictor celerrimus_ -Horace Vernet had the command-in-chief, and became so famous by his -chronicle of the conquest of Algiers that for a long time he was held by -trooper, Philistine, and all the kings and emperors of Europe as the -greatest painter in France. He was the last scion of a celebrated -dynasty of artists, and had taken a brush in his hand from the moment he -threw away his child's rattle. A good deal of talent had been given him -in his cradle: sureness of eye, lightness of hand, and an enviable -memory. His vision was correct, if not profound; he painted his pictures -without hesitation, and is favourably distinguished from many of his -contemporaries by his independence: he owes no one anything, and reveals -his own qualities without arraying himself in those of other people. -Only these qualities are not of an order which gives his pictures -artistic interest. The spark of Gricault's genius, which seems to have -been transmitted to him in the beginning, was completely quenched in his -later years. Having swiftly attained popularity by the aid of -lithography which circulated his "Mazeppa" through the whole world, he -became afterwards a bad and vulgar painter, without poetry, light, or -colour; a reporter who expressed himself in banal prose and wounded all -the finer spirits of his age. "I loathe this man," said Baudelaire, as -early as 1846. - -[Illustration: AUGUSTE MARIE RAFFET.] - -Devoid of any sense of the tragedy of war, which Gros possessed in such -a high degree, Vernet treated battles like performances at the circus. -His pictures have movement without passion, and magnitude without -greatness. If it had been required of him, he would have daubed all the -boulevards; his picture of Smala is certainly not so long, but there -would have been no serious difficulty in lengthening it by half a mile. -This incredible stenographical talent won for him his popularity. He was -decorated with all the orders in the world. The _bourgeois_ felt happy -when he looked at Vernet's pictures, and the paterfamilias promised to -buy a horse for his little boy. The soldiers called him "_mon colonel_," -and would not have been surprised if he had been made a Marshal of -France. A lover of art passes the pictures of Vernet with the sentiment -which the old colonel owned to entertaining towards music. "Are you fond -of music, colonel?" asked a lady. "Madame, I am not afraid of it." - -[Illustration: RAFFET. THE PARADE.] - -The trivial realism of his workmanship is as tedious as the unreal -heroism of his soldiers. In the manner in which he conceived the -trooper, Vernet stands between the Classicists and the moderns. He did -not paint ancient warriors, but French soldiers: he knew them as a -corporal knows his men, and by this respect for prescribed regulation he -was prevented from turning them into Romans. But though he disregarded -Classicism, in outward appearance, he did not drop the heroic tone. He -always saw the soldier as the bold defender of his country, the warrior -performing daring deeds, as in the "Battle of Alexander"; and in this -way he gave his pictures their unpleasant air of bluster. For neither -modern tactics nor modern cannon admit of the prominence of the -individual as it is to be seen in Vernet's pictures. The soldier of the -nineteenth century is no longer a warrior, but the unit in a multitude; -he does what he is ordered, and for that he has no need of the spirit of -an ancient hero; he kills or is killed, without seeing his enemy or -being seen himself. The course of a battle advances, move by move, -according to mathematical calculation. It is therefore false to -represent soldiers in heroic attitudes, or even to suggest deeds of -heroism on the part of those in command. In giving his orders and -directing a battle a general has to behave pretty much as he does at -home at his writing-table. And he is never in the battle, as he is -represented by Horace Vernet; on the contrary, he remains at a -considerable distance off. Therefore, even with the dimensions of which -Vernet availed himself, the exact portrait of a modern battle is -exclusively an affair for panorama, but never for the flat surface of a -picture. A picture must confine itself, either to the field-marshal -directing the battle from a distance upon a hill in the midst of his -staff, or else to little pictorial episodes in the individual life of -the soldier. The gradual development from unreal battle-pieces to simple -episodic paintings can be followed step by step in the following works. - -[Illustration: RAFFET. 1807.] - -What was painted for the Versailles Museum in connection with deeds of -arms in the Crimean War and the Italian campaign kept more or less to -the blustering official style of Horace Vernet. In the galleries of -Versailles the battles of Wagram, Loano, and Altenkirche (1837-39), and -an episode from the retreat from Russia (1851), represent the work of -_Hippolyte Bellang_. These are huge lithochromes which have been very -carefully executed. _Adolphe Yvon_, who is responsible for "The -Taking of Malakoff," "The Battle of Magenta," and "The Battle of -Solferino," is a more tedious painter, and remained during his whole -life a pupil of Delaroche; he laid chief stress on finished and rounded -composition, and gave his soldiers no more appearance of life than could -be forced into the accepted academic convention. The fame of _Isidor -Pils_, who immortalised the disembarkation of the French troops in the -Crimea, the battle of Alma, and the reception of Arab chiefs by Napoleon -III, has paled with equal rapidity. He could paint soldiers, but not -battles, and, like Yvon, he was too precise in the composition of his -works. In consequence they have as laboured an effect in arrangement as -they have in colour. He was completely wanting in sureness and -spontaneity. It is only his water-colours that hold one's attention; and -this they do at any rate by their unaffected actuality, and in spite of -their dull and heavy colour. _Alexandre Protais_ verged more on the -sentimental. He loved soldiers, and therefore had the less toleration -for war, which swept the handsome young fellows away. Two pendants, "The -Morning before the Attack" and "The Evening after the Battle," founded -his reputation in 1863. The first showed a group of riflemen waiting in -excitement for the first bullets of the enemy; the second represented -the same men in the evening delighted with their victory, but at the -same time--and here you have the note of Protais--mournful over the loss -of their comrades. "The Prisoners" and "The Parting" of 1872 owed their -success to the same lachrymose and melodramatic sensibility. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - RAFFET. POLISH INFANTRY.] - -[Illustration: RAFFET. THE MIDNIGHT REVIEW. - - C'est la grande revue - Qu'aux Champs-Elyses - A l'heure de minuit - Tient Csar dcd.] - -A couple of mere lithographists, soldiers' sons, in whom a repining for -the Napoleonic legend still found its echo, were the first great -military painters of modern France. "Charlet and Raffet," wrote -Brger-Thor in his _Salon_ of 1845, "are the two artists who best -understand the representation of that almost vanished type, the trooper -of the Empire; and after Gros they will assuredly endure as the -principal historians of that warlike era." - -_Charlet_, the painter of the old bear Napoleon I, might almost be -called the Branger of painting. The "little Corporal," the "great -Emperor" appears and reappears in his pictures and drawings without -intermission; his work is an epic in pencil of the grey coat and the -little hat. From his youth he employed himself with military studies, -which were furthered in Gros' studio, which he entered in 1817. The -Grco-Roman ideal did not exist for him, and he was indifferent to -beauty of form. His was one of those natures which have a natural turn -for actual fact; he had a power for characterisation, and in his many -water-colours and lithographs he was merely concerned with the proper -expression of his ideas. How it came that Delacroix had so great a -respect for him was nevertheless explained when his "Episode in the -Retreat from Russia," in the World Exhibition of 1889, emerged from the -obscurity of the Lyons Museum; it is perhaps his best and most important -picture. When it appeared in the Salon of 1836, Alfred de Musset wrote -that it was "not an episode but a complete poem"; he went on to say that -the artist had painted "the despair in the wilderness," and that, with -its gloomy heaven and disconsolate horizon, the picture gave the -impression of infinite disaster. After fifty years it had lost none of -its value. Since the reappearance of this picture it has been recognised -that Charlet was not merely the specialist of old grey heads with their -noses reddened with brandy, the Molire of barracks and canteens, but -that he understood all the tragical sublimity of war, from which Horace -Vernet merely produced trivial anecdotes. - -[Illustration: _Mag. of Art._ - - ERNEST MEISSONIER.] - -Beside him stands his pupil _Raffet_, the special painter of the _grande -arme_. He mastered the brilliant figure of Napoleon; he followed it -from Ajaccio to St. Helena, and never left it until he had said -everything that was to be said about it. He showed the "little Corsican" -as the general of the Italian campaign, ghastly pale and consumed with -ambition; the Bonaparte of the Pyramids and of Cairo; the Emperor -Napoleon on the parade-ground reviewing his Grenadiers; the triumphal -hero of 1807 with the Cuirassiers dashing past, brandishing their sabres -with a hurrah; the Titan of Beresina riding slowly over the waste of -snow, and, in the very midst of disaster, spying a new star of fortune; -the war-god of 1813, the great hypnotiser greeted even by the dying with -a cry of "Long life to the Emperor"; the adventurer of 1814, riding at -the head of shattered troops over a barren wilderness; the vanquished -hero of 1815, who, in the midst of his last square, in the thick of his -beloved battalions, calls fickle fate once more into the lists; and the -captive lion who, from the bridge of the ship, casts a last look on the -coast of France as it fades in the mist. He has called the Emperor from -the grave, as a ghostly power, to hold a midnight review of the _grande -arme_. And with love and passion and enthusiasm he has followed the -instrument of these victories, the French soldiers, the swordsmen of -seven years' service, through bivouac and battle, on the march and on -parade, as patrols and outposts. The ragged and shoeless troops of the -Empire are portrayed in his plates, with a touch of real sublimity, in -defeat and in victory. The empty inflated expression of martial -enthusiasm has been avoided by him; everything is true and earnest. - -In a masterly fashion he could make soldiers deploy in masses. No one -has known in the same way how to render the impression of the multitude -of an army, the notion of men standing shoulder to shoulder, the welding -of thousands of individuals into one complete entity. In Raffet a -regiment is a thousand-headed living being that has but one soul, one -moral nature, one spirit, one sentiment of willing sacrifice and heroic -courage. His death was as adventurous as his life; he passed away in a -hotel in Genoa, and was brought back to French soil as part of the cargo -of a merchant ship. For a long time his fame was thrown into the shade, -at first by the triumphs of Horace Vernet, and then by those of -Meissonier, until at length a fitting record was devoted to him by the -piety of his son Auguste. - -Never had _Ernest Meissonier_ to complain of want of recognition. After -his _rococo_ pictures had been deemed worth their weight in gold he -climbed to the summit of his fame, his universal celebrity and his -popularity in France, when he devoted himself in the sixties to the -representation of French military history. The year 1859 took him to -Italy in the train of Napoleon III. Meissonier was chosen to spread the -martial glory of the Emperor, and, as the nephew was fond of drawing -parallels between himself and his mighty uncle, Meissonier was obliged -to depict suitable occasions from the life of the first Napoleon. His -admirers were very curious to know how the great "little painter" would -acquit himself in such a monumental task. First came the "Battle of -Solferino," that picture of the Muse Luxembourg which represents -Napoleon III overlooking the battle from a height in the midst of his -staff. After lengthy preparations it appeared in the Salon of 1864, and -showed that the painter had not been untrue to himself: he had simply -adapted the minute technique of his _rococo_ pictures to the painting of -war, and he remained the Dutch "little master" in all the battle-pieces -which followed. - -Napoleon III had no further deeds of arms to record, so the intended -parallel series was never accomplished. It is true, indeed, that he took -the painter with the army in 1870; but after the first battle was lost, -Meissonier went home: he did not wish to immortalise the struggles of a -retreat. Henceforward his brush was consecrated to the first Napoleon. -"1805" depicts the triumphant advance to the height of fame; "1807" -shows Napoleon when the summit has been reached and the soldiers are -cheering their idol in exultation; "1814" represents the fall: the star -of fortune has vanished; victory, so long faithful to the man of might, -has deserted his banners. There is still a look of indomitable energy on -the pale face of the Emperor, as, in utter despair, he aims his last -shot against the traitor destiny; but his eyes seem weary, his mouth is -contorted, and his features are wasted with fever. - -[Illustration: MEISSONIER. 1814. - - (_By permission of M. Georges Petit, the owner of the copyright._)] - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - MEISSONIER. THE OUTPOST. - - (_By permission of M. Georges Petit, the owner of the copyright._)] - -Meissonier has treated all these works with the carefulness which he -expended on his little _rococo_ pictures. To give an historically -accurate representation of Napoleon's boots he did not content himself -with borrowing them from the museum. Walking and riding--for he was a -passionate horseman--he wore for months together boots of the same make -and form as those of the "little Corporal." To get the colour of the -horses of the Emperor and his marshals, in their full-grown winter coat, -and to paint them just as they must have appeared after the hardships -and negligence of a campaign, he bought animals of the same race and -colour as those ridden by the Emperor and his generals, according to -tradition, and picketed them for weeks in the snow and rain. His models -were forced to wear out the uniforms in sun and storm before he painted -them; he bought weapons and harness at fancy prices when he could not -borrow them from museums. And there is no need to say that he copied all -the portraits of Napoleon, Ney, Soult, and the other generals that were -to be had, and read through whole libraries before beginning his -Napoleon series. To paint the picture "1814," which is generally -reckoned his greatest performance--Napoleon at the head of his staff -riding through a snow-clad landscape--he first prepared the scenery on a -spot in the plain of Champagne, corresponding to the original locality, -just as he did in earlier years with his interiors of the _rococo_ -period; he even had the road laid out on which he wished to paint the -Emperor advancing. Then he waited for the first fall of snow, and had -artillery, cavalry, and infantry to march for him upon this snowy path, -and actually contrived that overturned transport waggons, discarded -arms, and baggage should be decoratively strewn about the landscape. - -From these laborious preparations it may be understood that he spent -almost as many millions of francs upon his pictures as he received. In -his article, _What an Old Work of Art is Worth_, Julius Lessing has -admirably dealt with the hidden ways of taste and commerce applied to -art. Amongst all painters of modern times Meissonier is the only one -whose pictures, during his own lifetime, fetched prices such as are only -reached by the works of famous old masters of the greatest epochs. And -yet he sold them straight from his easel, and never to dealers. -Meissonier avenged himself magnificently for the privations of his -youth. In 1832, when he gave up his apprenticeship with Menier, the -great chocolate manufacturer, to become a painter, he had fifteen francs -a month to spend. He had great difficulty in disposing of his drawings -and illustrations for five or ten francs, and was often obliged to -console himself with a roll for the want of a dinner. Only ten years -later he was able to purchase a small place in Poissy, near St. Germain, -where he went for good in 1850, to give himself up to work without -interruption. Gradually this little property became a pleasant country -seat, and in due course of time the stately house in Paris, in the -Boulevard Malesherbes, was added to it. His "Napoleon, 1814," for which -the painter himself received three hundred thousand francs, was bought -at an auction by one of the owners of the "Grands Magasins du Louvre" -for eight hundred and fifty thousand francs; "Napoleon III at Solferino" -brought him two hundred thousand, and "The Charge of the Cuirassiers" -three hundred thousand. And in general, after 1850, he only painted for -such sums. It was calculated that he received about five thousand francs -for every centimetre of painted canvas, and left behind him pictures -which, according to present rate, were worth more than twenty million -francs, without having really become a rich man; for, as a rule, every -picture that he painted cost him several thousand. - -And Meissonier never sacrificed himself to money-making and the trade. -He never put a stroke on paper without the conviction that he could not -make it better, and for this artistic earnestness he was universally -honoured, even by his colleagues, to his very death. As master beyond -dispute he let the Classicists, Romanticists, Impressionists, and -Symbolists pass by the window of his lonely studio, and always remained -the same. A little man with a firm step, an energetic figure, eyes that -shone like coals, thick, closely cropped hair, and the beard of a -river-god, that always seemed to grow longer, at eighty years of age he -was as hale and active as at thirty. By a systematic routine of life he -kept his physique elastic, and was able to maintain that unintermittent -activity under which another man would have broken down. During long -years Meissonier went to rest at eight every evening, slept till -midnight, and then worked at his drawings by lamplight into the morning. -In the course of the day he made his studies from nature and painted. -Diffident in society and hard of access, he did not permit himself to be -disturbed in his indefatigable diligence by any social demands. A sharp -ride, a swim or a row was his only relaxation. In 1848, as captain of -the National Guard, he had taken part in the street and barricade -fighting; and again in 1871, when he was sixty-six, he clattered through -the streets of the capital, with the dangling sword he had so often -painted and a gold-laced cap stuck jauntily on one side, as a smart -staff-officer. Even the works of his old age showed no exhaustion of -power, and there is something great in attaining ripe years without -outliving one's reputation. As late as the spring of 1890, only a short -time before his death, he was the leader of youth, when it transmigrated -from the Palais des Champs Elyses to the Champ de Mars; and he -exhibited in this new Salon his "October 1806," with which he closed his -Napoleonic epic and his general activity as a painter. Halting on a -hill, the Emperor in his historical grey coat, mounted on a powerful -grey, is thoughtfully watching the course of the battle, without -troubling himself about the Cuirassiers who salute him exultantly as -they storm by, or about the brilliant staff which has taken up position -behind him. Not a feature moves in the sallow, cameo-like face of the -Corsican. The sky is lowering and full of clouds. In the foreground lie -a couple of dead soldiers, in whose uniform every button has been -painted with the same conscientious care that was bestowed on the -buttons of the _rococo_ coats of fifty years before. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ ALPHONSE DE NEUVILLE.] - -Beyond this inexhaustible correctness I can really see nothing that can -be said for Meissonier's fame as an artist. He, whose name is honoured -in both hemispheres, was most peculiarly the son of his own work. The -genius for the infinitesimal has never been carried further. He knew -everything that a man can learn. The movements in his pictures are -correct, the physiognomies interesting, the delicacy of execution -indescribable, and his horses have been so exactly studied that they -stand the test of instantaneous photography. But painter, in the proper -sense, he never was. Precisely through their marvellous minuteness of -execution--a minuteness which is merely attractive as a trial of -patience and as an example of what the brush can do--his pictures are -wanting in unity of conception, and they leave one cold by the hardness -of their contours, the aridness of their colour, and the absence of all -vibrating, nervous feeling. In a cavalry charge, with the whirling dust -and the snorting horses, who thinks of costume? And who thinks of -anything else when Meissonier paints a charge? Here are life and -movement, and there a museum of military uniforms. When Manet saw -Meissonier's "Cuirassiers" he said, "Everything is iron here except the -cuirasses." - -His _rococo_ pictures are probably his best performances; they even -express a certain amount of temperament. His military pictures make one -chilly. Reproduced in woodcuts they are good illustrations for -historical works, but as pictures they repel the eye, because they lack -air and light and spirit. They rouse nothing except astonishment at the -patience and incredible industry that went to the making of them. One -sees everything in them--everything that the painter can have seen--to -the slightest detail; only one does not rightly come into contact with -the artist himself. His battle-pieces stand high above the scenic -pictures of Horace Vernet and Hippolyte Bellang, but they have nothing -of the warmth of Raffet or the vibrating life of Neuville. There is -nothing in them that is contagious and carries one away, or that appeals -to the heart. Patience is a virtue: genius is a gift. Precious without -originality, intelligent without imagination, dexterous without verve, -elegant without charm, refined and subtile without delicacy, Meissonier -has all the qualities that interest, and none of those which lay hold of -one. He was a painter of a distinctness which causes astonishment, but -not admiration; an artist for epicures, but for those of the second -order, who pay the more highly for works of art in proportion as they -value their artifice. His pictures recall the unseasonable compliment -which Charles Blanc made to Ingres: "_Cher matre, vous avez devin la -photographie trente ans avant qu'il y eut des photographes._" Or else -one thinks of that malicious story of which Jules Dupr is well known as -the author. "Suppose," said he, "that you are a great personage who has -just bought a Meissonier. Your valet enters the salon where it is -hanging. 'Ah! Monsieur,' he cries, 'what a beautiful picture you have -bought! That is a masterpiece!' Another time you buy a Rembrandt, and -show it to your valet, in the expectation that he will at any rate be -overcome by the same raptures. _Mais non!_ This time the man looks -embarrassed. 'Ah! Monsieur,' he says, '_il faut s'y connatre_,' and -away he goes." - -_Guillaume Regamey_, who is far less known, supplies what is wanting in -Meissonier. Sketchy and of a highly strung nervous temperament, he could -not adapt himself to the picture-market; but the history of art honours -him as the most spirited draughtsman of the French soldier, after -Gricault and Raffet. He did not paint him turned out for parade, ironed -and smartened up, but in the worst trim. Syria, the Crimea, Italy, and -the East are mingled with the difference of their types and the -brightness of their exotic costumes. He had a great love for the -catlike, quick-glancing chivalry of Turcos and Sapphis; but especially -he loved the cavalry. His "Chasseurs d'Afrique" are part and parcel of -their horses, like centaurs, and many of his cavalry groups recall the -frieze of the Parthenon. Unfortunately he died at thirty-eight, shortly -before the war of 1870, the historians of which were the younger -painters, who had grown up in the shadow of Meissonier. - -[Illustration: DE NEUVILLE. LE BOURGET. - - (_By permission of Messrs. Goupil, the owners of the copyright._)] - -[Illustration: DTAILLE. SALUT AUX BLESSS. - - (_By permission of Messrs. Goupil, the owners of the copyright._)] - -The most important of the group, _Alphonse de Neuville_, had looked at -war very closely as an officer during the siege of Paris, and in this -way he made himself a fine illustrator, who in his anecdotic pictures -specially understood the secret of painting powder-smoke and the -vehemence of a fusillade. The "Bivouac before Le Bourget" brought him -his first success. "The Last Cartridges," "Le Bourget," and "The -Graveyard of Saint-Privat" made him a popular master. Neuville is -peculiarly the French painter of fighting. He did not know, as Charlet -did, the soldier in time of peace, the peasant lad of yesterday who only -cares about his stomach and has little taste for martial adventure. His -soldier is an elegant and enthusiastic youthful hero. He even neglected -the troops of the line; his preference was for the Chasseur, whose cap -is stuck jauntily on his head and whose trousers fall better. He loved -the plumes, the high boots of the officers, the sword-knots, canes, and -eye-glasses. Everything received grace from his dexterous hand; he even -saw in the trooper a gallant and ornamental _bibelot_, which he painted -with chivalrous verve. - -The pictures of Aim Morot, the painter of "The Charge of the -Cuirassiers," possibly smell most of powder. Neuville's frequently -over-praised rival, Meissonier's favourite pupil, _Edouard Dtaille_, -after he had started with pretty little costume pictures from the -_Directoire_ period, went further on the way of his teacher with less -laboriousness and more lightness, with less calculation and more -sincerity. The best of his works was "Salut aux Blesss"--the -representation of a troop of wounded Prussian officers and soldiers on a -country road, passing a French general and his staff, who with graceful -chivalry lift their caps and salute the wounded men. Dtaille's great -pictures, such as "The Presentation of the Colours," and his panoramas -were as accurate as they were tedious and arid, although they are far -superior to most of the efforts which the Germans made to depict scenes -from the war of 1870. - -[Illustration: _Soldan, Nrnberg._ ALBRECHT ADAM AND HIS SONS.] - -In Germany the great period of the wars of liberation first inspired a -group of painters with the courage to enter the province of -battle-painting, which had been so much despised by their classical -colleagues. Germany had been turned into a great camp. Prussian, French, -Austrian, Russian, and Bavarian troops passed in succession through the -towns and villages: long trains of cannon and transport waggons came in -their wake, and friends and foes were billeted amongst the inhabitants; -the Napoleonic epoch was enacted. Such scenes followed each other like -the gay slides in a magic lantern, and once more gave to some among the -younger generation eyes for the outer world. There was awakened in them -the capacity for receiving impressions of reality and transferring them -swiftly to paper. Two hundred years before, the emancipation of Dutch -art from the Italian house of bondage had been accomplished in precisely -the same fashion. The Dutch struggle for freedom and the Thirty Years' -War had filled Holland with numbers of soldiery. The doings of these -mercenaries, daily enacted before them in rich costume and with manifold -brightness, riveted the pictorial feeling of artists. Echoes of war, -fighting scenes, skirmishes and tumult, the incidents of camp life, -arming, billeting, and marauding episodes are the first independent -products of the Dutch school. Then the more peaceable doings of soldiers -are represented. At Haarlem, in the neighbourhood of Frans Hals, were -assembled the painters of social pieces, as they are called; pieces in -which soldiers, bold and rollicking officers, make merry with gay -maidens at wine and play and love. From thence the artist came to the -portrayal of a peasantry passing their time in the same rough, free and -easy life, and thence onward to the representation of society in towns. - -[Illustration: ADAM. A STABLE IN TOWN.] - -German painting in the nineteenth century took the same road. Eighty -years ago foreign troops, and the extravagantly "picturesque and often -ragged uniforms of the Republican army, the characteristic and often -wild physiognomies of the French soldiers," gave artists their first -fresh and variously hued impressions. Painters of military subjects make -their studies, not in the antiquity class of the academy, but upon the -parade-ground and in the camp. Later, when the warlike times were over, -they passed from the portrayal of soldiers to that of rustics; and so -they laid the foundation on which future artists built. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - - HESS. THE RECEPTION OF KING OTTO IN NAUPLIA.] - -In Berlin Franz Krger and in Munich Albrecht Adam and Peter Hess were -figures of individual character, belonging to the spiritual family of -Chodowiecki and Gottfried Schadow; and, entirely undisturbed by -classical theories or romantic reverie, they penetrated the life around -them with a clear and sharp glance. They lacked, indeed, the temperament -to comprehend either the high poetic tendencies of the old Munich school -or the sentimental enthusiasm of the old Dsseldorf. - -On the other hand, they were unhackneyed artists, facing facts in a -completely unprejudiced spirit: entirely self-reliant, they refused to -form themselves upon any model derived from the old masters; they had -never had a teacher and never enjoyed academic instruction. This nave -straightforwardness makes their painting a half-barbaric product; -something which has been allowed to run wild. But in a period of -archological resuscitations, pedantic brooding over the past and -slavish imitation of the ancients, it seems, for this very reason, the -first independent product of the nineteenth century. As vigorous, -matter-of-fact realists they know nothing of more delicate charms, but -represented fact for all it was worth and as honestly and -conscientiously as was humanly possible. They are lacking in the -distinctively pictorial character, but they are absolutely untouched by -the Classicism of the epoch. They never dream of putting the uniforms -of their warriors upon antique statues. It is this downright honesty -that renders their pictures not merely irreplaceable as documents for -the history of civilisation, and in spite of their unexampled frigidity, -hardness, and gaudiness, lends them, even from the standpoint of art, a -certain innovating quality. In a pleasantly written autobiography -_Albrecht Adam_ has himself described the drift of historical events -which made him a painter of battles. - -He was a confectioner's apprentice in Nrdlingen when, in the year 1800, -the marches of the French army began in the neighbourhood. In an inn he -began to sketch sergeants and Grenadiers, and went proudly home with the -pence that he earned in this way. "Adam, when there's war, I'll take you -into the field with me," said an old major-general, who was the -purchaser of his first works. That came to pass in 1809, when the -Bavarians went with Napoleon against Austria. After a few weeks he was -in the thick of raging battle. He saw Napoleon, the Crown-Prince Ludwig, -and General Wrede, was present at the battles of Abensberg, Eckmhl, and -Wagram, and came to Vienna with his portfolios full of sketches. There -his portraits and pictures of the war found favour with the officers, -and Eugne Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy, took him to Upper Italy and -afterwards to Russia. He was an eye-witness of the battles at Borodino -and on the Moskwa, and saved himself from the conflagration of Moscow by -his courage and determination. A true soldier, he mounted a horse when -he was sixty-two years of age to be present on the Italian expedition of -the Austrian army under Radetzky in 1848. His battle-pieces are -therefore the result of personal experience. When campaigning he led the -same life as the soldiers whom he portrayed, and as he proceeded in this -portrayal with the objective quietness and fidelity of an historian, his -artistic productions are invaluable as documents. Even where he could -not draw as an eye-witness he invariably made studies afterwards, -endeavouring to collect the most reliable material upon the spot, and -preparing it with the utmost conscientiousness. The ground occupied by -bodies of troops, the marshalling of them, and the conflict of masses, -together with the smallest episodes, are represented with simplicity and -reality. In the portrayal of the soldier's life in time of peace he was -inexhaustible. Just as vividly could he render horses undergoing the -strain of the march and in the tumult of battle as in the stall, the -farm-horse of the transport waggon no less than the noble creature -ridden for parade. That his colour was sharp and hard, and his pictures -therefore devoid of harmony, is to be explained by the helplessness of -the age in regard to colouring. Only his last pictures, such as "The -Battle on the Moskwa," have a certain harmony of hue; and there is no -doubt that this is to be set to the account of his son Franz. - -After Adam, the father of German battle-painters, _Peter Hess_ made an -epoch by the earnestness and actuality of his pictures. He too -accompanied General Wrede on the 1813-15 campaigns, and has left behind -him exceedingly healthy, sane, and objectively viewed Cossack scenes, -bivouacs, and the like, belonging to this period; though in his great -pictures he aimed at totality of effect just as little as Adam. Confused -by the complexity of his material, he only ventured to single out -individual incidents, and then put them together on the canvas after the -fashion of a mosaic; and, to make the nature of the action as clear as -possible, he assumed as his standpoint the perspective view of a bird. -Of course, pictures produced in this way make an effect which is -artistically childish, but as the primitive endeavours of modern German -art they will keep their place. The best known of his pictures are those -inspired by the choice of Prince Otto of Bavaria as King of Greece, -especially "The Reception of King Otto in Nauplia," which is to be found -in the new Pinakothek in Munich. In spite of its hard, motley, and quite -impossible colouring, and its petty pedantry of execution, this is a -picture which will not lose its value as an historical source. - -Vigorous _Franz Krger_ had been long known in Berlin, by his famous -pictures of horses, before the Emperor of Russia in 1829 commissioned -him to paint, on a huge canvas, the great parade on the _Opernplatz_ in -Berlin, where he had reviewed his regiment of Cuirassiers before the -King of Prussia. From that time such parade pictures became Krger's -specialty; especially famous is the great parade of 1839, with the -likenesses of those who at the time played a political or literary part -in Berlin. In these works he has left a true reflection of old Berlin, -and bridged over the chasm between Chodowiecki and Menzel: this is -specially the case with his curiously objective water-colour portrait -heads. Mention should be made of Karl Steffeck as a pupil of Krger, and -Theodor Horschelt--in addition to Franz Adam--as a pupil of Adam. By -_Steffeck_, a healthy, vigorous realist, there are some well-painted -portraits of horses, and by _Th. Horschelt_, who in 1858 took part in -the fights of the Russians against the Circassians in the Caucasus, -there survive some of the spirited and masterly pen-and-ink sketches -which he published collectively in his _Memories from the Caucasus_. -_Franz Adam_, who first published a collection of lithographs on the -Italian campaign of 1848 in connection with Raffet, and in the Italian -war of 1859 painted his first masterpiece, a scene from the battle of -Solferino, owes his finest successes--although he had taken no part in -it--to the war of 1870. In respect of harmony of colouring he is perhaps -the finest painter of battle-pieces Germany has produced. As I shall -later have no opportunity of doing so, I must mention here the works of -_Josef Brandt_, the best of Franz Adam's pupils. They are painted with -verve and chivalrous feeling. There is a flame and a sparkle, both in -the forms of his warriors and of his horses, in his pictures of old -Polish cavalry battles. Everything is aristocratic: the distinction of -the grey colouring no less than the ductile drawing with its chivalrous -sentiment. In everything there breathes life, vigour, fire, and -freshness: the East of Eugne Fromentin translated into Polish. -_Heinrich Lang_, a spirited draughtsman, who had the art of seizing the -most difficult positions and motions of a horse, embodied the wild -tumult of cavalry charges ("The Charge of the Bredow Brigade," "The -Charge at Floing," etc.) in rapid pictures of incisive power, though -otherwise the heroic deeds of the Germans in 1870 resulted in but few -heroic deeds in art. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -ITALY AND THE EAST - - -In the beginning of the century the man who did not wear a uniform was -not a proper subject for art unless he lived in Italy as a peasant or a -robber. That is to say, painters were either archologists or tourists; -when they did not dive into the past they sought their romantic ideal in -the distance. Italy, where monumental painting had first seen the light, -was the earliest goal for travellers, and satisfied the desire of -artists, since, for the rest of the world, it was still enveloped in -poetic mystery. Only in Rome, in Naples, and in Tuscany was it thought -possible to meet with human beings who had not become vulgar and hideous -under the influence of civilisation. There they still preserved -something of the beauty of Grecian statues. There artists were less -afraid of being diverted from absolute beauty by the study of nature, -and thus an important principle was carried. Instead of copying directly -from antique statues, as David and Mengs had done before them, painters -began to study the descendants of those who had been the models of the -old Roman sculptors; and so it was that, almost against their will, they -turned from museums to look rather more closely into nature, and from -the past to cast a glance into the present. - -To _Leopold Robert_ belongs the credit of having opened out this new -province to an art which was enclosed in the narrow bounds of -Classicism. He owes his success with the public of the twenties and his -place in the history of art entirely to the fact that in spite of his -strict classical training he was one of the first to interest himself, -however little, in contemporary life. Hundreds of artists had wandered -into Italy and seen nothing but the antique until this young man set out -from Neufchtel in 1818 and became the painter of the Italian people. -What struck him at the first glance was the character of the people, -together with their curious habits and usages, and their rude and -picturesque garb. "He wished to render this with all fidelity," and -especially "to do honour to the absolute nobility of that people which -still bore a trace of the heroic greatness of their forefathers." Above -all, he fancied that he could find this phenomenon of atavism amongst -the bandits; and as Sonnino, an old brigand nest, had been taken and the -inhabitants removed to Engelsburg shortly after his arrival, a -convenient opportunity was offered to him for making his studies in this -place. The pictures of brigand life which he painted in the beginning of -the twenties soon found a most profitable market. "Dear M. Robert," -said the fashionable guests who visited his studio by the dozen, "could -you paint a little brigand, if it is not asking too much?" Robbers with -sentimental qualms were particularly prized: for instance, at the moment -when they were fondling their wives, or praying remorsefully to God, or -watching over the bed of a sick child. - -From brigands he made a transition to the girls of Sorrento, Frascati, -Capri, and Procida, and to shepherd lads, fishers, pilgrims, hermits, -and _pifferari_. Early in the twenties, when he made an exhibition of a -number of these little pictures in Rome, it effectually prepared the way -for his fame; and when he sent a succession of larger pictures to the -Paris Salon in 1824-31 he was held as one of the most brilliant masters -of the French school, to whom Romanticists and Classicists paid the same -honour. In the first of these pictures, painted in 1824, he had -represented a number of peasants listening to a Neapolitan fisherman -improvising to the accompaniment of a harmonica. "The Return from a -Pilgrimage to the Madonna dell' Arco" of 1827 is the painting of a -triumphal waggon yoked with oxen. Upon it are seated lads and maidens -adorned with foliage, and in their gay Sunday best. An old _lazzarone_ -is playing the mandolin, and girls are dancing with tambourines, whilst -a young man springs round clattering his castanets, and a couple of -boys, to complete the seasons of life, head the procession. His third -picture, "The Coming of the Reapers to the Pontine Marshes," was the -chief work in the Salon of 1831 after the "Freedom" of Delacroix. Heine -accorded him a classical passage of description, and the orthodox -academical critics were liberal with most unmerited praise, treating the -painter as a dangerous revolutionary who was seducing art into the -undignified naturalism of Ribera and Caravaggio. Robert, the honest, -lamblike man, who strikes us now as being a conscientious follower of -the school of David! - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - LEOPOLD ROBERT.] - -How little did the artistic principles which he laid down in his letters -accord with his own paintings! "I try," he wrote to a friend in 1819, -"to follow Nature in everything. Nature is the only teacher who should -be heard. She alone inspires and moves me, she alone appeals to me: it -is Nature that I seek to fathom, and in her I ever hope to find the -special impulse for work." She is a miracle to him, and one that is -greater than any other, a book in which "the simple may read as well as -the great." He could not understand "how painters could take the old -masters as their model instead of Nature, who is the only great -exemplar!" What is to be seen in his pictures is merely an awkward -transference of David's manner of conception and representation to the -painting of Italian peasants--a scrupulously careful adaptation of -classical rules to romantic subjects. He looked at modern Italians -solely through the medium of antique statuary, and conducts us to an -Italy which can only be called Leopold Robert's Italy, since it never -existed anywhere except in Robert's map. All his figures have the -movement of some familiar work of antique sculpture, and that expression -of cherished melancholy which went out of fashion after the time of Ary -Scheffer. Never does one see in his pictures a casual and unhackneyed -gesture in harmony with the situation. It seems as if he had dressed up -antique statues or David's Horatii and his Sabine women in the costume -of the Italian peasantry, and grouped them for a _tableau vivant_ in -front of stage scenery, and in accordance with Parisian rules of -composition. His peasants and fishers make beautiful, noble, and often -magnificent groups. But one can always give the exact academic rules for -any particular figure standing here and not there, or in one position -and not in another. His pictures are much too official, and obtrusively -affect the favourite pyramid form of composition. - -[Illustration: L. ROBERT. FISHERS OF THE ADRIATIC.] - -But as they are supposed to be pictures of Italian manners, the contrast -between nature and the artificial construction is almost more irritating -than it is in David's mythological representations. It is as if Robert -had really never seen any Italian peasants, though he maintains all the -while that he is depicting their life. The hard outlines and the sharp -bronze tone of his works are a ghastly evidence of the extent to which -the sense of colour had become extinct in the school of David. It was -merely form that attracted him; the sun of Italy left him indifferent. -The absence of atmosphere gives his figures an appearance of having been -cut out of picture sheets. O great artists of Holland, masters of -atmospheric effect and of contour bathed in light, what would you have -said to such heartless silhouettes! In his youth Robert had been a line -engraver, and he adapted the prosaic technique of line engraving to -painting. However, he was a transitional painter, and as such he has an -historical interest. He was a modern Tasso, too, and on the strength of -the adventurous relationship to Princess Charlotte Napoleon, which -ultimately drove him to suicide, he could be used with effect as the -hero of a novel. Through the downfall of the school of David his star -has paled--one more proof that only Nature is eternal, and that -conventional painting falls into oblivion with the age that saw it rise. -"I wished to find a _genre_ which was not yet known, and this _genre_ -has had the fortune to please. It is always an advantage to be the -first." With these words he has himself indicated, in a way which is as -modest as it is accurate, the ground of his reputation amongst -contemporaries, and why it is that the history of art cannot quite -afford to forget him. - -[Illustration: L. ROBERT. THE COMING OF THE REAPERS TO THE PONTINE - MARSHES.] - -Amongst the multitude of those who, incited by Robert's brilliant -successes, made the Spanish staircase in Rome the basis of their art, -_Victor Schnetz_, by his "Vow to the Madonna" of 1831, specially -succeeded in winning public favour. At a later time his favourite themes -were the funerals of children, inundations, and the like; but his arid -method of painting contrasts with the sentimental melancholy of these -subjects in a fashion which is not particularly agreeable. - -[Illustration: SCHNETZ. AN ITALIAN SHEPHERD.] - -It was _Ernest Hbert_ who first saw Italy with the eyes of a painter. -He might be called the Perugino of this group. He was the most romantic -of the pupils of Delaroche, and owed his conception of colour to that -painter. His spiritual father was Ary Scheffer. The latter has -discovered the poetry of sentimentality; Hbert the poetry of disease. -His pictures are invariably of great technical delicacy. His style has -something femininely gracious, almost languishing: his colouring is -delicately fragrant and tenderly melting. He is, indeed, a refined -artist who occupies a place by himself, however mannered the melancholy -and sickliness of his figures may be. In "The Malaria" of 1850 they were -influenced by the subject itself. The barge gliding over the waters of -the Pontine Marshes, with its freight of men, women, and children, seems -like a gloomy symbol of the voyage of life; the sorrow of the passengers -is that of resignation: dying they droop their heads like withering -flowers. But later the fever became chronic in Hbert. The interesting -disease returned even where it was out of place, as it does still in the -pictures of his followers. The same fate befell the painters of Italy -which befalls tourists. What Robert had seen in the country as the first -comer whole generations saw after him, neither more nor less than that. -The pictures were always variations on the old theme, until in the -sixties Bonnat came with his individual and realistic vision. - -[Illustration: _Portfolio._ - - HBERT. THE MALARIA.] - -In Germany, where "the yearning for Italy" had been ventilated in an -immoderate quantity of lyrical poems ever since the time of -Wackenroder's _Herzensergiessungen_, _August Riedel_ represented this -phase of modern painting; and as Leopold Robert is still celebrated, -Riedel ought not to be forgotten. Riedel lived too long (1800-1883), -and, as he painted nothing but bad pictures during the last thirty -years of his life, what he had done in his youth was forgotten. At that -time he was the first apostle of Leopold Robert in Germany, and as such -he has his importance as an innovator. When he began his career in the -Munich Academy in 1819 Peter Langer, a Classicist of the order of Mengs, -was still director there. Riedel also painted classical subjects and -church pictures--"Christ on the Mount of Olives," "The Resurrection of -Lazarus," and "Peter and Paul healing the Lame." But when he returned -from Italy in 1823 he reversed the route which others had taken: the -classic land set him free from Classicism, and opened his eyes to the -beauty of life. Instead of working on saints in the style of Langer, he -painted beautiful women in the costume of modern Italy. His "Neapolitan -Fisherman's Family" was for Germany a revelation similar to that which -Robert's "Neapolitan Improvisator" had been for France. The fisherman, -rather theatrically draped, is sitting on the shore, while his wife and -his little daughter listen to him playing the zither. The blue sea, -dotted with white sails, and distant Ischia and Cape Missene, form the -background; and a blue heaven, dappled with white clouds, arches above. -Everything was of an exceedingly conventional beauty, but denoted -progress in comparison with Robert. It already announced that search for -brilliant effects of light which henceforward became a characteristic of -Riedel, and gave him a peculiar position in his own day. "Even hardened -connoisseurs," wrote Emil Braun from Rome about this time, "stand -helpless before this magic of colouring. It is often long before they -are able to persuade themselves that such glory of colour can be -produced by the familiar medium of oil painting, and with materials that -any one can buy at a shop where pigments are sold." Riedel touched a -problem--diffidently, no doubt--which was only taken up much later in -its full extent. And if Cornelius said to him, "You have fully attained -what I have avoided with the greatest effort during the course of my -whole life," it is none the less true that Riedel's Italian girls in the -full glow of sunlight have remained, in spite of their stereotyped -smile, so reminiscent of Sichel, better able to stand the test of -galleries than the pictures of the Michael-Angelo of Munich. Before his -"Neapolitan Fisherman's Family," which went the world over like a melody -from Auber's _Masaniello_, before his "Judith" carrying the head of -Holofernes in the brightest light of morning, before his "Girls Bathing" -in the dimness of the forest, and before his "Sakuntala," painted "with -refined effects of light," the cartoon painters mumbled and grumbled, -and raised hue and cry over the desecration of German art; but Riedel's -friends were just as loud in proclaiming the witchery of his colour, and -"the Southern sunlight which he had conjured on to his palette," to be -splendid beyond the powers of comprehension. It is difficult at the -present day to understand the fame that he once had as "a pyrotechnist -in pigments." But the results which he achieved by himself in colouring, -long before the influence of the Belgians in Germany, will always give -him a sure place in the history of German art. And these qualities were -unconsciously inherited by his successors, who troubled their heads no -further about the pioneer and founder. - -[Illustration: RIEDEL. THE NEAPOLITAN FISHERMAN'S FAMILY.] - -[Illustration: RIEDEL. JUDITH.] - -Those who painted the East with its clear radiance, its interesting -people, and its picturesque localities, stand in opposition to the -Italian enthusiasts. They are the second group of travellers. Gros had -given French art a vision of that distant magic land, but he had had no -direct disciples. Painters were as yet in too close bondage to their -classical proclivities to receive inspiration from Napoleon's expedition -into Egypt. But the travels of Chateaubriand and the verse of Byron, and -then the Greek war of liberation, and, above all, the conquest of -Algiers, once more aroused an interest in these regions, and, when the -revolution of the Romanticists had once taken place, taught art a way -into the East. Authors, journalists, and painters found their place in -this army of travellers. The first view of men and women standing on the -shore in splendid costume, with turbans or high sheepskin hats, and -surrounded by black slaves, or mounted upon horses richly caparisoned, -or listening to the roll of drums and the muezzin resounding from the -minarets, was like a scene from _The Arabian Nights_. The bazaars and -the harems, the quarters of the Janizaries and gloomy dungeons were -visited in turn. Veiled women were seen, and mysterious houses where -every sound was hushed. At first the Moors, obedient to the stern laws -of the Koran, fled before the painters as if before evil spirits, but -the Moorish women were all the more ready to receive these conquerors -with open arms. Artists plunged with rapture into a new world; they -anointed themselves with the oil of roses, and tasted all the sweets of -Oriental life. The East was for the Byronic enthusiasts of 1830 what -Italy had been for the Classicists. Could anything be imagined more -romantic? You went on board a steamer provided with all modern comforts -and all the appliances of the nineteenth century, and it carried you -thousands of years back in the history of the world; you set foot on a -soil where the word progress did not exist--in a land where the -inhabitants still sat in the sun as if cemented to the ground, and wore -the same costumes in which their forefathers had sat there two thousand -years ago. Here the Romanticists not only found nature decked in the -rich hues which satisfied their passion for colour, but discovered a -race of people possessed of that beauty which, according to the -Classicists, was only to be seen in the Italian peasants. They beheld -"men of innate dignity and remarkable distinction of pose and gesture." -Thus a new experience was added to life. There was the East, where -splendour and simplicity, cruelty and beauty, softness of temper and -savage austerity, and brilliant colour and blinding light are more -completely mingled than anywhere else in the world; there was the East, -where rich tints laugh in the midst of squalor and misery, the -brightness of earlier days in the midst of outworn usages, and the pride -of art in the midst of ruined villages. It was so great, so -unfathomable, and so like a fairy tale that it gave every one the chance -of discovering in it some new qualities. - -For _Delacroix_, the Byron of painting, it was a splendid setting for -passion in its unfettered wildness and its unscrupulous daring. He, who -had lived exclusively in the past, now turned to the observation of -living beings, as may be seen in his "Algerian Women," his "Jewish -Wedding," his "Emperor of Morocco," and his "Convulsionaries of -Tangier." Amongst the Orientals he also found the hotly flaming -sensuousness and primitive wildness which beset his imagination with its -craving for everything impassioned. - -The great _charmeur_, the master of pictorial caprice, _Decamps_, found -his province in the East, because its sun was so lustrous, its costume -so bright, and its human figures so picturesque. If Delacroix was a -powerful artist, Decamps was no more than a painter,--but painter he was -to his finger-tips. He was indifferent to nothing in nature or history: -he showed as much enthusiasm for a pair of tanned beggar-boys playing in -the sunshine at the corner of a wall as for Biblical figures and -old-world epics. He has painted hens pecking on a dung-heap, dogs on the -chase and in the kennel, monkeys as scholars, and musicians in all the -situations which Teniers and Chardin loved. His "Battle of Tailleborg" -of 1837 has been aptly termed the only picture of a battle in the -Versailles Museum. He looked on everything as material for painting, and -never troubled as to how another artist would have treated the subject. -There is an individuality in every one of his works; not an -individuality of the first order, but one that is decidedly charming and -that assures him a very high place amongst his contemporaries. - -Having made a success in 1829 with an imaginary picture of the East, he -had a wish to see how far the reality corresponded with his ideas of -Turkey, and in the same year--therefore before Delacroix--he went on -that journey to the Greek Archipelago, Constantinople, and Asia Minor -which became a voyage of discovery for French painting. In the Salon of -1831 was exhibited his "Patrol of Smyrna," which at once made him one of -the favourite French painters of the time. Soon afterwards came the -picture of the "Pasha on his Rounds," accompanied by a lean troop of -running and panting guards, that of the great "Turkish Bazaar," in which -he gave such a charming representation of the gay and noisy bustle of an -Oriental fair, those of the "Turkish School," the "Turkish Caf," "The -Halt of the Arab Horsemen," and "The Turkish Butcher's Shop." In -everything which he painted from this time forward--even in his Biblical -pictures--he had before his eyes the East as it is in modern times. Like -Horace Vernet, he painted his figures in the costume of modern Arabs and -Egyptians, and placed them in landscapes with modern Arab buildings. But -the largeness of line in these landscapes is expressive of something so -patriarchal and Biblical, and of such a dreamy, mystical poetry, that, -in spite of their modern garb, the figures seem like visions from a far -distance. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - DECAMPS. THE SWINEHERD.] - -Decamps' painting never became trivial. All his pictures soothe and -captivate the eye, however much they disappoint, on the first glance, -the expectations which the older descriptions of them may have excited. -Fifty years ago it was said that Delacroix painted with colour and -Decamps with light; that his works were steeped in a bath of sunshine. -This vibrating light, this transparent atmosphere, which contemporaries -admired, is not to be found in Decamps' pictures. Their brilliancy of -technique is admirable, but he was no painter of light. The world of -sunshine in which everything is dipped, the glow and lustre of objects -in shining, liquid, and tremulous air, is what Gustave Guillaumet first -learnt to paint a generation later. Decamps attained the effect of -light in his pictures by the darkening of shadows, precisely in the -manner of the old school. To make the sky bright, he threw the -foreground into opaque and heavy shade. And as, in consequence of the -ground of bole used to produce his beautiful red tones, the dark parts -of his pictures gradually became as black as pitch, and the light parts -dead and spotty, he will rather seem to be a contemporary of Albert Cuyp -than of Manet. - -As draughtsman to a German baron making a scientific tour in the East, -_Prosper Marilhat_, the third of the painters of Oriental life, was -early in following this career. He visited Greece, Asia Minor, and -Egypt, and returned to Paris in 1833 intoxicated with the beauties of -these lands. Especially dear to him was Egypt, and in his pictures he -called himself, "Marilhat the Egyptian." Decamps had been blinded by the -sharp contrast between light and shadow in Oriental nature, by the vivid -blaze of colour in its vegetation, and by the tropical glow of the -Southern sky. Marilhat took novelties with a more quiet eye, and kept -close to pure reality. He has not so much virtuosity as Decamps, and in -colour he is less daring, but he is perhaps more poetic, and on that -account, in the years 1833-44, he was prized almost more. The exhibition -of 1844, in which eight of his pictures appeared, closed his career. He -had expected the Cross of the Legion of Honour, but did not get it, and -this disappointment affected him so deeply that he became first -hypochondriacal and then mad. His early death at thirty-six set Decamps -free from a powerful rival. - -_Eugne Fromentin_ went further in the same direction as Marilhat. He -knew nothing of the preference for the glowing hues of the tropics nor -of the fantastic colouring of the Romanticists. He painted in the spirit -of a refined social period in which no loud voice is tolerated, but only -light and familiar talk. The East gave him his grace; the proud and -fiery nature of the Arab horse was revealed to him. In his portraits -Fromentin looks like a cavalry officer. In his youth he had studied law, -but that was before his acquaintance with the landscape painter Cabat -brought him to his true calling, and a sojourn made on three different -occasions--in 1845, 1848, and 1852--on the borders of Morocco decided -for him his specialty. By his descriptions of travels, _A Year in -Sahel_, which appeared in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, he became known -as a writer: it was only after 1857, however, that he became famous as a -painter. Fromentin's East is Algiers. While Marilhat tried to render the -marvellous clearness of the Southern light, and Decamps depicted the -glowing heat of the East, its dark brooding sky in the sultry hours of -summer and the grand outlines of its landscape, Fromentin has tried--and -perhaps with too much system--to express the grace and brilliant spirit -of the East. Taste, refinement, ductility, distinction of colouring, and -grace of line are his special qualities. His Arabs galloping on their -beautiful white horses have an inimitable chivalry; they are true -princes in every pose and movement. The execution of his pictures is -always spirited, easy, and in keeping with their high-bred tone. -Whatever he does has the nervous vigour of a sketch, with that degree of -finish which satisfies the connoisseur. There is always a coquetry in -his arrangement of colour, and his tones are light and delicate if they -are not deep. In the landscape his little Arab riders have the effect of -flowers upon a carpet. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DECAMPS. COMING OUT FROM A TURKISH SCHOOL. - - (_By permission of Mme. Moreau-Nlaton, the owner of the picture._)] - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - DECAMPS. THE WATERING PLACE.] - -Afterwards, when naturalism was at its zenith, Fromentin was much -attacked for this wayward grace. He was accused of making a superficial -appeal to the eye, and of offering everything except truth. And for its -substantive fidelity Fromentin's "East" cannot certainly be taken very -seriously. He was a man of fine culture, and in his youth he had studied -the old Dutch masters more than nature; he even saw the light of the -East through the Dutch _chiaroscuro_. His pictures are subtle works of -art, nervous in drawing and dazzling in brilliancy of construction, but -they are washed in rather than painted, and stained rather than -coloured. In his book he speaks himself of the cool, grey shadows of the -East. But in his pictures they turn to a reddish hue or to brown. An -effort after beauty of tone in many ways weakened his Arab scenes. He -looked at the people of the East too much with the eyes of a Parisian. -And the more his recollections faded, the more did he begin to create -for himself an imaginary Africa. He painted grey skies simply because he -was tired of blue; he tinted white horses with rosy reflections, -chestnuts with lilac, and dappled-greys with violet. The grace of his -works became more and more an affair of affectation, until at last, -instead of being Oriental pictures, they became Parisian fancy goods, -which merely recalled the fact that Algiers had become a French town. - -[Illustration: MARILHAT. A HALT.] - -But after all what does it matter whether pictures of the East are true -to nature or not? Other people whose names are not Fromentin can provide -such documents. In his works Fromentin has expressed himself, and that -is enough. Take up his first book, _L't dans la Sahara_: by its grace -of style it claims a place in French literature. Or read his classic -masterpiece, _Les matres d'autrefois_, published in 1876 after a tour -through Belgium and Holland: it will remain for ever one of the finest -works ever written on art. A connoisseur of such refinement, a critic -who gauged the artistic works of Belgium and Holland with such subtlety, -necessarily became in his own painting an epicure of beautiful tones. -This man, who never made an awkward movement nor uttered a brutal word, -this sensitive, distinguished spirit could be no more than a subtle -artist who had eyes for nothing but the aristocratic side of Eastern -life. As a painter, however, he might wish to be true to nature; he -could be no more than this. His art, compact of grace and distinction, -was the outcome of his own nature. He is a descendant of those -delicately feminine, seductively brilliant, facile and spontaneous, -sparkling and charming painters who were known in the eighteenth century -as _peintres des ftes galantes_. He is the Watteau of the East, and in -this capacity one of the most winning and captivating products of French -art. - -[Illustration: E. FROMENTIN. ARABIAN FALCONERS.] - -Finally, _Guillaumet_, the youngest and last of the group, found in the -East peace: a scion of the Romanticists, there is none the less a -whole world of difference between him and them. While the Romanticists, -as sons of a flaccid, inactive period, lashed themselves into enthusiasm -for the passion and wild life of the East, Guillaumet, the child of a -hurried and neurotic epoch, sought here an opiate for his nerves. Where -they saw contrasts he found harmony; and he did not find it, like -Fromentin, in what is understood as _chic_. Manet's conception of colour -had taught him that nature is everywhere in accord and harmoniously -delicate. - -He writes: "_Je commence distinguer quelques formes: des silhouettes -indcises bougent le long des murs enfums sous des poutres luisantes de -sui. Les dtails sortent du demi-jour, s'animent graduellement avec la -magie des Rembrandt. Mme mystre des ombres, mmes ors dans les -reflets--c'est l'aube.... Des terrains poudreux inonds de soleil; un -amoncellement de murailles grises sous un ciel sans nuage; une cit -somnolente baigne d'une lumire gale, et dans le frmissement visible -des atomes ariens quelques ombres venant a et l dtacher une forme, -accuser un geste parmi les groupes en burnous qui se meuvent sur les -places ... tel m'apparait le ksar, vers dix heures du matin...._ - -"_L'oeil interroge: rien ne bouge. L'oreille coute: aucun bruit. Pas un -souffle, si ce n'est le frmissement presque imperceptible de l'air -au-dessus du sol embras. La vie semble avoir disparu, absorbe par la -lumire. C'est le milieu du jour.... Mais le soir approche.... Les -troupeaux rentrent dans les douars; ils se pressent autour des tentes, -peine visibles, confondus sous cette teinte neutre du crpuscule, faite -avec les gris de la nuit qui vient et les violets tendres du soir qui -s'en va. C'est l'heure mystrieuse, o les couleurs se mlent, o les -contours se noient, o toute chose s'assombrit, o toute voix se tait, -o l'homme, la fin du jour, laisse flotter sa pense devant ce qui -s'teint, s'efface et s'evanouit._" - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ EUGNE FROMENTIN.] - -This description of a day in Algiers in Guillaumet's _Tableaux -algriens_ interprets the painter Guillaumet better than any critical -appreciation could possibly do. For him the East is the land of dreams -and melting softness, a far-off health-resort for neurotic patients, -where one lies at ease in the sun and forgets the excitements of Paris. -It was not what was brilliant and pictorial in sparkling jewels and -bright costume that attracted him at all, but the silence, the mesmeric -spell of the East, the vastness of the infinite horizon, the imposing -majesty of the desert, and the sublime and profound peace of the nights -of Africa. "The Evening Prayer in the Desert" was the name of the first -picture that he brought back with him in 1863. There is a wide and -boundless plain; the straight line of the horizon is broken by a few -mountain forms and by the figures of a party belonging to a caravan; -but, bowed as they are in prayer, these figures are scarcely to be -distinguished. The smoke of the camp ascends like a pillar into the air. -The monotony of the wilderness seems to stretch endlessly to the right -and to the left, like a grand and solemn Nirvana smiting the human -spirit with religious delirium. - -[Illustration: FROMENTIN. ARABIAN WOMEN RETURNING FROM DRAWING WATER.] - -For Decamps and Marilhat the East was a great, red copper-block beneath -a blue dome of steel; a beautiful monster, bright and glittering. -Guillaumet has no wish to dazzle. His pictures give one the impression -of intense and sultry heat. His light is really "_le frmissement -visible des atomes ariens_." Moreover, he did not see the chivalry of -the East like Fromentin. The latter was fascinated by the nomad, the -pure Arab living in tent or saddle, the true aristocrat of the desert, -mounted on his white palfrey, hunting wild beasts through fair blue and -green landscapes. Poor folk who never owned a horse are the models of -Guillaumet. With their dogs--wild creatures who need nothing--they squat -in the sun as if with their own kin: they are the lower, primitive -population, the pariahs of the wilderness; tattered men whose life-long -siesta is only interrupted by the anguish of death, animal women whose -existence flows by as idly as in the trance of opium. - -After the French Romanticists had shown the way, other nations -contributed their contingent to the painters of Oriental subjects. In -Germany poetry had discovered the East. Rckert imitated the measure and -the ideas of the Oriental lyric, and the Greek war of liberation -quickened all that passionate love for the soil of old Hellas which -lives in the German soul. _Wilhelm Mller_ sang his songs of the Greeks, -and in 1825 _Leopold Schefer_ brought out his tale _Die Persierin_. But -just as the Oriental tale was a mere episode in German literature, an -exotic grafted on the native stem, so the Oriental painting produced no -leading mind in the country, but merely a number of good soldiers who -dutifully served in the troops of foreign commanders. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - FROMENTIN. THE CENTAURS.] - -_Kretszchmer_ of Berlin led the way with ethnographical representations, -and was joined at a later time by Wilhelm Gentz and Adolf Schreyer of -Frankfort. _Gentz_, a dexterous painter, and, as a colourist, perhaps -the most gifted of the Berlin school in the sixties, is, in comparison -with the great Frenchmen who portrayed the East, a thoroughly arid -realist. He brought to his task a certain amount of rough vigour and -restless diversity, together with North German sobriety and Berlin -humour. _Schreyer_, who lived in Paris, belonged to the following of -Fromentin. The Arab and his steed interested him also. His pictures are -bouquets of colour, dazzling the eye. Arabs in rich and picturesque -costume repose on the ground or are mounted on their milk-white steeds, -which rear and prance with tossing manes and wide-stretched nostrils. -The desert undulates away to the far horizon, now pale and now caressed -by the softened rays of the setting sun, which tip the waves of sand -with burnished gold. Schreyer was--for a German--a man with an -extraordinary gift for technique and a brilliantly effective sense of -life. The latter remark is specially true of his sketches. At a later -date--in 1875, after being with Lembach and Makart in Cairo--the -Viennese _Leopold Mller_ found the domain of his art beneath the clear -sky, in the brightly coloured land of the Nile. Even his sketches are -often of great delicacy of colour, and the ethnographical accuracy which -he also possessed has long made him the most highly valued delineator of -Oriental life and a popular illustrator of works on Egypt. The learned -and slightly pedantic vein in his works he shares with Grme, but by -his greater charm of colour he comes still nearer to Fromentin. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - GUILLAUMET. THE SGUIA, NEAR BISKRA.] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - GUILLAUMET. A DWELLING IN THE SAHARA.] - -The route to the East was shown to the English by the glowing landscapes -of _William Mller_; but the English were just as unable to find a Byron -amongst their painters. _Frederick Goodall_ has studied the classical -element in the East, and endeavoured to reconstruct the past from the -present. Best known amongst these artists was _J. F. Lewis_, who died in -1876 and was much talked of in earlier days. For long years he wandered -through Asia Minor, filling his portfolios with sketches and his trunks -with Oriental robes and weapons. When he returned there was a perfect -scramble for his pictures. They revealed a new world to the English -then, but no one scrambles for them now. John Lewis was exceedingly -diligent and conscientious; he studied the implements, the costumes, and -the popular types of the East with incredible industry. In his harem -pictures as in his representations of Arabian camp life everything is -painted, down to the patterns of embroidery, the ornaments of turbans, -and the pebbles on the sand. Even his water-colours are triumphs of -endurance; but patience and endurance are not sufficient to make an -interesting artist. John Lewis stands in respect of colour, too, more or -less on a level with Gentz. He has seized neither the dignity of the -Mussulman nor the grace of the Bedouin, but has contented himself with a -faithful though somewhat glaring reproduction of accessories. _Houghton_ -was the first who, moving more or less parallel with Guillaumet, -succeeded in delicately interpreting the great peace and the mystic -silence of the East. - -[Illustration: W. MLLER. PRAYER IN THE DESERT.] - -The East was in this way traversed in all directions. The first comers -who beheld it with eager, excited eyes collected a mass of gigantic -legends, with no decided aim or purpose and driven by no passionate -impulse, merely eager to pluck here or there an exotic flower, or -lightly to catch some small part of the glamour that overspread all that -was Eastern, piled up dreams upon dreams, and gave it a gorgeous and -fantastic life. There were deserts shining in the sun, waves lashed by -the storm, the nude forms of women, and all the Asiatic splendour of the -East: dark-red satin, gold, crystal, and marble were heaped in confusion -and executed in terrible fantasies of colour in the midst of darkness -and lightning. After this generation had passed like a thunderstorm the -_chic_ of Fromentin was delicious. He profited by the taste which others -had excited. Painters of all nationalities overran the East. The great -dramas were transformed into elegies, pastorals, and idylls; even -ethnographical representations had their turn. Guillaumet summed up the -aims of that generation. His dreamy and tender painting was like a -beautiful summer evening. The radiance of the blinding sky was -mitigated, and a peaceful sun at the verge of the horizon covered the -steppes of sand, which it had scorched a few hours before, with a -network of rosy beams. - -They were all scions of the Romantic movement. The yearning which filled -their spirits and drove them into distant lands was only another symptom -of their dissatisfaction with the present. - -Classicism had dealt with Greek and Roman history by the aid of antique -statues, and next used the colours of the Flemish masters to paint -Italian peasantry. Romanticism had touched the motley life of the Middle -Ages and the richly coloured East; but both had anxiously held aloof -from the surroundings of home and the political and social relations of -contemporaries. - -It was obvious that art's next task was to bring down to earth again the -ideal that had hovered so long over the domain of ancient history, and -then winged its flight to the realms of the East. "_Ah la vie, la vie! -le monde est l; il rit, crie, souffre, s'amuse, et on ne le rend pas._" -In these words the necessity of the step has been indicated by Fromentin -himself. The successful delivery of modern art was first accomplished, -the problem stated in 1789 was first solved, when the subversive -upheaval of the Third Estate, which had been consummating itself more -and more imperiously ever since the Revolution, found distinct -expression in the art of painting. Art always moves on parallel lines -with religious conceptions, with politics, and with manners. In the -Middle Ages men lived in the world beyond the grave, and so the subjects -of painting were Madonnas and saints. According to Louis XIV, everything -was derived from the King, as light from the sun, and so royalty by the -grace of God was reflected in the art of his epoch. The royal sun -suffered total eclipse in the Revolution, and with this mighty change of -civilisation art had to undergo a new transformation. The 1789 of -painting had to follow on the politics of 1789: the proclamation of the -liberty and equality of all individuals. Only painting which recognised -man in his full freedom, no privileged class of gods and heroes, -Italians and Easterns, could be the true child of the Revolution, the -art of the new age. Belgium and Germany made the first diffident steps -in this direction. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -THE PAINTING OF HUMOROUS ANECDOTE - - -At the very time when the East attracted the French Romanticists, the -German and Belgian painters discovered the rustic. Romanticism, driven -into strange and tropical regions by its disgust of a sluggish, -colourless and inglorious age, now planted a firm foot upon native soil. -Amid rustics there was to be found a conservative type of life which -perpetuated old usages and picturesque costume. - -It is not easy for a dilettante to enter into sympathetic relationship -with these early pictures of peasant life. They are gaudy in tone, -smooth as metal, and the figures stand out hard against the atmosphere, -as if they had been cut from a picture-sheet. But the historian has no -right to be merely a dilettante. It would be unfair of him to make the -artistic conceptions of the present time the means of depreciating the -past. For, after all, works of the past are only to be measured with -those of their own age, and when one once remembers what an importance -these modest "little masters" had for their time it is no longer -difficult to treat them with justice. In an age when futile and aimless -intentions lost their way in theory and imitation of the "great -painting" there blossomed here, and for the first time, a certain -individuality of mind and temper. While Cornelius, Kaulbach, and their -fellows formed a style which was ideal in a purely conventional sense, -and epitomised the art of the great masters according to method, the -"_genre_ painters" seized upon the endless variety of nature, and, after -a long period of purely reproductive painting, made the first diffident -attempt to set art free from the curse of system and the servile -repetition of antiquated forms. - -Even as regards colour they have the honour of preparing the way for a -restoration in the technique of painting. Their own defects in technique -were not their fault, but the consequence of that fatal interference of -Winckelmann through which art lost its technical traditions. They did -not enjoy the advantages of issuing from a long line of ancestors. In a -certain sense they had to make a beginning in the history of art by -themselves; for between them and the older German painting they only met -with men who held the ability to paint as a shame and a disgrace. With -the example of the old Dutch and Flemish masters before them, they had -to knit together the bonds which these men had cut; and considering the -sthetic ideas of the age, this reference to Netherlandish models was an -event of revolutionary importance. In doing this they may have been -partially influenced by Wilkie, who made his tour in Germany in 1825, -and whose pictures had a wide circulation through the medium of -engraving. And from another side attention was directed to the old Dutch -masters by Schnaase's letters of 1834. While the entire artistic school -which took its rise from Winckelmann gave the reverence of an empty, -formal idealism to classical antiquity and the Cinquecento, applying -their standards to all other periods, Schnaase was the first to give an -impulse to the historical consideration of art. In this way he revealed -wide and hitherto neglected regions to the creative activity of modern -times. The result of his book was that the Netherlandish masters were no -longer held to be "the apes of vulgar nature," but took their place as -exquisite artists from whom the modern painter had a great deal to -learn. - -[Illustration: KOBELL. A MEETING.] - -In Munich the conditions of a popular, national art were supplied by the -very site of the town. Since the beginning of the century Munich had -been peculiarly the type of a peasant city, the capital of a peasant -province; it had a peasantry abounding in old-fashioned singularities, -gay and motley in costume as in their ways of life, full of bright and -easy-going good-humour, and gifted with the Bavarian force of character. -Here it was, then, that "the resort to national traits" was first made. -And if, in the event, this painting of rustic life produced many -monstrosities, it remained throughout the whole century an unfailing -source from which the art of Munich drew fresh and vivid power. - -Even in the twenties there was an art in Munich which was native to the -soil, and in later years shot up all the more vigorously through being -for a time cramped in its development by the exotic growths of the -school of Cornelius. It was as different from the dominant historical -painting as the "_magots_" of Teniers from the mythological machinery of -Lebrun, and it was treated by official criticism with the same contempt. -Cornelius and his school directed the attention of educated people so -exclusively to themselves, and so entirely proscribed the literature of -the day, that what took place outside their own circle in Munich was -but little discussed. The vigorous group of naturalists had not much to -offer critics who wished to display their knowledge by picking to pieces -historical pictures, interpreting philosophical cartoons, and pointing -to similarities of style between Cornelius and Michael Angelo. But for -the historian, seeking the seeds of the present in the past, they are -figures worthy of respect. Setting their own straightforward conception -of nature against the eclecticism of the great painters, they laid the -foundation of an independent modern art. - -The courtly, academic painting of Cornelius derived its inspiration from -the Sistine Chapel; the naturalism of these "_genre_ painters" was -rooted in the life of the Bavarian people. The "great painters" dwelt -alone in huge monumental buildings; the naturalists, who sought their -inspiration in the life of peasants, in the life of camps, and in -landscape, without troubling themselves about antique or romantic -subjects, furnished the material for the first collections of modern -art. Both as artists and as men they were totally different beings. -Cornelius and his school stand on the one side, cultured, imperious, -fancying themselves in the possession of all true art, and abruptly -turning from all who are not sworn to their flag; on the other side -stand the naturalists, brisk and cheery, rough it may be, but sound to -the core, and with a sharp eye for life and nature. - -[Illustration: PETER HESS. A MORNING AT PARTENKIRCHE.] - -Painting in the grand style owed its origin to the personal tastes of -the king and to the great tasks to which it was occasionally set; -independent of princely favour, realistic art found its patrons amongst -the South German nobility and, at a later date, in the circle of the -Munich Art Union, and seems the logical continuation of that military -painting which, at the opening of the century, had its representatives -in Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Munich. The motley swarm of foreign soldiers -which overran the soil of Germany incited Albrecht Adam, Peter Hess, -Johann Adam Klein, and others, to represent what they saw in a fashion -which was sincere and simple if it was also prosy. And when the warlike -times were over it was quite natural that some of the masters who had -learnt their art in camps should turn to the representation of peasant -life, where they were likewise able to find gay, pictorial costumes. -_Wilhelm Kobell_, whose etchings of the life of the Bavarian people are -more valuable than his battle-pieces, was one of the first to make this -transition. In 1820 sturdy _Peter Hess_ painted his "Morning at -Partenkirche," in which he depicted a simple scene of mountain -life--girls at a well in the midst of a sunny landscape--in a homely but -poetic manner. When this breach had been made, Brkel was able to take -the lead of the Munich painters of rustic subjects. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ HEINRICH BRKEL.] - -_Heinrich Brkel's_ portrait reveals a square-built giant, whose -appearance contrasts strangely with that of his celebrated -contemporaries. The academic artists sweep back their long hair and look -upwards with an inspired glance. Brkel looks down with a keen eye at -the hard, rough, and stony earth. The academic artists had a mantle--the -mantle of Rauch's statues--picturesquely draped about their shoulders; -Brkel dressed like anybody else. No attribute is added which could -indicate that he was a painter; neither palette, nor brush, nor picture; -beside him on the table there is--a mug of beer. There he sits without -any sort of pose, with his hand resting on his knee--rough, athletic, -and pugnacious--for all the world as if he were quite conscious of his -peculiarities. Even the photographer's demand for "a pleasant smile" had -no effect upon him. This portrait is itself an explanation of Brkel's -art. His was a healthy, self-reliant nature, without a trace of romance, -sentimentality, affected humour, or sugary optimism. Amongst all his -Munich contemporaries he was the least academic in his whole manner of -feeling and thinking. - -Sprung from the people, he became their painter. He was born, 29th May -1802, in Pirmasens, where his father combined a small farm with a -public-house and his mother kept a shop; and he had been first a -tradesman's apprentice, and then assistant clerk in a court of justice, -before he came to Munich in 1822. Here the Academy rejected him as -without talent; but while it shut the door against the pupil, life -revealed itself to the master. He went to the Schleissheimer Gallery, -and sat there copying the pictures of Wouwerman, Ostade, Brouwer, and -Berghem, and developed his powers, by the study of these Netherlandish -masters, with extraordinary rapidity. His first works--battles, -skirmishes, and other martial scenes--are amateurish and diffident -attempts; it is evident that he was without any kind of guidance or -direction. All the more astonishing is the swiftness with which he -acquired firm command of abilities, admirable for that age, and the -defiant spirit of independence with which he went straight from pictures -to nature, though hardly yet in possession of the necessary means of -expression. He painted and drew the whole new world which opened itself -before him: far prospects over the landscape, mossy stones in the -sunlight, numbers of cloud-pictures, peasants' houses with their -surroundings, forest paths, mountain tracks, horses, and figures of -every description. The life of men and animals gave him everywhere some -opportunity for depicting it in characteristic situations. And later, -when he had settled down again in Munich, he did not cease from -wandering in the South German mountains with a fresh mind. Up to old age -he made little summer and winter tours in the Bavarian highlands. -Tegernsee, Rottach, Prien, Berchtesgaden, South Tyrol, and Partenkirche -were visited again and again, on excursions for the week or the day; and -he returned from them all with energetic studies, from which were -developed pictures that were not less energetic. - -[Illustration: BRKEL. BRIGANDS RETURNING.] - -[Illustration: BRKEL. A DOWNPOUR IN THE MOUNTAINS.] - -For, as every artist is the result of two factors, of which one lies in -himself and the other in his age and surroundings, the performances of -Brkel are to be judged, not only according to the requirements of the -present day, but according to the conditions under which they were -produced. What is weak in him he shares with his contemporaries; what is -novel is his own most peculiar and incontestable merit. In a period of -false idealism worked up in a museum--false idealism which had aped from -the true the way in which one clears one's throat, as Schiller has it, -but nothing more indicative of genius--in a period of this -accomplishment Brkel preferred to expose his own insufficiency rather -than adorn himself with other people's feathers; at a time which prided -itself on representing with brush and pigment things for which pen and -ink are the better medium, he looked vividly into life; at a time when -all Germany lost itself aimlessly in distant latitudes, he brought to -everything an honest and objective fidelity which knew no trace of -romantic sentimentalism; and by these fresh and realistic qualities he -has become the father of that art which rose in Munich in a later day. -Positive and exact in style, and far too sincere to pretend to raise -himself to the level of the old masters by superficial imitation, he -was the more industrious in penetrating the spirit of nature and showing -his love for everything down to its minutest feature; weak in the -sentiment for colour, he was great in his feeling for nature. That was -Heinrich Brkel, and his successors had to supplement what was wanting -in him, but not to wage war against his influence. - -[Illustration: BRKEL. A SMITHY IN UPPER BAVARIA.] - -The peculiarity of all his works, as of those of the early Dutch and -Flemish artists, is the equal weight which he lays on figures and on -landscape. In his eyes the life of man is part of a greater whole; -animals and their scenic surroundings are studied with the same love, -and in his most felicitous pictures these elements are so blended that -no one feature predominates at the expense of another. Seldom does he -paint interiors, almost always preferring to move in free and open -nature. But here his field is extraordinarily wide. - -Those works in which he handled Italian subjects form a group by -themselves. Brkel was in Rome from 1829 to 1832, the very years in -which Leopold Robert celebrated his triumphs there; but curious is the -difference between the works of the Munich and those of the Swiss -painter. In the latter are beautiful postures, poetic ideas, and all -the academical formulas; in the former unvarnished, naturalistic -bluntness of expression. Even in Italy he kept romantic and academic art -at a distance. They had no power over the rough, healthy, and sincere -nature of the artist. He saw nothing in Italy that he had not met with -at home, and he painted things as he saw them, honestly and without -beatification. - -To find material Brkel did not need to go far. Picture to yourself a -man wandering along the banks of the Isar, and gazing about him with a -still and thoughtful look. A healthy peasant lass with a basket, or a -plough moving slowly in the distance behind a sweating yoke of horses, -is quite enough to fill him with feelings and ideas. - -His peculiar domain was the high-road, which in the thirties and the -forties, before the railways had usurped its traffic, was filled with a -much more manifold life than it is to-day. Waggons and mail-carts passed -along before the old gateways; in every village there were taverns -inviting the wayfarer to rest, and blacksmiths sought for custom on the -road. There were vehicles of every description, horses at the forge, -posting-stages, change of teams, the departure of marketing folk, and -passengers taking their seats or alighting. Here horses were being -watered, and an occasion was given for brief dialogues between the -coachman and his fares. There travellers surprised by a shower were -hurrying under their umbrellas into an inn; or, in wintry weather, they -were waiting impatiently, wrapped up in furs, whilst a horse was being -shod. - -[Illustration: CARL SPITZWEG.] - -The beaten tracks through field and forest offered much of the same -sort. Peasants were driving to market with a cart-load of wood. Horses -stood unyoked at a drinking-trough whilst the driver, a muscular fellow -with great sinews, quietly enjoyed his pipe. Along some shadowy woodland -path a team drew near to a forge or a lonely charcoal-burner's hut, -where the light flickered, and over which there soared a bare and snowy -mountain peak. - -Such pictures of snow-clad landscape were a specialty of Brkel's art, -and in their simplicity and harmony are to be ranked with the best that -he has done. Heavily freighted wood-carts passing through a drift, -waggons brought to a standstill in the snow, raw-boned woodmen -perspiring as they load them in a wintry forest, are the accessory -objects and figures. - -[Illustration: _Albert, Munich._ - - SPITZWEG. AT THE GARRET WINDOW.] - -But life in the fields attracted him also. Having a love of representing -animals, he kept out of the way of mowers, reapers, and gleaners. His -favourite theme is the hay, corn, or potato harvest, which he paints -with much detail and a great display of accessory incidents. Maids and -labourers, old and young, are feverishly active in the construction of -hay-cocks, or, in threatening weather, pile up waggons, loaded as high -as a house, with fresh trusses. - -In this enumeration all the rustic life of Bavaria has been described. -It is only the Sunday and holiday themes, the peculiar motives of the -_genre_ painter, that are wanting. And in itself this is an indication -of what gives Brkel his peculiar position. - -By their conception his works are out of keeping with everything which -the contemporary generation of "great painters" and the younger _genre_ -painters were attempting. The great painters had their home in museums; -Brkel lived in the world of nature. The _genre_ painters, under the -influence of Wilkie, were fond of giving their motive a touch of -narrative interest, like the English. Cheerful or mournful news, country -funerals, baptisms, and public dinners offered an excuse for -representing the same sentiment in varying keys. Their starting-point -was that of an illustrator; it might be very pretty in itself, but it -was too jovial or whimpering for a picture. Brkel's works have no -literary background; they are not composed of stories with a humorous or -sentimental tinge, but depict with an intimate grasp of the subject the -simplest events of life. He neither offered the public lollipops, nor -tried to move them and play upon their sensibilities by subjects which -could be spun out into a novel. He approached his men, his animals, and -his landscapes as a strenuous character painter, without gush, -sentimentality, or romanticism. In contradistinction from all the -younger painters of rustic subjects, he sternly avoided what was -striking, peculiar, or in any way extraordinary, endeavouring to paint -everyday life in the house or the farmyard, in the field or upon the -highway, in all plainness and simplicity. - -At first, indeed, he thought it necessary to satisfy the demands of the -age by, at any rate, painting in a broad and epical manner. The public -collections chiefly possess pictures of his which contain many figures: -"The Return from the Mountain Pasture," "Coming Back from the Bear -Hunt," "The Cattle Show," and "From the Fair"; scenes before an inn at -festivals, or waggoners setting out, and the like. But in these works -the scheme of composition and the multitude of figures have a somewhat -overladen and old-fashioned effect. On the other hand, there are -pictures scattered about in private collections which are of a -simplicity which was unknown at the time: dusty roads with toiling -horses, lonely charcoal burners' huts in the dimness of the forest, -villages in rain or snow, with little figures shivering from frost or -damp as they flit along the street. From the very beginning, free from -the vices of _genre_ and narrative painting and the search after -interesting subjects, he has, in these pictures, renounced the epical -manner of representing a complicated event. Like the moderns, he paints -things which can be grasped and understood at a glance. - -[Illustration: SPITZWEG. A MORNING CONCERT.] - -But, after all, Brkel occupies a position which is curiously -intermediate. His colour relegates him altogether to the beginning of -the century. He was himself conscious of the weakness of his age in this -respect, and stands considerably above the school of Cornelius, even -where its colouring is best. Yet, in spite of the most diligent study of -the Dutch masters, he remained, as a colourist, hard and inartistic to -the end. Having far too much regard for outline, he is not light enough -with what should be lightly touched, nor fugitive enough with what is -fleeting. What the moderns leave to be indistinctly divined he renders -sharp and palpable in his drawing. He trims and rounds off objects which -have a fleeting form, like clouds. But although inept in technique, his -works are more modern in substance than anything that the next -generation produced. They have an intimacy of feeling beyond the reach -of the traditional _genre_ painting. In his unusually fresh, simple, and -direct studies of landscape he did not snatch at dazzling and -sensational effects, but tried to be just to external nature in her -work-a-day mood; and, in the very same way, in his figures he aimed at -the plain reproduction of what is given in nature. - -The hands of his peasants are the real hands of toil--weather-stained, -heavy, and awkward. There are no movements that are not simple and -actual. Others have told droller stories; Brkel unrolls a true picture -of the surroundings of the peasant's life. Others have made their -rustics persons suitable for the drawing-room, and cleaned their nails; -Brkel preaches the strict, austere, and pious study of nature. An -entirely new age casts its shadow upon this close devotion to life. In -their intimacy and simplicity his pictures contain the germ of what -afterwards became the task of the moderns. All who came after him in -Germany were the sons of Wilkie until Wilhelm Leibl, furnished with a -better technical equipment, started in spirit from the point at which -Brkel had left off. - -_Carl Spitzweg_, in whose charming little pictures tender and discreet -sentiment is united with realistic care for detail, must likewise be -reckoned with the few who strove and laboured in quiet, apart from the -ruling tendency, until their hour came. Thrown entirely on his own -resources, without a teacher, he worked his way upwards under the -influence of the older painters. By dint of copying he discovered their -secrets of colour, and gave his works, which are full of poetry, a -remarkable impress of sympathetic delicacy, suggestive of the old -masters. One turns over the leaves of the album of Spitzweg's sketches -as though it were a story-book from the age of romance, and at the same -time one is astonished at the master's ability in painting. He was a -genius who united in himself three qualities which seem to be -contradictory--realism, fancy, and humour. He might be most readily -compared with Schwind, except that the latter was more of a romanticist -than a realist, and Spitzweg is more of a realist than a romanticist. -The artists' yearning carries Schwind to distant ages and regions far -from the world, and a positive sense of fact holds Spitzweg firmly to -the earth. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - - SPITZWEG. THE POSTMAN.] - -Like Jean Paul, he has the boundless fancy which revels in airy dreams, -but he is also like Jean Paul in having a cheery, provincial -satisfaction in the sights of his own narrow world. He has all Schwind's -delight in hermits and anchorites, and witches and magic and nixies, and -he plays with dragons and goblins like Boecklin; but, for all that, he -is at home and entirely at his ease in the society of honest little -schoolmasters and poor sempstresses, and gives shape to his own small -joys and sorrows in a spirit of contemplation. His dragons are only -comfortable, Philistine dragons, and his troglodytes, who chastise -themselves in rocky solitudes, perform their penance with a kindly -irony. In Spitzweg a fine humour is the causeway between fancy and -reality. His tender little pictures represent the Germany of the -forties, and lie apart from the rushing life of our time, like an -idyllic hamlet slumbering in Sunday quietude. Indeed, his pictures come -to us like a greeting from a time long past. - -There they are: his poor poet, a little, lean old man, with a sharp nose -and a night-cap, sits at his garret window scanning verses on his frozen -fingers, enveloped in a blanket drawn up to his chin, and protected from -the inclemency of the weather by a great red umbrella; his clerk, grown -grey in the dust of parchments, sharpens his quill with dim-sighted -eyes, and feels himself part of a bureaucracy which rules the world; his -book-worm stands on the highest ladder in the library, with books in his -hand, books in his pockets, books under his arms, and books jammed -between his legs, and neglects the dinner-hour in his peaceful -enjoyment, until an angry torrent of scolding is poured over his devoted -head by the housekeeper; there is his old gentleman devoutly sniffing -the perfume of a cactus blossom which has been looked forward to for -years; there is his little man enticing his bird with a lump of sugar; -the widower glancing aside from the miniature of his better half at a -pair of pretty maidens walking in the park; the constable whiling away -the time at the town-gate in catching flies; the old-fashioned bachelor, -solemnly presenting a bouquet to a kitchen-maid who is busied at the -market-well, to the amusement of all the gossips watching him from the -windows; the lovers who in happy oblivion pass down a narrow street by -the stall of a second-hand dealer, where amidst antiquated household -goods a gilded statuette of Venus reposes in a rickety cradle; the -children holding up their pinafores as they beg the stork flying by to -bring them a little brother. - -Spitzweg, like Jean Paul, makes an effect which is at once joyous and -tender, _bourgeois_ and idyllic. The postillion gives the signal on his -horn that the moment for starting has arrived; milk-maids look down from -the green mountain summit into the far country; hermits sit before their -cells forgotten by the world; old friends greet each other after years -of separation; Dachau girls in their holiday best pray in woodland -chapels; school children pass singing through a still mountain valley; -maidens chatter of an evening as they fetch water from the moss-grown -well, or the arrival of the postman in his yellow uniform brings to -their windows the entire population of an old country town. - -The little man with the miserable figure of a tailor had been an -apothecary until he was thirty years of age, but he had an independent -and distinctive artistic nature which impresses itself on the memory in -a way that is unforgettable. It is only necessary to see his portrait as -he sits at his easel in his dressing-gown with his meagre beard, his -long nose, and the droll look about the corners of his eyes, to feel -attracted by him before one knows his works. Spitzweg reveals in them -his own life: the man and the painter are one in him. There is a pretty -little picture of him as an elderly bachelor, looking out of the window -in the early morning and nodding across the roofs to an old sempstress -who had worked the whole night through without noticing that the day had -broken; that is the world he lived in, and the world which he has -painted. As a kind-hearted, inflexible Benedick, full of droll -eccentricities, he lived in the oldest quarter of Munich in a -fourth-storey attic. His only visitor was his friend Moritz Schwind, who -now and then climbed the staircase to the little room that looked over -the roofs and gables and pinnacles to distant, smoky towers. His studio -was an untidy confusion of prosaic discomfort and poetic cosiness. - -[Illustration: KAUFFMANN. WOODCUTTERS RETURNING.] - -Here he sat, an ossified hermit, _bourgeois_, and book-worm, as if he -were in a spider's nest, and here at a little window he painted his -delightful pictures. Here he took his homely meal at the rickety little -table where he sat alone in the evening buried in his books. A pair of -heavy silver spectacles with keen glasses sparkled on his thick nose, -and the great head with its ironically twinkling eyes rested upon a huge -cravat attached to a pointed stand-up collar. When disturbed by -strangers he spoke slowly and with embarrassment, though in the society -of Schwind he was brilliant and satirical. Then he became as mobile as -quicksilver, and paced up and down the studio with great strides, -gesticulating and sometimes going through a dramatic performance in -vivid mimicry of those of whom he happened to be talking. - -His character has the same mixture of Philistine contentment and genial -comedy which gleams from his works with the freshness of dew. A touch of -the sturdy Philistinism of Eichendorf is in these provincial idylls of -Germany; but at the same time they display an ability which even at the -present day must compel respect. The whole of Romanticism chirps and -twitters in the Spitzweg Album, as from behind the wires of a birdcage. -Everything is here united: the fragrance of the woods and the song of -birds, the pleasures of travelling and the sleepy life of provincial -towns, moonshine and Sunday quiet, vagabonds, roving musicians, and the -guardians of law, learned professors and students singing catches, -burgomasters and town-councillors, long-haired painters and strolling -players, red dressing-gowns, green slippers, night-caps, and pipes with -long stems, serenades and watchmen, rushing streams and the trill of -nightingales, rippling summer breezes and comely lasses, stroking back -their hair of a morning, and looking down from projecting windows to -greet the passers-by. In common with Schwind he shows a remarkable -capacity for placing his figures in their right surroundings. All these -squares, alleys, and corners, in which his provincial pictures are -framed, seem--minutely and faithfully executed as they are--to be -localities predestined for the action, though they are painted freely -from memory. Just as he forgot none of the characteristic figures which -he had seen in his youth, so he held in his memory the whimsical and -marvellous architecture of the country towns of Swabia and Upper Bavaria -which he had visited for his studies, with such a firm grip that it was -always at his command; and he used it as a setting for his figures as a -musician composes an harmonious accompaniment for a melody. - -[Illustration: KAUFFMANN. A SANDY ROAD.] - -[Illustration: KAUFFMANN. RETURNING FROM THE FIELDS.] - -To look at his pictures is like wandering on a bright Sunday morning -through the gardens and crooked, uneven alleys of an old German town. At -the same time one feels that Spitzweg belonged to the present and not -to the period of the ingenuous Philistines. It was only after he had -studied at the university and passed his pharmaceutical examination that -he turned to painting. Nevertheless he succeeded in acquiring a -sensitiveness to colour to which nothing in the period can be compared. -He worked through Burnett's _Treatise on Painting_, visited Italy, and -in 1851 made a tour, for the sake of study, to Paris, London, and -Antwerp, in company with Eduard Schleich. In the gallery of -Pommersfelden he made masterly copies from Berghem, Gonzales Coquez, -Ostade, and Poelenburg, and lived to see the appearance of Piloty. But -much as he profited by the principles of colour which then became -dominant, he is like none of his contemporaries, and stands as far from -Piloty's brown sauce as from the frigid hardness of the old _genre_ -painters. He was one of the first in Germany to feel the really sensuous -joy of painting, and to mix soft, luxuriant, melting colours. There are -landscapes of his which, in their charming freshness, border directly on -the school of Fontainebleau. Spitzweg has painted bright green meadows -in which, as in the pictures of Daubigny, the little red figures of -peasant women appear as bright and luminous patches of colour. His -woodland glades penetrated by the sun have a pungent piquancy of colour -such as is only to be found elsewhere in Diaz. And where he diversified -his desolate mountain glens and steeply rising cliffs with the fantastic -lairs of dragons and with eccentric anchorites, he sometimes produced -such bold colour symphonies of sapphire blue, emerald green, and red, -that his pictures seem like anticipations of Boecklin. Spitzweg was a -painter for connoisseurs. His refined cabinet pieces are amongst the -few German productions of their time which it is a delight to possess, -and they have the savour of rare delicacies when one comes across them -in the dismal wilderness of public galleries. - -Brkel's realistic programme was taken up with even greater energy by -_Hermann Kauffmann_, who belonged to the Munich circle from 1827 to -1833, and then painted until his death in 1888 in his native Hamburg. -His province was for the most part that of Brkel: peasants in the -field, waggoners on the road, woodmen at their labour, and hunters in -the snowy forest. For the first few years after his return home he used -for his pictures the well-remembered motives taken from the South German -mountain district. A tour in Norway, undertaken in 1843, gave him the -impulse for a series of Norwegian landscapes which were simple and -direct, and of more than common freshness. In the deanery at Holstein he -studied the life of fishers. Otherwise the neighbourhood of Hamburg is -almost always the background of his pictures: Harburg, Kellinghusen, -Wandsbeck, and the Alster Valley. Concerning him Lichtwark is right in -insisting upon the correctness of intuition, the innate soundness of -perception which one meets with in all his works. - -[Illustration: FRIEDRICH EDUARD MEYERHEIM.] - -In Berlin the excellent _Eduard Meyerheim_ went on parallel lines with -these masters. An old tradition gives him the credit of having -introduced the painting of peasants and children into German art. But in -artistic power he is not to be compared with Brkel or Kauffmann. They -were energetic realists, teeming with health, and in everything they -drew they were merely inspired by the earnest purpose of grasping life -in its characteristic moments. But Meyerheim, good-humoured and -childlike, is decidedly inclined to a sentimentally pathetic compromise -with reality. At the same time his importance for Berlin is -incontestable. Hitherto gipsies, smugglers, and robbers were the only -classes of human society, with the exception of knights, monks, noble -ladies, and Italian women, which, upon the banks of the Spree, were -thought suitable for artistic representation. Friedrich Eduard -Meyerheim sought out the rustic before literature had taken this step, -and in 1836 he began with his "King of the Shooting Match," a series of -modest pictures in which he was never weary of representing in an honest -and sound-hearted way the little festivals of the peasant, the happiness -of parents, and the games of children. - -He had grown up in Dantzic, and played as a child in the tortuous lanes -of the old free imperial city, amid trumpery shops, general dealers, and -artisans. Later, when he settled down in Berlin, he painted the things -which had delighted him in his youth. The travels which he made for -study were not extensive: they hardly led him farther beyond the -boundaries of the Mark than Hesse, the Harz district, Thringen, -Altenburg, and Westphalia. Here he drew with indefatigable diligence the -pleasant village houses and the churches shadowed by trees; the cots, -yards, and alleys; the weather-beaten town ramparts, with their -crumbling walls; the unobtrusive landscapes of North Germany, lovely -valleys, bushy hills, and bleaching fields, traversed by quiet streams -fringed with willows, and enlivened by the figures of peasants, who -still clung to so much of their old costume. His pictures certainly do -not give an idea of the life of the German people at the time. For the -peasantry have sat to Meyerheim only in their most pious mood, in Sunday -toilette, and with their souls washed clean. Clearness, neatness, and -prettiness are to be found everywhere in his pictures. But little as -they correspond to the truth, they are just as little untrue through -affectation, for their idealism sprang from the harmless and cheerful -temperament of the painter, and from no convention of the schools. - -[Illustration: MEYERHEIM. CHILDREN AT PLAY.] - -A homely, idyllic poetry is to be found in his figures and his -interiors. His women and girls are chaste and gracious. It is evident -that Meyerheim had a warm sympathy for the sorrows and joys of humble -people; that he had an understanding for this happy family life, and -liked himself to take part in these merry popular festivals; that he did -not idealise the world according to rules of beauty, but because in his -own eyes it really was so beautiful. His "King of the Shooting Match" -of 1836 (Berlin National Gallery) has as a background a wide and -pleasant landscape, with blue heights in the distance and the cheerful -summer sunshine resting upon them. In the foreground are a crowd of -figures, neatly composed after studies. The crowned king of the match, -adorned for a festival, stands proudly on the road by which the -procession of marksmen is advancing, accompanied by village music. An -old peasant is congratulating him, and the pretty village girls and -peasant women, in their gay rustic costumes, titter as they look on, -while the neighbours are merrily drinking his health. Then there is the -"Morning Lesson," representing a carpenter's house, where an old man is -hearing his grandson repeat a school task; "Children at Play," a picture -of a game of hide-and-seek amongst the trees; "The Knitting Lesson," and -the picture of a young wife by the bed of a naked boy who has thrown off -the bedclothes and is holding up one of his rosy feet; and "The Road to -Church," where the market-place is shadowed with lime trees and the -fresh young girlish figures adorned in their Sunday best. These are all -pictures which in lithograph and copperplate engraving once flooded all -Germany and enraptured the public at exhibitions. - -[Illustration: MEYERHEIM. THE KING OF THE SHOOTING MATCH.] - -But the German _genre_ picture of peasant life only became universally -popular after the village novel came into vogue at the end of the -thirties. Walter Scott was not only a Romanticist, but the founder of -the peasant novel: he was the first to study the life and the human -character of the peasantry of his native land, their rough and healthy -merriment, their humorous peculiarities, and their hot-headed love of -quarrelling; and he led the Romanticists from their idyllic or sombre -world of dreams nearer to the reality and its poetry. A generation later -Immermann created this department of literature in Germany by the -Oberhof-Episode of his _Mnchhausen_. "The Village Magistrate" was soon -one of those typical figures which in literature became the model of a -hundred others. In 1837 Jeremias Gotthelf began in his _Bauernspiegel_ -those descriptions of Bernese rustic life which found general favour -through their downright common sense. Berthold Auerbach, Otto Ludwig, -and Gottfried Keller were then active, and Fritz Reuter lit upon a more -clear-cut form for his tales in dialect. - -[Illustration: MEYERHEIM. THE MORNING HOUR.] - -The influence which these writers had upon painting was enormous. It now -turned everywhere to the life of the people, and took its joy and -pleasure in devoting itself to reality. And the rustic was soon a -popular figure much sought after in the picture market. Yet this -reliance on poetry and fiction had its disadvantage. For in Germany, -also, a vogue was given to that "_genre_ painting" which, instead of -starting with a simple, straightforward representation of what the -artist had seen, offered an artistically correct composition of what he -had invented, and indulged in a rambling display of humorous narrative -and pathetic pieces. - -In Carlsruhe _Johann Kirner_ was the first to work on these lines, -adapting the life of the Swabian peasantry to the purposes of humorous -anecdote. In Munich _Carl Enhuber_ was especially fertile in the -invention of comic episodes amongst the rustics of the Bavarian -highlands, and his ponderous humour made him one of the favourite heroes -of the Art Union. Every one was in raptures over his "Partenkirche -Fair," over the charlatan in front of the village inn, who (like a -figure after Gerhard Dow) is bringing home to the multitude by his -lofty eloquence the fabulous qualities of his soap for removing spots; -over that assembly of peasants which gave the painter an opportunity for -making clearly recognisable people to be found everywhere in any little -town, from the judge of the county court and the local doctor down to -the watchmen. His second hit was "The Interrupted Card Party": the -blacksmith, the miller, the tailor, and other dignitaries of the village -are so painfully disturbed in their social reunion by the unamiable wife -of the tailor that her happy spouse makes his escape under the table. -The house servant holds out his blue apron to protect his master, whilst -the miller and the blacksmith try to look unconcerned; but a small boy -who has accompanied his mother with a mug discovers the concealed sinner -by his slipper, which has come off. The "Session Day" contains a still -greater wealth of comical types: here is the yard of a country assize -court, filled with people, some of them waiting their turn, some issuing -in contentment or dejection. Most contented, of course, are a bridal -pair from the mountains--a stout peasant lad and a buxom maiden--who -have just received official consent to their marriage. Disastrous -country excursions--townspeople overtaken by rain on their arrival in -the mountains--were also a source of highly comical situations. - -[Illustration: MEYERHEIM. THE KNITTING LESSON.] - -In Dsseldorf the reaction against the prevailing sentimentality -necessarily gave an impulse to art on these humorous lines. When it -seemed as if the mournfulness of the thirties would never be ended, -_Adolf Schroedter_, the satirist of the band of Dsseldorf artists in -those times, broke the spell when he began to parody the works of the -"great painters." When Lessing painted "The Sorrowing Royal Pair," -Schroedter painted "The Triumphal Procession of King Bacchus"; when -Hermann Stilke produced his knights and crusaders, Schroedter -illustrated _Don Quixote_ as a warning; and when Bendemann gave the -world "The Lamentation of Jeremiah" and "The Lamentation of the Jews," -Schroedter executed his droll picture "The Sorrowful Tanners," in which -the tanners are mournfully regarding a hide carried away by the stream. -Since he was a humorist, and humour is rather an affair for drawing than -painting, the charming lithographs, "The Deeds and Opinions of Piepmeyer -the Delegate," published in conjunction with Detmold, the Hanoverian -barrister, and author of the _Guide to Connoisseurship_, are perhaps to -be reckoned as his best performances. _Hasenclever_ followed the -dilettante Schroedter as a delineator of the "stolid Peter" type, and -painted the "Study" and similar pictures for Kortum's _Jobsiade_ with -great technical skill, and, at the same time, with little humour and -much complacency. By the roundabout route of illustration artists were -gradually brought more directly into touch with life, and painted side -by side with melodramatic brigands, rustic folk, or a student at a -tavern on the Rhine, absurd people reading the newspapers, comic men -sneezing, or the smirking Philistine tasting wine. - -[Illustration: KIRNER. THE FORTUNE TELLER.] - -[Illustration: ENHUBER. THE PENSIONER AND HIS GRANDSON.] - -[Illustration: JACOB BECKER. A TEMPEST.] - -_Jacob Becker_ went to the Westerwald to sketch little village -tragedies, and won such popularity with his "Shepherd Struck by -Lightning" that for a long time the interest of the public was often -concentrated on this picture in the collection of the Staedel Institute. -_Rudolf Jordan_ of Berlin settled on Heligoland, and became by his -"Proposal of Marriage in Heligoland" one of the most esteemed painters -of Dsseldorf. And in 1852 _Henry Ritter_, his pupil, who died young, -enjoyed a like success with his "Middy's Sermon," which represents a -tiny midshipman with comical zeal endeavouring to convert to temperance -three tars who are staggering against him. A Norwegian, _Adolf -Tidemand_, became the Leopold Robert of the North, and, like Robert, -attained an international success when, after 1845, he began to present -his compatriots, the peasants, fishers, and sailors of the shores of the -North Sea, to the public of Europe. There was no doubt that a true -ethnographical course of instruction in the life of a distant race, as -yet unknown to the rest of Europe, was to be gathered from his pictures, -as from those of Robert, or from the Oriental representations of Vernet. -In Tidemand's pictures the Germans learnt the Norwegian usage of -Christmas, accompanied the son of the North on his fishing of a night, -joined the bridal party on the Hardanger Fjord, or listened to the -sexton giving religious instruction; sailed with fishing girls in a -skiff to visit the neighbouring village, or beheld grandmother and the -children dance on Sunday afternoon to father's fiddle. Norwegian peasant -life was such an unknown world of romance, and the costume so novel, -that Tidemand's art was greeted as a new discovery. That the truth of -his pictures went no further than costume was only known at a later -time. Tidemand saw his native land with the eyes of a Romanticist, as -Robert saw Italy, and, in the same one-sided way, he only visited the -people on festive occasions. Though a born Norwegian, he, too, was a -foreigner, a man who was never familiar with the life of his country -people, who never lived at home through the raw autumn and the long -winter, but came only as a summer visitor, when nature had donned her -bridal garb, and naturally took away with him the mere impressions of a -tourist. As he only went to Norway for recreation, it is always -holiday-tide and Sabbath peace in his pictures. He represents the same -idyllic optimism and the same kindly view of "the people" as did -Bjrnson in his earliest works; and it is significant that the latter -felt himself at the time so entirely in sympathy with Tidemand that he -wrote one of his tales, _The Bridal March_, as text to Tidemand's -picture "Adorning the Bride." - -To seek the intimate poetry in the monotonous life of the peasant, and -to go with him into the struggle for existence, was what did not lie in -Tidemand's method of presentation; he did not live amongst the people -sufficiently long to penetrate to their depths. The sketches that -resulted from his summer journeys often reveal a keen eye for the -picturesque, as well as for the spiritual life of this peasantry; but -later in Dsseldorf, when he composed his studies for pictures with the -help of German models, all the sharp characterisation was watered down. -What ought to have been said in Norwegian was expressed in a German -translation, where the emphasis was lost. His art is Dsseldorf art with -Norwegian landscapes and costumes; a course of lectures on the manners -and customs of Norwegian villages composed for Germans. The only thing -which distinguishes Tidemand to his advantage from the German -Dsseldorfers is that he is less humorously and sentimentally disposed. -Pictures of his, such as "The Lonely Old People," "The Catechism," "The -Wounded Bear Hunter," "The Grandfather's Blessing," "The Sectarians," -etc., create a really pleasant and healthy effect by a certain actual -simplicity which they undoubtedly have. Other men would have made a -melodrama out of "The Emigrant's Departure" (National Gallery in -Christiania). Tidemand portrays the event without any sort of emphasis, -and feels his way with tact on the boundary between sentiment and -sentimentality. There is nothing false or hysterical in the behaviour of -the man who is going away for life, nor in those who have come to see -him off. - -In Vienna the _genre_ painters seem to owe their inspiration especially -to the theatre. What was produced there in the province of grand art -during the first half of the century was neither better nor worse than -elsewhere. The Classicism of Mengs and David was represented by -_Heinrich Fger_, who had a more decided leaning towards the operatic. -The representative-in-chief of Nazarenism was _Josef Fhrich_, whose -frescoes in the Altlerchenfeld Church are, perhaps, better in point of -colour than the corresponding efforts of the Munich artists, though they -are likewise in a formal way derivative from the Italians. Vienna had -its Wilhelm Kaulbach in _Carl Rahl_, its Piloty in _Christian Ruben_, -who, like the Munich artist, had a preference for painting Columbus, and -was meritorious as a teacher. It was only through portrait painting -that Classicism and Romanticism were brought into some sort of relation -with life; and the Vienna portraitists of this older rgime are even -better than their German contemporaries, as they made fewer concessions -to the ruling idealism. Amongst the portrait painters was _Lampi_, after -whom followed _Moritz Daffinger_ with his delicate miniatures; but the -most important of them all was _Friedrich Amerling_, who had studied -under Lawrence in London and under Horace Vernet in Paris, and brought -back with him great acquisitions in the science of colour. In the first -half of the century these assured him a decided advantage over his -German colleagues. It was only later, when he was sought after as the -fashionable painter of all the crowned heads, that his art degenerated -into mawkishness. - -[Illustration: TIDEMAND. THE SECTARIANS.] - -_Genre_ painting was developed here as elsewhere from the military -picture. As early as 1813 _Peter Krafft_, an academician of the school -of David, had exhibited a great oil-painting, "The Soldier's -Farewell"--the interior of a village room with a group of life-size -figures. The son of the family, in grey uniform, with a musket in his -hand, is tearing himself from his young wife, who has a baby on her arm -and is trying in tears to hold him back. His old father sits in a corner -with folded hands beside his mother, who is also crying, and has hid her -face. In 1820 Krafft added "The Soldier's Return" as a pendant to this -picture. It represents the changes which have taken place in the family -during the warrior's absence: his old mother is at rest in her grave; -his grey-headed father has become visibly older, his little sister has -grown up, and the baby in arms is carrying the musket after his father. -They are both exceedingly tiresome pictures; the colour is cold and -grey, the figures are pseudo-classical in modern costume, and the pathos -of the subject seems artificial and forced. Nevertheless a new principle -of art is declared in them. Krafft was the first in Austria to recognise -what a rich province had been hitherto ignored by painting. He warned -his pupils against the themes of the Romanticists. These, as he said, -were worked out, since no one would do anything better than the "Last -Supper of Leonardo da Vinci or the Madonnas of Raphael." And he warmly -advocated the conviction "that nothing could be done for historical -painting so long as it refused to choose subjects from modern life." -Krafft was an admirable teacher with a sober and clear understanding, -and he invariably directed his pupils to the immediate study of life and -nature. The consequence of his career was that _Carl Schindler_, -_Friedrich Treml_, _Fritz L'Allemand_, and others set themselves to -treat in episodic pictures the military life of Austria, from the -recruiting stage to the battle, and from the soldier's farewell to his -return to his father's house. A further result was that the Viennese -_genre_ painting parted company with the academical and historic art. - -Just at this time Tschischka and Schottky began to collect the popular -songs of the Viennese. Castelli gave a poetic representation of -_bourgeois_ life, and Ferdinand Raimund brought it upon the stage in his -dramas. Bauernfeld's types from the life of the people enjoyed a rapid -popularity. Josef Danhauser, Peter Fendi, and Ferdinand Waldmller went -on parallel lines with these authors. In their _genre_ pictures they -represented the Austrian people in their joys and sorrows, in their -merriment and heartiness and good-humour; the people, be it understood, -of Raimund's popular farces, not those of the pavement of Vienna. - -_Josef Danhauser_, the son of a Viennese carpenter, occupied himself -with the artisan and _bourgeois_ classes. David Wilkie gave him the form -for his work and Ferdinand Raimund his ideas. His studio scenes, with -boisterous art students caught by their surly teacher at the moment when -they are playing their worst pranks, gave pleasure to the class of -people who, at a later date, took so much delight in Emanuel Spitzer. -His "Gormandizer" is a counterpart to Raimund's _Verschwender_; and -when, in a companion picture, the gluttonous liver is supping up the -"monastery broth" amongst beggars, and his former valet remains true to -him even in misfortune, Grillparzer's _Treuer Diener seines Herrn_ -serves as a model for this type. Girls confessing their frailty to their -parents had been previously painted by Greuze. Amongst those of his -pictures which had done most to amuse the public was the representation -of the havoc caused by a butcher's dog storming into a studio. In his -last period he turned with Collins to the nursery, or wandered through -the suburbs with a sketch-book, immortalising the doings of children in -the streets, and drawing "character heads" of the school-teacher tavern -_habitus_ and the lottery adventurer. - -[Illustration: TIDEMAND. ADORNING THE BRIDE.] - -And this was likewise the province to which _Waldmller_ devoted -himself. Chubby peasant children are the heroes of almost all his -pictures. A baby is sprawling with joy on its mother's lap, while it is -contemplated with proud satisfaction by its father, or it is sleeping -under the guardianship of a little sister; a boy is despatched upon the -rough path which leads to school, and brings the reward of his conduct -home with rapturous or dejected mien, or he stammers "Many happy returns -of the day" to grandpapa. Waldmller paints "The First Step," the joys -of "Christmas Presents," and "The Distribution of Prizes to Poor School -Children"; he follows eager juveniles to the peep-show; he is to be met -at "The Departure of the Bride" and at "The Wedding"; he is our guide to -the simple "Peasant's Room," and shows the benefit of "Almsgiving." -Though his pictures may seem old-fashioned in subject nowadays, their -artistic qualities convey an entirely modern impression. Born in 1793, -he anticipated the best artists of later days in his choice of material. -Both in his portraits and in his country scenes there is a freshness -and transparency of tone which was something rare among the painters of -that time. - -[Illustration: PETER KRAFFT. THE SOLDIER'S RETURN.] - -_Friedrich Gauermann_ wandered in the Austrian Alps, in Steiermark, and -Salzkammergut, making studies of nature, the inhabitants, and the animal -world. In contradistinction from Waldmller, painter of idylls, and the -humorist Danhauser, he aimed above all at ethnographical exactness. With -sincere and unadorned observation Gauermann represents the local -peculiarities of the peasantry, differentiated according to their -peculiar valleys; life on the pasture and at the market, when some -ceremonial occasion--a shooting match, a Sunday observance, or a church -consecration--has gathered together the scattered inhabitants. - -_Genre_ painting in other countries worked with the same types. The -costume was different, but the substance of the pictures was the same. - -In Belgium Leys had already worked in the direction of painting everyday -life; for although he had painted figures from the sixteenth century, -they were not idealised, but as rough and homely as in reality. When the -passion for truthfulness increased, as it did in the following years, -there came a moment when the old German tradition, under the shelter of -which Leys yet took refuge, was shaken off, and artists went directly to -nature without seeking the mediation of antiquated style. At that time -Belgium was one of the most rising and thriving countries in Europe. It -had private collections by the hundred. Wealthy merchants rivalled one -another in the pride of owning works by their celebrated painters. This -necessarily exerted an influence on production. Pretty _genre_ pictures -of peasant life soon became the most popular wares; as for their -artistic sanction, it was possible to point to Brouwer and Teniers, the -great national exemplars. - -At first, then, the painters worked with the same elements as Teniers. -The common themes of their pictures were the ale-house with its thatched -roof, the old musician with his violin, the mountebank standing in the -midst of a circle of people, lovers, or drinkers brawling. Only the -costume was changed, and everything coarse, indecorous, or unrestrained -was scrupulously excluded _ad usum Delphini_. That the deep colouring of -the old masters became meagre and motley was in Belgium also an -inevitable result of the helplessness in regard to colour which had been -brought on by Classicism. The pictorial _furia_ of Adriaen Brouwer gave -way to a polished porcelain painting which hardly bore a trace of the -work of the hand. Harsh and gaudy reds and greens were especially -popular. - -[Illustration: WALDMLLER. THE FIRST STEP.] - -The first who began a modest career on these lines was _Ignatius van -Regemorter_. As one recognises the pictures of Wouwerman by the -dappled-grey horse, Regemorter's may be recognised by the violin. Every -year he turned out one picture at least in which music was being played, -and people were dancing with a rather forced gaiety. Then came -_Ferdinand de Braekeleer_, who painted the jubilees of old people, or -children and old women amusing themselves at public festivities. Teniers -was his principal model, but his large joviality was transformed into a -chastened merriment, and his broad laughter into a discreet smile. -Braekeleer's peasantry and proletariat are of an idyllic mildness; -honest, pious souls who, with all their poverty, are as moral as they -are happy. _Henri Coene_ elaborated such themes as "Oh, what beautiful -Grapes!" or "A Pinch of Snuff for the Parson!" - -[Illustration: MADOU. IN THE ALE-HOUSE.] - -Madou's merit lies in having extended Belgian _genre_ painting somewhat -beyond these narrow bounds; he introduced a greater variety of types -verging more on reality than that everlasting honest man painted by -Ferdinand de Braekeleer. _Madou_ was a native of Brussels. There he was -born in 1796, and he died there in 1877. When he began his career -Wappers had just made his appearance. Madou witnessed his successes, but -did not feel tempted to follow him. Whilst the latter in his large -pictures in the grand style aimed at being Rubens _redivivus_, Madou -embodied his ideas in fleeting pencil sketches. A great number of -lithographs of scenes from the past bore witness to his conception of -history. There was nothing in them that was dignified, nothing that was -stilted, no idealism and no beauty; in their tabards and helmets the -figures moved with the natural gestures of ordinary human beings. By the -side of great seigneurs, princes, and knights, and amid helmets and -hose, drunken scoundrels, tavern politicians, and village cretins -started into view, and grimaced and danced and scuffled. In Belgium his -plates occupy a position similar to that of the first lithographs of -Menzel in Germany. But Madou lingered for a still briefer period in the -Pantheon of history; the tavern had for him a yet greater attraction. -The humorous books which he published in Paris and Brussels first showed -him in his true light. Having busied himself for several years -exclusively with drawings, he made his _dbut_ in 1842 as a painter. It -is difficult to decide how much Madou produced after that date. The long -period between 1842 and 1877 yields a crowded chronicle of his works. -Even in the seventies he was just as vigorous as at the beginning, and -though he was regarded as a jester during his lifetime he was honoured -as a great painter after his death. At the auction of his unsold works, -pictures fetched 22,000 francs, sketches reached 3200, water-colours -2150, and drawings 750. The present generation has reduced this -over-estimation to its right measure, but it has not shaken Madou's -historical importance. He has a firm position as the man who conquered -modern life in the interests of Belgian art, and he is the more -significant for the _genre_ painting of his age, as he eclipsed all his -contemporaries, even in Germany and England, in the inexhaustible fund -of his invention. - -[Illustration: MADOU. THE DRUNKARD.] - -A merry world is reflected in his pictures. One of his most popular -figures is the ranger, a sly old fox with a furrowed, rubicund visage -and huge ears, who roves about more to the terror of love-making couples -than of poachers, and never aims at any one except for fun at the rural -justice, a portly gentleman in a gaudy waistcoat, emerging quietly at -the far end of the road. He introduces a varied succession of braggarts, -poor fellows, down-at-heel and out-at-elbows, old grenadiers joking with -servant girls, old marquesses taking snuff with affected dignity, -charlatans at their booth, deaf and dumb flute-players, performing dogs, -and boys sick over their first pipe. Here and there are fatuous or -over-wise politicians solemnly opening a newly printed paper, with their -legs astraddle and their spectacles resting on their noses. Rascals with -huge paunches and blue noses fall asleep on their table in the -ale-house, and enliven the rest of the company by their snoring. At -times the door is opened and a scolding woman appears with a broom in -her hand. On these occasions the countenance of the toper is a comical -sight. At the sound of the beloved voice he endeavours to raise -himself, and anxiously follows the movements of his better half as he -clings reeling to the table, or plants himself more firmly in his chair -with a resigned and courageous "_J'y suis, j'y reste_." - -Being less disposed to appear humorous, _Adolf Dillens_ makes a more -sympathetic impression. He, too, had begun with forced anecdotes, but -after a tour to Zealand opened his eyes to nature; he laid burlesque on -one side, and depicted what he had seen in unhackneyed pictures: sound -and healthy men of patriarchal habits. Even his method of painting -became simpler and more natural; his colouring, hitherto borrowed from -the old masters, became fresher and brighter. He emancipated himself -from Rembrandt's _chiaroscuro_, and began to look at nature without -spectacles. There is something poetic in his method of observation: he -really loved these good people and painted them in the unadorned -simplicity of their life--cheery old age that knows no wrinkles and -laughing youth that knows no sorrows. He is indeed one-sided, for a good -fairy has banished all trouble from his happy world; but his pictures -are the product of a fresh and amiable temperament. His usual themes are -a friendly gathering at the ale-house, a conversation beneath the porch, -skating, scenes in cobblers' workshops, a gust of wind blowing an -umbrella inside out; and if he embellishes them with little episodic -details, this tendency is so innocent that nobody can quarrel with him. - -In France it was _Franois Biard_, the Paul de Kock of French painting, -who attained most success in the thirties by humorous anecdote. He -devoted his whole life to the comical representation of the minor -trespasses and misfortunes of the commonplace _bourgeoisie_. He had the -secret of displaying his comicalities with great aptitude, and of -mocking at the ridiculous eccentricities of the Philistine in an obvious -and downright fashion. Strolling players made fools of themselves at -their toilette; lads were bathing whilst a gendarme carried off their -clothes; a sentry saluted a decorated veteran, whose wife gratefully -acknowledged the attention with a curtsey; the village grandee held a -review of volunteers with the most pompous gravity; a child was -exhibited at the piano to the admiration of its yawning relatives. One -of his chief pictures was called "Posada Espagnol." The hero was a monk -winking at a beauty of forty who was passing by while he was being -shaved. Women were sitting and standing about, when a herd of swine -dashing in threw everything over and put the ladies to flight, and so -called forth one of those comic effects of terror in which Paul de Kock -took such delight. - -Biard was inexhaustible in these expedients for provoking laughter; and -as he had travelled far he had always in reserve a slave-market, a -primeval forest, or an ice-field to appease the curiosity of his -admirers when there was nothing more to laugh at. From the German -standpoint he had importance as an artist whose flow of ideas would have -furnished ten _genre_ painters; and if he is the only representative of -the humorously anecdotic picture in France, the reason is that there -earlier than elsewhere art was led into a more earnest course by the -tumult of ideas on social politics. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -THE PICTURE WITH A SOCIAL PURPOSE - - -That modern life first entered art, in all countries, under the form of -humorous anecdote is partly the consequence of the one-sided sthetic -ideas of the period. In an age that was dominated by idealism it was -forgotten that Murillo had painted lame beggars sitting in the sun, -Velasquez cripples and drunkards, and Holbein lepers; that Rembrandt had -so much love for humble folk, and that old Breughel with a strangely -sombre pessimism turned the whole world into a terrible hospital. The -modern man was hideous, and art demanded "absolute beauty." If he was to -be introduced into painting, despite his want of _beaut suprme_, the -only way was to treat him as a humorous figure which had to be handled -ironically. Mercantile considerations were also a power in determining -this form of humour. At a time when painting was forced to address -itself to a public which was uneducated in art, and could only -appreciate anecdotes, such comicalities had the best prospect of favour -and a rapid sale. The object was to provoke laughter, at all hazards, by -drollness of mien, typical stupidity, and absurdity of situation. The -choice of figures was practically made according as they were more or -less serviceable for a humorous purpose. Children, rustics, and -provincial Philistines seemed to be most adapted to it. The painter -treated them as strange and nave beings, and brought them before the -public as a sort of performing dogs, who could go through remarkable -tricks just as if they were human beings. And the public laughed over -whimsical oddities from another world, as the courtiers of Louis XIV had -laughed in Versailles when M. Jourdain and M. Dimanche were acted by the -king's servants upon the stage of Molire. - -Meanwhile painters gradually came to remark that this humour _ l'huile_ -was bought at too dear a price. For humour, which is like a soap-bubble, -can only bear a light method of representation, such as Hokusai's -drawing or Brouwer's painting, but becomes insupportable where it is -offered as a laborious composition executed with painstaking realism. -And ethical reasons made themselves felt independently of these artistic -considerations. - -The drollness of these pictures did not spring from the characters, but -from an effort to amuse the public at the expense of the painted -figures. As a general rule a peasant is a serious, square-built, angular -fellow. For his existence he does battle with the soil; his life is no -pleasure to him, but hard toil. But in these pictures he appeared as a -figure who had no aim or purport; in his brain the earnestness of life -was transformed into a romping game. Painters laughed at the little -world which they represented. They were not the friends of man, but -parodied him and transformed life into a sort of Punch and Judy show. - -And even when they did not approach their figures with deliberate irony, -they never dreamed of plunging with any sincere love of truth into the -depths of modern life. They painted modern matter without taking part in -it, like good children who know nothing of the bitter facts that take -place in the world. When the old Dutch painters laughed, their laughter -had its historical justification. In the pictures of Ostade and Dirk -Hals there is seen all the primitive exuberance and wild joy of life -belonging to a people who had just won their independence and abandoned -themselves after long years of war with a sensuous transport to the -gladness of existence. But the smile of these modern _genre_ painters is -forced, conventional, and artificial; the smile of a later generation -which only took the trouble to smile because the old Dutch had laughed -before them. They put on rose-coloured glasses, and through these gaudy -spectacles saw only a gay masque of life, a fair but hollow deception. -They allowed their heroes to pass such a merry existence that the -question of what they lived upon was never touched. When they painted -their tavern pictures they anxiously suppressed the thought that people -who drained their great mugs so carelessly possibly had sick children at -home, hungry and perishing with cold in a room without a fire. Their -peasants are the favoured sons of fortune: they sowed not, neither did -they reap, nor gathered into barns, but their Heavenly Father fed them. -Poverty and vice presented themselves merely as amiable weaknesses, not -as great modern problems. - -Just at this time the way was being paved for the Revolution of 1848: -the people fought and suffered, and for years before literature had -taken part in this struggle. Before the Revolution the battle had been -between the nobility and the middle class; but now that the latter had -to some extent taken the place of the nobility of earlier days, there -rose the mighty problem of strife between the unproductive and the -productive, between rich and poor. - -In England, the birthplace of the modern capitalistic system, in a -country where great industry and great landed property first ousted the -independent yeomanry and called forth ever sharper division between -those who possessed everything and those who possessed nothing, the -unsolved problem of the nineteenth century found its earliest utterance. -More than sixty years ago, in the year of Goethe's death, a new -literature arose there, the literature of social politics. With Ebenezer -Elliott, who had been himself a plain artisan, the Fourth Estate made -its entry into literature; a workman led the train of socialistic poets. -Thomas Hood wrote his _Song of the Shirt_, that lyric of the poor -sempstress which soon spread all over the Continent. Carlyle, the -friend and admirer of Goethe, came forward in 1843 as the burning -advocate of the poor and miserable in _Past and Present_. He wrote there -that this world was no home to the working-man, but a dreary dungeon -full of mad and fruitless plagues. It was an utterance that shook the -world like a bomb. Benjamin Disraeli's _Sybil_ followed in 1845. As a -novel it is a strange mixture of romantic and naturalistic chapters, the -latter seeming like a prophetic announcement of Zola's _Germinal_. As a -reporter Charles Dickens had in his youth the opportunity of learning -the wretchedness of the masses in London, even in the places where they -lurked distrustfully in dark haunts. In his Christmas stories and his -London sketches he worked these scenes of social distress into thrilling -pictures. The poor man, whose life is made up of bitter weeks and scanty -holidays, received his citizenship in the English novel. - -In France the year 1830 was an end and a beginning--the close of the -struggles begun in 1789, and the opening of those which led to the -decisive battle of 1848. With the _roi bourgeois_, whom Lafayette called -"the best of republicans," the Third Estate came into possession of the -position to which it had long aspired; it rose from the ranks of the -oppressed to that of the privileged classes. As a new ruling class it -made such abundant capital with the fruits of the Revolution of July -that even in 1830 Brne wrote from Paris: "The men who fought against -all aristocracy for fifteen years have scarcely conquered--they have not -yet wiped the sweat from their faces--and already they want to found for -themselves a new aristocracy, an aristocracy of money, a knighthood of -fortune." To the same purpose wrote Heine in 1837: "The men of thought -who, during the eighteenth century, were so indefatigable in preparing -the Revolution, would blush if they saw how self-interest is building -its miserable huts on the site of palaces that have been broken down, -and how, out of these huts, a new aristocracy is sprouting up which, -more ungraciously than the old, has its primary cause in money-making." - -There the radical ideas of modern socialism were touched. The -proletariat and its misery became henceforward the subject of French -poetry, though they were not observed with any naturalistic love of -truth, but from the romantic standpoint of contrast. Branger, the -popular singer of _chansons_, composed his _Vieux Vagabond_, the song of -the old beggar who dies in the gutter; Auguste Barbier wrote his Ode to -Freedom, where _la sainte canaille_ are celebrated as immortal heroes, -and with the scorn of Juvenal "lashes those who drew profit from the -Revolution, those _bourgeois_ in kid gloves who watched the sanguinary -street fights comfortably from the window." In 1842-43 Eugne Sue -published his _Mystres de Paris_, a forbidding and nonsensical book, -but one which made an extraordinary sensation, just because of the -disgusting openness with which it unveiled the life of the lower strata -of the people. Even the great spirits of the Romantic school began to -follow the social and political strife of the age with deep emotion and -close sympathy. Already in the course of the thirties socialistic ideas -forced their way into the Romantic school from every side. Their source -was Saint Simon, whose doctrines first found a wide circulation under -Louis Philippe. - -According to Saint Simon, the task of the new Christianity consisted in -improving as quickly as possible the fate of the class which was at once -the poorest and the most numerous. His pupils regarded him as the -Messiah of the new era, and went forth into the world as his disciples. -George Sand, the boldest feminine genius in the literature of the world, -mastered these seething ideas and founded the artisan novel in her -_Compagnon du Tour de France_. It is the first book with a real love of -the people--the people as they actually are, those who drink and commit -deeds of violence as well as those who work and make mental progress. In -her periodical, _L'claireur de l'Indre_, she pleads the cause both of -the artisan in great towns and of the rustic labourer; in 1844 she -declared herself as a Socialist, without qualification, in her great -essay _Politics and Socialism_, and she brought out her celebrated -_Letters to the People_ in 1848. - -The democratic tide of ideas came to Victor Hugo chiefly through the -religious apostle Lamennais, whose book, written in prison, _De -l'Esclavage Moderne_, gave the same fuel to the Revolution of 1848 as -the works of Rousseau had done to that of 1789. "The peasant bears the -whole burden of the day, exposes himself to rain and sun and wind, to -make ready by his work the harvest which fills our barns in the late -autumn. If there are those who think the lighter of him on that account, -and will not accord him freedom and justice, build a high wall round -them, so that their noisome breath may not poison the air of Europe." -From the forties there mutters through Hugo's poems the muffled sound of -the Revolution which was soon to burst over Paris, and thence to move, -like a rolling thunderstorm, across Europe. In place of the tricolor -under which the _bourgeoisie_ and the artisan class had fought side by -side eighteen years before, the banner of the artisan was hoisted -blood-red against the ruling _bourgeoisie_. - -This _Zeitgeist_, this spirit of the age which had grown earnest, -necessarily guided art into another course; the painted humour and -childlike optimism of the first _genre_ painters began to turn out a -lie. In spite of Schiller, art cannot be blithe with sincerity when life -is earnest. It can laugh with the muscles of the face, but the laughter -is mirthless; it may haughtily declare itself in favour of some -consecrated precinct, in which nothing of the battles and struggles of -the outside world is allowed to echo; but, for all that, harsh reality -demands its rights. Josef Danhauser's modest little picture of 1836, -"The Gormandizer," is an illustration of this. In a sumptuously -furnished room a company of high station and easy circumstances are -seated at dinner. The master of the house, a sleek little man, is -draining his glass, and a young dandy is playing the guitar. But an -unwelcome disturbance breaks in. The figure of a beggar, covered with -rags and with a greasy hat in his hand, appears at the door. The ladies -scream, and a dog springs barking from under a chair, whilst the flunkey -in attendance angrily prepares to send the impudent intruder about his -business. That was the position which art had hitherto taken up towards -the social question. It shrank peevishly back as soon as rude and brutal -reality disturbed its peaceful course. People wished to see none but -cheerful pictures of life around them. - -[Illustration: DANHAUSER. THE GORMANDIZER.] - -For this reason peasants were invariably painted in neat and cleanly -dress, with their faces beaming with joy, an embodiment of the blessing -of work and the delights of country life. Even beggars were harmless, -peacefully cheerful figures, sparkling with health and beauty, and -enveloped in sthetic rags. But as political, religious, and social -movements have always had a vivid and forcible effect on artists, -painters in the nineteenth century could not in the long run hold -themselves aloof from this influence. The voice of the disinherited made -itself heard sullenly muttering and with ever-increasing strength. The -parable of Lazarus lying at the threshold of the rich man had become a -terrible reality. Conflict was to be seen everywhere around, and it -would have been mere hardness of heart to have used this suffering -people any longer as an agreeable subject for merriment. A higher -conception of humanity, the entire philanthropic character of the age, -made the jests at which the world had laughed seem forced and tasteless. -Modern life must cease altogether before it can be a humorous episode -for art, and it had become earnest reality through and through. Painting -could no longer affect trivial humour; it had to join issue, and speak -of what was going on around it. It had to take its part in the struggle -for aims that belonged to the immediate time. - -Powerfully impressed by the Revolution of July, it made its first -advance. The Government had been thrown down after a blood-stained -struggle, and a liberated people were exulting; and the next Salon -showed more than forty representations of the great events, amongst -which that of _Delacroix_ took the highest place in artistic -impressiveness. The principal figure in his picture is "a youthful -woman, with a red Phrygian cap, holding a musket in one hand and a -tricolor in the other. Naked to the hip, she strides forward over the -corpses, giving challenge to battle, a beautiful vehement body with a -face in bold profile and an insolent grief upon her features, a strange -mixture of Phryne, _poissarde_, and the goddess of Liberty." Thus has -Heine described the work while still under a vivid impression of the -event it portrayed. In the thick of the powder smoke stands "Liberty" -upon the barricade, at her right a Parisian gamin with a pistol in his -hand, a child but already a hero, at her left an artisan with a gun on -his arm: it is the people that hastens by, exulting to die the death for -the great ideas of liberty and equality. - -The painter himself had an entirely unpolitical mind. He had drawn his -inspiration for the picture, not from experience, but out of _La Cure_, -those verses of Auguste Barbier that are ablaze with wrath-- - - "C'est que la Libert n'est pas une comtesse - Du noble faubourg Saint-Germain, - Une femme qu'un cri fait tomber en faiblesse, - Qui met du blanc et du carmin; - C'est un forte femme aux puissantes mamelles, - la voix rauque, aux durs appas, - Qui, du brun sur la peau, du feu dans les prunelles, - Agile et marchant grands pas, - Se plait aux cris du peuple, aux sanglantes mles, - Aux longs roulements des tambours, - l'odeur de la poudre, aux lointaines voles - Des cloches et des canons sourds." - -And by this allegorical figure he has certainly weakened its grip and -directness; but it was a bold, naturalistic achievement all the same. By -this work the great Romanticist became the father of the naturalistic -movement, which henceforward, supported by the revolutionary democratic -press, spread more and more widely. - -The critics on these journals began to reproach painters with troubling -themselves too little about social and political affairs. "The actuality -and social significance of art," it was written, "is the principal -thing. What is meant by Beauty? We demand that painting should influence -society, and join in the work of progress. Everything else belongs to -the domain of Utopias and abstractions." The place of whimsicalities is -accordingly taken by sentimental and melodramatic scenes from the life -of the poor. Rendered enthusiastic by the victory of the people, and -inspired by democratic sentiments, some painters came to believe that -the sufferings of the artisan class were the thing to be represented, -and that there was nothing nobler than work. - -[Illustration: LELEUX. MOT D'ORDRE.] - -One of the first to give an example was _Jeanron_. His picture of "The -Little Patriots," produced in connection with the Revolution of July, -was a glorification of the struggle for freedom; his "Scene in Paris" a -protest against the sufferings of the people. He sought his models -amongst the poor of the suburb, painted their ragged clothes and their -rugged heads without idealisation. For him the aim of art was not -beauty, but the expression of truth--a truth, no doubt, which made -political propaganda. It was Jeanron's purpose to have a socialistic -influence. One sees it in his blacksmiths and peasants, and in that -picture "The Worker's Rest" which in 1847 induced Thor's utterance: "It -is a melancholy and barren landscape from the neighbourhood of Paris, a -plebeian landscape which hardly seems to belong to itself, and which -gives up all pretensions to beauty merely to be of service to man. -Jeanron is always plebeian, even in his landscapes: he loves the plains -which are never allowed to repose, on which there is always labour; -there are no beautiful flowers in his fields, as there is no gold -ornament on the rags of his beggars and labourers." - -And afterwards, during the early years of the reign of Louis Philippe, -when the tendency became once more latent, the Revolution of February -worked out what the Revolution of July had begun. Mediocre painters like -_Antigna_ became famous because they bewailed the sorrows of the "common -man" in small and medium-sized pictures. Others began to display a -greater interest in rustics, and to take them more seriously than they -had done in earlier works. _Adolphe Leleux_ made studies in Brittany, -and discovered earnest episodes in the daily life of the peasant, which -he rendered with great actuality. And after sliding back into -Romanticism, as he did with his Arragon smugglers, he enjoyed his chief -success in 1849 with that picture at the Luxembourg to which he was -incited by the sad aspect of the streets of Paris during the rising of -1848. The men who, driven by hunger and misery, fought upon the -barricades may be found in Leleux's "Mot d'Ordre." - -After the _coup d'tat_ of 1851 even _Meissonier_, till then exclusively -a painter of _rococo_ subjects, encroached on this province. In his -picture of the barricades (2 December 1851) heaps of corpses are lying -stretched out in postures which could not have been merely invented. The -execution, too, has a nervous force which betrays that even so -calculating a spirit as Meissonier was at one time moved and agitated. -In his little smokers and scholars and waiting-men he is an adroit but -cold-blooded painter: here he has really delivered himself of a modern -epic. His "Barricade" (formerly in the Van Praet Collection) is the one -thrilling note in the master's work, which was elsewhere so quiet. -_Alexandre Antigna_, originally an historical painter, turned from -historical disasters to those which take place in the life of the lower -strata of the people. A dwelling of a poor family is struck by -lightning; poor people pack up their meagre goods with the haste of -despair on the outbreak of fire; peasants seek refuge from a flood upon -the roof of their little house; petty shopkeepers are driving with their -wares across the country, when their nag drops down dead in the shafts; -or an old crone, cowering at the street corner, receives the pence which -her little daughter has earned by playing on the fiddle. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ OCTAVE TASSAERT.] - -But the artist in whose works the philanthropic if sentimental humour of -the epoch is specially reflected is that remarkable painter, made up of -contradictions, _Octave Tassaert_. Borrowing at one and the same time -from Greuze, Fragonard, and Prudhon, he painted subjects mythological, -ribald, and religious, boudoir pictures, and scenes of human misery. -Tassaert was a Fleming, a grandson of that Tassaert who educated -Gottfried Schadow and died as director of the Berlin Academy in 1788. -His name has been for the most part forgotten; it awakes only a dim -recollection in those who see "The Unhappy Family" in the Luxembourg -_Muse_. But forty years ago he was amongst the most advanced of his -day, and enjoyed the respect of men like Delacroix, Rousseau, Troyon, -and Diaz. He took Chardin and Greuze as his models, and is a real master -in talent. He was the poet of the suburbs, who spoke in tender -complaining tones of the hopes and sufferings of humble people. He -painted the elegy of wretchedness: suicide in narrow garrets, sick -children, orphans freezing in the snow, seduced and more or less -repentant maidens--a sad train. He was called the Correggio of the -attic, the Prudhon of the suburbs. His labours are confined to eleven -years, from 1846 to 1857. After that he sent no more to the Salon and -sulkily withdrew from artistic life. He had no wish ever to see his -pictures again, and sold them--forty-four altogether--to a dealer for -two thousand francs and a cask of wine. With a glass in his hand he -forgot his misanthropy. He lived almost unknown in a little house in the -suburbs with a nightingale, a dog, and a little shop-girl for his sole -companions. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - TASSAERT. AFTER THE BALL.] - -But his nightingale died, and then the dog, who should have followed at -his funeral. He could not survive the blow. He broke his palette, threw -his colours into the fire, lit a pan of charcoal that he might die like -"The Unhappy Family," and was found suffocated on the following day. On -a scrap of paper he had written, without regard to metre or orthography, -a few verses to his nightingale and his dog. - -There is much that is magniloquent and sentimental in Tassaert's -pictures. His poor women perish with the big eyes of the heroines of Ary -Scheffer. Nevertheless he belongs to the advance line of modern art, and -suffered shipwreck merely because he gave the signal too early. The sad -reality prevails in his work. Merciless as a surgeon operating on a -diseased limb, he made a dissecting-room of his art, which is often -brutal where his brush probes the deepest wounds of civilisation. There -is nothing in his pictures but wretched broken furniture, stitched rags, -and pale faces in which toil and hunger have ploughed their terrible -furrows. He painted the degeneration of man perishing from lack of light -and air. Himself a Fleming, he has found his greatest follower in -another Netherlander, _Charles de Groux_, whose sombre pessimism -dominates modern Belgian art. - -In Germany, where the socialistic writings of the French and English had -a wide circulation, _Gisbert Flggen_, in Munich known as the German -Wilkie, was perhaps the first who as early as the forties went somewhat -further than the humorous representation of rustics, and entered into a -certain relation with the social ideas of his age in such pictures as -"The Interrupted Marriage Contract," "The Unlucky Gamester," "The -_Msalliance_," "Decision of the Suit," "The Disappointed Legacy -Hunter," "The Execution for Rent," and the like. Under his influence -Danhauser in Vienna deserted whimsicalities for the representation of -social conflicts in middle-class life. To say nothing of his -"Gormandizer," he did this in "The Opening of the Will," where in a -somewhat obtrusive manner the rich relations of the deceased are grouped -to the right and the poor relations to the left, the former rubicund, -sleek, and insolent, the latter pale, spare, and needily clad. An -estimable priest is reading the last testament, and informs the poor -relatives with a benevolent smile that the inheritance is theirs, -whereon the rich give way to transports of rage. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - TASSAERT. THE ORPHANS.] - -Yet more clearly, although similarly transposed into a sentimental key, -is the mood of the time just previous to 1848, reflected in the works of -_Carl Hbner_ of Dsseldorf. Ernest Wilkomm in the beginning of the -forties had represented in his sensational _genre_ pictures, -particularly in the "White Slaves," the contrast between afflicted serfs -and cruel landlords, between rich manufacturers and famishing artisans; -Robert Prutz had written his _Engelchen_, in which he had announced the -ruin of independent handicraft by the modern industrial system. Soon -afterwards the famine among the Silesian weavers, the intelligence of -which in 1844 flew through all Germany, set numbers of people reflecting -on the social question. Freiligrath made it the subject of his verses, -_Aus dem Schlesischen Gebirge_, the song of the poor weaver's child who -calls on Rbezahl--one of his most popular poems. And yet more -decisively does the social and revolutionary temper of the age find an -echo in Heine's _Webern_, composed in 1844. Even Geibel was impelled to -his poem _Mene Tekel_ by the spread of the news, though it stands in -curious opposition to his manner of writing elsewhere. Carl Hbner -therefore was acting very seasonably when he likewise treated the -distress of the Silesian weavers in his first picture of 1845. - -Hbner knew the life of the poor and the heavy-laden; his feelings were -with them, and he expressed what he felt. This gives him a position -above and apart from the rest in the insipidly smiling school of -Dsseldorf, and sets his name at the beginning of a new chapter in the -history of German _genre_ painting. His next picture, "The Game Laws," -sprang from an occasion which was quite as historical: a gamekeeper had -shot a poacher. In 1846 followed "The Emigrants," "The Execution for -Rent" in 1847, and in 1848 "Benevolence in the Cottage of the Poor." -These were works in which he continued to complain of the misery of the -working classes, and the contrast between ostentatious wealth and -helpless wretchedness, and to preach the crusade for liberty and human -rights. In opposition to the usual idyllic representations, he spoke -openly for the first time of the material weight oppressing large -classes of men. Undoubtedly, however, the artistic powers of the painter -corresponded but little to the good intentions of the philanthropist. - -[Illustration: TASSAERT. THE SUICIDE.] - -In 1853 even the historical painter Piloty entered this path in one of -his earliest pictures, "The Nurse": the picture represents a peasant -girl in service as a nurse in the town, with her charge on her arm, -entering the dirty house of an old woman with whom she is boarding her -own child. The rich child, already dressed out like a little lady, is -exuberant in health, whilst her own is languishing in a dark and cold -room without food or warm clothing. - -In Belgium _Eugne de Block_ first took up these lines. The artistic -development of his character is particularly interesting, inasmuch as he -went through various transformations. First he had come forward in 1836 -with the representation of a brawl amongst peasants, a picture which -contrasted with the tameness of contemporary painting by a native power -suggestive of Brouwer. Then, following the example of Madou and -Braekeleer, he occupied himself for a long time with quips and jests. At -a time when every one had a type to which he remained true as long as he -lived, Block chose poachers and game-keepers, and represented their -mutual cunning, now enveloping them, after the example of Braekeleer, in -the golden light and brown shadows of Ostade, now throwing over them a -tinge of Gallait's cardinal red. But this forced humour did not satisfy -him long; he let comicalities alone, and became the serious observer of -the people. A tender compassion for the poor may be noticed in his -works, though without doubt it often turns to a tearful sentimentalism. -He was an apostle of humanity who thundered against pauperism and set -himself up as spokesman on the social question; a tribune of the people, -who by his actions confirmed his reputation as a democratic painter. -This it is which places him near that other socialistic agitator who in -those days was filling Brussels with his fame. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - - FLGGEN. THE DECISION OF THE SUIT.] - -It was in 1835 that a young man wrote to one of his relatives from Italy -the proud words: "I will measure my strength with Rubens and Michael -Angelo." - -[Illustration: HBNER. JULY.] - -Having gained the _Prix de Rome_, he was enabled to make a sojourn in -the Eternal City. He was thinking of his return. He was possessed of a -lofty ambition, and dreamt of rivalling the fame of the old masters. As -a victor he made an entry into his native land, into the good town of -Dinant, which received him like a mother. He was accompanied by a huge -roll of canvas like a declaration of war. But he needed a larger -battle-field for his plans. "I imagine," said he, "that the universe has -its eyes upon me." So he went on to Paris with his "Patroclus" and a few -other pictures. No less than six thousand artists had seen the work in -Rome: a prince of art, Thorwaldsen, had said when he beheld it: "This -young man is a giant." And the young man was himself of that opinion. -With the gait of a conqueror he entered Paris, in the belief that -artists would line the streets to receive him. But when the portals of -the _Salon_ of 1839 were opened he did not see his picture there. It was -skied over a door, and no one noticed it. Thophile Gautier, Gustave -Planch, and Brger-Thor wrote their articles without even mentioning -it with one word of praise or blame. - -For one moment he thought of exhibiting it out of doors in front of the -Louvre, of calling together a popular assembly and summoning all France -to decide. But an application to the minister was met with a refusal, -and he returned to Brussels hanging his head. There he puffed his -masterpiece, "The Fight round the Body of Patroclus," in magniloquent -phrases upon huge placards. A poet exclaimed, "Hats off: here is a new -Homer." The _Moniteur_ gave him a couple of articles. But when the -Exhibition came, artists were again unable to know what to make of it. -The majority were of an opinion that Michael Angelo was brutally -parodied by these swollen muscles and distorted limbs. And no earthquake -disturbed the studios, as the painter had expected. However, he was -awarded a bronze medal and thanked in an honest citizen-like fashion -"for the distinguished talent which he had displayed." Then his whole -pride revolted. He circulated caricatures and cried out: "This medal -will be an eternal blot on the century." Then he published in the -_Charivari_ an open letter to the king. "Michael Angelo," he wrote, -"never allowed himself to pass final judgment on the works of -contemporary artists, and so His Majesty, who hardly understands as much -about art as Michael Angelo, would do well not to decide on the worth of -modern pictures after a passing glance." - -_Antoine Wiertz_, the son of a gendarme who had once been a soldier of -the great Republic, was born in Dinant in 1806. By his mother he was a -Walloon, and he had German blood in him through his father, whose family -had originally come from Saxony. German moral philosophy and treatises -on education had formed the reading of his youthful years. He had not to -complain of want of assistance. At the declaration of Belgian -independence he was five-and-twenty; so his maturity fell in the proud -epoch when the young nation laid out everything to add artistic to -political splendour. Even as a boy, their only child, he was idolised by -his parents, the old gendarme and the honest charwoman. His first -attempts were regarded by his relations as marvels. The neighbours went -into raptures over a frog he had modelled, "which looked just as if it -were alive." The landlord of a tavern ordered a signboard from him, and -when it was finished the whole population stood before it in admiration. -A certain Herr Maibe, who was artistically inclined, had his attention -directed to the young genius, undertook all the expenses of his -education, and sent him to the Antwerp Academy. There he obtained a -government scholarship, and gained in 1832 the _Prix de Rome_. From the -first he was quite clear as to his own importance. - -[Illustration: _American Art Review._ - - WIERTZ. THE ORPHANS.] - -Even as a pupil at the Antwerp Academy he wrote in a letter to his -father contemptuously of his fellow-students' reverence for the old -masters. "They imagine," said he, "that the old masters are invincible -gods, and not men whom genius may surpass." And instead of admonishing -him to be modest, his father answered with pride: "Be a model to the -youth of the future, so that in later centuries young painters may say, -'I will raise myself to fame as the great Wiertz did in Belgium.'" Such -dangerous flattery would have affected stronger characters. It needed -only the Italian journey to send him altogether astray. Michael Angelo -made him giddy, as had been the case with Cornelius, Chenavard, and many -another. With all the ambition of a self-taught man he held every touch -of his brush to be important, and was indignant if others refused to -think the same. After his failures in Paris and Brussels he began to -find high treason in every criticism, and started a discussion on "the -pernicious influence of journalism upon art and literature." We find him -saying: "If any one writes ill of me when I am dead, I will rise from -the grave to defend myself." - -In his hatred of criticism he resolved to exhibit no more, lived a -miserable existence till his death in 1865, and painted hasty and -careless portraits, _pour la soupe_, when he was in pressing need of -money. These brought him at first from three to four hundred, and later -a thousand francs. He indulged in colossal sketches, for the completion -of which the State built him in 1850 a tremendous studio, the present -_Muse Wiertz_. It stands a few hundred paces from the Luxembourg -station, to the extreme north of the town, in a beautiful though rather -neglected little park, a white building with a pillared portico and a -broad perron leading up to it. Here he sat in a fantastically gorgeous -costume, for ever wearing his great Rubens hat. Philanthropic lectures -on this world and the next, on the well-being of the people and the -diseases of modern civilisation, were the fruits of his activity. -Whoever loves painting for painting's sake need never visit the museum. - -There there are battles, conflagrations, floods, and earthquakes; heaven -and earth are in commotion. Giants hurl rocks at one another, and try, -like Jupiter, to shake the earth with their frown. All of them delight -in force, and bring their muscles into play like athletes. But the -painter himself is no athlete, no giant as Thorwaldsen called him, and -no genius as he fancied himself to be. _Le singe des gnies_, he -conceived the notion of "great art" purely in its relation to space, and -believed himself greater than the greatest because his canvases were of -greater dimensions. When the ministry thought of making him Director of -the Antwerp Academy, after the departure of Wappers, he wrote the -following characteristic sentences: "I gather from the newspapers that I -may be offered the place of Wappers." If in the moment when the profound -philosopher is pondering over sublime ideas people were to say to him, -"Will you teach us the A, B, C? I believe that he whose dwelling-place -is in the clouds would fall straight from heaven to earth." Living in an -atmosphere of flattery at home, and overpowered by the incense which was -there offered to his genius, he could not set himself free from the -fixed idea of competing with Michael Angelo and Rubens. Below his -picture of "The Childhood of Mary" he placed the words: "Counterpart to -the picture by Rubens in Antwerp treating the same subject." He offered -his "Triumph of Christ" to the cathedral there under the condition of -its being hung beside Rubens' "Descent from the Cross." "The Rising up -of Hell" he wished to exhibit of an evening in the theatre when it was -opened for a performance. During the waits the audience were to -contemplate the picture while a choir sang with orchestral -accompaniment. But all these offers were declined with thanks. - -Such failures make men pessimists; but it was through them that Wiertz, -after being an historical painter, became the child of his age. He began -to hurl thunderbolts against the evils of modern civilisation. He -preaches and lashes and curses and suffers. The forms of which he makes -use are borrowed from the old masters. The man of Michael Angelo, with -his athletic build, his gigantic muscles, his nude body, the man of the -Renaissance and not the man of the nineteenth century, strides through -his works; it is only in the subject-matter of his pictures that the -modern spirit has broken through the old formula. All the questions -which have been thrown out by the philosophy and civilisation of the -nineteenth century are reflected as vast problems in his vast pictures. -He fashions his brush into a weapon with which he fights for the -disinherited, for the pariahs, for the people. He is bent on being the -painter of democracy--a great danger for art. - -[Illustration: WIERTZ. THE THINGS OF THE PRESENT AS SEEN BY FUTURE - AGES.] - -He agitates in an impassioned way against the horrors of war. His -picture "Food for Powder" begins this crusade. A cannon is lying idle on -the wall of a fortress, and around this slumbering iron monster children -are playing at soldiers, with no suspicion that their sport will soon be -turned into bitter earnest, and that in war they will themselves become -food for this demon. In another picture, "The civilisation of the -Nineteenth Century," soldiers intoxicated with blood and victory have -broken into a chamber by night and are stabbing a mother with her child. -A third, "The Last Cannon Shot," hints dimly at the future pacification -of the world. "A Scene in Hell," however, is the chief of the effusions -directed against war. The Emperor Napoleon in his grey coat and his -historical three-cornered hat is languishing in hell; wavering flames -envelop him as with a flowing purple mantle, and an innumerable -multitude of mothers and sisters, wives and betrothed maidens, children -and fathers, from whom he has taken their dearest are pressing round -him. Fists are clenched against him, and screams issue from toothless, -raging mouths. He, on the other hand, with his arms crossed on his -breast, and his haughty visage stern and gloomy, stands motionless, -looking fixedly with satanic eyes upon the thousands whose happiness he -has destroyed. - -[Illustration: WIERTZ. THE FIGHT ROUND THE BODY OF PATROCLUS.] - -In his "Thoughts and Visions of a Decapitated Head", Wiertz, moved by -Victor Hugo's _Le dernier jour d'un condamn_, makes capital punishment -a subject of more lengthy disquisition. The picture, which is made up of -three parts, is supposed to represent the feelings of a man, who has -been guillotined, during the first three minutes after execution. The -border of the picture contains a complete dissertation: "The man who has -suffered execution sees his body dried up and in corruption in a dark -corner; and sees also, what it is only given to spirits of another world -to perceive, the secrets of the transmutation of matter. He sees all the -gases which have formed his body, and its sulphurous, earthy, and -ammoniacal elements, detach themselves from its decaying flesh and serve -for the structure of other living beings.... When that abominable -instrument the guillotine is one day actually abolished, may God be -praised," and so on. - -Beside this painted plea against capital punishment hangs "The Burnt -Child," as an argument in favour of _crches_. A poor working woman has -for one moment left her garret. Meanwhile a fire has broken out, and she -returns to find the charred body of her boy. In the picture "Hunger, -Madness, and Crime" he treats of human misery in general, and touches on -the question of the rearing of illegitimate children. There is a young -girl forced to live on the carrots which a rich man throws into the -gutter. In consequence of a notification to pay taxes she goes out of -her mind, and with hellish laughter cuts to pieces the baby who has -brought her to ruin. Cremation is recommended in the picture "Buried too -soon": there is a vault, and in it a coffin, the lid of which has been -burst open from the inside; through the cleft may be seen a clenched -hand, and in the darkness of the coffin the horror-stricken countenance -of one who is piteously crying for help. - -In the "Novel Reader" he endeavours to show the baneful influence of -vicious reading upon the imagination of a girl. She is lying naked in -bed, with loosened hair and a book in her hand; her eyes are reddened -with hysterical tears, and an evil spirit is laying a new book on the -couch, _Antonine_, by Alexandre Dumas _Fils_. "The Retort of a Belgian -Lady"--an anticipation of Neid--glorifies homicide committed in the -defence of honour. A Dutch officer having taken liberties with a Belgian -woman, she blows out his brains with a pistol. In "The Suicide" the -fragments of a skull may be seen flying in all directions. How the young -man who has just destroyed himself came to this pass may be gathered -from the book entitled _Materialism_, which lies on his table. And thus -he goes on, though the spectator feels less and less inclined to take -any serious interest in these lectures. For although the intentions of -Wiertz had now and then a touch of the sublime, he was neither clear as -to the limits of what could be represented nor did he possess the -capacity of expressing what he wished in artistic forms. Like many a -German painter of those years, he was a philosopher of the brush, a -scholar in disguise, who wrote out his thoughts in paint instead of ink. - -Wiertz made painting a vehicle for more than it can render as painting: -with him it begins to dogmatise; it is a book, and it awakens a regret -that this rich mind was lost to authorship. There he might, perhaps, -have done much that was useful towards solving the social and -philosophical questions of the day; as he is, he has nothing to offer -the understanding, and only succeeds in offending the eye. A human brain -with both great and trivial ideas lays itself bare. But, like Cornelius, -from the mere fulness of his ideas he was unable to give them artistic -expression. He groped from Michael Angelo to Rubens, and from Raphael to -Ary Scheffer, without realising that the artistic utterance of all these -masters had been an individual gift. The career of Wiertz is an -interesting psychological case. He was an abnormal phenomenon, and he -cannot be passed over in the history of art, because he was one of the -first who treated subjects from modern life in large pictures. Never -before had a genuinely artistic age brought forth such a monster, yet it -is impossible to ignore him, or deny that he claims a certain degree of -importance in the art history of the past century. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -THE VILLAGE TALE - - -During the decade following the year 1848 _genre_ painting in Germany -threw off the shackles of the anecdotic style, and continued a -development similar to that of history, which, in the same country, -flourished long after it was moribund elsewhere. After the elder -artists, who showed so much zeal in producing perfectly ineffective -little pictures, executed with incredible pains and a desperate veracity -of detail, there followed, from 1850, a generation who were technically -better equipped. They no longer confined themselves to making tentative -efforts in the manner of the old masters, but either borrowed their -lights directly from the historical painters in Paris, or were -indirectly made familiar with the results of French technique through -Piloty. Subjects of greater refinement were united with a treatment of -colour which was less offensive. - -The childlike innocence which had given pleasure in Meyerheim and -Waldmller was now thought to be too childlike by far. The merriment -which radiated from the pictures of Schroedter or Enhuber found no echo -amidst a generation which was tired of such cheap humour: the works of -Carl Hbner were put aside as lachrymose and sentimental efforts. When -the world had issued from the period of Romanticism there was no -temptation to be funny over modern life nor to make socialistic -propaganda; for after the Revolution of 1848 people had become -reconciled to the changed order of affairs and to life as it actually -was--its cares and its worries, its mistakes and its sins. It was the -time when Berthold Auerbach's village tales ran through so many -editions; and, hand in hand with these literary productions, painting -also set itself to tell little stories from the life of sundry classes -of the people, amongst which rustics were always the most preferable -from their picturesqueness of costume. - -At the head of this group of artists stands _Louis Knaus_, and if it is -difficult to hymn his praises at the present day, that is chiefly -because Knaus mostly drew upon that sarcastic and ironical -characteristic which is such an unpleasant moral note in the pictures of -Hogarth, Schroedter, and Madou. The figures of the old Dutch masters -behave as if the glance of no stranger were resting upon them: it is -possible to share their joys and sorrows, which are not merely acted. We -feel at our ease with them because they regard us as one of themselves. -In Knaus there is always an artificial bond between the figures and the -frequenters of the exhibition. They plunge into the greatest -extravagances to excite attention, tickle the spectator to make him -laugh, or cry out to move him to tears. With the exception of Wilkie, no -_genre_ painter has explained his purpose more obtrusively or in greater -detail. Even when he paints a portrait, by way of variation, he stands -behind with a pointer to explain it. On this account the portraits of -Mommsen and Helmholtz in the Berlin National Gallery are made too -official. Each of them is visibly conscious that he is being painted for -the National Gallery, and by emphasis and the accumulation of external -characteristics Knaus took the greatest pains to lift these -personalities into types of the nineteenth-century scholar. - -[Illustration: L. Knaus.] - -Since popular opinion is wont to represent the philologist as one -careless of outward appearance, and the investigator of natural -philosophy as an elegant man of the world,--Mommsen must wear boots -which have seen much service, and those of Helmholtz must be of polished -leather; the shirt of the one must be genially rumpled, and that of the -other must fit him to perfection. By such obvious characterisation the -Sunday public was satisfied, but those who were represented were really -deprived of character. It is not to be supposed that in Mommsen's room -the manuscripts of all his principal works would lie so openly upon the -writing-table and beneath it, so that every one might see them: it is -not probable that his famous white locks would flutter so as he sat at -the writing-table. Even the momentary gesture of the hand has in both -pictures something obtrusively demonstrative. "Behold, with this pen I -have written the history of Rome," says Mommsen. "Behold, there is the -famous ophthalmometer which I invented," says Helmholtz. - -But as a _genre_ painter Knaus has fallen still more often into such -intolerable stage gesticulation. The picture "His Highness upon his -Travels" is usually mentioned as that in which he reached his zenith in -characterisation. Yet is not this characterisation in the highest degree -exaggerated? Is not the expression apportioned to every figure, like -parts to a theatrical company, and does not the result seem to be -strained beyond all measure? Just look at the children, see how each -plays a part to catch your eye. A little girl is leaning shyly on her -elder sister, who has bashfully thrust her finger into her mouth: some -are looking on with rustic simplicity, others with attention: a child -smaller than the others is puckering up its face and crying miserably. -The prince, in whose honour the children are drawn up, passes the group -with complete indifference, while his companion regards "the people" -haughtily through his eyeglass. The schoolmaster bows low, in the hope -that his salary may be raised, whilst the stupid churchwarden looks -towards the prince with a jovial smile, as though he were awaiting his -colleague from the neighbouring village. Of course, they are all very -intelligible types; but they are no more than types. For the painter the -mere accident of the moment is the source of all life. Would that -six-year-old peasant child who stands with the greatest dignity in -Knaus's picture as "The Village Prince" have ever stood in that fashion, -with a flower between his teeth and his legs thrust apart, unless he had -been carefully taught this self-conscious pose by the painter himself? -So that there may not be the slightest doubt as to which of the -shoemaker's apprentices is winning and which is losing, one of them has -to have a knowing smirk, whilst the other is looking helplessly at his -cards. And how that little Maccabee is acting to the public in "The -First Profit!" The old man in threadbare clothes, who stands in an -ante-chamber rubbing his hands in the picture "I can Wait"; the -frightened little girl who sees her bit of bread-and-butter imperilled -by geese in "In Great Distress,"--they have all the same deliberate -comicality, they are all treated with the same palpable carefulness, the -same pointed and impertinently satirical sharpness. Even in "The -Funeral" he is not deserted by the humorous proclivity of the -anecdotist, and the schoolmaster has to brandish the bton with which he -is conducting the choir of boys and girls as comically as possible. -Knaus uses too many italics, and underlines as if he expected his public -to be very dull of understanding. In this way he appeals to -simple-minded people, and irritates those of more delicate taste. The -peasant sits in his pictures like a model; he knows that he must keep -quiet, and neither alter his pose nor his grimace, because otherwise -Knaus will be angry. All his pictures show signs of the superior and -celebrated city gentleman, who has only gone into the country to -interest himself in the study of civilisation: there he hunts after -effectively comical features, and, having arranged his little world in -_tableaux vivants_, he coolly surrenders it to the derision of the -cultivated spectator. - -[Illustration: KNAUS. IN GREAT DISTRESS. - - (_By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., the owners of the - copyright._)] - -[Illustration: KNAUS. THE CARD PLAYERS. - - (_By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., the owners of the - copyright._)] - -But such a judgment, which seems like a condemnation, could not be -maintained from the historical standpoint. Germany could not forget -Knaus, if it were only for the fact that in the fifties he sided with -those who first spread the unusual opinion that painting was -incomprehensible without sound ability in the matter of colour. He was -not content, like the elder generation, to arrange the individual -characters in his pictures in well-disposed groups. He took care to make -his works faultless in colouring, so that in the fifties he not only -roused the enthusiasm of the great public by his "poetic invention," but -made even the Parisian painters enthusiastic by his easy mastery of -technique. - -To the following effect wrote Edmond About in 1855: "I do not know -whether Herr Knaus has long nails; but even if they were as long as -those of Mephistopheles, I should still say that he was an artist to his -fingers' ends. His pictures please the Sunday public and the Friday -public, the critics, the _bourgeois_, and (God forgive me!) the -painters. What is seductive to the great multitude is the clearly -expressed dramatic idea, while artists and connoisseurs are won by his -knowledge and thorough ability. Herr Knaus has the capacity of -satisfying every one. His pictures attract the most incompetent eyes, -because they tell pleasant anecdotes; but they likewise fascinate the -most jaded by perfect execution of detail. The whole talent of Germany -is contained in the person of Herr Knaus. So Germany lives in the Rue de -l'Arcade in Paris." - -In the fifties all the technical ability which was to be gained from the -study of the old Dutch masters and from constant commerce with the -modern French reached its highest point in Knaus. Even in his youth the -great Netherlandish painters, Ostade, Brouwer, and Teniers, must have -had more effect upon him than his teachers, Sohn and Schadow, since his -very first pictures, "The Peasants' Dance" of 1850 and "The Card -Sharpers" of 1850, had little in common with the Dsseldorf school, and -therefore so much the more with the Netherlandish _chiaroscuro_. "The -Card Sharpers" is precisely like an Ostade modernised. By his migration -to Paris in 1852 he sought to acquire the utmost perfection of finish; -and when he returned home, after a sojourn of eight years, he had at his -command such a sense for effect and fine harmony of tone, such a -knowledge of colour, and such a disciplined and refined taste, that his -works indicate an immeasurable advance on the motley harshness of his -predecessors. His "Golden Wedding" of 1858--perhaps his finest -picture--had nothing of the antiquated technique of the older type of -Dsseldorf pictures of peasant life; technically it stood on a level -with the works of the French. - -[Illustration: KNAUS. THE GOLDEN WEDDING. - - (_By permission of Messrs. Goupil & Co., the owners of the - copyright._)] - -And Knaus has remained the same ever since: a separate personality which -belongs to history. He painted peasant pictures of tragic import and -rustic gaiety; he recognised a number of graceful traits in child-life, -and, having seen a great deal of the world, he made a transition, after -he had settled in Berlin, from the character picture of the Black Forest -to such as may be painted from the life of cities. He even ventured to -touch on religious subjects, and taught the world the limitations of his -talent by his "Holy Families," composed out of reminiscences of all -times and all schools, and by his "Daniel in the Lions' Den." Knaus is -whole-heartedly a _genre_ painter; though that, indeed, is what he has -in common with many other people. But thirty years ago he had a genius -for colour amid a crowd of narrative and character painters, and this -makes him unique. He is a man whose significance does not merely lie in -his talent for narrative, but one who did much for German art. It may be -said that in giving the _genre_ picture unsuspected subtleties of colour -he helped German art to pass from mere _genre_ painting to painting pure -and simple. In this sense he filled an artistic mission, and won for -himself in the history of modern painting a firm and sure place, which -even the opponent of the illustrative vignette cannot take from him. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - KNAUS. BEHIND THE SCENES.] - -_Vautier_, who must always be named in the same breath with Knaus, is in -truth the exact opposite of the Berlin master. He also is essentially a -_genre_ painter, and his pictures should not be merely seen but studied -in detail; but where Knaus has merits Vautier is defective, and where -Knaus is jarring Vautier has merits. In technique he cannot boast of -similar qualities. He is always merely a draughtsman who tints, but has -never been a colourist. As a painter he has less value, but as a _genre_ -painter he is more sympathetic. In the pictures of Knaus one is annoyed -by the deliberate smirk, by his exaggerated and heartlessly frigid -observation. Vautier gives pleasure by characterisation, more delicately -reserved in its adjustment of means, and profound as it is simple, by -his wealth of individual motives and their charm, and by the -sensitiveness with which he renders the feelings and relationship of his -figures. A nave, good-humoured, and amiable temperament is betrayed in -his works. He is genially idyllic where Knaus creates a pungently -satirical effect, and a glance at the portraits of the two men explains -this difference. - -[Illustration: _Kunst fr Alle._ - - BENJAMIN VAUTIER.] - -Knaus with his puckered forehead, and his searching look shooting from -under heavy brows, is like a judge or a public prosecutor. Vautier, with -his thoughtful blue eyes, resembles a prosperous banker with a turn for -idealism, or a writer of village tales _ la_ Berthold Auerbach. Knaus -worried himself over many things, brooded much and made many -experiments; Vautier was content with the acquisition of a plain and -simple method of painting, which appeared to him a perfectly sufficient -medium for the expression of that which he had realised with profound -emotion. The one is a reflective and the other a dreamy nature. Vautier -was a man of a happy temperament, one with whom the world went well from -his youth upwards, who enjoyed an existence free from care, and who had -accustomed himself as a painter to see the world in a rosy light. There -is something sound and pure in his characters, in his pictures something -peaceful and cordial; it does not, indeed, make his paltry pedantic -style of painting any the better, but from the human standpoint it -touches one sympathetically. His countrymen may be ashamed of Vautier as -a painter when they come across him amongst aliens in foreign -exhibitions, but they rejoice in him none the less as a _genre_ painter. -It is as if they had been met by the quiet, faithful gaze of a German -eye amid the fiery glances of the Latin nations. It is as if they -suddenly heard a simple German song, rendered without training, and yet -with a great deal of feeling. A generation ago Knaus could exhibit -everywhere as a painter; as such Vautier was only possible in Germany -during the sixties. But in Knaus it is impossible to get rid of the -impress of the Berlin professor, while from Vautier's pictures there -smiles the kindly sentiment of German home-life. Vautier's world, no -doubt, is as one-sided as that of old Meyerheim. His talkative Paul -Prys, his brides with their modest shyness, his smart young fellows -throwing amorous glances, his proud fathers, and his sorrow-stricken -mothers are, it may be, types rather than beings breathing positive and -individual life. Such a golden radiance of grace surrounds the pretty -figures of his bare-footed rustic maidens as never pertained to those of -the real world, but belongs rather to the shepherdess of a fairy tale -who marries the prince. His figures must not be measured by the standard -of realistic truth to nature. But they are the inhabitants of a dear, -familiar world in which everything breathes of prettiness and lovable -good-humour. It is almost touching to see with what purity and beauty -life is reflected in Vautier's mind. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - - VAUTIER. THE CONJURER.] - -How dainty are these brown-eyed Swabian peasant girls, how tender and -sympathetic the women, and how clean and well-behaved the children! You -could believe that Vautier mixed with his peasants like a friend or a -benevolent god-father, that he delighted in their harmless pleasures, -that he took part in their griefs and cares. In his pictures he does not -give an account of his impressions with severity or any deliberate -attempt to amuse, but with indulgence and cordiality. It is not his -design to excite or to thrill, to waken comedy through whimsicalities or -mournfulness by anything tragical. Life reveals to him "merely pleasant -things," as it did to Goethe during his tour in Italy, and even in its -tragedies only people "who bear the inevitable with dignity." He never -expressed boisterous grief: everything is subdued, and has that -tenderness which is associated with the mere sound of his Christian -name, Benjamin. Knaus has something of Menzel, Vautier of Memlinc: he -has it even in the loving familiarity with which he penetrates minute -detail. In their religious pictures the old German and Netherlandish -masters painted everything, down to the lilies worked on the Virgin's -loom, or the dust lying on the old service-book; and this thoroughly -German delight in still life, this complacent rendering of minuti, is -found again in Vautier. - -Men and their dwellings, animated nature and atmosphere, combine to make -a pleasant world in his pictures. Vautier was one of the first to -discover the magic of environment, the secret influence which unites a -man to the soil from which he sprang, the thousand unknown, magnetic -associations existing between outward things and the spirit, between the -intuitions and the actions of man. The environment is not there like a -stage scene in front of which the personages come and go; it lives and -moves in the man himself. One feels at home in these snug and cosy -rooms, where the Black Forest clock is ticking, where little, tasteless -photographs look down from the wall with an honest, patriarchal air, -where the floor is scoured so clean, and greasy green hats hang on -splendid antlers. There is the great family bed with the flowered -curtains, the massive immovable bench by the stove, the solid old table, -around which young and old assemble at meal-times. There are the great -cupboards for the treasures of the house, the prayer-book given to -grandmother at her confirmation, the filigree ornaments, the glasses and -coffee-cups, which are kept for show, not for daily use. Over the -bedstead are hung the little pictures of saints painted on glass, and -the consecrated tokens. From the window one overlooks other -appurtenances of the house; gaudy scarlet runners clamber in from the -little garden, blossoming fruit-trees stand in its midst, and the gable -of the well-filled barn rises above it. Everything has an air of peace -and prosperity, the mood of a Sunday forenoon; one almost fancies that -one can catch the chime of the distant church bells through the blissful -stillness. But completeness of effect and pictorial harmony are not to -be demanded: the illustrated paper is better suited to his style than -the exhibition. - -[Illustration: VAUTIER. THE DANCING LESSON. - - (_By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., the owners of the - copyright._)] - -The third member of the alliance is _Franz Defregger_, a man of splendid -talent; of all the masters of the great Munich school of Piloty, he is -at once the simplest and the healthiest. True it is, no doubt, that when -posterity sifts and weighs his works, much of him, also, will be found -too light. Defregger's art has suffered from his fame and from the -temptations of the picture market. Moreover, he had not Vautier's fine -sense of the limitations of his ability, but often represented things -which he did not understand. He was less of a painter than any of the -artists of Piloty's school, and more completely tethered by the size of -his picture. He could not go beyond a certain space of canvas without -suffering for it; and he bound his talent on the bed of Procrustes when -he attempted to paint Madonnas, or placed himself with his Hofer -pictures in the rank of historical painters. But as a _genre_ painter he -stands beside Vautier, in the first line; and by these little _genre_ -pictures--the simpler and quieter the better--and some of his genially -conceived and charming portrait studies, he will survive. Those are -things which he understood and felt. He had himself lived amid the life -he depicted, and so it was that what he depicted made such a powerful -appeal to the heart. - -[Illustration: VAUTIER. NOVEMBER.] - -The year 1869 made him known. The Munich Exhibition had in that year a -picture on a subject from the history of the Hofer rising of 1809. It -represented how the little son of Speckbacher, one of the Tyrolese -leaders, had come after his father, armed with a musket; and at the side -of an old forester he is entering the room in which Speckbacher is just -holding a council of war. The father springs up angry at his -disobedience, but also proud of the little fellow's pluck. From this -time Defregger's art was almost entirely devoted to the Tyrolese people. -To paint the smart lads and neat lasses of Tyrol in joy and sorrow, love -and hate, at work and merry-making, at home or outside on the mountain -pasture, in all their beauty, strength, and robust health, was the -life-long task for which he more than any other man had been created. He -had, over Knaus and most other painters of village tales, the enormous -advantage of not standing personally outside or above the people, and -not regarding them with the superficial curiosity of a tourist--for he -belonged to them himself. Others, if ironically disposed, saw in the -rustic the stupid, comic peasant; or, if inclined to sentimentalism, -introduced into the rural world the moods and feelings of "society," -traits of drawing-room sensitiveness, the heavy air of the town. Models -in national costume were grouped for pictures of Upper Bavarian rustic -life. But Defregger, who up to the age of fifteen had kept his father's -cattle on the pastures of the Ederhof, had shared the joys and sorrows -of the peasantry long enough to know that they are neither comic nor -sentimental people. - -The roomy old farmhouse where he was born in 1835 lay isolated amid the -wild mountains. He went about bare-footed and bare-headed, waded through -deep snow when he made his way to school in winter, and wandered about -amid the highland pastures with the flocks in summer. Milkmaids and -wood-cutters, hunters and cowherds, were his only companions. At fifteen -he was the head labourer of the estate, helped to thresh the corn, and -worked on the arable land and in the stable and the barn like others. -When he was twenty-three he lost his father and took over the farm -himself: he was thus a man in the full sense of the word before his -artistic calling was revealed to him. And this explains his qualities -and defects. When he came to Piloty after the sale of his farm and his -aimless sojourn in Innsbruck and Paris he was mature in mind; he was -haunted by the impressions of his youth, and he wanted to represent the -land and the people of Tyrol. But he was too old to become a good -"painter." On the other hand, he possessed the great advantage of -knowing what he wanted. The heroes of history did not interest him; it -was only the Tyrolese woodmen who persisted in his brain. He left -Piloty's studio almost as he had entered it--awkward, and painting -heavily and laboriously, and but very little impressed by Piloty's -theatrical sentiment. His youth and his recollections were rooted in the -life of the people; and with a faithful eye he caught earnest or -cheerful phases of that life, and represented them simply and cordially: -and if he had had the strength to offer a yet more effectual resistance -to the prevalent ideal of beauty, there is no doubt that his stories -would seem even more fresh and vigorous. - -[Illustration: FRANZ DEFREGGER.] - -"The Dance" was the first picture which followed that of "Speckbacher," -and it was circulated through the world in thousands of reproductions. -There are two delightful figures in it: the pretty milkmaid who looks -around her, radiant with pleasure, and the wiry old Tyrolese who is -lifting his foot, cased in a rough hobnail shoe, to dance to the -_Schuhplattler_. At the same time he painted "The Prize Horse" -returning to his native village from the show decked and garlanded and -greeted exultantly by old and young as the pride of the place. "The Last -Summons" was again a scene from the Tyrolese popular rising of 1809. All -who can still carry a rifle, a scythe, or a pitchfork have enrolled -themselves beneath the banners, and are marching out to battle over the -rough village street. The wives and children are looking earnestly at -the departing figures, whilst a little old woman is pressing her -husband's hand. Everything was simply and genially rendered without -sentimentality or emphasis, and the picture even makes an appeal by its -colouring. As a sequel "The Return of the Victors" was produced in 1876: -a troop of the Tyrolese levy is marching through its native mountain -village, with a young peasant in advance, slightly wounded, and looking -boldly round. Tyrolese banners are waving, and the fifes and drums and -clarionet players bring up the rear. The faces of the men beam with the -joy of victory, and women and children stand around to welcome those -returning home. Joy, however, is harder to paint faithfully than sorrow. -It is so easy to see that it has been artificially worked up from the -model; nor is Defregger's picture entirely innocent on this charge. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - - DEFREGGER. SPECKBACHER AND HIS SON.] - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - - DEFREGGER. THE WRESTLERS.] - -"Andreas Hofer going to his Death" was his first concession to Piloty. -Defregger had become professor at the Munich Academy, and was entered in -the directory as "historical painter." The figures were therefore -painted life size; and in the grouping and the choice of the "psychic -moment" the style aimed at "grand painting." The result was the same -emptiness which blusters through the historical pictures of the school -of Delaroche, Gallait, and Piloty. The familiar stage effect and stilted -passion has taken the place of simple and easy naturalism. Nor was he -able to give life to the great figures of a large canvas as he had done -in the smaller picture of the "Return of the Victors." This is true of -"The Peasant Muster" of 1883--which represented the Tyrolese, assembled -in an arms manufactory, learning that the moment for striking had -arrived--and of the last picture of the series, "Andreas Hofer receiving -the Presents of the Emperor Francis in the Fortress of Innsbruck." All -the great Hofer pictures, which in earlier days were honoured as his -best performances, have done less for his memory than for that of the -sturdy hero. The _genre_ picture was Defregger's vocation. There lay his -strength, and as soon as he left that province he renounced his fine -qualities. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - DEFREGGER. SISTER AND BROTHERS.] - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - - DEFREGGER. THE PRIZE HORSE.] - -And a holiday humour, a tendency to beautify what he saw, is spread over -even his _genre_ pictures. They make one suppose that there is always -sunshine in the happy land of Tyrol, that all the people are chaste and -beautiful, all the young fellows fine and handsome, all the girls smart, -every household cleanly and well-ordered, all married folk and children -honest and kind; whereas in reality these milk-maids and woodmen are far -less romantic in their conduct; and so many a townsman who avoids -contact with the living people goes into raptures over them as they are -pictures. With Vautier he shares this one-sidedness as well as his -defective colour. Almost all his pictures are hard, dry, and diffident -in colouring, but, as with Vautier, the man atones for the painter. From -Defregger one asks for no qualities of colour and no realistic Tyrolese, -since he has rendered himself in his pictures, and gives one a glimpse -into his own heart; and a healthy, genial, and kindly heart it is. His -idealism is not born of laboriously acquired principles of beauty; it -expresses the temperament of a painter--a temperament which -unconsciously sees the people through a medium whereby they are -glorified. A rosy glow obscures sadness, ugliness, wretchedness, and -misery, and shows only strength and health, tenderness and beauty, -fidelity and courage. He treasured sunny memories of the cheerful -radiance which rested on his home in the hour of his return; he painted -the joy which swelled in his own breast as he beheld again the rocks of -his native country, heard once more the peaceful chime of its Sabbath -bells. And this is what gives his works their human, inward truth, -little as they may be authentic documents as to the population of Tyrol. - -Later this will be more impartially recognised than it possibly can be -at present. The larger the school of any artist, the more it will make -his art trivial; and thus for a time the originality of the master -himself seems to be mere trifling. The Tyrolese were depreciated in the -market by Defregger's imitators; only too many have aped his painting of -stiff leather breeches and woollen bodices, without putting inside them -the vivid humanity which is so charming in a genuine Defregger. But his -position in the history of art is not injured by this. He has done -enough for his age; he has touched the hearts of many by his cheerful, -fresh, and healthy art, and he would be certain of immortality had he -thrown aside his brush altogether from the time when the progress of -painting left him in the rear. - -With Defregger, the head of the Tyrolese school, Gabl and Mathias -Schmidt, standing at a measurable distance from him, may find a -well-merited place. _Mathias Schmidt_, born in the Tyrolese Alps in the -same year as Defregger, began with satirical representations of the -local priesthood. A poor image-carver has arrived with his waggon at an -inn, on the terrace of which are sitting a couple of well-fed -ecclesiastics, and by them he is ironically called to account as he -offers a crucifix for sale. A young priest, as an austere judge of -morals, reproves a pair of lovers who are standing before him, or asks a -young girl such insidious questions at the bridal examination that she -lowers her eyes, blushing. His greatest picture was "The Emigration of -the Zillerthal Protestants." Amongst later works, without controversial -tendencies, "The Hunter's Greeting" and "The Lathered Parson" may be -named. The latter is surprised by two pretty girls while shaving. To -these may be added "The Parson's Patch," a picture of a robust -housekeeper hastily mending a weak spot in the pastor's inexpressibles -just before service. - -Shortly after Defregger had painted his picture of "Speckbacher," _Alois -Gabl_ came forward with his "Haspinger preaching Revolt," and followed -it up by smaller pictures with a humorous touch, representing a levy of -recruits in Tyrol, the dance at the inn interrupted by the entrance of -the parson, magnates umpiring at the shooting butts, a bar with laughing -girls, and the like. - -In 1870, _Eduard Kurzbauer_, who died young, in his "Fugitives -Overtaken" executed a work representing an entire class of painted -illustrations. A young man who has eloped with a girl is discovered with -her by her mother in a village inn. The old lady is looking -reproachfully at her daughter, who is overwhelmed by shame and -penitence; the young man is much moved, the old servant grave and -respectful, the young landlady curious, and the postilion who has driven -the eloping pair has a sly smirk. Elsewhere Kurzbauer, who is a fresh -and lively anecdotist, painted principally episodes, arraying his -figures in the peasant garb of the Black Forest: a rejected suitor takes -a sad farewell of a perverse blonde who disdains his love; or the -engagement of two lovers is hindered by the interference of the father. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - DEFREGGER. ANDREAS HOFER APPOINTED GOVERNOR OF THE TYROL.] - -_Hugo Kauffmann_, the son of Hermann Kauffmann, planted himself in the -interior of village taverns or in front of them, and made his dressed-up -models figure as hunters, telling incredible tales, dancing to the -fiddle, or quarrelling over cards. - -Another North German, _Wilhelm Riefstahl_, showed how the peasants in -Appenzell or Bregenz conduct themselves at mournful gatherings, at their -devotions in the open air, and at All Souls' Day Celebrations, and -afterwards extended his artistic dominion over Rgen, Westphalia, and -the Rhine country with true Mecklenburg thoroughness. He was a careful, -conscientious worker, with a discontent at his own efforts in his -composition, a certain ponderousness in his attempts at _genre_; but his -diligently executed pictures--full of colour and painted in a peculiarly -German manner--are highly prized in public galleries on account of their -instructive soundness. - -After the various classes of the German peasantry had been naturalised -in the picture market by these narrative painters, _Eduard Grtzner_, -when religious controversy raged in the seventies, turned aside to -discover drolleries in monastic life. This he did with the assistance of -brown and yellowish white cowls, and the obese and copper-nosed models -thereto pertaining. He depicts how the cellarer tastes a new wine, and -the rest of the company await his verdict with anxiety; how the entire -monastery is employed at the vintage, at the broaching of a wine cask or -the brewing of the beer; how they tipple; how bored they are over their -chess or their dice, their cards or their dominoes; how they whitewash -old frescoes or search after forbidden books in the monastery library. -This, according to Grtzner, is the routine in which the life of monks -revolves. At times amidst these figures appear foresters who tell of -their adventures in the chase, or deliver hares at the cloister kitchen. -And the more Grtzner was forced year after year to make up for his -decline as a colourist, by cramming his pictures with so-called humour, -the greater was his success. - -It was only long afterwards that _genre_ painting in broad-cloth came -into vogue by the side of this _genre_ in peasant blouse and monastic -cowl, and stories of the exchange and the manufactory by the side of -village and monastic tales. Here Dsseldorf plays a part once more in -the development of art. The neighbourhood of the great manufacturing -towns on the Rhine could not but lead painters to these subjects. -_Ludwig Bokelmann_, who began by painting tragical domestic scenes--card -players, and smoking shop-boys, in the style of Knaus--made the pawnshop -a theme for art in 1875, and dexterously crowded into his picture all -the types which popular fancy brings into association with the -conception: business-like indifference, poverty ashamed, fallen -prosperity, bitter need, avarice, and the love of pleasure. In 1877, -when the failure of the house of Spitzeder made a sensation in the -papers, he painted his picture "The Savings Bank before the Announcement -of Failure," which gave him another opportunity for ranging in front of -the splendid building an assembly of deluded creditors of all classes, -and of showing how they expressed their emotion according to temperament -and education, by excited speeches, embittered countenances, gloomy -resignation, or vivid gesticulation. Much attention was likewise excited -by "The Arrest." In this picture a woman was being watched for by a -policeman, whilst the neighbours--male and female--loitered round with -the requisite expression of horror, indignation, sympathy, or -indifferent curiosity. The opening of a will, the last moments of an -electioneering struggle, scenes in the entrance hall of a court of -justice, the emigrants' farewell, the gaming-table at Monte Carlo, and a -village fire, were other newspaper episodes from the life of great towns -which he rendered in paint. - -His earlier associate in Dsseldorf, _Ferdinand Brtt_, after first -painting _rococo_ pictures, owed his finest successes to the Stock -Exchange. It, too, had its types: the great patrician merchants and -bankers of solid reputation, the jobbers, break-neck speculators, and -decayed old stagers; and, as Brtt rendered these current figures in a -very intelligible manner, his pictures excited a great deal of -attention. Acquittals and condemnations, acts of mortgage, emigration -agents, comic electors, and prison visits, as further episodes from the -social, political, and commercial life of great towns, fill up the odd -corners of his little local chronicle. - -Thus the German _genre_ painting ran approximately the same course as -the English had done at the beginning of the century. At that time the -kingdom of German art was not of this world. Classicism taught men to -turn their eyes on the art of a past age. Art in Germany had progressed -slowly, and at first with an uncertain and hesitating step, before it -learnt that what blossoms here, and thrives and fades, should be the -subject of its labours. Gradually it brought one sphere of reality after -the other into its domain. Observation took the place of abstraction, -and the discoverer that of the inventor. The painter went amongst his -fellow-creatures, opened his eyes and his heart to share their fortunes -and misfortunes, and to reproduce them in his own creation. He -discovered the peculiarities of grades of life and professional classes. -Every one of the beautiful German landscapes with its peasantry, every -one of the monastic orders and every manufacturing town found its -representative in _genre_ painting. The country was mapped out. Each one -took over his plot, which he superintended, conscientiously, like an -ethnographical museum. And just as fifty years before, Germany had been -fertilised by England, so it now gave in its turn the principles of -_genre_ painting to the powers of the second rank in art. - -Even France was in some degree influenced. As if to indicate that Alsace -would soon become German once more, after 1850 there appeared in that -province certain painters who busied themselves with the narration of -anecdote from rustic life quite in the manner of Knaus and Vautier. - -_Gustave Brion_, the grand-nephew of Frederica of Sesenheim, settled in -the Vosges, and there gave intelligence of a little world whose life -flowed by, without toil, in gentle, patriarchal quietude, interrupted -only by marriage feasts, birthdays, and funeral solemnities. He appears -to have been rather fond of melancholy and solemn subjects. His -interiors, with their sturdy and honest people, bulky old furniture, and -large green faence stoves, which are so dear to him, are delightful in -their familiar homeliness and their cordial Alsatian and German -character, and recall Vautier; in fact, he might well be termed the -French Vautier. He lives in them himself--the quiet old man, who in his -last years occupied himself solely with the management of his garden and -the culture of flowers, or sat by the hour in an easy-chair at the -window telling stories to his old dog Putz. But pictorial unity of -effect must be asked from him as little as from Vautier. - -_Charles Marchal_, too, was no painter, but an anecdotist, with a bias -towards the humorous or sentimental; and so very refined and superior -was he that he saw none but pretty peasant girls, who might easily be -mistaken for "young ladies," if they exchanged their kerchiefs and -bodices for a Parisian toilette. His chief picture was "The Hiring Fair" -of 1864: pretty peasant girls are standing in a row along the street, -bargaining with prospective masters before hiring themselves out. - -[Illustration: GRTZNER. TWELFTH NIGHT.] - -The most famous of this group of artists is _Jules Breton_, who after -various humorous and sentimental pieces placed himself in 1853 in the -front rank of the French painters of rustics by his "Return of the -Reapers" (Muse Luxembourg). His "Gleaners" in 1855, "Blessing the -Fields" in 1857, and "The Erection of the Picture of Christ in the -Churchyard" were pretty enough to please the public, and sufficiently -sound in technique not to be a stumbling-block to artists. After 1861 he -conceived an enthusiasm for sunsets, and was never weary of depicting -the hour when the fair forms of peasant maidens stand gracefully out -against the quiet golden horizon. Jules Breton wrote many poems, and a -vein of poetry runs through his pictures. They tell of the sadness of -the land when the fields sleep dreamily beneath the shadows of the -evening, touched by the last ray of the departing sun; but they tell of -it in verses where the same rhymes are repeated with wearisome monotony. -Breton is a charming and sympathetic figure, but he never quite -conquered Classicism. His gleaners moving across the field in the -evening twilight bear witness to an attentive, deliberate study of the -works of Leopold Robert; and unfortunately much of the emphasis and -classical style of Robert has been transmitted to Breton's rustic -maidens. They have most decidedly a lingering weakness for pose, and a -sharp touch of the formula of the schools. There is an affectation of -style in their garb, and their hands are those of _bonnes_ who have -never even handled a rake. Breton, as Millet said of him, paints girls -who are too beautiful to remain in the country. His art is a well-bred, -idyllic painting, with gilt edges; it is pleasing and full of delicate -figures which are always elegant and always correct, but it is a little -like flat lemonade; it is monotonous and only too carefully composed, -destitute of all masculinity and seldom avoiding the reef of -affectation. - -Norway and Sweden were fructified from Dsseldorf immediately. When -Tidemand had shown the way, the academy on the Rhine was the high school -for all the sons of the North during the fifties. They set to -translating Knaus and Vautier into Swedish and Norwegian, and caught the -tone of their originals so exactly that they almost seem more -Dsseldorfian than the Dsseldorfers themselves. - -_Karl D'Uncker_, who arrived in 1851 and died in 1866, was led by the -influence of Vautier to turn to little humorous incidents. After "The -Two Deaf Friends" (two old people very hard of hearing, who are making -comical efforts to understand each other) and "The Vagabond Musician and -his Daughter before the Village Magistrates" there followed in 1858 the -scene in "The Pawnshop," which divided the honours of the year with -Knaus's "Golden Wedding." He is an artistic compromise between Knaus and -Schroedter, a keen observer and a humorous narrator, who takes special -pleasure in the sharp opposition of characteristic figures. In his -"Pawnshop" and his "Third Class Waiting Room" vagabonds mingle in the -crowd beside honest people, beggars beside retired tradesmen, old -procuresses beside pure and innocent girls, and heartless misers beside -warm-hearted philanthropists. In these satirically humorous little -comedies Swedish costume has been rightly left out of sight. This -ethnographical element was the _forte of Bengt Nordenberg_, who as a -copyist of Tidemand gradually became the Riefstahl of the North. His -"Golden Wedding in Blekingen," his "Bridal Procession," his "Collection -of Tithes," "The Pietists," and "The Promenade at the Well," are of the -same ethnographical fidelity and the same anecdotic dryness. He gets his -best effects when he strikes an idyllic, childlike note or one of -patriarchal geniality. The "Bridal Procession" received in the village -with salvoes and music, "The Newly Married Pair" making a first visit to -the parents of one of them, the picture of schoolboys playing tricks -upon an old organist, that of children mourning over a lamb slain by a -wolf, are, in the style of the sixties, the works of a modest and -amiable anecdotist, who had a fine sense for the peaceful, familiar side -of everyday life in town and country. - -[Illustration: BRION. JEAN VALJEAN.] - -In _Wilhelm Wallander_, as in Madou, noise and frolic and jest have the -upper hand. His pictures are like saucy street ditties sung to a -barrel-organ. The crowd at the market-place, the gossip in the -spinning-room on a holiday evening, hop-pickings, dances, auctions on -old estates, weddings, and the guard turning out, are his favourite -scenes. Even when he came to Dsseldorf he was preceded by his fame as a -jolly fellow and a clever draughtsman, and when he exhibited his "Market -in Vingaker" he was greeted as another Teniers. His "Hop-Harvest" is -like a waxwork show of teasing lads and laughing lasses. He was an -incisive humorist and a spirited narrator, who under all circumstances -was more inclined to jest than to touch idyllic and elegiac chords. In -his pictures peasant girls never wander solitary across the country, for -some lad who is passing by always has a joke to crack with them; it -never happens that girls sit lonely by the hearth, there is always a -lover to peep out laughing from behind the cupboard door. - -_Anders Koskull_ cultivated the _genre_ picture of children in a more -elegiac fashion; he has poor people sitting in the sun, or peasant -families in the Sunday stillness laying wreaths upon the graves of their -dear ones in the churchyard. _Kilian Zoll_, like Meyer of Bremen, -painted very childish pictures of women spinning, children with cats, -the joys of grandmother, and the like. _Peter Eskilson_ turned to the -representation of an idyllic age of honest yeomen, and has given in his -best known work, "A Game of Skittles in Faggens," a pleasant picture -from peasant life in the age of pig-tails. The object of _August -Jernberg's_ study was the Westphalian peasant with his slouching hat, -long white coat, flowered waistcoat, and large silver buttons. He was -specially fond of painting dancing bears surrounded by a crowd of amused -spectators, or annual fairs, for which a picturesque part of old -Dsseldorf served as a background. _Ferdinand Fagerlin_ has something -attractive in his simplicity and good-humour. If he laughs, as he -delights in doing, his laughter is cordial and kind-hearted, and if he -touches an elegiac chord he can guard against sentimentalism. In -contrast with D'Uncker and Wallander, who always hunted after character -pieces, he devotes himself to expression with much feeling, and -interprets it delicately even in its finer _nuances_. Henry Ritter, who -influenced him powerfully in the beginning of his career, drew his -attention to Holland, and Fagerlin's quiet art harmonises with the Dutch -phlegm. Within the four walls of his fishermen's huts there are none but -honest grey-beards and quiet women, active wives and busy maidens, -vigorous sailors and lively peasant lads. But his pictures are -sympathetic in spite of this one-sided optimism, since the sentiment is -not too affected nor the anecdotic points too heavily underlined. - -Amongst the Norwegians belonging to this group is _V. -Stoltenberg-Lerche_, who with the aid of appropriate accessories adapted -the interiors of cloisters and churches to _genre_ pictures, such as -"Tithe Day in the Cloister," "The Cloister Library," and "The Visit of a -Cardinal to the Cloister," and so forth. _Hans Dahl_, a _juste-milieu_ -between Tidemand and Emanuel Spitzer, carried the Dsseldorf village -idyll down to the present time. "Knitting the Stocking" (girls knitting -on the edge of a lake), "Feminine Attraction" (a lad with three peasant -maidens who are dragging a boat to shore in spite of his resistance), "A -Child of Nature" (a little girl engaged to sit as model to a painter -amongst the mountains, and running away in alarm), "The Ladies' Boarding -School on the Ice," "First Pay Duty," etc., are some of the witty titles -of his wares, which are scattered over Europe and America. Everything is -sunny, everything laughs, the landscapes as well as the figures; and if -Dahl had painted fifty years ago, his fair maidens with heavy blond -plaits, well-bred carriage, and delicate hands that have never been -disfigured by work, would undoubtedly have assured him no unimportant -place beside old Meyerheim in the history of the development of the -_genre_ picture. - -An offshoot from the Munich painting of rustics shot up into a vigorous -sapling in Hungary. The process of refining the raw talents of the -Magyar race had been perfected on the shores of the Isar, and the -Hungarians showed gratitude to their masters by applying the principles -of the Munich _genre_ to Magyar subjects when they returned home. The -Hungarian rooms of modern exhibitions have consequently a very local -impress. Everything seems aboriginal, Magyar to the core, and purely -national. Gipsies are playing the fiddle and Hungarian national songs -ring forth, acrobats exhibit, slender sons of Pusta sit in Hungarian -village taverns over their tokay, muscular peasant lads jest with buxom, -black-eyed girls, smart hussars parade their irresistible charms before -lively damsels, and recruits endeavour to imbibe a potent enthusiasm for -the business of war from the juice of the grape. Stiff peasants, limber -gipsies, old people dancing, smart youths, the laughing faces of girls -and bold fellows with flashing eyes, quarrelsome heroes quick with the -knife, tipsy soldiers and swearing sergeants, drunkards, suffering women -and poor orphans, pawnshops and vagabonds, legal suits, electioneering -scenes, village tragedies and comic proposals, artful shop-boys, and -criminals condemned to death, the gay confusion of fairs and the merry -return from the harvest and the vintage, waxed moustaches, green and red -caps and short pipes, tokay, Banat wheat, Alfoeld tobacco, and Sarkad -cattle,--such are the elements worked up, as the occasion demanded, -either into little tales or great and thrilling romances. And the names -of the painters are as thoroughly Magyar as are the figures. Beside -_Ludwig Ebner_, _Paul Boehm_, and _Otto von Baditz_, which have a German -sound, one comes across such names as _Koloman Dry_, _Julius Agghzi_, -_Alexander Bihari_, _Ignaz Ruskovics_, _Johann Jank_, _Tihamr -Margitay_, _Paul Vag_, _Arpad Fessty_, _Otto Koroknyai_, _D. -Skuteczky_, etc. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - MARCHAL. THE HIRING FAIR.] - -But setting aside the altered names and the altered locality and garb, -the substance of these pictures is precisely the same as that of the -Munich pictures of twenty years before: dance and play, maternal -happiness, wooing, and the invitation to the wedding. Instead of the -_Schuhplattler_ they paint the Czarda, instead of the drover's cottage -the taverns of Pesth, instead of the blue Bavarian uniform the green of -the Magyar Hussars. Their painting is tokay adulterated with Isar -water, or Isar water with a flavour of tokay. What seems national is at -bottom only their antiquated standpoint. It is a typical development -repeating itself in the nineteenth century through all branches of art; -the sun rises in the West and sets in the East. Any other progress than -that of the gradual expansion of subject-matter cannot be established in -favour of the productions of all this _genre_ painting. In colour and in -substance they represent a phase of art which the leading countries of -Europe had already left behind about the middle of the century, and -which had to be overcome elsewhere, if painting was again to be what it -had been in the old, good periods. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - PETTENKOFEN. A HUNGARIAN VILLAGE (PENCIL DRAWING).] - -For as yet all these _genre_ painters were the children of Hogarth; -their productions were the outcome of the same spirit, plebeian and -alien to art, which had come into painting when the middle classes began -to hold a more important position in society. Yet their artistic -significance ought not to be and cannot be contested. In an age which -was prouder of its antiquarian knowledge than of its own achievements, -which recognised the faithful imitation of the method of all past -periods, the mere performance of a delicate task, as the highest aim of -art, these _genre_ painters were the first to portray the actual man of -the nineteenth century; the first to desert museums and appeal to -nature, and thus to lay the foundation of modern painting. They wandered -in the country, looked at reality, sought to imitate it, and often -displayed in their studies a marvellous directness of insight. But these -vigorous initial studies were too modest to find favour and esteem with -a public as yet insufficiently educated for the appreciation of art. -Whilst in England the exhibitions of the Royal Academy and in France -those of the Paris Salon created, comparatively early, a certain ground -for the comprehension of art, the _genre_ painters of other countries -worked up to and into the sixties without the appropriate social -combinations. After 1828 the Art Unions began to usurp the position of -that refined society which had formerly played the Mcenas as the -leading dictators of taste. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - BRETON. THE RETURN OF THE REAPERS.] - -Albrecht Adam, who was chiefly responsible for the foundation of the -Munich Union, has himself spoken clearly in his autobiography of the -advantages and disadvantages of this step. "Often," he writes, "often -have I asked myself whether I have done good or not by this scheme, and -to this hour I have not been able to make up my mind. The cultivation of -art clearly received an entirely different bias from that which it had -in earlier days. What was formerly done by artistic and judicious -connoisseurs was now placed for the most part in the hands of the -people. Like so much else in the world, that had its advantages, but in -practice the shady side of the matter became very obvious." The -disadvantages were specially these: "the people" for a long time could -only understand such paintings as represented a story in a broad and -easy fashion; paintings which in the narrative cohesion of the subject -represented might be read off at a glance, since the mere art of reading -had been learnt at school, rather than those which deserved and required -careful study. The demand for anecdotic subject was only waived in the -case of ethnographical painting, in Italian and Oriental _genre_; for -here the singular types, pictorial costumes, and peculiar customs of -foreign countries were in themselves enough to provoke curiosity. What -was prized in the picture was merely something external, the subject of -representation, not the representation itself, the matter and not the -manner, that which concerned the theme, that which fell entirely beyond -the province of art. The illustrated periodicals which had been making -their appearance since the forties gave a further impetus to this phase -of taste. The more inducement there was to guess charades, the more -injury was done to the sensuous enjoyment of art; for the accompanying -text of the author merely translated the pictures back into their -natural element. Painters, however, were not unwilling to reconcile -themselves to the circumstances, because, as a result of their technical -insufficiency, they were forced, on their side, to try to lend their -pictures the adjunct of superficial interest by anecdotic additions. -Literary humour had to serve the purpose of pictorial humour, and the -talent of the narrator was necessary to make up for their inadequate -artistic qualities. As the historical painters conveyed the knowledge of -history in a popular style, the _genre_ painters set up as agreeable -tattlers, excellent anecdotists: they were in turn droll, meditative, -sentimental, and pathetic, but they were not painters. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - BRETON. THE GLEANER.] - -And painters, under these conditions, they could not possibly become. -For though it is often urged in older books on the history of art that -modern _genre_ painting far outstripped the old Dutch _genre_ in -incisiveness of characterisation, depth of psychological conception, and -opulence of invention, these merits are bought at the expense of all -pictorial harmony. In the days of Rembrandt the Dutch were painters to -their fingers' ends, and they were able to be so because they appealed -to a public whose taste was adequately trained to take a refined -pleasure in the contemplation of works of art which had sterling merits -of colour. Mieris painted the voluptuous ruffling of silken stuffs; Van -der Meer, the mild light stealing through little windows into quiet -chambers, and playing upon burnished vessels of copper and pewter, on -majolica dishes and silver chattels, on chests and coverings; De Hoogh, -the sunbeam streaming like a golden shaft of dust from some bright -lateral space into a darker ante-chamber. Each one set before himself -different problems, and each ran through an artistic course of -development. - -[Illustration: WALLENDER. THE RETURN.] - -The more recent masters are mature from their first appearance; the -Hungarians paint exactly like the Swedes and the Germans, and their -pictures have ideas for the theme, but never such as are purely -artistic. Like simple woodland birds, they sing melodies which are, in -some ways, exceedingly pretty; but their plumage is not equal to their -song. No man can be painter and _genre_ painter at the same time. The -principal difference between them is this: a painter sees his picture, -rather than what may be extracted from it by thought; the _genre_ -painter, on the other hand, has an idea in his mind, an "invention," and -plans out a picture for its expression. The painter does not trouble his -head about the subject and the narrative contents; his poetry lies in -the kingdom of colour. There reigns in his works--take Brouwer, for -example--an authentic, uniformly plastic, and penetrative life welling -from the artist's soul. But the leading motive for the _genre_ painter -is the subject as such. For example, he will paint a children's festival -precisely because it is a children's festival. But one must be a Jan -Steen to accomplish such a task in a soundly artistic manner. The -observation of these more recent painters meanwhile ventured no further -than detail, and did not know what to do with the picture as a whole. -They got over their difficulties because they "invented" the scene, made -the children pose in the places required by the situation, and then -composed these studies. The end was accomplished when the leading heroes -of the piece had been characterised and the others well traced. The -colouring was merely an unessential adjunct, and in a purely artistic -sense not at all possible. For a picture which has come into being -through a piecing together from separate copies of set models, and of -costumes, vessels, interiors, etc., may be ever so true to nature in -details, but this mosaic work is bound systematically to destroy the -pictorial appearance, unity, and quietude of the whole. Knaus is -perhaps the only one who, as a fine connoisseur of colour, concealed -this scrap-book drudgery, and achieved a certain congruity of colour in -a really artistic manner by a subtilised method of harmony. But as -regards the pictures of all the others, it is clear at once that, as -Heine wrote, "they have been rather edited than painted." The -effectiveness of the picture was lost in the detail, and even the truth -of detail was lost in the end in the opulence of subject, seductive as -that was upon the first glance. For, as it was held that the incident -subjected to treatment--the more circumstantial the better--ought to be -mirrored through all grades and variations of emotion in the faces, in -the gestures of a family, of the gossips, of the neighbours, of the -public in the street, the inevitable consequence was that the artist, to -make himself understood, was invariably driven to exaggerate the -characterisation, and to set in the place of the unconstrained -expression of nature that which has been histrionically drilled into the -model. Not less did the attempt to unite these set figures as a -composition in one frame lead to an intolerable stencilling. The rules -derived from historical painting in a time dominated by that form of art -were applied to our chequered and many-sided modern life. Since the -structure of this composition prescribed laws from which the undesigned -manifestation of individual objects is free, the studies after nature -had to be readjusted in the picture according to necessity. There were -attitudes in a conventional sense beautiful, but unnatural and strained, -and therefore creating an unpleasing effect. An arbitrary construction, -a forced method of composition, usurped the place of what was flexible, -various, and apparently casual. The painters did not fit the separate -part as it really was into the totality which the coherence of life -demands: they arranged scenes of comedy out of realistic elements just -as a stage manager would put them together. - -And this indicates the further course which development was obliged to -take. When Hogarth was left behind, painting had once more gained the -independence which it had had in the great periods of art. The painter -was forced to cease from treating secondary qualities--such as humour -and narrative power--as though they were of the first account; and the -public had to begin to understand pictures as paintings and not as -painted stories. An "empty subject" well painted is to be preferred to -an "interesting theme" badly painted. Pictures of life must drive out -_tableaux vivants_, and human beings dislodge character types which -curiosity renders attractive. Rather let there be a moment of breathing -reality rendered by purely artistic means of expression than the most -complete village tale defectively narrated; rather the simplest figure -rendered with actuality and no thought of self than the most suggestive -and ingenious characterisation. A conception, coloured by the -temperament of the artist, of what was simple and inartificial, -expressing nature at every step, had to take the place of laborious -composition crowded with figures, the plainness and truth of sterling -art to overcome what was overloaded and arbitrary, and the fragment of -nature seized with spontaneous freshness to supplant episodes put -together out of fragmentary observations. Only such painting as confined -itself, like that of the Dutch, "to the bare empirical observation of -surrounding reality," renouncing literary byplay, spirited anecdotic -fancies, and all those rules of beauty which enslave nature, could -really become the basis of modern art: and this the landscape painters -created. When once these masters resolved to paint from nature, and no -longer from their inner consciousness, there inevitably came a day when -some one amongst them wished to place in the field or the forest, which -he had painted after nature, a figure, and then felt the necessity of -bringing that figure into his picture just as he had seen it, without -giving it an anecdote mission or forcing it arbitrarily into his -compositions. The landscapist found the woodcutter in the forest, and -the woodcutter seemed to him the ideal he was seeking; the peasant -seemed to him to have the right to stand amid the furrows he had traced -with his plough. He no longer drove the fisher and the sailor from their -barks, and had no scruple in representing the good peasant woman, laden -with wood, striding forwards in his picture just as she strode through -the forest. And so entry was made into the way of simplicity; the -top-heavy burden of interesting subject-matter was thrown aside, and the -truth of figures and environments was gained. The age contained all the -conditions for bringing landscape painting such as this to maturity. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -LANDSCAPE PAINTING IN GERMANY - - -That landscape would become for the nineteenth century even more -important than it was for the Holland of the seventeenth century had -been clearly announced since the days of Watteau and Gainsborough, and -since this tendency, in spite of all coercive rules, could be only -momentarily delayed by Classicism, it came to pass that the era which -began with Winckelmann's conception of "vulgar nature" ended a -generation later with her apotheosis. The thirty years from 1780 to 1810 -denoted no more than a brief imprisonment for modern landscape, the -luxuriantly blooming child being arbitrarily confined meanwhile in the -strait-waistcoat of history. At first the phrase of Gotthold Ephraim -Lessing, which declared that landscape was no subject for painting -because it had no soul, held painters altogether back from injuring -their reputation by such pictures. And when, after the close of the -century, some amongst them overcame this dread, Poussin the Classicist -was of course set up as the only model. For an age which did not paint -men but only statues, nature was too natural. As the figure painter -subordinated everything to style and moulded the human body accordingly, -landscape became mannered to suit an historical idea, and was used -merely as a theatrical background for Greek tragedies. As the -draughtsmen of the age freed the human figure from all "individual -blemishes," and thereby abandoned the most essential points of life and -credibility which are bound up with personality, the landscapists wished -to purify nature from everything "accidental," with the result that -dreary commonplaces were produced from her, the infinitely manifold. As -the former sought the chief merit of their works in "well-balanced -composition," the latter regarded trees and mountains, temples and -palaces, clouds and rivers, merely as counters which only needed to be -changed in their mutual position according to acquired rules of -composition to make new pictures. They did not reflect that nature -possesses a more original force than the most able self-conscious work -of man, or, as Ludwig Richter has so well expressed it, that "what God -Almighty has made is always more beautiful than what men can invent." -There were summary rules for landscapes in the Poussin style, the beauty -of which was sought above all in an opulent play of noble lines, -corresponding to the fine and flowing lines of Carstens' figures. But -the conception was all the more pedantic whilst the drawing was hard and -dry and the colour feeble and vitreous. The most familiar of the group -is the old Tyrolese _Josef Anton Koch_, who came to Rome in 1796, and, -during two years, had an opportunity of allying himself with Carstens. -His pictures are usually composed with motives taken from the Sabine -Mountains. A landscape with "The Rape of Hylas" is possessed by the -Staedel Institute in Frankfort, a "Sacrifice of Noah" by the Museum in -Leipzig, and a landscape from the Sabine Mountains by the New Pinakothek -in Munich. All three show little promise in technique; it was only in -water-colour that he painted with more freedom. - -[Illustration: JOSEF ANTON KOCH.] - -Without a doubt nature in Italy is favourable to this "heroic" style of -landscape. In South Italy the country is at once magnificent and -peaceful. The naked walls of rock display their majestic lines with a -sharp contour; the sea is blue, and there is no cloud in the sky. As far -as the eye reaches everything is dead and nugatory in its colour, and -rigid and inanimate in form: a plastic landscape, full of style but -apparently devoid of soul. Nowhere is there anything either stupendous -or familiar, though, at the same time, there is no country on the earth -where there is such a sweep of proud majestic lines. It was not the -composition of Poussin, but the classic art of Claude--which aimed at -being nothing but the transparent mirror of sunny and transparent -nature--that gave perfect expression to this classic landscape; and in -the nineteenth century _Karl Rottmann_, according to what one reads, has -most completely represented this same classical form of art. His -twenty-eight Italian landscapes in the arcades of the Munich Hofgarten -are said to display a sense of the beauty of line and a greatness of -conception paralleled by few other landscape works of the century. And -those who draw their critical appreciations from books will probably -continue to make this statement, with all the greater right since the -world has been assured that the Arcade pictures are but a shadow of -earlier splendour. To a spectator who has not been primed and merely -judges with his own eyes without knowing anything about Rottmann's -celebrity, these pictures with their hard, inept colouring and their -pompous "synthetic" composition seem in the majority of cases to be -excessively childish, though it is not contested that before their -restoration by Leopold Rottmann and their present state of decay they -may very possibly have been good. Rottmann's Grecian landscapes in the -New Pinakothek are not ranked high even by his admirers. Standing in the -beginning entirely upon Koch's ground, he was led in these pictures to -give more importance to colour and light, and even to introduce unusual -phenomena, such as lowering skies, with rainbows, sunsets, moonlight -scenes, thunderstorms, and the like. This mixture of classical -principles of drawing with effect-painting in the style of Eduard -Hildebrandt brought a certain confusion into his compositions, to say -nothing of the fact that he never got rid of his harsh and heavy colour, -Bengal lights, and a crudeness of execution suggestive of tapestry. His -water-colours, probably, contain the only evidence from which it may be -gathered that Rottmann really had an eminent feeling for great -characteristic lines, and did not unsuccessfully go through the school -of Claude with his finely moulded, rhythmically perfected, and yet -simple conception of nature. - -[Illustration: _Grphische Knst._ - - KARL ROTTMANN.] - -Otherwise _Friedrich Preller_ is the only one of all the stylists -deriving from Koch who rose to works consistent in execution. To him -only was it granted to assure his name a lasting importance by -exhaustively working out a felicitous subject. The _Odyssey_ landscapes -extend through his whole life. During a sojourn in Naples in 1830 he was -struck by the first idea. After his return home he composed for Doctor -Hrtel in Leipzig the first series as wall decoration in tempera in -1832-34. Then there followed his journeys to Rgen and Norway, where he -painted wild strand and fell landscapes of a sombre austerity. After -this interruption, so profitably extending his feeling for nature, he -returned to the _Odyssey_. The series grew from seven to sixteen -cartoons, which were to be found in 1858 at the Munich International -Exhibition. The Grand Duke of Weimar then commissioned him to paint the -complete sequence for a hall in the Weimar Museum. In 1859-60 Preller -prepared himself afresh in Italy, and as an old man completed the work -which he had planned in youth. This Weimar series, executed in encaustic -painting, is artistically the maturest that he ever did. Of the entire -school he only had the secret of giving his figures a semblance of life, -and concealed the artificiality of his compositions. Nature in his -pictures has an austere, impressive sublimity, and is the worthy home of -gods and heroes. During his long life he had made so many and such -incessant studies of nature in North and South--even at seventy-eight he -was seen daily with his sketch-book in the Campagna--that he could -venture to work with great, simple lines without the danger of becoming -empty. - -At the time when these pictures were painted the rendering of still-life -in landscape had in general been long buried, although even to-day it -has scattered representatives in the younger Preller, Albert Hertel, and -Edmund Kanoldt. As antique monuments came into fashion with Classicism, -German ruins became the mode at the beginning of the romantic period and -the return to the national past. For Koch and his followers landscape -was only of value when, as the background of classical works of -architecture, it directed one's thoughts to the antique: shepherds had -to sit with their flock around them on the ruins of the temple of Vesta, -or cows to find pasture between the truncated pillars of the Roman -Forum. But now it could only find its justification by allying itself -with medival German history, by the portrayal of castles and -strongholds. - -[Illustration: ROTTMANN. THE COAST OF SICILY.] - -"What is beautiful?--A landscape with upright trees, fair vistas, -atmosphere of azure blue, ornamental fountains, stately palaces in a -learned architectural style, with well-built men and women, and well-fed -cows and sheep. What is ugly?--Ill-formed trees with aged, crooked, and -cloven stems, uneven and earthless ground, sharp-cut hills and mountains -which are too high, rude or dilapidated buildings, with their ruins -lying strewn in heaps, a sky with heavy clouds, stagnant water, lean -cattle in the field, and ungraceful wayfarers." - -In these words Grard de Lairesse, the ancestor of Classicism, defined -his ideal of landscape, and in the last clause, where he speaks of -ugliness, he prophetically indicated the landscape ideal of the -Romanticists, as this is given for the first time in literature in -Tieck's _Sternbald_. For the young knight in _Sternbald_ who desires to -become a painter exclaims with enthusiasm: "Then would I depict lonely -and terrible regions, rotting and broken bridges, between two rough -cliffs facing a precipice, through which the forest stream forces its -foaming course, lost travellers whose garments flutter in the moist -wind, the dreaded figures of robbers ascending from the gully, waggons -fallen upon and plundered, and battle against the travellers." Which is -all exactly the opposite to what Lairesse demanded from the landscapist. -Alexander Humboldt has shown that the men of antiquity only found beauty -in nature so far as she was kindly, smiling, and useful to them. But to -the Romanticists nature was uncomely where she was the servant of -civilisation, and beautiful only in tameless and awe-inspiring -savageness. The light, therefore, was never to be that of simple day, -but the gloom of night and of the mountain glens. Such phenomena are -neither to be seen in Berlin nor in Breslau, and to be a Romanticist was -to love the opposite of all that one sees around one. Tieck, who lived -in the cold daylight of Berlin with its modern North German rationalism, -has therefore--and not by chance--first felt the yearning for moonlight -landscapes of primval forest; _Lessing_, from Breslau, was the first to -give it pictorial expression. - -[Illustration: K. ROTTMANN. LAKE KOPAS.] - -Even in the twenties Koch's classical heroic landscapes, executed with -an ideal sweep of line, were contrasted with castle chapels, ruins, and -cloister courts composed in a similarly arbitrary manner. Landscape was -no longer to make its appeal to the understanding by lines, as in the -work of the Classicists, but to touch the spirit by colour. The various -hues of moonlight seemed specially made to awaken sombre emotions. But -as yet the technique of painting was too inadequately trained to express -this preconceived "mood" through nature itself. To make his intentions -clearer, therefore, the painter showed the effect of natural scenery on -the figures in his pictures, illustrating the "mood" of the landscape in -the "accessories." Lessing's early works represent in art that -self-consciously elegiac and melancholy sentimental rendering of a mood -introduced into literature by _Sternbald_, in his knights, squires, -noble maidens, and other romantic requisites. The melancholy lingers -upon rocks savagely piled upon each other, tumble-down chapels and -ruined castles, in swamps and sombre woods, in old, decaying trees, -half-obliterated paths, and ghostly gravestones; it veils the sky with a -dark grey cerement. Amid hills and glens with wayside crosses, mills, -and charcoal-burners' huts may be seen lonely wanderers, praying -pilgrims, priests hurrying from the cloister to bring the last -consolation to the dying, riders who have lost their way, and mercenary -soldiers lying dead. His first picture of 1828 revealed a desolate -churchyard beneath a dark and lowering heaven, from which a solitary -sunbeam bursts forth to illumine a grave-stead. Then followed the castle -by the sea standing upon strangely moulded cliffs heaped in confusion; -the churchyard in the snow where the nuns in the cloisters are following -a dead sister to the grave; the churchyard cloister, likewise in -snow, where an old man has dug a fresh grave; the cloister in the light -of evening with a priest visiting the sick; the landscape with the -weary, grey-headed crusader, riding on a weary horse through a lonely -mountain district, probably meant as an illustration to Uhland's ballad -_Das Rosennest_-- - - "Rhe hab ich nie gefunden, - Als ein Jahr im finstern Thurm"; - -and then came the desolate tableland with the robbers' den burnt to -ashes, and the landscape with the oak and the shrine of the Virgin, -before which a knight and noble lady are making their devotions. As yet -all these pictures were an arbitrary _potpourri_ from Walter Scott, -Tieck, and Uhland, and their ideal was the Wolf's Glen in the -_Freischtz_. - -[Illustration: FRIEDRICH PRELLER.] - -The next step which Romanticism had to take was to discover such -primval woodland scenes in actual nature, and as Italian landscape -seems, as it were, to have been made for Claude, nature, as she is in -Germany, makes a peculiar appeal to this romantic temperament. In -certain parts of Saxon Switzerland the rocks look as if giants of the -prime had played ball with them or piled them one on top of the other in -sport. Lessing found in 1832 a landscape corresponding to the romantic -ideal of nature in the Eifel district, whither he had been induced to go -by a book by Nggerath, _Das Gebirge im Rheinland und Westfalen nach -Mineralogischem und Chemischem Bezuge_. Up to that time he had only -known the romantic ideal of nature through Scott, Tieck, and Uhland, -just as the Classicists had taken their ideal from Homer, Theocritus, -and Virgil: in the Eifel district it came before him in tangible form. -Flat, swampy tracts of shrub and spruce alternated with dark woods, -where gigantic firs, weird pines, and primval oaks raised their -branches to the sky. At the same time he beheld the rude and lonely -sublimity of nature in union with a humanity which was as yet -uncultivated, and for that reason all the simpler and the healthier, -judged by the Romanticist's distaste for civilisation. Defiant cones of -rock and huge masses of mountain wildly piled upon each other overlooked -valleys in which a stalwart race of peasants passed their days in -patriarchal simplicity. Here, for the first time, a sense for actual -landscape was developed in him; hitherto it had been alloyed by a taste -for knights, robbers, and monks. "Oh, had I been born in the seventeenth -century," he wrote, "I would have wandered after the Thirty Years' War -throughout Germany, plundered, ruined, and run wild as she then was." -Hitherto only "composed" Italian landscapes had been painted, the soil -of home ostensibly offering no _sujets_, or, in other words, not suiting -those tendencies which subordinated everything to style: so Lessing was -now the first painter of German landscape. His "Eifel Landscape" in the -Berlin National Gallery, which was followed by a series of such -pictures, introduces the first period of German landscape painting. The -forms of the ground and of the rough sides of rock are rendered sharply -and decisively, from geological knowledge. On principle he became an -opponent of all artistic influence derived from Italy, and located -himself in the Eifel district. The landscapes which he painted there are -founded on immediate studies of nature, and are sustained by large and -earnest insight. He draws the picture of this quarter in strong and -simple lines: the sadness of the heath and the dark mist, the dull -breath of which rises from swampy moorland. Still he painted only scenes -in which nature had taken the trouble to be fantastic. The eye of the -painter did not see her bright side, approaching her only when she -looked gloomy or was in angry humour. Either he veils the sky with vast -clouds or plunges into the darkness of an untrodden forest. Gnarled -trees spread around, their branches stretching out fantastically -twisted; the unfettered tumult of the powers of nature, the dull sultry -atmosphere before the burst of the storm or its moaning subsidence, are -the only moments which he represents. But the whole baggage of -unseasonable Romanticism, the nuns and monks, pious knights and -sentimental robbers, at first used to embody the mood of nature, were -thrown overboard. A quieter and more melancholy though thoroughly manly -seriousness, something strong and pithy, lies in the representations of -Lessing. The Romanticists had lost all sense of the dumb silent life of -nature. They only painted the changing adornment of the earth: heroes -and the works of men, palaces, ruins, and classic temples. Nature served -merely as a stage scene: the chief interest lay in the persons, the -monuments, and the historical ideas associated with them. Even in the -older pictures of Lessing the mood was exclusively given by the lyrical -accessories. But now it was placed more and more in nature herself, and -rings in power like an organ peal, from the cloudy sky, the dim lights, -and the swaying tree-tops. For the first time it is really nature that -speaks from the canvas, sombre and forceful. In this respect his -landscapes show progress. They show the one-sidedness, but also the -poetry of the Romantic view of nature. And they are no less of an -advance in technique; for in making the discovery that his haunting -ideal existed in reality, Lessing first began to study nature apart from -preconceived and arbitrary rules of composition, and--learnt to paint. - -[Illustration: _Albert, Munich._ - - PRELLER. ULYSSES AND LEUCOTHEA.] - -Up to 1840 there stood at his side a master no less powerful, the -refractory, self-taught _Karl Blechen_, who only took up painting when -he was five-and-twenty, and became one of the most original of German -landscapists, in spite of a ruined life prematurely closing in mental -darkness and suicide. He possessed a delicate feeling for nature, -inspiration, boldness, and a spirited largeness of manner, although his -technique was hard, awkward, and clumsy to the very end. He might be -called the Alfred Rethel of landscape painting. He was not moved by what -was kindly or formally beautiful in nature, but by loneliness, -melancholy, and solitude. Many of his landscapes break away from -peaceful melancholy, and are like the pictures in some horrible -nightmare, ghastly and terrifying; on the other hand, he often surprises -us by the pleasure he takes in homely everyday things, a characteristic -hitherto of rare occurrence. Whereas Lessing never crossed the Alps for -fear of losing his originality, Blechen was the first who saw even -modern Italy without the spectacles of ideal style. From his Italian -pictures it would not be supposed that he had previously studied the -landscapes of the Classicists, or that beside him in Berlin Schinkel -worked on the entirely abstract and ideal landscape. As a painter -Blechen has even discovered the modern world. For Lessing landscape -"with a purpose" was something hideous and insupportable. He cared -exclusively for nature untouched by civilisation, painted the murmuring -wood and the raging storm, here and there at most a shepherd who -indicated the simplest and the oldest employment on the earth's surface. -But the Blechen Exhibition of 1881 contained an entirely singular -phenomenon as regards the thirties, an evening landscape before the iron -works in Eberswald: a long, monotonous plain with a sluggish river, -behind which the dark outlines of vomiting manufactory chimneys rise -sullenly into the bright evening sky. Even in that day Blechen painted -what others scarcely ventured to draw: nature working in the service of -man, and thereby--to use Tieck's expression--"robbed of her austere -dignity." - -[Illustration: CARL FRIEDRICH LESSING.] - -Lessing's most celebrated follower, _Schirmer_, appears in general as a -weakened and sentimental Lessing. He began in 1828 with "A Primval -German Forest," but a journey to Italy caused him in 1840 to turn aside -from this more vigorous path. Henceforth his efforts were directed to -nobility of form and line, to turning out Southern ideal landscapes with -classically romantic accessories. The twenty-six Biblical landscapes -drawn in charcoal, belonging to the Dsseldorf Kunsthalle, the four -landscapes in oil with the history of the Good Samaritan in the -Kunsthalle of Carlsruhe, and the twelve pictures on the history of -Abraham in the Berlin National Gallery, are the principal results of -this second period--his period of ideal style. They are tame efforts at -a compromise between Lessing and Preller, and therefore of no -consequence to the history of the development of landscape painting. -Amongst the many who regarded him as a model, _Valentin Ruths_ of -Hamburg is one of the most natural and delicate. His pictures, however, -did not display any new impulse to widen the boundary by proceeding more -in the direction of healthy and honestly straightforward observation of -nature, or by emancipating himself from the school of regular -composition and the rendering of an arbitrary mood. - -[Illustration: LESSING. THE WAYSIDE MADONNA.] - -Meanwhile this impulse came from another quarter. At the very time when -the _genre_ artists were painting their earliest pictures of rustic life -under the influence of Teniers and Ostade, the landscapists also began -to return to the old Dutch masters, following Everdingen in particular. -Thus another strip of nature was conquered, another step made towards -simplicity. The landscape ideal of the Classicists had been -architecture, that of the Romanticists poetry; from this time forward it -became pure painting. Little Denmark, which fifty years before had -exercised through Carstens that fateful influence on Germany which led -painters from the treatment of contemporary life and sent them in -pursuit of the antique, now made recompense for the evil it had done. -During the twenties and thirties it produced certain landscapists who -guided the Germans to look with a fresh and unfettered gaze, undisturbed -by the ideal, at nature in their own country, after the aberrations of -Classicism and the one-sidedness of the Romanticists. Under Eckersberg -the Academy of Copenhagen was the centre of a healthy realism founded on -the Dutch, and some of the painters who received their training there -and laboured in later years in Dresden, Dsseldorf, and Munich spread -abroad the principles of this school. - -[Illustration: SCHIRMER. AN ITALIAN LANDSCAPE.] - -_J. C. Dahl_ taught as professor in the Academy of Dresden. At the -present time his Norwegian landscapes seem exceedingly old-fashioned, -but in the thirties they evidently must have been something absolutely -new, for they raised a hue and cry amongst the German painters as "the -most wild naturalism." In 1788 Johann Christian Clausen Dahl was born in -Bergen. He was the son of one of those Norwegian giants who are one day -tillers of the soil and on the morrow fishers or herdsmen and hunters, -who cross the sea in their youth as sailors and clear the waste land -when they return home. As he wandered with his father through the dense, -solitary pine forests, along abrupt precipices, sullen lakes, rushing -waterfalls, silvery shining glaciers, the majesty of Northern nature was -revealed to him, and he rendered them in little coloured drawings, -which, in spite of their awkward technique, bear witness to an -extraordinary freshness of observation. The course of study at the -Copenhagen Academy, whither he proceeded in his twentieth year, enabled -him to become acquainted with Everdingen and Ruysdael, and these two old -masters, who had also painted Norwegian landscapes, stimulated him to -further efforts. - -Dahl became the first representative of Norwegian landscape painting, -and remained true to his country even when in 1819 he undertook a -professorship in Dresden. Italy and Germany occupied his brush as much -as Norway, but he was only himself when he worked amongst the Norwegian -cliffs. Breadth of painting and softness of atmosphere are wanting in -all his pictures. They are hard and dry in their effect, and not seldom -entirely conventional; especially the large works painted after 1830. In -them he gave the impression of a bewildering, babbling personality. They -have been swiftly conceived and swiftly painted, but without artistic -love and fine feeling. In his later years Dahl did not allow himself the -time to bury himself in nature quietly and with devotion, and -finally--especially in his moonlight pictures--took to using a -violet-blue, which has a very conventional effect. Everdingen sought by -preference for what was forceful and violently agitated in nature; -Ruysdael felt an enthusiasm for rushing mountain streams. But for Dahl -even these romantic elements of Northern nature were not enough. He -approached nature, not to interpret her simply, but to arrange his -effects. In his picture the wild Norwegian landscape had to be wilder -and more restless than in reality it is. Not patient enough to win all -its secrets from the savage mountain torrent, he forced together his -effects, made additions, brought confusion into his picture as a whole, -and a crudeness into the particular incidents. His large pictures have a -loud effect contrasted with the simple intuition of nature amongst the -Netherlanders. Many of them are merely fantastically irrational -compositions of motives which have been learned by heart. - -But there were also years in which Dahl stood in the front rank of his -age, and even showed it the way to new aims. He certainly held that -position from 1820 to 1830 in those pictures in which, instead of making -romantic adaptations of Ruysdael and Everdingen, he resembled them by -rendering the weirdness and eeriness and the rough and wild features of -Norwegian scenery: red-brown heaths and brownish green turf-moors, -stunted oaks and dark pine forests, erratic blocks sown without design -amid the roots of trees, branches snapped by the storm and hanging as -they were broken, and trunks felled by the tempest and lying where they -fell. In certain pictures in the Bergen and Copenhagen Galleries he -pointed out the way to new aims. The tendency to gloom and seriousness -which reigns in those Dutch Romanticists has here yielded to what is -simple and familiar, to the homely joy of the people of the North in the -crisp, bright day and the wayward sunbeams. He loves the glimmer of -light upon the birch leaves and the peacefully rippling sea. Like Adrian -van der Neer, he studied with delight the wintry sky, the snow-clad -plains, and the night and the moonshine. He began to feel even the charm -of spring. Poor peasant cots are brightly and pleasantly perched upon -moist, green hills, as though he had quite forgotten what his age -demanded in "artistic composition." Or the summer day spreads opulent -and real between the cliffs, and the warm air vibrates over the fields. -Peasants and cattle, glimmering birches and village spires, stand -vigorously forth in the landscape; even the execution is so simple that -with all his richness of detail he succeeds in attaining a great effect. -It is felt that this painting has developed amid a virgin nature, -surrounded by the poetry of the fjord, the lofty cliff, and the torrent. -In the same measure the Dutch had not the feeling for quietude and -habitable, humble, and familiar places. And perhaps it was not by chance -that this reformer came from the most virgin country of Europe, from a -country that had had no share in any great artistic epoch of the past. - -[Illustration: MORGENSTERN. A PEASANT COTTAGE (ETCHING).] - -_Caspar David Friedrich_, that singular painter who carried on his -artistic work in Greifswald, and later in Dresden also, is, if anything, -almost more original and startling. Like Dahl, he studied under -Eckersberg, at the Academy in Copenhagen, and it was this elder artist -who opened his eyes to nature, in which he saw moods and humours as -romantic as they were modern. His work was not seen in a right light -until shown in the German Centenary Exhibition of 1906, when his just -place was first, in the history of art, assigned to him. - -For Munich a similar importance was won by the Hamburg painter -_Christian Morgenstern_, who, like all artists of this group, imitated -the Dutch in the tone of his colour, though as a draughtsman he remained -a fresh and healthy son of nature. Even what he accomplished in all -navet between 1826 and 1829, through direct study of Hamburg -landscape, is something unique in the German production of that age. His -sketches and etchings of these years assure him a high place amongst the -earliest German "mood" painters, and show that as a landscapist he had -at that time made the furthest advance towards simplicity and intimacy -of feeling. A journey to Norway, undertaken in 1829, and a sojourn at -the Copenhagen Academy, where he worked up his Norwegian studies, only -extended his ability without altering his principles; and when he came -to Munich in the beginning of the thirties his new and personal -intuition of nature made a revolution in artistic circles. The landscape -painters learnt from him that Everdingen, Ruysdael, and Rembrandt were -contemporaries of Poussin, that foliage need not be an exercise of -style, and is able properly to indicate the nature of the tree. He -discovered the beauty of the Bavarian plateau for the Munich school. - -Even the first picture that he brought with him from Hamburg displayed a -wide plain shadowed by clouds--a part of the Lneberg heath--and to this -type of subject he remained faithful even in later days. Himself a child -of the plains, he sought for kindred motives in Bavaria, and found them -in rich store on the shore of the Isar, in the quarries near Polling, at -Peissenberg, and in the mossy region near Dachau. His pictures have not -the power of commanding the attention of an indifferent spectator, but -when they have been once looked into they are seen to be poetic, quiet, -harmless, sunny, and thoughtful. He delighted in whatever was ordinary -and unobtrusive, the gentle nature of the wood, the surroundings of the -village, everything homely and familiar. If Rottmann revelled in the -forms of Southern nature, Morgenstern abided by his native Germany; -where Lessing only listened to the rage of the hurricane, Morgenstern -hearkened to the quiet whisper of the breeze. The shadows of the clouds -and the radiance of the sun lie over the dark heath, the moonlight -streams dreamily over the quiet streets of the village, the waves break, -at one moment rushing noisily and at another gently caressing the shore. -Later, when he turned to the representation of the mountains, he lost -the intimacy of feeling which was in the beginning peculiar to him. In -mountain pictures, often as he attempted ravines, waterfalls, and snowy -Alpine summits, he never succeeded in doing anything eminently good. -These pictures have something petty and dismembered, and not the great, -simple stroke of his plains and skies. - -What Morgenstern was for Munich, _Ludwig Gurlitt_ was for -Dsseldorf--the most eminent of the great Northern colony which migrated -thither in the thirties. His name is not to be found in manuals, and the -pictures of his later period which represent him in public galleries -seldom give a full idea of his importance. After a journey to Greece in -1859 he took to a brown tone, in which much is conventional. Moreover, -his retired life--he resided from 1848 to 1852 in a Saxon village, and -from 1859 to 1873 in Siebleben, near Gotha--contributed much to his -being forgotten by the world. But the history of art which seeks -operative forces must do him honour as the first healthy, realistic -landscape painter of Germany, and--still more--as one who opened the -eyes of a number of younger painters who have since come to fame. - -Gurlitt was a native of Holstein, and, like Morgenstern, received his -first instruction in Hamburg, where at that time Bendixen, Vollmer, the -Lehmanns, and the Genslers formed an original group of artists. After -this, as in the case of Morgenstern also, there followed a longer -sojourn in Norway and Copenhagen. In Dsseldorf, where he then went, a -Jutland heath study made some sensation on his arrival. It was the first -landscape seen in Dsseldorf which had not been composed, and Schadow is -said to have come to Gurlitt's studio, accompanied by his pupils, to -behold the marvel. In 1836 he migrated to Munich, where Morgenstern had -worked before him, and here he produced a whole series of works, which -reveals an artist exceedingly independent in sentiment, and one who even -preserves his individuality in the presence of the Dutch. His pictures -were grey in tone, and not yellowish, like those of the Dutch; moreover, -they were less composed and less "intelligently" dressed out with -accessories than the pictures of Dahl; they were glances into nature -resulting from earnest, realistic striving. Even when he began to paint -Italian pictures, as he did after 1843, he preserved a straightforward -simplicity which was not understood by criticism in that age, though it -makes the more sympathetic appeal at the present day. The strength of -his realism lay, as was the case with all artists of those years, rather -in drawing; but at times he reaches, even in painting, a remarkable -clearness and delicacy, which at one time verges on the silver tone of -Canaletto, at another on the fine grey of Constable. - -[Illustration: GURLITT. ON THE SABINE MOUNTAINS.] - -Realism begins in German art with the entry of these Northern painters -into Dsseldorf and Munich. They were less affected by sthetic -prejudices, and fresher and healthier than the Germans. Gurlitt was -specially their intellectual leader, the soul, the driving force of the -great movement which now followed. Roused by him, _Andreas Achenbach_ -emancipated himself from the landscape of style, and, in the years from -1835 to 1839, painted Norwegian pictures even before he knew Norway. -Roused by Gurlitt, Achenbach set forth upon the pilgrimage thither, the -journey which was a voyage of discovery for German landscape painting. - -Until Achenbach's death in 1905 he yearly exhibited works which were no -longer in touch with the surrounding efforts of younger men, and there -was an inclination to make little of his importance as a pioneer. What -is wanting in his pictures is artistic zeal; what he seems to have too -much of is routine. Andreas Achenbach is, as his portrait shows, a man -of great acuteness. From his clear, light blue eyes he looks sharply and -sagaciously into the world around; his short, thick-set figure, proud -and firm of carriage, in spite of years, bears witness to his tough -energy. His forehead, like Menzel's, is rather that of an architect than -of a poet; and his pictures correspond to his outward appearance. Each -one of his earlier good pictures was a battle fought and won. Realism -incarnate, a man from whom all visionary enthusiasm lay at a world-wide -distance, he conquered nature by masculine firmness and unexampled -perseverance. He appears as a _matre-peintre_, a man of cool, exact -talent with a clear and sober vision. The chief characteristic of his -organism was his eminent capacity for appreciating the artistic methods -of other artists, and adapting what was essential in them to his own -manner of production. One breathes more freely before the works of the -masters of Barbizon, and merely sees good pictures in those of -Achenbach. The former are captivating by their intimate penetration, -where he is striking by his bravura of execution. His landscapes have no -chance inspiration, no geniality. Everything is harmonised for the sake -of pictorial effect. The structure and scaffolding are of monumental -stability. Yet fine as his observation undoubtedly is, he has never -surprised the innermost working of nature, but merely turned her to -account for the production of pictures. For the French artists colour is -the pure expression of nature and of her inward humour, but for -Achenbach it is just the means for attaining an effectiveness similar to -that of the Dutch. Penetrating everything thoroughly with those -sparkling blue eyes of his, he learnt to render conscientiously and -firmly the forms of the earth and its outward aspect, but the moods of -its life appealing to the spirit like music were never disclosed to him. -The paintings of the Dutch attracted him to art, not the impulse to give -token to his own peculiar temperament. He thinks more of producing -pictures which may equal those of his forerunners in their merits than -of rendering the impression of nature which he has himself received. His -intelligence quickens at the study of the rules and theories set up by -the Dutch, and he seeks for spots in nature where he may exercise these -principles, but remains chill at the sight of sky and water, trees and -mountains. It is not mere love of nature that has guided his brush, but -a refined calculation of pictorial effect; and as he never went beyond -this endeavour after rounded expression, as it was understood by the -Dutch, though he certainly set German landscape free from a romantic -subjection to style like Schirmer's, he never led it to immediate -personal observation of nature. It is not the fragrance of nature that -is exhaled from his pictures, but the odour of oil and varnish; and as -the means he made use of to attain his effects never alter, the result -is frequently conventional and methodic. - -[Illustration: ACHENBACH. SEA COAST AFTER A STORM.] - -But this does not alter the fact that, when the development of German -landscape painting is in question, the name of Andreas Achenbach will be -always heard in connection with it. He united technical qualities of the -higher order with the capacity of impressing the public, and therefore -he completed the work that the Danes had begun. He was the reformer who -gave evidence that it was not alone by cliffs and baronial castles and -murmuring oaks that sentiment was to be awakened; he hated everything -unhealthy, mawkish, and vague, and by showing the claws of the lion of -realism in the very heart of the romantic period he came to have the -significance of a hero in German landscape painting. He forced demure -Lower German landscape to surrender to him its charms; he revealed the -fascination of Dutch canal scenes, with their quaint architecture and -their characteristic human figures; he went to the stormy, raging North -Sea, and opposed the giant forces of boisterous, unfettered nature to -the tame pictures of the school of Schirmer. Achenbach's earliest North -Sea pictures were exhibited at the very time when Heine's North Sea -series made its appearance, and they soon ousted the wrecks of the -French painter Gudin, which, up to that time, had dominated the picture -market. For the first time in the nineteenth century sea-pieces were so -painted that the water really seemed a fluent, agitated element, the -waves of which did not look as if they had been made of lead, and the -froth and foam of cotton wool. The things which he was specially -felicitous in painting were Rhine-land villages with red-tiled roofs, -Dutch canals with yellow sandbanks and running waves breaking at the -wooden buttresses of the harbour, Norwegian scenes with stubborn cliffs -and dark pines, wild torrents and roaring waterfalls. He did not paint -them better than Everdingen and Ruysdael had done, but he painted them -better than any of his contemporaries had it in their power to do. - -As Gurlitt is connected with the present by Achenbach, Morgenstern is -connected with it by _Eduard Schleich_. The Munich picture rendering a -mood took the place of Rottmann's architectural pictures. Instead of the -fair forms of the earth's surface, artists began to study the play of -sunlight on the plain and amid the flight of the clouds, and instead of -the build of the landscape they turned to notice its atmospheric mood. -Through Morgenstern Schleich was specially directed to Ruysdael and -Goyen. In Ruysdael he was captivated by that profound seriousness and -that sombre observation of nature which corresponded to something in his -own humour; in Goyen by the pictorial harmony of sunlight, air, water, -and earth. Schleich has visited France, Belgium, Hungary, and Italy, yet -it is only by exception that he has painted anything but what the most -immediate vicinity of Munich might offer. He chose the plainest spot in -nature--a newly tilled field, a reedy pond, a stretch of brown moorland, -a pair of cottages and trees; and under the guidance of Goyen he -observed the changes of the sky with great care--the retreat of -thunderclouds, the sun shrouded by thin veils of haze, the tremulous -moonlight, or the hovering of the morning and evening mists. The Isar -district and the mossy Dachauer soil were his favourite places of -sojourn. He had a special preference for rain and moonlight and the mood -of autumn, in rendering which he toned brown and grey hues to fine Dutch -harmonies. His keynote was predominantly serious and elegiac, but he -also loved scenes in which there was a restless and violent change of -light. Over a wide plateau the sunlight spreads its radiance, whilst -from the side an army of dense thunderclouds approaches, threatening -storm and casting dark shadows. Over a monotonous plain, broken by -solitary clumps of trees, the warm summer rain falls dripping down. -Trees and shrubs throw light shadows, and the plain glistens in the -beams of the sun. Or else there is a wide expanse of moor. Darkling the -clouds advance, the rushes bend before the wind, and narrow strips of -moonlight glitter amid the slender reeds. By such works Schleich became -the head of the Munich school of landscape without having ever directed -the study of pupils. Through him and through Achenbach capacity for the -fresh observation of the life of nature was given to German painters. - -[Illustration: ACHENBACH. FISHING BOATS IN THE NORTH SEA.] - -Undoubtedly amongst the younger group of artists there was a great -difference in regard to choice of subject. The modern rendering of mood -has only had its origin in Germany; it could not finally develop itself -there. Just as figure painting, after making so vigorous a beginning -with Brkel, turned to _genre_ painting in the hands of Enhuber and -Knaus, until it returned to its old course in Leibl, landscape also went -through the apprentice period of interesting subject, until it once more -recognised the poetry of simpleness. The course of civilisation itself -led it into these lines. When Morgenstern painted his first pictures the -post-chaise still rattled from village to village, but now the whistle -of the railway engine screams shrill as the first signal of a new age -throughout Europe. Up to that time the possibility of travelling had -been greatly circumscribed by the difficulties of traffic. But -facilitated arrangements of traffic brought with them such a desire for -travel as had never been before. In literature the revolution displayed -itself by the rise of books of travels as a new branch of fiction. -Hacklnder sent many volumes of touring sketches into the market. -Theodor Mgge made Norway, Sweden, and Denmark the scene of his tales. -But America was the land where the Sesame was to be found, for Germany -had been set upon the war-trail with Cooper's Indians, it had Charles -Sealsfield to describe the grotesque mountain land of Mexico, the magic -of the prairie, and the landscapes of Susquehannah and the Mississippi, -and read Gerstcker's, Balduin Mllhausen's, and Otto Ruppius' -transatlantic sketches with unwearying excitement. The painters who -found their greatest delight in seeing the world with the eyes of a -tourist also became cosmopolitan. - -[Illusration: CALAME. LANDSCAPE.] - -In Geneva _Alexander Calame_ brought Germany to the knowledge of what is -to be seen in Switzerland. Calame was, indeed, a dry, unpoetic -landscapist. He began as a young tradesman by making little coloured -views of Switzerland which foreigners were glad to bring away with them -as mementoes of their visits, just as they now do photographs. Even his -later pictures can only lay claim to the merit of such "mementoes of -Switzerland." His colour is insipid and monotonous, his atmosphere -heavy, his technique laborious. By painting he understood the -illumination of drawings, and his drawing was that of an engraver. An -excellent drawing-master, he possessed an unusual mastery of -perspective. On the other hand, all warmth and inward life are wanting -in his works. Sentiment has been replaced by correct manipulation, and -in the deep blue mirror of his Alpine lakes, as in the luminous red of -his Alpine summits, there is always to be seen the illuminator who has -first drawn the contours with a neat pencil and pedantic correctness. -His pictures are grandiose scenes of nature felt in a petty way--in -science too it is often the smallest spirit that seeks the greatest -heroes. "The Ruins of Pstum," like "The Thunderstorm on the Handeck" -and "The Range of Monte-Rosa at Sunrise," merely attain an external, -scenical effect which is not improved by crude and unnatural contrasts -of light. And as, in later years, when orders accumulated, he fell a -victim to an astounding fertility, many of his works give one the -impression of a dexterous calligrapher incessantly repeating the same -ornamental letters. "_Un Calame, deux Calame, trois Calame--que de -calamits_," ran the phrase every year in the Paris Salon. - -[Illustration: FLAMM. A SUMMER DAY.] - -But if France remained cool he found the more numerous admirers in -Germany. When, in 1835, he exhibited his first pictures in Berlin, a -view of the Lake of Geneva, his appearance was at once hailed with the -warmest sympathy. The dexterity, the rounded form, the finish of his -pictures, were exactly what gave pleasure, and the distinctness of his -drawing made its impression. His lithograph studies of trees and his -landscape copies attained the importance of canonical value, and for -whole decades remained in use as a medium of instruction in drawing. -Amongst German painters _Carl Ludwig_, _Otto von Kameke_, and _Count -Stanislaus Kalkreuth_ were specially incited by Calame to turn to the -sublimity of Alpine nature. Desolate wastes of cliffs, still, clear blue -lakes, wild, plunging torrents, and mountain summits covered with -glaciers and glowing to rose colour in the reflection of the setting sun -are the elements of their pictures as of those of the Genevan master. - -After Achenbach there came a whole series of artists from the North who -began to depict the mountains of their native Norway under the strong -colour effects of the Northern sun. The majestic formations of the -fjords, the emerald green walls of rock, the cloven valleys, the -terrible forest wildernesses, and the mountains of Norway dazzlingly -illuminated and reflecting themselves like glittering jewels in the -quiet waters of sapphire blue lakes, were interesting enough to afford -nourishment for more than one landscapist. - -_Knud Baade_, who worked from 1842 in Munich, after a lengthy sojourn at -the Copenhagen Academy and with Dahl in Dresden, delighted in moonlight -scenes, gloomy fir forests, and midnight suns. The sea rises in waves -mountain high, and tosses mighty vessels like withered leaves or dashes -foaming against the cliffs of the shore. Fantastic clouds chase each -other across the sky, and the wan moonlight rocks unsteadily upon the -waves. More seldom he paints the sea lit up afar by the moon, or the -fjord with its meadows and silver birches; and in such plain pictures he -makes a far more attractive effect than in those which are wild and -ambitious, for his diffident, petty execution is, as a rule, but little -suited to restless and, as it were, dramatic scenes of nature. - -Having come to Dsseldorf in 1841, _Hans Gude_ became the Calame of the -North. Achenbach taught him to approach the phenomena of nature boldly -and realistically, and not to be afraid of a rich and soft scale of -colour. Schirmer, the representative of Italian still landscape, guided -him to the acquisition of a certain large harmony and sense for style in -the structure of his pictures, to beauty of line and effective -disposition of great masses of light and shade. This quiet, sure-footed, -and robust realism, which had, at the same time, a gift of style, became -the chief characteristic of his Northern landscapes, in which, however, -the mutable and fleeting moods of nature were all the more neglected. -Here are Norwegian mountain landscapes with lakes, rivers, and -waterfalls, then pictures of the shore under the most varied phases of -light, or grand cliff scenery with a sombre sky and a sea in commotion. -Hans Gude, living from 1864 in Carlsruhe, and from 1880 in Berlin, is -one of those painters whom one esteems, but for whom it is not possible -to feel great enthusiasm--one of those conscientious workers who from -their very solidity run the risk of becoming tedious. His landscapes are -good gallery pictures, soberly and prosaically correct, and never -irritating, though at the same time they seldom kindle any warm feeling. - -Like Gude, _Niels Bjrnson Mller_ devoted himself to pictures of the -shore and the sea. Undisturbed by men in his sequestered retreat, -_August Capellen_ gave way to the melancholy charms of the Norwegian -forest. He represented the tremulous clarity of the air above the -cliffs, old, shattered tree-trunks and green water plants, sleepy ponds, -and far prospects bounded by blue mountains; but he would have made an -effect of greater originality had he thought less of Schirmer's noble -line and compositions arranged in the grand style. _Morten-Mller_ -became the specialist of the fir forest. His native woods where the -valleys stretch towards the high mountain region offered him motives, -which he worked up in large and excessively scenical pictures. His -strong point was the contrast between sunlight playing on the mountain -tops and mysterious darkness reigning in the forest depths, and his -pictures have many admirers on account of "their elegiac melancholy, -their minor key of touching sadness." The Norwegian spring changing the -earth into one carpet of moorland, broken by marshes, found its -delineator in _Erik Bodom_. _Ludwig Munthe_ became the painter of wintry -landscape in thaw, when the snow is riddled with holes and a dirty brown -crust of earth peeps from the dazzling mantle. A desolate field, a pair -of crippled trees stretching their naked branches to the dark-grey sky, -a swarm of crows and a drenched road marked with the tracks of wheels, a -tawny yellow patch of light gleaming through the cloud-bank and -reflected in the wayside puddles, such are the elements out of which one -of Munthe's landscapes is composed. Through _Eilert Adelsten Normann_ -representations of the fjords gained currency in the picture market. His -specialty was the delineation of the steep and beetling rocky fastnesses -of Lofodden with their various reflections of light and colour, the -midnight sun glaring over the deep clear sea, the contrast between the -blue-black masses of the mountains and the gleaming fields of snow. - -[Illustration: BAADE. MOONLIGHT NIGHT ON THE COAST.] - -Others, such as _Ludwig Willroider_, _Louis Douzette_, and _Hermann -Eschke_, set themselves to observe the German heath and the German -forest from similar points of view; the one painted great masses of -mountain and giant trees, the other the setting sun, and the third the -sea. _Oswald Achenbach_, _Albert Flamm_, and _Ascan Lutteroth_ set out -once more on the pilgrimage to the South, where, in contrast to their -predecessors, they studied no longer the classic lines of nature in -Italy, but the splendour of varied effects of colour in the -neighbourhood of Vesuvius and the Bay of Naples. The most enterprising -turned their backs on Europe altogether, and began to paint the primval -forests of South America, to which Alexander Humboldt had drawn -attention, the azure and scarlet wonders of the tropics, and the gleam -and sparkle of the icy world at the ultimate limits of the Polar -regions. _Ferdinand Bellermann_ was honoured as a new Columbus when in -1842 he returned home with his sketches, botanically accurate as they -were, of the marvels of the virgin forest. _Eduard Hildebrandt_, who in -1843 had already gone through the Canary Islands, Italy, Sicily, North -Africa, Egypt, Nubia, Sahara, and the Northern sea of ice, at the -mandate of Frederich Wilhelm IV in 1862 undertook a voyage round the -world "to learn from personal view the phenomena that the sea, the air, -and the solid earth bring forth beneath the most various skies." _Eugen -Bracht_ traversed Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, and returned with a -multitude of studies from the sombre and majestic landscape of the -desert, and from that world of ruins and mountains in the East, and -developed them at home into as many pictures. - -A modicum of praise is due to all these masters for having continually -widened the circuit of subject-matter, and gradually disclosed the whole -world; and if their works cannot be reckoned as the products of a -delicate landscape painting, that is a result of the same taste which -prescribed anecdotic and narrative subjects to the _genre_ picture of -those years. The landscape painters conquered the earth, but, above all, -those parts of it which were geographically remarkable. This they did in -the interest of the public. They went with a Baedeker in their pocket -into every quarter of the globe, brought with them all the carmine -necessary for sunsets, and set up their easels at every place marked -with an asterisk in the guidebook. And in these fair regions they noted -everything that was to be seen with the said Baedeker's assistance. -Through satisfying the interest of the tourist by a rendering, faithful -to a hair's breadth, of topographically instructive points, they could -best reckon on the sale of their productions. - -At the same time, their pictures betray that, during this generation, -historical painting was throned on a summit whence it could dictate the -sthetic catechism. The historical picture represented a humanity that -carried about with it the consciousness of its outward presence, draped -itself in front of the glass, and made an artificial study of every -gesture and every expression of emotion. _Genre_ painting followed, and -rendered the true spirit of life, illustrating it histrionically, but -without surprising it in its unconstrained working. And so trees, -mountains, and clouds also were forced to lay aside the innocence of -unconscious being and wrap themselves in the cloak of affectation. -Simple reality in its quiet, delicate beauty, the homely "mood" of -nature, touching the forms of landscape with the play of light and air, -had nothing to tell an age overstrained by the heroics of history and -the grimaces of _genre_ painting. A more powerful stimulus was -necessary. So the landscapists also were forced to seek nature where she -was histrionic and came forth in blustering magnificence; they were -forced to send off brilliant pyrotechnics to fire out sun, moon, and -stars in order to be heard, or, more literally, seen. - -Instruction or theatrical effect--the aim of historical painting--had -also to be that of the landscape painter. And as railroads are -cosmopolitan arrangements, he was in a position to satisfy both demands -with promptitude. As historical painters in the chase of striking -subjects directed their gaze to the farthest historical horizon, and the -_genre_ painters sought to take their public captive principally through -what was alien and strange, Oriental and Italian, the landscape -painters, too, found their highest aim in the widest possible expansion -of the geographical horizon. "Have these good people not been born -anywhere in particular?" asked Courbet, when he contemplated the German -landscapes in the Munich Exhibition of 1869. What would first strike the -inhabitant of a Northern country in foreign lands was made the theme of -the majority of the pictures. But as the historical painting, in -illustrating all the great dramatic scenes from the Trojan War to the -French Revolution, yielded at one time to a pdagogical doctrinaire -tendency and at another to theatrical impassionedness, so landscape -painting on its cosmopolitan excursions became partly a dry synopsis of -famous regions, only justifiable as a memento of travel, partly a -tricked-out piece of effect which, like everything obtrusive, soon lost -its charm. Pictures of the first description which chiefly borrowed -their motives from Alpine nature, so imposing in its impressiveness of -form--grand masses of rock, glaciers, snow-fields, and abrupt -precipices--only needed to have the fidelity of a portrait. Where that -was given, the public, guided by the instinct for what is majestic and -beautiful in nature, stood before them quite content, while Alpine -travellers instructed the laity that the deep blue snow of the picture -was no exaggeration, but a phenomenon of the mountain world which had -been correctly reproduced. In all these cases there can be no possible -doubt about geographical position, but there is seldom any need to make -inquiries after the artist. The interest which they excite is purely of -a topographical order; otherwise they bear the stamp of ordinary prose, -of the aridity and unattractiveness which always creeps in as a -consequence of pure objectivity. Works of the second description, which -depict exotic regions, striking by the strangeness of various phenomena -of light and the splendour and glow of colour, are generally irritating -by their professional effort to display "mood." The old masters revealed -"mood" without intending to do so, because they approached nature -piously and with a wealth of feeling. The new masters obtain a purely -external effect, because they strain after a "mood" in their painting -without feeling it; and though art does not exclude the choice of exotic -subjects, it is not healthy when a tendency of this sort becomes -universal. Really superior art will, from principle, never seek the -charm of what is strange and distant, since it possesses the magical -gift of bestowing the deepest interest on what lies nearest to it. In -addition to this, such effects are as hard to seize as the moment of -most intense excitement in the historical picture. As an historical -painter Delacroix could render it, and Turner as a landscape painter, -but geniuses like Delacroix and Turner are not born every day. As these -phenomena were painted at the time in Germany, the right "mood" was not -excited by them, but merely a frigid curiosity. Almost all landscapes of -these years create an effect merely through their subject; they are -entertaining, astonishing, instructive, but the poetry of nature has not -yet been aroused. It could only reveal itself when the preponderance of -interest in mere subject was no longer allowed. As the figure painters -at last disdained through narrative and "points" to win the applause of -those who had no sensitiveness for art, so the landscape painters were -obliged to cease from giving geographical instruction by the -representation of nature as beloved by tourists, and to give up forcing -a "mood" in their pictures by a subterfuge. The necessary degree of -artistic absorption could only go hand in hand with a revolt against -purely objective interest of motive, and with a strenuous effort at the -representation of familiar nature in the intimate charm of its moods of -light and atmosphere. It was necessary for refinement of taste to follow -on the expression of subject-matter; and this impulse had to bring -artists back to the path struck by Dahl, Morgenstern, and Gurlitt. To -unite the simple, moving, and tender observation of those older artists -with richer and more complex methods of expression was the task given to -the next generation in France, where _paysage intime_, the most refined -and delicate issue of the century, grew to maturity in the very years -when German landscape painting roamed through the world with the joy of -an explorer. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -THE BEGINNINGS OF "PAYSAGE INTIME" - - -How it was that the secrets of _paysage intime_ were reserved for our -own century--and this assuredly by no mere accident--can only be -delineated in true colours when some one writes a special history of -landscape painting, a book which at the present time would be the most -seasonable in the literature of art. Wereschagin once declared that in -the province of landscape the works of the old masters seem like the -exercises of pupils in comparison with the performances of modern art; -and certain it is that the nineteenth century, if it is inferior to -previous ages in everything else, may, at any rate, offer them an -equivalent in landscape. It was only city life that could produce this -passionately heightened love of nature. It was only in the century of -close rooms and over-population, neurosis and holiday colonies, that -landscape painting could attain to this fulness, purity, and sanctity. -It was only our age of hurry and work that made possible a relation -between nature and the human soul, which really has something of what -the Earth Spirit vouchsafed to Faust: "to gaze into her heart as into -the bosom of a friend." - -In France also, the tendency which since the eighteenth century had made -itself felt in waves rising ever higher, had been for a short time -abruptly interrupted by Classicism. Of the pre-revolutionary -landscapists _Hubert Robert_ was the only one who survived into the new -era. His details of nature and his _rococo_ savour were pardoned to him -for the sake of his classic ruins. At first there was not one of the -newer artists who was impelled to enter this province. A generation -which had become ascetic, and which dreamed only of rude, manly virtue, -expressed through the plastic and purified forms of the human body, had -lost all sense for the charms of landscape. And when the first -landscapes appeared once more, after several years, they were, as in -Germany, solemn stage-tragedy scenes, abstract "lofty" regions such as -Poussin ostensibly painted. Only in Poussin a great feeling for nature -held together the conventional composition, in spite of all his -straining after style; whereas nothing but frigid rhetoric and sterile -formalism reigns in the works of these newer painters, works which were -created at second-hand. The type of the beautiful which had been -borrowed from the antique was worked into garden and forest with a -laboured effort at style, as it had been worked into the human form and -the flow of drapery. A _prix de Rome_ was founded for historical -landscapes. - -_Henri Valenciennes_ was the Lentre of this Classicism, the admired -teacher of several generations. The beginner in landscape painting -modelled himself upon Valenciennes as the figure painter upon Gurin. -His _Trait lmentaire de perspective pratique_, in which he formulated -the principles of landscape, contains his personal views as well as the -sthetics of the age. Although, as he premises, he "is convinced that -there is in reality only one kind of painting, historical painting, it -is true that an able historical painter ought not entirely to neglect -landscape." Rembrandt, of course, and the old Dutch painters were -without any sort of ideal, and only worked for people without soul or -intelligence. How far does a landscape with cows and sheep stand below -one with the funeral of Phocion, or a rainy day by Ruysdael below a -picture of the Deluge by Poussin! Hardly does Claude Lorrain find grace -in the eyes of Valenciennes. "He has painted with a pretty fidelity to -nature the morning and evening light. But just for that very reason his -pictures make no appeal to the intelligence. He has no tree where a -Dryad could dwell, no spring in which nymphs could splash. Gods, -demigods, nymphs, satyrs, even heroes are too sublime for these regions; -shepherds could dwell there at best." Claude, indeed, loved Italy, but -knew the old writers all too little, and they are the groundwork for -landscape painters. As David said to his pupil Gros, "Look through your -Plutarch," Valenciennes advised his own pupils to study Theocritus, -Virgil, and Ovid: only from these authors might be learnt what were the -regions suitable for gods and heroes. - - "Vos exemplaria grca - Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna." - -If, for example, the landscapist would paint Morning, let him portray -the moment when Aurora rises laughing from the arms of her aged spouse, -when the hours are yoking four fiery steeds to the car of the sun-god, -or Ulysses kneels imploring before Nausicaa. For Noon the myth of Icarus -or of Phaton might be turned to account. Evening may be represented by -painting Phoebus hastening his course as he nears the horizon in flaming -desire to cast himself into the arms of Thetis. Having once got his -themes from the old poets, the landscape painter must know the laws of -perspective to execute his picture; he must be familiar with Poussin's -rules of composition, and occasionally he ought even to study nature. -Then he needs a weeping willow for an elegy, a rock for the death of -Phaton, and an oak for the dance of the nymphs. To find such motives he -should make journeys to the famed old lands of civilisation; best of all -on the road which art itself has traversed--first to Asia Minor, then to -Greece, and then to Italy. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - HUBERT ROBERT. MONUMENTS AND RUINS.] - -These sthetics produced _Victor Bertin_ and _Xavier Bidault_, admired -by their contemporaries for "richness of composition and a splendid -selection of sites." Their methodical commonplaces, their waves and -valleys and temples, bear the same relation to nature as the talking -machine of Raimundus Lullus does to philosophy. The scholastic landscape -painter triumphed; a school it was which nourished itself on empty -formulas, and so died of anmia. Bidault, who in his youth made very -good studies, is, with his stippled leaves and polished stems, his grey -skies looking sometimes like lead and sometimes like water, the peculiar -essence of a tiresome Classicism; and he is the same Bidault who, as -president of the hanging committee, for years rejected the landscapes of -Thodore Rousseau from the Salon. It is only the figure of _Michallon_, -who died young, that still survives from this group. He too belongs to -the school of Valenciennes, through his frigid, meagre, and pedantically -correct style; but he is distinguished from the rest, for he endeavoured -to acquire a certain truth to nature in the drawing of plants, and was -accounted a bold innovator at the time. He did not paint "the plant in -itself," but burs, thistles, dandelions, everything after its kind, and -through this botanical exactness he acquired in the beginning of the -century a fame which it is now hard to understand. In the persons of -_Jules Cogniet_ and _Watelet_ the gates of the school were rather more -widely opened to admit reality. Having long populated their classic -valleys with bloodless, dancing nymphs and figurants of divine race, -they abandoned historical for picturesque landscape, and "dared" to -represent scenes from the environs of Paris, castles and windmills. But -as they clung even here to the classical principles of composition, it -is only nature brushed and combed, trimmed and coerced by rules, that is -reflected in their painting. Even in 1822, when Delacroix exhibited his -"Dante's Bark," the ineffable Watelet shone in his full splendour. -Amongst his pictures there was a view of Bar-sur-Seine, which the -catalogue appropriately designated not simply as a _vue_, but as a _vue -ajuste_. Till his last breath Watelet was convinced that nature did not -understand her own business, and was always in need of a painter to -revise her errors and correct them. - -Beside this group who adapted French localities for classical landscapes -there arose in the meantime another group, and they proceeded in the -opposite direction. Their highest aim was to go on pilgrimage to sacred -Italy, the classic land, which, with their literary training and their -one-sided sthetics, they invariably thought more beautiful and more -worthy of veneration than any other. But they tried to break with -Valenciennes' arbitrary rules of composition, and to seize the great -lines of Italian landscape with fidelity to fact. In going back from -Valenciennes to Claude they endeavoured to pour new life into a style of -landscape painting which was its own justification, compromised as it -had been by the Classic school. They made a very heretical appearance in -the eyes of the strictly orthodox pupils of Valenciennes. They were -called the Gothic school, which was as much as to say Romanticists, and -the names of _Thodore Aligny_ and _Edouard Bertin_ were for years -mentioned with that of Corot in critiques. They brought home very pretty -drawings from Greece, Italy, Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, and Bertin did -this especially. Aligny is even not without importance as a painter. He -aimed at width of horizon and simplicity of line more zealously than the -traditional school had done. He is, indeed, a man of sombre, austere, -and earnest talent, and the solemn rhythm of his pictures would have -more effect if the colour were not so dry, and if a fixed and monotonous -light were not uniformly shed over everything in place of a vibrating -atmosphere. - -_Alexandre Desgoffe_, _Paul Flandrin_, _Benouville_, _Bellel_, and -others drew from the same sources with similar conviction and varying -talent. Paul Flandrin, in particular, was in his youth a good painter in -the manner of 1690. His composition is noble and his execution certain, -recalling Poussin. Ingres, his master, said of him, "If I were not -Ingres I would be Flandrin." It was only later that the singular charm -of Claude Lorrain and the Roman majesty of Poussin were transformed -under the brush of Flandrin into arid still-life, into landscapes of -pasteboard and wadding. - -But not from this quarter could the health of a school which had become -anmic be in any way restored. French landscape had to draw a new power -of vitality from the French soil itself. It was saved when its eyes were -opened to the charms of home, and this revelation was brought about by -Romanticism. In the Salon notices, from 1822 onwards, the complaints of -critics are repeated with increasing violence--complaints that, instead -of fair regions, noble character, and monumental lines, nothing but -"malarious lakes, desolate wastes, and terrible cliffs" should be -painted, which, in the language of Classicism, means that French -landscape painting had taken firm hold of the soil in France. The day -when Racine was declared by the young Romanticists to be a maker of fine -phrases put an end to the whole school of David and to Classical -landscape at the same time. It fell into oblivion, as, sooner or later, -every artistic movement which does not rest on the nature and -personality of the artist inevitably must. The young revolutionaries no -longer believed that an alliance with mythological subjects and "grand -composition" could compensate for the lack of air and light. They were -tired of pompous, empty, and distant scenery. They only thought of -nature, and that amid which they lived seemed the less to forego its -charms the more Italy came under suspicion as the home of all these -ugly, unpleasant, and academical pictures. That was the birthday of -French landscape. At the very time when Delacroix renewed the -_rpertoire_ of grand painting, enriching art with a world of feeling -which was not merely edited, a parallel movement began in landscape. -"Dante's Bark" was painted in 1822, "The Massacre of Chios" in 1824. -Almost at the same hour a tornado swept through the branches of the old -French oaks, and bent the rustling corn; the sky was covered with -clouds, and the waters, which had been hard-bound for so long, sped -purling once more along their wonted course. The little paper temples, -built on classic heights, toppled down, and there rose lowly rustic -cottages, from the chimneys of which the smoke mounted wavering to the -sky. Nature awoke from her wintry sleep, and the spring of modern -landscape painting broke with its sadness and its smiles. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - VICTOR HUGO. RUINS OF A MEDIVAL CASTLE ON THE RHINE.] - -This is where the development of French art diverges from that of -German. After it had stood under the influence of Poussin, the German -long continued to have a suspicious preference for scenery that was -devoid of soul, for beautiful views, as the phrase is, and it penetrated -much later into the spirit of familiar nature. But as early as the -twenties this spirit had revealed itself to the French. It was only in -the province of poetry that they went through the period of enthusiasm -for exotic nature--and even there not to the same extent as Germany. -Only in Chateaubriand's _Atala_ are there to be found pompously -pictorial descriptions of strange landscapes which have been in no -degree inwardly felt. Chiefly it was the virgin forests of North America -that afforded material for splendid pictures, which he describes in -grandiloquent and soaring prose. A nature which is impressive and -splendid serves as the scenery of these dramas of human life. But with -Lamartine the reaction was accomplished. He is the first amongst the -poets of France who conceived landscape with an inward emotion, and -brought it into harmony with his moods of soul. His poetry was made -fervent and glorified by love for his home, for his own province, for -South Burgundy. Even in the region of art a poet was the first -initiator. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - MICHEL. A WINDMILL.] - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DE LA BERGE. LANDSCAPE.] - -_Victor Hugo_, the father of Romanticism in literature, cannot be passed -over in the history of landscape painting. Since 1891, when that -remarkable exhibition of painter-poets was opened in Paris--an -exhibition in which Thophile Gautier, Prosper Merime, the two de -Goncourts, and others were represented by more or less important -works--the world learnt what a gifted draughtsman, what a powerful -dramatist in landscape, was this great Romanticist. Even in the -reminiscences of nature--spirited and suggestive of colour as they -are--which he drew with a rapid hand in the margin of his manuscripts, -the fiery glow of Romanticism breaks out. The things of which he speaks -in the text appear in black shadows and ghostly light. Old castles stand -surrounded by clouds of smoke or the blinding glare of fire, moonrise -makes phantom silhouettes of the trees, waves lashed by the storm dash -together as they spout over vessels; and there are gloomy seas and dark -unearthly shores, fairy palaces, proud citadels, and cathedrals of -fabled story. Whenever one of his finished drawings is bequeathed to the -Louvre, Hugo is certain to receive a place in the history of art as one -of the champions of Romanticism. - -The movement was so universal amongst the painters that it is difficult -at the present time to perceive the special part that each individual -played in the great drama. This is especially true of _Georges Michel_, -a genius long misunderstood, a painter first made known in wider circles -by the World Exhibition in 1889, and known to the narrower circle of art -lovers only since his death in 1843. At that time a dealer had bought at -an auction the works left behind by a half-famished painter--pictures -with no signature, and only to be identified because they collectively -treated motives from the surroundings of Paris. A large, wide horizon, a -hill, a windmill, a cloudy sky were his subjects, and all pointed to an -artist schooled by the Dutch. Curiosity was on the alert, inquiry was -made, and it was found that the painter was named Georges Michel, and -had been born in 1763; that at twelve years of age he had shirked school -to go drawing, had run away with a laundress at fifteen, was already the -father of five children when he was twenty, had married again at -sixty-five, and had worked hard to his eightieth year. Old men -remembered that they had seen early works of his in the Salon. It was -said that Michel had produced a great deal immediately after the -Revolution, but exceedingly tedious pictures, which differed in no -respect from those of the other Classicists; for instance, from Demarne -and Swebach, garnished with figures. It was only after 1814 that he -disappeared from the Salon; not, as has been now discovered, because he -had no more pictures to exhibit, but because he was rejected as a -revolutionary. During his later years Michel had been most variously -employed: for one thing, he had been a restorer of pictures. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - CABAT. LE JARDIN BEAUJON.] - -In this calling many Dutch pictures had passed through his hands, and -they suggested to him the unseasonable idea of looking more closely into -nature in the neighbourhood than he had done in his youth--nature not as -she was in Italy, but in the environs of the city. While Valenciennes -and his pupils made so many objections to painting what lay under their -eyes, Georges Michel remained in the country, and was the first to light -on the idea of placing himself in the midst of nature, and not above -her; no longer to arrange and adapt, but to approach her by painting her -with directness. If any one spoke of travelling to Italy, he answered: -"The man who cannot find enough to paint during his whole life in a -circuit of four miles is in reality no artist. Did the Dutch ever run -from one place to another? And yet they are good painters, and not -merely that, but the most powerful, bold, and ideal artists." Every day -he made a study in the precincts of Paris, without any idea that he -would count in these times among the forerunners of modern art. He -shares the glory of having discovered Montmartre with Alphonse Karr, -Grard de Nerval, and Monselet. After his death such studies were found -in the shops of all the second-hand dealers of the Northern Boulevard; -they were invariably without a frame, as they had never seemed worth -framing, and when they were very dear they were to be had for forty -francs. Connoisseurs appreciated his wide horizons, stormy skies, and -ably sketched sea-shores. For, in spite of his poverty, Michel had now -and then deserted Montmartre and found means to visit Normandy. -Painfully precise in the beginning, while he worked with Swebach and -Demarne, he had gradually become large and bold, and employed all means -in giving expression to what he felt. He was a dreamer, who brought into -his studies a unison of lights, and, now and then, beams of sun which -would have delighted Albert Cuyp. A genuine offspring of the old Dutch -masters--of the grand and broad masters, not of those who worked with a -fine brush--already he was aiming at _l'expression par l'ensemble_, and -since the Paris Universal Exhibition he has been fittingly honoured as -the forerunner of Thodore Rousseau. His pictures, as it seems, were -early received in various studios, and there they had considerable -effect in setting artists thinking. But as he ceased to date his -pictures after 1814 it is, nevertheless, difficult to be more precise in -determining the private influence which this Ruysdael of Montmartre -exerted on men of the younger generation. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ PAUL HUET.] - -One after the other they began to declare the Italian pilgrimage to be -unnecessary. They buried themselves as hermits in the villages around -the capital. The undulating strip of country, rich in wood and water, -which borders on the heights of Saint-Cloud and Ville d'Avray, is the -cradle of French landscape painting. In grasping nature they proceeded -by the most various ways, whilst they drew everything scrupulously and -exactly which an observing eye may discern, or wedded their own -temperament with the moods of nature. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - HUET. THE INUNDATION AT ST. CLOUD.] - -That remarkable artist _Charles de la Berge_ seems like a forerunner of -the English Pre-Raphaelite school. He declared the ideal of art to -consist in painting everything according to nature, and overlooking -nothing; in carrying drawing to the most minute point, and yet -preserving the impression of unison and harmony in the picture--which is -as easy to say as it is difficult to perform. His brief life was passed -in this struggle. His pictures are miracles of patience: to see that it -is only necessary to know the "Sunset" of 1839, in the Louvre. There is -something touching in the way this passionate worker had branches and -the bark of trees brought to his room, even when he lay on his deathbed, -to study the contortions of wood and the interweaving of fibres with all -the zeal of a naturalist. The efforts of de la Berge have something of -the religious devotion with which Jan van Eyck or Altdorfer gazed at -nature. But he died too young to effect any result. He copied the -smallest particulars of objects with the utmost care, and in the -reproduction even of the smallest aimed at a mathematical precision, -neutralising his qualities of colour, which were otherwise of serious -value, by such hair-splitting detail. - -_Camille Roqueplan_, the many-sided pupil of Gros, made his first -appearance as a landscape painter with a sunset in 1822. He opposed the -genuine windmills of the old Dutch masters to those everlasting -windmills of Watelet, with their leaden water and their meagre -landscape. In his pictures a green plain, intersected by canals, -stretches round; a fresh and luminous grey sky arches above. That -undaunted traveller _Camille Flers_, who had been an actor and ballet -dancer in Brazil before his appearance as a painter, represented the -rich pastures of Normandy with truth, but was diffident in the presence -of nature where she is grand. His pupil, _Louis Cabat_, was hailed with -special enthusiasm by the young generation on account of his firm -harmonious style. His pictures showed that he had been a zealous student -of the great Dutch artists, and that it was his pride to handle his -brush in their manner, expressing as much as possible without injuring -pictorial effect. He is on many sides in touch with Charles de la Berge. -Later he even had the courage to see Italy with fresh eyes, and in a -simple manner to record his impressions without regard for the rules and -theories of the Classicists. But the risk was too great. He became once -more an admirer of imposing landscape, an adherent of Poussin, and as -such he is almost exclusively known to us of a younger generation. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ J. M. W. TURNER.] - -_Paul Huet_ was altogether a Romanticist. In de la Berge there is the -greatest objectivity possible, in Huet there is impassioned expression. -His heart told him that the hour was come for giving passion utterance; -he wanted to render the energy of nature, the intensity of her life, -with the whole might of vivid colouring. In his pictures there is -something of Byronic poetry; the conception is rich and powerful, the -symphony of colour passionately dramatic. In every one of his landscapes -there breathes the human soul with its unrest, its hopelessness, and its -doubts. Huet was the child of an epoch, which at one moment exulted to -the skies and at another sorrowed to death in the most violent contrast; -and he has proclaimed this temper of the age with all the freedom and -power possible, where it is only earth and sky, clouds and trees that -are the medium of expression. Most of his works, like Romanticism in -general, have an earnest, passionate, and sombre character; nothing of -the ceremonial pompousness peculiar to Classical landscapes. He has a -passion for boisterous storms and waters foaming over, clouds with the -lightning flashing through them, and the struggle of humanity against -the raging elements. In this effort to express as much as possible he -often makes his pictures too theatrical in effect. In one of his -principal works, the "View of Rouen," painted in 1833, the breadth of -execution almost verges on emptiness and panoramic view. Huet was in the -habit of heaping many objects together in his landscapes. He delighted -in expressive landscapes in the sense in which, at that time, people -delighted in expressive heads. This one-sidedness hindered his success. -When he appeared in the twenties his pictures were thought bizarre and -melancholy. And later, when he achieved greater simplicity, he was -treated by the critics merely with the respect that was paid to the Old -Guard, for now a pleiad of much brighter stars beamed in the sky. - -[Illustration: TURNER. A SHIPWRECK.] - -[Illustration: J. M. W. TURNER. THE OLD TMRAIRE.] - -But we must not forget that Michel and Huet showed the way. Rousseau and -his followers left them far behind, as Columbus threw into oblivion all -who had discovered America before him, or Gutenberg all who had -previously printed books. The step on which these initiators had stood -was more or less that of Andreas Achenbach and Blechen. They are good -and able painters, but they still kept the Flemish and Dutch masters too -much in their memory. It is easy to detect in them reminiscences of -Ruysdael and Hobbema and the studies of gallery pictures grown dim with -age. They still coloured objects brown, and made spring as mournful as -winter, and morning as gloomy as evening; they had yet no sense that -morning means the awakening of life, the youth of the sun, the -springtide of the day. They still composed their pictures and finished -and rounded them off for pictorial effect. The next necessary step was -no longer to look at Ruysdael and Cuyp, but at nature--to lay more -emphasis on sincerity of impression, and therefore the less upon -pictorial finish and rounded expression--to paint nature, not in the -style of galleries, but in its freshness and bloom. And the impulse to -this last step, which brought French landscape painting to its highest -perfection, was given by England. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - TURNER. DIDO BUILDING CARTHAGE.] - -The most highly gifted work produced in this province between the years -1800 and 1830 is of English origin. At the time when landscape painting -was in France and Germany confined in a strait-waistcoat by Classicism, -the English went quietly forward in the path trodden by Gainsborough in -the eighteenth century. In these years England produced an artist who -stands apart from all others as a peculiar and inimitable phenomenon in -the history of landscape painting, and at the same time it produced a -school of landscape which not only fertilised France, but founded -generally the modern conception of colour. - -That phenomenon is _Joseph Mallord William Turner_, the great -pyrotechnist, one of the most individual and intellectual landscape -painters of all time. What a singular personality! And how vexatious he -is to all who merely care about correctness in art! Such persons divide -the life of Turner into two halves, one in which he was reasonable and -one in which he was a fool. They grant him a certain talent during the -first fifteen years of his activity, but from the moment when he is -complete master of his instrument, from the moment when the painter -begins in glowing enthusiasm to embody his personal ideal, they would -banish him from the kingdom of art, and lock him up in a madhouse. When -in the forties the Munich Pinakothek was offered a picture by Turner, -glowing with colour, people, accustomed to the contours of Cornelius, -knew no better than to laugh at it superciliously. It is said that in -his last days he sent a landscape to an exhibition. The committee, -unable to discover which was the top or which the bottom, hung it -upside-down. Later, when Turner came into the exhibition and the mistake -was about to be rectified, he said: "No, let it alone; it really looks -better as it is." One frequently reads that Turner suffered from a sort -of colour-blindness, and as late as 1872 Liebreich wrote an article -printed in _Macmillan_, which gave a medical explanation of the alleged -morbid affection of the great landscape painter's eyes. Only thus could -the German account for his pictures, which are impressionist, although -they were painted about the middle of the century. The golden dreams of -Turner were held to be eccentricities of vision, since no one was -capable of following this painter of momentary impressions in his -majesty of sentiment, and the impressiveness and poetry of his method of -expression. - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - TURNER. JUMIGES.] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - TURNER. LANDSCAPE WITH THE SUN RISING IN A MIST.] - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - TURNER. VENICE.] - -In reality Turner was the same from the beginning. He circled round the -fire like a moth, and craved, like Goethe, for more light; he wanted to -achieve the impossible and paint the sun. To attain his object nothing -was too difficult for him. He restrained himself for a long time; placed -himself amongst the followers of the painter of light _par excellence_; -studied, analysed, and copied Claude Lorrain; completely adopted his -style, and painted pictures which threw Claude into eclipse by their -magnificence and luminous power of colour. The painting of "Dido -building Carthage" is perhaps the most characteristic of this phase of -his art. One feels that the masses of architecture are merely there for -the sake of the painter; the tree in the foreground has only been -planted in this particular way so that the background may recede into -farther distance. The colour is splendid, though still heavy. By the -union of the principles of classic drawing with an entirely modern -feeling for atmosphere something chaotic and confused is frequently -introduced into the compositions of these years. But at the hour when it -was said to him, "You are the real Claude Lorrain," he answered, "Now I -am going to leave school and begin to be Turner." Henceforth he no -longer needs Claude's framework of trees to throw the light beaming into -the corners of his pictures. At first he busied himself with the -atmospheric phenomena of the land of mist. Then when the everlasting -grey became too splenetic for him he repaired to the relaxing, luxuriant -sensuousness of Southern seas, and sought the full embodiment of his -dreams of light in the land of the sun. It is impossible in words to -give a representation of the essence of Turner; even copies merely -excite false conceptions. "Rockets shot up, shocks of cannon thundered, -balls of light mounted, crackers meandered through the air and burst, -wheels hissed, each one separately, then in pairs, then altogether, and -even more turbulently one after the other and together." Thus has -Goethe described a display of fireworks in _The Elective Affinities_, -and this passage perhaps conveys most readily the impression of Turner's -pictures. To collect into a small space the greatest possible quantity -of light, he makes the perspective wide and deep and the sky boundless, -and uses the sea to reflect the brilliancy. He wanted to be able to -render the liquid, shining depths of the sky without employing the earth -as an object of comparison, and these studies which have merely the sky -as their object are perhaps his most astonishing works. Everywhere, to -the border of the picture, there is light. And he has painted all the -gradations of light, from the silvery morning twilight to the golden -splendour of the evening red. Volcanoes hiss and explode and vomit forth -streams of lava, which set the trembling air aglow, and blind the eyes -with flaring colours. The glowing ball of the sun rises behind the mist, -and transforms the whole ether into fine golden vapour; and vessels sail -through the luminous haze. In reality one cannot venture on more than a -swift glance into blinding masses of light, but the impression remained -in the painter's memory. He painted what he saw, and knew how to make -his effect convincing. And at the same time his composition became ever -freer and easier, the work of his brush ever more fragrant and -unfettered, the colouring and total sentiment of the picture ever more -imaginative and like those of a fairy-tale. His world is a land of sun, -where the reality of things vanishes, and the light shed between the eye -and the objects of vision is the only thing that lives. At one time he -took to painting human energy struggling with the phenomena of nature, -as in "Storm at Sea," "Fire at Sea," and "Rain, Steam, and Speed"; at -another he painted poetic revels of colour born altogether from the -imagination, like the "Sun of Venice." He is the greatest creator in -colour, the boldest poet amongst the landscape painters of all time! In -him England's painting has put forth its greatest might, just as in -Byron and Shelley, those two great powers, the English imagination -unrolled its standard of war most proudly and brilliantly. There is only -one Turner, and Ruskin is his prophet. - -[Illusration: _L'Art._ - - OLD CROME. A VIEW NEAR NORWICH.] - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ JOHN CONSTABLE.] - -As a man, too, he was one of those original characters seldom met with -nowadays. He was not the fastidious _gourmet_ that might have been -expected from his pictures, but an awkward, prosaic, citizen-like being. -He had a sturdy, thick-set figure, with broad shoulders and tough -muscles, and was more like a captain in the merchant service than a -disciple of Apollo. He was sparing to the point of miserliness, unformed -by any kind of culture, ignorant even of the laws of orthography, silent -and inaccessible. Like most of the great landscape painters of the -century, he was city-bred. In a gloomy house standing back in a foggy -little alley of Old London, in the immediate vicinity of dingy, -monotonous lodging-houses, he was born, the son of a barber, on 23rd -April 1775. His career was that of a model youth. At fifteen he -exhibited in the Royal Academy; when he was eighteen, engravings were -already being made after his drawings. At twenty he was known, and at -twenty-seven he became a member of the Academy. His first earnings he -gained by the neat and exact preparation of little views of English -castles and country places--drawings which, at the time, took the place -of photographs, and for which he received half a crown apiece and his -supper. Thus he went over a great part of England, and upon one of his -excursions he is said to have had a love-affair _ la_ Lucy of -Lammermoor, and to have so taken it to heart that he resolved to remain -a bachelor for the rest of his life. In 1808 he became Professor of -Perspective at the Academy, and delivered himself, it is said, of the -most confused utterances on his subjects. His father had now to give up -the barber's business and come to live with him, and he employed him in -sawing, planing, and nailing together boards, which were painted yellow -and used as frames for his pictures. The same miserly economy kept him -from ever having a comfortable studio. He lived in a miserable lodging -where he received nobody, had his meals at a restaurant of the most -primitive order, carried his dinner wrapped up in paper when he went on -excursions, and was exceedingly thankful if any one added to it a glass -of wine. His diligence was fabulous. Every morning he rose on the stroke -of six, locked his door, and worked with the same dreadful regularity -day after day. His end was as unpoetic as his life. After being several -times a father without ever having had a wife, he passed his last years -with an old housekeeper, who kept him strictly under the yoke. If he was -away from the house for long together he pretended that he was -travelling to Venice for the sake of his work, until at last the honest -housekeeper learnt, from a letter which he had put in his overcoat -pocket and forgotten, that the object of all these journeys was not -Venice at all, but Chelsea. There she found him in an attic which he had -taken for another mistress, and where he was living under the name of -Booth. In this little garret, almost more miserable than the room in the -back street where he was born, the painter of light ended his days; and, -to connect an atom of poetry with so sad a death, Ruskin adds that the -window looked towards the sunset, and the dying eyes of the painter -received the last rays of the sun which he had so often celebrated in -glowing hymns. He left countless works behind him at his death, several -thousands of pounds, and an immortal fame. This thought of glory after -death occupied him from his youth. Only thus is it possible to -understand why he led the life of a poor student until his end, why he -did things which bordered on trickery in the sale of his _Liber -Studiorum_, and kept for himself all those works by which he could have -made a fortune. He left them--taken altogether, three hundred and -sixty-two oil-paintings and nineteen thousand drawings--to the nation, -and 20,000 to the Royal Academy, and merely stipulated that the two -best pictures should be hung in the National Gallery between two Claude -Lorrains. Another thousand pounds was set aside for the erection of a -monument in St. Paul's. There, in that temple of fame, he lies buried -near Sir Joshua Reynolds, the great ancestor of English painting, and -he remains a phenomenon without forerunners and without descendants. - -[Illustration: CONSTABLE. WILLY LOTT'S HOUSE.] - -[Illustration: CONSTABLE. CHURCH PORCH, BERGHOLT.] - -For it does not need to be said that Turner, with his marked -individuality, could have no influence on the further development of -English painting. The dramatic fervour of Romanticism was here expressed -just as little as Classicism. It was only the poets who fled into the -wilderness of nature, and sang the splendour and the mysteries of the -mountains, the lightning and the storm, the might of the elements. In -painting there is no counterpart to Scott's descriptions of the -Highlands or Wordsworth's rhapsodies upon the English lakes, or to the -tendency of landscape painting which was represented in Germany by -Lessing and Blechen. Wordsworth is majestic and sublime, and English -painting lovely and full of intimate emotion. It knows neither ancient -Alpine castles nor the sunsets of Greece. Turner, as a solitary -exception, represented nature stately, terrible, stormy, glorious, -mighty, grand, and sublime; all the others, like Gainsborough, loved -simplicity, modest grace, and virginal quietude. England has nothing -romantic. At the very time when Lessing painted his landscapes, Ludwig -Tieck experienced a bitter disappointment when he trod the soil where -Shakespeare wrote the witch scenes in _Macbeth_. A sombre, melancholy, -primval maze was what he had expected, and there lay before him a soft, -luxuriant, and cultivated country. What distinguishes English landscape -is a singular luxuriance, an almost unctuous wealth of vegetation. Drive -through the country on a bright day on the top of a coach, and look -around you; in all directions as far as the eye can reach an endless -green carpet is spread over gentle valleys and undulating hills; -cereals, vegetables, clover, hops, and glorious meadows with high rich -grasses stretch forth; here and there stand a group of mighty oaks -flinging their shadows wide, and around are pastures hemmed in by -hedges, where splendid cattle lie chewing the cud. The moist atmosphere -surrounds the trees and plants like a shining vapour. There is nothing -more charming in the world, and nothing more delicate than these tones -of colour; one might stand for hours looking at the clouds of satin, the -fine rial bloom, and the soft transparent gauze which catches the -sunbeams in its silver net, softens them, and sends them smiling and -toying to the earth. On both sides of the carriage the fields extend, -each more beautiful than the last, in constant succession, interwoven -with broad patches of buttercups, daisies, and meadowsweet. A strange -magic, a loveliness so exquisite that it is well-nigh painful, escapes -from this inexhaustible vegetation. The drops sparkle on the leaves like -pearls, the arched tree-tops murmur in the gentle breeze. Luxuriantly -they thrive in these airy glades, where they are ever rejuvenated and -bedewed by the moist air of the sea. And the sky seems to have been made -to enliven the colours of the land. At the tiniest sunbeam the earth -smiles with a delicious charm, and the bells of flowers unfold in rich, -liquid colour. The English look at nature as she is in their country, -with the tender love of the man nurtured in cities, and yet with the -cool observation of the man of business. The merchant, enveloped the -whole day long in the smoke of the city, breathes the more freely of an -evening when the steam-engine brings him out into green places. With a -sharp practical glance he judges the waving grain, and speculates on the -chances of harvest. And this spirit of attentive, familiar observation -of nature, which is in no sense romantic, reigns also in the works of -the English landscape painters. They did not think of becoming -cosmopolitan like their German comrades, and of presenting remarkable -points, the more exotic the better, for the instruction of the public. -Like Gainsborough, they relied upon the intimate charm of places which -they knew and loved. And as a centre Norwich first took the place of -Suffolk, which Gainsborough had glorified. - -[Illustration: CONSTABLE. DEDHAM VALE.] - -_John Crome_, known as Old Crome, the founder of the powerful Norwich -school of landscape, is a healthy and forcible master. Born poor, in a -provincial town a hundred miles from London, in 1769, and at first an -errand boy to a doctor, whose medicines he delivered to the patients, -and then an apprentice to a sign-painter, he lived completely cut off -from contemporary England. Norwich was his native town and his life-long -home. He did not know the name of Turner, nor anything of Wilson, and -perhaps never heard the name of Gainsborough. Thus his pictures are -neither influenced by the contemporary nor by the preceding English art. -Whatever he became he owed to himself and to the Dutch. Early married, -and blessed with a numerous family, he tried to gain his bread by -drawing-lessons, given in the great country-houses in the neighbourhood, -and in this way had the opportunity of seeing many Dutch pictures. In -later life he came to know Paris at a time when all the treasures of the -world were collected in the Louvre, and this enthusiasm for the Dutch -found fresh nourishment. Even on his deathbed he spoke of Hobbema. -"Hobbema," he said, "my dear Hobbema, how I have loved you!" Hobbema is -his ancestor, the art of Holland his model. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - CONSTABLE. THE ROMANTIC HOUSE.] - -His pictures were collectively "exact" views of places which he loved, -and neither composed landscapes nor paintings of "beautiful regions." -Crome painted frankly everything which Norfolk, his own county, had to -offer him--weather-beaten oaks, old woods, fishers' huts, lonely pools, -wastes of heath. The way he painted trees is extraordinary. Each has its -own physiognomy, and looks like a living thing, like some gloomy -Northern personality. Oaks were his peculiar specialty, and in later -years they only found a similarly great interpreter in Thodore -Rousseau. At the same time his pictures of the simplest scenes have a -remarkable largeness of conception, and a subtlety of colour recalling -the old masters, and reached by no other painter in that age. An -uncompromising realist, he drew his portraits of nature with almost -pedantic pains, but preserved their relation of colour throughout. And -as a delicate adept in colouring he finally harmonised everything in the -manner of the Dutch to a juicy brown tone, which gives his beautiful -wood and field pictures a discreet and refined beauty, a beauty in -keeping with the art of galleries. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - CONSTABLE. THE CORNFIELD.] - -Crome took a long time before he made a way for himself. His whole life -long he sold his work merely at moderate prices: for no picture did he -ever receive more than fifty pounds. Even his end was uneventful. He had -begun as a manual worker, and he died in 1821 as a humble townsman whose -only place of recreation was the tavern, and who passed his leisure in -the society of sailors, shopkeepers, and artisans. Yet the principles of -his art survived him. In 1805 he had founded in Norwich, far from all -Academies, a society of artists, who gave annual exhibitions and had a -common studio, which each used at fixed hours. _Cotman_, whose specialty -was ash-trees, _the younger Crome_, _Stark_, and _Vincent_, are the -leading representatives of the vigorous school of Norwich; and by them -the name of this town became as well known as an art-centre in Europe as -Delft and Haarlem had been in former times. - -Their relation to the Dutch was similar to that of Georges Michel in -France, or that of Achenbach in Germany. They painted what they saw, -rounded it with a view to pictorial effect, and harmonised the whole in -a delicate brown tone. They felt more attracted by the form of objects -than by their colour; the latter was, in the manner of the Dutch, merely -an epidermis delicately toned down. The next step of the English -painters was that they became the first to get the better of this Dutch -phase, and to found that peculiarly modern landscape painting which no -longer sets out from the absolutely concrete reality of objects, but -from the _milieu_, from the atmospheric effect; which values in a -picture less what is ready-made and perfectly rounded in drawing than -the freshly seized impression of nature. - -Hardly twenty years have gone by since "open-air painting" was -introduced into Germany. At present, things are no longer painted as -they are in themselves but as they appear in their atmospheric -environment. Artists care no longer for landscapes which float in a -neutral brown sauce; they represent objects flooded with light and air. -People no longer wish for brown trees and meadows, for the eye has -perceived that trees and meadows are green. The world is no longer -satisfied with the indeterminate light of the studio and the -conventional tone of the picture gallery; it requires some indication of -the hour of the day, since it is felt that the light of morning is -different from the light of noon. And it is the English who made these -discoveries, which have lent to modern landscape painting its most -delicate and fragrant charm. - -The very mist of England, the damp and the heaviness of the atmosphere, -necessarily forced English landscape painters, earlier than those of -other nations, to the observation of the play of light and air. In a -country where the sky is without cloud, in a pure, dry, and sparkling -air, nothing is seen except lines. Shadow is wanting, and without shadow -light has no value. For that reason the old classical masters of Italy -were merely draughtsmen; they knew how to prize the value of sunshine no -more than a millionaire the value of a penny. But the English understood -the charm even of the most scanty ray of light which forces its way like -a wedge through a wall of clouds. The entire appearance of nature, in -their country, where a damp mist spreads its pearly grey veil over the -horizon even upon calm and beautiful summer days, guided them to see the -vehicle of some mood of landscape in the subtlest elements of light and -air. The technique of water-colour painting which, at that very time, -received such a powerful impetus, encouraged them to give expression to -what they saw freshly and simply even in their oil-paintings, and to do -so without regard for the scale of colour employed by the old masters. - -_John Robert Cozens_, "the greatest genius who ever painted a -landscape," had been the first to occupy himself with water-colour -painting as understood in the modern sense. _Tom Girtin_ had -experimented with new methods. _Henry Edridge_ and _Samuel Prout_ had -come forward with their picturesque ruins, _Copley Fielding_ and _Samuel -Owen_ with sea-pieces, _Luke Clennel_ and _Thomas Heaphy_ with graceful -portrayals of country life, _Howitt_ and _Robert Hills_ with their -animal pictures. From 1805 there existed a Society of Painters in -Water-Colours, and this extensive pursuit of water-colour painting could -not fail to have an influence upon oil-painting also. The technique of -water-colour accustomed English taste to that brightness of tone which -at first seemed so bizarre to the Germans, habituated as they were to -the prevalence of brown. Instead of dark, brownish-green tones, the -water-colour painters produced bright tones. Direct study of nature, and -the completion of a picture in the presence of nature and in the open -air, guided their attention to light and atmosphere more quickly than -that of the oil-painters. An easier technique, giving more scope for -improvisation, of itself suggested the idea that rounded finish with a -view to pictorial effect was not the final aim of art, but that it was -of the most immediate importance to catch the first freshness of -impression, that flower so hard to pluck and so prone to wither. - -The first who applied these principles to oil-painting was _John -Constable_, one of the greatest pioneers in his own province and one of -the most powerful individualities of the century. - -East Bergholt, the pretty little village where Constable's cradle stood, -is fourteen miles distant from Sudbury, the birthplace of Gainsborough. -Here he was born on 11th June 1776, at the very time when Gainsborough -settled in London. His father was a miller, a well-to-do man, who had -three windmills in Bergholt. The other famous miller's son in the -history of art is Rembrandt. At first a superior career was chosen for -him; it was intended that he should become a clergyman. But he felt more -at home in the mill than in the schoolroom, and became a miller like his -fathers before him. Observation of the changes of the sky is an -essential part of a miller's calling, and this occupation of his youth -seems to have been not without influence on the future artist; no one -before him had observed the sky with the same attention. - -[Illustration: CONSTABLE. COTTAGE IN A CORNFIELD.] - -A certain Dunthorne, an eccentric personage to whom the boy often came, -gave him--always in the open air--his first instruction; and another of -his patrons, Sir George Beaumont, as an sthetically trained -connoisseur, criticised what he painted. When Constable showed him a -study he asked: "Where do you mean to place your brown tree?" For the -first law in his sthetics was this: a good painting must have the -colour of a good fiddle; it must be brown. Sojourn in London was without -influence on Constable. He was twenty-three years of age, a handsome -young fellow with dark eyes and a fine expressive countenance, when, in -1799, he wrote to his teacher Dunthorne: "I am this morning admitted a -student at the Royal Academy; the figure which I drew for admittance was -the Torso. I am now comfortably settled in Cecil Street, Strand, No. -23." He was known to the London girls as "the handsome young miller of -Bergholt." He undertook the most varied things, copied pictures of -Reynolds, and painted an altar-piece, "Christ blessing Little Children," -which was admired by no one except his mother. In addition he studied -Ruysdael, whose works made a great impression on him, in the National -Gallery. In 1802 he appears for the first time in the Catalogue of the -Royal Academy as the exhibitor of a landscape, and from this time to the -year of his death, 1837, he was annually represented there, contributing -altogether one hundred and four pictures. In the earliest--windmills and -village parties--every detail is carefully executed; every branch is -painted on the trees, and every tile on the houses; but as yet one can -breathe no air in these pictures and see no sunshine. - -But he writes, in 1803, a very important letter to his old friend -Dunthorne. "For the last two years," he says, "I have been running after -pictures, and seeking the truth at second-hand. I have not endeavoured -to represent nature with the same elevation of mind with which I set -out, but have rather tried to make my performance look like the work of -other men. I am come to a determination to make no idle visits this -summer, nor to give up my time to commonplace people. I shall return to -Bergholt, where I shall endeavour to get a pure and unaffected manner of -representing the scenes that may employ me. There is little or nothing -in the exhibition worth looking up to. _There is room enough for a -natural painter._" He left London accordingly, and worked, in 1804, the -whole summer "quite alone among the oaks and solitudes of Helmingham -Park. I have taken quiet possession of the parsonage, finding it empty. -A woman comes from the farmhouse, where I eat, and makes my bed, and I -am left at liberty to wander where I please during the day." And having -now returned to the country he became himself again. "Painting," he -writes, "is with me but another word for feeling; and I associate 'my -careless boyhood' with all that lies upon the banks of the Stour; those -scenes made me a painter, and I am grateful." He had passed his whole -youth amid the lovely valleys and luxuriant meadows of Bergholt, where -the flocks were at pasture and the beetles hummed; he had wandered about -the soft banks of the Stour, in the green woods of Suffolk, amongst old -country-houses and churches, farms and picturesque cottages. This -landscape which he had loved as a boy he also painted. He was the -painter of cultivated English landscape, the portrayer of country life, -of canals and boats, of windmills and manor-houses. He had a liking for -all simple nature which reveals everywhere the traces of human -activity--for arable fields and villages, orchards and cornfields. A -strip of meadow, a watergate with a few briars, a clump of branching, -fibrous trees, were enough to fill him with ideas and feelings. -Gainsborough had already painted the like; but Constable denotes an -advance beyond Gainsborough as beyond Crome. Intimate in feeling as -Gainsborough undoubtedly was, he had a tendency to beautify the objects -of nature; he selected and gave them a delicacy of arrangement and a -grace of line which in reality they did not possess. Constable was the -first to renounce every species of adaptation and arbitrary arrangement -in composition. His boldness in the rendering of personal impressions -raises him above Crome. Crome gets his effect principally by his -accuracy: he represented what he saw; Constable showed how he saw the -thing. While the former, following Hobbema, has an air reminiscent of -galleries and old masters, Constable saw the world with his own eyes, -and was the first entirely independent modern landscape painter. In his -young days he had made copies after Claude, Rubens, Reynolds, Ruysdael, -Teniers, and Wilson, which might have been mistaken for the originals, -but later he had learnt much from Girtin's water-colour paintings. From -that time he felt that he was strong enough to trust his own eyes. He -threw to the winds all that had hitherto been considered as the chief -element of beauty, and gave up the rounding of his pictures for -pictorial effect; cut trees right through the middle to get into his -picture just what interested him, and no more. - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - CONSTABLE. THE VALLEY FARM.] - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - COX. CROSSING THE SANDS.] - -He set himself right in the midst of verdure; the nightingales sang, the -leaves murmured, the meadows grew green, and the clouds gleamed. In the -fifteenth-century art there were the graceful spring trees of Perugino; -in the seventeenth, the bright spring days of those two Flemings Jan -Silberecht and Lucas Uden; in the nineteenth, Constable became the first -painter of spring. If Sir George Beaumont now asked him where he meant -to put his brown tree, he answered: "Nowhere, because I don't paint -brown trees any more." He saw that foliage is green in summer, -and--painted it so; he saw that summer rain and morning dew makes the -verdure more than usually intense, and--he painted what he saw. He -noticed that green leaves sparkle, gleam, and glitter in the sun--and -painted them accordingly; he saw that the light, when it falls upon -bright-looking walls, dazzles like snow in the sunshine--and painted it -accordingly. There was a good deal of jeering at the time about -"Constable's snow," and yet it was not merely all succeeding English -artists who continued to put their faith in this painting of light, but -the masters of Barbizon too, and Manet afterwards. - -[Illustration: _Mansell_ - - BONINGTON. LA PLACE DES MOULARDS, GENEVA.] - -The problem of painting light and air, which the older school had left -unsolved, was taken up by him first in its complete extent. Crome had -shown great reserve in approaching the atmospheric elements. Constable -was the first landscape painter who really saw effects of light and air -and learnt to paint them. His endeavour was to embody the impression of -a mood of light with feeling, without lingering on the reproduction of -those details which are only perceptible to an analytical eye. Whereas -in the old Dutch masters the chief weight is laid on the effect of the -drawing of objects, here it rests upon light, no matter upon what it -plays. Thus Constable freed landscape painting from the architectonic -laws of composition. They were no longer needed when the principle was -once affirmed that the atmospheric mood gave greater value to the -picture than subject. He not only studied the earth and foliage in their -various tones, according as they were determined by the atmosphere, but -observed the sky, the air, and the forms of cloud with the -conscientiousness of a student of natural philosophy. The comments which -he wrote upon them are as subtle as those in Ruskin's celebrated -treatise on the clouds. A landscape, according to him, is only beautiful -in proportion as light and shadow make it so; in other words, he was the -first to understand that the "mood" of a landscape, by which it appeals -to the human spirit, depends less on its lines and on objects in -themselves than on the light and shadow in which it is bathed, and he -was the first painter who had the secret of painting these subtle -gradations of atmosphere. In his pictures the wind is heard murmuring in -the trees, the breeze is felt as it blows over the corn, the sunlight is -seen glancing on the leaves and playing on the clear mirror of the -waters. Thus Constable for the first time painted nature in all its -freshness. His principle of artistic creation is entirely opposed to -that which was followed by the Pre-Raphaelites at a later date. Whilst -the latter tried to reconstruct a picture of nature by a faithful, -painstaking execution of all details--a process by which the expression -of the whole usually suffers--Constable's pictures are broadly and -impressively painted, often of rude and brutal force, at times solemn, -at times elegant, but always cogent, fresh, and possessing a unity of -their own. - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - COX. THE SHRIMPERS.] - -A genius in advance of its age is only first recognised in its full -significance when following generations have come abreast with it. And -that Constable was made to feel. In 1837 he died in poverty at -Hampstead, in the modest "country retreat" where he spent the greatest -part of his life. He said that his painting recalled no one, and was -neither polished nor pretty, and asked: "How can I hope to be popular? -I work only for the future." And that belonged to him. - -[Illustration: _Portfolio._ - - MLLER. THE AMPHITHEATRE AT XANTHUS.] - -Constable's powerful individuality has brought forth enduring fruit, and -helped English landscape painting to attain that noble prime which it -enjoyed during the forties and fifties. - -With his rich, brilliant, bold, and finely coloured painting, _David -Cox_ stands out as perhaps the greatest of Constable's successors. Like -Constable, he was a peasant, and observed nature with the simplicity of -one who was country-bred. He was born in 1783, the son of a blacksmith, -in a humble spot near Birmingham, and, after a brief sojourn in London, -migrated with his family to Hereford, and later to Harborne, also in the -neighbourhood of Birmingham. The strip of country which he saw from his -house was almost exclusively his field of study. He knew that a painter -can pass his life in the same corner of the earth, and that the scene of -nature spread before him will never be exhausted. "Farewell, pictures, -farewell," he is reported to have said when he took his last walk, on -the day before his death, round the walls of Harborne. He has treated of -the manner in which he understood his art in his _Treatise on Landscape -Painting_, written in 1814. His ideal was to see the most cogent effect -in nature, and leave everything out which did not harmonise with its -character; and in Cox's pictures it is possible to trace the steps by -which he drew nearer to this ideal the more natural he became. The magic -of his brush was never more captivating than in the works of his last -years, when, fallen victim to a disease of the eye, he could no longer -see distinctly and only rendered an impression of the whole scene. - -Cox is a great and bold master. The townsman when he first comes into -the country, after being imprisoned for months together in a wilderness -of brick and mortar, does not begin at once to count the trees, leaves, -and the stones lying on the ground. He draws a long breath and exclaims, -"What balm!" Cox, too, has not painted details in the manner of the -Pre-Raphaelites. He represented the soft wind sweeping over the English -meadows, the fresh purity of the air, the storms that agitate the -landscape of Wales. A delicate silver-grey is spread over most of his -pictures, and his method of expression is powerful and nervous. By -preference he has celebrated, both in oil-paintings and in boldly -handled water-colours, the boundless depths of the sky in its thousand -variations of light, now deep blue in broad noon and now eerily gloomy -and disturbed. The fame of being the greatest of English water-colour -painters is his beyond dispute, yet if he had painted in oils from his -youth upwards he would probably have become the most important English -landscapist. His small pictures are pure and delicate in colour, and -fresh and breezy in atmospheric effect. It is only in large pictures -that power is at times denied him. In his later years he began to paint -in oils, and in this medium he is a less important artist, though a very -great painter. _William Mller_, who died young, stood as leader at his -side. - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - DE WINT. NOTTINGHAM.] - -He was one of the most dexterous amongst the dexterous, next to Turner -the greatest adept of English painting. Had he been simpler and quieter -he might be called a genius of the first order. But he has sometimes a -touch of what is theatrical; it does not always break out, but it does -so occasionally. He has an inclination for pageantry, and nothing of -that self-sufficiency and quiet tenderness with which Constable and Cox -devoted themselves to home scenery. He was at pains to give a trace of -largeness and sublimity to modest and unpretentious English landscape, -to give to the most familiar subject a tinge of preciosity. His pictures -are grandiose in form, and show an admirable lightness of hand, but -light and air are wanting in them, the local colour of England and its -atmosphere. As a foreigner--he was the son of a Danzig scholar, who had -migrated to Bristol--Mller has not seen English landscape with -Constable's native sentiment. He was not content with an English -cornfield or an English village; the familiar homeliness of the country -in its work-a-day garb excited no emotion in him. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - BONINGTON. THE WINDMILL OF SAINT-JOUIN.] - -Something in Mller's imagination, which caused him to love decided -colours and sudden contrasts rather than delicate gradations, attracted -him to Southern climes. His natural place was in the East, which had not -at that time been made the vogue. Here, like Decamps and Marilhat, he -found those vivid rather than delicate effects which appealed to his -eye. He was twice in the South--the first time in Athens and Egypt in -1838, and once again in Smyrna, Rhodes, and Lycia in 1843-44. In the -year during which he had yet to live he collected those Oriental -pictures which form his legacy, containing the best that he did. Certain -of them, such as "The Amphitheatre at Xanthus," are painted with -marvellous verve; they are not the work of a day, but of an hour. All -these mountain castles upon abrupt cliffs, these views of the Acropolis -and of Egypt, are real masterpieces of broad painting, their colour -clear and their light admirable. Not one of the many Frenchmen who were -in the South at this time has represented its sunshine and its brilliant -atmosphere with such flattering, voluptuous tones. - -_Peter de Wint_, who was far more true and simple, was, like Constable -and Cox, entirely wedded to his own birthplace. At any rate, his sojourn -in France lasted only for a short time, and left no traces in his art. -From youth to age he was the painter of England in its work-a-day -garb--of the low hills of Surrey, of the plains of Lincolnshire, or of -the dark canals of the Thames, which he specially portrayed in -unsurpassable water-colour paintings. His ancestor in art is Philips de -Koning, the pupil of Rembrandt, the master of Dutch plains and wide -horizons. - -[Illustration: _Studio._ - - BONINGTON. READING ALOUD.] - -After Cox and de Wint came _Creswick_, more laborious, more patient, -more studious of detail, furnished perhaps with a sharper eye for the -green tones of nature, though with less feeling for atmosphere. It -cannot be said that he advanced art, but merely that he added a regard -for light and sunshine, unknown to the period before 1820, to the study -of Hobbema and Waterloo. With those who would not have painted as they -did but for Constable, _Peter Graham_ and _Dawson_ may be likewise -ranked; and these artists peculiarly devoted themselves to the study of -sky and water. Henry Dawson painted the most paltry and unpromising -places--a reach of the Thames close to London, or a quarter in the smoky -precincts of Dover, or Greenwich; but he painted them with a power such -as only Constable possessed. In particular he is unequalled in his -masterly painting of clouds. Constable had seldom done this in the same -way. He delighted in an agitated sky, in clouds driven before the wind -and losing their form in indeterminate contours; in nature he saw merely -reflections of his own restless spirit, striving after colour and -movement. Dawson painted those clouds which stand firm in the sky like -piles of building--cloud-cathedrals, as Ruskin has called them. There -are pictures of his consisting of almost nothing but great clouds. But -that wide space, the earth, which our eyes regard as their own peculiar -domain, is wanting. Colours and forms are nowhere to be seen, but only -clouds and undulating yellowish mist in which objects vanish like pallid -spectres. _John Linnell_ carried the traditions of this great era on to -the new period: at first revelling in golden light, in sunsets and rosy -clouds of dusk, and at a later time, in the manner of the -Pre-Raphaelites, bent on the precise execution of bodily form. - -The young master, who died at twenty-seven, _Richard Parkes Bonington_, -unites these English classic masters with the French. An Englishman by -birth and origin, but trained as a painter in France, where he had gone -when fifteen years of age, he seems from many points of view one of the -most gracious products of the Romantic movement in France, though at the -same time he has qualities over which only the English had command at -that period, and not the French. He entered Gros's studio in France, -which was then the favourite meeting-place of all the younger men of -revolutionary tendencies, but repeated journeys to London did not allow -him to forget Constable. In Normandy and Picardy he painted his first -landscapes, following them up with a series of Venetian sea-pieces and -little historical scenes. Then consumption seized him and took but a -brief time in striking him down. On 23rd September 1828 he died in -London, whither he had gone to consult a specialist. In consequence of -his early death his talent never ripened, but he was a simple, natural, -pure, and congenial artist for all that. "I knew him well and loved him -much. His English composure, which nothing could disturb, robbed him of -none of the qualities which make life pleasant. When I first came across -him I was myself very young, and was making studies in the Louvre. It -was about 1816 or 1817. He was in the act of copying a Flemish -landscape--a tall youth who had grown rapidly. He had already an -astonishing dexterity in water-colours, which were then an English -novelty. Some which I saw later at a dealer's were charming, both in -colour and composition. Other modern artists are perhaps more powerful -and more accurate than Bonington, but no one in this modern school, -perhaps no earlier artist, possessed the ease of execution which makes -his works, in a certain sense, diamonds by which the eye is pleased and -fascinated, quite independently of the subject and the particular -representation of nature. And the same is true of the costume pictures -which he painted later. Even here I could never grow weary of marvelling -at his sense of effect, and his great ease of execution. Not that he was -quickly satisfied; on the contrary, he often began over again perfectly -finished pieces which seemed wonderful to us. But his dexterity was so -great that in a moment he produced with his brush new effects, which -were as charming as the first." With these words his friend and comrade, -the great Eugne Delacroix, drew the portrait of Bonington. Bonington -was at once the most natural and the most delicate in that Romantic -school in which he was one of the first to make an appearance. He had a -fine eye for the charm of nature, saw grace and beauty in her -everywhere, and represented the spring and the sunshine in bright and -clear tones. No Frenchman before him has so painted the play of light on -gleaming costumes and succulent meadow grasses. Even his lithographs -from Paris and the provinces are masterpieces of spirited, impressionist -observation--qualities which he owed, not to Gros, but to Constable. He -was the first to communicate the knowledge of the great English classic -painters to the youth of France, and they of Barbizon and Ville d'Avray -continued to spin the threads which connect Constable with the present. - -[Illustration: RICHARD PARKES BONINGTON.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -LANDSCAPE FROM 1830 - - -That same Salon of 1822 in which Delacroix exhibited his "Dante's Bark" -brought to Frenchmen a knowledge of the powerful movement which had -taken place on the opposite side of the Channel. English water-colour -painting was brilliantly represented by Bonington, who sent his "View of -Lillebonne" and his "View of Havre." Copley Fielding, Robson, and John -Varley also contributed works; and these easy, spirited productions, -with their skies washed in broadly and their bright, clear tones, were -like a revelation to the young French artists of the period. The horizon -was felt to be growing clear. In 1824, at the time when Delacroix's -"Massacre of Chios" appeared, the sun actually rose, bringing a flood of -light. The English had learnt the way to France, and took the Louvre by -storm. John Constable was represented by three pictures, and Bonington, -Copley Fielding, Harding, Samuel Prout, and Varley were also accorded a -place. This exhibition gave the deathblow to Classical landscape -painting. Michallon had died young in 1822; and men like Bidault and -Watelet could do nothing against such a battalion of colourists. -Constable alone passed sentence upon them of eternal condemnation. -Familiar neither with Georges Michel nor with the great Dutch painters, -the French had not remarked that a landscape has need of a sky -expressive of the spirit of the hour and the character of the season. -Even what was done by Michel seemed a kind of diffident calligraphy when -set beside the fresh strand-pieces of Bonington, the creations of the -water-colour artists, bathed as they were in light, and the bold -pictures of the Bergholt master, with their bright green and their -cloudy horizon. The French landscape painters, who had been so timid -until then, recognised that their painting had been a convention, -despite all their striving after truth to nature. - -Constable had been the first to free himself from every stereotyped -rule, and he was an influence in France. The younger generation were in -ecstasies over this intense green, the agitated clouds, this -effervescent power inspiring everything with life. Though as yet but -little esteemed even in England, Constable received the gold medal in -Paris, and from that time took a fancy to Parisian exhibitions, and -still in 1827 exhibited in the Louvre by the side of Bonington, who had -but one year more in which to give admirable lessons by his bright -plains and clear shining skies. At the same time Bonington's friend and -compatriot, William Reynolds, then likewise domiciled in Paris, -contributed some of his powerful and often delicate landscape studies, -the tender grey notes of which are like anticipations of Corot. This -influence of the English upon the creators of _paysage intime_ has long -been an acknowledged fact, since Delacroix himself, in his article -"Questions sur le Beau" in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ in 1854, has -affirmed it frankly. - -The very next years announced what a ferment Constable had stirred in -the more restless spirits. The period from 1827 to 1830 showed the -birth-throes of French landscape painting. In 1831 it was born. In this -year, for ever marked in the annals of French, and indeed of European -art, there appeared together in the Salon, for the first time, all those -young artists who are now honoured as the greatest in the century: all, -or almost all, were children of Paris, the sons of small townsmen or of -humble artisans; all were born in the old quarter of the city or in its -suburbs, in the midst of a desolate wilderness of houses, and destined -for that very reason to be great landscape painters. For it is not -through chance that _paysage intime_ immediately passed from London, the -city of smoke, to Paris, the second great modern capital, and reached -Germany from thence only at a much later time. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - THODORE ROUSSEAU.] - -"Do you remember the time," asks Brger-Thor of Thodore Rousseau in -the dedicatory letter to his _Salon_ of 1844,--"do you still recall the -years when we sat on the window-ledges of our attics in the Rue de -Taitbout, and let our feet dangle at the edge of the roof, contemplating -the chaos of houses and chimneys, which you with a twinkle in your eye -compared to mountains, trees, and outlines of the earth? You were not -able to go to the Alps, into the cheerful country, and so you created -picturesque landscapes for yourself out of these horrible skeletons of -wall. Do you still recall the little tree in Rothschild's garden, which -we caught sight of between two roofs? It was the one green thing that we -could see; every fresh shoot of the little poplar wakened our interest -in spring, and in autumn we counted the falling leaves." - -From this mood sprang modern landscape painting with its delicate -reserve in subject, and its vigorously heightened love of nature. Up to -the middle of the century nature was too commonplace and ordinary for -the Germans; and it was therefore hard for them to establish a -spiritual relationship with her. Landscape painting recognised its -function in appealing to the understanding by the execution of points of -geographical interest, or exciting a frigid curiosity by brilliant -fireworks. But these children of the city, who with a heartfelt sympathy -counted the budding and falling leaves of a single tree descried from -their little attic window; these dreamers, who in their imagination -constructed beautiful landscapes from the moss-crusted gutters of the -roof and the chimneys and chimney smoke, were sufficiently schooled, -when they came into the country, to feel the breath of the great mother -of all, even where it was but faintly exhaled. Where a man's heart is -full he does not think about geographical information, and no roll of -tom-toms is needed to attract the attention of those whose eyes are -opened. Their spirit was sensitive, and their imagination sufficiently -alert to catch with ecstasy, even from the most delicate and reserved -notes, the harmony of that heavenly concert which nature executes on all -its earthly instruments, at every moment and in all places. - -[Illustration: ROUSSEAU. MORNING.] - -[Illustration: ROUSSEAU. LANDSCAPE, MORNING EFFECT.] - -Thus they had none of them any further need for extensive pilgrimage; to -seek impulse for work they had not far to go. Croissy, Bougival, -Saint-Cloud, and Marly were their Arcadia. Their farthest journeys were -to the banks of the Oise, the woods of L'Isle Adam, Auvergne, Normandy, -and Brittany. But they cared most of all to stay in the forest of -Fontainebleau, which--by one of those curious chances that so often -recur in history--played for a second time a highly important part in -the development of French art. A hundred years before, it was the -brilliant centre of the French Renaissance, the resort of those Italian -artists who found in the palace there a second Vatican, and in Francis I -another Leo X. In the nineteenth century, too, the Renaissance of French -painting was achieved in Fontainebleau, only it had nothing to do with a -school of mannered figure painters, but with a group of the most -delicate landscape artists. From a sense of one's duty to art one -studies in the palace the elegant goddesses of Primaticcio, the laughing -bacchantes of Cellini, and all the golden, festal splendour of the -Cinquecento; but the heart is not touched till one stands outside in the -forest on the soil where Rousseau and Corot and Millet and Diaz painted. -How much may be felt and thought when one saunters of a dreamy evening, -lost in one's own meditations, across the heath of the _plateau de la -Belle Croix_ and through the arching oaks of _Bas Brau_ to Barbizon, -the Mecca of modern art, where the secrets of _paysage intime_ were -revealed to the Parisian landscape painters by the nymph of -Fontainebleau! There was a time when men built their Gothic cathedrals -soaring into the sky, after the model of the majestic palaces of the -trees. The dim and sacred mist of incense hovered about the lofty -pointed arches, and through painted windows the broken daylight shone, -inspiring awe; the fair picture of a saint beckoned from above the -altar, touched by the gleam of lamps and candles; gilded carvings -glimmered strangely, and overwhelming strains from the fugues of Bach -reverberated in the peal of the organ throughout the consecrated space. -But now the Gothic cathedrals are transformed once more into palaces of -trees. The towering oaks are the buttresses, the tracery of branches the -choir screen, the clouds the incense, the wind sighing through the -boughs the peal of the organ, and the sun the altar-piece. Man is once -more a fire-worshipper, as in his childhood; the church has become the -world, and the world has become the church. - -How the spirit soars at the trill of a blackbird beneath the leafy roof -of mighty primval oaks! One feels as though one had been transplanted -into the Saturnian age, when men lived a joyous, unchequered life in -holy unison with nature. For this park is still primval, in spite of -all the carriage roads by which it is now traversed, in spite of all the -guides who lounge upon the granite blocks of the hollows of Opremont. -Yellowish-green ferns varying in tint cover the soil like a carpet. The -woods are broken by great wastes of rock. Perhaps there is no spot in -the world where such splendid beeches and huge majestic oaks stretch -their gnarled branches to the sky--in one place spreading forth in -luxuriant glory, and in another scarred by lightning and bitten by the -wintry cold. It is just such scenes of ravage that make the grandest, -the wildest, and the most sombre pictures. The might of the great forces -of nature, striking down the heads of oaks like thistles, is felt -nowhere in the same degree. - -Barbizon itself is a small village three miles to the north of -Fontainebleau, and, according to old tradition, founded by robbers who -formerly dwelt in the forest. On both sides of the road connecting it -with the charming little villages of Dammarie and Chailly there stretch -long rows of chestnut, apple, and acacia trees. There are barely a -hundred houses in the place. Most of them are overgrown with wild vine, -shut in by thick hedges of hawthorn, and have a garden in front, where -roses bloom amid cabbages and cauliflowers. At nine o'clock in the -evening all Barbizon is asleep, but before four in the morning it awakes -once more for work in the fields. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - ROUSSEAU. THE VILLAGE OF BECQUIGNY IN PICARDY.] - -Historians of after-years will occupy themselves in endeavouring to -discover when the first immigration of Parisian painters to this spot -took place. It is reported that one of David's pupils painted in the -forest of Fontainebleau and lived in Barbizon. The only lodging to be -got at that time was in a barn, which the former tailor of the place, a -man of the name of Ganne, turned into an inn in 1823. Here, after 1830, -Corot, Rousseau, Diaz, Brascassat, and many others alighted when they -came to follow their studies in Barbizon from the spring to the autumn. -Of an evening they clambered up to their miserable bedroom, and fastened -to the head of the bed with drawing-pins the studies made in the course -of the day. It was only later that Pre Copain, an old peasant, who had -begun life as a shepherd with three francs a month, was struck with the -apt idea of buying in a few acres and building upon them small houses to -let to painters. By this enterprise the man became rich, and gradually -grew to be a capitalist, lending money to all who, in spite of their -standing as celebrated Parisian artists, did not enjoy the blessings of -fortune. But the general place of assembly was still the old barn -employed in Ganne's establishment, and in the course of years its walls -were covered with large charcoal drawings, studies, and pictures. Here, -in a patriarchal, easy-going, homely fashion, artists gathered together -with their wives and children of an evening. Festivities also were held -in the place, in particular that ball when Ganne's daughter, a godchild -of Madame Rousseau, celebrated her wedding. Rousseau and Millet were the -decorators of the room; the entire space of the barn served as -ball-room, the walls being adorned with ivy. Corot, always full of fun -and high spirits, led the polonaise, which moved through a labyrinth of -bottles placed on the floor. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - ROUSSEAU. LA HUTTE.] - -They painted in the forest. But they did not take the trouble to carry -the instruments of their art home again. They kept breakfast, canvas, -and brushes in holes in the rocks. Never before, probably, have men so -lost themselves in nature. At every hour of the day, in the cool light -of morning, at sunny noon, in the golden dusk, even in the twilight of -blue moonlight nights, they were out in the field and the forest, -learning to surprise everlasting nature at every moment of her -mysterious life. The forest was their studio, and revealed to them all -its secrets. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - ROUSSEAU. EVENING.] - -The result of this life _en plein air_ became at once the same as it had -been with Constable. Earlier artists worked with the conception and the -technique of Waterloo, Ruysdael, and Everdingen, and believed themselves -incapable of doing anything without gnarled, heroic oaks. Even Michel -was hard-bound in the gallery style of the Dutch, and for Decamps -atmosphere was still a thing unknown or non-existent. He placed a harsh -light, opaque as plaster, against a background as black as coal. Even -the colours of Delacroix were merely tones of the palette; he wanted to -create preconceived decorative harmonies, and not simply to interpret -reality. Following the English, the masters of Fontainebleau made the -discovery of air and light. They did not paint the world, like the other -Romanticists, in exuberantly varying hues recalling the old masters: -they saw it _entour d'air_, and tempered by the tones of the -atmosphere. And since their time the "harmony of light and air with that -of which they are the life and illumination" has become the great -problem of painting. Through this art grew young again, and works of art -received the breathing life, the fresh bloom, and the delicate harmony -which are to be found everywhere in nature itself, and which are only -reached with much difficulty by any artificial method of tuning into -accord. After Constable they were the first who recognised that the -beauty of a landscape does not lie in objects themselves, but in the -lights that are cast upon them. Of course, there is also an -articulation of forms in nature. When Boecklin paints a grove with tall -and solemn trees in the evening, when he forms to himself a vision of -the mysterious haunts of his "Fire-worshippers," there is scarcely any -need of colour. The outline alone is so majestically stern that it makes -man feel his littleness utterly, and summons him to devotional thoughts. -But the subtle essence by which nature appeals either joyously or -sorrowfully to the spirit depends still more on the light or gloom in -which she is bathed; and this mood is not marked by an inquisitive eye: -the introspective gaze, the imagination itself, secretes it in nature. -And here a second point is touched. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - ROUSSEAU. SUNSET.] - -The peculiarity of all these masters, who on their first appearance were -often despised as realists or naturalists, consists precisely in this: -they never represented, at least in the works of their later period in -which they thoroughly expressed themselves,--they never represented -actual nature in the manner of photography, but freely painted their own -moods from memory, just as Goethe when he stood in the little house in -the Kikelhahn near Ilmenau, instead of elaborating a prosaic description -of the Kikelhahn, wrote the verses _Ueber allen Wipfeln ist Ruh_. In -this poem of Goethe one does not learn how the summits looked, and there -is no allusion to the play of light, and yet the forest, dimly -illuminated by the rays of the setting sun, is presented clearly to the -inward eye. Any poet before Goethe's time would have made a broad and -epical description, and produced a picture by the addition of details; -but here the very music of the words creates a picture of rest and -quietude. The works of the Fontainebleau artists are Goethe-like poems -of nature in pigments. They are as far removed from the sthetic -aridness of the older landscape of composition, pieced together from -studies, as from the flat, prosaic fidelity to nature of that "entirely -null and void, spuriously realistic painting of the so-called guardians -of woods and waters." They were neither concerned to master nature and -compose a picture from her according to conventional rules, nor -pedantically to draw the portrait of any given region. They did not -think of topographical accuracy, or of preparing a map of their country. -A landscape was not for them a piece of scenery, but a condition of -soul. They represent the victory of lyricism over dry though inflated -prose. Impressed by some vision of nature, they warm to their work and -produce pictures that could not have been anticipated. And thus they -fathomed art to its profoundest depths. Their works were fragrant poems -sprung from moods of spirit which had risen in them during a walk in the -forest. Perhaps only Titian, Rubens, and Watteau had previously looked -upon nature with the same eyes. And as in the case of these artists, so -also in that of the Fontainebleau painters, it was necessary that a -genuine realistic art, a long period of the most intimate study of -nature, should have to be gone through before they reached this height. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - ROUSSEAU. THE LAKE AMONG THE ROCKS AT BARBIZON.] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - ROUSSEAU. A POND, FOREST OF FONTAINEBLEAU.] - -In the presence of nature one saturates one's self with truth; and after -returning to the studio one squeezes the sponge, as Jules Dupr -expressed it. Only after they had satiated themselves with the knowledge -of truth, only after nature with all her individual phenomena had been -interwoven with their inmost being, could they, without effort, and -without the purpose of representing determined objects, paint from -personal sentiment, and give expression to their humour, in the mere -gratification of impulse. Thence comes their wide difference from each -other. Painters who work according to fixed rules resemble one another, -and those who aim at a distinct copy of nature resemble one another no -less. But each one of the Fontainebleau painters, according to his -character and his mood for the time being, received different -impressions from the same spot in nature, and at the same moment of -time. Each found a landscape and a moment which appealed to his -sentiment more perceptibly than any other. One delighted in spring and -dewy morning, another in a cold, clear day, another in the threatening -majesty of storm, another in the sparkling effects of sportive sunbeams, -and another in evening after sundown, when colours have faded and forms -are dim. Each one obeyed his peculiar temperament, and adapted his -technique to the altogether personal expression of his way of seeing -and feeling. Each one is entirely himself, each one an original mind, -each picture a spiritual revelation, and often one of touching -simplicity and greatness: _homo additus natur_. And having dedicated -themselves, more than all their predecessors, to personality creating in -and for itself, they have become the founders of the new creed in art. - -That strong and firmly rooted master _Thodore Rousseau_ was the epic -poet, the plastic artist of the Pleades. "_Le chne des roches_" was -one of his masterpieces, and he stands himself amid the art of his time -like an oak embedded in rocks. His father was a tailor who lived in the -Rue Neuve-Saint Eustache, Nr. 4 _au quatrime_. As a boy he is said to -have specially devoted himself to mathematics, and to have aimed at -becoming a student at the Polytechnic Institute. Thus the dangerous, -doctrinaire tendency, which beset him in his last years, of making art -more of a science than is really practicable, and of referring -everything to some law, lay even in his boyish tastes. He grew up in the -studio of the Classicist Lethire, and looked on whilst the latter -painted both his large Louvre pictures, "The Death of Brutus" and "The -Death of Virginia." He even thought himself of competing for the _Prix -de Rome_. But the composition of his "historical landscape" was not a -success. Then he took his paint-boxes, left Lethire's studio, and -wandered over to Montmartre. Even his first little picture, "The -Telegraph Tower" of 1826, announced the aim which he was tentatively -endeavouring to reach. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ CAMILLE COROT.] - -At the very time when Watelet's metallic waterfalls and zinc trees were -being drawn up in line, when the pupils of Bertin hunted the Calydonian -boar, or drowned Zenobia in the waves of the Araxes, Rousseau, set free -from the ambition of winning the _Prix de Rome_, was painting humble -plains within the precincts of Paris, with little brooks in the -neighbourhood which had nothing that deserved the name of waves. - -His first excursion to Fontainebleau occurred in the year 1833, and in -1834 he painted his first masterpiece, the "Cts de Grandville," that -picture, replete with deep and powerful feeling for nature, which seems -the great triumphant title-page of all his work. A firm resolve to -accept reality as it is, and a remarkable eye for the local character of -landscape and for the structure and anatomy of the earth--all qualities -revealing the Rousseau of later years--were here to be seen in their -full impressiveness and straightforward actuality. He received for this -work a medal of the third class. At the same time his works were -excluded from making any further appearance in the Salon for many years -to come. Concession might be made to a beginner; but the master seemed -dangerous to the academicians. Two pictures, "Cows descending in the -Upper Jura" and "The Chestnut Avenue," which he had destined for the -Salon of 1835, were rejected by the hanging committee, and during twelve -years his works met with a similar fate, although the leading critical -intellects of Paris, Thor, Gustave Planch, and Thophile Gautier, -broke their lances in his behalf. Amongst the rejected of the present -century, Thodore Rousseau is probably the most famous. At that period -he was selling his pictures for five and ten louis-d'or. It was only -after the February Revolution of 1848, when the Academic Committee had -fallen with the _bourgeois_ king, that the doors of the Salon were -opened to him again, and in the meanwhile his pictures had made their -way quietly and by their unassisted merit. In the sequestered solitude -of Barbizon he had matured into an artistic individuality of the highest -calibre, and become a painter to whom the history of art must accord a -place by the side of Ruysdael, Hobbema, and Constable. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - COROT. THE BRIDGE OF ST. ANGELO, ROME.] - -He painted everything in Barbizon--the plains and the hills, the river -and the forest, all the seasons of the year and all the hours of the -day. The succession of his moods is as inexhaustible as boundless nature -herself. Skies gilded by the setting sun, phases of dewy morning, plains -basking in light, woods in the russet-yellow foliage of autumn: these -are the subjects of Thodore Rousseau--an endless procession of poetic -effects, expressed at first by the mere instinct of emotion and later -with a mathematical precision which is often a little strained, though -always irresistibly forcible. Marvellous are his autumn landscapes with -their ruddy foliage of beech; majestic are those pictures in which he -expressed the profound sentiment of solitude as it passes over you in -the inviolate tangle of the forest, inviting the spirit to commune with -itself; but especially characteristic of Rousseau are those plains with -huge isolated trees, over which the mere light of common day rests -almost coldly and dispassionately. - -[Illustration: COROT AT WORK.] - -It is an artistic or psychological anomaly that in this romantic -generation a man could be born in whom there was nothing of the -Romanticist. Thodore Rousseau was an experimentalist, a great worker, a -restless and seeking spirit, ever tormented and unsatisfied with itself, -a nature wholly without sentimentality and impassionless, the very -opposite of his predecessor Huet. Huet made nature the mirror of the -passions, the melancholy and the tragic suffering which agitate the -human spirit with their rage. Whilst he celebrated the irresistible -powers and blind forces, the elemental genii which rule the skies and -the waters, he wanted to waken an impression of terror and desolation in -the spirit of the beholder. He piled together masses of rock, lent -dramatic passion to the clouds, and revelled with delight in the -sharpest contrasts. Rousseau's pervasive characteristic is absolute -plainness and actuality. Such a simplicity of shadow had never existed -before. Since the Renaissance artists had systematically heightened the -intensity of shadows for the sake of effect; Rousseau relied on the true -and simple doctrine that may be formulated in the phrase: the more light -there is the fainter and more transparent are the shadows, not the -darker, as Decamps and Huet painted them. Or, to speak more generally, -in nature the intensity of shadows stands in an inverse relation to the -intensity of the light. - -[Illustration: COROT. DAPHNIS AND CHLOE.] - -Rousseau does not force on the spectator any preconceived mood of his -own, but leaves him before a picture with all the freedom and capacity -for personal feeling which he would have received from the spectacle of -nature herself. The painter does not address him directly, but lets -nature have free play, just as a medium merely acts as the vehicle of a -spirit. So personal in execution and so absolutely impersonal in -conception are Rousseau's pictures. Huet translated his moods by the -assistance of nature; Rousseau is an incomparable witness, confining -himself strictly to the event, and giving his report of it in brief, -virile speech, in clear-cut style. Huet puts one out of humour, because -it is his own humour which he is determined to force. Rousseau seldom -fails of effect, because he renders the effect which has struck him, -faithfully and without marginal notes. Only in the convincing power of -representation, and never in the forcing of a calculated mood, does the -"mood" of his landscape lie. Or, to take an illustration from the -province of portrait painting, when Lenbach paints Prince Bismarck, it -is Lenbach's Bismarck; as an intellectual painter he has given an -entirely subjective rendering of Bismarck, and compels the spectator so -to see him. Holbein, when he painted Henry VIII, proceeded in the -opposite way: for him characterisation depended on his revealing his own -character as little as possible; he completely subordinated himself to -his subject, surrendered himself, and religiously painted all that he -saw, leaving it to others to carry away from the picture what they -pleased. And Thodore Rousseau, too, was possessed by the spirit of the -old German portrait painter. He set his whole force of purpose to the -task of letting nature manifest herself, free from any preconceived -interpretation. His pictures are absolutely without effective point, but -there is so much power and deep truth, so much simplicity, boldness, and -sincerity in his manner of seeing and painting nature, and of feeling -her intense and forceful life, that they have become great works of art -by this alone, like the portraits of Holbein. More impressive tones, -loftier imagination, more moving tenderness, and more intoxicating -harmonies are at the command of other masters, but few had truer or more -profound articulation, and not one has been so sincere as Thodore -Rousseau. Rousseau saw into the inmost being of nature, as Holbein into -Henry VIII, and the impression he received, the emotion he felt, is a -thing which he communicates broadly, boldly, and entirely. He is a -portrait painter who knows his model through and through; moreover, he -is a connoisseur of the old masters who knows what it is to make a -picture. Every production of Rousseau is a deliberate and -well-considered work, a cannon-shot, and no mere dropping fusilade of -small arms; not a light _feuilleton_, but an earnest treatise of strong -character. Though a powerful colourist, he works by the simplest means, -and has at bottom the feeling of a draughtsman; which is principally the -reason why, at the present day, when one looks at Rousseau's pictures, -one thinks rather of Hobbema than of Billotte and Claude Monet. - -His absolute mastery over drawing even induced him in his last years to -abandon painting altogether. He designated it contemptuously as -falsehood, because it smeared over the truth, the anatomy of nature. - -[Illustration: COROT. VUE DE TOSCANE.] - -In Rousseau there was even more the genius of a sculptor than of a -portrait painter. His spirit, positive, exact, like that of a -mathematician, and far more equipped with artistic precision than -pictorial qualities, delighted in everything sharply defined, plastic, -and full of repose: moss-grown stones, oaks of the growth of centuries, -marshes and standing water, rude granite blocks of the forest of -Fontainebleau, and trees bedded in the rocks of the glens of Opremont. -In a quite peculiar sense was the oak his favourite tree--the mighty, -wide-branching, primval oak which occupies the centre of one of his -masterpieces, "A Pond," and spreads its great gnarled boughs to the -cloudy sky in almost every one of his pictures. It is only Rembrandt's -three oaks that stand in like manner, firm and broad of stem, as though -they were living personalities of the North, in a lonely field beneath -the hissing rain. To ensure the absolute vitality of organisms was for -Rousseau the object of unintermittent toil. - -[Illustration: COROT. AT SUNSET.] - -Plants, trees, and rocks were not forms summarily observed and clumped -together in an arbitrary fashion; for him they were beings gifted with a -soul, breathing creatures, each one of which had its physiognomy, its -individuality, its part to play, and its distinction of being in the -great harmony of universal nature. "By the harmony of air and light with -that of which they are the life and the illumination I will make you -hear the trees moaning beneath the North wind and the birds calling to -their young." To achieve that aim he thought that he could not do too -much. As Drer worked seven times on the same scenes of the Passion -until he had found the simplest and most speaking expression, so -Rousseau treated the same motives ten and twenty times. Restless are his -efforts to discover different phases of the same subject, to approach -his model from the most various points of view, and to do justice to it -on every side. He begins an interrupted picture again and again, and -adds something to it to heighten the expression, as Leonardo died with -the consciousness that there was something yet to be done to his -"Joconda." Sometimes a laboured effect is brought into his works by this -method, but in other ways he has gained in this struggle with reality a -power of exposition, a capacity of expression, a force of appeal, and -such a remarkable insight for rightness of effect that every one of his -good pictures could be hung without detriment in a gallery of old -masters; the nineteenth century did not see many arise who could bear -such a proximity in every respect. His landscapes are as full of sap as -creation itself; they reveal a forcible condensation of nature. The only -words which can be used to describe him are strength, health, and -energy. "It ought to be: in the beginning was the Power." - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - COROT. THE RUIN.] - -From his youth upwards Thodore Rousseau was a masculine spirit; even as -a stripling he was a man above all juvenile follies--one might almost -say, a philosopher without ideals. In literature Turgenief's conception -of nature might be most readily compared with that of Rousseau. In -Turgenief's _Diary of a Sportsman_, written in 1852, everything is so -fresh and full of sap that one could imagine it was not so much the work -of a human pen as a direct revelation from the forest and the steppes. -Though men are elsewhere habituated to see their joys and sorrows -reflected in nature, the sentiment of his own personality falls from -Turgenief when he contemplates the eternal spectacle of the elements. He -plunges into nature and loses the consciousness of his own being in -hers; and he becomes a part of what he contemplates. For him the majesty -of nature lies in her treating everything, from the worm to the human -being, with impassiveness. Man receives neither love nor hatred at her -hands; she neither rejoices in the good that he does nor complains of -sin and crime, but looks beyond him with her deep, earnest eyes because -he is an object of complete indifference to her. "The last of thy -brothers might vanish off the face of the earth and not a needle of the -pine branches would tremble." Nature has something icy, apathetic, -terrible; and the fear which she can inspire through this indifference -of hers ceases only when we begin to understand the relationship in -which we are to our surroundings, when we begin to comprehend that man -and animal, tree and flower, bird and fish, owe their existence to this -one Mother. So Turgenief came to the same point as Spinoza. - -[Illustration: COROT. EVENING.] - -And Rousseau did the same. The nature of Thodore Rousseau was devoid of -all excitable enthusiasm. Thus the world he painted became something -austere, earnest, and inaccessible beneath his hands. He lived in it -alone, fleeing from his fellows, and for this reason human figures are -seldom to be found in his pictures. He loved to paint nature on cold, -grey impassive days, when the trees cast great shadows and forms stand -out forcibly against the sky. He is not the painter of morning and -evening twilight. There is no awakening and no dawn, no charm in these -landscapes and no youth. Children would not laugh here, nor lovers -venture to caress. In these trees the birds would build no nests, nor -their fledglings twitter. His oaks stand as if they had so stood from -eternity. - - "Die unbegrieflich hohen Werke - Sind herrlich wie am ersten Tag." - -Like Turgenief, Rousseau ended in Pantheism. - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - COROT. AN EVENING IN NORMANDY.] - -He familiarised himself more and more with the endless variety of plants -and trees, of the earth and the sky at the differing hours of the day: -he made his forms even more precise. He wished to paint the organic life -of inanimate nature--the life which heaves unconsciously everywhere, -sighing in the air, streaming from the bosom of the earth, and vibrating -in the tiniest blade of grass as positively as it palpitates through the -branches of the old oaks. These trees and herbs are not human, but they -are characterised by their peculiar features, just as though they were -men. The poplars grow like pyramids, and have green and silvered leaves, -the oaks dark foliage and gnarled far-reaching boughs. The oaks stand -fixed and immovable against the storm, whilst the slender poplars bend -pliantly before it. This curious distinction in all the forms of nature, -each one of which fulfils a course of existence like that of man, was a -problem which pursued Rousseau throughout his life as a vast riddle. -Observe his trees: they are not dead things; the sap of life mounts -unseen through their strong trunks to the smallest branches and shoots, -which spread from the extremity of the boughs like clawing fingers. The -soil works and alters; every plant reveals the inner structure of the -organism which produced it. And this striving even became a curse to him -in his last period. Nature became for him an organism which he studied -as an anatomist studies a corpse, an organism all the members of which -act one upon the other according to logical laws, like the wheels of a -machine; and for the proper operation of this machine the smallest -plants seemed as necessary as the mightiest oaks, the gravel as -important as the most tremendous rock. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ - - COROT. THE DANCE OF THE NYMPHS.] - -Convinced that there was nothing in nature either indifferent or without -its purpose, and that everything had a justification for its existence -and played a part in the movement of universal life, he believed also -that in everything, however small it might be, there was a special -pictorial significance; and he toiled to discover this, to make it -evident, and often forgot the while that art must make sacrifices if it -is to move and charm. In his boundless veneration for the logical -organism of nature he held, as a kind of categorical imperative, that it -was right to give the same importance to the infinitely small as to the -infinitely great. The notion was chimerical, and it wrecked him. In his -last period the only things that will preserve their artistic reputation -are his marvellously powerful drawings. No one ever had such a feeling -for values, and thus he knew how to give his drawings--quite apart from -their pithy weight of stroke--an effect of light which was forcibly -striking. Just as admirable were the water-colours produced under the -influence of Japanese picture-books. The pictures of petty detail which -belong to these years have only an historical interest, and that merely -because it is instructive to see how a great genius can deceive himself. -One of his last works, the view of Mont Blanc, with the boundless -horizon and the countless carefully and scrupulously delineated planes -of ground, has neither pictorial beauty nor majesty. In the presence of -this bizarre work one feels astonishment at the artist's endurance and -strength of will, but disappointment at the result. He wanted to win the -secret of its being from every undulation of the ground, from every -blade of grass, and from every leaf; he was anxiously bent upon what he -called _planimtrie_, upon the importance of horizontal planes, and he -accentuated detail and accessory work beyond measure. His pantheistic -faith in nature brought Thodore Rousseau to his fall. Those who did not -know him spoke of his childish stippling and of the decline of his -talent. Those who did know him saw in this stippling the issue of the -same endeavours which poor Charles de la Berge had made before him, and -of the principles on which the landscape of the English Pre-Raphaelites -was being based about this time. If one looks at his works and then -reads his life one almost comes to have for him a kind of religious -veneration. There is something of the martyr in this insatiable -observer, whose life was one long struggle, and to whom the study of the -earth's construction and the anatomy of branches was almost a religion. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - COROT. A DANCE.] - -[Illustration: J. B. C. COROT. LANDSCAPE.] - -At first he had to struggle for ten years for bread and recognition. It -seems hardly credible that his landscapes, even after 1848, when they -had obtained entry into the Salon, were a source of irritation there for -years, simply because they were green. The public was so accustomed to -brown trees and brown grass, that every other colour in the landscape -was an offence against decency, and before a green picture the -Philistine immediately cried out, "Spinage!" "_Allez, c'tait dur -d'ouvrir la brche_," said he, in his later years. And at last, at the -World Exhibition of 1855, when he had made it clear to Europe who -Thodore Rousseau was, the evening of his life was saddened by pain and -illness. He had married a poor unfortunate creature, a wild child of the -forest, the only feminine being that he had found time to love during -his life of toil. After a few years of marriage she became insane, and -whilst he tended her Rousseau himself fell a victim to an affection of -the brain which darkened his last years. Death came to his release in -1867. As he lay dying his mad wife danced and trilled to the screaming -of her parrot. He rests "_dans le plain calme de la nature_" in the -village churchyard at Chailly, near Barbizon, buried in front of his -much-loved forest. Millet erected the headstone--a simple cross upon an -unhewn block of sandstone, with a tablet of brass on which are inscribed -the words: - -[Illustration: _Hanjstaengl._ - - COROT. LA ROUTE D'ARRAS.] - - -THODORE ROUSSEAU, PEINTRE. - -"_Rousseau c'est un aigle. Quant moi, je ne suis qu'une alouette qui -pousse de petites chansons dans mes nuages gris._" With these words -_Camille Corot_ has indicated the distinction between Rousseau and -himself. They denote the two opposite poles of modern landscape. What -attracted the plastic artists, Rousseau, Ruysdael, and Hobbema--the -relief of objects, the power of contours, the solidity of forms--was not -Corot's concern. Whilst Rousseau never spoke about colour with his -pupils, but as _ceterum censeo_ invariably repeated, "_Enfin, la forme -est la premire chose observer_," Corot himself admitted that drawing -was not his strong point. When he tried to paint rocks he was but -moderately effective, and all his efforts at drawing the human figure -were seldom crowned with real success, although in his last years he -returned to the task with continuous zeal. Apart from such peculiar -exceptions as that wonderful picture "The Toilet," his figures are -always the weakest part of his landscapes, and only have a good effect -when in the background they reveal their delicate outlines, half lost in -rosy haze. He was not much more felicitous with his animals, and in -particular there often appear in his pictures great heavy cows, which -are badly planted on their feet, and which one wishes that he had left -out. Amongst trees he did not care to paint the oak, the favourite tree -with all artists who have a passion for form, nor the chestnut, nor the -elm, but preferred to summon, amid the delicate play of sunbeams, the -aspen, the poplar, the alder, the birch with its white slender stem and -its pale, tremulous leaves, and the willow with its light foliage. In -Rousseau a tree is a proud, toughly knotted personality, a noble, -self-conscious creation; in Corot it is a soft tremulous being rocking -in the fragrant air, in which it whispers and murmurs of love and joy. -His favourite season was not the autumn, when the turning leaves, hard -as steel, stand out with firm lines, quiet and motionless, against the -clear sky, but the early spring, when the farthest twigs upon the boughs -deck themselves with little leaves of tender green, which vibrate and -quiver with the least breath of air. He had, moreover, a perfectly -wonderful secret of rendering the effect of the tiny blades of grass and -the flowers which grow upon the meadows in June; he delighted to paint -the banks of a stream with tall bushes bending to the water, and he -loved water itself in undetermined clearness and in the shifting glance -of light, leaving it here in shadow and touching it there with -brightness; the sky in the depths beneath wedded to the bright border of -the pool or the vanishing outlines of the bank, and the clouds floating -across the sky, and here and there embracing a light shining fragment of -the blue. He loved morning before sunrise, when the white mists hover -over pools like a light veil of gauze, and gradually disperse as the sun -breaks through, but he had a passion for evening which was almost -greater: he loved the soft vapours which gather in the gloom, thickening -until they become pale grey velvet mantles, as peace and rest descend -upon the earth with the drawing on of night. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ JULES DUPR.] - -In contradistinction from Rousseau his specialty was everything soft and -wavering, everything that has neither determined form nor sharp lines, -and that, by not appealing too clearly to the eye, is the more conducive -to dreamy reveries. It is not the spirit of a sculptor that lives in -Corot, but that of a poet, or still better, the spirit of a musician, -since music is the least plastic of the arts. It is not surprising to -read in his biography that, like Watteau, he had almost a greater -passion for music than for painting, and that when he painted he had -always an old song or an opera aria upon his lips, that when he spoke of -his pictures he had a taste for drawing comparisons from music, and that -he had a season-ticket at the _Conservatoire_, never missed a concert, -and played upon the violin himself. Indeed, there is something of the -tender note of this instrument in his pictures, which make such a -sweetly solemn appeal through their delicious silver tone. Beside -Rousseau, the plastic artist, Pre Corot is an idyllic painter of -melting grace; beside Rousseau, the realist, he seems a dreamy musician; -beside Rousseau, the virile spirit earnestly making experiments in art, -he appears like a bashful schoolgirl in love. Rousseau approached nature -in broad daylight, with screws and levers, as a cool-headed man of -science; Corot caressed and flattered her, sung her wooing love-songs -till she descended to meet him in the twilight hours, and whispered to -him, her beloved, the secrets which Rousseau was unable to wring from -her by violence. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ THE HOUSE OF JULES DUPR AT L'ISLE-ADAM.] - -_Corot_ was sixteen years senior to Rousseau. He still belonged to the -eighteenth century, to the time when, under the dictatorship of David, -Paris transformed herself into imperial Rome. David, Grard, Gurin, and -Prudhon, artists so different in talent, were the painters whose works -met his first eager glances, and no particular acuteness is needed to -recognise in the Nymphs and Cupids with which Corot in after-years, -especially in the evening of his life, dotted his fragrant landscapes, -the direct issue of Prudhon's charming goddesses, the reminiscences of -his youth nourished on the antique. He, too, was a child of old Paris, -with its narrow streets and corners. His father was a hairdresser in the -Rue du Bac, number 37, and had made the acquaintance of a girl who lived -at number 1 in the same street, close to the Pont Royal, and was -shop-girl at a milliner's. He carried on his barber's shop until 1778, -when Camille, the future painter, was two years old. Then Madame Corot -herself undertook the millinery establishment in which she had once -worked. There might be read on the front of the narrow little house, -number 1 of the Rue du Bac, _Madame Corot, Marchande de Modes_. M. -Corot, a polite and very correct little man, raised the business to -great prosperity. The Tuileries were opposite, and under Napoleon I -Corot became Court "modiste." As such he must have attained a certain -celebrity, as even the theatre took his name in vain. A piece which was -then frequently played at the Comdie Franaise contains the passage: "I -have just come from Corot, but could not speak to him; he was locked up -in his private room occupied in composing a new spring hat." - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - DUPR. THE SETTING SUN.] - -Camille went to the high school in Rouen, and was then destined, -according to the wish of his father, to adopt some serious calling "by -which money was to be made." He began his career with a yard-measure in -a linen-draper's establishment, ran through the suburbs of Paris with a -book of patterns under his arm selling cloth--_Couleur olive_--and in -his absence of mind made the clumsiest mistakes. After eight years of -opposition his father consented to his becoming a painter. "You will -have a yearly allowance of twelve hundred francs," said old Corot, "and -if you can live on that you may do as you please." At the Pont Royal, -behind his father's house, he painted his first picture, amid the -tittering of the little dressmaker's apprentices who looked on with -curiosity from the window, but one of whom, Mademoiselle Rose, remained -his dear friend through life. This was in 1823, and twenty years went -by before he returned to French soil in the pictures that he painted. -Victor Bertin became his teacher; in other words, Classicism, style, and -coldness. He sought diligently to do as others; he drew studies, -composed historical landscapes, and painted as he saw the academicians -painting around him. To conclude his orthodox course of training it only -remained for him to make the pilgrimage to Italy, where Claude Lorrain -had once painted and Poussin had invented the historical landscape. In -1825--when he was twenty-eight--he set out with Bertin and Aligny, -remained long in Rome, and came to Naples. The Classicists, whose circle -he entered with submissive veneration, welcomed him for his cheerful, -even temper and the pretty songs which he sang in fine tenor voice. -Early every morning he went into the Campagna, with a colour-box under -his arm and a sentimental ditty on his lips, and there he drew the ruins -with an architectural severity, just like Poussin. In 1827, after a -sojourn of two years and a half in Italy, he was able to make an -appearance in the Salon with his carefully balanced landscapes. In 1835 -and 1843 he stayed again in Italy, and only after this third pilgrimage -were his eyes opened to the charms of French landscape. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ THE BRIDGE AT L'ISLE-ADAM.] - -One can pass rapidly over this first section of Corot's work. His -pictures of this period are not without merit, but to speak of them with -justice they should be compared with contemporary Classical productions. -Then one finds in them broad and sure drawing, and can recognise a -powerful hand and notice an astonishing increase of ability. Even on his -second sojourn in Italy he painted no longer as an ethnographical -student, and no longer wasted his powers on detail. But it is in the -pictures of his last twenty years that Corot first becomes the -Theocritus of the nineteenth century. The second Corot has spoilt one's -enjoyment for the first. But who would care to pick a quarrel with him -on that score! Beside his later pictures how hard are those studies from -Rome, which the dying painter left to the Louvre, and which, as his -maiden efforts, he regarded with great tenderness all through his life. -How little they have of the delicate, harmonious light of his later -works! The great historical landscape with Homer in it, where light and -shadow are placed so trenchantly beside each other, the landscape -"Aricia," "Saint Jerome in the Desert," the picture of the young girl -sitting reading beside a mountain stream, "The Beggar" with that team in -mad career which Decamps could not have painted with greater -virtuosity,--they are all good pictures by the side of those of his -contemporaries, but in comparison with real Corots they are like the -exercises of a pupil, in their hard, dry painting, their black, coarse -tones, and their chalky wall of atmosphere. There is neither breeze nor -transparency nor life in the air; the trees are motionless, and look as -if they were heavily cased in iron. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DUPR. NEAR SOUTHAMPTON. - - (_By permission of M. Jules Beer, the owner of the picture._)] - -Corot was approaching his fortieth year, an age at which a man's ideas -are generally fixed, when the great revolution of French landscape -painting was accomplished under the influence of the English and of -Rousseau. Trained in academical traditions, he might have remained -steadfast in his own province. To follow the young school he had -completely to learn his art again, and alter his method of treatment -with the choice of subjects, and this casting of his slough demanded -another fifteen years. When he passed from Italian to French landscape, -after his return from his third journey to Rome in 1843, his pictures -were still hard and heavy. He had already felt the influence of -Bonington and Constable, by the side of whose works his first exhibited -picture had hung in 1827. But he still lacked the power of rendering -light and air, and his painting had neither softness nor light. Even in -the choice of subject he was still undecided, returning more than once -to the historical landscape and working on it with unequal success. His -masterpiece of 1843, "The Baptism of Christ," in the Church of Saint -Nicolas du Chardonnet in Paris, is no more than a delicate imitation of -the old masters. The "Christ upon the Mount of Olives" of 1844, in the -Museum of Langres, is the first picture which seems like a convert's -confession of faith. In the centre of the picture, before a low hill, -Christ kneels upon the ground praying; His disciples are around Him, and -to the right, vanishing in the shadows, the olive trees stretch their -gnarled branches over the darkened way. A dark blue sky, in which a star -is flickering, broods tremulously over the landscape. One might pass the -Christ over unobserved; but for the title He would be hard to recognise. -But the star shining far away, the transparent clearness of the night -sky, the light clouds, and the mysterious shadows gliding swiftly over -the ground,--these have no more to do with the false and already -announce the true Corot. From this time he found the way on which he -went forward resolute and emancipated. - -[Illustration: DUPR. THE PUNT.] - -For five-and-twenty years it was permitted to him to labour in perfect -ripeness, freedom, and artistic independence. One thinks of Corot as -though he had been a child until he was fifty and then first entered -upon his adolescence. Up to 1846 he took from his father the yearly -allowance of twelve hundred francs given him as a student, and in that -year, when he received the Cross of the Legion of Honour, M. Corot -doubled the sum for the future, observing: "Well, Camille seems to have -talent after all." About the same time his friends remarked that he went -about Barbizon one day more meditatively than usual. "My dear fellow," -said he to one of them, "I am inconsolable. Till now I had a complete -collection of Corots, and it has been broken to-day, for I have sold one -for the first time." And even at seventy-four he said: "How swiftly -one's life passes, and how much must one exert one's self to do anything -good!" The history of art has few examples to offer of so long a spring. -Corot had the privilege of never growing old; his life was a continual -rejuvenescence. The works which made him Corot are the youthful works of -an old man, the matured creations of a grey-headed artist, who--like -Titian--remained for ever young; and for their artistic appreciation it -is not without importance to remember this. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DUPR. SUNSET. - - (_By permission of M. Jules Beer, the owner of the picture._)] - -Of all the Fontainebleau painters Corot was the least a realist: he was -the least bound to the earth, and he was never bent upon any exact -rendering of a part of nature. No doubt he worked much in the open air, -but he worked far more in his studio; he painted many scenes as they lay -before him, but more often those which he only saw in his own mind. He -is reported to have said on his deathbed: "Last night I saw in a dream a -landscape with a sky all rosy. It was charming, and still stands before -me quite distinctly; it will be marvellous to paint." How many -landscapes may he not have thus dreamed, and painted from the -recollected vision! - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DUPR. THE HAY-WAIN.] - -For a young man this would be a very dangerous method. For Corot it was -the only one which allowed him to remain Corot, because in this way no -unnecessary detail disturbed the pure, poetic reverie. He had spent his -whole life in a dallying courtship with nature, ever renewed. As a child -he looked down from his attic window upon the wavering mists of the -Seine; as a schoolboy in Rouen he wandered lost in his own fancies along -the borders of the great river; when he had grown older he went every -year with his sister to a little country-house in Ville d'Avray, which -his father had bought for him in 1817. Here he stood at the open window, -in the depth of the night, when every one was asleep, absorbed in -looking at the sky and listening to the plash of waters and the rustling -of leaves. Here he stayed quite alone. No sound disturbed his reveries, -and unconsciously he drank in the soft, moist air and the delicate -vapour rising from the neighbouring river. Everything was harmoniously -reflected in his quick and eager spirit, and his eyes beheld the -individual trait of nature floating in the universal life. He began not -merely to see nature, but to feel her presence, like that of a beloved -woman, to receive her very breath and to hear the beating of her heart. - -One knows the marvellous letter in which he describes the day of a -landscape painter to Jules Dupr: "_On se lve de bonne heure, trois -heures du matin, avant le soleil; on va s'asseoir au pied d'un arbre, on -regarde et on attend. On ne voit pas grand'chose d'abord. La nature -ressemble une toile blanchtre o s'esquissent peine les profils de -quelques masses: tout est embaum, tout frisonne au souffle frachi de -l'aube. Bing! le soleil s'claircit ... le soleil n'a pas encore dchir -la gaze derrire laquelle se cachent la prairie, le vallon, les collines -de l'horizon.... Les vapeurs nocturnes rampent encore commes des flocons -argents sur les herbes d'un vert transi. Bing!... Bing!... un premier -rayon de soleil ... un second rayon de soleil.... Les petites fleurettes -semblent s'veiller joyeuses.... Elles out toutes leur goutte de rose -qui tremble ... les feuilles frileuses s'agitent au souffle du matin ... -dans la feuille, les oiseaux invisibles chantent.... Il semble que ce -sont les fleurs qui font la prire. Les Amours ailes de papillons -s'battent sur la prairie et font onduler les hautes herbes.... On ne -voit rien ... tout y est. Le paysage est tout entier derrire la gaze -transparente du brouillard, qui, au reste ... monte ... monte ... aspir -par le soleil ... et laisse, en se levant, voir la rivire lame -d'argent, les prs, les arbres, les maisonettes, le lointain fuyant.... -On distingue enfin tout ce que l'on divinait d'abord._" - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DUPR. THE OLD OAK.] - -At the end there is an ode to evening which is perhaps to be reckoned -amongst the most delicate pages of French lyrics: "_La nature s'assoupit -... cependant l'air frais du soir soupire dans les feuilles ... la rose -emperle le velours des gazons.... Les nymphes fuient ... se cachent ... -et dsirent tre vues.... Bing! une toile du ciel qui pique une tte -dans l'tang.... Charmante toile, dont le frmissement de l'eau -augmente le scintillement, tu me regardes ... tu me souris en clignant -de l'oeil.... Bing! une seconde toile apparat dans l'eau; un second -oeil s'ouvre. Soyez les bienvenues, fraches et charmantes toiles.... -Bing! Bing! Bing! trois, six, vingt toiles.... Toutes les toiles du -ciel se sont donn rendez-vous dans cet heureux tang.... Tout -s'assombrit encore.... L'tang seul scintille.... C'est un fourmillement -d'toiles.... L'illusion se produit.... Le soleil tant couch, le -soleil intrieur de l'me, le soleil de l'art se lve.... Bon! voil mon -tableau fait_." - -[Illustration: DUPR. THE POOL.] - -Any one who has never read anything about Corot except these lines may -know him through them alone. Even that little word "Bing" comprises and -elucidates his art by its clear, silvery resonance. The words vibrate -like the strings of a violin that have been gently touched, and they -want Mozart's music as an accompaniment. I do not know any one who has -described all the feminine tenderness of nature, the dishevelled leaves -of the birches, the heaving bosom of the air, the fresh virginity of -morning, the weary, sensuous charm of evening, with such seductive -tenderness and such highly strung feeling, so voluptuously and yet so -coyly. - -To these impressions of Rouen, Ville d'Avray, and Barbizon were added -finally those of Paris. For Corot was born in Paris, and, often as he -left it, he always came back; he passed the greatest part of his life -there, and there it was, perhaps, that in his last period he created his -most poetic works. In these years he had no more need of actual -landscapes; he needed only a sky and they rose before him. Every evening -after sundown he left his studio just at the time when the dusk fell -veiling everything. He raised his eyes to the sky, the only part of -nature which remained visible. And how often does this twilight sky of -Paris recur in Corot's pictures! At the end of his life he could really -give himself over to a dream. The drawings and countless studies of his -youth bear witness to the care, patience, and exactitude of his -preparation. They gave him in after-years, when he was sure of his -hand, the right to simplify, because he knew everything thoroughly. Thus -Boecklin paints his pictures without a model, and thus Corot painted his -landscapes. The hardest problems are solved apparently as if he were -improvising; and for that very reason the sight of a Corot gives such -unspeakable pleasure, such an impression of charming ease. It is only a -hand which has used a brush for forty years that can paint thus. All -effects are attained with the minimum expenditure of strength and -material. The drawing lies as if behind colour that has been blown on to -the canvas; it is as if one looked through a thin gauze into the -distance. Whoever has studied reality so many years, with patient and -observant eye, as Corot did, whoever has daily satiated his imagination -with the impressions of nature, may finally venture on painting, not -this or that scenery, but the fragrance, the very essence of things, and -render merely his own spirit and his own visions free from all earthly -and retarding accessories. There is a temptation to do honour to Corot's -pictures merely as "the confessions of a beautiful soul." - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ NARCISSE DIAZ.] - -But Corot was as great and strong as a Hercules. In his blue blouse, -with his woollen cap and the inevitable short Corot pipe in his mouth--a -pipe which has become historical--one would have taken him for a carter -rather than a celebrated painter. At the same time he remained during -his whole life--a girl: twenty years senior to all the great landscape -painters of the epoch, he was at once a patriarch in their eyes and -their younger comrade. His long white hair surrounded the innocent face -of a ruddy country girl, and his kind and pleasant eyes were those of a -child listening to a fairy-tale. In 1848, during the fighting on the -barricades, he asked with childish astonishment: "What is the matter? -Are we not satisfied with the Government?" And during the war in 1870 -this great hoary-headed child of seventy-four bought a musket, to join -in fighting against Germany. Benevolence was the joy of his old age. -Every friend who begged for a picture was given one, while for money he -had the indifference of a hermit who has no wants and neither sows nor -reaps, but is fed by his Heavenly Father. He ran breathlessly after an -acquaintance to whom, contrary to his wont, he had refused five thousand -francs: "Forgive me," he said; "I am a miser, but there they are." And -when a picture-dealer brought him ten thousand francs he gave him the -following direction: "Send them," he said, "to the widow of my friend -Millet; only, she must believe that you have bought pictures from -_him_." His one passion was music, his whole life "an eternal song." -Corot was a happy man, and no one more deserved to be happy. In his -kind-hearted vivacity and even good spirits he was a favourite with all -who came near him and called him familiarly their Papa Corot. Everything -in him was healthy and natural; his was a harmonious nature, living and -working happily. This harmony is reflected in his art. And he saw the -joy in nature which he had in himself. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - DIAZ. THE DESCENT OF THE BOHEMIANS.] - -Everything that was coarse or horrible in nature he avoided, and his own -life passed without romance or any terrible catastrophes. He has no -picture in which there is a harassed tree vexed by the storm. Corot's -own spirit was touched neither by passions nor by the strokes of fate. -There is air in his landscapes, but never storm; streams, but not -torrents; waters, but not floods; plains, but not rugged mountains. All -is soft and quiet as his own heart, whose peace the storm never -troubled. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DIAZ. AMONG THE FOLIAGE.] - -No man ever lived a more orderly, regular, and reasonable life. He was -only spendthrift where others were concerned. No evening passed that he -did not play a rubber of whist with his mother, who died only a little -before him, and was loved by the old man with the devoted tenderness of -a child. From an early age he had the confirmed habits which make the -day long and prevent waste of time. The eight years which he passed in -the linen-drapery establishment of M. Delalain had accustomed him to -punctuality. Every morning he rose very early, and at three minutes to -eight he was in his studio as punctually as he had been in earlier years -at the counter, and went through his daily task without feverish haste -or idleness, humming with that quietude which makes the furthest -progress. - -For that reason he had also an aversion to everything passionate in -nature, to everything irregular, sudden, or languid, to the feverish -burst of storm as to the relaxing languor of summer heat. He loved all -that is quiet, symmetrical, and fresh, peaceful and blithe, everything -that is enchanting by its repose: the bright, tender sky, the woods and -meadows tinged with green, the streamlets and the hills, the regular -awakening of spring, the soft, quiet hours of evening twilight, the dewy -laughing morning, the delicate mists which form slowly the over surface -of still waters, the joy of clear, starry nights, when all voices are -silent and every breeze is at rest; and the cheerfulness of his own -spirit is reflected in everything. - -[Illustration: DIAZ. A TREE TRUNK.] - -One might go further, and say that Corot's goodness is mirrored in his -pictures. Corot loved humanity and wished it well, and he shrank from no -sacrifice in helping his friends. And even so did he love the country, -and wished to see it animated, enlivened, and blest by human beings. -That is the great distinction between him and Chintreuil, who is -otherwise so like him. Chintreuil also painted nature when she quivers -smiling beneath the gentle and vivifying glance of spring, but figures -are wanting in his pictures. As a timid, fretful, unsociable man, he -imagined that nature also felt happiest in solitude. The scenery in -which Chintreuil delighted was thick, impenetrable copse, lonely haunts -in the tangle of the thicket, from which now and then a startled hind -stretches out its head, glancing uneasily. Corot, who could not endure -solitude, being always the centre of a cheery social gathering, made -nature a sociable being. Men, women, and children give animation to his -woods and meadows. And at times he introduces peasants at work in the -fields, but how little do they resemble the peasants of Millet! The -rustics of the master of Gruchy are as hard and rough as they are -actual; the burden of life has bowed their figures and lined their faces -prematurely; they are old before their time, and weary every evening. -Corot's labourers never grow weary: lightly touched in rather than -painted, dreamt of rather than seen, they carry on an ethereal existence -in the open air, free and contented; they have never suffered, just as -Corot himself knew no sufferings. But as a rule human beings were -altogether out of place in the happy fields conjured up by his fairy -fantasy; and then came the moment when Prudhon lived again. The nymphs -and bacchantes whom he had met as a youth by the tomb of Virgil visited -him in the evening of life in the forest of Fontainebleau and in the -meadows of Ville d'Avray. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - DIAZ. FOREST SCENE.] - -In his pictures he dreamed of pillars and altars near which mythical -figures moved once more, dryads sleeping by the stream, dancing fauns, -_junctque nymphis grati decentes_ in classical raiment. In this sense -he was a Classicist all his life. His nymphs, however, are no mere -accessories; they have nothing in common with the faded troop of classic -beings whose old age in the ruins of forsaken temples was so long tended -by the Academy. In Corot they are the natural habitants of a world of -harmony and light, the logical complement of his visions of nature: in -the same way Beethoven at the close of the Ninth Symphony introduced the -human voice. No sooner has he touched in the lines of his landscapes -than the nymphs and tritons, the radiant children of the Greek idyllic -poets, desert the faded leaves of books to populate Corot's groves, and -refresh themselves in the evening shadows of his forests. - -[Illustration: CHARLES FRANOIS DAUBIGNY.] - -For the evening dusk, the hour after sunset, is peculiarly the hour of -Corot; his very preference for the harmonious beauty of dying light was -the effluence of his own harmonious temperament. When he would, Corot -was a colourist of the first order. The World Exhibition of 1889 -contained pictures of women by his hand which resembled Feuerbach in -their strict and austere beauty of countenance, and which recalled -Delacroix in the liquid fulness of tone and their fantastic and -variously coloured garb. But, compared with the orgies of colour -indulged in by Romanticism, his works are generally characterised by the -most delicate reserve in painting. A bright silvery sheet of water and -the ivory skin of a nymph are usually the only touches of colour that -hover in the pearly grey mist of his pictures. As a man Corot avoided -all dramas and strong contrasts; everything abrupt or loud was repellent -to his nature. Thus it was that the painter, too, preferred the clear -grey hours of evening, in which nature envelops herself as if in a -delicate, melting veil of gauze. Here he was able to be entirely Corot, -and to paint without contours and almost without colours, and bathe in -the soft, dusky atmosphere. He saw lines no longer; everything was -breath, fragrance, vibration, and mystery. "_Ce n'est plus une toile et -ce n'est plus un peintre, c'est le bon Dieu et c'est le soir._" Elysian -airs began to breathe, and the faint echo of the prattling streamlet -sounded gently murmuring in the wood; the soft arms of the nymphs clung -round him, and from the neighbouring thicket tender, melting melodies -chimed forth like olian harps-- - - "Rege dich, du Schilfgeflster; - Hauche leise, Rohrgeschwister; - Suselt, leichte Weidenstruche; - Lispelt, Pappelzitterzweige - Unterbroch'nen Trumen zu." - -His end was as harmonious as his life and his art. "_Rien ne trouble sa -fin, c'est le soir d'un beau jour._" His sister, with whom the old -bachelor had lived, died in the October of 1874, and Corot could not -endure loneliness. On 23rd February 1875--when he had just completed his -seventy-ninth year--he was heard to say as he lay in bed drawing with -his fingers in the air: "_Mon Dieu_, how beautiful that is; the most -beautiful landscape I have ever seen." When his old housekeeper wanted -to bring him his breakfast he said with a smile: "To-day Pre Corot will -breakfast above." Even his last illness robbed him of none of his -cheerfulness, and when his friends brought him as he lay dying the medal -struck to commemorate his jubilee as an artist of fifty years' standing, -he said with tears of joy in his eyes: "It makes one happy to know that -one has been so loved; I have had good parents and dear friends. I am -thankful to God." With those words he passed away to his true home, the -land of spirits--not the paradise of the Church, but the Elysian fields -he had dreamt of and painted so often: "_Largior hic campos ther et -lumine vestit purpureo._" - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DAUBIGNY. SPRINGTIME.] - -When they bore him from his house in the Faubour-Poissonire and a -passer-by asked who was being buried, a fat shopwoman standing at the -door of her house answered: "I don't know his name, but he was a good -man." Beethoven's Symphony in C minor was played at his funeral, -according to his own direction, and as the coffin was being lowered a -lark rose exulting to the sky. "The artist will be replaced with -difficulty, the man never," said Dupr at Corot's grave. On 27th May -1880 an unobtrusive monument to his memory was unveiled at the border of -the lake at Ville d'Avray, in the midst of the dark forest where he had -so often dreamed. He died in the fulness of his fame as an artist, but -it was the forty pictures collected in the Centenary Exhibition of 1889 -which first made the world fully conscious of what modern art possessed -in Corot: a master of immortal masterpieces, the greatest poet and the -tenderest soul of the nineteenth century, as Fra Angelico was the -tenderest soul of the fifteenth, and Watteau the greatest poet of the -eighteenth. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DAUBIGNY. A LOCK IN THE VALLY OF OPTEVOZ.] - -_Jules Dupr_, a melancholy spirit, who was inwardly consumed by a -lonely existence spent in passionate work, stands as the Beethoven of -modern painting beside Corot, its Mozart. If Thodore Rousseau was the -epic poet of the Fontainebleau school, and Corot the idyllic poet, Dupr -seems its tragic dramatist. Rousseau's nature is hard, rude, and -indifferent to man. For Corot God is the great philanthropist, who -wishes to see men happy, and lets the spring come and the warm winds -blow only that children may have their pleasure in them. His soul is, as -Goethe has it in _Werther_, "as blithe as those of sweet spring -mornings." Jules Dupr has neither Rousseau's reality nor Corot's -tenderness; his tones are neither imperturbable nor subdued. "_Quant -derrire un tronc d'arbre ou derrire une pierre, vous ne trouvez pas un -homme quoi a sert-il de faire du paysage._" In Corot there is a charm -as of the light melodies of the _Zauberflte_; in Dupr the ear is -struck by the shattering notes of the _Sinfonie Eroica_. Rousseau looks -into the heart of nature with widely dilated pupils and a critical -glance. Corot woos her smiling, caressing, and dallying; Dupr courts -her uttering impassioned complaint and with tears in his eyes. In him -are heard the mighty fugues of Romanticism. The trees live, the waves -laugh and weep, the sky sings and wails, and the sun, like a great -conductor, determines the harmony of the concert. Even the two pictures -with which he made an appearance in the Salon in 1835, after he had left -the Svres china manufactory and become acquainted with Constable -during a visit to England--the "Near Southampton" and "Pasture-land in -the Limousin"--displayed him as an accomplished master. In "Near -Southampton" everything moves and moans. Across an undulating country a -dark tempest blusters, like a wild host, hurrying and sweeping forward -in the gloom, tearing and scattering everything in its path, whirling -leaves from the slender trees. Clouds big with rain hasten across the -horizon as if on a forced march. The whole landscape seems to partake in -the flight; the brushwood seems to bow its head like a traveller. In the -background a few figures are recognisable: people overtaken by the storm -at their work; horses with their manes flying in the wind; and a rider -seeking refuge for himself and his beast. A stretch of sluggish water -ruffles its waves as though it were frowning. Everything is alive and -quaking in this majestic solitude, and in the mingled play of confused -lights, hurrying clouds, fluttering branches, and trembling grass. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - DAUBIGNY. ON THE OISE.] - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - DAUBIGNY. SHEPHERD AND SHEPHERDESS.] - -"Pasture-land in the Limousin" had the same overpowering energy; it was -an admirable picture in 1835, and it is admirable still. The fine old -trees stand like huge pillars; the grass, drenched with rain, is of an -intense green; nature seems to shudder as if in a fever. And through his -whole life Dupr was possessed by the lyrical fever of Romanticism. As -the last champion of Romanticism he bore the banner of the proud -generation of 1830 through well-nigh two generations, and until his -death in 1889 stood on the ground where Paul Huet had first placed -French landscape; but Huet attained his pictorial effects by combining -and by calculation, while Dupr is always a great, true, and convincing -poet. Every evening he was seen in L'Isle Adam, where he settled in -1849, wandering alone across the fields, even in drenching rain. One of -his pupils declares that once, when they stood at night on the bridge of -the Oise during a storm, Dupr broke into a paroxysm of tears at the -magnificent spectacle. He was a fanatic rejoicing in storms, one who -watched the tragedies of the heaven with quivering emotion, a passionate -spirit consumed by his inward force, and, like his literary counterpart -Victor Hugo, he sought beauty of landscape only where it was wild and -magnificent. He is the painter of nature vexed and harassed, and of the -majestic silence that follows the storm. The theme of his pictures is at -one time the whirling torture of the yellow leaves driven before the -wind in eddying confusion; tormented and quivering they cleave to the -furrows in the mad chase, fall into dykes, and cling against the trunks -of trees, to find refuge from their persecutor. At another time he -paints how the night wind whistles round an old church and whirls the -screaming weather-cock round and round, how it moans and rattles with -invisible hand against the doors, forces its way through the windows, -and, once shut in its stony prison, seeks a way out again, howling and -wailing. He paints sea-pieces in which the sea rages and mutters like -some hoarse old monster; the colour of the water is dirty and pallid; -the howling multitude of waves storms on like an innumerable army before -which every human power gives way. Stones are torn loose and hurled -crashing upon the shore. The clouds are dull and ghostly, here black as -smoke, there of a shining whiteness, and swollen as though they must -burst. He celebrates the commotion of the sky, nature in her angry -majesty, and the most brilliant phenomena of atmospheric life. -Rousseau's highest aim was to avoid painting for effect, and Corot only -cared for grace of tone; a picture of his consists "of a little grey and -a certain _je ne sais quoi_." Jules Dupr is peculiarly the colour-poet -of the group, and sounds the most resonant notes in the romantic -concert. His light does not beam in gently vibrating silver tones, but -is concentrated in glaring red suns. "_Ah, la lumire, la lumire!_" -Beside the flaming hues of evening red he paints the darkest shadows. He -revels in contrasts. His favourite key of colour is that of a ghostly -sunset, against which a gnarled oak or the dark sail of a tiny vessel -rises like a phantom. - -Trembling and yet with ardent desire he looks at the tumult of waters, -and hears the roll and resonance of the moon-silvered tide. He delights -in night, rain, and storm. Corot's gentle rivulets become a rolling and -whirling flood in his pictures, a headlong stream carrying all before -it. The wind no longer sighs, but blusters across the valley, spreading -ruin in its path. The clouds which in Corot are silvery and gentle, like -white lambs, are in Dupr black and threatening, like demons of hell. In -Corot the soft morning breeze faintly agitates the tender clouds in the -sky; in Dupr a damp, cold wind of evening blows a spectral grey mist -into the valley, and the hurricane tears apart the thunderclouds. - - "Wenn ich fern auf nackter Haide wallte, - Wo aus dmmernder Geklfte Schooss - Der Titanensang der Strme schallte - Und die Nacht der Wolken mich umschloss, - Wenn der Sturm mit seinen Wetterwogen - Mir vorber durch die Berge fuhr - Und des Himmels Flammen mich umflogen, - Da erscheinst du, Seele der Natur." - -[Illustration: DAUBIGNY. LANDSCAPE: EVENING.] - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - CHINTREUIL. LANDSCAPE: MORNING.] - -The first of the brilliant pleiad who did not come from Paris itself is -_Diaz_, who in his youth worked with Dupr in the china manufactory of -Svres. Of noble Spanish origin--Narciso Virgilio Diaz de la Pea ran -his high-sounding name in full--he was born in Bordeaux in 1807, after -his parents had taken refuge from the Revolution across the Pyrenees, -and in his landscapes, too, perhaps, his Spanish blood betrays him now -and then. Diaz has in him a little of Fortuny. Beside the great genius -wrestling for truth and the virile seriousness of Rousseau, beside the -gloomy, powerful landscapes of Dupr with their deep, impassioned -poetry, the sparkling and flattering pictures of Diaz seem to be rather -light wares. For him nature is a keyboard on which to play capricious -fantasies. His pictures have the effect of sparkling diamonds, and one -must surrender one's self to this charm without asking its cause; -otherwise it evaporates. Diaz has perhaps rather too much of the talent -of a juggler, the sparkle of a magic kaleidoscope. "You paint stinging -nettles, and I prefer roses," is the characteristic expression which he -used to Millet. His painting is piquant and as iridescent as a peacock's -tail, but in this very iridescence there is often an unspeakable charm. -It has the rocket-like brilliancy and the glancing chivalry which were -part of the man himself, and made him the best of good company, the -_enfant terrible_, the centre of all that was witty and spirited in the -circle of Fontainebleau. - -He, too, was long acquainted with poverty, as were his great -brother-artists Rousseau and Dupr. Shortly after his birth he lost his -father. Madame Diaz, left entirely without means, came to Paris, where -she supported herself by giving lessons in Spanish and Italian. When he -was ten years old the boy was left an orphan alone in the vast city. A -Protestant clergyman in Bellevue then adopted him. And now occurred the -misfortune which he was so fond of relating in after-years. In one of -his wanderings through the wood he was bitten by a poisonous insect, and -from that time he was obliged to hobble through life with a wooden leg, -which he called his _pilon_. From his fifteenth year he worked, at first -as a lame errand boy, and afterwards as a painter on china, together -with Dupr, Raffet, and Cabat, in the manufactory of Svres. Before long -he was dismissed as incompetent, for one day he took it into his head to -decorate a vase entirely after his own taste. Then poverty began once -more. Often when the evening drew on he wandered about the boulevards -under cover of the darkness, opened the doors of carriages which had -drawn up at the pavement, and stretched out his hand to beg. "What does -it matter?" he said; "one day I shall have carriages and horses, and a -golden crutch; my brush will win them for me." He exhibited a picture on -speculation at a picture-dealer's, in the hope of making a hundred -francs; it was "The Descent of the Bohemians," that picturesque band of -men, women, and children, who advance singing, laughing, and shouting by -a steep woodland road, to descend on some neighbouring village like a -swarm of locusts. A Parisian collector bought it for fifteen hundred -francs. Diaz was saved, and he migrated to the forest of Fontainebleau. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - HARPIGNIES. MOONRISE.] - -His biography explains a great deal in the character of the painter's -art. His works are unequal. In his picture "Last Tears," which appeared -in the World Exhibition of 1855, and which stands to his landscapes as a -huge block of copper to little ingots of gold, he entered upon a course -in which he wandered long without any particular artistic result. He -wanted to be a figure-painter, and with this object he concocted a style -of painting by a mixture of various traditions, seeking to unite -Prudhon, Correggio, and Leonardo. From the master of Cluny he borrowed -the feminine type with a snub nose and long almond-shaped eyes, treated -the hair like da Vinci, and placed over it the _sfumato_ of Allegri. His -drawing, usually so pictorial in its light sweep, became weak in his -effort to be correct, and his colouring grew dull and monotonous by its -imitation of the style of the Classicists. But during this period Diaz -made a great deal of money, sold his pictures without intermission, and -avenged himself, as he had determined to do, upon his former poverty. -He, who had begged upon the boulevards, was able to buy weapons and -costumes at the highest figure, and build himself a charming house in -the Place Pigalle. In all that concerns his artistic position these -works, which brought him an income of fifty thousand francs, and, for a -long time, the fame of a new Prudhon, are nevertheless without -importance. Faltering between the widely divergent influences of the old -masters, he did not get beyond a wavering eclecticism, and was too weak -in drawing to attain results worth mentioning. It is as a landscape -painter that he will be known to posterity. He is said to have been the -terror of all game as long as he was the house-mate of Rousseau and -Millet in Fontainebleau, and wandered through the woods there with a gun -on his arm to get a cheap supper. It is reported, too, that when his -pictures were rejected by the Salon in those days he laughingly made a -hole in the canvas with his wooden leg, saying: "What is the use of -being rich? I can't have a diamond set in my _pilon_!" It was however in -the years before 1855, when he had nothing to do with any -picture-dealer, that the immortal works of Diaz were executed. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ CONSTANT TROYON.] - -The mention of his name conjures up before the mind the recesses of a -wood, reddened by autumn, a wood where the sunbeams play, gilding the -trunks of the trees; naked white forms repose amid mysterious lights, or -on paths of golden sand appear gaily draped odalisques, their rich -costume glittering in the rays of the sun. Few have won from the forest, -as he did, its beauty of golden sunlight and verdant leaves. Others -remained at the entrance of the forest; he was the first who really -penetrated to its depths. The branches met over his head like the waves -of the sea, the blue heaven vanished, and everything was shrouded. The -sunbeams fell like the rain of Dana through the green leaves, and the -moss lay like a velvet mantle on the granite piles of rock. He settled -down like a hermit in his verdant hollow. The leaves quivered green and -red, and covered the ground, shining like gold in the furtive rays of -the evening sun. Nothing was to be seen of the trees, nothing of the -outline of their foliage, nothing of the majestic sweep of their boughs, -but only the mossy stems touched by the radiance of the sun. The -pictures of Diaz are not landscapes, for the land is wanting; they are -"tree scapes," and their poetry lies in the sunbeams which dance playing -round them. "Have you seen my last stem?" he would himself inquire of -the visitors to his studio. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - TROYON. IN NORMANDY: COWS GRAZING.] - -These woodland recesses were the peculiar specialty of Diaz, and he but -seldom abandoned them to paint warm, dreamy pictures of summer. For, -like a true child of the South, he only cared to see nature on beautiful -days. He knows nothing of spring with its light mist, and still less of -the frozen desolation of winter. The summer alone does he know, the -summer and the autumn; and the summers of Diaz are an everlasting song, -like the springs of Corot. Beautiful nymphs and other beings from the -golden age give animation to his emerald meadows and his sheltered woods -bathed in the sun: here are little, homely-looking nixies, and there are -pretty Cupids and Venuses and Dianas of charming grace. And none of -these divinities think about anything or do anything; they are not -piquant, like those of Boucher and Fragonard, and they know neither -coquetry nor smiles. They are merely goddesses of the palette; their -wish is to be nothing but shining spots of colour, and they love nothing -except the silvery sunbeams which fall caressingly on their naked skin. -If the painter wishes for more vivid colour they throw around them -shining red, blue, yellowish-green, or gold-embroidered clothes, and -immediately are transformed from nymphs into Oriental women, as in a -magic theatre. A fragment of soft silk, gleaming with gold, and a red -turban were means sufficient for him to conjure up his charming and -fanciful land of Turks. Sometimes even simple mortals--wood-cutters, -peasant girls, and gipsies--come into his pictures, that the sunbeams -may play upon them, while their picturesque rags form piquant spots of -colour. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - TROYON. CROSSING THE STREAM.] - -Diaz belongs to the same category as Isabey and Fromentin, a fascinating -artist, a great _charmeur_, and a feast to the eyes. - -When in the far South, amid the eternal summer of Mentone, he closed his -dark, shining eyes for ever, at dawn on 18th November 1876, a breath of -sadness went through the tree-tops of the old royal forest of -Fontainebleau. The forest had lost its hermit, the busy woodsman who -penetrated farthest into its green depths; and it preserves his memory -gratefully. Only go, in October, through the copse of Bas Brau, lose -yourself amid the magnificent foliage of these century-old trees that -glimmer with a thousand hues like gigantic bouquets, dark green and -brown, or golden and purple, and at the sight of this brilliant gleam of -autumn tones you can only say, A Diaz! - -The youngest of the group, _Daubigny_, came when the battle was over, -and plays a slighter _rle_, since he cannot be reckoned any longer -among the discoverers; nevertheless he has a physiognomy of his own, and -one of peculiar charm. The others were painters of nature; Daubigny is -the painter of the country. If one goes from Munich to Dachau to see the -apple trees blossom and the birches growing green, to breathe in the -odour of the cow-house and the fragrance of the hay, to hear the tinkle -of cow-bells, the croaking of frogs, and the hum of gnats, one does not -say, "I want to see nature," but "I am going into the country." Jean -Jacques Rousseau was the worshipper of nature, while Georges Sand, in -certain of her novels, has celebrated country life. In this sense -Daubigny is less an adorer of nature than a man fond of the country. His -pictures give the feeling one has in standing at the window on a country -excursion, and looking at the laughing and budding spring. One feels no -veneration for the artist, but one would like to be a bird to perch on -those boughs, a lizard to creep amongst this green, a cockchafer to fly -humming from tree to tree. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - TROYON. THE RETURN TO THE FARM.] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - TROYON. A COW SCRATCHING HERSELF.] - -Daubigny, possibly, has not the great and free creative power of the -older artists, their magnificent simplicity in treating objects: the -feminine element, the susceptibility to natural beauty, preponderates in -him, and not the virile, creative power of embodiment, which at once -discovers in itself a telling force of expression for the image received -from nature. He seeks after no poetic emotions, like Dupr; he has not -the profound, penetrative eye for nature, like Rousseau; in his charm -and amiability he approaches Corot, except that mythological beings are -no longer at home in his landscapes. They would take no pleasure in this -odour of damp grass, the smell of the cow-byres, and the dilapidated old -skiffs which rock, in Daubigny's pictures, fastened to a swampy bank. -Corot, light, delicate, and simple as a boy, sitting on a school-bench -all his life, is always veiled and mysterious. Daubigny, heavier and -technically better equipped, has more power and less grace; he dreams -less and paints more. Corot made the apotheosis of nature: his silvery -grey clouds bore him to the Elysian fields, where nothing had the -heaviness of earth and everything melted in poetic vapour. Daubigny, -borne by no wings of Icarus, seems like Antus beside him; he is bodily -wedded to the earth. Dupr made the earth a mirror of the tears and -passions of men. Corot surprised her before the peasant is up of a -morning, in the hours when she belongs altogether to the nymphs and the -fairies. In Daubigny the earth has once more become the possession of -human beings. It is not often that figures move in his pictures. Even -Rousseau more often finds a place in his landscapes for the rustic, but -nature in him is hard, unapproachable, and deliberately indifferent to -man. She looks down upon him austerely, closing and hardening her heart -against him. In Daubigny nature is familiar with man, stands near him, -and is kindly and serviceable. The skiffs rocking at the river's brink -betray that fishers are in the neighbourhood; even when they are empty -his little houses suggest that their inhabitants are not far off, that -they are but at work in the field and may come back at any moment. In -Rousseau man is merely an atom of the infinite; here he is the lord of -creation. Rousseau makes an effect which is simple and powerful, Dupr -one which is impassioned and striking, Corot is divine, Diaz charming, -and Daubigny idyllic, intimate, and familiar. He closed a period and -enjoyed the fruits of what the others had called into being. One does -not admire him--one loves him. - -He had passed his youth with his nurse in a little village, surrounded -with white-blossoming apple trees and waving fields of corn, near L'Isle -Adam. Here as a boy he received the impressions which made him a painter -of the country, and which were too strong to be obliterated by a sojourn -in Italy. The best picture that he painted there showed a flat stretch -of land with thistles. A view of the island of St. Louis was the work -with which he first appeared in the Salon in 1838. - -Daubigny is the painter of water, murmuring silver-grey between ashes -and oaks, and reflecting the clouds of heaven in its clear mirror. He is -the painter of the spring in its fragrance, when the meadows shine in -the earliest verdure, and the leaves but newly unfolded stand out -against the sky as bright green patches of colour, when the limes -blossom and the crops begin to shoot. A field of green corn waving -gently beneath budding apple trees in the breeze of spring, still rivers -in which banks and bushy islands are reflected, mills beside little -streams rippling in silvery clearness over shining white pebbles, -cackling geese, and washerwomen neatly spreading out their linen, are -things which Daubigny has painted with the delicate feeling of a most -impressionable lover of nature. At the same time he had the secret of -shedding over his pictures the most marvellous tint of delicate, -vaporous air; especially in those representations, at once so poetic and -so accurate, of evening by the water's edge, or of bright moonlight -nights, when all things are sharply illuminated, and yet softly shrouded -with a dream-like exhalation. His favourite light was that of cool -evening dusk, after the sun and every trace of the after-glow has -vanished from the sky. Valmandois, where he passed his youth, and -afterwards the Oise, with its green banks and vineyards and hedged -gardens, the most charming and picturesque river in North France, are -most frequently rendered in his pictures. Every day, when nature put on -her spring garb, he sailed along the banks in a small craft, with his -son Charles. His most vigorous works were executed in the cabin of this -vessel: spirited sketches of regions delicately veiled in mist and bound -with a magical charm of peace, regions with the moon above them, -shedding its clear, silver light--refined etchings which assure him a -place of honour in the history of modern etching. The painter of the -banks of the Oise saw everything with the curiosity and the love of a -child, and remained always a nave artist in spite of all his dexterity. - -[Illustration: ROSA BONHEUR. THE HORSE-FAIR. - - (_By permission of Mr. L. H. Lefvre, the owner of the copyright._)] - -[Illustration: ROSA BONHEUR. PLOUGHING IN NIVERNOIS.] - -After these great masters had opened up the path a tribe of landscape -painters set themselves to render, each in his own way, the vigorous -power, the tender charm, and the plaintive melancholy of the earth. Some -loved dusk and light, the simple reproduction of ordinary places in -their ordinary condition; others delighted in the struggle of the -elements, the violent scudding of clouds, the parting glance of the sun, -the sombre hours when nature shrouds her face with the mourning veil of -a widow. - -Although he never tasted the pleasures of fame, _Antoine Chintreuil_ was -the most refined of them all--an excessively sensitive spirit, who -seized with as much delicacy as daring swiftly transient effects of -nature, such as seldom appear: the moment when the sun casts a fleeting -radiance in the midst of clouds, or when a shaft of light quivers for an -instant through a dense mist; the effect of green fields touched by the -first soft beams of the sun, or that of a rainbow spanning a fresh -spring landscape. His pupil _Jean Desbrosses_ was the painter of hills -and valleys. _Achard_ followed Rousseau in his pictures of lonely, -austere, and mournful regions. _Franais_ painted familiar corners in -the neighbourhood of Paris with grace, although more heavily than Corot, -and without the shining light which is poured through the works of that -rare genius. The pictures of _Harpignies_ are rather dry, and betray a -heavy hand. He is rougher than his great predecessors, less seductive -and indeed rather staid, but he has a convincing reality, and is loyal -and simple. He is valuable as an honest, genial artist, a many-sided and -sure-footed man of talent, somewhat inclined to Classicism. _mile -Breton_, the brother of Jules, delighted in the agitation of the -elements, wild, out-of-the-way regions, and harsh climate. His -execution is broad, his tones forcible, and he has both simplicity and -largeness. Apart from his big, gloomy landscapes, _Lonce Chabry_ has -also painted sea-pieces, with dark waves dashing against the cleft -rocks. - -[Illustration: VAN MARCKE. LA FALAISE.] - -The representation of grazing animals plays a great part in the art of -almost all of these painters. Some carried the love of animal painting -so far that they never painted a landscape without introducing into the -foreground their dearly loved herds of cows or flocks of sheep. The key -of the landscape, the cheerful and sunny brilliancy of colour or the -still melancholy of the evening dusk, is harmoniously repeated in the -habits and being of these animals. Thus, too, new paths were opened to -animal painting, which had suffered, no less than landscape, from the -yoke of conventionality. - -Up to the close of the eighteenth century French artists had contented -themselves with adapting to French taste the light and superficial art -of Nicolaus Berghem. Demarne, one of the last heirs of this Dutch -artist, brought, even in the period of the Revolution, a little -sunshine, blitheness, and country air amongst the large pictures in the -classical manner. The animal painting of the _ancien rgime_ expired in -his arms, and the "noble style" of Classicism obstructed the rise of the -new animal painting. The fact that the great Jupiter, father of gods and -men, assumed the form of a four-footed creature when he led weak, -feminine beings astray had no doubt given a certain justification to -the animal picture during the reign of the school of David. But the -artists preferred to hold aloof from it, either because animals are hard -to idealise in themselves, or because the received antique sculpture of -animals was difficult to employ directly in pictures. In landscapes, -which gods and heroes alone honoured with their presence, idealised -animals would have been altogether out of place. Only animals which are -very difficult to draw correctly, such as sphinxes, sirens, and winged -horses--beings which the old tragedians were fond of turning to -account--are occasionally allowed to exist in the pictures of Bertin and -Paul Flandrin. _Carle Vernet_, who composed cavalry charges and hunting -scenes, had not talent enough seriously to make a breach, or to find -disciples to follow his lead. _Gricault_, the forerunner of -Romanticism, was likewise the first eminent painter of horses; and -although his great "Raft of the Medusa" is heavily fettered by the -system of Classicism, his jockey pictures and horse races are as fresh, -as vivid, and as unforced as if they had been painted yesterday instead -of seventy years ago. In dashing animation, verve, and temperament -Gricault stands alone in these pictures; he is the very opposite of -Raymond Brascassat, who was the first specialist of animal pieces with a -landscape setting, and was much praised in the thirties on account of -his neat and ornamental style of treatment. _Brascassat_ was the -Winterhalter of animal painting, neither Classicist nor Romanticist nor -Realist, but the embodiment of mediocrity; a man honestly and sincerely -regarding all nature with the eyes of a Philistine. His fame, which has -so swiftly faded, was founded by those patrons of art who above all -demand that a picture should be the bald, banal reproduction of fact, -made with all the accuracy possible. - -[Illustration: CHARLES JACQUE. THE RETURN TO THE BYRE (ETCHING). - - (_By permission of M. Frdric Jacque, the owner of the copyright._)] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - CHARLES JACQUE. A FLOCK OF SHEEP ON THE ROAD. - - (_By permission of M. Frdric Jacque, the owner of the copyright._)] - -It was only when the landscape school of Fontainebleau had initiated a -new method of vision, feeling, and expression that France produced a new -great painter of animals. As Dupr and Rousseau tower over their -predecessors Cabat and Flandrin in landscape, so _Constant Troyon_ rises -above Brascassat in animal painting. In the latter there may be found a -scrupulous pedantic observation in union with a thin, polished, -academic, and carefully arranged style of painting; in the former, a -large and broad technique in harmony with wild nature, and a directness -and force of intuition without parallel in the history of art. -Brascassat belongs to the same category as Denner, Troyon to that of -Frans Hals and Brouwer. - -There would be no purpose in saying anything of his labours in the china -manufactory of Svres, of his industrial works, and of the little -classical views with which he made a first appearance in the Salon in -1833, or of the impulse which he received from Roqueplan. He first found -his own powers when he made the acquaintance of Thodore Rousseau and -Jules Dupr, and migrated with them into the forest of Fontainebleau. At -the headquarters of the new school his ideas underwent a revolution. -Here, in the first instance, as a landscape painter, he was attracted by -the massive forms of cattle, which make such a harmonious effect of -colour in the atmosphere and against verdure, and the philosophic -quietude of which gives such admirable completion to the dreamy spirit -of nature. A journey to Holland and Belgium in 1847, in the course of -which he became more familiar with the old animal painters, confirmed -him in the resolve of devoting himself exclusively to this province. He -was captivated not so much by Paul Potter as by Albert Cuyp, with his -rich and powerful colouring, and his technique, which is at once so -virile and so easy. But above all Rembrandt became his great ideal, and -filled him with wonder. In his first masterpiece of 1849, "The Mill," -the influence of the great Dutch artist is clearly recognisable, and -from that time up to 1855 it remained dominant. In this year, during a -prolonged sojourn in Normandy, he became Troyon, and painted "Oxen going -to their Work," that mighty picture in the Louvre which displays him in -the zenith of his creative power. Till then no animal painter had -rendered with such a combination of strength and actuality the long, -heavy gait, the philosophical indifference, and the quiet resignation of -cattle, the poetry of autumnal light, and the mist of morning rising -lightly from the earth and veiling the whole land with grey, silvery -hues. The deeply furrowed smoking field makes an undulating ascent, so -that one seems to be looking at the horizon over the broad face of the -earth. A primitive, Homeric feeling rests over it. - -Troyon is perhaps not so correct as Potter, nor so lucid as Albert Cuyp, -but he is more forcible and impressive than either. No one has ever -seized the poetry of these heavy masses of flesh, with their strong -colour and largeness of outline, as he has done. What places him far -above the old painters is his fundamental power as a landscapist, a -power unequalled except in Rousseau. His landscapes have always the -smell of the earth, and they smack of rusticity. At one time he paints -the atmosphere, veiling the contours of objects with a light mist -recalling Corot, and yet saturated with clear sunshine; at another he -sends his heavy, fattened droves in the afternoon across field-paths -bright in the sunlight and dark green meadows, or places them beneath a -sky where dense thunderclouds are swiftly rolling up. Troyon is no poet, -but a born painter, belonging to the irrepressibly forceful family of -Jordaens and Courbet, a _matre peintre_ of strength and plastic genius, -as healthy as he is splendid in colour. His "Cow scratching Herself" and -his "Return to the Farm" will always be counted amongst the most -forcible animal pictures of all ages. - -When he died in 1865, after passing twelve years with a clouded -intellect, _Rosa Bonheur_ sought to fill the place which he had left -vacant. She had already won the sympathies of the great public, as she -united in her pictures all the qualities which were missed in Troyon, -and had the art of pleasing where he was repellent. For a long time -Troyon's works were held by _amateurs_ to be wanting in finish. They did -not acknowledge to themselves that "finish" in artistic creations is, -after all, only a work of patience, rather industrial than artistic, and -at bottom invented for the purpose of enticing half-trained -connoisseurs. Rosa Bonheur had this diligence, and is indebted to it for -the spread of her fame through all Europe, when Troyon was only known -as yet to the few. The position has now been altered. Without doubt it -is a pleasure to look at her fresh and sunny maiden picture of 1840, -"Ploughing in Nivernois," with its yoke of six oxen, its rich red-brown -soil turned up into furrows, and its wide, bright, simple, and laughing -landscape beneath the clear blue sky. She had all the qualities which -may be appreciated without one's being an epicure of art--great -anatomical knowledge, dexterous technique, charming and seductive -colouring. And it is an isolated fact in the history of art that a woman -has painted pictures so good as the "Hay Harvest in Auvergne" of 1853, -with its brutes which are almost life-size, or the "Horse Fair" of 1855, -which is perhaps her most brilliant work, and for which she made -studies, going in man's clothes for eighteen months, at all the Parisian -_manges_, amongst stable-boys and horse-dealers. Until her death, from -the Chteau By, between Thomery and Fontainebleau, she carried on an -extensive transpontine export, and her pictures are by no means the -worst of those which find their way from the Continent to England and -America. She was perhaps the only feminine celebrity of the century who -painted her pictures, instead of working at them like knitting. But -Troyon is a strong master who suffers no rival. His landscapes, with -their deep verdure, their powerful animals, and their skies traversed by -heavy clouds, are the embodiment of power. Rosa Bonheur is an admirable -painter with largeness of style and beauty of drawing, whose artistic -position is between Troyon and Brascassat. - -Troyon's only pupil was _mile van Marcke_, half a Belgian, who met the -elder master in Svres, and for a long time worked by his side at -Fontainebleau. He united the occupation of a painter with that of a -landed proprietor. The cattle which he bred on an extensive scale at his -property, Bouttencourt in Normandy, had a celebrity amongst French -landowners, as he had the reputation of rearing the best fat cattle. He -too had not the impressiveness of Troyon, though he was, none the less, -a healthy and forcible master. His animals have no passions, no -movement, and no battles. They seem lost in endless contemplation, -gravely and sedately chewing the cud. Around them stretch the soft green -Norman pastures, and above them arches the wide sky, which at the -horizon imperceptibly melts into the sea. - -_Jadin_ is a painter of horses and dogs who had once a great reputation, -though to-day his name is almost, if not entirely forgotten. He was fond -of painting hunting scenes, and is not wanting in life and movement; but -he is too impersonal to play a part in the history of painting. Having -named him, some mention must likewise be made of _Eugne Lambert_, the -painter of cats, and _Palizzi_, who painted goats. Lambert, who was fond -of introducing his little heroes as the actors of comical scenes, is by -admission the chief amongst all those who were honoured amongst the -different nations with the title of "Raphaels of the Cat." Palizzi, an -incisive master of almost brutal energy, a true son of the wild Abruzzo -hills, delighted, like his compatriots Morelli and Michetti, in the -blazing light of noon, shining over rocky heights, and throwing a -dazzle of gold on the dark green copse. _Lanon_, a rather arid painter, -though a draughtsman with a broad and masculine stroke, was the greatest -descendant of Delacroix in the representation of tigers, lions, bears, -and hippopotamuses. An unobtrusive artist, though one of very genial -talent, was _Charles Jacque_, the Troyon of sheep. He has been compared -with the _rageur_ of Bas Brau, the proud oak which stands alone in a -clearing. A man of forcible character, over whom age had no power, he -survived until 1894 as the last representative of the noble school of -Barbizon. He has painted sheep in flocks or separately, in the pasture, -on the verge of the field-path, or in the fold; and he loved most of all -to paint them in the misty hours of evening twilight, at peace and amid -peaceful nature. But in spirited etchings he has likewise represented -old weather-beaten walls, the bright films of spring, the large outlines -of peasant folk, the tender down of young chickens, the light play of -the wind upon the sea, murmuring brooks, and quiet haunts of the wood. -Like Millet, he had in an eminent degree the gift of simplification, the -greatest quality that an artist can have. With three or four strokes he -could plant a figure on its feet, give life to an animal, or construct a -landscape. He was the most intimate friend of Jean Franois Millet, and -painted part of what Millet painted also. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -JEAN FRANOIS MILLET - - -Whence has _Millet_ come? - -It was the time when art, still blind to the life around, could find no -subjects worthy of it except in the past and in the distance. Then -Millet came and overthrew an art vegetating in museums or astray in -tropical countries. It was the time when Leopold Robert in Italy tested -the noble pose of the school of David upon the peasant, and when the -German painters of rustics recognised in the labourer an object for -pleasantries and pathetic little scenes. Then Millet stepped forward and -painted, with profound simplicity, the people at work in the field, or -in their distress, without sentimentality and without beautifying or -idealising them. That great utterance, "I work," the utterance of the -nineteenth century, is here spoken aloud for the first time. Rousseau -and his fellow-artists were the painters of the country. Millet became -the painter of the labourer. He, the great peasant, is the creator of -that painting of peasants which is entwined with the deepest roots of -intimate landscape. Misunderstood in the beginning, it proclaimed for -the first time the new gospel of art before which the people of all -nations bow at the present date. What others did later was merely to -advance on the path opened by Millet. And as time passes the figure of -this powerful man shines more and more brilliantly. The form of Jean -Franois Millet rises so powerfully, so imperiously, and so suddenly -that one might almost imagine him to have come from Ibsen's third -kingdom; for he is without forerunners in art. An attempt has been made -to bring him into relation with the social and political movement of -ideas in the forties, but certainly this is unjust. Millet was in no -sense revolutionary. During his whole life he repudiated the designs -which some of the democratic party imputed to him, as well as the -conclusions which they drew from his works. - -Millet's life in itself explains his art. Never have heart and hand, a -man and his work, tallied with each other as they did in him. He does -not belong to those painters who, even when one admires them, give one -nevertheless a sense that they could just as easily have produced -something different. Let any one consider his works and read the letters -published in Sensier's book: the man whom one knows from the letters -lives in his works, and these works are the natural illustration of the -book in which the man has depicted himself. In the unity of man and -artist lies the source of his strength, the secret of his greatness. - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ - - JEAN FRANOIS MILLET. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] - -Even the circumstances over which he triumphed necessitated his being -the painter that he actually was, if he became one at all. He was not -born in a city where a child's eyes are everywhere met by works of -art--pictures which no doubt early awaken the feeling for art, but which -just as easily disturb a free outlook into nature. Moreover, he did not -spring from one of those families where art is itself practised, or -where art is discussed and taste early guided upon definite lines. He -was a peasant, whose father and grandfather were peasants before him, -and whose brothers were farm labourers. He was born in 1814, far away -from Paris, in a little Norman village hard by the sea, and there he -grew up. The regular and majestic plunge of the waves against the -granite rocks of the coast, the solemn murmurs of the ebb and flow of -the sea, the moaning of the wind in the apple trees and the old oaks of -his father's garden, were the first sounds which struck upon the ear in -Gruchy, near Cherbourg. It has been adduced that his father loved music, -and had had success as the leader of the village choir. But though there -may have always been a dim capacity for art in the youngster's blood, -there was nothing calculated to strengthen it in his education. Millet's -sturdy father had no idea of making an artist of his son; the boy saw no -artist at work in the neighbourhood; nature and instinct guided him -alone. - -For a man brought up in a city and trained at an academy all things -become hackneyed. Many centuries of artistic usage have dimmed their -original freshness; and he finds a ready-made phrase coined for -everything. Millet stood before the world like the first man in the day -of creation. Everything seemed new to him; he was charmed and -astonished, and a wild flood of impressions burst in upon him. He did -not come under the influence of any tradition, but approached art like -the man in the age of stone who first scratched the outline of a mammoth -on a piece of ivory, or like the primval Greek who, according to the -legend, invented painting by making a likeness of his beloved with a -charred stick upon a wall. No one encouraged him in his first attempts. -No one dreamt that this young man was destined to any life other than -that of a peasant. From the time he was fourteen until he was eighteen -he did every kind of field labour upon his father's land in the same way -as his brothers--hoeing, digging, ploughing, mowing, threshing, sowing -the seed, and dressing the ground. But he always had his eyes about him; -he drew upon a white patch of wall, without guidance, the picture of a -tree, an orchard, or a peasant whom he had chanced to meet on a Sunday -when going to church. And he drew so correctly that every one recognised -the likenesses. A family council was held upon the matter. His father -brought one of his son's drawings to a certain M. Mouchel in Cherbourg, -a strange personage who had once been a painter and had the reputation -of being a connoisseur; and he was to decide whether Franois "had -really enough talent for painting to gain his bread by it." So Millet, -the farm-hand, was twenty when he received his first lessons in drawing. -He was learning the A B C of art, but humanly speaking he was already -Millet. What had roused his talent and induced him to take a stump of -charcoal in his hand was not the study of any work of art, but the sight -of nature--nature, the great mother of all, who had embraced him, nature -with whom and through whom he lived. Through her, visions and emotions -were quickened in him, and he felt the secret impulse to give them -expression. - -[Illustration: MILLET. THE HOUSE AT GRUCHY.] - -Of what concerned the manual part of his art he understood nothing, and -his two teachers in Cherbourg, Mouchel and Langlois, who were -half-barbarians themselves, gave him the less knowledge, as only two -months later, in 1835, his father died, and the young man returned to -his own people as a farm-labourer once more. And it was only after an -interruption of three years that a subsidy from the community of -Cherbourg, which was collected by his teacher Langlois, and a small sum -saved by his parents--six hundred francs all told--enabled him to -journey up to Paris. He was twenty-three years of age, a broad-chested -Hercules in stature, for till that time he had breathed nothing but the -pure, sharp sea air; his handsome face was framed in long fair locks, -which fell wildly about his shoulders. What had this peasant to do in -the capital! In Delaroche's school he was called _l'homme des bois_. He -had all the awkwardness of a provincial, and the artist was only to be -surmised from the fire in the glance of his large dark blue eyes. At -first Delaroche took peculiar pains with his new pupil. But to submit to -training is to follow the lead of another person. A man like Millet, who -knew what he wanted, was no longer to be guided upon set lines. The -pictures of Delaroche made no appeal to him. They struck him as being -"huge vignettes, theatrical effects without any real sentiment." And -Delaroche soon lost patience with the clumsy peasant, whom he--most -unfairly--regarded as stiff-necked and obstinate. - -Other aims floated before Millet, and he _could_ not now learn to -produce academical compositions, so, as these were alone demanded in the -school of Delaroche, he never cleared himself from a reputation for -mediocrity. It was the period of the war between the Classicists and the -Romanticists. "An Ingres, a Delacroix!" was the battle-cry that rang -through the Parisian studios. For Millet neither of these movements had -any existence. His memory only clung to the plains of Normandy, and the -labourers, shepherds, and fishermen of his home, with whom he mingled in -spirit once more. Incessantly he believed himself to hear what he has -called "_le cri de la terre_," and neither Romanticists nor Classicists -caught anything of this cry of the earth. He lived alone with his own -thoughts, associating with none of his fellow-artists, and indeed -keeping out of their way. Always prepared for some scornful attempt at -witticism, he turned his easel round whenever he was approached, or -gruffly cut all criticism short with the remark: "What does my painting -matter to you? I don't trouble my head about your bread and grease." -Thus it was that Delaroche certainly taught him very little of the -technique of painting, though, at the same time, he taught him no -mannerism. He did not learn to paint pretty pictures with beautiful -poses, flattering colour, and faces inspired with intellect. He left the -studio as he had entered it in 1837, painting with an awkward, thick, -heavy, and laborious brush, though with the fresh, untroubled vision -which he had had in earlier days. He was still the stranger, the -incorrigible Norman peasant. - -For a time he exerted himself to make concessions to the public. At -seven-and-twenty he had married a Cherbourg girl, who died of -consumption three years afterwards. Without acquaintances in Paris, and -habituated to domestic life from his youth upwards, he married a second -time in 1845. He had to earn his bread, to please, to paint what would -sell. So he toiled over pretty pictures of nude women, like those which -Diaz had painted with such great success--fair shepherdesses and gallant -herdsmen, and bathing girls, in the _genre_ of Boucher and Fragonard. -And he who did this spoke of both of them afterwards as pornographists. -But the attempt was vain, for he satisfied neither others nor himself. -The peasant of Gruchy could not be piquant, easy, and charming; on the -contrary, he remained helpless, awkward, and crude. "Your women bathing -come from the cow-house" was the appropriate remark of Diaz in reference -to these pictures. When Burger-Thor, who was the first to take notice -of Millet, declared, on the occasion of "The Milkmaid" being exhibited -in 1844, that Boucher himself was surpassed in this picture, the critic -took a literary licence, because he had a human pity for the poor -painter. How little the picture has of the fragrance of the old masters! -how laboured it seems! how obvious it is that it was painted without -pleasure! Millet was not long at pains to conceal his personality. An -"Oedipus" and "The Jewish Captives in Babylon" were his last rhetorical -exercises. In 1848 he came forward with a manifesto--"The Winnower," a -peasant in movement and bearing, in his whole character and in the work -on which he is employed. Millet returns here to the thoughts and -feelings of his youth; for the future he will paint nothing but peasants -in all the situations of their rude and simple life. In 1849 he made a -great resolve. - -[Illustration: F. JACQUE. MILLET AT WORK IN HIS STUDIO. - - (_By permission of M. F. Jacque, the owner of the copyright._)] - -The sale of his "Winnower" had brought him five hundred francs, and -these five hundred francs gave him courage to defy the world. "Better -turn bricklayer than paint against conviction." Charles Jacque, the -painter of animals, who lived opposite to him in the Rue Rochechouard, -wanted to quit Paris in 1849 on account of the outbreak of cholera. He -proposed that Millet should go with him into the country for a short -time; he did so, and the peasant's son of former times became once more -a peasant, to end his days amongst peasants. "In the middle of the -forest of Fontainebleau," said Jacque, "there is a little nest, with a -name ending in 'zon'--not far off and cheap,--Diaz has been telling me a -great deal about it." Millet consented. One fine June day they got into -a heavy, rumbling omnibus, with their wives and their five children, and -they arrived in Fontainebleau that evening after two hours' journey. -"To-morrow we are going in search of our 'zon.'" And the next day they -went forward on foot to Barbizon, Millet with his two little girls upon -his shoulders, and his wife carrying in her arms the youngest child, a -boy of five months old, having her skirt drawn over her head as a -protection against the rain. - -[Illustration: F. JACQUE. MILLET'S HOUSE AT BARBIZON. - - (_By permission of M. F. Jacque, the owner of the copyright._)] - -As yet the forest had no walks laid out as it has to-day; it was virgin -nature, which had never been disturbed. "_Mon Dieu, mon Dieu, que c'est -beau!_" cried Millet, exulting. Once more he stood in the presence of -nature, the old love of his youth. The impressions of childhood rushed -over him. Born in the country, he had to return to the country to be -himself once again. He arrived at Ganne's inn just as the dinner-hour -had assembled twenty persons at the table, artists with their wives and -children. "New painters! The pipe, the pipe!" was the cry which greeted -the fresh arrivals. Diaz rose, and, in spite of his wooden leg, did the -honours of the establishment to the two women with the dignity of a -Spanish nobleman, and then turned gravely to Millet and Jacque, saying: -"Citizens, you are invited to smoke the pipe of peace." Whenever the -colony of Barbizon received an addition this was always taken down from -its sacred place above the door. An expressly appointed jury had then to -decide from the ascending rings of smoke whether the new-comer was to be -reckoned amongst the "Classicists" or the "Colourists." Jacque was with -one voice declared to be a "Colourist." As to Millet's relation to the -schools, there was a discrepancy of opinion. "_Eh bien_," said Millet, -"_si vous tes embarrasss, placez-moi dans la mienne_." Whereupon -Diaz, as the others would not let this pass, cried: "Be quiet; it is a -good retort, and the fellow looks powerful enough to found a school -which will bury us all." He was right, even though it was late before -his prophecy was fulfilled. - -[Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - - MILLET. THE WINNOWER. - - (_By permission of M. Charles Millet._)] - -Millet was thirty-five when he settled in Barbizon; he had reached the -age which Dante calls the middle point of life. He had no further tie -with the outward world; he had broken all the bridges behind him, and -relied upon himself. He only went back to Paris on business, and he -always did so unwillingly and for as short a time as possible. He lived -at Barbizon in the midst of nature and in the midst of his models, and -to his last day unreservedly gave himself up to the work which in youth -he had felt himself called to fulfil. Neither criticism, mockery, nor -contempt could lead him any more astray; even if he had wished it, he -would have been incapable of following the paths of official art. "_Mes -critiques_," said he as though by way of excuse, "_sont gens instruits -et de got, mais je ne peux me mettre dans leur peau, et comme je n'ai -jamais vu de ma vie autre chose que les champs, je tche de dire comme -je peux ce que j'y ai prouv quand j'y travaillais_." When such a man -triumphs, when he succeeds in forcing upon the world his absolutely -personal art, it is not Mahomet who has come to the mountain, but the -mountain to Mahomet. - -Millet's life has been, in consequence, a continuous series of -renunciations. It is melancholy to read in Sensier's biography that such -a master, even during his Paris days, was forced to turn out copies at -twenty francs and portraits at five, and to paint tavern signs or -placards for the booths of rope-dancers and horse-dealers, each one of -which brought him in a roll of thick sous. When the Revolution of June -broke out his capital consisted of thirty francs, which the owner of a -small shop had paid him for a sign, and on this he and his family lived -for a fortnight. In Barbizon he boarded with a peasant and lived with -his family in a tiny room where wheat was stored and where bread was -baked twice in the week; then he took a little house at a hundred and -sixty francs a year. In winter he sat in a workroom without a fire, in -thick straw shoes and with an old horse-cloth over his shoulders. Living -like this he painted "The Sower," that marvellous strophe in his great -poem on the earth. By the produce of a vegetable garden he endeavoured -to increase his income, lived on credit with grocer and butcher, and at -last had creditors in every direction--in particular Gobillot, the baker -of Chailly, from whom he often hid at his friend Jacque's. - -He was forced to accept a loaf from Rousseau for his famishing family, -and small sums with which he was subsidised by Diaz. "I have received -the hundred francs," he writes in a letter to Sensier, "and they came -just at the right time; neither my wife nor I had tasted food for -four-and-twenty hours. It is a blessing that the little ones, at any -rate, have not been in want." - -[Illustration: _Neurdein Frres, photo._ - - MILLET. A MAN MAKING FAGGOTS.] - -[Illustration: _Levy et ses Fils, photo._ - - MILLET. THE GLEANERS.] - -All his efforts to exhibit in Paris were vain. Even in 1859 "Death and -the Woodcutter" was rejected by the Salon. The public laughed, being -accustomed to peasants in a comic opera, and, at best, his pictures were -honoured by a caricature in a humorous paper. Even the most delicate -connoisseurs had not the right historical perspective to appreciate the -greatness of Millet, so far was it in advance of the age. And all this -is so much the sadder when one thinks of the price which his works -fetched at a later period, when one reads that drawings for which he -could get with difficulty from twenty to forty francs are the works for -which as many thousands are now offered. It was only from the middle of -the fifties that he began to sell at the rate of from two hundred and -fifty to three hundred francs a picture. Rousseau was the first to offer -him a large sum, buying his "Woodcutter" for four thousand francs, on -the pretext that an American was the purchaser. Dupr helped him to -dispose of "The Gleaners" for two thousand francs. An agreement which -the picture-dealer Arthur Stevens, brother of Stevens the painter, -concluded with him had to be dissolved six months afterwards, since -Millet's time had not yet come. At last, in 1863, when he painted four -large decorative pictures--"The Four Seasons," which are, by the way, -his weakest works--for the dining-room of the architect Feydau, -superfluity came in place of need. He was then in a position, like -Rousseau and Jacque, to buy himself a little house in Barbizon, close to -the road by which the place is entered and opposite Ganne's inn. Wild -vine, ivy, and jessamine clambered round it, and two bushes of white -roses twisted their branches around the window. It was surrounded by a -large garden, in which field-flowers bloomed amongst vegetables and -fruit-trees, whilst a border of white roses and elders led to another -little house which he used as a studio. Behind was a poultry-yard, and -behind that again a thickly grown little shrubbery. Here he lived, -simple and upright, with his art and his own belongings, as a peasant -and a father of a family, like an Old Testament patriarch. His father -had had nine children, and he himself had nine. While he painted the -little ones played in the garden, the elder daughters worked, and when -the younger children made too much noise, Jeanne, who was seven years -old, would say with gravity, "_Chut! Papa travaille._" After the -evening meal he danced his youngest boy upon his knee and told Norman -tales, or they all went out together into the forest, which the children -called _la fort noire_, because it was so wild, gloomy, and -magnificent. - -Millet's poverty was not quite so great as might be supposed from -Sensier's book. Chintreuil, Thodore Rousseau, and many others were -acquainted with poverty likewise, and bore it with courage. It may even -be said that, all things considered, success came to Millet early. The -real misfortune for an artist is to have had success, to have been rich, -and later to see himself forgotten when he is stricken with poverty. -Millet's course was the opposite. From the beginning of the sixties his -reputation was no longer in question. At the World Exhibition of 1867 he -was showered with all outward honours. He was represented by nine -pictures and received the great medal. The whole world knew his name, -subsistence was abundantly assured to him, and all the younger class of -artists honoured him like a god. In the Salon of 1869 he was on the -hanging committee. The picture-dealers, who had passed him by in earlier -days, now beset his doors; he lived to see his "Woman with the Lamp" for -which he had received a hundred and fifty francs, sold for thirty-eight -thousand five hundred at Richard's sale. "_Allons, ils commencent -comprendre que c'est de la peinture serieuse._" M. de Chennevires -commissioned him to take part in the paintings in the Panthon, and he -began the work. But strength was denied him; he was prostrated by a -violent fever, and on 20th January 1875, at six o'clock in the morning, -Millet was dead. He was then sixty. - -[Illustration: _Mansell & Co._ - - MILLET. THE WOOD SAWYERS.] - -His funeral, indeed, was celebrated with no great parade, for it took -place far from Paris. It was a cold, dull morning, and there was mist -and rain. Not many friends had come, only a few painters and critics. At -eleven o'clock the procession was set in order. And it moved in the rain -quickly over the two _centimtres_ from Barbizon to Chailly. Even those -who had hastened from various villages, drawn by curiosity, could not -half fill the church. But in Paris the announcement of death raised all -the greater stir. When forty newspapers were displayed in a -picture-dealer's shop on the morning after his demise, all Paris -assembled and the excitement was universal. In the critical notices he -was named in the same breath with Watteau, Leonardo, Raphael, and -Michael Angelo. The auction which was held soon afterwards in the Htel -Drouot for the disposal of the sketches which he had left behind him -brought his family three hundred and twenty-one thousand francs. And in -these days, the very drawings and pastels which were bought for six -thousand francs immediately after his death have on the average risen in -value to thirty thousand, while the greater number of his pictures rose -to a figure beyond the reach of European purchasers, and passed across -the ocean to the happy land of dollars. Under such circumstances to -speak any longer of Millet being misunderstood, or to sing hymns of -praise upon him as a counterblast to the undervaluation of Millet in the -beginning, would be knocking at an open door. It is merely necessary -to inquire in an entirely objective spirit what position he occupies in -the history of modern painting, and what future generations will say of -him. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - MILLET. VINE-DRESSER RESTING. - - (_By permission of M. Charles Millet._)] - -Millet's importance is to some extent ethical; he is not the first who -painted peasants, but he is the first who has represented them -truthfully, in all their ruggedness, and likewise in their -greatness--not for the amusement of others, but as they claim a right to -their own existence. The spirit of the rustic is naturally grave and -heavy, and the number of his ideas and emotions is small. He has neither -wit nor sentimentalism. And when in his leisure moments he sometimes -gives way to a broad, noisy merriment, his gaiety often resembles -intoxication, and is not infrequently its consequence. His life, which -forces him to earn his bread by the sweat of his brow, always reminds -him of the hard fundamental conditions of existence. He looks at -everything in a spirit of calculation and strict economy. Even the earth -he stands on wakens in him a mood of seriousness. It is gravely sublime, -this nature with its wide horizon and its boundless sky. At certain -seasons it wears a friendly smile, especially for those who have escaped -for a few hours from town. But for him who always lives in its midst it -is not the good, tender mother that the townsman fancies. It has its -oppressive heats in summer and its bitter winter frosts; its majesty is -austere. And nowhere more austere than in Millet's home, amid those -plains of Normandy, swept by the rude wind, where he spent his youth as -a farm labourer. - -From this peasant life, painting, before his time, had collected merely -trivial anecdotes with a conventional optimism. It was through no very -adequate conception of man that peasants, in those earlier pictures, had -always to be celebrating marriages, golden weddings, and baptisms, -dancing rustic dances, making comic proposals, behaving themselves -awkwardly with advocates, or scuffling in the tavern for the amusement -of those who frequent exhibitions. They had really won their right to -existence by their labour. "The most joyful thing I know," writes Millet -in a celebrated letter to Sensier in 1851, "is the peace, the silence, -that one enjoys in the woods or on the tilled lands. One sees a poor, -heavily laden creature with a bundle of faggots advancing from a narrow -path in the fields. The manner in which this figure comes suddenly -before one is a momentary reminder of the fundamental condition of human -life, toil. On the tilled land around one watches figures hoeing and -digging. One sees how this or that one rises and wipes away the sweat -with the back of his hand. 'In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat -bread.' Is that merry, enlivening work, as some people would like to -persuade us? And yet it is here that I find the true humanity, the great -poetry." - -Perhaps in his conception of peasant life Millet has been even a little -too serious; perhaps his melancholy spirit has looked too much on the -sad side of the peasant's life. For Millet was altogether a man of -temperament and feelings. His family life had made him so even as a boy. -To see this, one needs only to read in Sensier's book of his old -grandmother, who was his godmother likewise, to hear how he felt in -after-years the news of his father's death and of his mother's, and how -he burst into tears because he had not given his last embrace to the -departed. Of course, a man who was so sad and dreamy might be expected -to lay special stress on the dark side of rustic life, its toil and -trouble and exhaustion. He had not that easy spirit which _amara lento -temperat risu_. The passage beneath the peasant-picture in Holbein's -"Dance of Death" might stand as motto for his whole work-- - - " la sueur de ton visage - Tu gagneras ta pauvre vie; - Aprs travail et long usage - Voici la mort qui te convie." - -[Illustration: _Mansell, photo._ - - MILLET. AT THE WELL.] - -[Illustration: _Neudein Frres, photo._ - - MILLET. BURNING WEEDS.] - -This grave and sad trait in Millet's character sets him, for example, in -abrupt contrast with Corot. Corot had a cheerful temperament, which -noticed what was kindly in nature everywhere. His favourite hour was -morning, when the sun rises and the lark exults, when the mists are -dissipated and the shining dew lies upon the grass like pearls. His -favourite season was spring, bringing with the new leaves life and joy -upon the earth. And if he sometimes peopled this laughing world with -peasant lads and maidens in place of the joyous creatures of his fancy, -they were only those for whom life is a feast rather than a round of -hard toil. Compared with so sanguine a man as Corot, Millet is -melancholy all through; whilst the former renders the spring, the latter -chooses the oppressive and enervating sultriness of summer. From -experience he knew that hard toil which makes men old before their time, -which kills body and spirit, and turns the image of God into an ugly, -misshapen, and rheumatic thing; and perhaps he has been one-sided in -seeing only this in the life of the peasant. Nevertheless, it is -inapposite to cite as a parallel to Millet's paintings of the peasant -that cruel description of the rustic made in the time of Louis XIV by -Labruyre: "One sees scattered over the field dwarfed creatures that -look like some strange kind of animal, black, withered, and sun-burnt, -fastened to the earth, in which they grub with invincible stubbornness; -they have something resembling articulate language, and when they raise -themselves they show a human countenance,--as a matter of fact they are -men. At night they retire to their holes, where they live on black -bread, water, and roots. They save other men the trouble of sowing, -ploughing, and gathering in the harvest, and so gain the advantage of -not themselves being in want of the bread that they have sown." Yes, -Millet's peasants toil, and they toil hard, but in bowing over the earth -at their work they are, in a sense, proudly raised by their whole -peasant nature. Millet has made human beings out of the manikins of -illustrated humour, and in this lies his ethical greatness. - -As his whole life passed without untruth or artificiality, so his whole -endeavour as an artist was to keep artificiality and untruth at a -distance. After a period of _genre_ painting which disposed of things in -an arbitrary manner, he opened a way for the new movement with its -unconditional devotion to reality. The "historical painters" having -conjured up the past with the assistance of old masterpieces, it was -something to the credit of the _genre_ painters that, instead of looking -back, they began to look around them. Fragments of reality were -arranged--in correspondence with the principle of Classical landscape -painting--according to the rules of composition known to history to make -_tableaux vivants_ crowded with figures; and such pictures related a -cheerful or a moving episode of the painter's invention. Millet's virtue -is to have set emotion in the place of invention, to have set a part of -nature grasped in its totality with spontaneous freshness in the place -of composition pieced together from scattered observation and forcing -life into inconsistent relations--to have set painting in the place of -history and anecdote. As Rousseau and his fellows discovered the poetry -of work-a-day nature, Millet discovered that of ordinary life. The -foundation of modern art could only be laid on painting which no longer -subjected the world to one-sided rules of beauty, but set itself piously -to watch for the beauty of things as they were, and renounced all -literary episodes. Millet does not appear to think that any one is -listening to him; he communes with himself alone. He does not care to -make his ideas thoroughly distinct and salient by repetitions and -antitheses; he renders his emotion, and that is all. And thus painting -receives new life from him: his pictures are not compositions that one -sees, but emotions that one feels; it is not a painter who speaks -through them, but, a man. From the first he had the faculty of seeing -things simply, directly, and naturally; and to exercise himself in this -faculty he began with the plainest things: a labourer in the field, -resting upon his spade and looking straight before him; a sower amid the -furrows, on which flights of birds are settling down; a man standing in -a ploughed field, putting on his coat; a woman stitching in a room; a -girl at the window behind a pot of marguerites. He is never weary of -drawing land broken up for cultivation, and oftener still he draws -huddled flocks of sheep upon a heath, their woolly backs stretching with -an undulatory motion, and a shepherd lad or a girl in their midst. - -"The Sower" (1850), "The Peasants going to their Work," "The -Hay-trussers," "The Reapers," "A Sheep-shearer," "The Labourer grafting -a Tree" (1855), "A Shepherd," and "The Gleaners" (1857) are his -principal works in the fifties. And what a deep intuition of nature is -to be found in "The Gleaners"! They have no impassioned countenances, -and their movements aim at no declamatory effect of contrast. They do -not seek compassion, but merely do their work. It is this which gives -them loftiness and dignity. They are themselves products of nature, -plants of which the commonest is not without a certain pure and simple -beauty. Look at their hands. They are not hands to be kissed, but to be -cordially pressed. They are brave hands, which have done hard work from -youth upwards--reddened with frost, chapped by soda, swollen with toil, -or burnt by the sun. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - MILLET. THE ANGELUS. - - (_By permission of M. Georges Petit, the owner of the copyright._)] - -"The Labourer grafting a Tree" of 1855 is entirely idyllic. In the midst -of one of those walled-in spaces which are half courtyard and half -garden, separating in villages the barns from the house, there is -standing a man who has cut a tree and is grafting a fresh twig. His wife -is looking on, with their youngest child in her arms. Everything around -bears the mark of order, cleanliness, and content. Their clothes have -neither spot nor hole, and wear well under the anxious care of the wife. -Here is the old French peasant, true to the soil, and living and dying -in the place of his birth: it is a picture of patriarchal simplicity. In -1859 appeared "The Angelus," that work which chimes like a low-toned and -far-off peal of bells. "I mean," he said--"I mean the bells to be heard -sounding, and only natural truth of expression can produce the effect." -Nothing is wanting in these creations, neither simplicity nor truth. The -longer they are looked at, the more something is seen in them which goes -beyond reality. "The Man with the Mattock," the celebrated picture of -1863, is altogether a work of great style; it recalls antique statues -and the figures of Michael Angelo, without in any way resembling them. -In his daring veracity Millet despised all the artificial grace and -arbitrary beatification which others introduced into rustic life; and -while, in turning from it, he rested only on the most conscientious -reverence for nature, his profound draughtsmanlike knowledge of the -human form has given a dignity and a large style to the motions of the -peasant which no one discovered before his time. There is a simplicity, -a harmony, and a largeness in the lines of his pictures such as only the -greatest artists have had. He reached it in the same way as Rousseau and -Corot reached their style in landscape: absorbed and saturated by -reality, he was able, in the moment of creation, to dispense with the -model without suffering for it, and to attain truth and condensation -without being hindered by petty detail. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - MILLET. THE SHEPHERDESS AND HER SHEEP. - - (_By permission of M. Charles Millet._)] - -He himself went about in Barbizon like a peasant. And he might have been -seen wandering over the woods and fields with an old, red cloak, wooden -shoes, and a weather-beaten straw hat. He rose at sunrise, and wandered -about the country as his parents had done. He guarded no flocks, drove -no cows, and no yokes of oxen or horses; he carried neither mattock nor -spade, but rested on his stick; he was equipped only with the faculty of -observation and poetic intuition. He went about like the people he met, -roamed round the houses, entered the courtyards, looked over the hedges, -knew the gleaners and reapers, the girls who took care of the geese, and -the shepherds in their big cloaks, as they stood motionless amongst -their flocks, resting on a staff. He entered the wash-house, the -bake-house, and the dairies where the butter was being churned. He -witnessed the birth of a calf or the death of a pig, or leant with -folded arms on the garden wall and looked into the setting sun, as it -threw a rosy veil over field and forest. He heard the chime of vesper -bells, watched the people pray and then return home. And he returned -also, and read the Bible by lamplight, while his wife sewed and the -children slept. When all was quiet he closed the book and began to -dream. Once more he saw all that he had come across in the course of the -day. He had gone out without canvas or colours; he had merely noted down -in passing a few motives in his sketch-book: as a rule he never took his -pencil from his pocket, but merely meditated, his mind being compelled -to notice all that his eye saw. Then he went through it again in his -memory. On the morrow he painted. - -[Illustration: _Quantin, Paris._ - - MILLET. THE SHEPHERD AT THE PEN AT NIGHTFALL. - - (_By permission of M. Charles Millet._)] - -His study seems to have been an incessant exercise of the eye to see and -to retain the essential, the great lines in nature as in the human body. -Advancing upon Daumier's path, he divested figures of all that is merely -accidental, and simplified them, to bring the character and ground-note -more into relief. This simplification, this marvellous way of expressing -forcibly as much as possible with the smallest means, no one has ever -understood like Millet. There is nothing superfluous, nothing petty, and -everything bears witness to an epic spirit attracted by what is great -and heroic. His drawing was never encumbered by what was subsidiary and -anecdotic; his mind was fixed on the decisive lines which characterise a -movement, and give it rhythm. It was just this feeling for rhythm which -his harmonious nature possessed in the very highest degree. He did not -give his peasants Grecian noses, and he never lost himself in arid and -trivial observation; he simplified and sublimated their outlines, making -them the heroes and martyrs of toil. His figures have a majesty of -style, an august grandeur; and something almost resembling the antique -style of relief is found in his pictures. It is no doubt characteristic -that the only works of art which he had in his studio were plaster casts -of the metopes of the Parthenon. He himself was like a man of antique -times, both in the simplicity of his life and in his outward -appearance--a peasant in wooden shoes who had, set upon his shoulders, -the head of the Zeus of Otricoli. And as his biography reads like an -Homeric poem, so his great and simple art sought for what was primitive, -aboriginal, and heroic. Note the Michelangelesque motions of "The -Sower." The peasant, striding on with a firm tread, seems to show by his -large movements his consciousness of the grandeur of his daily toil: he -is the heroic embodiment of man, swaying the earth, making it fruitful -and subservient to his own purposes. - - "Il marche dans la plaine immense, - Va, vient, lance la graine au loin, - Rouvre sa main et recommence; - Et je mdite, obscur tmoin, - Pendant que dployant ses voiles - L'ombre o se mle une rumeur - Semble largir jusqu'aux toiles - Le geste auguste du semeur." - -Note the epical quietude of "The Gleaners," the three Fates of poverty, -as Gautier called them, the priestly dignity of "The Woodcutter," the -almost Indian solemnity of "The Woman leading her Cow to Grass." She -stands in her wooden shoes as if on a pedestal, her dress falls into -sculpturesque folds, and a grave and melancholy hebetude is imprinted on -her countenance. Millet is the Michael Angelo of peasants. In their -large simplicity his pictures make the appeal of religious painting, at -once plastic and mystical. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - MILLET. A WOMAN FEEDING CHICKENS.] - -But it is in no sense merely through instinct that Millet has attained -this altitude of style. Although the son of a peasant, and himself a -peasant and the painter of peasants, he knew thoroughly well what he -wanted to do; and this aim of his he has not only formulated practically -in his pictures, but has made theoretically clear in his letters and -treatises. For Millet was not simply a man who had a turn for dreaming; -he had, at the same time, a brooding, philosophic mind, in which the -ideas of a thinker were harboured beside the emotions of a poet. In the -portrait of himself, given on the title-page of Sensier's book, a -portrait in which he has something sickly, something ethereal and tinged -with romance, only one side of his nature is expressed. The great -medallion of Chappu reveals the other side: the keen, consecutive -thinker, to be found in the luminous and remorselessly logical letters. -In this respect he is the true representative of his race. In opposition -to the _esprit_ and graceful levity of the Parisian, a quieter and more -healthy human understanding counts as the chief characteristic of the -Norman; and this clear and precise capacity for thought was intensified -in Millet by incessant intellectual training. - -[Illustration: _Mansell, photo._ - - MILLET. THE SHEPHERDESS.] - -Even as a child he had received a good education from his uncle, who was -an ecclesiastic, and he learnt enough Latin to read the _Georgics_ of -Virgil and other ancient authors in the original text. He knows them -almost by heart, and cites them continually in his letters. When he came -to Paris he spent long hours in the galleries, not copying this or that -portion of a picture, but fathoming works of art to their inmost core -with a clear eye. In Cherbourg he devoured the whole of Vasari in the -library, and read all he could find about Drer, Leonardo, Michael -Angelo, and Poussin. Even in Barbizon he remained throughout his whole -life an eager reader. Shakespeare fills him with admiration; Theocritus -and Burns are his favourite poets. "Theocritus makes it evident to me," -he says, "that one is never more Greek than when one simply renders -one's own impressions, let them come whence they may." When not painting -or studying nature he had always a book in his hand, and knew no more -cordial pleasure than when a friend increased his little library by the -present of a fresh one. Though in his youth he tilled the ground and -ploughed, and in later days lived like a peasant, he was better -instructed than most painters; he was a philosopher, a scholar. His -manner in speaking was leisurely, quiet, persuasive, full of conviction, -and impregnated by his own peculiar ideas, which he had thoroughly -thought out. - -"My dear Millet," wrote a critic, "you must sometimes see good-looking -peasants and pretty country girls." To which Millet replied: "No doubt; -but beauty does not lie in the face. It lies in the harmony between man -and his industry. Your pretty country girls prefer to go up to town; it -does not suit them to glean and gather faggots and pump water. Beauty is -expression. When I paint a mother I try to render her beautiful by the -mere look she gives her child." He goes on to say that what has been -once clearly seen is beautiful if it is simply and sincerely -interpreted. Everything is beautiful which is in its place, and nothing -is beautiful which appears out of place. Therefore no emasculation of -characters is ever beautiful. Apollo is Apollo and Socrates is Socrates. -Mingle them and they both lose, and become a mixture which is neither -fish nor flesh. This was what brought about the decadence of modern art. -"_Au lieu de naturaliser l'art, ils artialisent la nature._" The -Luxembourg Gallery had shown him that he ought not to go to the theatre -to create true art. "_Je voudrais que les tres que je reprsente aient -l'air vous leur position; et qu'il soit impossible d'imaginer qu'il -leur puisse venir l'ide d'tre autre chose que ce qu'ils sont. On est -dans un milieu d'un caractre ou d'un autre, mais celui qu'on adopte -doit primer. On devrait tre habitu ne recevoir de la nature ses -impressions de quelque sorte qu'elles soient et quelque temperament -qu'on ait. Il faut tre imprgn et satur d'elle, et ne penser que ce -qu'elle vous fait penser. Il faut croire qu'elle est assez riche pour -fournir tout. Et o puiserait-on, sinon la source? Pourquoi donc -perptuit proposer aux gens, comme but suprme atteindre, ce que de -hautes intelligences ont dcouvert en elle. Voila donc qu'on rendrait -les productions de quelques-uns le type et le but de toutes les -productions venir. Les gens de gnie sont comme dous de la baguette -divinatoire; les uns dcouvrent que, dans la nature, ici se trouve cela, -les autres autre chose ailleurs, selon le temperament de leur flair. -Leurs productions vous assurent dans cette ide que celui-l trouve qui -est fait pour trouver, mais il est plaisant de voir, quand le trsor est -dterr et enlev, que des gens viennent perptuit gratter cette -place-l. Il faut savoir dcouvrir o il y a des truffes. Un chien qui -n'a pas de flair ne peut que faire triste chasse, puisqu'il ne va qu'en -voyant chasser celui qui sent la bte et qui naturellement va le -premier.... Un immense orgueil ou une immense sottise seulement peut -faire croire certains hommes qu'ils sont de force redresser les -prtendus manques de got et les erreurs de la nature. Les oeuvres que -nous aimons, ce n'est qu' cause qu'elles procdent d'elle. Les autres -ne sont que des oeuvres pdantes et vides. On peut partir de tous les -points pour arriver au sublime, et tout est propre l'exprimer, si on a -une assez haute vise. Alors ce que vous aimez avec le plus -d'emportement et de passion devient votre beau vous et qui s'impose -aux autres. Que chacun apporte le sien. L'impression force l'expression. -Tout l'arsenal de la nature est la disposition des hommes. Qui oserait -dcider qu'une pomme de terre est infrieure une grenade._" - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - MILLET. THE LABOURER GRAFTING A TREE. - - (_By permission of M. Charles Millet._)] - -Thus he maintains that when a stunted tree grows upon sterile soil it is -more beautiful in this particular place, because more natural, than a -slender tree artificially transplanted. "The beautiful is that which is -in keeping. Whether this is to be called realism or idealism I do not -know. For me, there is only one manner of painting, and that is to paint -with fidelity." In what concerns poetry old Boileau has already -expressed this in the phrase: "Nothing is beautiful except truth"; and -Schiller has thrown it into the phrase, "Let us, ultimately, set up -truth for beauty." For the art of the nineteenth century Millet's words -mean the erection of a new principle, of a principle that had the effect -of a novel force, that gave the consciousness of a new energy of -artistic endeavour, that was a return to that which the earth was to -Antus. And by formulating this principle--the principle that -everything is beautiful so far as it is true, and nothing beautiful so -far as it is untrue, that beauty is the blossom, but truth the tree--by -clearly formulating this principle for the first time, Millet has become -the father of the new French and, indeed, of European art, almost more -than by his own pictures. - -For--and here we come to the limitations of his talent--has Millet as a -painter really achieved what he aimed at? No less a person than -Fromentin has put this question in his _Matres d'autrefois_. On his -visit to Holland he chances for a moment to speak of Millet, and he -writes:-- - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - MILLET. A WOMAN KNITTING. - - (_By permission of M. Charles Millet._)] - -"An entirely original painter, high-minded and disposed to brooding, -kind-hearted and genuinely rustic in nature, he has expressed things -about the country and its inhabitants, about their toil, their -melancholy, and the nobleness of their labour, which a Dutchman would -never have discovered. He has represented them in a somewhat barbaric -fashion, in a manner to which his ideas gave a more expressive force -than his hand possessed. The world has been grateful for his intentions; -it has recognised in his method something of the sensibility of a Burns -who was a little awkward in expression. But has he left good pictures -behind him or not? Has his articulation of form, his method of -expression, I mean the envelopment without which his ideas could not -exist, the qualities of a good style of painting, and does it afford an -enduring testimony? He stands out as a deep thinker if he is compared -with Potter and Cuyp; he is an enthralling dreamer if he is opposed to -Terborch and Metsu, and he has something peculiarly noble compared with -the trivialities of Steen, Ostade, and Brouwer. As a man he puts them -all to the blush. Does he outweigh them as a painter?" - -[Illustration: _Neurdein Frres, photo._ - - MILLET. THE RAINBOW.] - -If any one thinks of Millet as a draughtsman he will answer this -question without hesitation in the affirmative. His power is firmly -rooted in the drawings which constitute half his work. And he has not -merely drawn to make sketches or preparations for pictures, like -Leonardo, Raphael, Michael Angelo, Watteau, or Delacroix; his drawings -were for him real works of art complete in themselves; and his enduring -and firmly grounded fame rests upon them. Michael Angelo, Raphael, -Leonardo, Rubens, Rembrandt, Prudhon, Millet; that is, more or less, the -roll of the greatest draughtsmen in the history of art. His pastels and -etchings, his drawings in chalk, pencil, and charcoal, are astonishing -through their eminent delicacy of technique. The simpler the medium the -greater is the effect achieved. "The Woman Churning" in the Louvre; the -quietude of his men reaping, and of his woman-reaper beside the heaps of -corn; "The Water Carriers," who are like Greek kanephor; the peasant -upon the potato-field, lighting his pipe with a flint and a piece of -tinder; the woman sewing by the lamp beside her sleeping child; the -vine-dresser resting; the little shepherdess sitting dreamily on a -bundle of straw near her flock at pasture,--in all these works in black -and white he is as great as he is as a colourist and as a painter in -open air. There are no sportive and capricious sunbeams, as in Diaz. -Millet's sun is too serious merely to play over the fields; it is the -austere day-star, ripening the harvest, forcing men to sweat over their -toil and with no time to waste in jest. And as a landscape painter he -differs from Corot in the same vital manner. - -Corot, the old bachelor, dallies with nature; Millet, nine times a -father, knows her only as the fertile mother, nourishing all her -children. The temperament of the brooding, melancholy man breaks out in -his very conception of nature: "Oh, if they knew how beautiful the -forest is! I stroll into it sometimes of an evening, and always return -with a sense of being overwhelmed. It has a quiet and majesty which are -terrible, so that I have often a feeling of actual fear. I do not know -what the trees talk about amongst themselves, but they say to each other -something which we do not understand, because we do not speak the same -language. That they are not making bad jokes seems certain." He loved -what Corot has never painted--the sod, the sod as sod, the sod which -steams beneath the rays of the fertilising sun. And yet, despite all -difference of temperament, he stands beside Corot as perhaps the -greatest landscape painter of the century. His landscapes are vacant and -devoid of charm; they smell of the earth rather than of jessamine, yet -it is as if the Earth-Spirit itself were invisibly brooding over them. A -few colours enable him to attain that great harmony which is elsewhere -peculiar to Corot alone, and which, when his work was over, he so often -discussed with his neighbour Rousseau. With a few brilliant and easily -executed shadings he gives expression to the vibration of the -atmosphere, the lustre of the sky at sunset, the massive structure of -the ground, the blissful tremor upon the plain at sunrise. At one time -he renders the morning mist lying over the fields, at another the haze -of sultry noon, veiling and as it were absorbing the outlines and -colours of all objects, the light of sunset streaming over field and -woodland with a tender, tremulous glimmering, the delicate silver tone -which veils the landscape on clear moonlight nights. - -There is not another artist of the century who renders night as Millet -does in his pastels. One of the most charming and poetic works is the -biblical and mystical night-piece "The Flight into Egypt." As he strides -forward Saint Joseph holds upon his arm the Child, whose head is -surrounded by a shining halo, whilst the Mother moves slowly along the -banks of the Nile riding upon an ass. The stars twinkle, the moon throws -its tremulous light uncertainly over the plain. Joseph and Mary are -Barbizon peasants, and yet these great figures breathe of the Sistine -Chapel and of Michael Angelo. And which of the old masters has so -eloquently rendered the sacred silence of night as Millet has done in -his "Shepherd at the Pen"? The landscapes which he has drawn awaken the -impression of spaciousness as only Rembrandt's etchings have done, and -that of fine atmosphere as only Corot's pictures. A marvellously -transparent and tender evening sky rests over his picture of cows coming -down to drink at the lake, and a liquid moonlight washes over the crests -of the waves around "The Sailing Boat." The garden in stormy light with -a high-lying avenue spanned by a rainbow--the motive which he developed -for the well-known picture in the Louvre--is found again and again in -several pastels, which progress from a simple to a more complicated -treatment of the theme. Everything is transparent and delicate, full of -air and light, and the air and light are themselves full of magic and -melting charm. - -[Illustration: _S. Low & Co._ THE BARBIZON STONE.] - -But it is a different matter when one attempts to answer Fromentin's -question in the form in which it is put. For without in any way -detracting from Millet's importance, one may quietly make the -declaration: No, Millet was _not_ a good painter. Later generations, -with which he will no longer be in touch through his ethical greatness, -if they consider his paintings alone, will scarcely understand the high -estimation in which he is held at present. For although many works which -have come into private collections in Boston, New York, and Baltimore -are, in their original form, withdrawn from judgment, they are certainly -not better than the many works brought together in the Millet Exhibition -of 1886 or the World Exhibition of 1889. And these had collectively a -clumsiness, and a dry and heavy colouring, which are not merely -old-fashioned, primitive, and antediluvian in comparison with the works -of modern painters, but which fall far below the level of their own time -in the quality of colour. The conception in Millet's paintings is always -admirable, but never the technique; he makes his appeal as a poet only, -and never as a painter. His painting is often anxiously careful, heavy, -and thick, and looks as if it had been filled in with masonry; it is -dirty and dismal, and wanting in free and airy tones. Sometimes it is -brutal and hard, and occasionally it is curiously indecisive in effect. -Even his best pictures--"The Angelus" not excepted--give no sthetic -pleasure to the eye. The most ordinary fault in his painting is that it -is soft, greasy, and woolly. He is not light enough with what should be -light, nor fleeting enough with what is fleeting. And this defect is -especially felt in his treatment of clothes. They are of a massive, -distressing solidity, as if moulded in brass, and not woven from flax -and wool. The same is true of his air, which has an oily and material -effect. Even in "The Gleaners" the aspect is cold and gloomy; it is -without the intensity of light which is shed through the atmosphere, and -streams ever changing over the earth. - -And this is a declaration of what was left for later artists to achieve. -The problem of putting real human beings in their true surroundings was -stated by Millet, solved in his pastels, and left unsolved in his oil -paintings. This same problem had to be taken up afresh by his -successors, and followed to its furthest consequences. At the same time, -it was necessary to widen the choice of subject. - -For it is characteristic of Millet, the great peasant, that his art is -exclusively concerned with peasants. His sensitive spirit, which from -youth upwards had compassion for the hard toil and misery of the country -folk, was blind to the sufferings of the artisans of the city, amid whom -he had lived in Paris in his student days. The _ouvrier_, too, has his -poetry and his grandeur. As there is a cry of the earth, so is there -also a cry, as loud and as eloquent, which goes up from the pavement of -great cities. Millet lived in Paris during a critical and terrible time. -He was there during the years of ferment at the close of the reign of -Louis Philippe. Around him there muttered all the terrors of Socialism -and Communism. He was there during the February Revolution and during -the days of June. While the artisans fought on the barricades he was -painting "The Winnower." The misery of Paris and the sufferings of the -populace did not move him. Millet, the peasant, had a heart only for the -peasantry. He was blind to the sufferings, blind to the charms of modern -city life. Paris seemed to him a "miserable, dirty nest." There was no -picturesque aspect of the great town that fascinated him. He felt -neither its grace, its elegance and charming frivolity, nor remarked the -mighty modern movement of ideas and the noble humanity which set their -seal upon that humanitarian century. The development of French art had -to move in both of these directions. It was partly necessary to take up -afresh with improved instruments the problem of the modern conception of -colour, touched on by Millet; it was partly necessary to extend from the -painting of peasants to modern life the principle formulated by Millet, -"_Le beau c'est le vrai_," to transfer it from the forest of -Fontainebleau to Paris, from the solitude to life, from the evening -gloom to sunlight, from the softness of romance to hard reality. - - * * * * * - -The fourth book of this work will be devoted to the consideration of -those masters who, acting on this principle, extended beyond the range -of Millet and brought the art which he had created to fuller fruition. - - - - -BOOK IV - -THE REALISTIC PAINTERS AND THE MODERN IDEALISTS - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -REALISM IN FRANCE - - -To continue in Paris what Millet had begun in the solitude of the forest -of Fontainebleau there was need of a man of the unscrupulous animal -power of _Gustave Courbet_. The task assigned to him was similar to that -which fell to Caravaggio in the seventeenth century. In that age, when -the eclectic imitation of the Cinquecento had reached the acme of -mannerism, when Carlo Dolci and Sassoferato devoted themselves in -mythological pictures to watering down the types of Raphael by -idealising, Caravaggio painted scenes amongst dregs of the people and -the unbridled soldiery of his age. At a period when these artists -indulged in false, artificial, and doctrinaire compositions, which, on a -barren system, merely traced the performances of classic masters back to -certain rules of art, Caravaggio created works which may have been -coarse, but which had an earnest and fruitful veracity, and gave the -entire art of the seventeenth century another direction by their healthy -and powerful naturalism. - -When Courbet appeared the situation was similar: Ingres, in whose frigid -works the whole Cinquecento had been crystallised, was at the zenith of -his fame. Couture had painted his "Decadent Romans" and Cabanel had -recorded his first successes. Beside these stood that little Neo-Grecian -school with Louis Hamon at its head--a school whose prim style of china -painting had the peculiar admiration of the public. Courbet, with all -his brutal weight, pushed between the large symmetrical figures of the -thoroughbred Classicists and the pretty confectionery of the Neo-Grecian -painters of beauty. But the old panacea is never without effect: in all -periods when art has overlived its bloom and falls into mannerism it is -met by a strong cross-current of realism pouring into it new life-blood. -In painting, nature had been made artificial, and it was time for art to -be made natural. Painters still strayed in the past, seeking to awaken -the dead, and give life once more to history. The time had come for -accentuating the claims of the present more sharply than before, and for -setting art amid the seething life of modern cities: it was a -development naturally and logically following that of political life; it -is historically united with the unintermittent struggle for universal -suffrage. Courbet merely fought the decisive battle in the great fight -which Jeanron, Leleux, Octave Tassaert, and others had begun as -skirmishing outposts. As a painter he towered over these elder artists, -whose sentimental pictures had not been taken seriously as works of -art, and challenged attention all the more by painting life-size. In -this manner the last obstacle was removed which had stood in the way of -the treatment of modern subjects. Scanty notice had been taken of -Millet's little peasant figures, which were merely reckoned as -accessories to the landscape. But Courbet's pictures first taught the -Academy that the "picture of manners," which had seemed so harmless, had -begun to usurp the place of historical painting in all its pride. - -At the same time--and this made Courbet's appearance of still more -consequence than that of his predecessors--a most effective literary -propaganda went hand in hand with that which was artistic. Millet had -been silent and was known only by his friends. He had never arranged for -an exhibition of his works, and quietly suffered the rejections of the -hanging committee and the derision of the public. Courbet blustered, -beat the big drum, threw himself into forcible postures like a strong -man juggling with cannon-balls, and announced in the press that he was -the only serious artist of the century. No one could ever _embter le -bourgeois_ with such success, no one has called forth such a howl of -passion, no one so complacently surrendered his private life to the -curiosity of the great public, with the swaggering attitude of an -athlete displaying his muscles in the circus. As regards this method of -making an appearance--a method by which he became at times almost -grotesque--one may take whatever view one pleases; but when he came he -was necessary. In art revolutions are made with the same brutality as in -life. People shout and sing, and break the windows of those who have -windows to break. For every revolution has a character of inflexible -harshness. Wisdom and reason have no part in the passions necessary for -the work of destruction and rebuilding. Caravaggio was obliged to take -to his weapons, and make sanguinary onslaughts. In our civilised -nineteenth century everything was accomplished according to law, but not -with less passion. One has to make great demands to receive even a -little; this has been true in all times, and this is precisely what -Courbet did. He was a remarkable character striving for high aims, an -eccentric man of genius, a modern Narcissus for ever contemplating -himself in his vanity, and yet he was the truest friend, the readiest to -sacrifice himself; for the crowd a cynic and a reckless talker; at home -an earnest and mighty toiler, bursting out like a child and appeased the -very next moment; outwardly as brutal as he was inwardly sensitive, as -egotistic as he was proud and independent; and being what he was, he -formulated his purposes as incisively by his words as in his works. Full -of fire and enthusiasm, destroying and inciting to fresh creation--a -nature like Lorenz Gedon, whom he also resembled in appearance--he -became the soul and motive power of the great realistic movement which -flooded Europe from the beginning of the fifties. Altogether he was the -man of whom art had need at that time: a doctor who brought health with -him, shed it abroad, and poured blood into the veins of art. Both as man -and artist his entry upon the arena is in some degree like the breaking -in of an elemental force of nature. He comes from the country in wooden -shoes, with the self-reliance of a peasant who is afraid of nothing. He -is a great and powerful man, as sound and natural as the oxen of his -birthplace. He had broad shoulders, with which he pushed aside -everything standing in his way. His was an instinct rather than a -reflecting brain, a _peintre-animal_, as he was called by a Frenchman. -And such a plebeian was wanted to beat down the academic Olympus. In -making him great and strong, nature had herself predestined him for the -part he had to play: a man makes a breach the more easily for having big -muscles. Furnished with the strength of a Samson wrecking the temple of -the Philistines, he was himself "The Stone-breaker" of his art, and, -like the men he painted, he has done a serviceable day's work. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ GUSTAVE COURBET.] - -Gustave Courbet, the strong son of Franche-Comt, was born in 1819, in -Ornans, a little town near Besanon. Like his friend and -fellow-countryman Proudhon, the socialist, he had a strain of German -blood in his veins, and in their outward appearance it gave them both -something Teutonic, rugged, and heavy, contrasting with French ease and -elegance. On his massive frame was set a thick, athletic neck, and a -broad countenance with black hair, and big, strong eyes like those of a -lion-tamer, which sparkled like black diamonds. A strong man, who had -never been stinted, he was of medium height, broad-shouldered, bluff, -ruddy like a slaughterman, and, as the years passed, disposed to acquire -a more liberal circumference of body. He went about working like -Sisyphus, and never without a short pipe in his mouth, the classic -_brle-gueule_, loaded with strong caporal. His movements were broad and -heavy, and, being a little short in his breathing, he wheezed when he -was excited, and perspired over his painting. His dress was comfortable, -but not elegant; and his head was formed for a cap rather than the -official tall hat. In speech he was cynical, and often broke into a -contemptuous laugh. Both in his studio and at his tavern he moved more -freely in his shirt-sleeves, and at the Munich Exhibition of 1869 he -seemed to the German painters like a thorough old Bavarian, when he sat -down to drink with them at the _Deutsches Haus_ in his jovial way, and, -by a rather Teutonic than Latin capacity for disposing of beer, threw -the most inveterate of the men of Munich into the shade. - -Originally destined for the law, he determined in 1837 to become a -painter, and began his artistic studies under Flageoulot, a mediocre -artist of the school of David, who had drifted into the provinces, and -boastfully called himself _le roi du dessin_. In 1839 he came to Paris, -already full of self-reliance, fire and strength. On his first turn -through the Luxembourg Gallery he paused before Delacroix's "Massacre of -Chios," glowing as it is in colour, and said it was not bad, but that he -could do that style of thing whenever he liked. After a short time he -acquired a power of execution full of bravura by studying the old -masters in the Louvre. Self-taught in art, he was in life a democrat and -in politics a republican. In 1848, during a battle in June, he had a -fair prospect of being shot with a party of insurgents whom he had -joined, if certain "right-minded" citizens had not interceded for their -neighbour, who was popular as a man and already much talked about as a -painter. In the beginning of the fifties he was to be found every -evening at a _brasserie_ much frequented by artists and students in the -Rue Hautefeuille in the _Quartier Latin_, in the society of young -authors of the school of Balzac. He had his studio at the end of the -street, and is said to have been at the time a strong, fine, spirited -young man, who made free use of the drastic slang of the studios. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - COURBET. THE MAN WITH A LEATHER BELT. - - PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF AS A YOUTH.] - -"His notable features," writes Thophile Silvestre of Courbet at this -time,--"his notable features seem as though they had been modelled from -an Assyrian bas-relief. His well-shaped and brilliant dark eyes, -shadowed by long silken lashes, have the soft quiet light of an -antelope's. The moustache, scarcely traceable beneath his slightly -curved aquiline nose, is joined by a fan-shaped beard, and borders his -thick, sensuous lips; his complexion is olive-brown, but of a changing, -sensitive tone. The round, curiously shaped head and prominent -cheek-bones denote stubbornness, and the flexible nostrils passion." - -A great dispute over realism usually took the place of dessert at -meal-times. Courbet never allowed himself to be drawn into controversy. -He threw his opinion bluntly out, and when he was opposed cut the -conversation short in an exceedingly forcible manner. It was another -murder of the innocents when he spoke of the celebrities of his time. He -designated historical painting as nonsense, style as humbug, and blew -away all ideals, declaring that it was the greatest impudence to wish to -paint things which one has never seen, and of the appearance of which -one cannot have the faintest conception. Fancy was rubbish, and reality -the one true muse. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - COURBET. A FUNERAL AT ORNANS.] - -"Our century," he says, "will not recover from the fever of imitation by -which it has been laid low. Phidias and Raphael have hooked themselves -on to us. The galleries should remain closed for twenty years, so that -the moderns might at last begin to see with their own eyes. For what can -the old masters offer us? It is only Ribera, Zurbaran, and Velasquez -that I admire; Ostade and Craesbeeck also allure me; and for Holbein, I -feel veneration. As for M. Raphael, there is no doubt that he has -painted some interesting portraits, but I cannot find any ideas in him. -And the artistic kin, the heirs, or more properly the slaves of this -great man, are really preceptors of the lowest art. What do they teach -us? Nothing. A good picture will never come from their _cole des -Beaux-Arts_. The most precious thing is the originality, the -independence of an artist. Schools have no right to exist; there are -only painters. Independently of system and without attaching myself to -any party, I have studied the art of the old masters and of the more -modern. I have tried to imitate the one as little as I have tried to -copy the other, but out of the total knowledge of tradition I have -wished to draw a firm and independent sense of my own individuality. My -object was by gaining knowledge to gain in ability; to have the power of -expressing the ideas, the manners, and the aspect of our epoch -according to an appreciation of my own, not merely to be a painter, but -a man also--in a word, to practise living art is the compass of my -design. I am not only a socialist, but also a democrat and a -republican--that is to say, a supporter of every revolution; and -moreover, a sheer realist, which means a loyal adherent to the _vrit -vraie_. But the principle of realism is the negation of the ideal. And -following all that comes from this negation of the ideal, I shall arrive -at the emancipation of the individual, and, finally, at democracy. -Realism, in its essence, is democratic art. It can only exist by the -representation of things which the artist can see and handle. For -painting is an entirely physical language, and an abstract, invisible, -non-existent object does not come within its province. The grand -painting which we have stands in contradiction with our social -conditions, and ecclesiastical painting in contradiction with the spirit -of the century. It is nonsensical for painters of more or less talent to -dish up themes in which they have no belief, themes which could only -have flourished in some epoch other than our own. Better paint railway -stations with views of the places through which one travels, with -likenesses of great men through whose birthplace one passes, with -engine-houses, mines, and manufactories; for these are the saints and -miracles of the nineteenth century." - -These doctrines fundamentally tallied with those which the Neapolitan -and Spanish naturalists vindicated in the seventeenth century against -the eclectics. For men like Poussin, Leseur, and Sassoferato, Raphael -was "an angel and not a man," and the Vatican "the academy of painters." -But Velasquez when he came to Rome found it wearisome. "What do you say -of our Raphael? Do you not think him best of all, now that you have seen -everything that is fair and beautiful in Italy?" Don Diego inclined his -head ceremoniously, and observed: "To confess the truth, for I like to -be candid and open, I must acknowledge that I do not care about Raphael -at all." There are reported utterances of Caravaggio which correspond -almost word for word with those of Courbet. He, too, declaimed against -the antique and Raphael, in whose shadow he saw so many shallow -imitators sitting at their ease, and he declared, in a spirit of sharp -opposition, that the objects of daily life were the only true teachers. -He would owe all to nature and nothing to art. He held painting without -the model to be absurd. So long as the model was out of sight, his hands -and his spirit were idle. Moreover, he called himself a democratic -painter, who brought the fourth estate into honour; he "would rather be -the first of vulgar painters than second amongst the superfine." And -just as these naturalists in the seventeenth century were treated by the -academical artists as rhyparographists, Courbet's programme did not on -the whole facilitate his acceptance in formal exhibitions as he desired -that it should. A play must be acted, a manuscript printed, and a -picture viewed. So Courbet had no desire to remain an outsider. When the -picture committee of the World Exhibition of 1855 gave his pictures an -unfavourable position, he withdrew them and offered them to public -inspection separately in a wooden hut in the vicinity of the Pont de -Jena, just at the entry of the exhibition. Upon the hut was written in -big letters: REALISM--G. COURBET. And in the interior the theories which -he had urged hitherto by his tongue and his pen, at the tavern and in -his pamphlets, were demonstrated by thirty-eight large pictures, which -elucidate his whole artistic development. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - COURBET. THE STONE-BREAKERS.] - -"Lot's Daughters" and "Love in the Country" were followed in 1844 by the -portrait of himself and the picture of his dog, in 1845 by "A -Guitarrero," in 1846 by the "Portrait of M. M----," and in 1847 by "The -Walpurgisnacht"; all works in which he was still groping his way. "The -Sleeping Bathers," "The Violoncello Player," and a landscape from his -native province, belonging to the year 1848, made a nearer approach to -his realistic aim, and with the date 1849 there are seven portraits, -landscapes, and pictures from popular national life: "The Painter," "M. -H. T---- looking over Engravings," "The Vintage in Ornans below the -Roche du Mont," "The Valley of the Bue seen from the Roche du Mont," -"View of the Chteau of Saint-Denis," "Evening in the Village of -Scey-en-Varay," and "Peasants returning from Mass near Flagey." All -these works had passed the doors of the Salon without demur. - -The first picture which brought about a collision of opinion was "A Fire -in Paris," and, according to the account given by contemporaries, it -must have been one of his finest works. Firemen, soldiers, artisans in -jacket and blouse, were exerting themselves, according to Paul d'Abrest -who describes the picture, around a burning house; even women helped in -the work of rescue, and formed part of the chain handing buckets from -the pump. Opposite stood a group of young dandies with girls upon their -arms looking inactively upon the scene. An artillery captain, who was -amongst Courbet's acquaintances, had through several nights sounded the -alarm for his men and exercised them on the scaffolding of a wall, so -that the painter could make his studies. Courbet transferred his studio -to the barracks and made sketches by torch-light. But he had reckoned -without the police; scarcely was the picture finished before it was -seized, as the Government recognised in it, for reasons which did not -appear, "an incitement to the people of the town." This was after the -_coup d'tat_ of 1851. - -So Courbet's manifesto was not "The Fire in Paris." "The -Stone-breakers," two men in the dress of artisans, in a plain evening -landscape, occupied once more the first place in the exhibition of 1855, -having already made the effect, amongst its classical surroundings in -the Salon of 1851, of a rough, true, and honest word, spoken amid -elaborate society phrases. There was also to be seen "Afternoon at -Ornans,"--a gathering of humble folk sitting after meal-time at a table -laid out in a rustic kitchen. A picture which became celebrated under -the title of "Bonjour, M. Courbet" dealt with a scene from Courbet's -native town. Courbet, just arrived, is alighting from a carriage in his -travelling costume, looking composedly about him with a pipe in his -mouth. A respectable prosperous gentleman, accompanied by a servant in -livery, who is carrying his overcoat, is stretching out his hand to him. -This gentleman is M. Bryas, the Mcenas of Ornans, who for long was -Courbet's only patron, and who had a whim for having his portrait taken -by forty Parisian painters in order to learn the "manners" of the -various artists. And there was further to be seen the "Demoiselles de -Village" of 1852, three country beauties giving a piece of cake to a -peasant-girl. Finally, as masterpieces, there were "The Funeral at -Ornans," which now hangs in the Louvre, and that great canvas, -designated in the catalogue as "a true allegory," "My Studio after Seven -Years of Artistic Life," the master himself painting a landscape. Behind -him is a nude model, and in front of him a beggar-woman with her child. -Around are portrait figures of his friends, and the heroes of his -pictures, a poacher, a parson, a sexton, labourers, and artisans. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - COURBET. THE RETURN FROM MARKET.] - -The exhibition was, at all events, a success with young painters, and -Courbet set up a teaching studio, at the opening of which he again -issued a kind of manifesto in the _Courrier du Dimanche_. "Beauty," he -wrote, "lies in nature, and it is to be met with under the most various -forms. As soon as it is found it belongs to art, or rather to the -artist who discovers it. But the painter has no right to add to this -expression of nature, to alter the form of it and thereby weaken it. The -beauty offered by nature stands high above all artistic convention. That -is the basis of my views of art." It is said that his first model was an -ox. When his pupils wanted another, Courbet said: "Very well, gentlemen, -next time let us study a courtier." The break-up of the school is -supposed to have taken place when one day the ox ran away and was not to -be recaptured. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - COURBET. THE BATTLE OF THE STAGS.] - -Courbet did not trouble himself over such ridicule, but painted quietly -on, the many-sidedness of his talent soon giving him a firm seat in -every saddle. After the scandal of the separate exhibition of 1855 he -was excluded from the Salon until 1861, and during this time exhibited -in Paris and Besanon upon his own account. "The Funeral at Ornans" was -followed by "The Return from Market," a party of peasants on the -high-road, and in 1860 by "The Return from the Conference," in which a -number of French country priests have celebrated their meeting with a -hearty lunch and set out on the way back in a condition which is far too -jovial. In 1861, when the gates of the Champs Elyses were thrown open -to him once more, he received the medal for his "Battle of the Stags," -and regularly contributed to the Salon until 1870. In these years he -attempted pictures with many figures less frequently, and painted by -preference hunting and animal pieces, landscapes, and the nude figures -of women. "The Woman with the Parrot," a female figure mantled with -long hair, lying undressed amid the cushions of a couch playing with her -gaudily feathered favourite, "The Fox Hunt," a coast scene in Provence, -the portrait of Proudhon and his family, "The Valley of the Puits-Noir," -"Roche Pagnan," "The Roe Hunt," "The Charity of a Beggar," the picture -of women bathing in the gloom of the forest, and "The Wave," afterwards -acquired by the Luxembourg, belong to his principal works in the -sixties. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - COURBET. A WOMAN BATHING. - - (_By permission of M. Sainctelette, of Brussels, the owner of the - picture._)] - -These works gradually made him so well known that after 1866 his -pictures came to have a considerable sale. The critics began to take him -seriously. Castagnary made his dbut in the _Sicle_ with a study of -Courbet; Champfleury, the apostle of literary realism, devoted to him a -whole series of _feuilletons_ in the _Messager de l'Assemble_, and from -his intercourse with him Proudhon derived the fundamental principles of -his book on Realism. The son of Franche-Comt triumphed, and there was a -beam in his laughing eyes, always like those of a deer. His talent began -more and more to unfold its wings in the sun of success, and his power -of production seemed inexhaustible. When the custom arose of publishing -in the Parisian papers accounts of the budget of painters, he took care -to communicate that in six months he had made a hundred and twenty-three -thousand francs. Incessantly busy, he had in his hand at one moment the -brush and at another the chisel. And when he gave another special -exhibition of his works in 1867, at the time of the great World -Exhibition--he had a mania for wooden booths--he was able to put on view -no less than a hundred and thirty-two pictures in addition to numerous -pieces of sculpture. In 1869 the committee of the Munich Exhibition set -apart a whole room for his works. With a self-satisfied smile he put on -the Order of Michael, and was the hero of the day whom all eyes followed -upon the boulevards. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - COURBET. DEER IN COVERT.] - -The nature of the bullfighter was developed in him more strongly than -before, and he stretched his powerful limbs, prepared to do battle -against all existing opinions. Naturally the events of the following -years found no idle spectator in such a firebrand as Courbet; and -accordingly he rushed into those follies which embittered the evening of -his life. The _matre peintre d'Ornans_ became Courbet _le colonnard_. -First came the sensational protest with which he returned to the Emperor -Napoleon the Order of the Legion of Honour. Four weeks after Courbet had -plunged into this affair the war broke out. Eight weeks later came Sedan -and the proclamation of the Republic, and shortly afterwards the siege -of Paris and the insurrection. On 4th September 1870 the Provisional -Government appointed him Director of the Fine Arts. Afterwards he became -a member of the Commune, and dominated everywhere, with the -_brle-gueule_ in his mouth, by the power of his voice; and France has -to thank him for the rescue of a large number of her most famous -treasures of art. He had the rich collections of Thiers placed in the -Louvre, to protect them from the rough and ready violence of the -populace. But to save the Luxembourg he sacrificed the column of the -Vendme. When the Commune fell, however, Courbet alone was held -responsible for the destruction of the column. He was brought before the -court-martial of Versailles, and, although Thiers undertook his -defence, he was condemned to six months' imprisonment. Having undergone -this punishment he received his freedom once more, but the artist had -still to suffer a mortal blow. The pictures which he had destined for -the Salon of 1873 were rejected by the committee, because Courbet was -held morally unworthy to take part in the exhibition. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - COURBET. GIRLS LYING ON THE BANK OF THE SEINE.] - -Soon after this an action was brought against him, on the initiative of -certain reactionary papers, for the payment of damages connected with -the overthrow of the Vendme column, and the painter lost his case. For -the recovery of these damages, which were assessed at three hundred and -thirty-four thousand francs, the Government brought to the hammer his -furniture and the pictures that were in his studio, at a compulsory sale -at the Htel Drouot, where they fetched the absurdly trifling figure of -twelve thousand one hundred and eighteen francs fifty centimes. The loss -of his case drove him from France to Switzerland. He gave the town of -Vevay, where he settled, a bust of Helvetia, as a mark of his gratitude -for the hospitality it had extended towards him. But the artist was -crushed in him. "They have killed me," he said; "I feel that I shall -never do anything good again." And thus the jovial, laughing Courbet, -that honoured leader of a brilliant pleiad of disciples, the friend and -companion of Corot, Decamps, Gustave Planch, Baudelaire, Thophile -Gautier, Silvestre, Proudhon, and Champfleury; the enthusiastic patriot -and idol of the fickle Parisians, passed his last years in melancholy -solitude, forgotten by his adherents and scorned by his adversaries. He -was attacked by a disease of the liver, and privation, disillusionment, -and depression came all at once. Moreover, the French Government began -again to make claims for indemnification. His heart broke in a prolonged -mortal struggle. Shortly before his death he said to a friend: "What am -I to live upon, and how am I to pay for the column? I have saved Thiers -more than a million francs, and the State more than ten millions, and -now they are at my heels--they are baiting me to death. I can do no -more. To work one must have peace of spirit, and I am a ruined man." And -Champfleury writes, referring to the last visit which he paid to the -dying exile on 19th December 1877: "His beard and hair were white, and -all that remained of the handsome, all-powerful Courbet whom I had known -was that notable Assyrian profile, which he raised to the snow of the -Alps, as I sat beside him and saw it for the last time. The sight of -such pain and misery as this premature wreck of the whole man was -overwhelming." - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - COURBET. A RECUMBENT WOMAN.] - -The Lake of Geneva, over which he looked from his window in Vevay, was -the subject of the last picture that he painted in Switzerland. Far from -home and amid indifferent strangers he closed his eyes, which had once -been so brilliant, in endless grief of spirit. The apostle of Realism -died of a broken heart, the herculean son of Franche-Comt could not -suffer disillusionment. Courbet passed away, more or less forgotten, -upon New Year's Eve in 1877, in that chilly hour of morning when the -lake which he had learnt to love trembles beneath the first beams of the -sun. It was only in Belgium, where he had often stayed and where his -influence was considerable, that the intelligence of his death woke a -painful echo. In Paris it met with no word of sympathy. Courbetism was -extinguished; as impressionists and independents his adherents had -gathered round new flags. Zola has done him honour in _L'Oeuvre_ in the -person of old Bongrand, that half-perished veteran who is only mentioned -now and then with veneration. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - COURBET. BERLIOZ.] - -And the course of development has indeed been so rapid since Courbet's -appearance that in these days one almost fails to understand, apart from -historical reasons, the grounds which in 1855 made his separate -exhibition of his works an event of epoch-making importance. It was not -Cham alone who at that time devoted a large cartoon to Courbet, as he -did in "The Opening of Courbet's Studio and Concentrated Realism." All -the comic journals of Paris were as much occupied with him as with the -crinoline, the noiseless pavement, the new tramways, or the balloon. -Haussard, the principal representative of criticism, in discussing "The -Funeral at Ornans," spoke of "these burlesque masks with their fuddled -red noses, this village priest who seems to be a tippler, and the -harlequin of a veteran who is putting on a hat which is too big for -him." All this, he continued, suggested a masquerade funeral, six metres -long, in which there was more to laugh at than to weep over. Even Paul -Mantz declared that the most extravagant fancy could not descend to such -a degree of jejune triviality and repulsive hideousness. In a _revue -d'anne_ produced at the Odon, the authors, Philoxne Hoyer and -Thodore de Banville, make "a realist" say-- - - "Faire vrai ce n'est rien pour tre raliste, - C'est faire laid qu'il faut! Or, monsieur, s'il vous plait, - Tout ce que je dessine est horriblement laid! - Ma peinture est affreuse, et, pour qu'elle soit vraie, - J'en arrache le beau comme on fait de l'ivraie. - J'aime les teints terreux et les nez de carton, - Les fillettes avec de la barbe au menton, - Les trognes de Varasque et de coquecigrues, - Les dorillons, les cors aux pieds et les verrues! - Voil le vrai!" - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - COURBET. THE HIND ON THE SNOW.] - -So it went on through the sixties also. When the Empress Eugnie passed -through the exhibition on the opening day of the Salon of 1866, with an -elegant walking-stick in her hand, she was so indignant at Courbet's -"Naked Women" that the picture had to be immediately removed. In the -beginning of the seventies, when he exhibited in Germany, a few young -Munich painters recognised in his pictures something like the cry of a -conscience. But otherwise "artists and laymen shook their heads, not -knowing what to make of them. Some smiled and went indifferently on, -while others were indignant in their condemnation of this degradation of -art." For "Courbet went to the lowest depths of society, and took his -themes from a class where man really ceases to be man, and the image of -God prolongs a miserable existence as a moving mass of flesh. Living -bodies with dead souls, which exist only for the sake of their animal -needs; in one place sunk in misery and wretchedness, and in another -having never risen from their brutal savagery--that is the society from -which Courbet chooses his motives, to gloss over the debility of his -imagination and his want of any kind of training. Had he possessed the -talent for composition, then perhaps his lifeless technique would have -become interesting; as it is he offers a merely arbitrary succession of -figures in which coherence is entirely wanting." In "The Stone-breakers" -it was an offence that he should have treated such "an excessively -commonplace subject" at all as mere artisans in ragged and dirty -clothes. And by "The Funeral at Ornans" it was said that he meant to -sneer at the religious ceremony, since the picture had a defiant and -directly brutal vulgarity. The painter was alleged to have taken pains -to expose the repulsive, ludicrous, and grotesque elements in the -members of the funeral party, and to have softened no feature which -could excite an unseasonable merriment. In the "Demoiselles de Village" -the design had been to contrast the stilted, provincial nature of these -village misses with the healthy simplicity of a peasant child. In the -picture, painted in 1857, of the two grisettes lying in the grass on the -bank of the Seine he had "intentionally placed the girls in the most -unrefined attitudes, that they might appear as trivial as possible." And -umbrage was taken at his two naked wrestlers because he "had not painted -wrestlers more or less like those of classic times, but the persons who -exhibit the strength of their herculean frames at the Hippodrome," and -therefore given "the most vulgar rendering of nudity that was at all -possible." And in his naked women it was said that this love of ugly and -brutal forms became actually base. - -All these judgments are characteristic symptoms of the same sort of -taste which rose in the seventeenth century against Caravaggio. Even his -principal work, the altar-piece to St. Matthew, which now hangs in the -Berlin Museum, excited so much indignation that it had to be removed -from the Church of St. Luigi dei Francesi in Rome. Annibale Carracci has -a scornful caricature in which the Neapolitan master appears as a hairy -savage, with a dwarf at his side and two apes upon his knees, and, in -this fashion, intended to brand the hideousness of his rival's art and -his ape-like imitation of misshapen nature. Francesco Albani called him -the "Antichrist of Painting," and "a ruination to art." And Baglione -adds: "Now a number of young men sit down to copy a head after nature; -they study neither the foundations of drawing, nor concern themselves -about the more profound conditions of art, merely contenting themselves -with a crude reproduction of nature, and therefore they do not even know -how to group two figures appropriately, nor to bring any theme into an -artistic composition. No one any longer visits the temples of art, but -every one finds his masters and his models for a servile imitation of -nature in the streets and open places." The nineteenth century formed a -different estimate of Caravaggio. In opposing his fortune-telling -gipsies, his tipplers, gamblers, musicians, and dicing mercenaries to -the noble figures of the academical artists, with their generalised and -carefully balanced forms, their trivial, nugatory countenances, and -their jejune colouring, he accomplished the legitimate and necessary -reaction against a shallow and empty idealistic mannerism. No one is -grateful to the eclectic artists for the learned efforts which it cost -them to paint so tediously: in Caravaggio there is the fascination of a -strong personality and a virile emphasis in form, colour, and light. The -Carracci and Albani were the issue of their predecessors; Caravaggio is -honoured as a fearless pioneer who opened a new chapter in the history -of art. - -[Illustration: COURBET. MY STUDIO AFTER SEVEN YEARS OF ARTISTIC LIFE.] - -Courbet met with a similar fate. - -If one approaches him after reading the criticisms of his pictures -already cited, a great disillusionment is inevitable. Having imagined a -grotesque monster, one finds to one's astonishment that there is not the -slightest occasion either for indignation or laughter in the presence of -these powerful, sincere, and energetic pictures. One has expected -caricatures and a repulsive hideousness, and one finds a broad and -masterly style of painting. The heads are real without being vulgar, and -the flesh firm and soft and throbbing with powerful life. Courbet is a -personality. He began by imitating the Flemish painters and the -Neapolitans. But far more did he feel himself attracted by the actual -world, by massive women and strong men, and wide fertile fields smelling -of rich, rank earth. As a healthy and sensuously vigorous man he felt a -voluptuous satisfaction in clasping actual nature in his herculean arms. -Of course, by the side of his admirable pictures there are others which -are heavy and uncouth. But if one is honest one paints according to -one's inherent nature, as old Navez, the pupil of David, was in the -habit of saying. Courbet was honest, and he was also a somewhat unwieldy -being, and therefore his painting too has something bluff and cumbrous. -But where in all French art is there such a sound painter, so sure of -his effects and with such a large bravura, a _matre peintre_ who was so -many-sided, extending his dominion as much over figure-painting as -landscape, over the nude as over _nature morte_? There is no artist so -many of whose pictures may be seen together without surfeit, for he is -novel in almost every work. He has painted not a few pictures of which -it may be said that each one is _sui generis_, and on the variations of -which elsewhere entire reputations might have been founded. With the -exception of Millet, no one had observed man and nature with such -sincere and open eyes. With the great realists of the past Courbet -shares the characteristic of being everywhere and exclusively a portrait -painter. A pair of stone-breakers, kneeling as they do in his picture, -with their faces protected by wire-masks, were figures which every one -saw working at the street corner, and Courbet represented the scene as -faithfully as he could, as sincerely and positively as was at all -possible. "Afternoon in Ornans" is a pleasant picture, in which he took -up again the good tradition of Lenain. And in "The Funeral at Ornans" he -has painted exactly the manner in which such ceremonies take place in -the country. The peasants and dignitaries of a little country -town--portrait figures such as the masters of the fifteenth century -brought into their religious pictures--have followed the funeral train, -and behave themselves at the grave just as peasants would. They make no -impassioned gesticulations, and form themselves into no fine groups, but -stand there like true rustics, sturdy and indifferent. They are men of -flesh and blood, they are like the people of real life, and they have -been subjected to no alteration: on the one side are the women tearfully -affected by the words of the preacher, on the other are the men bored by -the ceremony or discussing their own affairs. In the "Demoiselles de -Village" he gives a portrait of his own sisters, as they went to a dance -of a Sunday afternoon. The "Girls lying on the Bank of the Seine" are -grisettes of 1850, such as Gavarni often drew; they are both dressed in -doubtful taste, one asleep, the other lost in a vacant reverie. His -naked women make a very tame effect compared with the colossal masses of -human flesh in that cascade of nude women of the plumpest description -who in Rubens' "Last Judgment" plunge in confusion into hell, like fish -poured out from a bucket. But they are amongst the best nude female -figures which have been created in the nineteenth century. Courbet was a -painter of the family of Rubens and Jordaens. He had the preference -shown by the old Flemish artists for healthy, plump, soft flesh, for -fair, fat, and forty, the three F's of feminine beauty, and in his -works he gave the academicians a lesson well worth taking to heart; he -showed them that it was possible to attain a powerful effect, and even -grace itself, by strict fidelity to the forms of reality. - -[Illustration: _Neuerdein, photo._ - - COURBET. THE WAVE.] - -His portraits--and he had the advantage of painting Berlioz and -Baudelaire, Champfleury and Proudhon--are possibly not of conspicuous -eminence as likenesses. As Caravaggio, according to Bellori, "had only -spirit, eyes and diligence for flesh-tints, skin, blood, and the natural -surface of objects," a head was merely a _morceau_ like anything else -for Courbet too, and not the central point of a thinking and sensitive -being. The physical man, Taine's human animal, was more important in his -eyes than the psychical. He painted the epidermis without giving much -suggestion of what was beneath. But he painted this surface in such a -broad and impressive manner that the pictures are interesting as -pictorial masterpieces if not as analyses of character. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - STEVENS. THE LADY IN PINK.] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - STEVENS. LA BTE BON DIEU.] - -To these his landscapes and animal pieces must be added as the works on -which his talent displayed itself in the greatest purity and most -inherent vigour: "The Battle of the Stags," that most admirable picture -"The Hind on the Snow," "Deer in Covert," views of the moss-grown rocks -and sunlit woods of Ornans and the green valleys of the Franche-Comt. -He had the special secret of painting with a beautiful tone and a broad, -sure stroke dead plumage and hunting-gear, the bristling hide of -wild-boars, and the more delicate coat of deer and of dogs. As a -landscape painter he does not belong to the family of Corot and Dupr. -His landscapes are green no doubt, but they have limitations; the leaves -hang motionless on the branches, undisturbed by a breath of wind. -Courbet has forgotten the most important thing, the air. Whatever the -time of the year or the day may be, winter or summer, evening or -morning, he sees nothing but the form of things, regarding the sun as a -machine which has no other purpose than to mark the relief of objects by -light and shade. Moreover, the lyricism of the Fontainebleau painters -was not in him. He paints without reverie, and knows nothing of that -tender faltering of the landscape painter in which the poet awakes, but -has merely the equanimity of a good and sure worker. In regard to -nature, he has the sentiments of a peasant who tills his land, is never -elegiac or bucolic, and would be most indignant if a nymph were to tread -on the furrows of his fields. He paints with a pipe in his mouth and a -spade in his hand, the plain and the hills, potatoes and cabbages, rich -turf and slimy rushes, oxen with steaming nostrils heavily ploughing the -clods, cows lying down and breathing at ease the damp air of the meadows -drenched with rain. He delights in fertile patches of country, and in -the healthy odour of the cow-house. A material heaviness and a prosaic -sincerity are stamped upon all. But his painting has a solidity -delightful to the eye. It is inspiriting to meet a man who has such a -resolute and simple love of nature, and can interpret her afresh in -powerful and sound colour without racking his brains. His attachment to -the spot of earth where he was born is a leading characteristic of his -art. He borrowed from Ornans the motives of his most successful -creations, and was always glad to return to his parents' house. The -patriotism of the church-spire, provincialism, and a touching and vivid -sense of home are peculiar to all his landscapes. But in his sea-pieces, -to which he was incited by a residence in Trouville in the summer of -1865, he has opened an altogether new province to French art. _Eugne Le -Poittevin_, who exhibited a good deal in Berlin in the forties, and -therefore became very well known in Germany, cannot count as a painter. -_Thodore Gudin_, whose signature is likewise highly valued in the -market, was a frigid and rough-and-ready scenical painter. His little -sea-pieces have a professional manner, and the large naval battles and -fires at sea which he executed by the commission of Louis Philippe for -the Museum of Versailles are frigid, pompous, and spectacular sea-pieces -parallel with Vernet's battle-pieces. _Ziem_, who gave up his time to -Venice and the Adriatic, is the progenitor of Eduard Hildebrandt. His -water and sky take all the colours of the prism, and the objects -grouped between these luminous elements, houses, ships, and men, equally -receive a share of these flattering and iridescent tones. This gives -something seductive and dazzling to his sketches, until it is at last -perceived that he has only painted one picture, repeating it -mechanically in all dimensions. Courbet was the first French painter of -sea-pieces who had a feeling for the sombre majesty of the sea. The -ocean of Gudin and Ziem inspires neither wonder nor veneration; that of -Courbet does both. His very quietude is expressive of majesty; his peace -is imposing, his smile grave; and his caress is not without a menace. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - STEVENS. THE JAPANESE MASK.] - -Courbet has positively realised the programme which he issued in that -pamphlet of 1855. When he began his activity, eclectic idealism had -overgrown the tree of art. But Courbet stripped off the parasitic -vegetation to reach the firm and serviceable timber. And having once -grasped it he showed the muscles of an athlete in making its power felt. -Something of the old Flemish sturdiness lived once more in his bold -creations. If he and Delacroix were united, the result would be Rubens. -Delacroix had the fervour and passionate tamelessness, while Courbet -contributed the Flemish weight. Each made use of blood, purple, thrones, -and Golgothas in composing the dramas they had imagined. The latter -pictured creation with the absolutism of complete objectivity. Delacroix -rose on the horizon like a brilliant meteor catching flame from the -light of vanished suns; he reflected their radiance, had almost their -magnitude, and followed the same course amid the same coruscation and -blaze of light. Courbet stands firm and steady upon the earth. The -former had the second sight known to visionaries, the latter opened his -eyes to the world that can be felt and handled. Neurotic and -distempered, Delacroix worked feverishly. As a sound, full-blooded being -Courbet painted, as a man drinks, digests, and talks, with an activity -that knows no exertion, a force that knows no weariness. Delacroix was a -small, weakly man, and his whole power rested in his huge head. That of -Courbet, as in animals of beauty and power, was dispersed through his -whole frame; his big arms and athletic hands render the same service to -his art as his eyes and his brain. And as, like all sincere artists, he -rendered himself, he was the creator of an art which has an -irrepressible health and overflows with an exuberant opulence. His -pictures brought a savour of the butcher's shop into French painting, -which had become anmic. He delighted in plump shoulders and sinewy -necks, broad breasts heaving over the corset, the glow of the skin -dripping with warm drops of water in the bath, the hide of deer and the -coat of hares, the iridescent shining of carp and cod-fish. Delacroix, -all brain, caught fire from his inward visions; Courbet, all eye and -maw, with the sensuousness of an epicure and the satisfaction of a -_gourmet_, gloats over the shining vision of things which can be -devoured--a Gargantua with a monstrous appetite, he buried himself in -the navel of the generous earth. Plants, fruit, and vegetables take -voluptuous life beneath his brush. He triumphs when he has to paint a -_djeuner_ with oysters, lemons, turkeys, fish, and pheasants. His mouth -waters when he heaps into a picture of still-life all manner of -delicious eatables. The only drama that he has painted is "The Battle of -the Stags," and this will end in brown sauce amid a cheerful clatter of -knives and forks. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - STEVENS. THE VISITORS. - - (_By permission of M. Faure, the owner of the picture._)] - -Even as a landscape painter he is luxurious and phlegmatic. In his -pictures the earth is a corpulent nurse, the trees fine and well-fed -children, and all nature healthy and contented. His art is like a -powerful body fed with rich nourishment. In such organisms the capacity -for enthusiasm and delicacy of sentiment are too easily sacrificed to -their physical satisfaction, but their robust health ensures them the -longer life. Here is neither the routine and external technique and the -correct, academic articulation of form belonging to mannerists, nor the -strained, neurotic, sickly refinement of the decadents, but the -powerful utterance of inborn, instinctive talent, and the strong cries -of nature which rise out of it will be understood at all times, even the -most distant. It is hardly necessary to add that the appearance of a -genius of this kind was fraught with untold consequences to the further -development of French painting. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - RICARD. MADAME DE CALONNE.] - -What is held beautiful in nature must likewise be beautiful in pictorial -art when it is faithfully represented, and nature is beautiful -everywhere. In announcing this and demonstrating it in pictures of -life-size, Courbet won for art all the wide dominion of modern life -which had hitherto been so studiously avoided--the dominion in which it -had to revel if it was to learn to see with its own eyes. One fragment -of reality after another would then be drawn into the sphere of -representation, and no longer in the form of laboriously composed -_genre_ pictures, but after the fashion of really pictorial works of -art. - -What Millet had done for the peasant, and Courbet for the artisan, -_Alfred Stevens_ did for "society": he discovered the _Parisienne_. -Until 1850 the graceful life of the refined classes, which Gavarni, -Marcellin, and Cham had so admirably drawn, found no adequate -representation in the province of painting. The _Parisienne_, who is so -_chic_ and piquant, and can hate and kiss with such fervour, fascinated -every one, but Grecian profile was a matter of prescription. _Auguste -Toulmouche_ painted little women in fashionable toilette, but less from -any taste he had for the graceful vision than from delight in _genre_ -painting. They were forced to find forbidden books in the library, to -resist worldly marriages, or behave in some such interesting fashion, to -enter into the kingdom of art. It was reserved for a foreigner to reveal -this world of beauty, _chic_, and grace. - -Alfred Stevens was a child of Brussels. He was born in the land of -Flemish matrons on 11th May 1828, and was the second of three children. -Joseph, the elder brother, became afterwards the celebrated painter of -animals; Arthur, the youngest, became an art-critic and a -picture-dealer; he was one of the first who brought home to the public -comprehension the noble art of Rousseau, Corot, and Millet. Stevens' -father fought as an officer in the great army at the battle of Waterloo, -and is said to have been an accomplished critic. Some of the ablest -sketches of Delacroix, Devria, Charlet, and Roqueplan found their way -into his charming home. Roqueplan, who often came to Brussels, took the -younger Stevens with him to his Parisian studio. He was a tall, graceful -young man, who, with his vigorous upright carriage, his finely chiselled -features, and his dandified moustache, looked like an officer of -dragoons or cuirassiers. He was a pleasure-loving man of the world, and -was soon the lion of Parisian drawing-rooms. The grace of modern life in -great cities became the domain of his art. The _Parisienne_, whom his -French fellow-artists passed by without heed, was a strange, interesting -phenomenon to him, who was a foreigner--an exotic and exquisitely -artistic _bibelot_, which he looked upon with eyes as enraptured as -those with which Decamps had looked upon the East. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - CHAPLIN. THE GOLDEN AGE. - - (_By permission of Messrs. Goupil & Co., the owners of the - copyright._)] - -His very first picture, exhibited in 1855, was called "At Home." A -charming little woman is warming her feet at the fire; she has returned -from visiting a friend, and it has been raining or snowing outside. Her -delicate hands are frozen in spite of her muff, her cheeks have been -reddened by the wind, and she has a pleasant sense of comfort as her -rosy lips breathe the warm air of the room. From the time of this -picture women took possession of Stevens' easel. His way was prescribed -for him, and he never left it. Robert Fleury, the president of the -judging committee in the Salon, said to him: "You are a good painter, -but alter your subjects; you are stifling in a sphere which is too -small; how wide and grand is that of the past!" Whereon Stevens is said -to have showed him a volume of photographs from Velasquez. "Look here at -Velasquez," he said. "This man never represented anything but what he -had before his eyes--people in the Spanish dress of the seventeenth -century. And as the justification of my _genre_ may be found in this -Spanish painter, it may be found also in Rubens, Raphael, Van Dyck, and -all the great artists. All these masters of the past derived their -strength and the secret of their endurance from the faithful -reproduction of what they had themselves seen: it gives their pictures a -real historical as well as an artistic value. One can only render -successfully what one has felt sincerely and seen vividly before one's -eyes in flesh and blood." In these sentences he is at one with Courbet, -and by not allowing himself to be led astray into doing sacrifice to the -idols of historical painting he continues to live as the historical -painter of the _Parisienne_. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - CHAPLIN. PORTRAIT OF COUNTESS AIMERY DE LA ROCHEFOUCAULD.] - -In his whole work he sounds a pan to the delicate and all-powerful -mistress of the world, and it is significant that it was through woman -that art joined issue with the interests of the present. Millet, the -first who conquered a province of modern life, was at the same time the -first great painter of women in the century. Stevens shows the other -side of the medal. In Millet woman was a product of nature; in Stevens -she is the product of modern civilisation. The woman of Millet lives a -large animal life, in the sweat of her brow, bowed to the earth. She is -the primval mother who works, bears children, and gives them -nourishment. She stands in the field like a caryatid, like a symbol of -fertile nature. In Stevens woman does not toil and is seldom a mother. -He paints the woman who loves, enjoys, and knows nothing of the great -pangs of child-birth and hunger. The one woman lives beneath the wide, -open sky, _dans le grand air_; the other is only enveloped in an -atmosphere of perfume. She is ancient Cybele in the pictures of Millet; -in those of Stevens the holy Magdalene of the nineteenth century, to -whom much will be forgiven, because she has loved much. The pictures of -Stevens represent, for the first time, the potent relations of woman to -the century. Whilst most works of this time are silent concerning -ourselves, his art will speak of our weaknesses and our passions. In a -period of archaic painting he upheld the banner of modernity. On this -account posterity will honour him as one of the first historians of the -nineteenth century, and will learn from his pictures all that Greuze has -revealed to the present generation about the civilisation of the -eighteenth century. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - GAILLARD. PORTRAIT.] - -And perhaps more, for Stevens never moralised--he merely painted. -Painter to his finger tips, like Delacroix, Roqueplan, and Isabey, he -stood in need of no anecdotic substratum as an adjunct. The key of his -pictures was suggested by no theme of one sort or another, but by his -treatment of colour. The picture was evolved from the first tone he -placed upon the canvas, which was the ground-note of the entire scale. -He delighted in a thick pasty handling, in beautiful hues, and in finely -chased detail. And he was as little inclined to sentimentality as to -pictorial novels. Everything is discreet, piquant, and full of charm. He -was a delicate spirit, avoiding tears and laughter. Subdued joy, -melancholy, and everything delicate and reserved are what he loves; he -will have nothing to do with stereotyped arrangement nor supernumerary -figures, but although a single person dominates the stage he never -repeats himself. He has followed woman through all her metamorphoses--as -mother or in love, weary or excited, proud or humbled, fallen or at the -height of success, in her morning-gown or dressed for visiting or a -promenade, now on the sea-shore, now in the costume of a Japanese, or -dallying with her trinkets as she stands vacantly before the glass. The -surroundings invariably form an accompaniment to the melody. A world of -exquisite things is the environment of the figures. Rich stuffs, -charming _petit-riens_ from China and Japan, the most delicate ivory and -lacquer-work, the finest bronzes, Japanese fire-screens, and great vases -with blossoming sprays, fill the boudoir and drawing-room of the -_Parisienne_. In the pictures of Stevens she is the fairy of a paradise -made up of all the most capricious products of art. A new world was -discovered, a painting which was in touch with life; the symphony of the -salon was developed in a delicate style. A tender feminine perfume, -something at once melancholy and sensuous, was exhaled from the pictures -of Stevens, and by this shade of _demi-monde haut-got_ he won the great -public. They could not rise to Millet and Courbet, and Stevens was the -first who gave general pleasure without paying toll to the vicious taste -for melodramatic, narrative, and humorous _genre_ painting. Even in the -sixties he was appreciated in England, France, Germany, Russia, and -Belgium, and represented in all public and private collections; and -through the wide reception offered to his pictures he contributed much -to create in the public a comprehension for good painting. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - DUBOIS. PORTRAIT OF MY SONS. - - (_By permission of the Artist._)] - -In the same way _James Tissot_ achieved the representation of the modern -woman. Stevens, a Belgian, painted the _Parisienne_; Tissot, a -Frenchman, the Englishwoman. It was not till they went into foreign -countries that these artists perceived the grace of what was not deemed -suitable to art at home. In Paris from the year 1859 Tissot had painted -scenes from the fifteenth century, to which he was moved by Leys, and he -studied with archological accuracy the costume and furniture of the -late Gothic period. When he migrated to England in 1871 he gave up the -romantic proclivities of his youth, and devoted himself to the -representation of fashionable society. His oil paintings fascinate us by -their delicate feeling for cool transparent tone values, whilst his -water-colours--restaurant, theatre, and ball scenes--assure him a place -among the pioneers of modernity. - -At first Stevens found no successors amongst Parisian painters. A few, -indeed, painted interiors in graceful Paris, but they were only frigid -compositions of dresses and furniture, without a breath of that delicate -aroma which exhales from the works of the Belgian. The portrait painters -alone approached that modern grace which still awaited its historian and -poet. - -An exceedingly delicate artist, _Gustave Ricard_, in whose portraits the -art of galleries had a congenial revival, was called the modern Van Dyck -in the sixties. Living nature did not content him; he wished to learn -how it was interpreted by the old masters, and therefore frequented -galleries, where he sought counsel sometimes from the English -portrait-painters, sometimes from Leonardo, Rubens, and Van Dyck. In -this way Ricard became a _gourmet_ of colour, who knew the technique of -the old masters as few others have done, and his works have an -attractive golden gallery-tone of great distinction. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ CAROLUS DURAN.] - -In _Charles Chaplin_ Fragonard was revived. He was the specialist of -languishing flesh and _poudre de riz_, the refined interpreter of -aristocratic beauty, one on whose palette there might still be found a -delicate reflection of the _ftes galantes_ of the eighteenth century. -In Germany he was principally known by those dreamy, frail, and sensual -maidens, well characterised by the phrase of the Empress Eugnie. "M. -Chaplin," she said, "I admire you. Your pictures are not merely -indecorous, they are more." But Chaplin had likewise the other qualities -of the _rococo_ painter. He was a decorative artist of the first rank, -and, like Fragonard, he carelessly scattered round him on all sides -grace and beauty, charm and fascination. In 1857 he decorated the _Salon -des Fleurs_ in the Tuileries, in 1861-65 the bathroom of the Empress in -the _Palais de l'Elyse_, and from 1865 a number of private houses in -Paris, Brussels, and New York; and there is in all these works a refined -_haut-got_ of modern Parisian elegance and fragrant _rococo_ grace. He -revived no nymphs, and made no pilgrimage to the island of Cythera; he -was more of an epicurean. But Fragonard's fine tones and Fragonard's -sensuousness were peculiar to him. He had a method of treating the hair, -of introducing little patches, of setting a dimple in the chin, and -painting the arms and bosom, which had vanished since the _rococo_ -period from the power of French artists. Rosebuds and full-blown roses -blossom like girls _ la_ Greuze, and fading beauties, who are all the -more irresistible, are the elements out of which his refined, -indecorous, and yet fragrant art is constituted. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - BONNAT. ADOLPHE THIERS. - - (_By permission of the Artist._)] - -The great engraver _Gaillard_ brought Hans Holbein once more into -honour. He was the heir of that method of painting, the eternal matrix -of which Jan van Eyck left to the world in unapproachable perfection. -His energetic but conscientiously minute brush noted every wrinkle of -the face, without doing injury to the total impression by this labour of -detail. Indeed, his pictures are as great in conception and as powerful -in characterisation as they are small in size. Gaillard is a profound -physiognomist who attained the most vivid analysis of character by means -of the utmost precision. - -_Paul Dubois_ takes us across the Alps; in his portraits he is the same -great quattrocentist that he was from the beginning in his plastic -works. His ground is that of the excellent and subtle period when -Leonardo, who had been in the beginning somewhat arid, grew delicate and -allowed a mysterious sphinx-like smile to play round the lips of his -women. Manifestly he has studied Prudhon and had much intercourse with -Henner in those years when the latter, after his return from Italy, -directed attention once more to the old Lombards. From the time when he -made his dbut in 1879, with the portrait of his sons, he received great -encouragement, and stands out in these days as the most mature painter -of women that the present age has to show. Only the great English -portrait painters Watts and Millais, who are inferior to him in -technique, have excelled him in the embodiment of personalities. - -As the most skilful painter of drapery, the most brilliant decorator of -feminine beauty, _Carolus Duran_ was long celebrated. The studies which -he had made in Italy had not caused him to forget that he took his -origin from across the Flemish border; and when he appeared with his -first portraits, in the beginning of the seventies, it was believed that -an eminent colourist had been born to French painting. At that time he -had a fine feeling for the eternal feminine and its transitory phases of -expression, and he was as dexterous in seizing a fleeting gesture or a -turn of the head as he was in the management of drapery and the play of -its hues. Then, again, he made a gradual transition from delicate and -discreetly coquettish works to the crude arts of upholstery. Yet even in -his last period he has painted some masculine portraits--those of -Pasteur, and of the painters Franais, Fritz Thaulow, and Ren -Billotte--which are striking in their vigorous simplicity and unforced -characterisation after the glaring virtuosity of his pictures of women. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - BONNAT. VICTOR HUGO. - - (_By permission of the Artist._)] - -_Lon Bonnat_, the pupil of Madrazos, brought about the fruitful -connection between French painting and that of the old Spaniards. By -this a large quantity of the fresh blood of naturalism was poured into -it once more. Born in the South of France and educated in Spain, he had -conceived there a special enthusiasm for Ribera, and these youthful -impressions were so powerful that he remained faithful to them in Paris. -As early as his residence in Italy, which included the three years from -1858 to 1860, his individuality had been fortified in a degree which -prevented him from wasting himself on large academical compositions like -the holders of the _Prix de Rome_; on the contrary, he painted scenes -from the varied life of the Roman people. Several religious pictures, -such as "The Martyrdom of Saint Andrew" (1863), "Saint Vincent de Paul" -(1866), and the "Job" of the Luxembourg, showed that he was steadily -progressing on the road paved by Spagnoletto. He had a virtuosity in -conjuring on to the canvas visages furrowed by the injustices of -life--grey hair, waving grey beards, and the starting sinews and muscles -of old weather-beaten frames. In the beginning of the seventies, when he -had to paint a Crucifixion for the jury-chamber in the Paris Palais de -Justice, he executed a virile figure, the muscles and anatomy of which -were as clearly marked as the buttresses in a Gothic cathedral. As in -the paintings of Caravaggio, a sharp, glaring light fell upon certain -parts of the body, whilst others remained dark and colourless in the -gloomy background. He applied the same principles to his portraits. A -French Lenbach, he painted in France a gallery of celebrated men. With -an almost tangible reality he painted Hugo, Madame Pasta, Dumas, Gounod, -Thiers, Grvy, Pasteur, Puvis de Chavannes, Jules Ferry, Carnot, -Cardinal Lavigerie, and others. Over two hundred persons, famous or not, -have sat to him, and he has painted them with an exceedingly intelligent -power, masculine taste, and a learning which never loses itself in -unnecessary detail. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ ANTOINE VOLLON.] - -The delicate physiognomy of women, the _frou-frou_ of exquisite -toilettes, the dreaminess, the fragrance, the coquetry of the modern -Sphinx, were no concern of his. On the other hand, his masculine -portraits will always keep their interest, if only on historical -grounds. In all of them he laid great stress on characteristic -accessories, and could indicate in the simplest way the thinker, the -musician, the scholar, and the statesman. One remembers his pictures as -though they were phrases uttered with conviction, though a German does -not hesitate to place Lenbach far above Bonnat as a psychologist. The -latter has not the power of seizing the momentary effect, the intimacy, -the personal note, the palpitating life peculiar to Lenbach. With the -intention of saying all things he often forgets the most important--the -spirit of the man and the grace of the woman. His pictures are great -pieces of still-life--exceedingly conscientious, but having something of -the conscientiousness of an actuary copying a tedious protocol. The -portrait of Lon Cogniet, the teacher of the master, with his aged face, -his spectacled eyes, and his puckered hands (Muse Luxembourg), is -perhaps the only likeness in which Bonnat rivals Lenbach in depth of -characterisation. His pictorial strength is always worthy of respect; -but, for the sake of variety, the _esprit_ is for once on the side of -the German. - -Ruled by a passion for the Spanish masters, such as Bonnat possessed, -_Roybet_ painted cavaliers of the seventeenth century, and other -historical pictures of manners, which are distinguished, to their -advantage, from older pictures of their type, because it is not the -historical anecdote but the pictorial idea which is their basis. All the -earlier painters were rather bent upon archological accuracy than on -pictorial charm in the treatment of such themes. Roybet revelled in the -rich hues of old costumes, and sometimes attained, before he strained -his talent in the Procrustean bed of pictures of great size, a bloom and -a strong, glowing tone which rival the old masters. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - VOLLON. A CARNIVAL SCENE.] - -In all periods which have learnt to see the world through a pictorial -medium, still-life has held an important place in the practice of art. A -technical instinct, which is in itself art, delights in investing -musical instruments, golden and silver vessels, fruit and other -eatables, glasses and goblets, coverings of precious work, gauntlets and -armour, all imaginable _petit-riens_, with an artistic magic, in -recognising and executing pictorial problems everywhere. After the -transition from historical and _genre_ painting had been made to -painting proper there once more appeared great painters of still-life in -France as there did in Chardin's days. - -Yet _Blaise Desgoffe_, who painted piecemeal and with laborious patience -goldsmith's work, crystal vases, Venetian glass, and such things, is -certainly rather petty. In France he was the chief representative of -that precise and detailed painting which understands by art a deceptive -imitation of objects, and sees its end attained when the holiday public -gathers round the pictures as the birds gathered round the grapes of -Zeuxis. - -It is as if an old master had revived in _Philippe Rousseau_. He had the -same earnest qualities as the Dutch and Flemish Classic masters--a -broad, liquid, pasty method of execution, a fine harmony of clear and -powerful tones--and with all this a marvellous address in so composing -objects that no trace of "composition" is discernible. His work arose -from the animal picture. His painting of dogs and cats is to be ranked -with the best of the century. He makes a fourth with Gillot, Chardin, -and Decamps, the great painters of monkeys. As a decorator of genius, -like Hondekoeter, he embellished a whole series of dining-halls with -splendidly coloured representations of poultry, and, like Snyders, he -heaped together game, dead and living fowl, fruit, lobsters, and oysters -into huge life-size masses of still-life. Behind them the cook may be -seen, and thievish cats steal around. But, like Kalf, he has also -painted, with an exquisite feeling for colour, Japanese porcelain bowls -with bunches of grapes, quinces, and apricots, metal and ivory work, -helmets and fiddles, against that delicate grey-brown-green tone of -background which Chardin loved. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - BONVIN. THE COOK.] - -_Antoine Vollon_ became the greatest painter of still-life in the -century. Indeed, Vollon is as broad and nervous as Desgoffe is precise -and pedantic. Flowers, fruit, and fish--they are all painted in with a -firm hand, and shine out of the dark background with a full liquid -freshness of colour. He paints dead salt-water fish like Abraham van -Beyeren, grapes and crystal goblets like Davids de Heem, dead game like -Frans Snyders, skinned pigs like Rembrandt and Maes. He is a master in -the representation of freshly gathered flowers, delicate vegetables, -copper kettles, weapons, and suits of armour. Since Chardin no painter -depicted the qualities of the skin of fresh fruit, its life and its play -of colour, and the moist bloom that rests upon it, with such fidelity to -nature. His fish in particular will always remain the wonder of all -painters and connoisseurs. But landscapes, Dutch canal views, and -figure-pictures are also to be found amongst his works. He has painted -everything that is picturesque, and the history of art must do him -honour as, in a specifically pictorial sense, one of the greatest in the -century. A soft grey-brown wainscoting, a black and white Pierrot -costume, and a white table-cloth and dark green vegetables--such is the -harmony of colour which he chiefly loved in his figure-pictures. - -On the same purely pictorial grounds nuns became very popular in -painting, as their white hoods and collars standing out against a black -dress gave the opportunity for such a fine effect of tone. This was the -province in which poor _Franois Bonvin_ laboured. Deriving from the -Dutch, he conceived an enthusiasm for work, silence, the subdued shining -of light in interiors, cold days, the slow movements and peaceful faces -of nuns, and painted kitchen scenes with a strong personal accent. -Before he took up painting he was for a long time a policeman, and was -employed in taking charge of the markets. Here he acquired an eye for -the picturesqueness of juicy vegetables, white collars, and white hoods, -and when he had a day free he studied Lenain and Chardin in the Louvre. -Bonvin's pictures have no anecdotic purport. Drinkers, cooks, orphan -children in the schoolroom, sempstresses, choristers, sisters of mercy, -boys reading, women in church, nuns conducting a sewing-class--Bonvin's -still, picturesque, congenial world is made up of elements such as -these. What his people may think or do is no matter: they are only meant -to create an effect as pictorial tones in space. During his journey to -Holland he had examined Metsu, Frans Hals, Pieter de Hoogh, Terborg, and -Van der Meer with an understanding for their merits, but it was Chardin -in both his phases--as painter of still-life and of familiar events--who -was in a special sense revived in Bonvin. All his pictures are simple -and quiet; his figures are peaceful in their expression, and have an -easy geniality of pose; his hues have a beauty and fulness of tone -recalling the old masters. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - BONVIN. THE WORK-ROOM.] - -Even _Thodule Ribot_, the most eminent of the group, one of the most -dexterous executants of the French school, a master who for power of -expression is worthy of being placed between Frans Hals and Ribera, made -a beginning with still-life. He was born in 1823, in a little town of -the department of Eure. Early married and poor, he supported himself at -first by painting frames for a firm of mirror manufacturers, and only -reserved the hours of the evening for his artistic labours. In -particular he is said to have accustomed himself to work whole nights -through by lamplight, while he nursed his wife during a long illness, -watching at her bedside. The lamplight intensified the contrasts of -light and shadow. Thus Ribot's preference for concentrated light and -strong shadows is partially due, in all probability, to what he had -gone through in his life, and in later days Ribera merely bestowed upon -him a benediction as his predecessor in the history of art. - -[Illustration: RIBOT. THE STUDIO.] - -His first pictures from the years 1861 to 1865 were, for the most part, -scenes from household and kitchen life: cooks, as large as life, -plucking poultry, setting meat before the fire, scouring vessels, or -tasting sauces; sometimes, also, figures in the streets; but even here -there was a strong accentuation of the element of still-life. There were -men with cooking utensils, food, dead birds, and fish. Then after 1865 -there followed a number of religious pictures which, in their hard, -peasant-like veracity and their impressive, concentrated life, stood in -the most abrupt contrast with the conventionally idealised figures of -the academicians. His "Jesus in the Temple," no less than "Saint -Sebastian" and "The Good Samaritan"--all three in the Muse -Luxembourg--are works of simple and forceful grandeur, and have a -thrilling effect which almost excites dismay. Sebastian is no smiling -saint gracefully embellished with wounds, but a suffering man, with the -blood streaming from his veins, stretched upon the earth; yet -half-raising himself, a cry of agony upon his lips, and his whole body -contorted by spasms of pain. In his "Jesus in the Temple," going on -parallel lines with Menzel, he proclaims the doctrine that it is only -possible to pour new life-blood into traditional figures by a tactful -choice of models from popular life around. And in "The Good Samaritan," -also, he was only concerned to paint, with naturalistic force, the body -of a wounded man lying in the street, a thick-set French peasant robbed -of his clothes. From the seventies his specialty was heads--separate -figures of weather-beaten old folk, old women knitting or writing, old -men reading or lost in thought; and these will always be ranked with the -greatest masterpieces of the century. Ribot attains a remarkable effect -when he paints those expressive faces of his, which seem to follow you -with their looks, and are thrown out from the darkness of his canvas. A -black background, in which the dark dresses of his figures are -insensibly lost, a luminous head with such eyes as no one of the -century has ever painted, wrinkled skin and puckered old hands rising -from somewhere--one knows not whence--these are things which all lend -his figures something phantasmal, superhuman, and ghostly. Ribot is the -great king of the under-world, to which a sunbeam only penetrates by -stealth. Before his pictures one has the sense of wandering in a deep, -deep shaft of some mine, where all is dark and only now and then a -lantern glimmers. No artist, not even Ribera, has been a better painter -of old people, and only Velasquez has painted children who have such -sparkling life. Ribot worked in Colombes, near Paris, to which place he -had early withdrawn, in a barn where only tiny dormer-windows let in two -sharp rays of light. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - RIBOT. AT A NORMAN INN.] - -By placing his canvas beneath one window and his model beneath the -other, in a dim light which allowed only one golden ray to fall upon the -face, he isolated it completely from its surroundings, and in this way -painted the parts illuminated with the more astonishing effect. No one -had the same power in modelling a forehead, indicating the bones beneath -the flesh, and rendering all the subtleties of skin. A terrible and -intense life is in his figures. His old beggars and sailors especially -have something kingly in the grand style of their noble and quiet faces. -An old master with a powerful technique, a painter of the force and -health of Jordaens, has manifested himself once more in Ribot. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - RIBOT. KEEPING ACCOUNTS.] - -Courbet's principles, accordingly, had won all down the line, in the -course of a few years. "It is only Ribera, Zurbaran, and Velasquez that -I admire; Ostade and Craesbeeck also allure me; and for Holbein I feel -veneration. As for M. Raphael, there is no doubt that he has painted -some interesting portraits, but I cannot find any ideas in him." In -these words he had prophesied as early as 1855 the course which French -art would take in the next decade. When Courbet appeared the grand -painting stood in thraldom to the _beaut suprme_, and the sthetic -conceptions of the time affected the treatment of contemporary subjects. -Artists had not realism enough to give truth and animation to these -themes. When Cabanel, Hamon, and Bouguereau occasionally painted beggars -and orphans, they were bloodless phantoms, because by beautifying the -figures they deprived them of character in the effort to give them, -approximately, the forms of historical painting. Because painters did -not regard their own epoch, because they had been accustomed to consider -living beings merely as elements of the second and third rank, they -never discovered the distinctiveness of their essential life. Like a -traveller possessed by one fixed mania, they made a voyage round the -world, thinking only how they might adapt living forms to those which -their traditional training recommended as peculiarly right and alone -worthy of art. Even portrait painting was dominated by this false -method, of rendering figures as types, of improving the features and the -contour of bodies, and giving men the external appearance of fair, ideal -figures. - -But now the sway of the Cinquecento has been finally broken. A fresh -breeze of realism from across the Pyrenees has taken the place of the -sultry Italian sirocco. From the pictures of the Neapolitans, the -Spaniards, and the Dutch it has been learnt that the joys and sorrows of -the people are just as capable of representation as the actions of gods -and heroes, and under the influence of these views a complete change in -the cast has taken place. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - RIBOT. ST. SEBASTIAN, MARTYR.] - -The figures which in 1855 filled Courbet's picture "The -Studio"--beggar-women, agricultural labourers, artisans, sailors, -tippling soldiers, buxom girls, porters, rough members of the -proletariat of uncouth stature--now crowd the stage of French art, and -impart even to the heroes of history, bred through centuries from -degenerated gods, something of their full-blooded, rough, hearty, and -plebeian force of life. The artists of Italian taste only gave the -rights of citizenship to "universal forms"; every reminiscence of -national customs or of local character was counted vulgar; they did not -discover the gold of beauty in the rich mines of popular life, but in -the classic masters of foreign race. But now even what is unearthly is -translated into the terms of earth. If religious pictures are to be -painted, artists take men from the people for their model, as Caravaggio -did before them--poor old peasants with bones of iron, and bronzed, -weather-beaten faces, porters with figures bowed and scarred by labour, -men of rough, common nature, though of gnarled and sinewy muscles. The -pictures of martyrs, once artificial compositions of beautiful gesture -and vacant, generalised countenances, receive a tone local to the -scaffold, a trait of merciless veracity--the heads the energy of a -relief, the gestures force and impressiveness, the bodies a science in -their modelling which would have rejoiced Ribera. As Caravaggio said -that the more wrinkles his model had the more he liked him, so no one -is any longer repelled by horny hands, tattered rags, and dirty feet. In -the good periods of art it is well known that the beauty or uncomeliness -of a work has nothing to do with the beauty or uncomeliness of the -model, and that the most hideous cripple can afford an opportunity for -making the most beautiful work. The old doctrine of Leonardo, that every -kind of painting is portrait painting, and that the best artists are -those who can imitate nature in the most convincing way, comes once more -into operation. The apotheosis of the model has taken the place of -idealism. And during these same years England reached a similar goal by -another route. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - -CHAPTER XVI - - -Leopold Boilly: - - Jules Houdoy: "L'Art," 1877, iv 63, 81. - -On the History of Caricature in General: - - J. P. Malcolm: An Historical Sketch of the Art of Caricaturing. - London, 1813. - - Th. Wright: A History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and - Art. London, 1875. - - Arsne Alexandre: L'Art du rire. Paris, 1892. - - E. Bayard: La caricature et les caricaturistes. Paris, 1900. - - Fuchs und Krmer: Die Karikatur der europischen Vlker vom Altertum - bis zur Neuzeit. Berlin, 1901. - -On the English Caricaturists: - - Victor Champier: La caricature anglaise contemporaine, "L'Art," 1875, - i 29, 293, ii 300, iii 277 and 296. - - Ernest Chesneau: Les livres caricatures en Angleterre, "Le Livre," - Novembre 1881. - - Augustin Filon: La caricature en Angleterre, W. Hogarth, "Revue des - Deux Mondes," 15 Janvier 1885. - - Graham Everitt: English Caricaturists and Graphic Humorists of the - Nineteenth Century. How they illustrated and interpreted their Times. - With 67 Illustrations. London, 1886. - -Rowlandson: - - C. M. Westmacott: The Spirit of the Public Journals. 3 vols. - 1825-1826. - - Joseph Grego: Thomas Rowlandson, the Caricaturist. A selection from - his works, with anecdotal descriptions of his famous Caricatures and a - sketch of his Life, Times, and Contemporaries. With about 400 - Illustrations. 2 vols. London, 1880. - - F. G. Stephens: Thomas Rowlandson the Humorist, "Portfolio," 1891, - 141. - -Cruikshank: - - Cruikshankiana. Engravings by Richard Dighton. London, 1855. - - F. G. Stephens: G. Cruikshank, "Portfolio," 1872, 77. - - G. W. Reid: Complete Catalogue of the Engraved Works of George - Cruikshank. London, 1873. - - G. A. Sala: George Cruikshank, a Life Memory, "Gentleman's Magazine," - 1878. - - William Bates: George Cruikshank, the Artist, the Humorist, and the - Man. With Illustrations and Portraits. London and Birmingham, 1878. - - Frederick Wedmore: Cruikshank, "Temple Bar," April 1878. - - W. B. Jerrold: The Life of George Cruikshank. 2 vols. 1882. - - H. Thornber: The Early Work of George Cruikshank. 1887. - - F. G. Stephens: A Memoir of George Cruikshank. London, 1891. - - R. F. H. Douglas: Catalogue of Works by Cruikshank. London, 1903. - -John Leech: - - Ernest Chesneau: Un humoriste anglais, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1875, - i 532. - - John Brown: John Leech, and Other Papers. Edinburgh, 1882. - - F. G. Kitton: John Leech, Artist and Humorist. London, 1884. - - <b>George Du Maurier:</b> - - "L'Art," 1876, iv 279. See also English Society at Home. Fol. London, - 1880. - -Charles Keene: - - Claude Phillips: Charles Keene, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1891, i 327. - - G. L. Layard: The Life and Letters of Charles Keene. London, 1892. - -On the German Draughtsmen: - - Beitrge zur Geschichte der Caricatur, "Zeitschrift fr Museologie," - 1881, 13 ff. - - J. Grand-Carteret: Les moeurs et la caricature en Allemagne, en - Autriche, en Suisse. Paris, 1885. - - R. v. Seydlitz: Die moderne Caricatur in Deutschland, "Zur guten - Stunde," Mai 1891. - - Hermann: Die deutsche Karikatur im 19 Jahrhundert. Bielefeld, 1901. - -Johann Christian Erhard: - - Alois Apell: Das Werk von Johann Christian Erhard. Leipzig, 1866-75. - -Johann Adam Klein: - - F. M.: Verzeichniss der von Johann Adam Klein gezeichneten und - radirten Bltter. Stuttgart, 1853. - - John: Das Werk von Johann Adam Klein. Munich, 1863. - -Ludwig Richter: - - Richter-Album. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1861. - - Jahn, in Richter-Album, and in the Biographische Aufstze. Leipzig, - 1867. - - W. Heinrichsen: Ueber Richters Holzschnitte. Carlsruhe, 1870. - - Johann F. Hoff: Adrian Ludwig Richter, Maler und Radirer. List and - description of his works, with a biographical sketch by H. Steinfeld. - Dresden, 1871. - - L. Richter's Landschaften. Text by H. Lcke. Leipzig, 1875. - - Georg Scherer: Aus der Jugendzeit. Leipzig, 1875. Ernst und Scherz. - Leipzig, 1875. - - Deutsche Art und Sitte. Published by G. Scherer. Leipzig, 1876. - - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, i. Nrdlingen, - 1877, pp. 57 ff. - - A. Springer: Zum 80 Geburtstag Ludwig Richter's, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," 1883, pp. 377-386. - - J. E. Wessely: Adrian Ludwig Richter zum 80 Geburtstag. A Monograph. - "Graphische Knste," 1884, vi 1. - - Obituary: "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1884, No. 175; "Allgemeine - Kunst-Chronik," 1884, 26; G. Weisse, "Deutsches Knstlerblatt," iii 1. - - Lebenserinnerungen eines deutschen Malers: Autobiography of Ludwig - Richter. Published by Heinrich Richter. Frankfurt a. M., 1886. - - Robert Waldmller: Ludwig Richter's religise Entwickelung. - "Gegenwart," 37, pp. 198, 218. - - Veit Valentin: Kunst, Knstler, und Kunstwerke. 1889. - - Richard Meister: Land und Leute in Ludwig Richter's - Holzschnitt-Bildern. Leipzig, 1889. - - Die vervielfltigende Kunst der Gegenwart. Edited by C. v. Ltzow. - Vol. i. Woodcut Engravings. Wien, 1890. - - H. Gerlach: Ludwig Richters Leben, dem deutschen Volke erzhlt. - Dresden, 1891. - - Budde: Ludwig Richter, "Preussische Jahrbcher." Bd. 87. Berlin, 1897. - - P. Mohn: Ludwig Richter, "Knstlermonographien," Edited by Knackfuss. - Bd. 14. 2 Aufl. Bielefeld, 1898. - - J. Erler: Ludwig Richter, der Maler des deutschen Hauses. Leipzig, - 1898. - - David Ludwig Koch: Ludwig Richter. Stuttgart, 1903. - -Albert Hendschel: - - J. E. Wessely: Aus Albert Hendschels Bildermappe, "Vom Fels zum Meer," - 1883, iii 3. - - Obituary: "Le Portefeuille," 1884, 30. - - F. Luthmer: Albert Hendschel. "Vom Fels zum Meer," December 1884. - -W. Busch: - - Paul Lindau: "Nord und Sd," 1878, iv 257. - - Eduard Daelen: W. Busch, "Kunst fr Alle," 1887, ii 217. - - See Busch-Album, Humoristischer Hausschatz. Collection of the twelve - most popular works, with 1400 pictures. Mnchen, 1885. - -Adolf Oberlnder: - - Adolf Bayersdorfer: Adolf Oberlnder, "Kunst fr Alle," 1888, iv 49. - - Robert Stiassny: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Caricatur, "Neue Freie - Presse," 20th August 1889. - - Hermann Essenwein: Adolf Oberlnder, "Moderne Illustratoren." Bd. 5. - Munich, 1903. - - See Oberlnder-Album. 7 vols. Munich, Braun & Schneider, 1881-89. - -On the French Draughtsmen: - - Champfleury: Histoire gnrale de la caricature. 5 vols. Paris, - 1856-80. - - J. Grand-Carteret: Les moeurs et la caricature en France. Paris, 1888. - - Armand Dayot: Les Matres de la caricature au XIX sicle. 115 - facsimils de grand caricatures en noir, 5 facsimils de lithographies - en couleurs. Paris, 1888. - - Henri Braldi: Les graveurs du XIX sicle. Paris, 1885. - - Paul Mantz: La caricature moderne, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1888, i - 286. - - Augustin de Buisseret: Les caricaturistes franais, "L'Art," 1888, ii - 91. - -Moreau: - - J. F. Mahrault: L'oeuvre de Moreau le jeune. Paris, 1880. - - A. Moureau: Les Moreau in "Les artistes clbres." 1903. - - Emanuel Bocher: Jean Michel Moreau le jeune. Paris, 1882. - -Debucourt: - - Roger Portalis and Henri Braldi: Les graveurs du XVIII sicle, vol. - i. Paris, 1880. - - Henri Bouchot, in "Les artistes clbres." 1905. - -Carle Vernet: - - Amde Durande: Joseph Carle, et Horace Vernet. Paris, 1865. - - A. Genevay: Carle Vernet, "L'Art," 1877, i 73, 96. - -Henri Monnier: - - Philippe Burty: "L'Art," 1877, ii 177. - - Champfleury: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1877, i 363. - - Champfleury: Henri Monnier, sa vie et son oeuvre. Paris, 1879. - -Daumier: - - Champfleury: L'oeuvre de Daumier, Essai de catalogue, "L'Art," 1878, - ii 217, 252, 294. - - Eugne Montrosier: La caricature politique, H. Daumier, "L'Art," 1878, - ii 25. - - H. Billung: H. Daumier, "Kunstchronik," 24, 1879. - - Arsne Alexandre: Honor Daumier, l'homme et son oeuvre. Paris, 1890. - - H. Frantz: Daumier and Gavarni. London, 1904. - - Erich Klossowski: H. Daumier. Stuttgart, 1906. - -Guys: - - Baudelaire: Le peintre de la vie moderne, in the volume "L'Art - romantique" of his complete works. Paris, 1869. - -Gavarni: - - Manires de voir et faons de penser, par Gavarni, prcd d'une tude - par Charles Yriarte. Paris, 1869. - - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Gavarni, l'Homme et l'Oeuvre. Paris, - 1873. - - Armelhault et Bocher: Catalogue raisonn de l'Oeuvre de Gavarni. - Paris, 1873. - - G. A. Simcox: "Portfolio," 1874, p. 56. - - Georges Duplessis: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1875, ii 152, 211. - - Georges Duplessis: Gavarni, tude, orne de 14 dessins indits. Paris, - 1876. - - Ph. de Chennevires: Souvenirs d'un Directeur des Beaux-Arts, IIIime - partie. Paris, 1876. - - Bruno Walden: "Unsere Zeit," 1881, ii 926. - - Eugne Forgues: Gavarni, in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1887. - - See also Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis. Henri Braldi, Graveurs du XIX - sicle. Oeuvres choisies de Gavarni. 4 vols. Paris, 1845-48. - -Gustave Dor: - - K. Delorme, Gustave Dor, peintre, sculpteur, dessinateur, graveur. - Avec gravures et photographies hors texte. Paris, Baschet, 1879. - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, - 1884, p. 105. - - Obituary: "Magazine of Art," March 1883; Fernand Brouet: "Revue - artistique," March 1883; Dubufe: "Nouvelle Revue," March and April - 1883; A. Michel: "Revue Alsacienne," February 1883; "Chronique des - Arts," 1883, p. 4; "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1883; A. Hustin, - "L'Art," 1883, p. 424. - - Van Deyssel: Gustave Dor, "De Dietsche Warande," iv 5. - - Blanche Roosevelt: Life and Reminiscences of Gustave Dor. London, - 1885. - - Claude Phillips: Gustave Dor, "Portfolio," 1891, p. 249. - -Cham: - - Marius Vachon: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1879, ii 443. - - Felix Ribeyre: Cham, sa vie et son oeuvre. Paris, 1884. - - Cham-Album. 3 vols. Paris. Without date. - -Grvin: - - Ad. Racot: Portraits d'aujourd'hui. Paris, 1891. - - -CHAPTER XVII - -Barry: - - The Works of James Barry, Esq.--to which is prefixed some account of - the Life and the Writings of the Author. 2 vols. London, 1809. - - J. J. Hittorf: Notice historique et biographique de Sir J. Barry. - 1860. - - - Alfred Barry: The Life and Works of Sir J. Barry. London, 1867. - - Sidney Colvin: James Barry, "Portfolio," 1873, p. 150. - - H. Trueman Wood: Pictures of James Barry at the Society of Arts. - London, 1880. - -Benjamin West: - - John Galt: The Life, Studies, and Works of Benjamin West. London, - 1820. Second Edition, 1826. - - Sidney Colvin: "Portfolio," 1873, p. 150. - - See also Cornelius Gurlitt: Die amerikanische Malerei in Europa, "Die - Kunst unserer Zeit," 1893. - -Fuseli: - - J. Knowles: Life and Works of Henry Fuseli. 3 vols. London, 1831. - - Sidney Colvin: Henry Fuseli, "Portfolio," 1873, p. 50. - -Stothard: - - Anna Eliza Bray: Life of Thomas Stothard. London, 1851. - -Opie: - - John J. Rogers: Opie and his Works, being a Catalogue of 760 Pictures - by John Opie, R. A. Preceded by a biographical sketch. London, 1878. - - Claude Phillips: John Opie, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1892, i 299. - -Northcote: - - John Thackeray Bunce: James Northcote, R. A., "Fortnightly Review," - June 1876. - -Copley: - - A. T. Perkins: A Sketch of the Life and a List of the Works of John - Singleton Copley. London, 1873. - -Haydon: - - Life of B. R. Haydon, Historical Painter, from his Autobiography, - edited by Tom Taylor. 3 vols. London, 1853. - -Maclise: - - James Dafforne: Pictures by Maclise. London, 1871. - - James Dafforne: Leslie and Maclise. London, 1872. - -Etty: - - A. Gilchrist: Life of W. Etty, R. A. 2 vols. London, 1855. - - P. G. Hamerton: Etty, "Portfolio," 1875, p. 88. - - W. C. Monkhouse: Pictures by William Etty, with Descriptions. London, - 1874. - -Edward Armitage: - - J. Beavington-Atkinson: "Portfolio," 1870, p. 49. - -Romney: - - William Hagley: The Life of George Romney. London, 1809. - - Rev. John Romney (son of the painter): Memoirs of the life and - Writings of George Romney. London, 1830. - - P. Selvatico: Il pittore Sir Giorgio Romney ed Emma Lyon, "Arte ed - Artisti," p. 143. Padova, 1863. - - Sidney Colvin: George Romney, "Portfolio," 1873, pp. 18 and 34. - - Lord Ronald Gower: Romney and Lawrence. London, 1882. - - T. H. Ward and W. Roberts: Romney, A biographical and critical essay, - with a catalogue raisonn of his works. London, 1904. - - G. Paston: George Romney, etc. (Little Books on Art). London, 1903. - -Thomas Lawrence: - - D. E. Williams: The Life and Correspondence of Sir Thomas Lawrence. 2 - vols. With 3 Portraits. London, 1831. - - F. Lewis: Imitations of Sir Thomas Lawrence's Finest Drawings. 1 vol. - Reproductions in crayon. London, 1839. - - A. Genevay: "L'Art," 1875, iii 385. - - Th. de Wyzewa: Thomas Lawrence et la Socit anglaise de son temps, - "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1891, i 119, ii 112, 335. - - Lord Ronald Gower: Romney and Lawrence. London, 1882. - -Raeburn: - - Portraits by Sir Henry Raeburn, photographed by Thomas Asman, with - biographical sketches. Fol. Edinburgh. No date. - - Exhibition of Portraits by Sir Henry Raeburn, "Art Journal," 1876, p. - 349. - - Alexander Fraser: Henry Raeburn, "Portfolio," 1879, p. 200. - - Andrew William Raeburn: Life of Sir Henry Raeburn. With 2 Portraits. - London, 1886. - - Sir W. Armstrong: Sir Henry Raeburn, etc. London, 1901. - -George Morland: - - John Hassell: Life of the late George Morland. London, 1804. - - William Collins, Memoirs of George Morland. London, 1806. - - F. W. Blagdon: Authentic Memoirs of the late George Morland. London, - 1806. - - G. Dawe: The Life of George Morland. London, 1807. - - Walter Armstrong: George Morland, "Portfolio," 1885, p. 1. - - Some Notes on George Morland: From the Papers of James Ward, R. A., - "Portfolio," 1886, p. 98. - - Other Biographies by R. Richardson, 1895. J. T. Nettleship, 1898; and - Williamson, 1904. - -James Ward: - - F. G. Stephens: "Portfolio," 1886, pp. 8, 32, 45. - -Landseer: - - F. G. Stephens: The Early Works of Edwin Landseer. 16 Photographs. - London, 1869. New Edition under the title: Memoirs of Sir Edwin - Landseer. London, 1874. - - F. G. Stephens: "Portfolio," 1871, p. 165. - - James Dafforne: Pictures by Sir Edwin Landseer, R. A. With - descriptions and a biographical sketch of the painter. London, 1873. - - James Dafforne: Studies and Sketches by Sir Edwin Landseer, "Art - Journal," 1875, passim. - - Catalogue of the Works of Sir Edwin Landseer, "Art Journal," 1875, p. - 317. - - J. Beavington-Atkinson: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1875, pp. - 129 and 163. - - M. M. Heaton: "Academy," 1879, p. 378. - - Edw. Leonidas: Sir Edwin Landseer, "Nederlandsche Kunstbode," 1881, p. - 50. - - F. G. Stephens: Sir Edwin Landseer. London, 1881. - - F. G. Stephens: Landseer, the Dog Painter, "Portfolio," 1885, p. 32. - - J. A. Manson: Sir Edwin Landseer. London, 1902. - - <f><b>On the English Genre Painters:</f></b> - - Frederick Wedmore: The Masters of Genre Painting. With 16 - Illustrations. London, 1880. - -Wilkie: - - Allan Cunningham: Life of Wilkie. 3 vols. London, 1843. - - Mrs. C. Heaton: The Great Works of Sir David Wilkie. 26 Photographs. - London and Cambridge, 1868. - - A. L. Simpson: The Story of Sir David Wilkie. London, 1879. - - J. W. Mollet: Sir David Wilkie. London, 1881. - - Feuillet de Conches: Sir David Wilkie, "Artiste," August 1883. - - F. Rabbe, in "Les artistes clbres." - - E. Pinnington: Sir David Wilkie, etc. (Famous Scots Series). London, - 1900. - - W. Bayne: Sir David Wilkie, etc. (Makers of British Art). London, - 1903. - -William Collins: - - W. Wilkie Collins: Memoirs of the Life of William Collins, Esq. 2 - vols. London, 1848. - -William Powell Frith: - - My Autobiography and Reminiscences. London, 1887. - - Further Reminiscences. London, 1898. - -Mulready: - - Sir Henry Cole: Biography of William Mulready, R. A. Notes of - Pictures, etc. No date. - - F. G. Stephens: Memorials of Mulready. 14 Photographs. London, 1867. - - James Dafforne: Pictures by Mulready. London, 1873. - - F. G. Stephens: William Mulready, "Portfolio," 1887, pp. 85 and 119. - - R. Liebreich: Turner and Mulready. London, 1888. - -Leslie: - - James Dafforne: Pictures by Leslie. Plates. London, 1873. - - Autobiographical recollections, edited by Tom Taylor. London, 1860. - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -In General: - - Arsne Alexandre: Histoire de la peinture militaire en France. Paris, - 1890. - -Horace Vernet: - - L. Ruutz-Rees: Horace Vernet and Paul Delaroche. Illustrations. - London, 1879. - - Amde Durande: Josephe, Carle, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et - Biographies. Paris, 1865. - - Theophile Silvestre: Les artistes franais, p. 355. - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, p. - 65. - - A. Dayot: Les Vernet. Paris, 1898. - -Charlet: - - De la Combe: Charlet, sa vie et ses lettres. Paris, 1856. - - Eugne Veron: "L'Art," 1875, i 193, 217. - - F. L'homme, in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1893. - -Raffet: - - Auguste Bry: Raffet, sa vie et ses oeuvres. Paris, 1874. - - Georges Duplessis: "L'Art," 1879, i 76. - - Notes et croquis de Raffet, mis en ordre et publis par Auguste Raffet - fils. Paris, Amand-Durand, 1879. - - Henri Braldi: Raffet, Peintre National. Paris, 1891. - - F. L'homme, in "Les artistes clbres." - - A. Dayot: Raffet et son oeuvre, etc. Paris, 1892. - - <f><b><b>On the Young Military Painters:</b></f> - - Eugne Montrosier: Les Peintres militaires, contenant les biographies - de Neuville, Detaille, Berne-Bellecour, Protais, etc. Paris, 1881. - - Jules Richard: En campagne. Tableaux et dessins de Meissonier, - Detaille, Neuville, etc. 2 vols. Paris, 1889. - -Bellang: - - Francis Wey: Exposition des oeuvres d'Hippolyte Bellang, tude - biographique. Paris, 1867. - - Jules Adeline: Hippolyte Bellang et son oeuvre. Paris, 1880. - -Protais: - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, p. - 150. - -Pils: - - L. Becq de Fouquires: Isidore Pils, sa vie et ses oeuvres. Paris, - 1876. - - Roger-Ballu: L'oeuvre de Pils, "L'Art," 1876, i 232-258. - -Neuville: - - Alfred de Lostalot: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1885, ii 164. - -Detaille: - - Jules Claretie: L'Art et les artistes franais contemporains. Paris, - 1876, p. 56. - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, - 1884, p. 249. - - G. Goetschy: Les jeunes peintres militaires. Paris, 1878. - -Rgamey: - - E. Chesneau: Notice sur G. Rgamey. Paris, 1870. - - Eugne Montrosier: "L'Art," 1879, ii 25. - -Albrecht Adam: - - Albrecht Adam: Autobiography, 1786-1862. Edited by H. Holland. - Stuttgart, 1886. - - Das Werk der Mnchener Knstlerfamilie Adam. Reproductions after - originals by the painters Albrecht, Benno, Emil, Eugen, Franz and - Julius Adam. Text by H. Holland. Nuremberg, Soldan, 1890. - -P. Hess: - - H. Holland: P. v. Hess. Mnchen, 1871. Originally in "Oberbayerisches - Archiv," vol. xxxi. - -F. Krger: - - A. Rosenberg: Aus dem alten Berlin, Franz Krger-Ausstellung, - "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 337. - - H. Mackowski, in "Das Museum," vi 41. See Vor 50 Jahren, - Portrtskizzen berhmter und bekannter Persnlickkeiten von F. Krger. - Berlin, 1883. - -Franz Adam: - - Friedrich Pecht: Franz Adam, "Kunst fr Alle," 1887, ii 120. - -Thodor Horschelt: - - Ed. Ille: Zur Erinnerung an den Schlachtenmaler Thodor Horschelt. - Mnchen, 1871. - - H. Holland: Thodor Horschelt, sein Leben und seine Werke. Mnchen, - 1889. - -Heinrich Lang: - - H. E. von Berlepsch: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1892. - -On the more recent Dsseldorf Painters: - - Adolf Rosenberg: Dsseldorfer Kriegs- und Militrmaler, "Zeitschrift - fr bildende Kunst," 1889, xxiv 228. - - -CHAPTER XIX - -Leopold Robert: - - E. J. Delcluze: Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Leopold Robert. - Paris, 1838. - - Feuillet de Conches: Leopold Robert, sa vie, ses oeuvres, et sa - correspondance. Paris, 1848. - - Charles Clement: Leopold Robert d'aprs sa correspondance indite. - Paris, 1875. - -Riedel: - - H. Holland, in the "Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie," 1889, and books - which are there cited. - -On the Painters of the East in General: - - Charles Gindriez: L'Algrie et les artistes, "L'Art," 1875, iii 396; - 1876, i 133. - - Hermann Helferich: Moderne Orientmaler, "Freie Bhne," 1892. - -Decamps: - - Marius Chaumelin: Decamps, sa vie et son oeuvre. Marseilles, 1861. - - Ernest Chesneau: Mouvement moderne en peinture: Decamps. Paris, 1861. - - Ad. Moreau: Decamps et son oeuvre, avec des gravures en facsimil des - planches originales les plus rares. Paris, 1869. - - M. E. Im-Thurn: Scheffer et Decamps. Nmes, 1876. (Extr. des Mm. de - l'Acadmie du Gard, anne 1875.) - - Charles Clement, in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1886. - -Marilhat: - - G. Gonnot: Marilhat et son oeuvre. Clermont, 1884. - -Fromentin: - - Jean Rousseau: "L'Art," 1877, i 11, 25. - - L. Gonse: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1878-1880. Published separately - under the title "Eugne Fromentin peintre et crivain. Ouvrage - augment d'un Voyage en Egypte et d'autres notes et moreaux indits - de Fromentin, et illustr de 16 gravures hors texte et 45 dans le - texte." Paris, Quantin, 1881. - -Guillaumet: - - Paul Leroi: "L'Art," 1882, iii 228. - - Exposition des oeuvres de Guillaumet. Prface par Roger-Ballu. Paris, - 1888. - - Gustave Guillaumet: Tableaux algriens. Prcd d'une notice sur la - vie et les oeuvres de Guillaumet. Paris, 1888. - - Adolphe Badin: "L'Art," 1888, i 3, 39, 53. - - Ary Renan: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1887, i 404. - -Wilhelm Gentz: - - L. v. Donop: Ausstellung der Werke von Gentz in der Berliner - Nationalgalerie. Berlin, Mittler, 1890. - - Obituary in "Chronique des Arts," 1890, 29. - - Adolf Rosenberg: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1891, p. 8. - -Adolf Schreyer: - - Richard Graul: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1888, xxiii 153. - - Richard Graul, in "Graphische Knste," 1889, xii 121, and in "Velhagen - und Klasings Monatshefte," 1893. - - -CHAPTER XX - -H. Brkel: - - C. A. R.: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1870, v 161. - - Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg. Mnchen, - 1893. - -Spitzweg: - - C. A. Regnet: "Mnchener Knstler," 1871, ii 268-276. - - Graf Schack: "Meine Gemldegalerie," 1881, pp. 189-191. - - O. Berggruen: "Graphische Knste," 1883, v. - - F. Pecht, Supplement "Allgemeine Zeitung," October 1885, and - "Geschichte der Mnchener Kunst," 1888, p. 154. - - "Mnchener Kunstvereinsbericht," 1885, p. 69. - - C. A. Regnet: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1886, xxi 77. - - Spitzweg-Album. Mnchen, Hanfstaengl, 1890. - - Spitzweg-Mappe, with preface by F. Pecht. Mnchen, Braun & Schneider, - 1890. - - H. Holland: Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, 1893. - -Hermann Kauffmann: - - Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg, - 1800-1850. Mnchen, 1893. - -Eduard Meyerheim: - - Autobiography, supplemented by P. Meyerheim. Introduction by L. - Pietsch. With preface by B. Auerbach and the likeness of Eduard - Meyerheim. Berlin, Stilke, 1880. - - A. Rosenberg: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 1. - - Ludwig Pietsch: Die Knstlerfamilie Meyerheim, "Westermanns - Monatshefte," 1889, p. 397. - -Enhuber: - - Friedrich Pecht: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1868, iii 53 - -On the Viennese Genre Picture: - - C. v. Ltzow: Geschichte der k. k. Akademie der bildenden Knste. - Vienna, 1877. - - R. v. Eitelberger: Das Wiener Genrebild vor dem Jahre 1848, - "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1877, xii 106. Also in his collected - studies on the history of art, i 66. - - Dr. Cyriak Bodenstein: Hundert Jahre Kunstgeschichte Wiens, 1788-1888. - Wien, 1888. - - Albert Ilg: Kunstgeschichtliche Charakterbilder aus Oesterreich-Ungarn - (The Nineteenth Century, by A. Nossig). Wien, 1893. - - Ludwig Hevesi: Die sterreichische Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert. Leipzig, - 1902. - -Danhauser: - - Albert Ilg: Raimund und Danhauser, in Kabdebo's - "Osterreichisch-ungarische Kunstchronik." Vienna, 1880, iii 161. - -Waldmller: - - "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1866, i 33. - - Oskar Berggruen: "Graphische Knste," x 57. - - R. v. Eitelberger: J. Danhauser und Ferdinand Waldmller, in "Kunst - und Knstler Wiens," p. 73. (Vol. i of his works on the history of - art. Vienna, 1879.) - -Gauermann: - - R. v. Eitelberger: Friedrich Gauermann, in "Kunst und Knstler Wiens," - 1878, p. 92. (Vol. i of his works on the history of art. Vienna, - 1879.) - -Schrdter: - - Obituary by Kaulen in the "Deutsches Kunstblatt," 1884, 11 and 12. - - M. G. Zimmermann, in the "Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie." - -Hasenclever: - - A. Fahne: Hasenclevers Illustrationen zur Jobsiade. Bonn, 1852. - -Rudolf Jordan: - - Friedrich Pecht: "Kunst fr Alle," 1887, ii 241. - -Tidemand: - - C. Dietrichson: Adolf Tidemand, hans Liv og hans Vaerker. 2 vols. - Christiania, 1878-79. - - Adolf Tidemand, utvalgte Vaerker. 24 etchings by L. H. Fischer. - Christiania, 1878. - -Madou: - - Camille Lemonnier: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1870, i 385. - -Ferdinand de Braekeleer: - - L. v. Keymeulen: Ferdinand de Braekeleer, "Revue artistique," 1883, - pp. 170, 171. - -Biard: - - L. Boivin: Notice sur M. Biard, ses aventures, son voyage en Japonie - avec Mme. Biard, Examen critique de ses tableaux. Paris, 1842. - - Obituary in the "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," ix 1874. - Supplementary Sheet, p. 769. - - -CHAPTER XXI - -In General: - - Emil Reich: Die brgerliche Kunst und die besitzlosen Klassen. - Leipzig, 1892. - -Tassaert: - - Bernard Prost: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1886, i 28. - -Carl Hbner: - - M. Blanckarts: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," xv 1312. - -Wiertz: - - Louis Labarre: Antoine Wiertz, tude biographique. Brussels, 1866. - - Ed. F.: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1866, i 273. - - H. Grimm: Der Maler Wiertz, in "15 Essays," New Series, Berlin, 1875, - p. 1. - - J. Beavington-Atkinson: "Portfolio," 1875, pp. 124, 133, 152. - - C. E. Clement: Antoine Jos. Wiertz, "American Art Review," 1881, 13. - - Catalogue du Muse Wiertz, prcd d'une notice biographique par Em. - de Laveleye. Brussels, 1882. - - L. Schulze Waldhausen: Anton Wiertz, "Deutsches Kunstblatt," 1882, 5; - 1883, 12. - - W. Claessens: Wiertz. Brussels, L. Hochsteyn, 1883. - - L. Dietrichson: En abnorm Kunstner. Fra Kunstverden, Kopenhagen, 1885, - p. 209. - - Max Nordau: Vom Kreml bis zur Alhambra. Leipzig, 1886, pp. 201-250. - - Robert Mielke: Antoine Wiertz, "Das Atelier," 1893, No. 66. - - -CHAPTER XXII - -Knaus: - - Alfred de Lostalot: Louis Knaus, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1882, i - 269, 316. - - V. K. Schembera: Louis Knaus, "Die Heimath," vii 40. - - L. Pietsch: Ludwig Knaus. Photographs after originals by the master. - Berlin Photographische Gesellschaft. - - Friedrich Pecht: Zu Knaus 60 Geburtstag, "Kunst fr Alle," 1890, v 65. - - G. Voss: "Tgliche Rundschau," 1889, p. 233. - - L. Pietsch, Louis Knaus in the "Knstlermonographien," ed. by - Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1896. - -Vautier: - - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. - Nrdlingen, 1881, p. 351. - - E. Heilbuth: Knaus und Vautier. Text to Behrens' work upon the - gallery, reprinted in "Kunst fr Alle," 1892, 2. - - Adolf Rosenberg, Vautier in the "Knstlermonographien," ed. by - Knackfuss. Bd. 23. Bielefeld, 1897. - -Defregger: - - P. K. Rosegger: Wie Defregger Maler wurde. "Oesterr.-ungarische - Kunstchronik," 1879, iii 2. - - Friedrich Pecht: Franz Defregger, sein Leben und Wirken, "Vom Fels zum - Meer," iii 1. - - K. Raupp: Franz Defregger und seine Schule, "Wartburg," viii 4, 5. - - Ludwig Pietsch: Franz Defregger, "Westermanns Monatshefte," February - 1889. - - F. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Mnchen, 1888. - - Adolf Rosenberg, in the "Knstlermonographien," ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. - 18. Bielefeld, 1893. - - Franz Hermann Meissner in the "Kunstlerbuch." Berlin, 1901. - - See also Karl Stieler und F. Defregger, Von Dahoam. Mnchen, 1888. - -Riefstahl: - - H. Holland: Wilhelm Riefstahl. Altenburg, 1889. - - M. Haushofer: "Kunst fr Alle," 1889, iv 97. - - W. Lbke: "Nord und Sd," 1890, 163. - - H. E. v. Berlepsch: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1890, 8. - -Grtzner: - - G. Ramberg: "Vom Fels zum Meer," 1890, 2. - - Friedrich Pecht: "Kunst fr Alle," 1890, 12. - - J. Janitsch: "Nord und Sd," 1892, 182. - - Fritz von Ostini, in the "Knstlermonographien," ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. - 58. Leipzig, 1902. - -Bokelmann: - - Adolf Rosenberg: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1892. - -Gustave Brion: - - Paul Leroi: "L'Art," 1878, i 10. - -Jules Breton: - - Autobiography. Vie d'un artiste. Paris, 1891. - -The Swedish Genre Painters: - - Georg Nordensvan: Svensk Konst och Svenska Konstnrer i 19^de - Arhundradet. Stockholm, 1892. (German Translation:) Die schwedische - Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert. Leipzig, 1903. - -The Hungarian Genre Painters: - - A. Ipolyi: Die bildende Kunst in Ungarn, "Ungarische Revue," 1882, 5. - - Szana Tamz: Magyar Mvszek. Budapest, 1887. - - Heinrich Glcksmann: Die ungarische Kunst der Gegenwart, "Kunst fr - Alle," 1892, vii 129, 145. - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -J. A. Koch: - - David Friedrich Strauss: Kleine Schriften biographischen, - literarischen, und kunstgeschichtlichen Inhalts. Leipzig, 1862, p. - 303. - - Th. Frimmel, in Dohmes Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. 9. - Leipzig, 1884. - - C. v. Ltzow: Aus Kochs Jugendzeit, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," - 1874, ix 65. - - See also J. A. Koch: Moderne Kunstchronik. Briefe zweier Freunde in - Rom und in der Tartarei ber das moderne Kunstleben. Karlsruhe, 1834. - -Reinhart: - - Otto Baisch: Johann Christian Reinhart und seine Kreise, ein Lebens- - und Kulturbild. Leipzig, 1882. - - Friedrich Schiller und der Maler Johann Christian Reinhart. Supplement - to the "Leipziger Zeitung," 1883, 89, 90. - -Rottmann: - - A. Teichlein: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1869, iv 7, 72. - - A. Bayersdorfer: Karl Rottmann. Mnchen, 1871. Reprinted in A. - Bayersdorfer's Leben und Schriften. Mnchen, 1902. - - O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, "Graphische Knste," v 1. - - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nrdlingen, - 1879, ii pp. 1-26. - - C. A. Regnet, in Dohmes Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. - 10. - - See also Rottmann's Italienische Landschaften. After the Frescoes in - the Arcades of the Royal Garden in Munich, carried out by Steinbock. - Mnchen, Bruckmann, 1876. - -Preller: - - R. Schne: Fr. Preller's Odysseelandschaften. Leipzig, 1863. - - L. v. Donop: Der Genelli-Fries von Fr. Preller. "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," 1874, ix 321. - - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nrdlingen, - 1877, vol. i pp. 271-289. - - C. Ruland: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Preller. Weimar, 1878. - - Obituary in "Unsere Zeit," 1879, 8. - - M. Jordan: Katalog der Preller Ausstellung in der Berliner - Nationalgalerie, 1879. - - A. Drr: Preller und Goethe, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1881, - xvi 357-365. - - J. Beavington-Atkinson: Frederick Preller, "Art Journal," 1881, 9. - - W. Lbke: Friedrich Preller, "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1882, No. 117. - - Preller und Goethe, "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1882, No. 342. - - O. Roquette: Preller und Goethe, "Gegenwart," 1883, 42. - - Friedrich J. Frommann: Zur Charakteristik Friedrich Prellers, - "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1884, No. 31. - - See also Homer's Odyssee mit 40 Original compositionen von Friedrich - Preller. Leipzig, 1872. Popular edition with biography, Leipzig, 1881. - Italienisches Landschaftsbuch, zehn Originalzeichnungen von Friedrich - Preller. Carried out in wood-cut by H. Kaeseberg and K. Oertel, with - Text by Max Jordan. Leipzig, 1875. Friedrich Prellers Figurenfries zur - Odyssee. 16 Compositions reproduced in 24 coloured lithographs. - Leipzig, 1875. - -K. F. Lessing: - - Karl Koberstein: Karl Friedrich Lessing, "Nord und Sd," 14, 1880, p. - 312. - - K. F. Lessing's Briefe mitgetheilt von Th. Frimmel, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," 1881, 6. - - Rudolf Redtenbacher: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1881, xvi 2. - - M. Schasler: "Unsere Zeit," 1880, 10. - - W. Dohme: "Westermanns illustrierte Monatshefte," 1880, ix 729. - - A. Rosenberg: Lessing-Ausstellung in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, - "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1880, No. 5. - - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, iii. - Nrdlingen, 1881, p. 294. - -Blechen: - - Robert Dohme, in "Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie," 1875. - - Ludwig Pietsch: Wie ich Schriftsteller wurde. Berlin, 1893, _passim_. - - H. Mackowsky, in the "Museum," viii. Berlin, Spemann. - -Schirmer: - - Johann Wilhelm Schirmer: Dsseldorfer Lehrjahre, "Deutsche Rundschau," - 1878. - - Alfred Woltmann, in "Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie." Works cited in - it. - -Dahl: - - Andreas Aubert: Maleren Professor Dahl 1788-1857, et Stykke av - aarhundredets Kunst- og Kulturhistorie. Kristiania, Aschehoug, 1893. - -Morgenstern: - - Obituary by Pecht: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1867, ii 80. - - Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg von 1800 - _bis_ 1850. Mnchen, 1893. - -Andreas Achenbach: - - Ludwig Pietsch: "Nord und Sd," 1880, xv 381. - - Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. - Nrdlingen, 1881, p. 328. - - Theodor Levin: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1886, xxi, No. 1. - -Eduard Schleich: - - C. A. Regnet: Zu Eduard Schleichs Gedchtniss, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," 1874, ix 161. - - O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, "Graphische Knste," v 1. - -Alexander Calame: - - E. H. Gaullier: Alexander Calame. Genve, 1854. (Le Muse Suisse, vol. - i.) - - H. Delaborde: La peinture de paysage en Suisse; Alexander Calame: - "Revue des Deux Mondes," Fvrier, 1865. - - J. M. Ziegler: Mittheilungen ber den Landschaftsmaler Alexander - Calame. Zurich, 1866. - - C. Meyer: Alexander Calame, "Dioskuren." Stuttgart, 1866. - - A. Bachelin: Alexander Calame. Lausanne, 1880. - - Wilhelm Rossmann, in the text to work of engravings from the Dresden - Gallery. 1881, etc. - - E. Rambert: Alexander Calame, sa vie et son oeuvre d'aprs les sources - originales. Paris, 1884. - - Adolf Rosenberg: "Grenzboten," 1884, ii 371. - -Gude: - - A. Rosenberg: Die Dsseldorfer Schule. "Grenzboten," 1881, 35. - - Af. Dietrichson: H. Gude liv og voerker. Kristiania, 1899. - -Eduard Hildebrandt: - - Bruno Meyer: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1869, iv 261, 336. - - F. Arndt: Eduard Hildebrandt, der Maler des Kosmos, Sein Leben und - seine Werke. Second Edition. Berlin, 1869. - - Ada Pinelli: Hildebrandt und Schirmer. Berlin, 1871. - -Louis Douzette: - - Adolf Rosenberg: "Graphische Knste," 1891, xiv 13. - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -In General: - - Victor de Laprade: Le sentiment de la nature chez les modernes. Second - Edition. Paris, 1870. - -Aligny: - - Aligny et la paysage historique, "L'Art," 1882, i 251; ii 33. - - See also the etchings Vues des Sites les plus clbres de la Grce - antique. Paris, 1845. - -Victor Hugo: - - Les dessins de Victor Hugo, "L'Art," 1877, i 50. - - H. Helferich: Malende Dichter, "Kunst fr Alle," 1891, 21. - -Paul Huet: - - Philippe Burty: Paul Huet, Notice biographique. Paris, 1869. - - E. Legouv: Notice sur Paul Huet. Paris, 1878. - - Ernest Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques. Paris, 1880. - - Lon Mancino: Un prcurseur, "L'Art," 1883, i 49. - -On the English: - - William Bell Scott: Our British Landscape-Painters, from Samuel Scott - to D. Cox. With 16 Engravings. London, 1876. - - J. Comyns Carr: Modern Landscape. With Illustrations. Paris and - London, 1883. - -Turner: - - Alice Watts: J. M. W. Turner. London, 1851. - - John Burnet and Peter Cunningham: Turner and his Works. London, 1852. - Edition of Henry Murray. London, 1859. - - John Ruskin: Notes on the Turner Collection. London, 1857. - - Walter Thornbury: J. M. W. Turner. 2 vols. London, 1862. New Edition, - 1897. - - Philip G. Hamerton: Turner et Claude Lorrain, "L'Art," 1876, iv pp. - 270, 289. - - Philip G. Hamerton: Turner, "Portfolio," 1876, pp. 28-188; 1877, pp. - 44-145; 1878, pp. 2-178. - - A. Brunet-Desbaines: The Life of Turner. London, 1878. - - John Ruskin: Notes on his Collection of Drawings by the late J. M. W. - Turner, also a list of the engraved works of that master. London. Fine - Art Society, 1878. - - F. Wedmore: Turner's Liber Studiorum, "Academy," 1879, Nos. 377, 389, - 399, and in "L'Art," 1879, 232-234. - - Philip G. Hamerton: J. M. W. Turner. London, 1879. - - Cosmo Monkhouse: J. M. W. Turner. London, 1879. - - Hart: Turner, the Dream-Painter. London, 1879. - - A. W. Hunt: Turner in Yorkshire, "Art Journal," 1881, New Series, 1, - 2. - - W. G. Rawlinson: Turner's Liber Studiorum, "Art Journal," 1881, New - Series, 4. - - James Dafforne: The Works of J. M. W. Turner. With a biographical - sketch. London, 1883. - - G. Radford: Turner in Wharfedale, "Portfolio," May, 1884. - - Philip G. Hamerton: J. M. W. Turner, in "Les artistes clbres." - Paris, 1889. - - Robert de la Sizeranne: Deux heures la Turner Gallery. Paris, 1890. - - F. Wedmore: Turner and Ruskin. 2 vols. London, 1900. - -_Reproductions:_ - - The Harbours of England. London, 1856. - - Liber Studiorum, illustrative of Landscape Composition. London, - 1858-59. - - The Turner Gallery. London, 1862. - - Turner's Celebrated Landscapes. Reproduced by the Autotype Process. - London, 1870. - -A. W. Callcott: - - Sir A. W. Callcott's Italian and English Landscapes. Lithographed by - T. C. Dibdin. London, 1847. - - James Dafforne: Pictures by Sir A. W. Callcott, R. A. With - descriptions and a biographical sketch of the painter. London. No - date. - -John Crome: - - Etchings of Views in Norfolk. With a biographical memoir by Dawson - Turner. Norwich, 1838. - - J. Wodderspoon: John Crome and his Works. Norwich, 1858. - - Frederick Wedmore: John Crome, "L'Art," 1876, iii 288. - - Mary M. Heaton: John Crome, "Portfolio," 1879, pp. 33 and 48. - - R. L. Binyon: John Crome and John Sell Colman. London, 1897. - -On English Water-Colour Painting: - - Cosmo Monkhouse: The Earlier English Water-Colour Painters. London, - Seeley & Co., 1890. - - John Lewis Roget: A History of the "Old Water-Colour Society." 2 vols. - London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1891. - -Samuel Palmer: - - The Life and Letters of Samuel Palmer, Painter and Etcher. Edited by - A. H. Palmer. With Illustrations. 1891. - -Constable: - - Charles Robert Leslie: The Memoirs of John Constable. London, 1845. - - H. Perrier: De Hugo v. d. Goes Constable, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," - March, 1873. - - Frederick Wedmore, "L'Art," 1878, ii 169. - - G. M. Brock-Arnold: Thomas Gainsborough and John Constable, in - "Illustrated Biographies of the Great Artists." London, Low, 1881. - - P. G. Hamerton: Constable's Sketches, "Portfolio," 1890, p. 162. - - Robert Hobart: in "Les artistes clbres." - -_Reproductions:_ - - Various subjects of Landscape, characteristic of English Scenery, from - pictures painted by John Constable. 22 Plates. London, 1830. Second - Edition, London, 1833. - - English Landscape, from pictures painted by John Constable. 20 Plates - engraved by D. Lucas. London. No date. - - English Landscape Scenery: 40 mezzotinto engravings from pictures - painted by John Constable. Fol. London, 1855. - -David Cox: - - N. Neal Solly: Memoir of the Life of David Cox. London, 1873. - - Basil Champneys: David Cox, "Portfolio," 1873, p. 89. - - J. Beavington-Atkinson, "Portfolio," 1876, p. 9. - - Frederick Wedmore: "Gentleman's Magazine," March, 1878. - - W. Hall: David Cox. London, 1881. - -William J. Muller: - - N. Neal Solly: Memoir of the Life of William James Muller. London, - 1875. - - J. Beavington-Atkinson: William Muller, "Portfolio," 1875, pp. 164, - 185. - - Frederick Wedmore: W. Muller and his Sketches, "Portfolio," 1882, p. - 7. - -Peter de Wint: - - Walter Armstrong: Memoir of Peter de Wint. Illustrated by 24 - Photogravures. London, Macmillan & Co., 1888. - -Henry Dawson: - - Alfred Dawson: The Life of Henry Dawson, Landscape Painter, 1811-1878. - London, 1891. - -John Linnell: - - F. G. Stephens: "Portfolio," 1872, p. 45. - -Bonington: - - Al. Bouvenne: Catalogue de l'oeuvre grav et lithographi de R. P. - Bonington. Paris, 1873. - - Paul Mantz: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1876, ii 288. - - Edmond Saint-Raymond: Bonington et les ctes normandes de Saint Jouin, - "L'Art," 1879, i 197. - - P. G. Hamerton: A Sketchbook of Bonington at the British Museum, - "Portfolio," 1881, p. 68. - - -CHAPTER XXV - -In General: - - Roger-Ballu: Le paysage franais au XIX sicle, "Nouvelle Revue," - 1881. - - John W. Mollet: The Painters of Barbizon. (1. Corot, Daubigny, Dupr; - 2. Millet, Rousseau, Diaz.) In "Illustrated Biographies of the Great - Artists." London, Low, 1890. - - David Croal Thomson: The Barbizon School of Painters: Corot, Rousseau, - Diaz, Millet, Daubigny, etc. With One Hundred and Thirty - Illustrations. London, 1891. - - See also the articles by G. Gurlitt in "Die Gegenwart," 1891, the Text - of H. Helferich to Behrens' work on the gallery, etc. - -Thodore Rousseau: - - A. Teichlein: Thodore Rousseau und die Anfnge des Paysage intime, - "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1868, iii 281. - - Alfred Sensier: Souvenirs sur Thodore Rousseau, suivis d'une - confrence sur le Paysage et orn du portrait du matre. Paris, 1872. - - Philippe Burty: Thodore Rousseau, paysagiste, "L'Art," 1881, p. 374. - - Emile Michel, in "Les artistes clbres." - - Walter Gensel: Millet und Rousseau, Bd. 57 in the - "Knstlermonographien" ed. by Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1902. - -Corot: - - Edmond About: Voyage travers L'Exposition des Beaux-Arts. Paris, - 1855. - - Henri Dumesnil: Corot, souvenirs intimes: avec un portrait dessin par - Aim Millet, grav par Alphonse Leroy. Paris, Rapilly, 1875. - - Charles Blanc: Les Artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1879. - - Leleux: Corot Montreux, "Bibliothque universelle et Revue suisse," - September 1883. - - Alfred Robaut: Corot, peintures dcoratives, "L'Art," 1883, p. 407. - - Jean Rousseau: Camille Corot: avec gravures. Paris, 1884. - - Armand Silvestre: Galerie Durand-Ruel: avec 28 gravures l'eauforte - d'aprs des tableaux de Corot. Paris. No date. - - Albert Wolff: La capitale de l'Art. Paris, 1886. - - Charles Bigot: Peintres contemporains. Paris, 1888. - - L. Roger-Mils: Corot, in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1891. - - Album classique des chefs d'oeuvre de Corot. Paris, 1896. - - Julius Meier-Grfe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906. - -Dupr: - - Les hommes du jour: M. Jules Dupr, 1811-1879, par un critique d'art. - Paris, 1879. - - R. Mnard: "L'Art," 1879, iii 311; iv 241. - - A. Michel: "L'Art," 1883, p. 460. - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, - 1884, p. 177. - - A. Hustin, in "Les artistes clbres." - -Diaz: - - Jules Claretie: Narcisse Diaz, "L'Art," 1875, iii 204. - - Exposition des oeuvres de Narcisse Diaz l'cole des Beaux-Arts. - Notice biographique par M. Jules Claretie. Paris, 1877. - - Roger-Ballu: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1877, i 290. - - Jean Rousseau: "L'Art," 1877, i 49. - - T. Chasrel: L'exposition de Narcisse Diaz, "L'Art," 1877, ii 189. - - Hermann Billung: Narcisse Virgilio Diaz, ein Lebensbild, "Zeitschrift - fr bildende Kunst," 1879, xiv 97. - - A. Hustin, in "Les artistes clbres." - -Daubigny: - - Karl Daubigny: Ch. Daubigny et son oeuvre. Paris, 1875. - - Frdric Henriet: Charles Daubigny et son oeuvre. Paris, 1878. - - Frdric Henriet, in "L'Art," 1881, p. 330. - - A. Hustin, in "Les artistes clbres." - - Robert J. Wickenden: Charles Franois Daubigny, "Century Magazine," - July 1892. - -Chintreuil: - - Frdric Henriet: Chintreuil: Esquisse biographique. Paris, 1858. - - A. de la Fisliere, Champfleury, et F. Henriet: La vie et l'oeuvre de - Chintreuil. Paris, 1874. - - "Portfolio," 1874, p. 99. - -Harpignies: - - Charles Tardieu: Henry Harpignies, "L'Art," 1879, xvi 269, 281. - -Franais: - - J. G. Prat: Franois Louis Franais, "L'Art," 1882, i 48, 81, 368. - -Brascassat: - - M. Cabat: Notice sur Brascassat. Paris, 1862. - - Charles Marionneau: R. Brascassat, sa vie et son oeuvre. Paris, 1872. - -Troyon: - - Henri Dumesnil: Constant Troyon, Souvenirs intimes. Paris, 1888. - - A. Hustin: "L'Art," 1889, i 77; ii 85. - - A. Hustin, in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1893. - -Rosa Bonheur: - - Laruelle: Rosa Bonheur, sa vie, ses oeuvres. Paris, 1885. - - Ren Peyrol: Rosa Bonheur, her Life and Work. With three engraved - Plates and Illustrations, "The Art Annual." London, 1889. - - Roger-Mils: Rosa Bonheur. Paris, 1901. - -Emile van Marcke: - - Emile Michel: "L'Art," 1891, i 145. - -Eugne Lambert: - - Chiens et chats, Text by G. de Cherville. Paris, 1888. - -Lancon: - - Alfred de Lostalot: Un peintre animalier, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," - 1887, ii 319. - -Charles Jacque: - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, - 1884, p. 297. - - -CHAPTER XXVI - - Ernest Chesneau: Jean Franois Millet, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1875, - i 429. - - Ph. L. Couturier: Millet et Corot. Saint-Quentin, 1876. - - A. Piedagnel: Jean Franois Millet. Souvenirs de Barbizon. Avec 1 - portrait, 9 Eaux-fortes, et un facsimil d'autographe. Paris, 1876. - - A. Sensier: La vie et l'oeuvre de Jean Franois Millet. Manuscrit - publi par P. Mantz, avec de nombreux fascimils, 12 heliographies - hors texte, et 48 gravures. Paris, Quantin, 1881. - - W. E. H.: Millet as an Art-Critic, "Magazine of Art," 1883, p. 27. - - Charles Yriarte: Jean Franois Millet. Portrait et 24 Gravures. Paris, - 1885. - - Andr Michel: Jean Franois Millet et l'exposition de ses oeuvres a - l'cole des Beaux-Arts, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1887, ii 5. - - Charles Bigot: Peintres contemporains. Paris, 1888. - - R. Graul: Jean Franois Millet, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," New - Series, ii 29. - - Le livre d'or de Jean Franois Millet. Illustr de 17 Eaux-fortes par - Frdric Jacque. Paris, 1892. - - Emile Michel, in "Les artistes clbres." - - H. Naegely: Millet and Rustic Art. London, 1897. - - W. Gensel: Millet und Rousseau. Leipzig, 1902. - - Julia Cartwright: Jean Franois Millet, His Life and Letters. London, - 1901. German Edition. Leipzig, 1902. - - Arthur Thomson: Jean-Franois Millet and the Barbizon School. London, - 1903. - - Richard Muther in his series "Die Kunst." Berlin, 1904. - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -Courbet: - - Champfleury: Grandes figures d'hier et d'aujourd'hui. (Balzac, Wagner, - Courbet.) Paris, Poulet-Malassis, 1861. - - Th. Silvestre: Les artistes franais, p. 109. Paris, 1878. - - P. d'Abrest: Artistische Wanderungen durch Paris, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," 1876, xi 183, 209. - - Comte H. d'Jdeville: Gustave Courbet: Notes et documents sur sa vie et - son oeuvre. Paris, 1878. - - T. Chasrel: "L'Art," 1878, i 145. - - Paul Mantz: Gustave Courbet, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1878, i 514; ii - 17, 371. - - mile Zola: Mes Haines. Proudhon et Courbet. Paris, 1879, p. 21. - - Gros-Kost: Courbet, Souvenirs intimes. Paris, 1880. - - H. Billung: Supplement to the "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1880, p. 240. - - Eug. Vron: G. Courbet, Un enterrement Ornans, "L'Art," 1882, i 363, - 390; ii 226. - - A. de Lostalot: L'exposition des oeuvres de Courbet, "Gazette des - Beaux-Arts," 1882, i 572. - - Carl v. Ltzow: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1889. - - Camille Lemonnier: Les peintres de la vie. Cap. I, Courbet et son - oeuvre. Paris, 1888. - - Abel Patoux, in "Les artistes clbres." - - Julius Meier-Grfe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906. - -Stevens: - - Paul d'Abrest: Artistische Wanderungen durch Paris. Ein Besuch bei - Alfred Stevens, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1875, x 310. - - L. Cardon: Les modernistes: Alfred Stevens, "La fdration - artistique," 23-26. - - Camille Lemonnier: Alfred Stevens, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1878, i - 160, 335. - - Camille Lemonnier: Les peintres de la vie. Cap. II, Alfred Stevens. - Paris, 1888. - -Ricard: - - Moriz Hartmann: Bsten und Bilder. Frankfurt-a-M., 1860. - - Paul de Musset: Notice sur la vie de Gustave Ricard. Paris, 1873. - - Louis Brs: Gustave Ricard et son oeuvre. Paris, 1873. - -Bonvin: - - L. Gauchez, "L'Art," 1888, i 249, ii 41, 61. - - Paul Lefort: Philippe Rousseau et Franois Bonvin, "Gazette des - Beaux-Arts," 1888, i 132. - -Charles Chaplin: - - Paul Lefort: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1891, i 246. - -Gaillard: - - G. Dargenty: "L'Art," 1887, i 149, 179. - - L. Gonse: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1887, i 221. - - V. Guillemin: F. Gaillard, graveur et peinture, originaire de la - Franche-Comt, 1834-1887. Notice sur sa vie et son oeuvre. Besanon, - 1891. - - Georges Duplessis, in "Les artistes clbres." - -Bonnat: - - Roger Ballu: Les peintures de M. Bonnat, "L'Art," 1876, iii p. 122. - - B. Day: L'atelier Bonnat, "Magazine of Art," 1881, p. 6. - - Jules Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, - 1884, p. 129. - -Carolus Duran: - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, - 1884, p. 153. - -Vollon: - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, - 1884, p. 201. - -Philippe Rousseau: - - Paul Lefort: "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1888, i 132. - -Paul Dubois: - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, - 1884, p. 321. - -Delaunay: - - Georges Lafenestre: Elie Delaunay, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1891, ii - 353, 484. - -Ribot: - - E. Vron: Thodule Ribot, Exposition gnrale de ses oeuvres, "L'Art," - 1880, p. 281. - - Firmin Javel: Thodule Ribot, "Revue des Muses," 1890, iii 55. - - L. Fourcaud: Matres modernes: Thodule Ribot, sa vie et ses oeuvres. - With Illustrations. Paris, 1890. - - Paul Lefort: Thodule Ribot, "Gazette des Beaux-Arts," 1891, ii 298. - - - - - _Printed by_ MORRISON & GIBB LIMITED, _Edinburgh_ - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Modern Painting, Volume -2 (of 4), by Richard Muther - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING *** - -***** This file should be named 43894-8.txt or 43894-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/8/9/43894/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Lszl, P. G. 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Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/43894-8.zip b/43894-8.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c0e17c1..0000000 --- a/43894-8.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/43894-h.zip b/43894-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c2b7311..0000000 --- a/43894-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/43894-h/43894-h.htm b/43894-h/43894-h.htm index 85e151c..1986f6e 100644 --- a/43894-h/43894-h.htm +++ b/43894-h/43894-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of The History of Modern Painting Volume 2 by Richard Muther. @@ -157,48 +157,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Modern Painting, Volume 2 -(of 4), by Richard Muther - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The History of Modern Painting, Volume 2 (of 4) - Revised edition continued by the author to the end of the XIX century - -Author: Richard Muther - -Release Date: October 5, 2013 [EBook #43894] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Lszl, P. G. Mt and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43894 ***</div> <p class="center col f200 ptb2">THE HISTORY OF<br /> MODERN PAINTING</p> @@ -232,10 +191,10 @@ of the nineteenth century.—The draughtsmen and caricaturists the first who brought modern life into the sphere of art.—England: Gillray, Rowlandson, George Cruikshank, “Punch,” John Leech, George du Maurier, Charles Keene.—Germany: Johann Adam Klein, Johann Christian Erhard, Ludwig Richter, -Oscar Pletsch, Albert Hendschel, Eugen Neureuther, “Die Fliegende Bltter,” -Wilhelm Busch, Adolf Oberlnder.—France: Louis Philibert Debucourt, Carle -Vernet, Bosio, Henri Monnier, Honor Daumier, Gavarni, Guys, Gustave Dor, -Cham, Marcellin, Randon, Gill, Hadol, Draner, Lonce Petit, Grvin.—Need +Oscar Pletsch, Albert Hendschel, Eugen Neureuther, “Die Fliegende Blätter,” +Wilhelm Busch, Adolf Oberländer.—France: Louis Philibert Debucourt, Carle +Vernet, Bosio, Henri Monnier, Honoré Daumier, Gavarni, Guys, Gustave Doré, +Cham, Marcellin, Randon, Gill, Hadol, Draner, Léonce Petit, Grévin.—Need of a fresh discovery of the world by painters.—Incitement to this by the English</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page1">1</a></td></tr> @@ -260,12 +219,12 @@ painting of the Continent</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page53">53</a></td <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">THE MILITARY PICTURE</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>Why the victory of modernity on the Continent came only by degrees.—Romantic -conceptions.—sthetic theories and the question of costume.—Painting +conceptions.—Æsthetic theories and the question of costume.—Painting learns to treat contemporary costume by first dealing with uniform.—France: -Gros, Horace Vernet, Hippolyte Bellang, Isidor Pils, Alexander Protais, -Charlet, Raffet, Ernest Meissonier, Guillaume Rgamey, Alphonse de Neuville, -Aim Morot, Edouard Dtaille.—Germany: Albrecht Adam, Peter Hess, Franz -Krger, Karl Steffeck, Th. Horschelt, Franz Adam, Joseph v. Brandt, Heinrich +Gros, Horace Vernet, Hippolyte Bellangé, Isidor Pils, Alexander Protais, +Charlet, Raffet, Ernest Meissonier, Guillaume Régamey, Alphonse de Neuville, +Aimé Morot, Edouard Détaille.—Germany: Albrecht Adam, Peter Hess, Franz +Krüger, Karl Steffeck, Th. Horschelt, Franz Adam, Joseph v. Brandt, Heinrich Lang</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page92">92</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX</td></tr> @@ -274,9 +233,9 @@ Lang</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page92">92</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>Why painters sought their ideal in distant countries, though they did not plunge into the past.—Italy discovered by Leopold Robert, Victor Schnetz, Ernest -Hbert, August Riedel.—The East was for the Romanticists what Italy had +Hébert, August Riedel.—The East was for the Romanticists what Italy had been for the Classicists.—France: Delacroix, Decamps, Prosper Marilhat, -Eugne Fromentin, Gustave Guillaumet.—Germany: H. Kretzschmer, Wilhelm +Eugène Fromentin, Gustave Guillaumet.—Germany: H. Kretzschmer, Wilhelm Gentz, Adolf Schreyer, and others.—England: William Muller, Frederick Goodall, F. J. Lewis.—Italy: Alberto Pasini</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page118">118</a></td></tr> @@ -287,13 +246,13 @@ Goodall, F. J. Lewis.—Italy: Alberto Pasini</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a h <tr><td class="tcl"><p>After seeking exotic subjects painting returns home, and finds amongst peasants a stationary type of life which has preserved picturesque costume.—Munich: The transition from the military picture to the painting of peasants.—Peter -Hess, Heinrich Brkel, Carl Spitzweg.—Hamburg: Hermann Kauffmann.—Berlin: +Hess, Heinrich Bürkel, Carl Spitzweg.—Hamburg: Hermann Kauffmann.—Berlin: Friedrich Eduard Meyerheim.—The influence of Wilkie, and the novel -of village life.—Munich: Johann Kirner, Carl Enhuber.—Dsseldorf: Adolf +of village life.—Munich: Johann Kirner, Carl Enhuber.—Düsseldorf: Adolf Schroedter, Peter Hasenclever, Jacob Becker, Rudolf Jordan, Henry Ritter, -Adolf Tidemand.—Vienna: Peter Krafft, J. Danhauser, Ferdinand Waldmller.—Belgium: +Adolf Tidemand.—Vienna: Peter Krafft, J. Danhauser, Ferdinand Waldmüller.—Belgium: Influence of Teniers.—Ignatius van Regemorter, Ferdinand -de Braekeleer, Henri Coene, Madou, Adolf Dillens.—France: Franois Biard</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr> +de Braekeleer, Henri Coene, Madou, Adolf Dillens.—France: François Biard</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page140">140</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXI</td></tr> @@ -303,7 +262,7 @@ de Braekeleer, Henri Coene, Madou, Adolf Dillens.—France: Franois Biard</ anecdote.—The conventional optimism of these pictures comes into conflict with the revolutionary temper of the age.—France: Delacroix’ “Freedom,” Jeanron, Antigna, Adolphe Leleux, Meissonier’s “Barricade,” Octave Tassaert.—Germany: -Gisbert Flggen, Carl Hbner.—Belgium: Eugne de Block, +Gisbert Flüggen, Carl Hübner.—Belgium: Eugène de Block, Antoine Wiertz</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page175">175</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXII</td></tr> @@ -312,15 +271,15 @@ Antoine Wiertz</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page175">175</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>Germany: Louis Knaus, Benjamin Vautier, Franz Defregger, Mathias Schmidt, Alois Gabl, Eduard Kurzbauer, Hugo Kauffmann, Wilhelm Riefstahl.—The -Comedy of Monks: Eduard Grtzner.—Tales of the Exchange and the Manufactory: -Ludwig Bokelmann, Ferdinand Brtt.—Germany begins to transmit +Comedy of Monks: Eduard Grützner.—Tales of the Exchange and the Manufactory: +Ludwig Bokelmann, Ferdinand Brütt.—Germany begins to transmit the principles of <i>genre</i> painting to other countries.—France: Gustave Brion, Charles Marchal, Jules Breton.—Norway and Sweden stand in union with -Dsseldorf: Karl D’Uncker, Wilhelm Wallander, Anders Koskull, Kilian +Düsseldorf: Karl D’Uncker, Wilhelm Wallander, Anders Koskull, Kilian Zoll, Peter Eskilson, August Jernberg, Ferdinand Fagerlin, V. Stoltenberg-Lerche, Hans Dahl.—Hungary fructified by Munich: Ludwig Ebner, Paul -Boehm, Otto von Baditz, Koloman Dry, Julius Agghzi, Alexander Bihari, -Ignaz Ruskovics, Johann Jank, Tihamr Margitay, Paul Vag, Arpad Fessty, +Boehm, Otto von Baditz, Koloman Déry, Julius Aggházi, Alexander Bihari, +Ignaz Ruskovics, Johann Jankó, Tihamér Margitay, Paul Vagó, Arpad Fessty, Otto Koroknyai, D. Skuteczky.—Difference between these pictures and those of the old Dutch masters.—From Hogarth to Knaus.—Why Hogarth succumbed, and <i>genre</i> painting had to become painting pure and simple.—This new basis @@ -337,7 +296,7 @@ discovery of Ruysdael and Everdingen.—The part of mediation played by certain artists from Denmark and Norway: J. C. Dahl, Christian Morgenstern, Ludwig Gurlitt.—Andreas Achenbach, Eduard Schleich.—The German landscape painters begin to travel everywhere.—Influence of Calame.—H. -Gude, Niels Bjrnson Mller, August Cappelen, Morten-Mller, Erik Bodom, +Gude, Niels Björnson Möller, August Cappelen, Morten-Müller, Erik Bodom, L. Munthe, E. A. Normann, Ludwig Willroider, Louis Douzette, Hermann Eschke, Carl Ludwig, Otto v. Kameke, Graf Stanislaus Kalkreuth, Oswald Achenbach, Albert Flamm, Ascan Lutteroth, Ferdinand Bellermann, Eduard @@ -351,7 +310,7 @@ and sensational effect by the “<i>paysage intime</i>”</p></td> <td c <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">THE BEGINNINGS OF “PAYSAGE INTIME”</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>Classical landscape painting in France: Hubert Robert, Henri Valenciennes, Victor -Bertin, Xavier Bidault, Michallon, Jules Cogniet, Watelet, Thodore Aligny, +Bertin, Xavier Bidault, Michallon, Jules Cogniet, Watelet, Théodore Aligny, Edouard Bertin, Paul Flandrin, Achille Benouville, J. Bellel.—Romanticism and the resort to national scenery: Victor Hugo, Georges Michel, the Ruysdael of Montmartre, Charles de la Berge, Camille Roqueplan, Camille Flers, Louis @@ -370,15 +329,15 @@ France</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page257">257</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">LANDSCAPE FROM 1830</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>Constable in the Louvre and his influence on the creators of the French <i>paysage -intime</i>.—Thodore Rousseau, Corot, Jules Dupr, Diaz, Daubigny and their -followers.—Chintreuil, Jean Desbrosses, Achard, Franais, Harpignies, mile -Breton, and others.—Animal painting: Carle Vernet, Gricault, R. Brascassat, -Troyon, Rosa Bonheur, Jadin, Eugne Lambert, Palizzi, Auguste Lanon, +intime</i>.—Théodore Rousseau, Corot, Jules Dupré, Diaz, Daubigny and their +followers.—Chintreuil, Jean Desbrosses, Achard, Français, Harpignies, Émile +Breton, and others.—Animal painting: Carle Vernet, Géricault, R. Brascassat, +Troyon, Rosa Bonheur, Jadin, Eugène Lambert, Palizzi, Auguste Lançon, Charles Jacque</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER XXVI</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">JEAN FRANOIS MILLET</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">JEAN FRANÇOIS MILLET</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>His importance, and the task left for those who followed him.—Millet’s principle <i>Le beau c’est le vrai</i> had to be transferred from peasant painting to modern @@ -397,8 +356,8 @@ the painting of “Society.”—His followers Auguste Toulmouche, J and others.—In opposition to the Cinquecento the study of the old Germans, the Lombards, the Spaniards, the Flemish artists, and the <i>Rococo</i> masters becomes now a formative influence.—Gustave Ricard, Charles Chaplin, Gaillard, -Paul Dubois, Carolus Duran, Lon Bonnat, Roybet, Blaise Desgoffe, Philippe -Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page391">391</a></td></tr> +Paul Dubois, Carolus Duran, Léon Bonnat, Roybet, Blaise Desgoffe, Philippe +Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, François Bonvin, Théodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page391">391</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1"><p>BIBLIOGRAPHY</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page435">435</a></td></tr> </table> @@ -425,9 +384,9 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Fromentin</span>: Algerian Falconers</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page132">132</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Rottmann</span>: Lake Kopas</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page234">234</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Rottmann</span>: Lake Kopaïs</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page234">234</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Turner</span>: The old Tmraire</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page268">268</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Turner</span>: The old Téméraire</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page268">268</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Constable</span>: Willy Lott’s House</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page275">275</a></td></tr> @@ -485,19 +444,19 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Richard Parkes Bonington</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Bonnat, Lon.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Bonnat, Léon.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Adolphe Thiers</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page423">423</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Victor Hugo</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page424">424</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Bonvin, Franois.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Bonvin, François.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Cook</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page427">427</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Work-Room</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page428">428</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Breton, mile.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Breton, Émile.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Return of the Reapers</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page225">225</a></td></tr> @@ -511,9 +470,9 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">Richmond Hill</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page9">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Brkel, Heinrich.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Bürkel, Heinrich.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Heinrich Brkel</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page143">143</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Heinrich Bürkel</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page143">143</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Brigands Returning</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page144">144</a></td></tr> @@ -541,7 +500,7 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Charlet, Nicolas Touissaint.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Un homme qui bot seul n’est pas digne de vivre</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page95">95</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Un homme qui boît seul n’est pas digne de vivre</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page95">95</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Chintreuil, Antoine.</span></td></tr> @@ -641,9 +600,9 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">The Gormandizer</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page179">179</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Daubigny, Charles Franois.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Daubigny, Charles François.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Charles Franois Daubigny</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page335">335</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Charles François Daubigny</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page335">335</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Springtime</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page336">336</a></td></tr> @@ -655,9 +614,9 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">Landscape: Evening</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page341">341</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Daumier, Honor.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Daumier, Honoré.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Honor Daumier</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page37">37</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Honoré Daumier</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page37">37</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Connoisseurs</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page38">38</a></td></tr> @@ -665,7 +624,7 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">In the Assize Court</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page40">40</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">“La voil ... ma Maison de Campagne”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page41">41</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">“La voilà ... ma Maison de Campagne”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page41">41</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Menelaus the Victor</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page42">42</a></td></tr> @@ -697,9 +656,9 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">Andreas Hofer appointed Governor of the Tyrol</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page215">215</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Dtaille, Edouard.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Détaille, Edouard.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Salut aux Blesss</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Salut aux Blessés</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Diaz, Narcisse Virgilio.</span></td></tr> @@ -717,11 +676,11 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of my Sons</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page421">421</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Dupr, Jules.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Dupré, Jules.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Jules Dupr</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page318">318</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Jules Dupré</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page318">318</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">The House of Jules Dupr at L’isle-Adam</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page319">319</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">The House of Jules Dupré at L’isle-Adam</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page319">319</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Setting Sun</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page320">320</a></td></tr> @@ -755,11 +714,11 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">A Peasant Family</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page23">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Flmm, Albert.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Flàmm, Albert.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">A Summer Day</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Flggen, Gisbert.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Flüggen, Gisbert.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Decision of the Suit</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page186">186</a></td></tr> @@ -767,9 +726,9 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">Poverty and Wealth</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page89">89</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fromentin, Eugne.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fromentin, Eugène.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Eugne Fromentin</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page133">133</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Eugène Fromentin</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page133">133</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Arabian Women returning from drawing Water</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page134">134</a></td></tr> @@ -787,26 +746,26 @@ Rousseau, Antoine Vollon, Franois Bonvin, Thodule Ribot</p></td> <td class="tc <tr><td class="j2">Fourberies de Femmes</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page45">45</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Phdre at the Thtre Franais</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page48">48</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Phèdre at the Théâtre Français</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page48">48</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">“Ce qui me manque moi? Une t’ite mre comme a, qu’aurait soin de + <tr><td class="j2">“Ce qui me manque à moi? Une t’ite mère comme ça, qu’aurait soin de mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Gillray, James.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Affability</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page5">5</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Grvin, Alfred.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Grévin, Alfred.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Nos Parisiennes</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page51">51</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Grtzner, Eduard.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Grützner, Eduard.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Twelfth Night</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page219">219</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Guillaumet, Gustave.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">The Sguia, near Biskra</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">The Séguia, near Biskra</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">A Dwelling in the Sahara</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page137">137</a></td></tr> @@ -822,7 +781,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Moonrise</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page344">344</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Hbert, Ernest.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Hébert, Ernest.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Malaria</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page123">123</a></td></tr> @@ -832,7 +791,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">A Morning at Partenkirche</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page142">142</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Hbner, Carl.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Hübner, Carl.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">July</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page187">187</a></td></tr> @@ -844,7 +803,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Hugo, Victor.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Ruins of a Medival Castle on the Rhine</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Ruins of a Mediæval Castle on the Rhine</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Jacque, Charles.</span></td></tr> @@ -1006,7 +965,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">George du Maurier</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page12">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Millet, Jean Franois.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Millet, Jean François.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Himself</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page361">361</a></td></tr> @@ -1082,7 +1041,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Yorick and the Grisette</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page83">83</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Oberlnder, Adolf.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Oberländer, Adolf.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Variations on the Kissing Theme. Rethel</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page30">30</a></td></tr> @@ -1090,7 +1049,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Variations on the Kissing Theme. Hans Makart</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page31">31</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Adolf Oberlnder</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page31">31</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Adolf Oberländer</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page31">31</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Variations on the Kissing Theme. Genelli</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page32">32</a></td></tr> @@ -1126,7 +1085,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Charles Keene</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Ribot, Thodule.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Ribot, Théodule.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Studio</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page429">429</a></td></tr> @@ -1182,9 +1141,9 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Coast of Sicily</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page233">233</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Rousseau, Thodore.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Rousseau, Théodore.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Thodore Rousseau</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Théodore Rousseau</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Morning</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> @@ -1228,7 +1187,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Lady in Pink</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page413">413</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">La Bte bon Dieu</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page414">414</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">La Bête à bon Dieu</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page414">414</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Japanese Mask</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page415">415</a></td></tr> @@ -1270,7 +1229,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Dido building Carthage</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Jumiges</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page270">270</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Jumièges</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page270">270</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Landscape with the Sun rising in a Mist</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page271">271</a></td></tr> @@ -1296,7 +1255,7 @@ mon linge”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page49">49</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">A Carnival Scene</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page426">426</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Waldmller, Ferdinand.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Waldmüller, Ferdinand.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The First Step</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page171">171</a></td></tr> @@ -1355,10 +1314,10 @@ set itself in opposition to all the great epochs that had gone before. All works known to the history of art, from the cathedral pictures of Stephan Lochner down to the works of the followers of Watteau, stand in the closest relationship with the people and times amid which they have originated. Whoever -studies the works of Drer knows his home and his family, the Nuremberg +studies the works of Dürer knows his home and his family, the Nuremberg of the sixteenth century, with its narrow lanes and gabled houses; the whole age is reflected in the engravings of this one artist with a truth and distinctness -which put to shame those of the most laborious historian. Drer and +which put to shame those of the most laborious historian. Dürer and his contemporaries in Italy stood in so intimate a relation to reality that in their religious pictures they even set themselves above historical probability, and treated the miraculous stories of sacred tradition as if they had been @@ -1378,7 +1337,7 @@ with the life of the present and the soil at home was lost to the art of paintin It cannot be supposed that later generations will be able to form a conception of life in the nineteenth century from pictures produced in this period, or that these pictures will become approximately such documents as the sixteenth -and seventeenth centuries possess in the works of Drer, Bellini, Rubens, or +and seventeenth centuries possess in the works of Dürer, Bellini, Rubens, or Rembrandt. The old masters were the children of their age to the very tips of their fingers. They were saturated with the significance, the ideals, and the aims of their time, and they saturated them with their own aims, ideals, @@ -1404,7 +1363,7 @@ To express the sentiment of Liberty militant he made use of the figures of Roman heroes. The political freedom of the people, so recently won, so fresh in men’s minds, he illustrated by examples from Roman history. At a later time, when the allied forces entered Paris after the defeat of -Napoleon, he made use of the story of Leonidas at Thermopyl. Only in +Napoleon, he made use of the story of Leonidas at Thermopylæ. Only in portrait painting was any kind of justice done to modern life by the painters in “the grand style.” True it is that there lived, at the time, a few “little masters” who furtively turned out for the market modest little pictures @@ -1462,7 +1421,7 @@ the toilettes of his age, the gowns of the actresses, and the way they dressed their heads; he cared nothing -whatever about sthetic +whatever about æsthetic dignity of style, but represented each subject as faithfully as he could, and as @@ -1477,7 +1436,7 @@ periods, Terborg and Metsu, but the contemporaries of Van der Werff. He and Drolling and Granet were rather the last issue of the fine old Dutch schools, rather descendants of Chardin than pioneers, and amongst the younger men there was at first no one who ventured to sow afresh -the region which had been devastated by Classicism. Gricault certainly +the region which had been devastated by Classicism. Géricault certainly was incited to his “Raft of the Medusa” not by Livy or Plutarch, but by an occurrence of the time which was reported in the newspapers; and he ventured to set an ordinary shipwreck in the place of the Deluge or a naval @@ -1574,12 +1533,12 @@ painting.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span></p> <p>The Belgians preserved the same silence. During the whole maturity of -Classicism, from 1800 to 1830, Franois, Paelinck, van Hanselaere, Odevaere, +Classicism, from 1800 to 1830, François, Paelinck, van Hanselaere, Odevaere, de Roi, Duvivier, etc., with their coloured Greek statues, ruled the realm of figure painting as unmitigated dictators; and amongst the historical painters who followed them, Wappers, in his “Episode,” was the only one who drew on modern life for a subject. There was a desire to revive Rubens. Decaisne, -Wappers, de Keyzer, Bifve, and Gallait lit their candle at his sun, and were +Wappers, de Keyzer, Bièfve, and Gallait lit their candle at his sun, and were hailed as the holy band who were to lead Belgian art to a glorious victory. But their original national tendency @@ -1611,7 +1570,7 @@ of view this alienation from the world is susceptible of an easy explanation.</p <td class="tcl f80 pb2">LEECH.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">LITTLE SPICEY AND TATER SAM.</td></tr></table> -<p>In France, as in all other countries, the end of the <i>ancien rgime</i>, the tempest +<p>In France, as in all other countries, the end of the <i>ancien régime</i>, the tempest of the Revolution, and the consequent modification of the whole of life—of sentiments, habits, and ideas, of dress and social conditions—at first implied such a sudden change in the horizon that artists were necessarily thrown @@ -1709,17 +1668,17 @@ finished works of art out of the novel elements which the century placed at its disposal. It still needed to be carried in the arms of a Venetian or Flemish nurse.</p> -<p>And sthetic criticism bestowed its blessing on these attempts. The +<p>And æsthetic criticism bestowed its blessing on these attempts. The Romanticists had been forced to the treatment of history and the deification of the past by disgust with the grey and colourless present; the younger -generation were long afterwards held captive in this province by sthetic +generation were long afterwards held captive in this province by æsthetic views of the dignity of history. To paint one’s own age was reckoned a crime. One had to paint the age of other people. For this purpose the <i>prix de Rome</i> was instituted. The spirit which produced the pictures of Cabanel and Bouguereau was the same that induced David to write to Gros, that the battles of the empire might afford the material for occasional pictures done under the inspiration of chance, but not for great and earnest works of -art worthy of an historical painter. That sthetic criticism which taught +art worthy of an historical painter. That æsthetic criticism which taught that, whatever the subject be, and whatever personages may be represented, if they belong to the present time the picture is merely a <i>genre</i> picture, still <span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>14</span> @@ -1744,7 +1703,7 @@ caricaturists led them to direct observation of the world, and lent them the aptitude of rendering their impressions with ease; and that at a time when the academical methods of depicting physiognomy obtained elsewhere in every direction. It necessitated their representing subjects to which, in -accordance with the sthetic views of the period, they would not otherwise +accordance with the æsthetic views of the period, they would not otherwise <span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>15</span> have addressed themselves; it led them to discover beauties in spheres of life by which they would otherwise have been repelled. London, the capital @@ -1968,7 +1927,7 @@ refined tone of the paper which has been adapted to the drawing-room.</p> Leech</i>, who between 1841 and 1864 was the leading artist on <i>Punch</i>. In his drawings there is already to be found the high-bred and fragrant delicacy of the English painting of the present time. They stand in relation to the whimsical -and vigorous works of Rowlandson as the fine <i>esprit</i> of a rococo abb to the +and vigorous works of Rowlandson as the fine <i>esprit</i> of a rococo abbé to the coarse and healthy wit of Rabelais. The mildness of his own temperament is reflected in his sketches. Others have been the cause of more laughter, but he loved beauty and purity. Men are @@ -2012,7 +1971,7 @@ Everything is in keeping, everything has a significance.</p> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">A PEASANT SCENE.</td></tr></table> <p>Leech’s successor, <i>George du Maurier</i>, is less delicate—that is to say, not -so entirely and loftily sthetic. He is less exclusively poetic, but lives more +so entirely and loftily æsthetic. He is less exclusively poetic, but lives more in actual life, and suffers less from the raw breath of reality. At the same time, his drawing is pithier and more incisive; one discerns his French training. In 1857 du Maurier was a pupil of Gleyre, and returned straight to England @@ -2027,8 +1986,8 @@ preference for the fair sex—for charming women and girls who race about the lawn at tennis in large hats and bright dresses, or sit by the fire in fashionable apartments, or hover through a ball-room waltzing in their airy skirts of tulle. The coquettishness of his little ones is entirely charming, and so -too is the superior and comical exclusiveness of his sthetically brought-up -children, who will associate with no children not sthetic.</p> +too is the superior and comical exclusiveness of his æsthetically brought-up +children, who will associate with no children not æsthetic.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:646px; height:472px" src="images/img047.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -2109,7 +2068,7 @@ engraved upon copper with sympathetic care, and so left posterity a picture of German life in the beginning of the century that seems the more sincere and earnest because it has paid toll neither to style in composition nor to idealism. This invaluable Klein was a healthy and sincere realist, from whom -the sthetic theories of the time recoiled without effect, and he had no other +the æsthetic theories of the time recoiled without effect, and he had no other motive than to render faithfully whatever he saw. Even in Vienna, whither he came as a young man in 1811, it was not the picture galleries which roused him to his first studies, but the picturesque national costumes of the Wallachians, @@ -2157,7 +2116,7 @@ of the newer German art.</p> <p>Klein and Erhard having set out in advance, others, such as Haller von Hallerstein, L. C. Wagner, F. Rechberger, F. Moessmer, K. Wagner, E. A. -Lebsche, and August Geist, each after his own fashion, made little voyages +Lebschée, and August Geist, each after his own fashion, made little voyages of discovery into the world of nature belonging to their own country. But Erhard, who died in 1822, has found @@ -2184,7 +2143,7 @@ to forget the artistic point of view in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>27</span> relation to their Ludwig Richter. Sunny and childlike as he is, they love him too much to care to see his artistic failings. Here is really that renowned -German “<i>Gemth</i>” of which others make so great an abuse.</p> +German “<i>Gemüth</i>” of which others make so great an abuse.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:646px; height:506px" src="images/img051.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -2249,7 +2208,7 @@ to inscribe these words in his diary on his eightieth birthday.</p> <p>Through his works there echoes a humming and chiming like the joyous cry of children and the twitter of birds. Even his landscapes are filled with that blissful and solemn feeling that Sunday and the spring produce together in a -lonely walk over field and meadow. The “<i>Gemthlichkeit</i>,” the cordiality, of +lonely walk over field and meadow. The “<i>Gemüthlichkeit</i>,” the cordiality, of German family-life, with a trait of contemplative romance, could find such a charming interpreter in none but him, the old man who went about in his long loose coat and had the face of an ordinary village schoolmaster. Only he who @@ -2310,7 +2269,7 @@ hand—</p> <p class="center f90"> “Und die Sonne Homer’s, siehe -sie lchelt auch uns.”</p> +sie lächelt auch uns.”</p> <p>By the success of Richter certain disciples were inspired @@ -2342,9 +2301,9 @@ which he immortalised the joy and sorrow of youth in such a delicious way.</p> <td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Braun, Munich.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2">VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME.</td> <td class="tcr f80" colspan="2">VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">OBERLNDER.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">OBERLÄNDER.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">RETHEL.</td> -<td class="tcl f80 pb2">OBERLNDER.</td> +<td class="tcl f80 pb2">OBERLÄNDER.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">GABRIEL MAX.</td></tr></table> <p><i>Eugen Neureuther</i> worked in Munich, and as an etcher revelled in the @@ -2361,11 +2320,11 @@ a large number of vigorous caricaturists into notice, began to appear from that time, owing to the political agitations of the period. <i>Kladderadatsch</i> was brought -out in Berlin, and <i>Fliegende Bltter</i> was +out in Berlin, and <i>Fliegende Blätter</i> was founded in Munich, and side by side -with it <i>Mnchener Bilderbogen</i>. But +with it <i>Münchener Bilderbogen</i>. But later generations will be referred <i>par -excellence</i> to <i>Fliegende Bltter</i> for a +excellence</i> to <i>Fliegende Blätter</i> for a picture of German life in the nineteenth century. What the painters of those years forgot to transmit is here stored @@ -2380,7 +2339,7 @@ the German people will not forget, won their spurs here, and were inexhaustible in pretty theatre scenes, satires on German and Italian singing, memorial sketches of Fanny Elsler, of the inventor of the dress coat, etc., which enlivened the whole civilized world at that time. This elder generation of draughtsmen -on <i>Fliegende Bltter</i> were, indeed, not free from the guilt of producing stereotyped +on <i>Fliegende Blätter</i> were, indeed, not free from the guilt of producing stereotyped figures. The travelling Englishman, the Polish Jew, the counter-jumper, the young @@ -2402,7 +2361,7 @@ date.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:649px; height:239px" src="images/img055.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Braun, Munich.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">OBERLNDER.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">OBERLÄNDER.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME. HANS MAKART.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -2412,14 +2371,14 @@ date.</p> <td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Braun, Munich.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcr f80" colspan="2">VARIATIONS ON THE KISSING THEME.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">ADOLF OBERLNDER.</td> -<td class="tcl f80 pb2">OBERLNDER.</td> +<tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">ADOLF OBERLÄNDER.</td> +<td class="tcl f80 pb2">OBERLÄNDER.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">GENELLI.</td></tr></table> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:158px; height:615px" src="images/img056_1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Braun, Munich.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80">OBERLNDER.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">OBERLÄNDER.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80 pb2">VARIATIONS ON THE<br /> KISSING THEME.<br /> ALMA TADEMA.</td></tr></table> @@ -2427,7 +2386,7 @@ ALMA TADEMA.</td></tr></table> <p>Two of the greatest humorists of the world in illustrative art, <i>Wilhelm Busch</i> -and <i>Adolf Oberlnder</i>, stand +and <i>Adolf Oberländer</i>, stand at the head of those who ushered in the flourishing period of German caricature. @@ -2455,7 +2414,7 @@ Wilhelm Busch.</p> <p>In the large orbs of the other—orbs which seem to grow strangely wide by long gazing as at some fixed object—there is no smile of deliberate mischief, and it is -not easy to associate the name of Oberlnder with this +not easy to associate the name of Oberländer with this Saturnian round face, with its curiously timid glance. One is reminded of the definition of humour as “smiling amid tears.”</p> @@ -2471,11 +2430,11 @@ the clergyman of the parish, and gives himself up to the culture of bees. His laughter has fallen silent, and it is only a journal on bees that now receives contributions from his hand. But what works this hermit of Wiedensahl produced -in the days when he migrated from Dsseldorf and +in the days when he migrated from Düsseldorf and Antwerp to Munich, and began in 1859 his series of sketches -for <i>Fliegende Bltter</i>! The first were stiff and clumsy, the +for <i>Fliegende Blätter</i>! The first were stiff and clumsy, the text in prose and not particularly witty. But the earliest -work with a versified text, <i>Der Bauer und der Windmller</i>, +work with a versified text, <i>Der Bauer und der Windmüller</i>, contains in the germ all the qualities which later found such brilliant expression in <i>Max und Moritz</i>, in <i>Der Heilige Antonius</i>, <i>Die Fromme Helene</i>, and <i>Die Erlebnisse Knopps,</i> @@ -2505,12 +2464,12 @@ et la bouffonnerie</i>.</p> <tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Gaz. des Beaux-Arts.  </i></td></tr> <tr><td class="captionx">DEBUCOURT.   IN THE KITCHEN.</td></tr></table> -<p><i>Oberlnder</i>, without whom it would be impossible to imagine <i>Fliegende -Bltter</i>, has not fallen silent. He works on, “fresh and splendid as on the +<p><i>Oberländer</i>, without whom it would be impossible to imagine <i>Fliegende +Blätter</i>, has not fallen silent. He works on, “fresh and splendid as on the first day.” A gifted nature like Busch, he possesses, at the same time, that fertility of which -Drer said: “A good painter is +Dürer said: “A good painter is inwardly complete and opulent, and were it possible for him to live eternally, then by virtue of @@ -2519,7 +2478,7 @@ writes he would be always able to pour something new into his works.” It is now thirty years ago that he began his labours for -<i>Fliegende Bltter</i>, and since that +<i>Fliegende Blätter</i>, and since that time some drawing of his, which has filled every one with delight, has appeared almost every week. @@ -2527,20 +2486,20 @@ Kant said that Providence has given men three things to console them amid the miseries of life—hope, sleep, and laughter. If he -is right, Oberlnder is amongst +is right, Oberländer is amongst the greatest benefactors of mankind. Every one of his new sketches maintains the old precious <span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>34</span> qualities. It might be said that, by the side of the comedian Busch, -Oberlnder seems a serious psychologist. Wilhelm Busch lays his whole +Oberländer seems a serious psychologist. Wilhelm Busch lays his whole emphasis on the comical effects of simplicity; he knows how to reduce an object in a masterly fashion to its elemental lines, which are comic in themselves by their epigrammatic pregnancy. He calls forth peals of laughter by the farcical spirit of his inventions and the boldness with which he renders his characters absurd. He is also the author of his own letterpress. His drawings are unimaginable without the verse, without the finely calculated and -dramatic succession of situations growing to a catastrophe. Oberlnder gets +dramatic succession of situations growing to a catastrophe. Oberländer gets his effect purely by means of the pictorial elements in his representation, and attains a comical result, neither by the distorted exaggeration of what is on the face of the matter ridiculous, nor by an elementary simplification, @@ -2550,8 +2509,8 @@ he picks out of everything the determining feature of its being. And whilst he faintly exaggerates what is characteristic and renders it distinct, his picture is given a force and power of conviction to which no previous caricaturist has attained, with so much discretion at the same time. No one has attained -the drollness of Oberlnder’s people, animals, and plants. He draws <i> la</i> Max, -<i> la</i> Makart, Rethel, Genelli, or Piloty, hunts in the desert or theatrical representations, +the drollness of Oberländer’s people, animals, and plants. He draws <i>à la</i> Max, +<i>à la</i> Makart, Rethel, Genelli, or Piloty, hunts in the desert or theatrical representations, Renaissance architecture run mad or the most modern European mashers. He is as much at home in the Cameroons as in Munich, and in transferring the droll scenes of human life to the animal world he is a classic. @@ -2570,12 +2529,12 @@ to show.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DEBUCOURT.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE PROMENADE.</td></tr></table> -<p>The <i>Charivari</i> takes its place with <i>Punch</i> and <i>Fliegende Bltter</i>.</p> +<p>The <i>Charivari</i> takes its place with <i>Punch</i> and <i>Fliegende Blätter</i>.</p> <p>In the land of Rabelais also caricature has flourished since the opening of the century, in spite of official masters who reproached her with desecrating the sacred temple of art, and in spite of the gendarmes who put her in gaol. -Here, too, it was the draughtsmen who first broke with sthetic prejudices, +Here, too, it was the draughtsmen who first broke with æsthetic prejudices, and saw the laughing and the weeping dramas of life with an unprejudiced glance.</p> @@ -2597,7 +2556,7 @@ painter, remembered that he had married the daughter of the younger Moreau, and set himself to portray the doings of -the <i>jeunesse dore</i> of the end +the <i>jeunesse dorée</i> of the end of the eighteenth century in his <i>incroyables</i> and his <i>merveilleuses</i>. Crazy, eccentric, and superstitious, @@ -2607,7 +2566,7 @@ club-fellows, horses and dogs. He survives in the history of art as the chronicler of sport, hunting, racing, and drawing-room -and caf scenes.</p> +and café scenes.</p> <p><i>Louis Philibert Debucourt</i> was a pupil of Vien, and had painted @@ -2615,9 +2574,9 @@ a pupil of Vien, and had painted Greuze before he turned in 1785 to colour engraving. In this year appeared the pretty -“Menuet de la Marie,” with +“Menuet de la Mariée,” with <span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>36</span> -the peasant couples dancing, and the dainty chtelaine who laughingly +the peasant couples dancing, and the dainty châtelaine who laughingly opens the ball with the young husband. After that he had found his specialty, and in the last decade of the eighteenth century he produced the finest of his colour engravings. In 1792 there is the wonderful @@ -2643,7 +2602,7 @@ bedizen the ladies more than is consistent with elegance. At the same time, Debucourt gives this democracy an aristocratic bearing. His prostitutes look like duchesses. His art is an attenuated echo of the <i>rococo</i> period. In -him the <i>dcadence</i> is embodied, and all +him the <i>décadence</i> is embodied, and all the grace and elegance of the century is once more united, although it has become more <i>bourgeois</i>.</p> @@ -2655,7 +2614,7 @@ more <i>bourgeois</i>.</p> <td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">MONNIER.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">JOSEPH PROUDHOMME.</td> -<td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">HONOR DAUMIER.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">HONORÉ DAUMIER.</td></tr></table> <p>The Empire again was less favourable to caricature. Not that there was any @@ -2700,13 +2659,13 @@ the uniformly graceful veil of an insipidly fluent outline.</p> <p>As soon as Romanticism had broken with the classic system, certain great draughtsmen, who laid a bold hand on modern life without being shackled by -sthetic formul, came to the front in France. <i>Henri Monnier</i>, the eldest of +æsthetic formulæ, came to the front in France. <i>Henri Monnier</i>, the eldest of them, was born a year after the proclamation of the Empire. Cloaks, plumes, and sabretasches were the first impressions of his youth; he saw the return of triumphant armies and heard the fanfare of victorious trumpets. The Old Guard remained his ideal, the inglorious kingship of the Restoration his abhorrence. He was a supernumerary clerk in the Department of Justice when in -1828 his first brochure, <i>Mœurs administratives dessines d’aprs nature par +1828 his first brochure, <i>Mœurs administratives dessinées d’aprés nature par Henri Monnier</i>, disclosed to his superiors that the eyes of this poor young man in the service of the Ministry had seen more than they should have done. Dismissed from his post, he was obliged to support himself by his pencil, and @@ -2714,7 +2673,7 @@ became the chronicler of the epoch. In Monnier’s prints breathes the happy Paris of the good old times, a Paris which in these days scarcely exists even in the provinces. His “Joseph Proudhomme,” from his shoe-buckles to his stand-up collar, from his white cravat to his blue spectacles, is as immortal as -<i>Eisele und Beisele</i>, <i>Schulze und Mller</i>, or Molire’s <i>Bourgeois Gentilhomme</i>. +<i>Eisele und Beisele</i>, <i>Schulze und Müller</i>, or Molière’s <i>Bourgeois Gentilhomme</i>. Monnier himself is his own Proudhomme. He is the Philistine in Paris, enjoying little Parisian idylls with a <i>bourgeois</i> complacency. With him there is no distinction between beautiful and ugly; he finds that everything in @@ -2723,7 +2682,7 @@ Parisian society are discriminated in his <i>Quartiers de Paris</i>! How finely portrayed the grisette of the period, with her following of young tradesmen and poor students! As yet she has not blossomed into the fine lady, the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>38</span> -luxurious <i>blase</i> woman of +luxurious <i>blasée</i> woman of the next generation. She is still the bashful <i>modiste</i> or dressmaker’s apprentice @@ -2778,7 +2737,7 @@ eminent artists who merit a place beside the greatest.</p> <td class="tcr f80">THE MOUNTEBANKS.</td> <td class="tcl f80">DAUMIER.</td> <td class="tcr f80">IN THE ASSIZE COURT.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of M. Eugne Montrosier, the owner +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of M. Eugène Montrosier, the owner of the picture.</i>)</td> <td class="caption" colspan="2"> </td></tr></table> @@ -2802,11 +2761,11 @@ newspaper-boys, impecunious painters, the most various and the basest creatures are treated by his pencil, and appear on pages which are often terrible in their depth and truthfulness of observation. The period of Louis Philippe is accurately portrayed in these prints, every one of which belongs -to the great volume of the human tragicomedy. In his “motions parisiennes” -and “Bohmiens de Paris” he deals with misfortune, hunger, the impudence +to the great volume of the human tragicomedy. In his “Émotions parisiennes” +and “Bohémiens de Paris” he deals with misfortune, hunger, the impudence of vice, and the horror of misery. His “Histoire ancienne” ridiculed -the absurdity of Classicism <i> la</i> David +the absurdity of Classicism <i>à la</i> David at a time when it was still regarded as high treason to touch this sacred fane. These modern figures with the @@ -2846,12 +2805,12 @@ refined grace; in the one brusque and savage observation and almost menacing sarcasm, in the other the wayward mood of the butterfly flitting lightly from flower to flower. Daumier might be compared with Rabelais; Gavarni, the <i>spirituel</i> journalist of the <i>grand monde</i> and the <i>demi-monde</i>, the draughtsman -of elegance and of <i>rous</i> and <i>lorettes</i>, might be compared with Molire. Born +of elegance and of <i>roués</i> and <i>lorettes</i>, might be compared with Molière. Born of poor parentage in Paris in 1801, and in his youth a mechanician, he supported himself from the year 1835 by fashion prints and costume drawings. He undertook the conduct of a fashion journal, <i>Les Gens du Monde</i>, and began -it with a series of drawings from the life of the <i>jeunesse dore</i>: <i>les Lorettes</i>, <i>les -Actrices</i>, <i>les Fashionables</i>, <i>les Artistes</i>, <i>les tudiants de Paris</i>, <i>les Bals masqus</i>, +it with a series of drawings from the life of the <i>jeunesse dorée</i>: <i>les Lorettes</i>, <i>les +Actrices</i>, <i>les Fashionables</i>, <i>les Artistes</i>, <i>les Étudiants de Paris</i>, <i>les Bals masqués</i>, <i>les Souvenirs du Carnaval</i>, <i>la Vie des Jeunes Hommes</i>. A new world was here revealed with bold traits. The women of Daumier are good, fat mothers, @@ -2873,7 +2832,7 @@ being, upon crystal mirrors.</p> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:750px; height:583px" src="images/img065.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Quantin, Paris.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DAUMIER.</td> -<td class="tcr f80 pb2">“LA VOIL ... MA MAISON DE CAMPAGNE.”</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f80 pb2">“LA VOILÀ ... MA MAISON DE CAMPAGNE.”</td></tr></table> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 500px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:448px; height:548px" src="images/img066.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -2942,7 +2901,7 @@ worked on these lines. He was an unfortunate and ailing man, who passed his existence, like Verlaine, in hospital, and died in an almshouse. Guys has not left much behind him, but in that little he shows himself the true forerunner of the moderns, and it is not a mere chance that Baudelaire, the -ancestor of the <i>dcadence</i>, established Guys’ memory. These women who +ancestor of the <i>décadence</i>, established Guys’ memory. These women who wander aimlessly about the streets with weary movements and heavy eyes deadened with absinthe, and who flit through the ball-room like bats, have nothing of the innocent charm of Monnier’s grisettes. They are the uncanny @@ -2965,7 +2924,7 @@ that Daumier is; he has not the feeling for large movement, but with what terrible directness he analyses faces! He has followed woman through all seasons of life and in every grade, from youth to decay, and from brilliant wealth to filthy misery, and he has written the story of the <i>lorette</i> in monumental -strophes: caf chantant, villa in the Champs Elyses, equipage, +strophes: café chantant, villa in the Champs Elysées, equipage, grooms, Bois de Boulogne, procuress, garret, and radish-woman, that final incarnation which Victor Hugo called the sentence of judgment.</p> @@ -3002,7 +2961,7 @@ and bullies. And what Paris had not yet revealed to him, he learnt in 1849 in London. Even there he was not the -first-comer. Gricault, who +first-comer. Géricault, who as early as 1821 dived into the misery of the vast city, and brought out a series of @@ -3027,7 +2986,7 @@ to us as a contemporary, and by it he has become a pioneer. The enigmatical figure of “Thomas Vireloque” starts up in these times, following step by step in the path of his prototype: he is the philosopher of the back streets, the ragged scoundrel with dynamite in his pocket, the incarnation of the -<i>bte humaine</i>, of human misery +<i>bête humaine</i>, of human misery and human vice. Here Gavarni stands far above Hogarth and far above Callot. The ideas on @@ -3065,31 +3024,31 @@ at the present day.</p> <td class="tcr f80">FOURBERIES DE FEMMES.</td></tr></table> <div class="condensed list"> -<p><i>Au premier Mosieu.</i>—“Attendez-moi ce soir, de quatre cinq heures, quai de l’Horloge du +<p><i>Au premier Mosieu.</i>—“Attendez-moi ce soir, de quatre à cinq heures, quai de l’Horloge du Palais.—<i>Votre</i> <span class="sc">Augustine</span>.”</p> -<p><i>Au deuxime Mosieu.</i>—“Ce soir, quai des Lunettes, entre quatre et cinq heures.—<i>Votre</i> +<p><i>Au deuxième Mosieu.</i>—“Ce soir, quai des Lunettes, entre quatre et cinq heures.—<i>Votre</i> <span class="sc">Augustine</span>.”</p> -<p><i>Au troisime Mosieu.</i>—“Quai des Morfondus, ce soir, de quatre heures cinq.—<i>Votre</i> +<p><i>Au troisième Mosieu.</i>—“Quai des Morfondus, ce soir, de quatre heures à cinq.—<i>Votre</i> <span class="sc">Augustine</span>.”</p> -<p><i> un quatrime Mosieu.</i>—“Je t’attends ce soir, quatre heures.—<i>Ton</i> <span class="sc">Augustine</span>.”</p> +<p><i>À un quatrième Mosieu.</i>—“Je t’attends ce soir, à quatre heures.—<i>Ton</i> <span class="sc">Augustine</span>.”</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>46</span></p> <p class="pt2"> </p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span> -<i>Gustave Dor</i>, to the lessening of his importance, moved on this ground only +<i>Gustave Doré</i>, to the lessening of his importance, moved on this ground only in his earliest period. He was barely sixteen and still at school in his native town Burg, in Alsace, when he made an agreement with Philippon, who engaged him for three years on the <i>Journal pour rire</i>. His first drawings date from 1844: “Les animaux socialistes,” which were very suggestive of -Grandville, and “Dsagrments d’un voyage d’agrment”—something like +Grandville, and “Désagréments d’un voyage d’agrément”—something like the German <i>Herr und Frau Buchholz in der Schweiz</i>—which made a considerable -sensation by their grotesque wit. In his series “Les diffrents -publics de Paris” and “La Mnagerie Parisienne” he represented with -an incisive pencil the opera, the <i>Thtre des Italiens</i>, the circus, the <i>Odon</i> +sensation by their grotesque wit. In his series “Les différents +publics de Paris” and “La Ménagerie Parisienne” he represented with +an incisive pencil the opera, the <i>Théâtre des Italiens</i>, the circus, the <i>Odéon</i> and the <i>Jardin des Plantes</i>. But since that time the laurels of historical painting have given him no rest. He turned away from his own age as well as from caricature, and made excursions into all zones and all periods. He @@ -3103,7 +3062,7 @@ scenical effect. His figures are academic variations of types originally establi by the Greeks and the Cinquescentisti. He forced his talent when he soared into regions where he could not stand without the support of his predecessors. Even in his “Don Quixote” the figures lose in character the larger -they become. Everything in Dor is calligraphic, judicious, without individuality, +they become. Everything in Doré is calligraphic, judicious, without individuality, without movement and life, composed in accordance with known rules. There is a touch of Wiertz in him, both in his imagination and in his design, and his youthful works, such as the “Swiss Journey,” in which he merely drew @@ -3113,8 +3072,8 @@ from observation without pretensions to style, will probably last the longest.</ exhaustive in writing up the diary of modern Parisian life during the period 1848-78. The celebrated caricaturist—he has been called the most brilliant man in France under Napoleon <span class="sc">III</span>—had worked in the studio of Delaroche -at the same time as Jean Franois Millet. After 1842 he came forward as -Cham (his proper name was Count Amade de No) with drawings which soon +at the same time as Jean François Millet. After 1842 he came forward as +Cham (his proper name was Count Amadée de Noë) with drawings which soon made him the artist most in demand on the staff of the <i>Charivari</i>. Neither so profound nor so serious as Gavarni, he has a constant sparkle of vivacity, and is a draughtsman of wonderful <i>verve</i>. In his reviews of the month and of @@ -3131,7 +3090,7 @@ caricatures of the works of art in the Salon were full of spirit, and the Intern Exhibition of 1867 found in him its classic chronicler. Here all the mysterious Paris of the third Napoleon lives once more. Emperors and kings file past, the band of Strauss plays, gipsies are dancing, equipages roll by, and -every one lives, loves, flirts, squanders money, and whirls round in a malstrom. +every one lives, loves, flirts, squanders money, and whirls round in a maëlstrom. But the end of the exhibition betokened the end of all that splendour. In Cham’s plates which came next one feels that there is thunder in the air. Neither fashions nor theatres, neither women nor pleasure, could prevent politics @@ -3141,14 +3100,14 @@ from predominating more and more: the fall of Napoleon was drawing near.</p> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:591px; height:735px" src="images/img072.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Quantin, Paris.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">GAVARNI.</td> -<td class="tcr f80 pb2">PHDRE AT THE THTRE FRANAIS.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f80 pb2">PHÈDRE AT THE THÉÂTRE FRANÇAIS.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:601px; height:747px" src="images/img073.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Quantin, Paris.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">GAVARNI.</td> -<td class="tcr f80 pb2">“CE QUI ME MANQUE MOI? UNE ’TITE MRE<br /> -COMME A, QU’AURAIT SOIN DE MON LINGE.”</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f80 pb2">“CE QUI ME MANQUE À MOI? UNE ’TITE MÈRE<br /> +COMME ÇA, QU’AURAIT SOIN DE MON LINGE.”</td></tr></table> <p>There was a greater division of labour amongst those who followed Cham, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span> @@ -3158,17 +3117,17 @@ which had been neglected since Daumier, and enjoyed a great success with his series “Les Contemporains de Nadar.” <i>Marcellin</i> is the first who spread over his sketches from the world of fashions and the theatre all the <i>chic</i> and fashionable glitter which lives in the novels of those years. He is the chronicler -of the great world, of balls and <i>soires</i>; he shows the opera and the <i>Thtre +of the great world, of balls and <i>soirées</i>; he shows the opera and the <i>Théâtre des Italiens</i>, tells of hunting and racing, attends the drives in the Corso, and at the call of fashion promptly deserts the stones of Paris to look about him -in chteaux and country-houses, seaside haunts in France, and the little +in châteaux and country-houses, seaside haunts in France, and the little <span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span> watering-places of Germany, where the gaming-tables formed at that time the rendezvous of well-bred Paris. Baden-Baden, where all the lions of the day, the politicians and the artists and all the beauties of the Paris salons, met together in July, offered the draughtsman a specially wide field for studies of fashion and <i>chic</i>. Here began the series “Histoires des variations de la -mode depuis le XVI sicle jusqu’ nos jours.” In a place where all classes of +mode depuis le XVI siècle jusqu’à nos jours.” In a place where all classes of society, the great world and the <i>demi-monde</i>, came into contact, Marcellin could not avoid the latter, but even when he verged on this province he always knew how to maintain a correct and distinguished bearing. He was peculiarly @@ -3182,17 +3141,17 @@ yet refined society of the Second Empire which turned Paris into a great ball-ro <td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Journal Amusant.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80">GUYS.</td> <td class="tcr f80">STUDY OF A WOMAN.</td> -<td class="tcl f80">GRVIN.</td> +<td class="tcl f80">GRÉVIN.</td> <td class="tcr f80">NOS PARISIENNES.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcl f90 pb2" colspan="2">“Tiens! ne me parle pas de lui, je ne peux pas le souffrir,<br /> - mme en peinture!”<br /> + même en peinture!”<br /> “Cependant, s’il t’offrait de t’epouser?”<br /> -“a, c’est autre chose.”</td></tr></table> +“Ça, c’est autre chose.”</td></tr></table> <p><i>Randon</i> is as plebeian as Marcellin is aristocratic. His speciality is the stupid recruit who is marched through the streets with his “squad,” or the retired -tradesman of small means, as Daudet has hit him off in M. Chbe, the old +tradesman of small means, as Daudet has hit him off in M. Chèbe, the old gentleman seated on a bench in the Bois de Boulogne: “Let the little ones come to me with their nurses.” His province includes everything that has nothing to do with <i>chic</i>. The whole life of the Parisian people, the horse-fairs, @@ -3222,7 +3181,7 @@ furnished also with an incessant hunger.</p> <p>Soon afterwards there came <i>Hadol</i>, -who made his dbut in 1855, with +who made his début in 1855, with <span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>51</span> pictures of the fashions; <i>Stop</i>, who specially represented the @@ -3230,7 +3189,7 @@ provinces and Italy; <i>Draner</i>, who occupied himself with the Parisian ballet and designed charming military uniforms -for little dancing girls. <i>Lonce +for little dancing girls. <i>Léonce Petit</i> drew peasants and sketched the charms of the country in a simple, familiar @@ -3257,16 +3216,16 @@ a mighty song of hard labour, of the earnest, toilsome existence of the peasant folk.</p> <p><i>Andrieux</i> and <i>Morland</i> discovered the <i>femme entretenue</i>, though afterwards -her best known delineator was <i>Grvin</i>, an able, original, facile, and piquant +her best known delineator was <i>Grévin</i>, an able, original, facile, and piquant draughtsman, whom some—exaggerating beyond a doubt—called the direct -successor of Gavarni. Grvin’s women are a little monotonous, with their +successor of Gavarni. Grévin’s women are a little monotonous, with their ringleted chignons, their expressionless eyes which try to look big, their perverse little noses, their defiant, pouting lips, and the cheap toilettes which they wear with so much <i>chic</i>. But they too have gone to their rest with the grisettes of Monnier and Gavarni, and have left the field to the women of Mars -and Forain. In these days Grvin’s work seems old-fashioned, since it is no +and Forain. In these days Grévin’s work seems old-fashioned, since it is no longer modern and not yet historical; nevertheless it marks an epoch, like -that of Gavarni. The <i>bals publics</i>, the <i>bals de l’Opra</i>, those of the <i>Jardin +that of Gavarni. The <i>bals publics</i>, the <i>bals de l’Opéra</i>, those of the <i>Jardin Mabille</i>, the <i>Closerie des Lilas</i>, the races, the promenades in the <i>Bois de Vincennes</i>, the seaside resorts, all places where the <i>demi-monde</i> pitched its tent <span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>52</span> @@ -3274,8 +3233,8 @@ in the time of Napoleon <span class="sc">III</span>, were also the home of the a love in Paris” and “Winter in Paris” were his earliest series. His finest and greatest drawings, the scenes from the Parisian hotels and “The English in Paris,” appeared in 1867, the year of the Exhibition. His later series, -published as albums—“Les filles d’ve,” “Le monde amusant,” “Fantaisies -parisiennes,” “Paris vicieux,” “La Chane des Dames”—are a song of songs +published as albums—“Les filles d’Ève,” “Le monde amusant,” “Fantaisies +parisiennes,” “Paris vicieux,” “La Chaîne des Dames”—are a song of songs upon the refinements of life.</p> <p>It does not lie within the plan of this book to follow the history of drawing @@ -3324,7 +3283,7 @@ it is not hampered by antiquated Greek and Latin theories. What fortunate conditions it has for breaking away into really modern work! whereas in other nations the weight of tradition presses hard on the boldest innovators. The English do not look back; on the contrary, they look into life around -them.” So wrote Burger-Thor in one of his Salons in 1867.</p> +them.” So wrote Burger-Thoré in one of his Salons in 1867.</p> <p>Yet England was not unaffected by the retrospective tendency on the Continent. Perhaps it might even be demonstrated that this movement had @@ -3364,7 +3323,7 @@ the “Culture and Progress of Human Knowledge,” which he completed in biographies of Reynolds and Titian than by the great canvases which he painted for Boydell’s Shakespeare Gallery. That which became best known was “The Murder of the Children in the Tower.” <i>Henry Fuseli</i>, who was also -much occupied with authorship and as <i>preceptor Britanni</i>, always mentioned +much occupied with authorship and as <i>preceptor Britanniæ</i>, always mentioned with great respect by his numerous pupils, produced a series of exceedingly thoughtful and imaginative works, to which he was incited by Klopstock and Lavater. By preference he illustrated Milton and Shakespeare, and amongst @@ -3670,12 +3629,12 @@ dress. If West in their despite represented the general and his soldiers in their regulation uniform, it seems at the present time no more than the result of healthy common sense, but at that time it was an artistic event of great importance, and one which was only accomplished in France after the work -of several decades. In that country Grard and Girodet still clung to the +of several decades. In that country Gérard and Girodet still clung to the belief that they could only raise the military picture to the level of the great style by giving the soldiers of the Empire the appearance of Greek and Roman statues. Gros is honoured as the man who first ceased from giving modern soldiers an air of the antique. But the American Englishman had anticipated -him by forty years. As in Gricault’s “Raft of the Medusa,” it was only the +him by forty years. As in Géricault’s “Raft of the Medusa,” it was only the pyramidal composition in West’s picture that betrayed the painter’s alliance with the Classical school; in other respects it forecast the realistic programme for decades to come, and indicated the course of development which leads @@ -3748,7 +3707,7 @@ work of <i>Daniel Maclise</i>, who depicted “The Meeting of Wellington and -Blcher,” “The +Blücher,” “The Death of Nelson,” and other patriotic themes upon walls and canvases several yards square, with appalling energy, @@ -3869,7 +3828,7 @@ comparison with Morland’s broad, liquid, and harmonious painting, that of Ward seems burnished, sparkling, flaunting, anecdotic, and petty. But James Ward was not always old James Ward. In his early days he was one of the greatest and manliest artists of the English school, with whom only -Briton Rivire can be compared amongst the moderns. When his “Lioness” +Briton Rivière can be compared amongst the moderns. When his “Lioness” appeared in the Royal Academy Exhibition of 1816 he was justly hailed as the best animal painter after Snyders, and from that time one masterpiece followed another for ten long years. What grace and power there are in his @@ -3928,8 +3887,8 @@ in 1873 contained three hundred and fourteen oil paintings and one hundred and forty-six sketches. The property which -he left amounted to 160,000; -and a further sum of 55,000 +he left amounted to £160,000; +and a further sum of £55,000 was realised by the sale of his unsold pictures. Even Meissonier, the best paid painter @@ -4091,11 +4050,11 @@ man, an adjunct of human society, the generous friend and true comrade who is the last mourner at the shepherd’s grave. Landseer first studied his noble countenance and his thoughtful eyes, and in doing so -he opened a new province to art, in which Briton Rivire went further at a +he opened a new province to art, in which Briton Rivière went further at a later period.</p> <p>But yet another and still wider province was opened to continental -nations by the art of England. In an epoch of archological resuscitations +nations by the art of England. In an epoch of archæological resuscitations and romantic regrets for the past, it brought French and German painters to a consciousness that the man of the nineteenth century in his daily life might be a perfectly legitimate subject for art. Engravings after the best @@ -4176,7 +4135,7 @@ he would stand on a higher pedestal if he had never seen more than a dozen good pictures of Teniers, Ostade, Metsu, Jan Steen, and Brouwer. Now he began to copy his travelling sketches in a spiritless fashion; he only represented <i>pifferari</i>, smugglers, and monks, who, devoid of all originality, -might have been painted by one of the Dsseldorfers. Even “John Knox +might have been painted by one of the Düsseldorfers. Even “John Knox Preaching,” which is probably the best picture of his last period, is no exception.</p> <p>“He seemed to me,” writes Delacroix, who saw him in Paris after his @@ -4438,10 +4397,10 @@ artistic, and shows study when one thinks of contemporary productions on the Continent. His works (“Lear attended by Cordelia,” “The Vicar of Wakefield restoring his Daughter to her Mother,” “The Prince of Spain’s Visit to Catalina” from <i>Gil Blas</i>, and “Yorick and the Grisette” -from Sterne), like the pictures of the Dsseldorfers, would most certainly +from Sterne), like the pictures of the Düsseldorfers, would most certainly have lost in actuality but for the interest provided by the literary passages; yet they are favourably distinguished from the literary illustrations -of the Dsseldorfers by the want of any sort of idealism. While +of the Düsseldorfers by the want of any sort of idealism. While the painters of the Continent in such pictures almost invariably fell into a rounded, generalising ideal of beauty, Newton had the scene played by actors and painted them realistically. The result was a theatrical @@ -4471,8 +4430,8 @@ his pictures seem like records of stage art in London about the year 1830.</p> <p><i>Charles Robert Leslie</i>, known as an author by his pleasant book on Constable and a highly conservative <i>Handbook for Young Painters</i>, had a -similar <i>reprtoire</i>, and rendered in oils Shakespeare, Cervantes, Fielding, -Sterne, Goldsmith, and Molire, with more or less ability. The National +similar <i>repértoire</i>, and rendered in oils Shakespeare, Cervantes, Fielding, +Sterne, Goldsmith, and Molière, with more or less ability. The National Gallery has an exceedingly prosaic and colourless picture of his, “Sancho Panza in the Apartment of the Duchess.” Some that are in the South Kensington Museum are better; for example, “The Taming of the Shrew,” @@ -4512,7 +4471,7 @@ Leslie, and he has learnt a great deal from Metsu. By preference he took his subjects out of Goldsmith. “Choosing the Wedding Gown” and “The -Whistonian Controversy” would make pretty illustrations for an <i>dition de +Whistonian Controversy” would make pretty illustrations for an <i>édition de luxe</i> of <i>The Vicar of Wakefield</i>. Otherwise he too had a taste for immortalising children, by turns lazy and industrious, at their tea or playing by the water’s edge.</p> @@ -4633,7 +4592,7 @@ century to its own time.”</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>95</span></p> <p>These words, which the well-known Vienna librarian Denis wrote in 1797 -in his <i>Lesefrchte</i>, show how early came the problem which was at high-water +in his <i>Lesefrüchte</i>, show how early came the problem which was at high-water mark for a generation afterwards. The painting of the nineteenth century could only become modern when it succeeded in recognising and expressing the characteristic side of modern costume. But to do that it took more than @@ -4641,7 +4600,7 @@ half a century. It was, after all, natural that to people who had seen the graceful forms and delicate colours of the <i>rococo</i> time, the garb of the first half of the century should seem the most unfortunate and the least enviable in the whole history of costume. “What person of artistic education is -not of the opinion,” runs a passage in Putmann’s book on the Dsseldorf +not of the opinion,” runs a passage in Putmann’s book on the Düsseldorf school in 1835,—“what person of artistic education is not of the opinion that the dress of the present day is tasteless, hideous, and ape-like? Moreover, can a true style be brought into harmony with hoop-petticoats and @@ -4684,14 +4643,14 @@ with rich material.</p> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Gaz. des Beaux-Arts.</i></td> <td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">CHARLET.</td> -<td class="tcr f80 pb2">UN HOMME QUI BOT SEUL N’EST<br />PAS DIGNE DE VIVRE.</td> +<td class="tcr f80 pb2">UN HOMME QUI BOÎT SEUL N’EST<br />PAS DIGNE DE VIVRE.</td> <td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">AUGUSTE MARIE RAFFET.</td></tr></table> <p>Since it was by working on uniform that plastic artists first learnt how to treat contemporary costume, so it was the military picture that first entered the circle of modern painting. By exalting the soldier into a warrior, and the warrior into a hero, it was here possible, even in the times of David and -Carstens, to effect a certain compromise with the ruling classical ideas. Grard, +Carstens, to effect a certain compromise with the ruling classical ideas. Gérard, Girodet—to some extent even Gros—made abundant use of the mask of the Greek or Roman warrior, with the object of admitting the battle-piece into painting in the grand style. The real heroes of the Napoleonic epoch had @@ -4702,10 +4661,10 @@ but little else, stands to his credit.</p> <p>Together with his son-in-law Paul Delaroche, <i>Horace Vernet</i> is the most genuine product of the <i>Juste-milieu</i> period. The king with the umbrella -founded the Museum of Versailles, that monstrous dept of daubed canvas, +founded the Museum of Versailles, that monstrous depôt of daubed canvas, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span> which is a horrifying memory to any one who has ever wandered through it. -However, it is devoted <i> toutes les gloires de la France</i>. In a few years a suite +However, it is devoted <i>à toutes les gloires de la France</i>. In a few years a suite of galleries, which it takes almost two hours merely to pass through from end to end, was filled with pictures of all sizes, bringing home the history of the country, from Charlemagne to the African expedition of Louis Philippe, under @@ -4723,7 +4682,7 @@ distinguished from many of his contemporaries by his independence: he owes no one anything, and reveals his own qualities without arraying himself in those of other people. Only these qualities are not of an order which gives his pictures artistic interest. The spark -of Gricault’s genius, which seems to have +of Géricault’s genius, which seems to have been transmitted to him in the beginning, was completely quenched in his later years. Having swiftly attained popularity by the @@ -4802,7 +4761,7 @@ following works.</p> of arms in the Crimean War and the Italian campaign kept more or less to the blustering official style of Horace Vernet. In the galleries of Versailles the battles of Wagram, Loano, and Altenkirche (1837-39), and an episode from -the retreat from Russia (1851), represent the work of <i>Hippolyte Bellang</i>. +the retreat from Russia (1851), represent the work of <i>Hippolyte Bellangé</i>. These are huge lithochromes which have been very carefully executed. <i>Adolphe</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span> <i>Yvon</i>, who is responsible for “The Taking of Malakoff,” “The Battle of @@ -4843,22 +4802,22 @@ sensibility.</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl">C’est la grande revue</td> <td class="tcl"> A l’heure de minuit</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Qu’aux Champs-Elyses</td> <td class="tcl"> Tient Csar dcd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Qu’aux Champs-Elysées</td> <td class="tcl"> Tient César décédé.</td></tr> </table> <p class="pt2">A couple of mere lithographists, soldiers’ sons, in whom a repining for the Napoleonic legend still found its echo, were the first great military painters -of modern France. “Charlet and Raffet,” wrote Brger-Thor in his <i>Salon</i> +of modern France. “Charlet and Raffet,” wrote Bürger-Thoré in his <i>Salon</i> of 1845, “are the two artists who best understand the representation of that almost vanished type, the trooper of the Empire; and after Gros they will assuredly endure as the principal historians of that warlike era.”</p> <p><i>Charlet</i>, the painter of the old bear Napoleon <span class="sc">I</span>, might almost be called -the Branger of painting. The “little Corporal,” the “great Emperor” +the Béranger of painting. The “little Corporal,” the “great Emperor” appears and reappears in his pictures and drawings without intermission; his work is an epic in pencil of the grey coat and the little hat. From his youth he employed himself with military studies, which were furthered in -Gros’ studio, which he entered in 1817. The Grco-Roman ideal did not +Gros’ studio, which he entered in 1817. The Græco-Roman ideal did not exist for him, and he was indifferent to beauty of form. His was one of those natures which have a natural turn for actual fact; he had a power for characterisation, and in his many water-colours and lithographs he was merely concerned @@ -4874,7 +4833,7 @@ gloomy heaven and disconsolate horizon, the picture gave the impression of infinite disaster. After fifty years it had lost none of its value. Since the reappearance of this picture it has been recognised that Charlet was not merely the specialist of old grey heads with their noses reddened with brandy, -the Molire of barracks and canteens, but that he understood all the tragical +the Molière of barracks and canteens, but that he understood all the tragical sublimity of war, from which Horace Vernet merely produced trivial anecdotes.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 465px;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -4882,7 +4841,7 @@ sublimity of war, from which Horace Vernet merely produced trivial anecdotes.</p <tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Mag. of Art.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">ERNEST MEISSONIER.</td></tr></table> -<p>Beside him stands his pupil <i>Raffet</i>, the special painter of the <i>grande arme</i>. +<p>Beside him stands his pupil <i>Raffet</i>, the special painter of the <i>grande armée</i>. He mastered the brilliant figure of Napoleon; he followed it from Ajaccio to St. Helena, and never left it until he had said everything that was to be said about it. He showed the “little Corsican” as the general of the Italian @@ -4907,7 +4866,7 @@ the coast of France as it fades in the mist. He has called the Emperor from the grave, as a ghostly power, to hold a midnight -review of the <i>grande arme</i>. +review of the <i>grande armée</i>. And with love and passion and enthusiasm he has followed the instrument of these victories, the @@ -4943,7 +4902,7 @@ the nephew was fond of drawing parallels between himself and his mighty uncle, Meissonier was obliged to depict suitable occasions from the life of the first Napoleon. His admirers were very curious to know how the great “little painter” would acquit himself in such a monumental task. First came the -“Battle of Solferino,” that picture of the Muse Luxembourg which represents +“Battle of Solferino,” that picture of the Musée Luxembourg which represents Napoleon <span class="sc">III</span> overlooking the battle from a height in the midst of his staff. After lengthy preparations it appeared in the Salon of 1864, and showed that the painter had not been untrue to himself: he had simply adapted the @@ -5076,7 +5035,7 @@ on one side, as a smart staff-officer. Even the works of his old age showed no exhaustion of power, and there is something great in attaining ripe years without outliving one’s reputation. As late as the spring of 1890, only a short time before his death, he was the leader of youth, when it transmigrated -from the Palais des Champs Elyses to the Champ de Mars; and he exhibited +from the Palais des Champs Elysées to the Champ de Mars; and he exhibited in this new Salon his “October 1806,” with which he closed his Napoleonic epic and his general activity as a painter. Halting on a hill, the Emperor in his historical grey coat, mounted on a powerful grey, is thoughtfully watching @@ -5131,7 +5090,7 @@ except astonishment at the patience and incredible industry that went to the making of them. One sees everything in them—everything that the painter can have seen—to the slightest detail; only one does not rightly come into contact with the artist himself. His battle-pieces stand -high above the scenic pictures of Horace Vernet and Hippolyte Bellang, but +high above the scenic pictures of Horace Vernet and Hippolyte Bellangé, but they have nothing of the warmth of Raffet or the vibrating life of Neuville. There is nothing in them that is contagious and carries one away, or that appeals to the heart. Patience is a virtue: genius is a gift. Precious without @@ -5142,21 +5101,21 @@ painter of a distinctness which causes astonishment, but not admiration; an artist for epicures, but for those of the second order, who pay the more highly for works of art in proportion as they value their artifice. His pictures recall the unseasonable compliment which Charles Blanc made to Ingres: “<i>Cher -matre, vous avez devin la photographie trente ans avant qu’il y eut des photographes.</i>” -Or else one thinks of that malicious story of which Jules Dupr is +maître, vous avez deviné la photographie trente ans avant qu’il y eut des photographes.</i>” +Or else one thinks of that malicious story of which Jules Dupré is well known as the author. “Suppose,” said he, “that you are a great personage who has just bought a Meissonier. Your valet enters the salon where it is hanging. ‘Ah! Monsieur,’ he cries, ‘what a beautiful picture you have bought! That is a masterpiece!’ Another time you buy a Rembrandt, and show it to your valet, in the expectation that he will at any rate be overcome by the same raptures. <i>Mais non!</i> This time the man looks -embarrassed. ‘Ah! Monsieur,’ he says, ‘<i>il faut s’y connatre</i>,’ and away +embarrassed. ‘Ah! Monsieur,’ he says, ‘<i>il faut s’y connaître</i>,’ and away he goes.”</p> <p><i>Guillaume Regamey</i>, who is far less known, supplies what is wanting in Meissonier. Sketchy and of a highly strung nervous temperament, he could not adapt himself to the picture-market; but the history of art honours him -as the most spirited draughtsman of the French soldier, after Gricault and +as the most spirited draughtsman of the French soldier, after Géricault and Raffet. He did not paint him turned out for parade, ironed and smartened up, but in the worst trim. Syria, the Crimea, Italy, and the East are mingled with the difference of their types and the brightness of their exotic costumes. @@ -5182,8 +5141,8 @@ painters, who had grown up in the shadow of Meissonier.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:747px; height:462px" src="images/img145.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80">DTAILLE.</td> -<td class="tcr f80">SALUT AUX BLESSS.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">DÉTAILLE.</td> +<td class="tcr f80">SALUT AUX BLESSÉS.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Goupil, the owners of the copyright.</i>)</td></tr> </table> @@ -5204,16 +5163,16 @@ eye-glasses. Everything received grace from his dexterous hand; he even saw in the trooper a gallant and ornamental <i>bibelot</i>, which he painted with chivalrous verve.</p> -<p>The pictures of Aim Morot, the painter of “The Charge of the Cuirassiers,” +<p>The pictures of Aimé Morot, the painter of “The Charge of the Cuirassiers,” possibly smell most of powder. Neuville’s frequently over-praised rival, -Meissonier’s favourite pupil, <i>Edouard Dtaille</i>, after he had started with pretty +Meissonier’s favourite pupil, <i>Edouard Détaille</i>, after he had started with pretty little costume pictures from the <i>Directoire</i> period, went further on the way of his teacher with less laboriousness and more lightness, with less calculation -and more sincerity. The best of his works was “Salut aux Blesss”—the +and more sincerity. The best of his works was “Salut aux Blessés”—the representation of a troop of wounded Prussian officers and soldiers on a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>112</span> country road, passing a French general and his staff, who with graceful -chivalry lift their caps and salute the wounded men. Dtaille’s great +chivalry lift their caps and salute the wounded men. Détaille’s great pictures, such as “The Presentation of the Colours,” and his panoramas were as accurate as they were tedious and arid, although they are far superior to most of the efforts which the Germans made to depict scenes @@ -5221,7 +5180,7 @@ from the war of 1870.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:648px; height:500px" src="images/img146.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Soldan, Nrnberg.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Soldan, Nürnberg.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">ALBRECHT ADAM AND HIS SONS.</td></tr></table> <p>In Germany the great period of the wars of liberation first inspired a group @@ -5273,20 +5232,20 @@ on which future artists built.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">HESS.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE RECEPTION OF KING OTTO IN NAUPLIA.</td></tr></table> -<p>In Berlin Franz Krger and in Munich Albrecht Adam and Peter Hess +<p>In Berlin Franz Krüger and in Munich Albrecht Adam and Peter Hess were figures of individual character, belonging to the spiritual family of Chodowiecki and Gottfried Schadow; and, entirely undisturbed by classical theories or romantic reverie, they penetrated the life around them with a clear and sharp glance. They lacked, indeed, the temperament to comprehend either the high poetic tendencies of the old Munich school or the -sentimental enthusiasm of the old Dsseldorf.</p> +sentimental enthusiasm of the old Düsseldorf.</p> <p>On the other hand, they were unhackneyed artists, facing facts in a completely unprejudiced spirit: entirely self-reliant, they refused to form themselves upon any model derived from the old masters; they had never had a -teacher and never enjoyed academic instruction. This nave straightforwardness +teacher and never enjoyed academic instruction. This naïve straightforwardness makes their painting a half-barbaric product; something which has -been allowed to run wild. But in a period of archological resuscitations, +been allowed to run wild. But in a period of archæological resuscitations, pedantic brooding over the past and slavish imitation of the ancients, it seems, for this very reason, the first independent product of the nineteenth century. As vigorous, matter-of-fact realists they know nothing of more delicate charms, @@ -5302,7 +5261,7 @@ standpoint of art, a certain innovating quality. In a pleasantly written autobiography <i>Albrecht Adam</i> has himself described the drift of historical events which made him a painter of battles.</p> -<p>He was a confectioner’s apprentice in Nrdlingen when, in the year 1800, +<p>He was a confectioner’s apprentice in Nördlingen when, in the year 1800, the marches of the French army began in the neighbourhood. In an inn he began to sketch sergeants and Grenadiers, and went proudly home with the pence that he earned in this way. “Adam, when there’s war, I’ll take you @@ -5310,9 +5269,9 @@ into the field with me,” said an old major-general, who was the purchaser of his first works. That came to pass in 1809, when the Bavarians went with Napoleon against Austria. After a few weeks he was in the thick of raging battle. He saw Napoleon, the Crown-Prince Ludwig, and General Wrede, -was present at the battles of Abensberg, Eckmhl, and Wagram, and came +was present at the battles of Abensberg, Eckmühl, and Wagram, and came to Vienna with his portfolios full of sketches. There his portraits and pictures -of the war found favour with the officers, and Eugne Beauharnais, Viceroy +of the war found favour with the officers, and Eugène Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy, took him to Upper Italy and afterwards to Russia. He was an eye-witness of the battles at Borodino and on the Moskwa, and saved himself from the conflagration of Moscow by his courage and determination. A true @@ -5355,16 +5314,16 @@ Pinakothek in Munich. In spite of its hard, motley, and quite impossible colouring, and its petty pedantry of execution, this is a picture which will not lose its value as an historical source.</p> -<p>Vigorous <i>Franz Krger</i> had been long known in Berlin, by his famous +<p>Vigorous <i>Franz Krüger</i> had been long known in Berlin, by his famous pictures of horses, before the Emperor of Russia in 1829 commissioned him to paint, on a huge canvas, the great parade on the <i>Opernplatz</i> in Berlin, where he had reviewed his regiment of Cuirassiers before the King of Prussia. From -that time such parade pictures became Krger’s specialty; especially famous +that time such parade pictures became Krüger’s specialty; especially famous is the great parade of 1839, with the likenesses of those who at the time played a political or literary part in Berlin. In these works he has left a true reflection of old Berlin, and bridged over the chasm between Chodowiecki and Menzel: this is specially the case with his curiously objective water-colour portrait -heads. Mention should be made of Karl Steffeck as a pupil of Krger, and +heads. Mention should be made of Karl Steffeck as a pupil of Krüger, and Theodor Horschelt—in addition to Franz Adam—as a pupil of Adam. By <i>Steffeck</i>, a healthy, vigorous realist, there are some well-painted portraits of horses, and by <i>Th. Horschelt</i>, who in 1858 took part in the fights of the @@ -5382,7 +5341,7 @@ verve and chivalrous feeling. There is a flame and a sparkle, both in the forms of his warriors and of his horses, in his pictures of old Polish cavalry battles. Everything is aristocratic: the distinction of the grey colouring no less than the ductile drawing with its chivalrous sentiment. In everything -there breathes life, vigour, fire, and freshness: the East of Eugne Fromentin +there breathes life, vigour, fire, and freshness: the East of Eugène Fromentin translated into Polish. <i>Heinrich Lang</i>, a spirited draughtsman, who had the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>117</span> art of seizing the most difficult positions and motions of a horse, embodied @@ -5403,7 +5362,7 @@ deeds in art.</p> <p class="noind pt1"><span class="chap1 sc">In</span> the beginning of the century the man who did not wear a uniform was not a proper subject for art unless he lived in Italy as a peasant or a -robber. That is to say, painters were either archologists or tourists; when +robber. That is to say, painters were either archæologists or tourists; when they did not dive into the past they sought their romantic ideal in the distance. Italy, where monumental painting had first seen the light, was the earliest goal for travellers, and satisfied the desire of artists, since, for the rest of the world, @@ -5425,7 +5384,7 @@ his success with the public of the twenties and his place in the history of art entirely to the fact that in spite of his strict classical training he was one of the first to interest himself, however little, in contemporary life. Hundreds of artists had wandered into Italy and seen nothing but the antique until this -young man set out from Neufchtel in 1818 and became the painter of the +young man set out from Neufchâtel in 1818 and became the painter of the Italian people. What struck him at the first glance was the character of the people, together with their curious habits and usages, and their rude and picturesque garb. “He wished to render this with all fidelity,” and especially @@ -5555,11 +5514,11 @@ inundations, and the like; but his arid method of painting contrasts with the sentimental melancholy of these subjects in a fashion which is not particularly agreeable.</p> -<p>It was <i>Ernest Hbert</i> who first saw Italy with the eyes of a painter. He +<p>It was <i>Ernest Hébert</i> who first saw Italy with the eyes of a painter. He might be called the Perugino of this group. He was the most romantic of the pupils of Delaroche, and owed his conception of colour to that painter. His spiritual father was Ary Scheffer. The latter has discovered the poetry -of sentimentality; Hbert the poetry of disease. His pictures are invariably +of sentimentality; Hébert the poetry of disease. His pictures are invariably of great technical delicacy. His style has something femininely gracious, almost languishing: his colouring is delicately fragrant and tenderly melting. He is, indeed, a refined artist who occupies a place by himself, however @@ -5568,7 +5527,7 @@ Malaria” of 1850 they were influenced by the subject itself. The barge gliding over the waters of the Pontine Marshes, with its freight of men, women, and children, seems like a gloomy symbol of the voyage of life; the sorrow of the passengers is that of resignation: dying they droop their heads like -withering flowers. But later the fever became chronic in Hbert. The +withering flowers. But later the fever became chronic in Hébert. The interesting disease returned even where it was out of place, as it does still in the pictures @@ -5588,7 +5547,7 @@ vision.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:749px; height:507px" src="images/img157.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Portfolio.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">HBERT.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">HÉBERT.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE MALARIA.</td></tr></table> <p>In Germany, where “the @@ -5757,7 +5716,7 @@ painters of the time. Soon afterwards came the picture of the “Pasha on hi Rounds,” accompanied by a lean troop of running and panting guards, that of the great “Turkish Bazaar,” in which he gave such a charming representation of the gay and noisy bustle of an Oriental fair, those of the “Turkish School,” -the “Turkish Caf,” “The Halt of the Arab Horsemen,” and “The Turkish +the “Turkish Café,” “The Halt of the Arab Horsemen,” and “The Turkish Butcher’s Shop.” In everything which he painted from this time forward—even in his Biblical pictures—he had before his eyes the East as it is in modern times. Like Horace Vernet, he painted his figures in the costume of modern @@ -5808,7 +5767,7 @@ this disappointment affected him so deeply that he became first hypochondriacal and then mad. His early death at thirty-six set Decamps free from a powerful rival.</p> -<p><i>Eugne Fromentin</i> went further in the same direction as Marilhat. He +<p><i>Eugène Fromentin</i> went further in the same direction as Marilhat. He knew nothing of the preference for the glowing hues of the tropics nor of the fantastic colouring of the Romanticists. He painted in the spirit of a refined social period in which no loud voice is tolerated, but only light and familiar @@ -5842,7 +5801,7 @@ of flowers upon a carpet.</p> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Baschet.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80">DECAMPS.</td> <td class="tcr f80">COMING OUT FROM A TURKISH SCHOOL.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of Mme. Moreau-Nlaton, the owner of the picture.</i>)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of Mme. Moreau-Nélaton, the owner of the picture.</i>)</td></tr></table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span></p> <p class="pt2"> </p> @@ -5883,9 +5842,9 @@ the fact that Algiers had become a French town.</p> <p>But after all what does it matter whether pictures of the East are true to nature or not? Other people whose names are not Fromentin can provide such documents. In his works Fromentin has expressed himself, and that -is enough. Take up his first book, <i>L’t dans la Sahara</i>: by its grace of style +is enough. Take up his first book, <i>L’été dans la Sahara</i>: by its grace of style it claims a place in French literature. Or read his classic masterpiece, <i>Les -matres d’autrefois</i>, published in 1876 after a tour through Belgium and Holland: +maîtres d’autrefois</i>, published in 1876 after a tour through Belgium and Holland: it will remain for ever one of the finest works ever written on art. A connoisseur of such refinement, a critic who gauged the artistic works of Belgium and Holland with such subtlety, necessarily became in his own painting an @@ -5896,7 +5855,7 @@ side of Eastern life. As a painter, however, he might wish to be true to nature; he could be no more than this. His art, compact of grace and distinction, was the outcome of his own nature. He is a descendant of those delicately feminine, seductively brilliant, facile and spontaneous, sparkling and charming -painters who were known in the eighteenth century as <i>peintres des ftes +painters who were known in the eighteenth century as <i>peintres des fêtes galantes</i>. He is the Watteau of the East, and in this capacity one of the most winning and captivating products of French art.</p> @@ -5916,32 +5875,32 @@ harmony; and he did not find it, like Fromentin, in what is understood as <i>chic</i>. Manet’s conception of colour had taught him that nature is everywhere in accord and harmoniously delicate.</p> -<p>He writes: “<i>Je commence distinguer quelques formes: des silhouettes -indcises bougent le long des murs enfums sous des poutres luisantes de sui. -Les dtails sortent du demi-jour, s’animent graduellement avec la magie des -Rembrandt. Mme mystre des ombres, mmes ors dans les reflets—c’est l’aube.... -Des terrains poudreux inonds de soleil; un amoncellement de murailles -grises sous un ciel sans nuage; une cit somnolente baigne d’une lumire gale, -et dans le frmissement visible des atomes ariens quelques ombres venant a et l -dtacher une forme, accuser un geste parmi les groupes en burnous qui se meuvent +<p>He writes: “<i>Je commence à distinguer quelques formes: des silhouettes +indécises bougent le long des murs enfumés sous des poutres luisantes de sui. +Les détails sortent du demi-jour, s’animent graduellement avec la magie des +Rembrandt. Même mystère des ombres, mêmes ors dans les reflets—c’est l’aube.... +Des terrains poudreux inondés de soleil; un amoncellement de murailles +grises sous un ciel sans nuage; une cité somnolente baignée d’une lumière égale, +et dans le frémissement visible des atomes aériens quelques ombres venant ça et là +détacher une forme, accuser un geste parmi les groupes en burnous qui se meuvent sur les places ... tel m’apparait le ksar, vers dix heures du matin....</i></p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 345px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:293px; height:372px" src="images/img169.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx">EUGNE FROMENTIN.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx">EUGÈNE FROMENTIN.</td></tr></table> -<p>“<i>L’œil interroge: rien ne bouge. L’oreille coute: aucun bruit. Pas un -souffle, si ce n’est le frmissement presque imperceptible de l’air au-dessus du sol -embras. La vie semble avoir disparu, absorbe par la lumire. C’est le milieu +<p>“<i>L’œil interroge: rien ne bouge. L’oreille écoute: aucun bruit. Pas un +souffle, si ce n’est le frémissement presque imperceptible de l’air au-dessus du sol +embrasé. La vie semble avoir disparu, absorbée par la lumière. C’est le milieu du jour.... Mais le soir approche.... Les troupeaux rentrent dans les douars; -ils se pressent autour des tentes, peine visibles, confondus sous cette teinte neutre -du crpuscule, faite avec les gris de la nuit qui vient et les violets tendres du soir -qui s’en va. C’est l’heure mystrieuse, o les couleurs se mlent, o les contours -se noient, o toute chose s’assombrit, o toute voix se tait, o l’homme, la fin du -jour, laisse flotter sa pense devant ce qui s’teint, s’efface et s’evanouit.</i>”</p> +ils se pressent autour des tentes, à peine visibles, confondus sous cette teinte neutre +du crépuscule, faite avec les gris de la nuit qui vient et les violets tendres du soir +qui s’en va. C’est l’heure mystérieuse, où les couleurs se mèlent, où les contours +se noient, où toute chose s’assombrit, où toute voix se tait, où l’homme, à la fin du +jour, laisse flotter sa pensée devant ce qui s’éteint, s’efface et s’evanouit.</i>”</p> -<p>This description of a day in Algiers in Guillaumet’s <i>Tableaux algriens</i> +<p>This description of a day in Algiers in Guillaumet’s <i>Tableaux algériens</i> interprets the painter Guillaumet better than any critical appreciation could possibly do. For him the East is the land of dreams and @@ -5975,7 +5934,7 @@ delirium.</p> <p>For Decamps and Marilhat the East was a great, red copper-block beneath a blue dome of steel; a beautiful monster, bright and glittering. Guillaumet has no wish to dazzle. His pictures give one the impression of intense and -sultry heat. His light is really “<i>le frmissement visible des atomes ariens</i>.” +sultry heat. His light is really “<i>le frémissement visible des atomes aériens</i>.” Moreover, he did not see the chivalry of the East like Fromentin. The latter was fascinated by the nomad, the pure Arab living in tent or saddle, the true aristocrat of the desert, mounted on his white palfrey, hunting wild beasts @@ -5988,9 +5947,9 @@ existence flows by as idly as in the trance of opium.</p> <p>After the French Romanticists had shown the way, other nations contributed their contingent to the painters of Oriental subjects. In Germany poetry -had discovered the East. Rckert imitated the measure and the ideas of the +had discovered the East. Rückert imitated the measure and the ideas of the Oriental lyric, and the Greek war of liberation quickened all that passionate -love for the soil of old Hellas which lives in the German soul. <i>Wilhelm Mller</i> +love for the soil of old Hellas which lives in the German soul. <i>Wilhelm Müller</i> sang his songs of the Greeks, and in 1825 <i>Leopold Schefer</i> brought out his tale <i>Die Persierin</i>. But just as the Oriental tale was a mere episode in German literature, an exotic grafted on the native stem, so the Oriental painting produced @@ -6022,21 +5981,21 @@ waves of sand with burnished gold. Schreyer was—for a German—a man with an extraordinary gift for technique and a brilliantly effective sense of life. The latter remark is specially true of his sketches. At a later date—in 1875, after being with Lembach and Makart in Cairo—the -Viennese <i>Leopold Mller</i> found the domain of his art beneath +Viennese <i>Leopold Müller</i> found the domain of his art beneath the clear sky, in the brightly coloured land of the Nile. Even his sketches are often of great delicacy of colour, and the ethnographical accuracy which he also possessed has long made him the most highly valued delineator of Oriental life and a popular illustrator of works on Egypt. The learned and slightly pedantic vein in his works he shares with <span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span> -Grme, but by his greater charm of colour he comes still nearer to +Gérôme, but by his greater charm of colour he comes still nearer to Fromentin.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:744px; height:533px" src="images/img172.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">GUILLAUMET.</td> -<td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE SGUIA, NEAR BISKRA.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE SÉGUIA, NEAR BISKRA.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:743px; height:646px" src="images/img173.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -6045,7 +6004,7 @@ Fromentin.</p> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">A DWELLING IN THE SAHARA.</td></tr></table> <p>The route to the East was shown to the English by the glowing landscapes -of <i>William Mller</i>; but the English were just as unable to find a Byron amongst +of <i>William Müller</i>; but the English were just as unable to find a Byron amongst their painters. <i>Frederick Goodall</i> has studied the classical element in the East, and endeavoured to reconstruct the past from the present. Best known amongst these artists was <i>J. F. Lewis</i>, who died in 1876 and was much talked @@ -6069,7 +6028,7 @@ the great peace and the mystic silence of the East.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:747px; height:475px" src="images/img174.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">W. MLLER.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">W. MÜLLER.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">PRAYER IN THE DESERT.</td></tr></table> <p>The East was in this way traversed in all directions. The first comers @@ -6105,7 +6064,7 @@ surroundings of home and the political and social relations of contemporaries.</ <p>It was obvious that art’s next task was to bring down to earth again the ideal that had hovered so long over the domain of ancient history, and then winged its flight to the realms of the East. “<i>Ah la vie, la vie! le monde est -l; il rit, crie, souffre, s’amuse, et on ne le rend pas.</i>” In these words the +là; il rit, crie, souffre, s’amuse, et on ne le rend pas.</i>” In these words the necessity of the step has been indicated by Fromentin himself. The successful delivery of modern art was first accomplished, the problem stated in 1789 was first solved, when the subversive upheaval of the Third Estate, which @@ -6169,7 +6128,7 @@ they had to make a beginning in the history of art by themselves; for between them and the older German painting they only met with men who held the ability to paint as a shame and a disgrace. With the example of the old Dutch and Flemish masters before them, they had to knit together the bonds -which these men had cut; and considering the sthetic ideas of the age, this +which these men had cut; and considering the æsthetic ideas of the age, this reference to Netherlandish models was an event of revolutionary importance. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span> In doing this they may have @@ -6246,7 +6205,7 @@ core, and with a sharp eye for life and nature.</p> <td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:447px; height:562px" src="images/img179.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">PETER HESS.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">A MORNING AT PARTENKIRCHE.</td> -<td class="tcl f80 pb2">HEINRICH BRKEL.</td> +<td class="tcl f80 pb2">HEINRICH BÜRKEL.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">A MORNING AT PARTENKIRCHE.</td></tr></table> <p>Painting in the grand style owed its origin to the personal tastes of the @@ -6292,25 +6251,25 @@ mountain life—girls at a well in the midst of a sunny landscape—in a homely but poetic manner. When this breach -had been made, Brkel was +had been made, Bürkel was able to take the lead of the Munich painters of rustic subjects.</p> -<p><i>Heinrich Brkel’s</i> portrait +<p><i>Heinrich Bürkel’s</i> portrait reveals a square-built giant, whose appearance contrasts strangely with that of his celebrated contemporaries. The academic artists sweep back their long hair and look -upwards with an inspired glance. Brkel looks down with a keen eye +upwards with an inspired glance. Bürkel looks down with a keen eye at the hard, rough, and stony earth. The academic artists had a mantle—the mantle of Rauch’s statues—picturesquely draped about their -shoulders; Brkel dressed like anybody else. No attribute is added which +shoulders; Bürkel dressed like anybody else. No attribute is added which could indicate that he was a painter; neither palette, nor brush, nor picture; beside him on the table there is—a mug of beer. There he sits without any sort of pose, with his hand resting on his knee—rough, athletic, and pugnacious—for all the world as if he were quite conscious of his peculiarities. Even the photographer’s demand for “a pleasant smile” -had no effect upon him. This portrait is itself an explanation of Brkel’s +had no effect upon him. This portrait is itself an explanation of Bürkel’s art. His was a healthy, self-reliant nature, without a trace of romance, sentimentality, affected humour, or sugary optimism. Amongst all his Munich contemporaries he was the least academic in his whole manner of @@ -6349,23 +6308,23 @@ less energetic.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:737px; height:506px" src="images/img180.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">BRKEL.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">BÜRKEL.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">BRIGANDS RETURNING.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:744px; height:557px" src="images/img181.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">BRKEL.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">BÜRKEL.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">A DOWNPOUR IN THE MOUNTAINS.</td></tr></table> <p>For, as every artist is the result of two factors, of which one lies in himself -and the other in his age and surroundings, the performances of Brkel are to +and the other in his age and surroundings, the performances of Bürkel are to be judged, not only according to the requirements of the present day, but according to the conditions under which they were produced. What is weak in him he shares with his contemporaries; what is novel is his own most peculiar and incontestable merit. In a period of false idealism worked up in a museum—false idealism which had aped from the true the way in which one clears one’s throat, as Schiller has it, but nothing more indicative of genius—in -a period of this accomplishment Brkel preferred to expose his own +a period of this accomplishment Bürkel preferred to expose his own insufficiency rather than adorn himself with other people’s feathers; at a time which prided itself on representing with brush and pigment things for which pen and ink are the better medium, he looked vividly into life; at a @@ -6378,13 +6337,13 @@ in style, and far too sincere to pretend to raise himself to the level of the ol masters by superficial imitation, he was the more industrious in penetrating the spirit of nature and showing his love for everything down to its minutest feature; weak in the sentiment for colour, he was great in his -feeling for nature. That was Heinrich Brkel, and his successors had to +feeling for nature. That was Heinrich Bürkel, and his successors had to supplement what was wanting in him, but not to wage war against his influence.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:741px; height:592px" src="images/img182.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">BRKEL.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">BÜRKEL.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">A SMITHY IN UPPER BAVARIA.</td></tr></table> <p>The peculiarity of all his works, as of those of the early Dutch and @@ -6397,7 +6356,7 @@ almost always preferring to move in free and open nature. But here his field is extraordinarily wide.</p> <p>Those works in which he handled Italian subjects form a group by themselves. -Brkel was in Rome from 1829 to 1832, the very years in which +Bürkel was in Rome from 1829 to 1832, the very years in which Leopold Robert celebrated his triumphs there; but curious is the difference between the works of the Munich and those of the Swiss painter. In the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span> @@ -6408,7 +6367,7 @@ over the rough, healthy, and sincere nature of the artist. He saw nothing in Italy that he had not met with at home, and he painted things as he saw them, honestly and without beatification.</p> -<p>To find material Brkel did not need to go far. Picture to yourself a +<p>To find material Bürkel did not need to go far. Picture to yourself a man wandering along the banks of the Isar, and gazing about him with a still and thoughtful look. A healthy peasant lass with a basket, or a plough moving slowly in the distance behind a sweating yoke of horses, is quite @@ -6447,7 +6406,7 @@ and snowy mountain peak.</p> <p>Such pictures of snow-clad landscape were a specialty of -Brkel’s art, and in their simplicity +Bürkel’s art, and in their simplicity and harmony are to be ranked with the best that he has done. Heavily freighted wood-carts @@ -6491,19 +6450,19 @@ the peculiar motives of the <i>genre</i> painter, that are wanting. And in itself this is an indication of what gives -Brkel his peculiar position.</p> +Bürkel his peculiar position.</p> <p>By their conception his works are out of keeping with everything which the contemporary generation of “great painters” and the younger <i>genre</i> painters were attempting. The great painters had their home in museums; -Brkel lived in the world of nature. The <i>genre</i> painters, under the influence +Bürkel lived in the world of nature. The <i>genre</i> painters, under the influence of Wilkie, were fond of giving their motive a touch of narrative interest, like the English. Cheerful or mournful news, country funerals, baptisms, and public dinners offered an excuse for representing the same sentiment in varying keys. Their starting-point was that of an illustrator; it might be very pretty -in itself, but it was too jovial or whimpering for a picture. Brkel’s works +in itself, but it was too jovial or whimpering for a picture. Bürkel’s works have no literary background; they are not composed of stories with a humorous or sentimental tinge, but depict with an intimate grasp of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span> @@ -6538,7 +6497,7 @@ grasped and understood at a glance.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">SPITZWEG.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">A MORNING CONCERT.</td></tr></table> -<p>But, after all, Brkel occupies a position which is curiously intermediate. +<p>But, after all, Bürkel occupies a position which is curiously intermediate. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span> His colour relegates him altogether to the beginning of the century. He was himself conscious of the weakness of his age in this respect, and stands @@ -6559,15 +6518,15 @@ what is given in nature.</p> <p>The hands of his peasants are the real hands of toil—weather-stained, heavy, and awkward. There are no movements that are not simple and -actual. Others have told droller stories; Brkel unrolls a true picture of the +actual. Others have told droller stories; Bürkel unrolls a true picture of the surroundings of the peasant’s life. Others have made their rustics persons -suitable for the drawing-room, and cleaned their nails; Brkel preaches the +suitable for the drawing-room, and cleaned their nails; Bürkel preaches the strict, austere, and pious study of nature. An entirely new age casts its shadow upon this close devotion to life. In their intimacy and simplicity his pictures contain the germ of what afterwards became the task of the moderns. All who came after him in Germany were the sons of Wilkie until Wilhelm Leibl, furnished with a better technical equipment, started in spirit -from the point at which Brkel had left off.</p> +from the point at which Bürkel had left off.</p> <p><i>Carl Spitzweg</i>, in whose charming little pictures tender and discreet sentiment is united with realistic care for detail, must likewise be reckoned with @@ -6766,10 +6725,10 @@ few German productions of their time which it is a delight to possess, and they have the savour of rare delicacies when one comes across them in the dismal wilderness of public galleries.</p> -<p>Brkel’s realistic programme was taken up with even greater energy by +<p>Bürkel’s realistic programme was taken up with even greater energy by <i>Hermann Kauffmann</i>, who belonged to the Munich circle from 1827 to 1833, and then painted until his death in 1888 in his native Hamburg. His province -was for the most part that of Brkel: peasants in the field, waggoners on the +was for the most part that of Bürkel: peasants in the field, waggoners on the road, woodmen at their labour, and hunters in the snowy forest. For the first few years after his return home he used for his pictures the well-remembered motives taken from the South German mountain district. A @@ -6796,7 +6755,7 @@ having introduced the painting of peasants and children into German art. But in artistic power he is not to be compared with -Brkel or Kauffmann. They were +Bürkel or Kauffmann. They were energetic realists, teeming with health, and in everything they drew they were merely inspired by @@ -6827,7 +6786,7 @@ of the old free imperial city, amid trumpery shops, general dealers, and artisan Later, when he settled down in Berlin, he painted the things which had delighted him in his youth. The travels which he made for study were not extensive: they hardly led him farther beyond the boundaries of the Mark -than Hesse, the Harz district, Thringen, Altenburg, and Westphalia. Here +than Hesse, the Harz district, Thüringen, Altenburg, and Westphalia. Here he drew with indefatigable diligence the pleasant village houses and the churches shadowed by trees; the cots, yards, and alleys; the weather-beaten town ramparts, with their crumbling walls; the unobtrusive landscapes of @@ -6906,7 +6865,7 @@ and its poetry. A generation later Immermann created this department of literature in Germany by the Oberhof-Episode -of his <i>Mnchhausen</i>. +of his <i>Münchhausen</i>. “The Village Magistrate” was soon one of those typical figures which in literature became @@ -6963,12 +6922,12 @@ maiden—who have just received official consent to their marriage. Disastr country excursions—townspeople overtaken by rain on their arrival in the mountains—were also a source of highly comical situations.</p> -<p>In Dsseldorf the reaction against the prevailing sentimentality necessarily +<p>In Düsseldorf the reaction against the prevailing sentimentality necessarily gave an impulse to art on these humorous lines. When it seemed as if the mournfulness of the thirties would never be ended, <i>Adolf Schroedter</i>, the satirist of the -band of Dsseldorf artists in +band of Düsseldorf artists in those times, broke the spell when he began to parody the works of the “great painters.” @@ -7030,7 +6989,7 @@ won such popularity with his “Shepherd Struck by Lightning” that for long time the interest of the public was often concentrated on this picture in the collection of the Staedel Institute. <i>Rudolf Jordan</i> of Berlin settled on Heligoland, and became by his “Proposal of Marriage in Heligoland” one -of the most esteemed painters of Dsseldorf. And in 1852 <i>Henry Ritter</i>, his +of the most esteemed painters of Düsseldorf. And in 1852 <i>Henry Ritter</i>, his pupil, who died young, enjoyed a like success with his “Middy’s Sermon,” which represents a tiny midshipman with comical zeal endeavouring to convert to temperance three tars who are staggering against him. A Norwegian, @@ -7059,7 +7018,7 @@ when nature had donned her bridal garb, and naturally took away with him the mere impressions of a tourist. As he only went to Norway for recreation, it is always holiday-tide and Sabbath peace in his pictures. He represents the same idyllic optimism and the same kindly view of “the people” as did -Bjrnson in his earliest works; and it is significant that the latter felt himself +Björnson in his earliest works; and it is significant that the latter felt himself at the time so entirely in sympathy with Tidemand that he wrote one of his tales, <i>The Bridal March</i>, as text to Tidemand’s picture “Adorning the Bride.”</p> @@ -7069,14 +7028,14 @@ go with him into the struggle for existence, was what did not lie in Tidemand&rs method of presentation; he did not live amongst the people sufficiently long to penetrate to their depths. The sketches that resulted from his summer journeys often reveal a keen eye for the picturesque, as well as for the spiritual -life of this peasantry; but later in Dsseldorf, when he composed his studies +life of this peasantry; but later in Düsseldorf, when he composed his studies for pictures with the help of German models, all the sharp characterisation was watered down. What ought to have been said in Norwegian was expressed -in a German translation, where the emphasis was lost. His art is Dsseldorf +in a German translation, where the emphasis was lost. His art is Düsseldorf art with Norwegian landscapes and costumes; a course of lectures on the manners and customs of Norwegian villages composed for Germans. The only thing which distinguishes Tidemand to his advantage from the German -Dsseldorfers is that he is less humorously and sentimentally disposed. +Düsseldorfers is that he is less humorously and sentimentally disposed. Pictures of his, such as “The Lonely Old People,” “The Catechism,” “The Wounded Bear Hunter,” “The Grandfather’s Blessing,” “The Sectarians,” etc., create a really pleasant and healthy effect by a certain actual simplicity @@ -7090,9 +7049,9 @@ life, nor in those who have come to see him off.</p> <p>In Vienna the <i>genre</i> painters seem to owe their inspiration especially to the theatre. What was produced there in the province of grand art during the first half of the century was neither better nor worse than elsewhere. The -Classicism of Mengs and David was represented by <i>Heinrich Fger</i>, who had +Classicism of Mengs and David was represented by <i>Heinrich Füger</i>, who had a more decided leaning towards the operatic. The representative-in-chief -of Nazarenism was <i>Josef Fhrich</i>, whose frescoes in the Altlerchenfeld Church +of Nazarenism was <i>Josef Führich</i>, whose frescoes in the Altlerchenfeld Church are, perhaps, better in point of colour than the corresponding efforts of the Munich artists, though they are likewise in a formal way derivative from the Italians. Vienna had its Wilhelm Kaulbach in <i>Carl Rahl</i>, its Piloty in @@ -7100,7 +7059,7 @@ the Italians. Vienna had its Wilhelm Kaulbach in <i>Carl Rahl</i>, its Piloty i Columbus, and was meritorious as a teacher. It was only through portrait <span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span> painting that Classicism and Romanticism were brought into some sort of -relation with life; and the Vienna portraitists of this older rgime are even +relation with life; and the Vienna portraitists of this older régime are even better than their German contemporaries, as they made fewer concessions to the ruling idealism. Amongst the portrait painters was <i>Lampi</i>, after whom followed <i>Moritz Daffinger</i> with his delicate miniatures; but the most important @@ -7151,7 +7110,7 @@ with the academical and historic art.</p> songs of the Viennese. Castelli gave a poetic representation of <i>bourgeois</i> life, and Ferdinand Raimund brought it upon the stage in his dramas. Bauernfeld’s types from the life of the people enjoyed a rapid popularity. Josef -Danhauser, Peter Fendi, and Ferdinand Waldmller went on parallel lines +Danhauser, Peter Fendi, and Ferdinand Waldmüller went on parallel lines with these authors. In their <i>genre</i> pictures they represented the Austrian people in their joys and sorrows, in their merriment and heartiness and good-humour; the people, be it understood, of Raimund’s popular farces, not those @@ -7173,7 +7132,7 @@ of the havoc caused by a butcher’s dog storming into a studio. In his last period he turned with Collins to the nursery, or wandered through <span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span> the suburbs with a sketch-book, immortalising the doings of children in the -streets, and drawing “character heads” of the school-teacher tavern <i>habitus</i> +streets, and drawing “character heads” of the school-teacher tavern <i>habitués</i> and the lottery adventurer.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -7181,13 +7140,13 @@ and the lottery adventurer.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">TIDEMAND.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">ADORNING THE BRIDE.</td></tr></table> -<p>And this was likewise the province to which <i>Waldmller</i> devoted himself. +<p>And this was likewise the province to which <i>Waldmüller</i> devoted himself. Chubby peasant children are the heroes of almost all his pictures. A baby is sprawling with joy on its mother’s lap, while it is contemplated with proud satisfaction by its father, or it is sleeping under the guardianship of a little sister; a boy is despatched upon the rough path which leads to school, and brings the reward of his conduct home with rapturous or dejected mien, or -he stammers “Many happy returns of the day” to grandpapa. Waldmller +he stammers “Many happy returns of the day” to grandpapa. Waldmüller paints “The First Step,” the joys of “Christmas Presents,” and “The Distribution of Prizes to Poor School Children”; he follows eager juveniles to the peep-show; he is to be met at “The Departure of the Bride” and at @@ -7207,7 +7166,7 @@ the painters of that time.</p> <p><i>Friedrich Gauermann</i> wandered in the Austrian Alps, in Steiermark, and Salzkammergut, making studies of nature, the inhabitants, and the animal -world. In contradistinction from Waldmller, painter of idylls, and the +world. In contradistinction from Waldmüller, painter of idylls, and the humorist Danhauser, he aimed above all at ethnographical exactness. With sincere and unadorned observation Gauermann represents the local peculiarities of the peasantry, differentiated according to their peculiar @@ -7247,7 +7206,7 @@ gaudy reds and greens were especially popular.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 500px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:448px; height:545px" src="images/img207.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx">WALDMLLER.   THE FIRST STEP.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx">WALDMÜLLER.   THE FIRST STEP.</td></tr></table> <p>The first who began a modest career on these lines was <i>Ignatius van Regemorter</i>. As one recognises the pictures of Wouwerman by the dappled-grey @@ -7298,7 +7257,7 @@ position similar to that of the first lithographs of Menzel in Germany. But Madou lingered for a still briefer period in the Pantheon of history; the tavern had for him a yet greater attraction. The humorous books which he published in Paris and Brussels first showed him in his true light. Having busied himself -for several years exclusively with drawings, he made his <i>dbut</i> in 1842 +for several years exclusively with drawings, he made his <i>début</i> in 1842 as a painter. It is difficult to decide how much Madou produced after that date. The long period between 1842 and 1877 yields a crowded chronicle of his works. Even in the seventies he was just as vigorous as at the beginning, @@ -7361,7 +7320,7 @@ beneath the porch, skating, scenes in cobblers’ workshops, a gust of wind blowing an umbrella inside out; and if he embellishes them with little episodic details, this tendency is so innocent that nobody can quarrel with him.</p> -<p>In France it was <i>Franois Biard</i>, the Paul de Kock of French painting, +<p>In France it was <i>François Biard</i>, the Paul de Kock of French painting, who attained most success in the thirties by humorous anecdote. He devoted his whole life to the comical representation of the minor trespasses and misfortunes of the commonplace <i>bourgeoisie</i>. He had the secret of displaying @@ -7395,14 +7354,14 @@ earnest course by the tumult of ideas on social politics.</p> <p class="center chap2">THE PICTURE WITH A SOCIAL PURPOSE</p> <p class="noind pt1"><span class="chap1 sc">That</span> modern life first entered art, in all countries, under the form of -humorous anecdote is partly the consequence of the one-sided sthetic +humorous anecdote is partly the consequence of the one-sided æsthetic ideas of the period. In an age that was dominated by idealism it was forgotten that Murillo had painted lame beggars sitting in the sun, Velasquez cripples and drunkards, and Holbein lepers; that Rembrandt had so much love for humble folk, and that old Breughel with a strangely sombre pessimism turned the whole world into a terrible hospital. The modern man was hideous, and art demanded “absolute beauty.” If he was to be introduced into -painting, despite his want of <i>beaut suprme</i>, the only way was to treat him as +painting, despite his want of <i>beauté suprême</i>, the only way was to treat him as a humorous figure which had to be handled ironically. Mercantile considerations were also a power in determining this form of humour. At a time when painting was forced to address itself to a public which was uneducated in @@ -7412,14 +7371,14 @@ at all hazards, by drollness of mien, typical stupidity, and absurdity of situation. The choice of figures was practically made according as they were more or less serviceable for a humorous purpose. Children, rustics, and provincial Philistines seemed to be most adapted to it. The painter treated -them as strange and nave beings, and brought them before the public as a +them as strange and naïve beings, and brought them before the public as a sort of performing dogs, who could go through remarkable tricks just as if they were human beings. And the public laughed over whimsical oddities from another world, as the courtiers of Louis <span class="sc">XIV</span> had laughed in Versailles when M. Jourdain and M. Dimanche were acted by the king’s servants upon -the stage of Molire.</p> +the stage of Molière.</p> -<p>Meanwhile painters gradually came to remark that this humour <i> l’huile</i> +<p>Meanwhile painters gradually came to remark that this humour <i>à l’huile</i> was bought at too dear a price. For humour, which is like a soap-bubble, can only bear a light method of representation, such as Hokusai’s drawing or Brouwer’s painting, but becomes insupportable where it is offered as a @@ -7498,7 +7457,7 @@ battle of 1848. With the <i>roi bourgeois</i>, whom Lafayette called “the republicans,” the Third Estate came into possession of the position to which it had long aspired; it rose from the ranks of the oppressed to that of the privileged classes. As a new ruling class it made such abundant capital -with the fruits of the Revolution of July that even in 1830 Brne wrote from +with the fruits of the Revolution of July that even in 1830 Börne wrote from Paris: “The men who fought against all aristocracy for fifteen years have scarcely conquered—they have not yet wiped the sweat from their faces—and already they want to found for themselves a new aristocracy, an aristocracy @@ -7512,13 +7471,13 @@ which, more ungraciously than the old, has its primary cause in money-making.&rd <p>There the radical ideas of modern socialism were touched. The proletariat and its misery became henceforward the subject of French poetry, though they were not observed with any naturalistic love of truth, but from the romantic -standpoint of contrast. Branger, the popular singer of <i>chansons</i>, composed +standpoint of contrast. Béranger, the popular singer of <i>chansons</i>, composed his <i>Vieux Vagabond</i>, the song of the old beggar who dies in the gutter; Auguste Barbier wrote his Ode to Freedom, where <i>la sainte canaille</i> are celebrated as immortal heroes, and with the scorn of Juvenal “lashes those who drew profit from the Revolution, those <i>bourgeois</i> in kid gloves who watched the -sanguinary street fights comfortably from the window.” In 1842-43 Eugne -Sue published his <i>Mystres de Paris</i>, a forbidding and nonsensical book, but +sanguinary street fights comfortably from the window.” In 1842-43 Eugène +Sue published his <i>Mystères de Paris</i>, a forbidding and nonsensical book, but one which made an extraordinary sensation, just because of the disgusting openness with which it unveiled the life of the lower strata of the people. Even the great spirits of the Romantic school began to follow the social and @@ -7536,7 +7495,7 @@ the boldest feminine genius in the literature of the world, mastered these seething ideas and founded the artisan novel in her <i>Compagnon du Tour de France</i>. It is the first book with a real love of the people—the people as they actually are, those who drink and commit deeds of violence as well as -those who work and make mental progress. In her periodical, <i>L’claireur +those who work and make mental progress. In her periodical, <i>L’Éclaireur de l’Indre</i>, she pleads the cause both of the artisan in great towns and of the rustic labourer; in 1844 she declared herself as a Socialist, without qualification, in her great essay <i>Politics and Socialism</i>, and she brought out her @@ -7587,7 +7546,7 @@ none but cheerful pictures of life around them.</p> dress, with their faces beaming with joy, an embodiment of the blessing of work and the delights of country life. Even beggars were harmless, peacefully cheerful figures, sparkling with health and beauty, and enveloped in -sthetic rags. But as political, religious, and social movements have always +æsthetic rags. But as political, religious, and social movements have always had a vivid and forcible effect on artists, painters in the nineteenth century could not in the long run hold themselves aloof from this influence. The voice of the disinherited made itself heard sullenly muttering and with ever-increasing @@ -7623,21 +7582,21 @@ that hastens by, exulting to die the death for the great ideas of liberty and equality.</p> <p>The painter himself had an entirely unpolitical mind. He had drawn -his inspiration for the picture, not from experience, but out of <i>La Cure</i>, those +his inspiration for the picture, not from experience, but out of <i>La Curée</i>, those verses of Auguste Barbier that are ablaze with wrath—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“C’est que la Libert n’est pas une comtesse</p> +<p>“C’est que la Liberté n’est pas une comtesse</p> <p class="i2">Du noble faubourg Saint-Germain,</p> <p class="i05">Une femme qu’un cri fait tomber en faiblesse,</p> <p class="i2">Qui met du blanc et du carmin;</p> <p class="i05">C’est un forte femme aux puissantes mamelles,</p> - <p class="i2"> la voix rauque, aux durs appas,</p> + <p class="i2">À la voix rauque, aux durs appas,</p> <p class="i05">Qui, du brun sur la peau, du feu dans les prunelles,</p> - <p class="i2">Agile et marchant grands pas,</p> -<p class="i05">Se plait aux cris du peuple, aux sanglantes mles,</p> + <p class="i2">Agile et marchant à grands pas,</p> +<p class="i05">Se plait aux cris du peuple, aux sanglantes mêlées,</p> <p class="i2">Aux longs roulements des tambours,</p> -<p class="i05"> l’odeur de la poudre, aux lointaines voles</p> +<p class="i05">À l’odeur de la poudre, aux lointaines volées</p> <p class="i2">Des cloches et des canons sourds.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> @@ -7689,7 +7648,7 @@ a socialistic influence. One sees it in his blacksmiths and peasants, and in that picture “The Worker’s Rest” -which in 1847 induced Thor’s +which in 1847 induced Thoré’s utterance: “It is a melancholy and barren landscape from the neighbourhood of Paris, a plebeian landscape which hardly seems @@ -7714,7 +7673,7 @@ the Luxembourg to which he was incited by the sad aspect of the streets of Paris during the rising of 1848. The men who, driven by hunger and misery, fought upon the barricades may be found in Leleux’s “Mot d’Ordre.”</p> -<p>After the <i>coup d’tat</i> of 1851 even <i>Meissonier</i>, till then exclusively a painter +<p>After the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851 even <i>Meissonier</i>, till then exclusively a painter of <i>rococo</i> subjects, encroached on this province. In his picture of the barricades (2 December 1851) heaps of corpses are lying stretched out in postures which could not have been merely invented. The execution, too, has a nervous @@ -7750,7 +7709,7 @@ in 1788. His name has been for the most part forgotten; it awakes only a dim recollection in those who see “The Unhappy Family” in the Luxembourg -<i>Muse</i>. But forty years ago he was +<i>Musée</i>. But forty years ago he was amongst the most advanced of his day, and enjoyed the respect of men like Delacroix, Rousseau, Troyon, and Diaz. @@ -7816,7 +7775,7 @@ follower in another Netherlander, <i>Charles de Groux</i>, whose sombre pessimis dominates modern Belgian art.</p> <p>In Germany, where the socialistic writings of the French and English -had a wide circulation, <i>Gisbert Flggen</i>, in Munich known as the German +had a wide circulation, <i>Gisbert Flüggen</i>, in Munich known as the German <span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span> Wilkie, was perhaps the first who as early as the forties went somewhat @@ -7826,7 +7785,7 @@ entered into a certain relation with the social ideas of his age in such pictures as “The Interrupted Marriage Contract,” “The -Unlucky Gamester,” “The <i>Msalliance</i>,” +Unlucky Gamester,” “The <i>Mésalliance</i>,” “Decision of the Suit,” “The Disappointed Legacy Hunter,” “The Execution for @@ -7849,7 +7808,7 @@ to transports of rage.</p> <p>Yet more clearly, although similarly transposed into a sentimental key, is the mood of the time just previous to 1848, reflected in the works of <i>Carl -Hbner</i> of Dsseldorf. Ernest Wilkomm in the beginning of the forties had +Hübner</i> of Düsseldorf. Ernest Wilkomm in the beginning of the forties had represented in his sensational <i>genre</i> pictures, particularly in the “White Slaves,” the contrast between afflicted serfs and cruel landlords, between rich manufacturers and famishing artisans; Robert Prutz had written his @@ -7858,11 +7817,11 @@ by the modern industrial system. Soon afterwards the famine among the Silesian weavers, the intelligence of which in 1844 flew through all Germany, set numbers of people reflecting on the social question. Freiligrath made it the subject of his verses, <i>Aus dem Schlesischen Gebirge</i>, the song of the poor -weaver’s child who calls on Rbezahl—one of his most popular poems. And +weaver’s child who calls on Rübezahl—one of his most popular poems. And yet more decisively does the social and revolutionary temper of the age find an echo in Heine’s <i>Webern</i>, composed in 1844. Even Geibel was impelled to his poem <i>Mene Tekel</i> by the spread of the news, though it stands in curious -opposition to his manner of writing elsewhere. Carl Hbner therefore was +opposition to his manner of writing elsewhere. Carl Hübner therefore was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span> acting very seasonably when he likewise treated the distress of the Silesian weavers in his first picture of 1845.</p> @@ -7871,9 +7830,9 @@ weavers in his first picture of 1845.</p> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:446px; height:583px" src="images/img221.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="captionx">TASSAERT.   THE SUICIDE.</td></tr></table> -<p>Hbner knew the life of the poor and the heavy-laden; his feelings were +<p>Hübner knew the life of the poor and the heavy-laden; his feelings were with them, and he expressed what he felt. This gives him a position above -and apart from the rest in the insipidly smiling school of Dsseldorf, and sets +and apart from the rest in the insipidly smiling school of Düsseldorf, and sets his name at the beginning of a new chapter in the history of German <i>genre</i> painting. His next picture, “The Game Laws,” sprang from an occasion which was quite as historical: a gamekeeper had shot a poacher. In 1846 @@ -7900,7 +7859,7 @@ own is languishing in a dark and cold room without food or warm clothing.</p> -<p>In Belgium <i>Eugne de +<p>In Belgium <i>Eugène de Block</i> first took up these lines. The artistic development of his character is particularly @@ -7933,7 +7892,7 @@ days was filling Brussels with his fame.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:734px; height:578px" src="images/img222.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Hanfstaengl.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">FLGGEN.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">FLÜGGEN.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE DECISION OF THE SUIT.</td></tr></table> <p>It was in 1835 that a young man wrote to one of his relatives from Italy @@ -7944,7 +7903,7 @@ Angelo.”</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:624px; height:830px" src="images/img223.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">HBNER.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">HÜBNER.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">JULY.</td></tr></table> <p>Having gained the <i>Prix de Rome</i>, he was enabled to make a sojourn in the @@ -7961,8 +7920,8 @@ had said when he beheld it: “This young man is a giant.” And the you man was himself of that opinion. With the gait of a conqueror he entered Paris, in the belief that artists would line the streets to receive him. But when the portals of the <i>Salon</i> of 1839 were opened he did not see his picture -there. It was skied over a door, and no one noticed it. Thophile Gautier, -Gustave Planch, and Brger-Thor wrote their articles without even mentioning +there. It was skied over a door, and no one noticed it. Théophile Gautier, +Gustave Planché, and Bürger-Thoré wrote their articles without even mentioning it with one word of praise or blame.</p> <p>For one moment he thought of exhibiting it out of doors in front of the @@ -8035,7 +7994,7 @@ existence till his death in 1865, and painted hasty and careless portraits, <i>p <i>la soupe</i>, when he was in pressing need of money. These brought him at first from three to four hundred, and later a thousand francs. He indulged in colossal sketches, for the completion of which the State built him in 1850 -a tremendous studio, the present <i>Muse Wiertz</i>. It stands a few hundred +a tremendous studio, the present <i>Musée Wiertz</i>. It stands a few hundred paces from the Luxembourg station, to the extreme north of the town, in a beautiful though rather neglected little park, a white building with a pillared portico and a broad perron leading up to it. Here he sat in a fantastically @@ -8049,7 +8008,7 @@ and earth are in commotion. Giants hurl rocks at one another, and try, like Jupiter, to shake the earth with their frown. All of them delight in force, and bring their muscles into play like athletes. But the painter himself is no athlete, no giant as Thorwaldsen called him, and no genius as he fancied -himself to be. <i>Le singe des gnies</i>, he conceived the notion of “great art” +himself to be. <i>Le singe des génies</i>, he conceived the notion of “great art” purely in its relation to space, and believed himself greater than the greatest because his canvases were of greater dimensions. When the ministry thought of making him Director of the Antwerp Academy, after the departure of @@ -8116,7 +8075,7 @@ with satanic eyes upon the thousands whose happiness he has destroyed.</p> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE FIGHT ROUND THE BODY OF PATROCLUS.</td></tr></table> <p>In his “Thoughts and Visions of a Decapitated Head”, Wiertz, moved -by Victor Hugo’s <i>Le dernier jour d’un condamn</i>, makes capital punishment +by Victor Hugo’s <i>Le dernier jour d’un condamné</i>, makes capital punishment a subject of more lengthy disquisition. The picture, which is made up of three parts, is supposed to represent the feelings of a man, who has been guillotined, during the first three minutes after execution. The border of @@ -8130,7 +8089,7 @@ living beings.... When that abominable instrument the guillotine is one day actually abolished, may God be praised,” and so on.</p> <p>Beside this painted plea against capital punishment hangs “The Burnt -Child,” as an argument in favour of <i>crches</i>. A poor working woman has for +Child,” as an argument in favour of <i>crêches</i>. A poor working woman has for one moment left her garret. Meanwhile a fire has broken out, and she returns to find the charred body of her boy. In the picture “Hunger, Madness, and Crime” he treats of human misery in general, and touches on the question of @@ -8200,10 +8159,10 @@ of greater refinement were united with a treatment of colour which was less offensive.</p> <p>The childlike innocence which had given pleasure in Meyerheim and -Waldmller was now thought to be too childlike by far. The merriment +Waldmüller was now thought to be too childlike by far. The merriment which radiated from the pictures of Schroedter or Enhuber found no echo amidst a generation which was tired of such cheap humour: the works of -Carl Hbner were put aside as lachrymose and sentimental efforts. When +Carl Hübner were put aside as lachrymose and sentimental efforts. When the world had issued from the period of Romanticism there was no temptation to be funny over modern life nor to make socialistic propaganda; for after the Revolution of 1848 people had become reconciled to the changed order @@ -8298,7 +8257,7 @@ comicality, they are all treated with the same palpable carefulness, the same <span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span> pointed and impertinently satirical sharpness. Even in “The Funeral” he is not deserted by the humorous proclivity of the anecdotist, and the -schoolmaster has to brandish the bton with which he is conducting the choir +schoolmaster has to brandish the bâton with which he is conducting the choir of boys and girls as comically as possible. Knaus uses too many italics, and underlines as if he expected his public to be very dull of understanding. In this way he appeals to simple-minded people, and irritates those of more @@ -8353,7 +8312,7 @@ French reached its highest point in Knaus. Even in his youth the great Netherlandish painters, Ostade, Brouwer, and Teniers, must have had more effect upon him than his teachers, Sohn and Schadow, since his very first pictures, “The Peasants’ Dance” of 1850 and “The Card Sharpers” of -1850, had little in common with the Dsseldorf school, and therefore so much +1850, had little in common with the Düsseldorf school, and therefore so much the more with the Netherlandish <i>chiaroscuro</i>. “The Card Sharpers” is precisely like an Ostade modernised. By his migration to Paris in 1852 he sought to acquire the utmost perfection of finish; and when he returned @@ -8362,7 +8321,7 @@ effect and fine harmony of tone, such a knowledge of colour, and such a discipli and refined taste, that his works indicate an immeasurable advance on the motley harshness of his predecessors. His “Golden Wedding” of 1858—perhaps his finest picture—had nothing of the antiquated technique -of the older type of Dsseldorf pictures of peasant life; technically it stood on +of the older type of Düsseldorf pictures of peasant life; technically it stood on a level with the works of the French.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span></p> @@ -8415,19 +8374,19 @@ and heartlessly frigid observation. Vautier gives pleasure by characterisation, more delicately reserved in its adjustment of means, and profound as it is simple, by his wealth of individual motives and their charm, and by the sensitiveness with which he renders the feelings and relationship of his figures. -A nave, good-humoured, and amiable temperament is betrayed in his works. +A naïve, good-humoured, and amiable temperament is betrayed in his works. He is genially idyllic where Knaus creates a pungently satirical effect, and a glance at the portraits of the two men explains this difference.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 490px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:440px; height:570px" src="images/img238.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Kunst fr Alle.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Kunst für Alle.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">BENJAMIN VAUTIER.</td></tr></table> <p>Knaus with his puckered forehead, and his searching look shooting from under heavy brows, is like a judge or a public prosecutor. Vautier, with his thoughtful blue eyes, resembles a prosperous banker with a turn for idealism, -or a writer of village tales <i> la</i> Berthold Auerbach. Knaus worried himself +or a writer of village tales <i>à la</i> Berthold Auerbach. Knaus worried himself over many things, brooded much and made many experiments; Vautier was content with the acquisition of a plain and simple method of painting, which appeared to him a perfectly sufficient medium for the expression of that which @@ -8500,7 +8459,7 @@ has it even in the loving familiarity with which he penetrates minute detail. In their religious pictures the old German and Netherlandish masters painted everything, down to the lilies worked on the Virgin’s loom, or the dust lying on the old service-book; and this thoroughly German delight in still life, this -complacent rendering of minuti, is found again in Vautier.</p> +complacent rendering of minutiæ, is found again in Vautier.</p> <p>Men and their dwellings, animated nature and atmosphere, combine to make a pleasant world in his pictures. Vautier was one of the first to discover @@ -8813,7 +8772,7 @@ over cards.</p> <p>Another North German, <i>Wilhelm Riefstahl</i>, showed how the peasants in Appenzell or Bregenz conduct themselves at mournful gatherings, at their devotions in the open air, and at All Souls’ Day Celebrations, and afterwards -extended his artistic dominion over Rgen, Westphalia, and the Rhine country +extended his artistic dominion over Rügen, Westphalia, and the Rhine country with true Mecklenburg thoroughness. He was a careful, conscientious worker, with a discontent at his own efforts in his composition, a certain ponderousness in his attempts at <i>genre</i>; but his diligently executed pictures—full of @@ -8821,7 +8780,7 @@ colour and painted in a peculiarly German manner—are highly prized in public galleries on account of their instructive soundness.</p> <p>After the various classes of the German peasantry had been naturalised -in the picture market by these narrative painters, <i>Eduard Grtzner</i>, when +in the picture market by these narrative painters, <i>Eduard Grützner</i>, when religious controversy raged in the seventies, turned aside to discover drolleries in monastic life. This he did with the assistance of brown and yellowish white cowls, and the obese and copper-nosed models thereto pertaining. He @@ -8830,17 +8789,17 @@ his verdict with anxiety; how the entire monastery is employed at the vintage, at the broaching of a wine cask or the brewing of the beer; how they tipple; how bored they are over their chess or their dice, their cards or their dominoes; how they whitewash old frescoes or search after forbidden books in the monastery -library. This, according to Grtzner, is the routine in which the life of +library. This, according to Grützner, is the routine in which the life of monks revolves. At times amidst these figures appear foresters who tell of their adventures in the chase, or deliver hares at the cloister kitchen. And -the more Grtzner was forced year after year to make up for his decline as a +the more Grützner was forced year after year to make up for his decline as a colourist, by cramming his pictures with so-called humour, the greater was his success.</p> <p>It was only long afterwards that <i>genre</i> painting in broad-cloth came into vogue by the side of this <i>genre</i> in peasant blouse and monastic cowl, and stories of the exchange and the manufactory by the side of village and monastic -tales. Here Dsseldorf plays a part once more in the development of art. +tales. Here Düsseldorf plays a part once more in the development of art. The neighbourhood of the great manufacturing towns on the Rhine could not but lead painters to these subjects. <i>Ludwig Bokelmann</i>, who began by painting tragical domestic scenes—card players, and smoking shop-boys, in @@ -8864,10 +8823,10 @@ the emigrants’ farewell, the gaming-table at Monte Carlo, and a village fi were other newspaper episodes from the life of great towns which he rendered in paint.</p> -<p>His earlier associate in Dsseldorf, <i>Ferdinand Brtt</i>, after first painting +<p>His earlier associate in Düsseldorf, <i>Ferdinand Brütt</i>, after first painting <i>rococo</i> pictures, owed his finest successes to the Stock Exchange. It, too, had its types: the great patrician merchants and bankers of solid reputation, -the jobbers, break-neck speculators, and decayed old stagers; and, as Brtt +the jobbers, break-neck speculators, and decayed old stagers; and, as Brütt rendered these current figures in a very intelligible manner, his pictures excited a great deal of attention. Acquittals and condemnations, acts of mortgage, emigration agents, comic electors, and prison visits, as further episodes @@ -8904,7 +8863,7 @@ the Vosges, and there gave intelligence of a little world whose life flowed by, without toil, in gentle, patriarchal quietude, interrupted only by marriage feasts, birthdays, and funeral solemnities. He appears to have been rather fond of melancholy and solemn subjects. His interiors, with their sturdy -and honest people, bulky old furniture, and large green faence stoves, which +and honest people, bulky old furniture, and large green faïence stoves, which are so dear to him, are delightful in their familiar homeliness and their cordial Alsatian and German character, and recall Vautier; in fact, he might well be termed the French Vautier. He lives in them himself—the quiet old man, @@ -8923,13 +8882,13 @@ masters before hiring themselves out.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 490px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:443px; height:542px" src="images/img255.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx">GRTZNER.   TWELFTH NIGHT.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx">GRÜTZNER.   TWELFTH NIGHT.</td></tr></table> <p>The most famous of this group of artists is <i>Jules Breton</i>, who after various humorous and sentimental pieces placed himself in 1853 in the front rank of the French painters of rustics by his “Return of -the Reapers” (Muse Luxembourg). +the Reapers” (Musée Luxembourg). His “Gleaners” in 1855, “Blessing the Fields” in 1857, and “The @@ -8968,11 +8927,11 @@ which are always elegant and always correct, but it is a little like flat lemona it is monotonous and only too carefully composed, destitute of all masculinity and seldom avoiding the reef of affectation.</p> -<p>Norway and Sweden were fructified from Dsseldorf immediately. When +<p>Norway and Sweden were fructified from Düsseldorf immediately. When Tidemand had shown the way, the academy on the Rhine was the high school for all the sons of the North during the fifties. They set to translating Knaus and Vautier into Swedish and Norwegian, and caught the tone of their originals -so exactly that they almost seem more Dsseldorfian than the Dsseldorfers +so exactly that they almost seem more Düsseldorfian than the Düsseldorfers themselves.</p> <p><i>Karl D’Uncker</i>, who arrived in 1851 and died in 1866, was led by the @@ -9024,7 +8983,7 @@ dances, auctions on old estates, weddings, and the guard turning out, are his favourite scenes. Even when -he came to Dsseldorf he was +he came to Düsseldorf he was preceded by his fame as a jolly fellow and a clever draughtsman, and when he @@ -9054,7 +9013,7 @@ picture from peasant life in the age of pig-tails. The object of <i>August Jernb study was the Westphalian peasant with his slouching hat, long white coat, flowered waistcoat, and large silver buttons. He was specially fond of painting dancing bears surrounded by a crowd of amused spectators, or annual fairs, -for which a picturesque part of old Dsseldorf served as a background. +for which a picturesque part of old Düsseldorf served as a background. <i>Ferdinand Fagerlin</i> has something attractive in his simplicity and good-humour. If he laughs, as he delights in doing, his laughter is cordial and kind-hearted, and if he touches an elegiac chord he can guard against sentimentalism. @@ -9074,7 +9033,7 @@ who with the aid of appropriate accessories adapted the interiors of cloisters and churches to <i>genre</i> pictures, such as “Tithe Day in the Cloister,” “The Cloister Library,” and “The Visit of a Cardinal to the Cloister,” and so forth. <i>Hans Dahl</i>, a <i>juste-milieu</i> between Tidemand and Emanuel Spitzer, carried -the Dsseldorf village idyll down to the present time. “Knitting the Stocking” +the Düsseldorf village idyll down to the present time. “Knitting the Stocking” (girls knitting on the edge of a lake), “Feminine Attraction” (a lad with three peasant maidens who are dragging a boat to shore in spite of his resistance), “A Child of Nature” (a little girl engaged to sit as model to a painter amongst @@ -9112,8 +9071,8 @@ elements worked up, as the occasion demanded, either into little tales or great and thrilling romances. And the names of the painters are as thoroughly Magyar as are the figures. Beside <i>Ludwig Ebner</i>, <i>Paul Boehm</i>, and <i>Otto von Baditz</i>, which have a German sound, one comes across such names as <i>Koloman -Dry</i>, <i>Julius Agghzi</i>, <i>Alexander Bihari</i>, <i>Ignaz Ruskovics</i>, <i>Johann Jank</i>, -<i>Tihamr Margitay</i>, <i>Paul Vag</i>, <i>Arpad Fessty</i>, <i>Otto Koroknyai</i>, <i>D. Skuteczky</i>, etc.</p> +Déry</i>, <i>Julius Aggházi</i>, <i>Alexander Bihari</i>, <i>Ignaz Ruskovics</i>, <i>Johann Jankó</i>, +<i>Tihamér Margitay</i>, <i>Paul Vagó</i>, <i>Arpad Fessty</i>, <i>Otto Koroknyai</i>, <i>D. Skuteczky</i>, etc.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:743px; height:441px" src="images/img259.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -9165,7 +9124,7 @@ created, comparatively early, a certain ground for the comprehension of art, the <i>genre</i> painters of other countries worked up to and into the sixties without the appropriate social combinations. After 1828 the Art Unions began to usurp the position of that refined society which had formerly played the -Mcenas as the leading dictators of taste.</p> +Mæcenas as the leading dictators of taste.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:736px; height:386px" src="images/img261.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -9467,7 +9426,7 @@ conception of nature.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:455px" src="images/img268.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Grphische Knst.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Gräphische Künst.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">KARL ROTTMANN.</td></tr></table> <p>Otherwise <i>Friedrich Preller</i> is the only one of all the stylists deriving @@ -9475,9 +9434,9 @@ from Koch who rose to works consistent in execution. To him only was it granted to assure his name a lasting importance by exhaustively working out a felicitous subject. The <i>Odyssey</i> landscapes extend through his whole life. During a sojourn in Naples in 1830 he was struck by the first idea. -After his return home he composed for Doctor Hrtel in Leipzig the first +After his return home he composed for Doctor Härtel in Leipzig the first series as wall decoration in tempera in 1832-34. Then there followed his -journeys to Rgen and Norway, where he painted wild strand and fell +journeys to Rügen and Norway, where he painted wild strand and fell landscapes of a sombre austerity. After this interruption, so profitably extending his feeling for nature, he returned to the <i>Odyssey</i>. The series grew from seven to sixteen cartoons, which were to be found in 1858 at @@ -9515,7 +9474,7 @@ value when, as the background of classical works of architecture, it directed one’s thoughts to the antique: shepherds had to sit with their flock around them on the ruins of the temple of Vesta, or cows to find pasture between the truncated pillars of the Roman Forum. But now it could only find its -justification by allying itself with medival German history, by the portrayal +justification by allying itself with mediæval German history, by the portrayal of castles and strongholds.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -9531,7 +9490,7 @@ and earthless ground, sharp-cut hills and mountains which are too high, rude or dilapidated buildings, with their ruins lying strewn in heaps, a sky with heavy clouds, stagnant water, lean cattle in the field, and ungraceful wayfarers.”</p> -<p>In these words Grard de Lairesse, the ancestor of Classicism, defined his +<p>In these words Gérard de Lairesse, the ancestor of Classicism, defined his ideal of landscape, and in the last clause, where he speaks of ugliness, he <span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> prophetically indicated the landscape ideal of the Romanticists, as this is @@ -9552,13 +9511,13 @@ gloom of night and of the mountain glens. Such phenomena are neither to be seen in Berlin nor in Breslau, and to be a Romanticist was to love the opposite of all that one sees around one. Tieck, who lived in the cold daylight of Berlin with its modern North German rationalism, has therefore—and not -by chance—first felt the yearning for moonlight landscapes of primval forest; +by chance—first felt the yearning for moonlight landscapes of primæval forest; <i>Lessing</i>, from Breslau, was the first to give it pictorial expression.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:832px; height:672px" src="images/img271.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">K. ROTTMANN.</td> -<td class="tcr f80 pb2">LAKE KOPAS.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f80 pb2">LAKE KOPAÏS.</td></tr></table> <p>Even in the twenties Koch’s classical heroic landscapes, executed with an ideal sweep of line, were contrasted with castle chapels, ruins, and cloister @@ -9592,7 +9551,7 @@ riding on a weary horse through a lonely mountain district, probably meant as an illustration to Uhland’s ballad <i>Das Rosennest</i>—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Rhe hab ich nie gefunden,</p> +<p>“Rühe hab ich nie gefunden,</p> <p class="i05">Als ein Jahr im finstern Thurm”;</p> </div> </td></tr></table> @@ -9600,26 +9559,26 @@ as an illustration to Uhland’s ballad <i>Das Rosennest</i>—</p> and the landscape with the oak and the shrine of the Virgin, before which a knight and noble lady are making their devotions. As yet all these pictures were an arbitrary <i>potpourri</i> from Walter Scott, Tieck, and Uhland, and their -ideal was the Wolf’s Glen in the <i>Freischtz</i>.</p> +ideal was the Wolf’s Glen in the <i>Freischütz</i>.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:376px; height:409px" src="images/img273.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">FRIEDRICH PRELLER.</td></tr></table> -<p>The next step which Romanticism had to take was to discover such primval +<p>The next step which Romanticism had to take was to discover such primæval woodland scenes in actual nature, and as Italian landscape seems, as it were, to have been made for Claude, nature, as she is in Germany, makes a peculiar appeal to this romantic temperament. In certain parts of Saxon Switzerland the rocks look as if giants of the prime had played ball with them or piled them one on top of the other in sport. Lessing found in 1832 a landscape corresponding to the romantic ideal of nature in the Eifel district, whither -he had been induced to go by a book by Nggerath, <i>Das Gebirge im Rheinland +he had been induced to go by a book by Nöggerath, <i>Das Gebirge im Rheinland und Westfalen nach Mineralogischem und Chemischem Bezuge</i>. Up to that time he had only known the romantic ideal of nature through Scott, Tieck, and Uhland, just as the Classicists had taken their ideal from Homer, Theocritus, and Virgil: in the Eifel district it came before him in tangible form. Flat, swampy tracts of shrub and spruce alternated with dark woods, where gigantic -firs, weird pines, and primval +firs, weird pines, and primæval oaks raised their branches to the sky. At the same time he beheld the rude and lonely sublimity of @@ -9728,7 +9687,7 @@ of her austere dignity.”</p> <p>Lessing’s most celebrated follower, <i>Schirmer</i>, appears in general as a weakened and sentimental Lessing. He -began in 1828 with “A Primval German +began in 1828 with “A Primæval German Forest,” but a journey to Italy caused him in 1840 to turn aside from this more vigorous path. Henceforth his @@ -9737,7 +9696,7 @@ and line, to turning out Southern ideal landscapes with classically romantic accessories. The twenty-six Biblical landscapes drawn in charcoal, belonging -to the Dsseldorf Kunsthalle, the four +to the Düsseldorf Kunsthalle, the four landscapes in oil with the history of the Good Samaritan in the Kunsthalle of Carlsruhe, and the twelve pictures on the @@ -9777,7 +9736,7 @@ nature in their own country, after the aberrations of Classicism and the one-sidedness of the Romanticists. Under Eckersberg the Academy of Copenhagen was the centre of a healthy realism founded on the Dutch, and some of the painters who received their training there and laboured -in later years in Dresden, Dsseldorf, and Munich spread abroad the principles +in later years in Dresden, Düsseldorf, and Munich spread abroad the principles of this school.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -9878,7 +9837,7 @@ history of art, assigned to him.</p> <p>For Munich a similar importance was won by the Hamburg painter <i>Christian Morgenstern</i>, who, like all artists of this group, imitated the Dutch in the tone of his colour, though as a draughtsman he remained a fresh and healthy -son of nature. Even what he accomplished in all navet between 1826 and +son of nature. Even what he accomplished in all naïveté between 1826 and 1829, through direct study of Hamburg landscape, is something unique in the German production of that age. His sketches and etchings of these years assure him a high place amongst the earliest German “mood” painters, and @@ -9895,7 +9854,7 @@ and is able properly to indicate the nature of the tree. He discovered the beauty of the Bavarian plateau for the Munich school.</p> <p>Even the first picture that he brought with him from Hamburg displayed -a wide plain shadowed by clouds—a part of the Lneberg heath—and to +a wide plain shadowed by clouds—a part of the Lüneberg heath—and to this type of subject he remained faithful even in later days. Himself a child of the plains, he sought for kindred motives in Bavaria, and found them in rich store on the shore of the Isar, in the quarries near Polling, at Peissenberg, @@ -9917,7 +9876,7 @@ and snowy Alpine summits, he never succeeded in doing anything eminently good. These pictures have something petty and dismembered, and not the great, simple stroke of his plains and skies.</p> -<p>What Morgenstern was for Munich, <i>Ludwig Gurlitt</i> was for Dsseldorf—the +<p>What Morgenstern was for Munich, <i>Ludwig Gurlitt</i> was for Düsseldorf—the most eminent of the great Northern colony which migrated thither in the thirties. His name is not to be found in manuals, and the pictures of his later period which represent him in public galleries seldom give a full idea of his @@ -9934,8 +9893,8 @@ opened the eyes of a number of younger painters who have since come to fame.</p> instruction in Hamburg, where at that time Bendixen, Vollmer, the Lehmanns, and the Genslers formed an original group of artists. After this, as in the case of Morgenstern also, there followed a longer sojourn in Norway and Copenhagen. -In Dsseldorf, where he then went, a Jutland heath study made -some sensation on his arrival. It was the first landscape seen in Dsseldorf +In Düsseldorf, where he then went, a Jutland heath study made +some sensation on his arrival. It was the first landscape seen in Düsseldorf which had not been composed, and Schadow is said to have come to Gurlitt’s studio, accompanied by his pupils, to behold the marvel. In 1836 he migrated to Munich, where Morgenstern had worked before him, and here @@ -9960,7 +9919,7 @@ at another on the fine grey of Constable.</p> <p>Realism begins in German art with the entry of these Northern painters <span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span> -into Dsseldorf and Munich. They were less affected by sthetic prejudices, +into Düsseldorf and Munich. They were less affected by æsthetic prejudices, and fresher and healthier than the Germans. Gurlitt was specially their intellectual leader, the soul, the driving force of the great movement which now followed. Roused by him, <i>Andreas Achenbach</i> emancipated himself @@ -9981,7 +9940,7 @@ architect than of a poet; and his pictures correspond to his outward appearance. Each one of his earlier good pictures was a battle fought and won. Realism incarnate, a man from whom all visionary enthusiasm lay at a world-wide distance, he conquered nature by masculine firmness and unexampled -perseverance. He appears as a <i>matre-peintre</i>, a man of cool, exact talent +perseverance. He appears as a <i>maître-peintre</i>, a man of cool, exact talent with a clear and sober vision. The chief characteristic of his organism was his eminent capacity for appreciating the artistic methods of other artists, and adapting what was essential in them to his own manner of production. One @@ -10091,7 +10050,7 @@ for the fresh observation of the life of nature was given to German painters.</p <p>Undoubtedly amongst the younger group of artists there was a great difference in regard to choice of subject. The modern rendering of mood has only had its origin in Germany; it could not finally develop itself there. -Just as figure painting, after making so vigorous a beginning with Brkel, +Just as figure painting, after making so vigorous a beginning with Bürkel, turned to <i>genre</i> painting in the hands of Enhuber and Knaus, until it returned to its old course in Leibl, landscape also went through the apprentice period of interesting subject, until it once more recognised the poetry of simpleness. @@ -10102,14 +10061,14 @@ a new age throughout Europe. Up to that time the possibility of travelling had been greatly circumscribed by the difficulties of traffic. But facilitated arrangements of traffic brought with them such a desire for travel as had never been before. In literature the revolution displayed itself by the rise of -books of travels as a new branch of fiction. Hacklnder sent many volumes -of touring sketches into the market. Theodor Mgge made Norway, Sweden, +books of travels as a new branch of fiction. Hackländer sent many volumes +of touring sketches into the market. Theodor Mügge made Norway, Sweden, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> and Denmark the scene of his tales. But America was the land where the Sesame was to be found, for Germany had been set upon the war-trail with Cooper’s Indians, it had Charles Sealsfield to describe the grotesque mountain land of Mexico, the magic of the prairie, and the landscapes of Susquehannah -and the Mississippi, and read Gerstcker’s, Balduin Mllhausen’s, and Otto +and the Mississippi, and read Gerstäcker’s, Balduin Möllhausen’s, and Otto Ruppius’ transatlantic sketches with unwearying excitement. The painters who found their greatest delight in seeing the world with the eyes of a tourist also became cosmopolitan.</p> @@ -10134,7 +10093,7 @@ and in the deep blue mirror of his Alpine lakes, as in the luminous red of his Alpine summits, there is always to be seen the illuminator who has first drawn the contours with a neat pencil and pedantic correctness. His pictures are grandiose scenes of nature felt in a petty way—in science too it is often the -smallest spirit that seeks the greatest heroes. “The Ruins of Pstum,” +smallest spirit that seeks the greatest heroes. “The Ruins of Pæstum,” like “The Thunderstorm on the Handeck” and “The Range of Monte-Rosa at Sunrise,” merely attain an external, scenical effect which is not improved by crude and unnatural contrasts of light. And as, in later years, when @@ -10145,7 +10104,7 @@ of a dexterous calligrapher incessantly repeating the same ornamental letters. “<i>Un Calame, deux Calame, -trois Calame—que de calamits</i>,” +trois Calame—que de calamités</i>,” ran the phrase every year in the Paris Salon.</p> @@ -10201,7 +10160,7 @@ than in those which are wild and ambitious, for his diffident, petty execution is, as a rule, but little suited to restless and, as it were, dramatic scenes of nature.</p> -<p>Having come to Dsseldorf in 1841, <i>Hans Gude</i> became the Calame of the +<p>Having come to Düsseldorf in 1841, <i>Hans Gude</i> became the Calame of the North. Achenbach taught him to approach the phenomena of nature boldly and realistically, and not to be afraid of a rich and soft scale of colour. Schirmer, the representative of Italian still landscape, guided him to the acquisition @@ -10220,14 +10179,14 @@ risk of becoming tedious. His landscapes are good gallery pictures, soberly and prosaically correct, and never irritating, though at the same time they seldom kindle any warm feeling.</p> -<p>Like Gude, <i>Niels Bjrnson Mller</i> devoted himself to pictures of the shore +<p>Like Gude, <i>Niels Björnson Möller</i> devoted himself to pictures of the shore and the sea. Undisturbed by men in his sequestered retreat, <i>August Capellen</i> gave way to the melancholy charms of the Norwegian forest. He represented the tremulous clarity of the air above the cliffs, old, shattered tree-trunks and green water plants, sleepy ponds, and far prospects bounded by blue mountains; but he would have made an effect of greater originality had he thought less of Schirmer’s noble line and compositions arranged in the grand -style. <i>Morten-Mller</i> became the specialist of the fir forest. His native +style. <i>Morten-Müller</i> became the specialist of the fir forest. His native woods where the valleys stretch towards the high mountain region offered him motives, which he worked up in large and excessively scenical pictures. His strong point was the contrast between sunlight playing on the mountain @@ -10262,7 +10221,7 @@ trees, the other the setting sun, and the third the sea. <i>Oswald Achenbach</i> South, where, in contrast to their predecessors, they studied no longer the classic lines of nature in Italy, but the splendour of varied effects of colour in the neighbourhood of Vesuvius and the Bay of Naples. The most enterprising -turned their backs on Europe altogether, and began to paint the primval +turned their backs on Europe altogether, and began to paint the primæval <span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span> forests of South America, to which Alexander Humboldt had drawn attention, the azure and scarlet wonders of the tropics, and the gleam and sparkle of the @@ -10296,7 +10255,7 @@ best reckon on the sale of their productions.</p> <p>At the same time, their pictures betray that, during this generation, historical painting was throned on a summit whence it could dictate the -sthetic catechism. The historical picture represented a humanity that +æsthetic catechism. The historical picture represented a humanity that carried about with it the consciousness of its outward presence, draped itself in front of the glass, and made an artificial study of every gesture and every expression of emotion. <i>Genre</i> painting followed, and rendered the true spirit @@ -10326,7 +10285,7 @@ the German landscapes in the Munich Exhibition of 1869. What would first strike the inhabitant of a Northern country in foreign lands was made the theme of the majority of the pictures. But as the historical painting, in illustrating all the great dramatic scenes from the Trojan War to the French -Revolution, yielded at one time to a pdagogical doctrinaire tendency and +Revolution, yielded at one time to a pædagogical doctrinaire tendency and at another to theatrical impassionedness, so landscape painting on its cosmopolitan excursions became partly a dry synopsis of famous regions, only justifiable as a memento of travel, partly a tricked-out piece of effect which, @@ -10425,11 +10384,11 @@ garden and forest with a laboured effort at style, as it had been worked into the human form and the flow of drapery. A <i>prix de Rome</i> was founded for historical landscapes.</p> -<p><i>Henri Valenciennes</i> was the Lentre of this Classicism, the admired teacher +<p><i>Henri Valenciennes</i> was the Lenôtre of this Classicism, the admired teacher of several generations. The beginner in landscape painting modelled himself -upon Valenciennes as the figure painter upon Gurin. His <i>Trait lmentaire +upon Valenciennes as the figure painter upon Guérin. His <i>Traité élémentaire de perspective pratique</i>, in which he formulated the principles of landscape, -contains his personal views as well as the sthetics of the age. Although, +contains his personal views as well as the æsthetics of the age. Although, as he premises, he “is convinced that there is in reality only one kind of painting, historical painting, it is true that an able historical painter ought not entirely to neglect landscape.” Rembrandt, of course, and the old Dutch @@ -10449,21 +10408,21 @@ own pupils to study Theocritus, Virgil, and Ovid: only from these authors might be learnt what were the regions suitable for gods and heroes.</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Vos exemplaria grca</p> +<p>“Vos exemplaria græca</p> <p class="i05">Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p>If, for example, the landscapist would paint Morning, let him portray the moment when Aurora rises laughing from the arms of her aged spouse, when the hours are yoking four fiery steeds to the car of the sun-god, or Ulysses -kneels imploring before Nausicaa. For Noon the myth of Icarus or of Phaton +kneels imploring before Nausicaa. For Noon the myth of Icarus or of Phaëton might be turned to account. Evening may be represented by painting Phœbus hastening his course as he nears the horizon in flaming desire to cast himself into the arms of Thetis. Having once got his themes from the old poets, the landscape painter must know the laws of perspective to execute his picture; he must be familiar with Poussin’s rules of composition, and occasionally he ought even to study nature. Then he needs a weeping willow for an elegy, -a rock for the death of Phaton, and an oak for the dance of the nymphs. +a rock for the death of Phaëton, and an oak for the dance of the nymphs. To find such motives he should make journeys to the famed old lands of civilisation; best of all on the road which art itself has traversed—first to Asia Minor, then to Greece, and then to Italy.</p> @@ -10476,17 +10435,17 @@ Asia Minor, then to Greece, and then to Italy.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">HUBERT ROBERT.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">MONUMENTS AND RUINS.</td></tr></table> -<p>These sthetics produced <i>Victor Bertin</i> and <i>Xavier Bidault</i>, admired by +<p>These æsthetics produced <i>Victor Bertin</i> and <i>Xavier Bidault</i>, admired by their contemporaries for “richness of composition and a splendid selection of sites.” Their methodical commonplaces, their waves and valleys and temples, bear the same relation to nature as the talking machine of Raimundus Lullus does to philosophy. The scholastic landscape painter triumphed; a -school it was which nourished itself on empty formulas, and so died of anmia. +school it was which nourished itself on empty formulas, and so died of anæmia. Bidault, who in his youth made very good studies, is, with his stippled leaves and polished stems, his grey skies looking sometimes like lead and sometimes like water, the peculiar essence of a tiresome Classicism; and he is the same Bidault who, as president of the hanging committee, for years rejected the -landscapes of Thodore Rousseau from the Salon. It is only the figure of +landscapes of Théodore Rousseau from the Salon. It is only the figure of <i>Michallon</i>, who died young, that still survives from this group. He too belongs to the school of Valenciennes, through his frigid, meagre, and pedantically correct style; but he is distinguished from the rest, for he endeavoured @@ -10505,14 +10464,14 @@ it is only nature brushed and combed, trimmed and coerced by rules, that is reflected in their painting. Even in 1822, when Delacroix exhibited his “Dante’s Bark,” the ineffable Watelet shone in his full splendour. Amongst his pictures there was a view of Bar-sur-Seine, which the catalogue appropriately -designated not simply as a <i>vue</i>, but as a <i>vue ajuste</i>. Till his last +designated not simply as a <i>vue</i>, but as a <i>vue ajustée</i>. Till his last breath Watelet was convinced that nature did not understand her own business, and was always in need of a painter to revise her errors and correct them.</p> <p>Beside this group who adapted French localities for classical landscapes there arose in the meantime another group, and they proceeded in the opposite direction. Their highest aim was to go on pilgrimage to sacred Italy, the -classic land, which, with their literary training and their one-sided sthetics, +classic land, which, with their literary training and their one-sided æsthetics, they invariably thought more beautiful and more worthy of veneration than any other. But they tried to break with Valenciennes’ arbitrary rules of composition, and to seize the great lines of Italian landscape with fidelity @@ -10521,7 +10480,7 @@ pour new life into a style of landscape painting which was its own justification compromised as it had been by the Classic school. They made a very heretical appearance in the eyes of the strictly orthodox pupils of Valenciennes. They were called the Gothic school, which was as much as to say Romanticists, -and the names of <i>Thodore Aligny</i> and <i>Edouard Bertin</i> were for years mentioned +and the names of <i>Théodore Aligny</i> and <i>Edouard Bertin</i> were for years mentioned with that of Corot in critiques. They brought home very pretty drawings from Greece, Italy, Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, and Bertin did this especially. Aligny is even not without importance as a painter. He aimed at width of @@ -10543,10 +10502,10 @@ into landscapes of pasteboard and wadding.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 500px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:445px; height:692px" src="images/img299.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx">VICTOR HUGO.   RUINS OF A MEDIVAL CASTLE ON THE RHINE.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx">VICTOR HUGO.   RUINS OF A MEDIÆVAL CASTLE ON THE RHINE.</td></tr></table> <p>But not from this quarter could the health of a school which had become -anmic be in any way restored. French landscape had to draw a new power +anæmic be in any way restored. French landscape had to draw a new power of vitality from the French soil itself. It was saved when its eyes were opened to the charms of home, and this revelation was brought about by Romanticism. In the Salon notices, from 1822 onwards, the complaints of critics are repeated @@ -10566,7 +10525,7 @@ empty, and distant scenery. They only thought of nature, and that amid which they lived seemed the less to forego its charms the more Italy came under suspicion as the home of all these ugly, unpleasant, and academical pictures. That was the birthday of French landscape. At the very time -when Delacroix renewed the <i>rpertoire</i> of grand painting, enriching art with +when Delacroix renewed the <i>répertoire</i> of grand painting, enriching art with a world of feeling which was not merely edited, a parallel movement began in landscape. @@ -10635,7 +10594,7 @@ initiator.</p> <p><i>Victor Hugo</i>, the father of Romanticism in literature, cannot be passed over in the history of landscape painting. Since 1891, when that remarkable exhibition of painter-poets was opened in Paris—an exhibition in which -Thophile Gautier, Prosper Merime, the two de Goncourts, and others were +Théophile Gautier, Prosper Merimée, the two de Goncourts, and others were represented by more or less important works—the world learnt what a gifted draughtsman, what a powerful dramatist in landscape, was this great Romanticist. Even in the reminiscences of nature—spirited and suggestive @@ -10701,7 +10660,7 @@ the Dutch ever run from one place to another? And yet they are good painters, and not merely that, but the most powerful, bold, and ideal artists.” Every day he made a study in the precincts of Paris, without any idea that he would count in these times among the forerunners of modern art. He -shares the glory of having discovered Montmartre with Alphonse Karr, Grard +shares the glory of having discovered Montmartre with Alphonse Karr, Gérard de Nerval, and Monselet. After his death such studies were found in the shops of all the second-hand dealers of the Northern Boulevard; they were invariably without a frame, as they had never seemed worth framing, and @@ -10718,7 +10677,7 @@ those who worked with a fine brush—already he was aiming at <i>l’exp par l’ensemble</i>, and since the Paris Universal Exhibition he has been fittingly honoured as the forerunner -of Thodore Rousseau. His +of Théodore Rousseau. His pictures, as it seems, were early received in various studios, and there they had considerable effect in setting @@ -10840,7 +10799,7 @@ a pleiad of much brighter stars beamed in the sky.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:852px; height:640px" src="images/img307.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">J. M. W. TURNER.</td> -<td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE OLD TMRAIRE.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE OLD TÉMÉRAIRE.</td></tr></table> <p>But we must not forget that Michel and Huet showed the way. Rousseau and his followers left them far behind, as Columbus threw into oblivion all @@ -10908,7 +10867,7 @@ sentiment, and the impressiveness and poetry of his method of expression.</p> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:655px; height:467px" src="images/img310.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>S. Low & Co.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">TURNER.</td> -<td class="tcr f80 pb2">JUMIGES.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f80 pb2">JUMIÈGES.</td></tr></table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span></p> @@ -11022,7 +10981,7 @@ apiece and his supper. Thus he went over a great part of England, and upon one of his excursions he is said to have -had a love-affair <i> la</i> Lucy of +had a love-affair <i>à la</i> Lucy of Lammermoor, and to have so taken it to heart that he resolved to remain a bachelor for @@ -11066,7 +11025,7 @@ made a fortune. He left them—taken altogether, three hundred and sixty-two oil-paintings and nineteen thousand drawings—to the nation, -and 20,000 to the Royal Academy, +and £20,000 to the Royal Academy, and merely stipulated that the two best pictures should be hung in the National Gallery between two Claude @@ -11106,7 +11065,7 @@ sublime; all the others, like Gainsborough, loved simplicity, modest grace, and virginal quietude. England has nothing romantic. At the very time when Lessing painted his landscapes, Ludwig Tieck experienced a bitter disappointment when he trod the soil where Shakespeare wrote the witch scenes in -<i>Macbeth</i>. A sombre, melancholy, primval maze was what he had expected, +<i>Macbeth</i>. A sombre, melancholy, primæval maze was what he had expected, and there lay before him a soft, luxuriant, and cultivated country. What distinguishes English landscape is a singular luxuriance, an almost unctuous wealth of vegetation. Drive through the country on a bright day on the top @@ -11118,7 +11077,7 @@ shadows wide, and around are pastures hemmed in by hedges, where splendid cattle lie chewing the cud. The moist atmosphere surrounds the trees and plants like a shining vapour. There is nothing more charming in the world, and nothing more delicate than these tones of colour; one might stand for -hours looking at the clouds of satin, the fine rial bloom, and the soft transparent +hours looking at the clouds of satin, the fine ærial bloom, and the soft transparent gauze which catches the sunbeams in its silver net, softens them, and sends them smiling and toying to the earth. On both sides of the carriage the fields extend, each more beautiful than the last, in constant succession, @@ -11181,7 +11140,7 @@ oaks, old woods, fishers’ huts, lonely pools, wastes of heath. The way he painted trees is extraordinary. Each has its own physiognomy, and looks like a living thing, like some gloomy Northern personality. Oaks were his peculiar specialty, and in later years they only found a similarly -great interpreter in Thodore Rousseau. At the same time his pictures of the +great interpreter in Théodore Rousseau. At the same time his pictures of the simplest scenes have a remarkable largeness of conception, and a subtlety of colour recalling the old masters, and reached by no other painter in that age. An uncompromising realist, he drew his portraits of nature with almost @@ -11321,9 +11280,9 @@ no one before him had observed the sky with the same attention.</p> <p>A certain Dunthorne, an eccentric personage to whom the boy often came, gave him—always in the open air—his first instruction; and another of his -patrons, Sir George Beaumont, as an sthetically trained connoisseur, criticised +patrons, Sir George Beaumont, as an æsthetically trained connoisseur, criticised what he painted. When Constable showed him a study he asked: “Where -do you mean to place your brown tree?” For the first law in his sthetics +do you mean to place your brown tree?” For the first law in his æsthetics was this: a good painting must have the colour of a good fiddle; it must be brown. Sojourn in London was without influence on Constable. He was twenty-three years of age, a handsome young fellow with dark eyes and a @@ -11481,7 +11440,7 @@ belonged to him.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:737px; height:469px" src="images/img332.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Portfolio.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">MLLER.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">MÜLLER.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE AMPHITHEATRE AT XANTHUS.</td></tr></table> <p>Constable’s powerful individuality has brought forth enduring fruit, and @@ -11528,7 +11487,7 @@ English landscapist. His small pictures are pure and delicate in colour, and fresh and breezy in atmospheric effect. It is only in large pictures that power is at times denied him. In his later years he began to paint in oils, and in this medium he is a less important artist, though a very great painter. <i>William -Mller</i>, who died young, stood as leader at his side.</p> +Müller</i>, who died young, stood as leader at his side.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:664px; height:227px" src="images/img333.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -11548,7 +11507,7 @@ of preciosity. His pictures are grandiose in form, and show an admirable lightness of hand, but light and air are wanting in them, the local colour of England and its atmosphere. As a foreigner—he was the son of a Danzig <span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span> -scholar, who had migrated to Bristol—Mller has not seen English landscape +scholar, who had migrated to Bristol—Müller has not seen English landscape with Constable’s native sentiment. He was not content with an English cornfield or an English village; the familiar homeliness of the country in its work-a-day garb excited no emotion in him.</p> @@ -11559,7 +11518,7 @@ work-a-day garb excited no emotion in him.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">BONINGTON.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE WINDMILL OF SAINT-JOUIN.</td></tr></table> -<p>Something in Mller’s imagination, which caused him to love decided +<p>Something in Müller’s imagination, which caused him to love decided colours and sudden contrasts rather than delicate gradations, attracted him to Southern climes. His natural place was in the East, which had not at that time been made the vogue. Here, like Decamps and Marilhat, he found those @@ -11668,7 +11627,7 @@ execution. Not that he was quickly satisfied; on the contrary, he often began over again perfectly finished pieces which seemed wonderful to us. But his dexterity was so great that in a moment he produced with his brush new effects, which were as charming as the first.” With these words his -friend and comrade, the great Eugne Delacroix, drew the portrait of Bonington. +friend and comrade, the great Eugène Delacroix, drew the portrait of Bonington. Bonington was at once the most natural and the most delicate in that Romantic school in which he was one of the first to make an appearance. He had a fine eye for the charm of nature, saw grace and beauty in her everywhere, and @@ -11739,7 +11698,7 @@ fact, since Delacroix himself, in his article “Questions sur le Beau&rdquo <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:370px; height:518px" src="images/img339.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption">THODORE ROUSSEAU.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption">THÉODORE ROUSSEAU.</td></tr></table> <p>The very next years announced what a ferment Constable had stirred in the more restless spirits. The period from 1827 to 1830 showed the birth-throes @@ -11754,7 +11713,7 @@ For it is not through chance that <i>paysage intime</i> immediately passed from London, the city of smoke, to Paris, the second great modern capital, and reached Germany from thence only at a much later time.</p> -<p>“Do you remember the time,” asks Brger-Thor of Thodore Rousseau +<p>“Do you remember the time,” asks Bürger-Thoré of Théodore Rousseau in the dedicatory letter to his <i>Salon</i> of 1844,—“do you still recall the years when we sat on the window-ledges of our attics in the Rue de Taitbout, and let our feet dangle at the edge of the roof, contemplating the chaos of houses @@ -11830,7 +11789,7 @@ is not touched till one stands outside in the forest on the soil where Rousseau and Corot and Millet and Diaz painted. How much may be felt and thought when one saunters of a dreamy evening, lost in one’s own meditations, across the heath of the <i>plateau de la Belle Croix</i> and through the arching oaks of -<i>Bas Brau</i> to Barbizon, the Mecca of modern art, where the secrets of <i>paysage +<i>Bas Bréau</i> to Barbizon, the Mecca of modern art, where the secrets of <i>paysage intime</i> were revealed to the Parisian landscape painters by the nymph of Fontainebleau! There was a time when men built their Gothic cathedrals soaring into the sky, after the model of the majestic palaces of the trees. The @@ -11849,9 +11808,9 @@ the church has become the world, and the world has become the church.</p> <p>How the spirit soars at the trill of a blackbird beneath the leafy roof of -mighty primval oaks! One feels as though one had been transplanted into +mighty primæval oaks! One feels as though one had been transplanted into the Saturnian age, when men lived a joyous, unchequered life in holy unison -with nature. For this park is still primval, in spite of all the carriage roads +with nature. For this park is still primæval, in spite of all the carriage roads by which it is now traversed, in spite of all the guides who lounge upon the granite blocks of the hollows of Opremont. Yellowish-green ferns varying in tint cover the soil like a carpet. The woods are broken by great wastes of @@ -11894,7 +11853,7 @@ an inn in 1823. Here, after 1830, Corot, Rousseau, Diaz, Brascassat, and many others alighted when they came to follow their studies in Barbizon from the spring to the autumn. Of an evening they clambered up to their miserable bedroom, and fastened to the head of the bed with drawing-pins the studies -made in the course of the day. It was only later that Pre Copain, an old +made in the course of the day. It was only later that Père Copain, an old peasant, who had begun life as a shepherd with three francs a month, was struck with the apt idea of buying in a few acres and building upon them small houses to let to painters. By this enterprise the man became rich, and @@ -11944,7 +11903,7 @@ tones of the palette; he wanted to create preconceived decorative harmonies, and not simply to interpret reality. Following the English, the masters of Fontainebleau made the discovery of air and light. They did not paint the world, like the other Romanticists, in exuberantly varying hues recalling -the old masters: they saw it <i>entour d’air</i>, and tempered by the tones of the +the old masters: they saw it <i>entouré d’air</i>, and tempered by the tones of the atmosphere. And since their time the “harmony of light and air with that of which they are the life and illumination” has become the great problem of painting. Through this art grew young again, and works of art received the @@ -11985,7 +11944,7 @@ the inward eye. Any poet before Goethe’s time would have made a broad and epical description, and produced a picture by the addition of details; but here the very music of the words creates a picture of rest and quietude. The works of the Fontainebleau artists are Goethe-like poems of nature in -pigments. They are as far removed from the sthetic aridness of the older +pigments. They are as far removed from the æsthetic aridness of the older landscape of composition, pieced together from studies, as from the flat, prosaic fidelity to nature of that “entirely null and void, spuriously realistic painting of the so-called guardians of woods and waters.” They were @@ -12019,7 +11978,7 @@ through before they reached this height.</p> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">A POND, FOREST OF FONTAINEBLEAU.</td></tr></table> <p>In the presence of nature one saturates one’s self with truth; and after -returning to the studio one squeezes the sponge, as Jules Dupr expressed it. +returning to the studio one squeezes the sponge, as Jules Dupré expressed it. Only after they had satiated themselves with the knowledge of truth, only after nature with all her individual phenomena had been interwoven with their inmost being, could they, without effort, and without the purpose of representing @@ -12039,7 +11998,7 @@ temperament, and adapted his technique to the altogether personal expression <span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span> of his way of seeing and feeling. Each one is entirely himself, each one an original mind, each picture a spiritual revelation, and often one of touching -simplicity and greatness: <i>homo additus natur</i>. And having dedicated themselves, +simplicity and greatness: <i>homo additus naturæ</i>. And having dedicated themselves, more than all their predecessors, to personality creating in and for itself, they have become the founders of the new creed in art.</p> @@ -12048,20 +12007,20 @@ itself, they have become the founders of the new creed in art.</p> <tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">CAMILLE COROT.</td></tr></table> -<p>That strong and firmly rooted master <i>Thodore Rousseau</i> was the epic -poet, the plastic artist of the Pleades. “<i>Le chne des roches</i>” was one of his +<p>That strong and firmly rooted master <i>Théodore Rousseau</i> was the epic +poet, the plastic artist of the Pleïades. “<i>Le chêne des roches</i>” was one of his masterpieces, and he stands himself amid the art of his time like an oak embedded in rocks. His father was a tailor who lived in the Rue Neuve-Saint -Eustache, Nr. 4 <i>au quatrime</i>. As a boy he is said to have specially +Eustache, Nr. 4 <i>au quatrième</i>. As a boy he is said to have specially devoted himself to mathematics, and to have aimed at becoming a student at the Polytechnic Institute. Thus the dangerous, doctrinaire tendency, which beset him in his last years, of making art more of a science than is really practicable, and of referring everything to some law, lay even in his boyish -tastes. He grew up in the studio of the Classicist Lethire, and looked on +tastes. He grew up in the studio of the Classicist Lethière, and looked on whilst the latter painted both his large Louvre pictures, “The Death of Brutus” and “The Death of Virginia.” He even thought himself of competing for the <i>Prix de Rome</i>. But the composition of his “historical landscape” -was not a success. Then he took his paint-boxes, left Lethire’s studio, and +was not a success. Then he took his paint-boxes, left Lethière’s studio, and wandered over to Montmartre. Even his first little picture, “The Telegraph Tower” of 1826, announced the aim which he was tentatively @@ -12085,7 +12044,7 @@ the name of waves.</p> <p>His first excursion to Fontainebleau occurred in the year 1833, and in 1834 he painted his -first masterpiece, the “Cts de +first masterpiece, the “Côtés de Grandville,” that picture, replete with deep and powerful feeling for nature, which seems the great @@ -12101,9 +12060,9 @@ but the master seemed dangerous to the academicians. Two pictures, “Cows descending in the Upper Jura” and “The Chestnut Avenue,” which he had destined for the Salon of 1835, were rejected by the hanging committee, and during twelve years his works met with a similar fate, although the leading -critical intellects of Paris, Thor, Gustave Planch, and Thophile Gautier, +critical intellects of Paris, Thoré, Gustave Planché, and Théophile Gautier, broke their lances in his behalf. Amongst the rejected of the present century, -Thodore Rousseau is probably the most famous. At that period he was +Théodore Rousseau is probably the most famous. At that period he was selling his pictures for five and ten louis-d’or. It was only after the February Revolution of 1848, when the Academic Committee had fallen with the <i>bourgeois</i> king, that the doors of the Salon were opened to him again, and in the meanwhile @@ -12123,7 +12082,7 @@ and the forest, all the seasons of the year and all the hours of the day. The succession of his moods is as inexhaustible as boundless nature herself. Skies gilded by the setting sun, phases of dewy morning, plains basking in light, woods <span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span> -in the russet-yellow foliage of autumn: these are the subjects of Thodore +in the russet-yellow foliage of autumn: these are the subjects of Théodore Rousseau—an endless procession of poetic effects, expressed at first by the mere instinct of emotion and later with a mathematical precision which is often a little strained, though always irresistibly forcible. Marvellous are his @@ -12142,7 +12101,7 @@ coldly and dispassionately.</p> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">DAPHNIS AND CHLOE.</td></tr></table> <p>It is an artistic or psychological anomaly that in this romantic generation -a man could be born in whom there was nothing of the Romanticist. Thodore +a man could be born in whom there was nothing of the Romanticist. Théodore Rousseau was an experimentalist, a great worker, a restless and seeking spirit, ever tormented and unsatisfied with itself, a nature wholly without sentimentality and impassionless, the very opposite of his predecessor Huet. @@ -12216,7 +12175,7 @@ Henry <span class="sc">VIII</span>, proceeded in the opposite way: for him chara on his revealing his own character as little as possible; he completely subordinated himself to his subject, surrendered himself, and religiously painted all that he saw, leaving it to others to carry away from the picture what they -pleased. And Thodore Rousseau, too, was possessed by the spirit of the old +pleased. And Théodore Rousseau, too, was possessed by the spirit of the old German portrait painter. He set his whole force of purpose to the task of letting nature manifest herself, free from any preconceived interpretation. His pictures are absolutely without effective point, but there is so much power @@ -12225,7 +12184,7 @@ seeing and painting nature, and of feeling her intense and forceful life, that they have become great works of art by this alone, like the portraits of Holbein. More impressive tones, loftier imagination, more moving tenderness, and more intoxicating harmonies are at the command of other masters, but few had -truer or more profound articulation, and not one has been so sincere as Thodore +truer or more profound articulation, and not one has been so sincere as Théodore <span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> Rousseau. Rousseau saw into the inmost being of nature, as Holbein into Henry <span class="sc">VIII</span>, and the impression he received, the emotion he felt, is a thing @@ -12260,7 +12219,7 @@ of the glens of Opremont. In a quite peculiar sense was the oak his favourite tree—the mighty, wide-branching, -primval oak which occupies +primæval oak which occupies the centre of one of his masterpieces, “A Pond,” and spreads its great gnarled @@ -12289,7 +12248,7 @@ its part to play, and its distinction of being in the great harmony of universal nature. “By the harmony of air and light with that of which they are the life and the illumination I will make you hear the trees moaning beneath the North wind and the birds calling to their young.” To achieve that aim he -thought that he could not do too much. As Drer worked seven times on +thought that he could not do too much. As Dürer worked seven times on the same scenes of the Passion until he had found the simplest and most speaking expression, so Rousseau treated the same motives ten and twenty times. Restless are his efforts to discover different phases of the same subject, @@ -12314,7 +12273,7 @@ health, and energy. “It ought to be: in the beginning was the Power.&rdquo <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">COROT.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE RUIN.</td></tr></table> -<p>From his youth upwards Thodore Rousseau was a masculine spirit; +<p>From his youth upwards Théodore Rousseau was a masculine spirit; even as a stripling he was a man above all juvenile follies—one might almost say, a philosopher without ideals. In literature Turgenief’s conception of nature might be most readily compared with that of Rousseau. In Turgenief’s @@ -12344,7 +12303,7 @@ came to the same point as Spinoza.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">COROT.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">EVENING.</td></tr></table> -<p>And Rousseau did the same. The nature of Thodore Rousseau was +<p>And Rousseau did the same. The nature of Théodore Rousseau was devoid of all excitable enthusiasm. Thus the world he painted became something austere, earnest, and inaccessible beneath his hands. He lived in it alone, fleeing from his fellows, and for this reason human figures are @@ -12427,9 +12386,9 @@ pictorial beauty nor majesty. In the presence of this bizarre work one feels astonishment at the artist’s endurance and strength of will, but disappointment at the result. He wanted to win the secret of its being from every undulation of the ground, from every blade of grass, and from every leaf; -he was anxiously bent upon what he called <i>planimtrie</i>, upon the importance +he was anxiously bent upon what he called <i>planimétrie</i>, upon the importance of horizontal planes, and he accentuated detail and accessory work beyond -measure. His pantheistic faith in nature brought Thodore Rousseau to his +measure. His pantheistic faith in nature brought Théodore Rousseau to his fall. Those who did not know him spoke of his childish stippling and of the decline of his talent. Those who did know him saw in this stippling the issue of the same endeavours which poor Charles de la Berge had @@ -12475,13 +12434,13 @@ a green picture the Philistine immediately cried out, “Spinage!” “<i>Allez, -c’tait dur d’ouvrir la -brche</i>,” said he, in +c’était dur d’ouvrir la +brêche</i>,” said he, in his later years. And at last, at the World Exhibition of 1855, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span> -when he had made it clear to Europe who Thodore Rousseau was, the +when he had made it clear to Europe who Théodore Rousseau was, the evening of his life was saddened by pain and illness. He had married a poor unfortunate creature, a wild child of the forest, the only feminine being that he had found time to love during his life of toil. After a few @@ -12500,9 +12459,9 @@ on which are inscribed the words:</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">COROT.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">LA ROUTE D’ARRAS.</td></tr></table> -<p class="center">THODORE ROUSSEAU, PEINTRE.</p> +<p class="center">THÉODORE ROUSSEAU, PEINTRE.</p> -<p>“<i>Rousseau c’est un aigle. Quant moi, je ne suis qu’une alouette qui +<p>“<i>Rousseau c’est un aigle. Quant à moi, je ne suis qu’une alouette qui pousse de petites chansons dans mes nuages gris.</i>” With these words <i>Camille Corot</i> has indicated the distinction between Rousseau and himself. They denote the two opposite poles of modern landscape. What attracted the @@ -12510,7 +12469,7 @@ plastic artists, Rousseau, Ruysdael, and Hobbema—the relief of objects, th power of contours, the solidity of forms—was not Corot’s concern. Whilst <span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span> Rousseau never spoke about colour with his pupils, but as <i>ceterum censeo</i> -invariably repeated, “<i>Enfin, la forme est la premire chose observer</i>,” Corot +invariably repeated, “<i>Enfin, la forme est la première chose à observer</i>,” Corot himself admitted that drawing was not his strong point. When he tried to paint rocks he was but moderately effective, and all his efforts at drawing the human figure were seldom crowned with real success, although in his last @@ -12557,8 +12516,8 @@ earth with the drawing on of night.</p> <td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:446px; height:326px" src="images/img365.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>L’Art.</i></td> <td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">JULES DUPR.</td> -<td class="tcl f80 pb2" colspan="2">THE HOUSE OF JULES DUPR AT L’ISLE-ADAM.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">JULES DUPRÉ.</td> +<td class="tcl f80 pb2" colspan="2">THE HOUSE OF JULES DUPRÉ AT L’ISLE-ADAM.</td></tr></table> <p>In contradistinction from Rousseau his specialty was everything soft and wavering, @@ -12585,7 +12544,7 @@ he had a season-ticket at the <i>Conservatoire</i>, never missed a concert, and played upon the violin himself. Indeed, there is something of the tender note of this instrument in his pictures, which make such a sweetly solemn appeal through their delicious silver tone. Beside Rousseau, the -plastic artist, Pre Corot is an idyllic painter of melting grace; beside +plastic artist, Père Corot is an idyllic painter of melting grace; beside Rousseau, the realist, he seems a dreamy musician; beside Rousseau, the virile spirit earnestly making experiments in art, he appears like a bashful schoolgirl in love. Rousseau approached nature in broad daylight, with @@ -12596,7 +12555,7 @@ Rousseau was unable to wring from her by violence.</p> <p><i>Corot</i> was sixteen years senior to Rousseau. He still belonged to the eighteenth century, to the time when, under the dictatorship of David, Paris -transformed herself into imperial Rome. David, Grard, Gurin, and Prudhon, +transformed herself into imperial Rome. David, Gérard, Guérin, and Prudhon, artists so different in talent, were the painters whose works met his first eager glances, and no particular acuteness is needed to recognise in the Nymphs and Cupids with which Corot in after-years, especially in the evening of his @@ -12615,14 +12574,14 @@ M. Corot, a polite and very correct little man, raised the business to great prosperity. The Tuileries were opposite, and under Napoleon <span class="sc">I</span> Corot became Court “modiste.” As such he must have attained a certain celebrity, as even the theatre took his name in vain. A piece which was then frequently -played at the Comdie Franaise contains the passage: “I have just come +played at the Comédie Française contains the passage: “I have just come from Corot, but could not speak to him; he was locked up in his private room occupied in composing a new spring hat.”</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:693px; height:501px" src="images/img366.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>S. Low & Co.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DUPR.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DUPRÉ.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE SETTING SUN.</td></tr></table> <p>Camille went to the high school in Rouen, and was then destined, according @@ -12689,7 +12648,7 @@ and look as if they were heavily cased in iron.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:728px; height:451px" src="images/img368.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Baschet.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80">DUPR.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">DUPRÉ.</td> <td class="tcr f80">NEAR SOUTHAMPTON.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of M. Jules Beer, the owner of the picture.</i>)</td></tr></table> @@ -12725,7 +12684,7 @@ he went forward resolute and emancipated.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:742px; height:517px" src="images/img369.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DUPR.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DUPRÉ.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE PUNT.</td></tr></table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span></p> @@ -12752,7 +12711,7 @@ is not without importance to remember this.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:738px; height:442px" src="images/img370.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Baschet.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80">DUPR.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">DUPRÉ.</td> <td class="tcr f80">SUNSET.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of M. Jules Beer, the owner of the picture.</i>)</td></tr></table> @@ -12770,7 +12729,7 @@ thus dreamed, and painted from the recollected vision!</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:750px; height:516px" src="images/img371.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DUPR.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DUPRÉ.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE HAY-WAIN.</td></tr></table> <p>For a young man this would be a very dangerous method. For Corot it @@ -12796,26 +12755,26 @@ heart.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 500px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:446px; height:527px" src="images/img372.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Baschet.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx">DUPR.   THE OLD OAK.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx">DUPRÉ.   THE OLD OAK.</td></tr></table> <p>One knows the marvellous letter in which he describes the day of a landscape -painter to Jules Dupr: “<i>On se lve de bonne heure, trois heures du +painter to Jules Dupré: “<i>On se lève de bonne heure, à trois heures du matin, avant le soleil; on va s’asseoir au pied d’un arbre, on regarde et on attend. -On ne voit pas grand’chose d’abord. La nature ressemble une toile blanchtre -o s’esquissent peine les profils de quelques masses: tout est embaum, tout -frisonne au souffle frachi de l’aube. Bing! le soleil s’claircit ... le soleil -n’a pas encore dchir la gaze derrire laquelle se cachent la prairie, le vallon, +On ne voit pas grand’chose d’abord. La nature ressemble à une toile blanchâtre +où s’esquissent à peine les profils de quelques masses: tout est embaumé, tout +frisonne au souffle fraîchi de l’aube. Bing! le soleil s’éclaircit ... le soleil +n’a pas encore déchiré la gaze derrière laquelle se cachent la prairie, le vallon, les collines de l’horizon.... Les vapeurs nocturnes rampent encore commes -des flocons argents sur les herbes d’un vert transi. Bing!... Bing!... +des flocons argentés sur les herbes d’un vert transi. Bing!... Bing!... un premier rayon de soleil ... un second rayon de soleil.... Les -petites fleurettes semblent s’veiller joyeuses.... Elles out toutes leur goutte -de rose qui tremble ... les feuilles frileuses s’agitent au souffle du matin ... -dans la feuille, les oiseaux invisibles chantent.... Il semble que ce sont les -fleurs qui font la prire. Les Amours ailes de papillons s’battent sur la +petites fleurettes semblent s’éveiller joyeuses.... Elles out toutes leur goutte +de rosée qui tremble ... les feuilles frileuses s’agitent au souffle du matin ... +dans la feuillée, les oiseaux invisibles chantent.... Il semble que ce sont les +fleurs qui font la prière. Les Amours à ailes de papillons s’ébattent sur la prairie et font onduler les hautes herbes.... On ne voit rien ... tout y est. -Le paysage est tout entier derrire la gaze transparente du brouillard, qui, au -reste ... monte ... monte ... aspir par le soleil ... et laisse, en se levant, -voir la rivire lame d’argent, les prs, les arbres, les maisonettes, le lointain +Le paysage est tout entier derrière la gaze transparente du brouillard, qui, au +reste ... monte ... monte ... aspiré par le soleil ... et laisse, en se levant, +voir la rivière lamée d’argent, les prés, les arbres, les maisonettes, le lointain fuyant.... On distingue enfin tout ce que l’on divinait d’abord.</i>”</p> <p>At the end there is an ode @@ -12825,32 +12784,32 @@ most delicate pages of French lyrics: “<i>La nature s’assoupit ... cependant l’air frais du soir soupire dans les feuilles -... la rose emperle le velours +... la rosée emperle le velours des gazons.... Les nymphes fuient ... se cachent ... -et dsirent tre vues.... Bing! -une toile du ciel qui pique -une tte dans l’tang.... -Charmante toile, dont le frmissement +et désirent être vues.... Bing! +une étoile du ciel qui pique +une tête dans l’étang.... +Charmante étoile, dont le frémissement de l’eau augmente le scintillement, tu me regardes ... tu me souris en clignant de l’œil.... Bing! une -seconde toile apparat dans +seconde étoile apparaît dans l’eau; un second œil s’ouvre. -Soyez les bienvenues, fraches et -charmantes toiles.... Bing! +Soyez les bienvenues, fraîches et +charmantes étoiles.... Bing! Bing! Bing! trois, six, vingt</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span> -<i>toiles.... Toutes les toiles du ciel se sont donn rendez-vous dans cet heureux -tang.... Tout s’assombrit encore.... L’tang seul scintille.... C’est un -fourmillement d’toiles.... L’illusion se produit.... Le soleil tant couch, -le soleil intrieur de l’me, le soleil de l’art se lve.... Bon! voil mon tableau +<i>étoiles.... Toutes les étoiles du ciel se sont donné rendez-vous dans cet heureux +étang.... Tout s’assombrit encore.... L’étang seul scintille.... C’est un +fourmillement d’étoiles.... L’illusion se produit.... Le soleil étant couché, +le soleil intérieur de l’âme, le soleil de l’art se lève.... Bon! voilâ mon tableau fait</i>.”</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:750px; height:424px" src="images/img373.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DUPR.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DUPRÉ.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE POOL.</td></tr></table> <p>Any one who has never read anything about Corot except these lines @@ -13055,7 +13014,7 @@ Ville d’Avray.</p> <td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:340px; height:458px" src="images/img382.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">CHARLES FRANOIS DAUBIGNY.</td> +<tr><td class="tcc f80 pb2" colspan="2">CHARLES FRANÇOIS DAUBIGNY.</td> <td class="tcl f80 pb2">DAUBIGNY.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">SPRINGTIME.</td></tr></table> @@ -13063,7 +13022,7 @@ Ville d’Avray.</p> pillars and altars near which mythical figures moved once more, dryads sleeping by the stream, dancing -fauns, <i>junctque nymphis grati +fauns, <i>junctæque nymphis gratiæ decentes</i> in classical raiment. In this sense he was a Classicist all his life. His nymphs, however, are no @@ -13109,14 +13068,14 @@ soir.</i>” Elysian airs began to breathe, and the faint echo of the prattl streamlet sounded gently murmuring in the wood; the soft arms of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> nymphs clung round him, and from the neighbouring thicket tender, melting -melodies chimed forth like olian harps—</p> +melodies chimed forth like Æolian harps—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Rege dich, du Schilfgeflster;</p> +<p>“Rege dich, du Schilfgeflüster;</p> <p class="i05">Hauche leise, Rohrgeschwister;</p> -<p class="i05">Suselt, leichte Weidenstruche;</p> +<p class="i05">Säuselt, leichte Weidensträuche;</p> <p class="i05">Lispelt, Pappelzitterzweige</p> - <p class="i1">Unterbroch’nen Trumen zu.”</p> + <p class="i1">Unterbroch’nen Träumen zu.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p>His end was as harmonious as his life and his art. “<i>Rien ne trouble sa @@ -13126,7 +13085,7 @@ On 23rd February 1875—when he had just completed his seventy-ninth year&md was heard to say as he lay in bed drawing with his fingers in the air: “<i>Mon Dieu</i>, how beautiful that is; the most beautiful landscape I have ever seen.” When his old housekeeper wanted to bring him his breakfast he -said with a smile: “To-day Pre Corot will breakfast above.” Even his +said with a smile: “To-day Père Corot will breakfast above.” Even his last illness robbed him of none of his cheerfulness, and when his friends brought him as he lay dying the medal struck to commemorate his jubilee as an artist of fifty years’ standing, he said with tears of joy in his eyes: “It @@ -13134,10 +13093,10 @@ makes one happy to know that one has been so loved; I have had good parents and dear friends. I am thankful to God.” With those words he passed away to his true home, the land of spirits—not the paradise of the Church, but the Elysian fields he had dreamt of and painted so often: -“<i>Largior hic campos ther et lumine vestit purpureo.</i>”</p> +“<i>Largior hic campos æther et lumine vestit purpureo.</i>”</p> <p>When they bore him from his house -in the Faubour-Poissonire and a +in the Faubour-Poissonière and a passer-by asked who was being buried, a fat shopwoman standing at the door of her house answered: “I don’t know @@ -13148,7 +13107,7 @@ own direction, and as the coffin was being lowered a lark rose exulting to the sky. “The artist will be replaced with difficulty, the man never,” said -Dupr at Corot’s grave. On 27th May +Dupré at Corot’s grave. On 27th May 1880 an unobtrusive monument to his memory was unveiled at the border of the lake at Ville d’Avray, in the midst @@ -13169,27 +13128,27 @@ and Watteau the greatest poet of the eighteenth.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">DAUBIGNY.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">A LOCK IN THE VALLY OF OPTEVOZ.</td></tr></table> -<p><i>Jules Dupr</i>, a melancholy spirit, who was inwardly consumed by a lonely +<p><i>Jules Dupré</i>, a melancholy spirit, who was inwardly consumed by a lonely existence spent in passionate work, stands as the Beethoven of modern painting -beside Corot, its Mozart. If Thodore Rousseau was the epic poet of -the Fontainebleau school, and Corot the idyllic poet, Dupr seems its tragic +beside Corot, its Mozart. If Théodore Rousseau was the epic poet of +the Fontainebleau school, and Corot the idyllic poet, Dupré seems its tragic dramatist. Rousseau’s nature is hard, rude, and indifferent to man. For Corot God is the great philanthropist, who wishes to see men happy, and lets the spring come and the warm winds blow only that children may have their pleasure in them. His soul is, as Goethe has it in <i>Werther</i>, “as blithe as -those of sweet spring mornings.” Jules Dupr has neither Rousseau’s reality +those of sweet spring mornings.” Jules Dupré has neither Rousseau’s reality nor Corot’s tenderness; his tones are neither imperturbable nor subdued. -“<i>Quant derrire un tronc d’arbre ou derrire une pierre, vous ne trouvez pas un -homme quoi a sert-il de faire du paysage.</i>” In Corot there is a charm as -of the light melodies of the <i>Zauberflte</i>; in Dupr the ear is struck by the +“<i>Quant derrière un tronc d’arbre ou derrière une pierre, vous ne trouvez pas un +homme à quoi ça sert-il de faire du paysage.</i>” In Corot there is a charm as +of the light melodies of the <i>Zauberflöte</i>; in Dupré the ear is struck by the shattering notes of the <i>Sinfonie Eroica</i>. Rousseau looks into the heart of nature with widely dilated pupils and a critical glance. Corot woos her -smiling, caressing, and dallying; Dupr courts her uttering impassioned +smiling, caressing, and dallying; Dupré courts her uttering impassioned complaint and with tears in his eyes. In him are heard the mighty fugues of Romanticism. The trees live, the waves laugh and weep, the sky sings and wails, and the sun, like a great conductor, determines the harmony of the concert. Even the two pictures with which he made an appearance in -the Salon in 1835, after he had left the Svres china manufactory and +the Salon in 1835, after he had left the Sèvres china manufactory and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span> become acquainted with Constable during a visit to England—the “Near Southampton” and “Pasture-land in the Limousin”—displayed him as @@ -13224,15 +13183,15 @@ confused lights, hurrying clouds, fluttering branches, and trembling grass.</p> was an admirable picture in 1835, and it is admirable still. The fine old trees stand like huge pillars; the grass, drenched with rain, is of an intense green; nature seems to shudder as if in a fever. And through his whole life -Dupr was possessed by the lyrical fever of Romanticism. As the last +Dupré was possessed by the lyrical fever of Romanticism. As the last champion of Romanticism he bore the banner of the proud generation of 1830 through well-nigh two generations, and until his death in 1889 stood on the ground where Paul Huet had first placed French landscape; but Huet -attained his pictorial effects by combining and by calculation, while Dupr +attained his pictorial effects by combining and by calculation, while Dupré is always a great, true, and convincing poet. Every evening he was seen in L’Isle Adam, where he settled in 1849, wandering alone across the fields, even in drenching rain. One of his pupils declares that once, when they -stood at night on the bridge of the Oise during a storm, Dupr broke into +stood at night on the bridge of the Oise during a storm, Dupré broke into a paroxysm of tears at the magnificent spectacle. He was a fanatic rejoicing in storms, one who watched the tragedies of the heaven with quivering emotion, a passionate spirit consumed by his inward force, and, like his literary counterpart @@ -13257,10 +13216,10 @@ burst. He celebrates the commotion of the sky, nature in her angry majesty, and the most brilliant phenomena of atmospheric life. Rousseau’s highest aim was to avoid painting for effect, and Corot only cared for grace of tone; a picture of his consists “of a little grey and a certain <i>je ne sais quoi</i>.” Jules -Dupr is peculiarly the colour-poet of the group, and sounds the most resonant +Dupré is peculiarly the colour-poet of the group, and sounds the most resonant notes in the romantic concert. His light does not beam in gently vibrating -silver tones, but is concentrated in glaring red suns. “<i>Ah, la lumire, la -lumire!</i>” Beside the flaming hues of evening red he paints the darkest +silver tones, but is concentrated in glaring red suns. “<i>Ah, la lumière, la +lumière!</i>” Beside the flaming hues of evening red he paints the darkest shadows. He revels in contrasts. His favourite key of colour is that of a ghostly sunset, against which a gnarled oak or the dark sail of a tiny vessel rises like a phantom.</p> @@ -13270,19 +13229,19 @@ and hears the roll and resonance of the moon-silvered tide. He delights in night, rain, and storm. Corot’s gentle rivulets become a rolling and whirling flood in his pictures, a headlong stream carrying all before it. The wind no longer sighs, but blusters across the valley, spreading ruin in its path. The -clouds which in Corot are silvery and gentle, like white lambs, are in Dupr +clouds which in Corot are silvery and gentle, like white lambs, are in Dupré black and threatening, like demons of hell. In Corot the soft morning breeze -faintly agitates the tender clouds in the sky; in Dupr a damp, cold wind +faintly agitates the tender clouds in the sky; in Dupré a damp, cold wind of evening blows a spectral grey mist into the valley, and the hurricane tears apart the thunderclouds.</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> <p>“Wenn ich fern auf nackter Haide wallte,</p> -<p class="i05">Wo aus dmmernder Geklfte Schooss</p> -<p class="i05">Der Titanensang der Strme schallte</p> +<p class="i05">Wo aus dämmernder Geklüfte Schooss</p> +<p class="i05">Der Titanensang der Ströme schallte</p> <p class="i05">Und die Nacht der Wolken mich umschloss,</p> <p class="i05">Wenn der Sturm mit seinen Wetterwogen</p> -<p class="i05">Mir vorber durch die Berge fuhr</p> +<p class="i05">Mir vorüber durch die Berge fuhr</p> <p class="i05">Und des Himmels Flammen mich umflogen,</p> <p class="i05">Da erscheinst du, Seele der Natur.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> @@ -13304,8 +13263,8 @@ apart the thunderclouds.</p> <tr><td class="captionx">CHINTREUIL.   LANDSCAPE: MORNING.</td></tr></table> <p>The first of the brilliant pleiad who did not come from Paris itself is <i>Diaz</i>, -who in his youth worked with Dupr in the china manufactory of Svres. Of -noble Spanish origin—Narciso Virgilio Diaz de la Pea ran his high-sounding +who in his youth worked with Dupré in the china manufactory of Sèvres. Of +noble Spanish origin—Narciso Virgilio Diaz de la Peña ran his high-sounding name in full—he was born in Bordeaux in 1807, after his parents had taken refuge from the Revolution across the Pyrenees, and in his @@ -13316,7 +13275,7 @@ little of Fortuny. Beside the great genius wrestling for truth and the virile seriousness of Rousseau, beside the gloomy, -powerful landscapes of Dupr +powerful landscapes of Dupré with their deep, impassioned poetry, the sparkling and flattering pictures of Diaz seem to @@ -13343,7 +13302,7 @@ company, the <i>enfant terrible</i>, the centre of all that was witty and spirit the circle of Fontainebleau.</p> <p>He, too, was long acquainted with poverty, as were his great brother-artists -Rousseau and Dupr. Shortly after his birth he lost his father. +Rousseau and Dupré. Shortly after his birth he lost his father. Madame Diaz, left entirely without means, came to Paris, where she supported herself by giving lessons in Spanish and Italian. When he was ten years old the boy was left an orphan alone in the vast city. A Protestant clergyman in @@ -13353,8 +13312,8 @@ the wood he was bitten by a poisonous insect, and from that time he was obliged to hobble through life with a wooden leg, which he called his <i>pilon</i>. From his fifteenth year he worked, at first as a lame errand boy, and afterwards <span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> -as a painter on china, together with Dupr, Raffet, and Cabat, in the -manufactory of Svres. Before long he was dismissed as incompetent, for +as a painter on china, together with Dupré, Raffet, and Cabat, in the +manufactory of Sèvres. Before long he was dismissed as incompetent, for one day he took it into his head to decorate a vase entirely after his own taste. Then poverty began once more. Often when the evening drew on he wandered about the boulevards under cover of the darkness, opened the @@ -13434,7 +13393,7 @@ his head like the waves of the sea, the blue heaven vanished, and everything was shrouded. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span> -The sunbeams fell like the rain of Dana through the green leaves, and the +The sunbeams fell like the rain of Danaë through the green leaves, and the moss lay like a velvet mantle on the granite piles of rock. He settled down like a hermit in his verdant hollow. The leaves quivered green and red, and covered the ground, shining like gold in the furtive rays of the evening sun. @@ -13489,14 +13448,14 @@ his dark, shining eyes for ever, at dawn on 18th November 1876, a breath of sadness went through the tree-tops of the old royal forest of Fontainebleau. The forest had lost its hermit, the busy woodsman who penetrated farthest into its green depths; and it preserves his memory gratefully. Only go, in -October, through the copse of Bas Brau, lose yourself amid the magnificent +October, through the copse of Bas Bréau, lose yourself amid the magnificent <span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span> foliage of these century-old trees that glimmer with a thousand hues like gigantic bouquets, dark green and brown, or golden and purple, and at the sight of this brilliant gleam of autumn tones you can only say, A Diaz!</p> <p>The youngest of the group, <i>Daubigny</i>, came when the battle was over, and -plays a slighter <i>rle</i>, since he cannot be reckoned any longer among the +plays a slighter <i>rôle</i>, since he cannot be reckoned any longer among the discoverers; nevertheless he has a physiognomy of his own, and one of peculiar charm. The others were painters of nature; Daubigny is the painter of the country. If one goes from Munich to Dachau to see the apple trees blossom @@ -13531,7 +13490,7 @@ older artists, their magnificent simplicity in treating objects: the feminine element, the susceptibility to natural beauty, preponderates in him, and not the virile, creative power of embodiment, which at once discovers in itself a telling force of expression for the image received from nature. He seeks -after no poetic emotions, like Dupr; he has not the profound, penetrative +after no poetic emotions, like Dupré; he has not the profound, penetrative eye for nature, like Rousseau; in his charm and amiability he approaches Corot, except that mythological beings are no longer at home in his landscapes. They would take no pleasure in this odour of damp grass, the smell @@ -13542,8 +13501,8 @@ Daubigny, heavier and technically better equipped, has more power and less grace; he dreams less and paints more. Corot made the apotheosis of nature: his silvery grey clouds bore him to the Elysian fields, where nothing had the heaviness of earth and everything melted in poetic vapour. Daubigny, -borne by no wings of Icarus, seems like Antus beside him; he is bodily -wedded to the earth. Dupr made the earth a mirror of the tears and passions +borne by no wings of Icarus, seems like Antæus beside him; he is bodily +wedded to the earth. Dupré made the earth a mirror of the tears and passions of men. Corot surprised her before the peasant is up of a morning, in the hours when she belongs altogether to the nymphs and the fairies. In Daubigny the earth has once more become the possession of human beings. It is not @@ -13557,7 +13516,7 @@ at the river’s brink betray that fishers are in the neighbourhood; even wh they are empty his little houses suggest that their inhabitants are not far off, that they are but at work in the field and may come back at any moment. In Rousseau man is merely an atom of the infinite; here he is the lord of creation. -Rousseau makes an effect which is simple and powerful, Dupr one which is +Rousseau makes an effect which is simple and powerful, Dupré one which is impassioned and striking, Corot is divine, Diaz charming, and Daubigny idyllic, intimate, and familiar. He closed a period and enjoyed the fruits of what the others had called into being. One does not admire him—one loves @@ -13598,7 +13557,7 @@ with a magical charm of peace, regions with the moon above them, shedding its clear, silver light—refined etchings which assure him a place of honour in the history of modern etching. The painter of the banks of the Oise saw everything with the curiosity and the love of a child, and remained always -a nave artist in spite of all his dexterity.</p> +a naïve artist in spite of all his dexterity.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span></p> @@ -13606,7 +13565,7 @@ a nave artist in spite of all his dexterity.</p> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:1044px; height:533px" src="images/img397.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80">ROSA BONHEUR.</td> <td class="tcr f80">THE HORSE-FAIR.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of Mr. L. H. Lefvre, the owner of the copyright.</i>)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of Mr. L. H. Lefèvre, the owner of the copyright.</i>)</td></tr></table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span></p> <p class="pt2"> </p> @@ -13633,18 +13592,18 @@ clouds, or when a shaft of light quivers for an instant through a dense mist; the effect of green fields touched by the first soft beams of the sun, or that of a rainbow spanning a fresh spring landscape. His pupil <i>Jean Desbrosses</i> was the painter of hills and valleys. <i>Achard</i> followed Rousseau in his pictures -of lonely, austere, and mournful regions. <i>Franais</i> painted familiar corners +of lonely, austere, and mournful regions. <i>Français</i> painted familiar corners in the neighbourhood of Paris with grace, although more heavily than Corot, and without the shining light which is poured through the works of that rare genius. The pictures of <i>Harpignies</i> are rather dry, and betray a heavy hand. He is rougher than his great predecessors, less seductive and indeed rather staid, but he has a convincing reality, and is loyal and simple. He is valuable as an honest, genial artist, a many-sided and sure-footed man of -talent, somewhat inclined to Classicism. <i>mile Breton</i>, the brother of Jules, +talent, somewhat inclined to Classicism. <i>Émile Breton</i>, the brother of Jules, delighted in the agitation of the elements, wild, out-of-the-way regions, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> harsh climate. His execution is broad, his tones forcible, and he has both -simplicity and largeness. Apart from his big, gloomy landscapes, <i>Lonce +simplicity and largeness. Apart from his big, gloomy landscapes, <i>Léonce Chabry</i> has also painted sea-pieces, with dark waves dashing against the cleft rocks.</p> @@ -13667,7 +13626,7 @@ themselves with adapting to French taste the light and superficial art of Nicolaus Berghem. Demarne, one of the last heirs of this Dutch artist, brought, even in the period of the Revolution, a little sunshine, blitheness, and country air amongst the large pictures in the classical manner. The -animal painting of the <i>ancien rgime</i> expired in his arms, and the “noble +animal painting of the <i>ancien régime</i> expired in his arms, and the “noble style” of Classicism obstructed the rise of the new animal painting. The fact that the great Jupiter, father of gods and men, assumed the form of a four-footed creature when he led weak, feminine beings astray had no doubt @@ -13683,12 +13642,12 @@ which the old tragedians were fond of turning to account—are occasionally allowed to exist in the pictures of Bertin and Paul Flandrin. <i>Carle Vernet</i>, who composed cavalry charges and hunting scenes, had not talent enough seriously to make a breach, or to find disciples to follow his lead. -<i>Gricault</i>, the forerunner of Romanticism, was likewise the first eminent +<i>Géricault</i>, the forerunner of Romanticism, was likewise the first eminent painter of horses; and although his great “Raft of the Medusa” is heavily fettered by the system of Classicism, his jockey pictures and horse races are as fresh, as vivid, and as unforced as if they had been painted yesterday instead of seventy years ago. In dashing animation, verve, and temperament -Gricault stands alone in these pictures; he is the very opposite of Raymond +Géricault stands alone in these pictures; he is the very opposite of Raymond Brascassat, who was the first specialist of animal pieces with a landscape setting, and was much praised in the thirties on account of his neat and ornamental style of treatment. <i>Brascassat</i> was the Winterhalter of animal @@ -13702,7 +13661,7 @@ reproduction of fact, made with all the accuracy possible.</p> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:649px; height:392px" src="images/img401.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80">CHARLES JACQUE.</td> <td class="tcr f80">THE RETURN TO THE BYRE (ETCHING).</td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of M. Frdric Jacque, the owner of the copyright.</i>)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of M. Frédéric Jacque, the owner of the copyright.</i>)</td></tr></table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span></p> @@ -13711,11 +13670,11 @@ reproduction of fact, made with all the accuracy possible.</p> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80">CHARLES JACQUE.</td> <td class="tcr f80">A FLOCK OF SHEEP ON THE ROAD.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of M. Frdric Jacque, the owner of the copyright.</i>)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of M. Frédéric Jacque, the owner of the copyright.</i>)</td></tr></table> <p>It was only when the landscape school of Fontainebleau had initiated a new method of vision, feeling, and expression that France produced a new -great painter of animals. As Dupr and Rousseau tower over their predecessors +great painter of animals. As Dupré and Rousseau tower over their predecessors Cabat and Flandrin in landscape, so <i>Constant Troyon</i> rises above Brascassat in animal painting. In the latter there may be found a scrupulous pedantic observation in union with a thin, polished, academic, and carefully @@ -13725,10 +13684,10 @@ parallel in the history of art. Brascassat belongs to the same category as Denner, Troyon to that of Frans Hals and Brouwer.</p> <p>There would be no purpose in saying anything of his labours in the china -manufactory of Svres, of his industrial works, and of the little classical views +manufactory of Sèvres, of his industrial works, and of the little classical views with which he made a first appearance in the Salon in 1833, or of the impulse which he received from Roqueplan. He first found his own powers when he -made the acquaintance of Thodore Rousseau and Jules Dupr, and migrated +made the acquaintance of Théodore Rousseau and Jules Dupré, and migrated with them into the forest of Fontainebleau. At the headquarters of the new school his ideas underwent a revolution. Here, in the first instance, as a landscape painter, he was attracted by the massive forms of cattle, which @@ -13766,7 +13725,7 @@ he sends his heavy, fattened droves in the afternoon across field-paths bright in the sunlight and dark green meadows, or places them beneath a sky where dense thunderclouds are swiftly rolling up. Troyon is no poet, but a born painter, belonging to the irrepressibly forceful family of Jordaens and Courbet, -a <i>matre peintre</i> of strength and plastic genius, as healthy as he is splendid +a <i>maître peintre</i> of strength and plastic genius, as healthy as he is splendid in colour. His “Cow scratching Herself” and his “Return to the Farm” will always be counted amongst the most forcible animal pictures of all ages.</p> @@ -13792,8 +13751,8 @@ the history of art that a woman has painted pictures so good as the “Hay Harvest in Auvergne” of 1853, with its brutes which are almost life-size, or the “Horse Fair” of 1855, which is perhaps her most brilliant work, and for which she made studies, going in man’s clothes for eighteen months, at all the -Parisian <i>manges</i>, amongst stable-boys and horse-dealers. Until her death, -from the Chteau By, between Thomery and Fontainebleau, she carried on an +Parisian <i>manèges</i>, amongst stable-boys and horse-dealers. Until her death, +from the Château By, between Thomery and Fontainebleau, she carried on an extensive transpontine export, and her pictures are by no means the worst of those which find their way from the Continent to England and America. She was perhaps the only feminine celebrity of the century who painted her @@ -13804,8 +13763,8 @@ of power. Rosa Bonheur is an admirable painter with largeness of style and beauty of drawing, whose artistic position is between Troyon and Brascassat.</p> -<p>Troyon’s only pupil was <i>mile van Marcke</i>, half a Belgian, who met the -elder master in Svres, and for a long time worked by his side at Fontainebleau. +<p>Troyon’s only pupil was <i>Émile van Marcke</i>, half a Belgian, who met the +elder master in Sèvres, and for a long time worked by his side at Fontainebleau. He united the occupation of a painter with that of a landed proprietor. The cattle which he bred on an extensive scale at his property, Bouttencourt in Normandy, had a celebrity amongst French landowners, as he had the reputation @@ -13820,7 +13779,7 @@ wide sky, which at the horizon imperceptibly melts into the sea.</p> though to-day his name is almost, if not entirely forgotten. He was fond of painting hunting scenes, and is not wanting in life and movement; but he is too impersonal to play a part in the history of painting. Having named -him, some mention must likewise be made of <i>Eugne Lambert</i>, the painter of +him, some mention must likewise be made of <i>Eugène Lambert</i>, the painter of cats, and <i>Palizzi</i>, who painted goats. Lambert, who was fond of introducing his little heroes as the actors of comical scenes, is by admission the chief amongst all those who were honoured amongst the different nations with the title of @@ -13828,11 +13787,11 @@ all those who were honoured amongst the different nations with the title of true son of the wild Abruzzo hills, delighted, like his compatriots Morelli and Michetti, in the blazing light of noon, shining over rocky heights, and throwing <span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> -a dazzle of gold on the dark green copse. <i>Lanon</i>, a rather arid painter, though +a dazzle of gold on the dark green copse. <i>Lançon</i>, a rather arid painter, though a draughtsman with a broad and masculine stroke, was the greatest descendant of Delacroix in the representation of tigers, lions, bears, and hippopotamuses. An unobtrusive artist, though one of very genial talent, was <i>Charles Jacque</i>, -the Troyon of sheep. He has been compared with the <i>rageur</i> of Bas Brau, +the Troyon of sheep. He has been compared with the <i>rageur</i> of Bas Bréau, the proud oak which stands alone in a clearing. A man of forcible character, over whom age had no power, he survived until 1894 as the last representative of the noble school of Barbizon. He has painted sheep in flocks or separately, @@ -13845,14 +13804,14 @@ sea, murmuring brooks, and quiet haunts of the wood. Like Millet, he had in an eminent degree the gift of simplification, the greatest quality that an artist can have. With three or four strokes he could plant a figure on its feet, give life to an animal, or construct a landscape. He was the most intimate -friend of Jean Franois Millet, and painted part of what Millet painted also.</p> +friend of Jean François Millet, and painted part of what Millet painted also.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span></p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:258px; height:35px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img0.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p class="center chap">CHAPTER XXVI</p> -<p class="center chap2">JEAN FRANOIS MILLET</p> +<p class="center chap2">JEAN FRANÇOIS MILLET</p> <p class="noind pt1"><span class="chap1 sc">Whence</span> has <i>Millet</i> come?</p> @@ -13873,7 +13832,7 @@ of intimate landscape. Misunderstood in the beginning, it proclaimed for the first time the new gospel of art before which the people of all nations bow at the present date. What others did later was merely to advance on the path opened by Millet. And as time passes the figure of this powerful man -shines more and more brilliantly. The form of Jean Franois Millet rises so +shines more and more brilliantly. The form of Jean François Millet rises so powerfully, so imperiously, and so suddenly that one might almost imagine him to have come from Ibsen’s third kingdom; for he is without forerunners in art. An attempt has been made to bring him into relation with the social @@ -13896,7 +13855,7 @@ greatness.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:531px; height:683px" src="images/img407.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>S. Low & Co.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">JEAN FRANOIS MILLET.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">JEAN FRANÇOIS MILLET.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.</td></tr></table> <p>Even the circumstances over which he triumphed necessitated his being @@ -13927,7 +13886,7 @@ stood before the world like the first man in the day of creation. Everything seemed new to him; he was charmed and astonished, and a wild flood of impressions burst in upon him. He did not come under the influence of any tradition, but approached art like the man in the age of stone who first -scratched the outline of a mammoth on a piece of ivory, or like the primval +scratched the outline of a mammoth on a piece of ivory, or like the primæval Greek who, according to the legend, invented painting by making a likeness of his beloved with a charred stick upon a wall. No one encouraged him in his first attempts. No one dreamt that this young man was destined to any @@ -13941,7 +13900,7 @@ when going to church. And he drew so correctly that every one recognised the likenesses. A family council was held upon the matter. His father brought one of his son’s drawings to a certain M. Mouchel in Cherbourg, a strange personage who had once been a painter and had the reputation of -being a connoisseur; and he was to decide whether Franois “had really +being a connoisseur; and he was to decide whether François “had really enough talent for painting to gain his bread by it.” So Millet, the farm-hand, was twenty when he received his first lessons in drawing. He was learning the A B C of art, but humanly speaking he was already Millet. What had @@ -14015,7 +13974,7 @@ of them afterwards as pornographists. But the attempt was vain, for he satisfied neither others nor himself. The peasant of Gruchy could not be piquant, easy, and charming; on the contrary, he remained helpless, awkward, and crude. “Your women bathing come from the cow-house” was the -appropriate remark of Diaz in reference to these pictures. When Burger-Thor, +appropriate remark of Diaz in reference to these pictures. When Burger-Thoré, who was the first to take notice of Millet, declared, on the occasion of “The Milkmaid” being exhibited in 1844, that Boucher himself was surpassed in this picture, the critic took a literary licence, because he had a human @@ -14078,7 +14037,7 @@ expressly appointed jury had then to decide from the ascending rings of smoke whether the new-comer was to be reckoned amongst the “Classicists” or the “Colourists.” Jacque was with one voice declared to be a “Colourist.” As to Millet’s relation to the schools, there was a discrepancy of opinion. -“<i>Eh bien</i>,” said Millet, “<i>si vous tes embarrasss, placez-moi dans la mienne</i>.” +“<i>Eh bien</i>,” said Millet, “<i>si vous êtes embarrassés, placez-moi dans la mienne</i>.” <span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span> Whereupon Diaz, as the others would not let this pass, cried: “Be quiet; it is a good retort, and the fellow looks powerful enough to found a school @@ -14089,7 +14048,7 @@ prophecy was fulfilled.</p> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:439px; height:614px" src="images/img413.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:444px; height:585px" src="images/img414.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Quantin, Paris.</i></td> -<td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Neurdein Frres, photo.</i></td></tr> +<td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Neurdein Frères, photo.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80">MILLET.</td> <td class="tcr f80">THE WINNOWER.</td> <td class="tcl f80">MILLET.</td> @@ -14107,9 +14066,9 @@ gave himself up to the work which in youth he had felt himself called to fulfil. Neither criticism, mockery, nor contempt could lead him any more astray; even if he had wished it, he would have been incapable of following the paths of official art. “<i>Mes critiques</i>,” said he as though by way of excuse, “<i>sont -gens instruits et de got, mais je ne peux me mettre dans leur peau, et comme je -n’ai jamais vu de ma vie autre chose que les champs, je tche de dire comme je -peux ce que j’y ai prouv +gens instruits et de goût, mais je ne peux me mettre dans leur peau, et comme je +n’ai jamais vu de ma vie autre chose que les champs, je tâche de dire comme je +peux ce que j’y ai éprouvé quand j’y travaillais</i>.” When such a man triumphs, when he succeeds in forcing upon @@ -14193,7 +14152,7 @@ first to offer him a large sum, buying his “Woodcutter” for four thousand francs, on the pretext that an American -was the purchaser. Dupr helped him to dispose of “The Gleaners” for +was the purchaser. Dupré helped him to dispose of “The Gleaners” for two thousand francs. An agreement which the picture-dealer Arthur Stevens, brother of Stevens the painter, concluded with him had to be dissolved six months afterwards, since Millet’s time had not yet come. At @@ -14216,11 +14175,11 @@ made too much noise, Jeanne, who was seven years old, would say with gravity, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span> “<i>Chut! Papa travaille.</i>” After the evening meal he danced his youngest boy upon his knee and told Norman tales, or they all went out together into the -forest, which the children called <i>la fort noire</i>, because it was so wild, gloomy, +forest, which the children called <i>la forêt noire</i>, because it was so wild, gloomy, and magnificent.</p> <p>Millet’s poverty was not quite so great as might be supposed from Sensier’s -book. Chintreuil, Thodore Rousseau, and many others were acquainted +book. Chintreuil, Théodore Rousseau, and many others were acquainted with poverty likewise, and bore it with courage. It may even be said that, all things considered, success came to Millet early. The real misfortune for an artist is to have had success, to have been rich, and later to see himself forgotten @@ -14233,9 +14192,9 @@ younger class of artists honoured him like a god. In the Salon of 1869 he was on the hanging committee. The picture-dealers, who had passed him by in earlier days, now beset his doors; he lived to see his “Woman with the Lamp” for which he had received a hundred and fifty francs, sold for thirty-eight -thousand five hundred at Richard’s sale. “<i>Allons, ils commencent comprendre -que c’est de la peinture serieuse.</i>” M. de Chennevires commissioned him to -take part in the paintings in the Panthon, and he began the work. But +thousand five hundred at Richard’s sale. “<i>Allons, ils commencent à comprendre +que c’est de la peinture serieuse.</i>” M. de Chennevières commissioned him to +take part in the paintings in the Panthéon, and he began the work. But strength was denied him; he was prostrated by a violent fever, and on 20th January 1875, at six o’clock in the morning, Millet was dead. He was then sixty.</p> @@ -14250,14 +14209,14 @@ then sixty.</p> far from Paris. It was a cold, dull morning, and there was mist and rain. Not many friends had come, only a few painters and critics. At eleven o’clock the procession was set in order. And it moved in the rain quickly over the -two <i>centimtres</i> from Barbizon to Chailly. Even those who had hastened +two <i>centimètres</i> from Barbizon to Chailly. Even those who had hastened from various villages, drawn by curiosity, could not half fill the church. But in Paris the announcement of death raised all the greater stir. When forty newspapers were displayed in a picture-dealer’s shop on the morning after his demise, all Paris assembled and the excitement was universal. In the critical notices he was named in the same breath with Watteau, Leonardo, Raphael, and Michael Angelo. The auction which was held soon afterwards -in the Htel Drouot for the disposal of the sketches which he had left behind +in the Hôtel Drouot for the disposal of the sketches which he had left behind him brought his family three hundred and twenty-one thousand francs. And in these days, the very drawings and pastels which were bought for six thousand francs immediately after his death have on the average risen in value to thirty @@ -14331,9 +14290,9 @@ life, its toil and trouble and exhaustion. He had not that easy spirit which Holbein’s “Dance of Death” might stand as motto for his whole work—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“ la sueur de ton visage</p> +<p>“À la sueur de ton visage</p> <p class="i05">Tu gagneras ta pauvre vie;</p> -<p class="i05">Aprs travail et long usage</p> +<p class="i05">Après travail et long usage</p> <p class="i05">Voici la mort qui te convie.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> @@ -14351,7 +14310,7 @@ Holbein’s “Dance of Death” might stand as motto for his whole <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 500px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:447px; height:586px" src="images/img423.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Neudein Frres, photo.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Neudein Frères, photo.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="captionx">MILLET.   BURNING WEEDS.</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">This grave and sad trait in Millet’s character sets him, for example, in abrupt @@ -14370,7 +14329,7 @@ body and spirit, and turns the image of God into an ugly, misshapen, and rheumatic thing; and perhaps he has been one-sided in seeing only this in the life of the peasant. Nevertheless, it is inapposite to cite as a parallel to Millet’s paintings of the peasant that cruel description of the rustic made in the time -of Louis <span class="sc">XIV</span> by Labruyre: “One sees scattered over the field dwarfed +of Louis <span class="sc">XIV</span> by Labruyère: “One sees scattered over the field dwarfed creatures that look like some strange kind of animal, black, withered, and sun-burnt, fastened to the earth, in which they grub with invincible stubbornness; they have something resembling articulate language, and when they raise @@ -14574,10 +14533,10 @@ making it fruitful and subservient to his own purposes.</p> <p>“Il marche dans la plaine immense,</p> <p class="i05">Va, vient, lance la graine au loin,</p> <p class="i05">Rouvre sa main et recommence;</p> -<p class="i05">Et je mdite, obscur tmoin,</p> -<p class="i05">Pendant que dployant ses voiles</p> -<p class="i05">L’ombre o se mle une rumeur</p> -<p class="i05">Semble largir jusqu’aux toiles</p> +<p class="i05">Et je médite, obscur témoin,</p> +<p class="i05">Pendant que déployant ses voiles</p> +<p class="i05">L’ombre où se mêle une rumeur</p> +<p class="i05">Semble élargir jusqu’aux étoiles</p> <p class="i05">Le geste auguste du semeur.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> @@ -14642,7 +14601,7 @@ and cites them continually in his letters. When he came to Paris he spent long hours in the galleries, not copying this or that portion of a picture, but fathoming works of art to their inmost core with a clear eye. In Cherbourg he devoured the whole of Vasari in the library, and read all he could find -about Drer, Leonardo, Michael Angelo, and Poussin. Even in Barbizon he +about Dürer, Leonardo, Michael Angelo, and Poussin. Even in Barbizon he remained throughout his whole life an eager reader. Shakespeare fills him with admiration; Theocritus and Burns are his favourite poets. “Theocritus makes it evident to me,” he says, “that one is never more Greek than when @@ -14670,35 +14629,35 @@ and Socrates is Socrates. Mingle them and they both lose, and become a mixture which is neither fish nor flesh. This was what brought about the decadence of modern art. “<i>Au lieu de naturaliser l’art, ils artialisent la nature.</i>” The Luxembourg Gallery had shown him that he ought not to go to -the theatre to create true art. “<i>Je voudrais que les tres que je reprsente aient -l’air vous leur position; et qu’il soit impossible d’imaginer qu’il leur puisse -venir l’ide d’tre autre chose que ce qu’ils sont. On est dans un milieu d’un -caractre ou d’un autre, mais celui qu’on adopte doit primer. On devrait tre -habitu ne recevoir de la nature ses impressions de quelque sorte qu’elles soient -et quelque temperament qu’on ait. Il faut tre imprgn et satur d’elle, et ne +the theatre to create true art. “<i>Je voudrais que les êtres que je représente aient +l’air voués à leur position; et qu’il soit impossible d’imaginer qu’il leur puisse +venir à l’idée d’être autre chose que ce qu’ils sont. On est dans un milieu d’un +caractère ou d’un autre, mais celui qu’on adopte doit primer. On devrait être +habitué à ne recevoir de la nature ses impressions de quelque sorte qu’elles soient +et quelque temperament qu’on ait. Il faut être imprégné et saturé d’elle, et ne penser que ce qu’elle vous fait penser. Il faut croire qu’elle est assez riche pour -fournir tout. Et o puiserait-on, sinon la source? Pourquoi donc -perptuit proposer aux gens, comme but suprme atteindre, ce que de hautes -intelligences ont dcouvert en elle. Voila donc qu’on rendrait les productions -de quelques-uns le type et le but de toutes les productions venir. Les gens de -gnie sont comme dous de la baguette divinatoire; les uns dcouvrent que, dans +fournir à tout. Et où puiserait-on, sinon à la source? Pourquoi donc à +perpétuité proposer aux gens, comme but suprême à atteindre, ce que de hautes +intelligences ont découvert en elle. Voila donc qu’on rendrait les productions +de quelques-uns le type et le but de toutes les productions à venir. Les gens de +génie sont comme doués de la baguette divinatoire; les uns découvrent que, dans la nature, ici se trouve cela, les autres autre chose ailleurs, selon le temperament -de leur flair. Leurs productions vous assurent dans cette ide que celui-l trouve -qui est fait pour trouver, mais il est plaisant de voir, quand le trsor est dterr -et enlev, que des gens viennent perptuit gratter cette place-l. Il faut savoir -dcouvrir o il y a des truffes. Un chien qui n’a pas de flair ne peut que faire -triste chasse, puisqu’il ne va qu’en voyant chasser celui qui sent la bte et qui +de leur flair. Leurs productions vous assurent dans cette idée que celui-là trouve +qui est fait pour trouver, mais il est plaisant de voir, quand le trésor est déterré +et enlevé, que des gens viennent à perpétuité gratter à cette place-là. Il faut savoir +découvrir où il y a des truffes. Un chien qui n’a pas de flair ne peut que faire +triste chasse, puisqu’il ne va qu’en voyant chasser celui qui sent la bête et qui naturellement va le premier.... Un immense orgueil ou une immense sottise -seulement peut faire croire certains hommes qu’ils sont de force redresser les -prtendus manques de got et les erreurs de la nature. Les œuvres que nous -aimons, ce n’est qu’ cause qu’elles procdent d’elle. Les autres ne sont que des -œuvres pdantes et vides. On peut partir de tous les points pour arriver au -sublime, et tout est propre l’exprimer, si on a une assez haute vise. Alors ce</i> +seulement peut faire croire à certains hommes qu’ils sont de force à redresser les +prétendus manques de goût et les erreurs de la nature. Les œuvres que nous +aimons, ce n’est qu’à cause qu’elles procèdent d’elle. Les autres ne sont que des +œuvres pédantes et vides. On peut partir de tous les points pour arriver au +sublime, et tout est propre à l’exprimer, si on a une assez haute visée. Alors ce</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span> -<i>que vous aimez avec le plus d’emportement et de passion devient votre beau vous +<i>que vous aimez avec le plus d’emportement et de passion devient votre beau à vous et qui s’impose aux autres. Que chacun apporte le sien. L’impression force -l’expression. Tout l’arsenal de la nature est la disposition des hommes. Qui -oserait dcider qu’une pomme de terre est infrieure une grenade.</i>”</p> +l’expression. Tout l’arsenal de la nature est à la disposition des hommes. Qui +oserait décider qu’une pomme de terre est inférieure à une grenade.</i>”</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:748px; height:608px" src="images/img431.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -14724,7 +14683,7 @@ phrase, “Let us, ultimately, set up truth for beauty.” For the art o nineteenth century Millet’s words mean the erection of a new principle, of a principle that had the effect of a novel force, that gave the consciousness of a new energy of artistic endeavour, that was a return to that which the -earth was to Antus. And by formulating this principle—the principle that +earth was to Antæus. And by formulating this principle—the principle that <span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span> everything is beautiful so far as it is true, and nothing beautiful so far as it is untrue, that beauty is the blossom, but truth the tree—by clearly formulating @@ -14733,7 +14692,7 @@ and, indeed, of European art, almost more than by his own pictures.</p> <p>For—and here we come to the limitations of his talent—has Millet as a painter really achieved what he aimed at? No less a person than Fromentin -has put this question in his <i>Matres d’autrefois</i>. On his visit to Holland he +has put this question in his <i>Maîtres d’autrefois</i>. On his visit to Holland he chances for a moment to speak of Millet, and he writes:—</p> <p>“An entirely original painter, high-minded and disposed to brooding, @@ -14776,7 +14735,7 @@ them as a painter?”</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:745px; height:549px" src="images/img433.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Neurdein Frres, photo.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80" colspan="2"><i>Neurdein Frères, photo.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">MILLET.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE RAINBOW.</td></tr></table> @@ -14794,7 +14753,7 @@ pencil, and charcoal, are astonishing through their eminent delicacy of technique. The simpler the medium the greater is the effect achieved. “The Woman Churning” in the Louvre; the quietude of his men reaping, and of his woman-reaper beside the heaps of corn; “The Water Carriers,” who -are like Greek kanephor; the peasant upon the potato-field, lighting his +are like Greek kanephoræ; the peasant upon the potato-field, lighting his pipe with a flint and a piece of tinder; the woman sewing by the lamp beside her sleeping child; the vine-dresser resting; the little shepherdess sitting dreamily on a bundle of straw near her flock at pasture,—in all these works @@ -14894,7 +14853,7 @@ only, and never as a painter. His painting is often anxiously careful, heavy, and thick, and looks as if it had been filled in with masonry; it is dirty and dismal, and wanting in free and airy tones. Sometimes it is brutal and hard, and occasionally it is curiously indecisive in effect. Even his best -pictures—“The Angelus” not excepted—give no sthetic pleasure to the +pictures—“The Angelus” not excepted—give no æsthetic pleasure to the eye. The most ordinary fault in his painting is that it is soft, greasy, and woolly. He is not light enough with what should be light, nor fleeting enough with what is fleeting. And this defect is especially felt in his treatment of @@ -15011,7 +14970,7 @@ exhibition of his works, and quietly suffered the rejections of the hanging committee and the derision of the public. Courbet blustered, beat the big drum, threw himself into forcible postures like a strong man juggling with cannon-balls, and announced in the press that he was the only serious artist -of the century. No one could ever <i>embter le bourgeois</i> with such success, no +of the century. No one could ever <i>embêter le bourgeois</i> with such success, no one has called forth such a howl of passion, no one so complacently surrendered his private life to the curiosity of the great public, with the swaggering attitude of an athlete displaying his muscles in the circus. As regards this @@ -15079,8 +15038,8 @@ he has done a serviceable day’s work.</p> <tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="caption" colspan="2">PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF AS A YOUTH.</td></tr></table> -<p>Gustave Courbet, the strong son of Franche-Comt, was born in 1819, in -Ornans, a little town near Besanon. Like his friend and fellow-countryman +<p>Gustave Courbet, the strong son of Franche-Comté, was born in 1819, in +Ornans, a little town near Besançon. Like his friend and fellow-countryman Proudhon, the socialist, he had a strain of German blood in his veins, and in their outward appearance it gave them both something Teutonic, rugged, and heavy, contrasting with French ease and elegance. On his @@ -15090,7 +15049,7 @@ like black diamonds. A strong man, who had never been stinted, he was of medium height, broad-shouldered, bluff, ruddy like a slaughterman, and, as the years passed, disposed to acquire a more liberal circumference of body. He went about working like Sisyphus, and never without a short pipe in his -mouth, the classic <i>brle-gueule</i>, loaded with strong caporal. His movements +mouth, the classic <i>brûle-gueule</i>, loaded with strong caporal. His movements were broad and heavy, and, being a little short in his breathing, he wheezed when he was excited, and perspired over his painting. His dress was comfortable, but not elegant; and his head was formed for a cap rather than @@ -15126,7 +15085,7 @@ man, who made free use of the drastic slang of the studios.</p> <p>“His notable features,” writes -Thophile Silvestre of Courbet at this +Théophile Silvestre of Courbet at this time,—“his notable features seem as though they had been modelled from an Assyrian bas-relief. His @@ -15172,7 +15131,7 @@ veneration. As for M. Raphael, there is no doubt that he has painted some interesting portraits, but I cannot find any ideas in him. And the artistic kin, the heirs, or more properly the slaves of this great man, are really preceptors of the lowest art. What do they teach us? Nothing. A good -picture will never come from their <i>cole des Beaux-Arts</i>. The most precious +picture will never come from their <i>École des Beaux-Arts</i>. The most precious thing is the originality, the independence of an artist. Schools have no right to exist; there are only painters. Independently of system and without attaching myself to any party, I have studied the art of the old masters and @@ -15186,7 +15145,7 @@ of my own, not merely to be a painter, but a man also—in a word, to practise living art is the compass of my design. I am not only a socialist, but also a democrat and a republican—that is to say, a supporter of every revolution; and moreover, a sheer realist, which means a loyal adherent -to the <i>vrit vraie</i>. But the principle of realism is the negation of the ideal. +to the <i>vérité vraie</i>. But the principle of realism is the negation of the ideal. And following all that comes from this negation of the ideal, I shall arrive at the emancipation of the individual, and, finally, at democracy. Realism, in its essence, is democratic art. It can only exist by the representation of @@ -15255,7 +15214,7 @@ belonging to the year 1848, made a nearer approach to his realistic aim, and with the date 1849 there are seven portraits, landscapes, and pictures from popular national life: “The Painter,” “M. H. T—— looking over Engravings,” “The Vintage in Ornans below the Roche du Mont,” “The -Valley of the Bue seen from the Roche du Mont,” “View of the Chteau of +Valley of the Bue seen from the Roche du Mont,” “View of the Château of Saint-Denis,” “Evening in the Village of Scey-en-Varay,” and “Peasants returning from Mass near Flagey.” All these works had passed the doors of the Salon without demur.</p> @@ -15274,7 +15233,7 @@ Courbet transferred his studio to the barracks and made sketches by torch-light. But he had reckoned without the police; scarcely was the picture finished before it was seized, as the Government recognised in it, for reasons which did not appear, “an incitement to the people of the town.” This -was after the <i>coup d’tat</i> of 1851.</p> +was after the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851.</p> <p>So Courbet’s manifesto was not “The Fire in Paris.” “The Stone-breakers,” two men in the dress of artisans, in a plain evening landscape, @@ -15289,7 +15248,7 @@ with a scene from Courbet’s native town. Courbet, just arrived, is alighti from a carriage in his travelling costume, looking composedly about him with a pipe in his mouth. A respectable prosperous gentleman, accompanied by a servant in livery, who is carrying his overcoat, is stretching out his hand -to him. This gentleman is M. Bryas, the Mcenas of Ornans, who for long +to him. This gentleman is M. Bryas, the Mæcenas of Ornans, who for long was Courbet’s only patron, and who had a whim for having his portrait taken by forty Parisian painters in order to learn the “manners” of the various artists. And there was further to be seen the “Demoiselles de Village” of @@ -15337,13 +15296,13 @@ away and was not to be recaptured.</p> <p>Courbet did not trouble himself over such ridicule, but painted quietly on, the many-sidedness of his talent soon giving him a firm seat in every saddle. After the scandal of the separate exhibition of 1855 he was excluded -from the Salon until 1861, and during this time exhibited in Paris and Besanon +from the Salon until 1861, and during this time exhibited in Paris and Besançon upon his own account. “The Funeral at Ornans” was followed by “The Return from Market,” a party of peasants on the high-road, and in 1860 by “The Return from the Conference,” in which a number of French country priests have celebrated their meeting with a hearty lunch and set out on the way back in a condition which is far too jovial. In 1861, when the gates of the -Champs Elyses were thrown open to him once more, he received the medal +Champs Elysées were thrown open to him once more, he received the medal for his “Battle of the Stags,” and regularly contributed to the Salon until 1870. In these years he attempted pictures with many figures less frequently, and painted by preference hunting and animal pieces, landscapes, and the @@ -15359,11 +15318,11 @@ sixties.</p> <p>These works gradually made him so well known that after 1866 his pictures came to have a considerable sale. The critics began to take him seriously. -Castagnary made his dbut in the <i>Sicle</i> with a study of Courbet; Champfleury, +Castagnary made his début in the <i>Siècle</i> with a study of Courbet; Champfleury, the apostle of literary realism, devoted to him a whole series of -<i>feuilletons</i> in the <i>Messager de l’Assemble</i>, and from his intercourse with him +<i>feuilletons</i> in the <i>Messager de l’Assemblée</i>, and from his intercourse with him Proudhon derived the fundamental principles of his book on Realism. The -son of Franche-Comt triumphed, and there was a beam in his laughing eyes, +son of Franche-Comté triumphed, and there was a beam in his laughing eyes, always like those of a deer. His talent began more and more to unfold its wings in the sun of success, and his power of production seemed inexhaustible. When the custom arose of @@ -15407,7 +15366,7 @@ followed upon the boulevards.</p> before, and he stretched his powerful limbs, prepared to do battle against all existing opinions. Naturally the events of the following years found no idle spectator in such a firebrand as Courbet; and accordingly he rushed into -those follies which embittered the evening of his life. The <i>matre peintre +those follies which embittered the evening of his life. The <i>maître peintre d’Ornans</i> became Courbet <i>le colonnard</i>. First came the sensational protest with which he returned to the Emperor Napoleon the Order of the Legion of Honour. Four weeks after Courbet had plunged into this affair the war @@ -15415,12 +15374,12 @@ broke out. Eight weeks later came Sedan and the proclamation of the Republic, and shortly afterwards the siege of Paris and the insurrection. On 4th September 1870 the Provisional Government appointed him Director of the Fine Arts. Afterwards he became a member of the Commune, and -dominated everywhere, with the <i>brle-gueule</i> in his mouth, by the power of his +dominated everywhere, with the <i>brûle-gueule</i> in his mouth, by the power of his voice; and France has to thank him for the rescue of a large number of her most famous treasures of art. He had the rich collections of Thiers placed in the Louvre, to protect them from the rough and ready violence of the populace. But to save the Luxembourg he sacrificed the column of the -Vendme. When the Commune fell, however, Courbet alone was held responsible +Vendôme. When the Commune fell, however, Courbet alone was held responsible for the destruction of the column. He was brought before the court-martial <span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span> of Versailles, and, although Thiers undertook his defence, he was @@ -15438,10 +15397,10 @@ take part in the exhibition.</p> <p>Soon after this an action was brought against him, on the initiative of certain reactionary papers, for the payment of damages connected with the -overthrow of the Vendme column, and the painter lost his case. For the +overthrow of the Vendôme column, and the painter lost his case. For the recovery of these damages, which were assessed at three hundred and thirty-four thousand francs, the Government brought to the hammer his furniture -and the pictures that were in his studio, at a compulsory sale at the Htel +and the pictures that were in his studio, at a compulsory sale at the Hôtel Drouot, where they fetched the absurdly trifling figure of twelve thousand one hundred and eighteen francs fifty centimes. The loss of his case drove him from France to Switzerland. He gave the town of Vevay, where he settled, @@ -15451,7 +15410,7 @@ towards him. But the artist was crushed in him. “They have killed me,” he said; “I feel that I shall never do anything good again.” And thus the jovial, laughing Courbet, that honoured leader of a brilliant pleiad of disciples, the friend and companion of Corot, Decamps, Gustave -Planch, Baudelaire, Thophile Gautier, Silvestre, Proudhon, and Champfleury; +Planché, Baudelaire, Théophile Gautier, Silvestre, Proudhon, and Champfleury; the enthusiastic patriot and idol of the fickle Parisians, passed his last years in melancholy solitude, forgotten by his adherents and scorned by his adversaries. He was attacked by a disease of the liver, and privation, @@ -15486,7 +15445,7 @@ the subject of the last picture that he painted in Switzerland. Far from home <span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span> and amid indifferent strangers he closed his eyes, which had once been so brilliant, in endless grief of spirit. The apostle of Realism died of -a broken heart, the herculean son of Franche-Comt could not suffer +a broken heart, the herculean son of Franche-Comté could not suffer disillusionment. Courbet passed away, more or less forgotten, upon New Year’s Eve in 1877, in that chilly hour of morning when the lake which he had learnt to love trembles beneath the first beams of the sun. It was @@ -15528,13 +15487,13 @@ that the most extravagant fancy could not descend to such a degree of jejune triviality and repulsive -hideousness. In a <i>revue d’anne</i> +hideousness. In a <i>revue d’année</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span> -produced at the Odon, the authors, Philoxne Hoyer and Thodore de +produced at the Odéon, the authors, Philoxène Hoyer and Théodore de Banville, make “a realist” say—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Faire vrai ce n’est rien pour tre raliste,</p> +<p>“Faire vrai ce n’est rien pour être réaliste,</p> <p class="i05">C’est faire laid qu’il faut! Or, monsieur, s’il vous plait,</p> <p class="i05">Tout ce que je dessine est horriblement laid!</p> <p class="i05">Ma peinture est affreuse, et, pour qu’elle soit vraie,</p> @@ -15543,7 +15502,7 @@ Banville, make “a realist” say—</p> <p class="i05">Les fillettes avec de la barbe au menton,</p> <p class="i05">Les trognes de Varasque et de coquecigrues,</p> <p class="i05">Les dorillons, les cors aux pieds et les verrues!</p> -<p class="i05">Voil le vrai!”</p> +<p class="i05">Voilà le vrai!”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -15552,7 +15511,7 @@ Banville, make “a realist” say—</p> <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">COURBET.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE HIND ON THE SNOW.</td></tr></table> -<p>So it went on through the sixties also. When the Empress Eugnie +<p>So it went on through the sixties also. When the Empress Eugénie passed through the exhibition on the opening day of the Salon of 1866, with an elegant walking-stick in her hand, she was so indignant at Courbet’s “Naked Women” that the picture had to be immediately removed. In the @@ -15650,7 +15609,7 @@ nature, as old Navez, the pupil of David, was in the habit of saying. Courbet was honest, and he was also a somewhat unwieldy being, and therefore his painting too has something bluff and cumbrous. But where in all French art is there such a sound painter, so sure of his effects and with such -a large bravura, a <i>matre peintre</i> who was so many-sided, extending his +a large bravura, a <i>maître peintre</i> who was so many-sided, extending his dominion as much over figure-painting as landscape, over the nude as over <i>nature morte</i>? There is no artist so many of whose pictures may be seen together without surfeit, for he is novel in almost every work. He has @@ -15718,7 +15677,7 @@ pictures are interesting as pictorial masterpieces if not as analyses of charact <tr><td class="tcl f80 pb2">STEVENS.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE LADY IN PINK.</td> <td class="tcl f80 pb2">STEVENS.</td> -<td class="tcr f80 pb2">LA BTE BON DIEU.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f80 pb2">LA BÊTE À BON DIEU.</td></tr></table> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:378px; height:510px" src="images/img463.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -15730,7 +15689,7 @@ which his talent displayed itself in the greatest purity and most inherent vigou “The Battle of the Stags,” that most admirable picture “The Hind on the Snow,” “Deer in Covert,” views of the moss-grown rocks and sunlit woods of Ornans and the green valleys -of the Franche-Comt. He had +of the Franche-Comté. He had the special secret of painting with a beautiful tone and a broad, sure stroke dead plumage and hunting-gear, @@ -15738,7 +15697,7 @@ the bristling hide of wild-boars, and the more delicate coat of deer and of dogs. As a landscape painter he does not belong -to the family of Corot and Dupr. +to the family of Corot and Dupré. His landscapes are green no doubt, but they have limitations; the leaves hang motionless on the @@ -15779,12 +15738,12 @@ in his sea-pieces, to which he was incited by a residence in Trouville in the summer of 1865, he has opened an altogether new -province to French art. <i>Eugne +province to French art. <i>Eugène Le Poittevin</i>, who exhibited a good deal in Berlin in the forties, and therefore became very well known in Germany, cannot count -as a painter. <i>Thodore Gudin</i>, +as a painter. <i>Théodore Gudin</i>, whose signature is likewise highly valued in the market, was a frigid and rough-and-ready @@ -15850,7 +15809,7 @@ And as, like all sincere artists, he rendered himself, he was the creator of an <span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span> art which has an irrepressible health and overflows with an exuberant opulence. His pictures brought a savour of the butcher’s shop into French painting, -which had become anmic. He delighted in plump shoulders and sinewy +which had become anæmic. He delighted in plump shoulders and sinewy necks, broad breasts heaving over the corset, the glow of the skin dripping with warm drops of water in the bath, the hide of deer and the coat of hares, the iridescent shining of carp and cod-fish. Delacroix, all brain, caught fire @@ -15859,7 +15818,7 @@ of an epicure and the satisfaction of a <i>gourmet</i>, gloats over the shining of things which can be devoured—a Gargantua with a monstrous appetite, he buried himself in the navel of the generous earth. Plants, fruit, and vegetables take voluptuous life beneath his brush. He triumphs when he -has to paint a <i>djeuner</i> with oysters, lemons, turkeys, fish, and pheasants. +has to paint a <i>déjeuner</i> with oysters, lemons, turkeys, fish, and pheasants. His mouth waters when he heaps into a picture of still-life all manner of delicious eatables. The only drama that he has painted is “The Battle of the Stags,” and this will @@ -15958,7 +15917,7 @@ Arthur, the youngest, became an art-critic and a picture-dealer; he was one of the first who brought home to the public comprehension the noble art of Rousseau, Corot, and Millet. Stevens’ father fought as an officer in the great army at the battle of Waterloo, and is said to have been an accomplished -critic. Some of the ablest sketches of Delacroix, Devria, Charlet, and +critic. Some of the ablest sketches of Delacroix, Devéria, Charlet, and Roqueplan found their way into his charming home. Roqueplan, who often came to Brussels, took the younger Stevens with him to his Parisian studio. He was a tall, graceful young man, who, with his vigorous upright carriage, @@ -16041,14 +16000,14 @@ himself to be led astray into doing sacrifice to the idols of historical painting he continues to live as the historical painter of the <i>Parisienne</i>.</p> -<p>In his whole work he sounds a pan to the delicate and all-powerful mistress +<p>In his whole work he sounds a pæan to the delicate and all-powerful mistress of the world, and it is significant that it was through woman that art joined issue with the interests of the present. Millet, the first who conquered a province of modern life, was at the same time the first great painter of women in the century. Stevens shows the other side of the medal. In Millet woman was a product of nature; in Stevens she is the product of modern civilisation. The woman of Millet lives a large animal life, in the sweat of her brow, bowed -to the earth. She is the primval mother who works, bears children, and +to the earth. She is the primæval mother who works, bears children, and gives them nourishment. She stands in the field like a caryatid, like a symbol of fertile nature. In Stevens woman does not toil and is seldom a mother. He paints the woman who loves, enjoys, and knows nothing of the great pangs @@ -16119,7 +16078,7 @@ fairy of a paradise made up of all the most capricious products of art. A new world was discovered, a painting which was in touch with life; the symphony of the salon was developed in a delicate style. A tender feminine perfume, something at once melancholy and sensuous, was exhaled from the -pictures of Stevens, and by this shade of <i>demi-monde haut-got</i> he won the +pictures of Stevens, and by this shade of <i>demi-monde haut-goût</i> he won the great public. They could not rise to Millet and Courbet, and Stevens was the first who gave general pleasure without paying toll to the vicious taste for melodramatic, narrative, and humorous <i>genre</i> painting. Even @@ -16142,7 +16101,7 @@ In Paris from the year 1859 Tissot had painted scenes from the fifteenth century, to which he was moved by Leys, and he -studied with archological accuracy +studied with archæological accuracy the costume and furniture of the late Gothic period. When he migrated to England @@ -16190,9 +16149,9 @@ distinction.</p> <p>In <i>Charles Chaplin</i> Fragonard was revived. He was the specialist of languishing flesh and <i>poudre de riz</i>, the refined interpreter of aristocratic beauty, one on whose palette there might still be found a delicate reflection of -the <i>ftes galantes</i> of the eighteenth century. In Germany he was principally +the <i>fêtes galantes</i> of the eighteenth century. In Germany he was principally known by those dreamy, frail, and sensual maidens, well characterised by the -phrase of the Empress Eugnie. “M. Chaplin,” she said, “I admire you. +phrase of the Empress Eugénie. “M. Chaplin,” she said, “I admire you. Your pictures are not merely indecorous, they are more.” But Chaplin had likewise the @@ -16205,11 +16164,11 @@ and beauty, charm and fascination. In 1857 he decorated the <i>Salon des Fleurs</i> in the Tuileries, in 1861-65 the bathroom of the -Empress in the <i>Palais de l’Elyse</i>, +Empress in the <i>Palais de l’Elysée</i>, and from 1865 a number of private houses in Paris, Brussels, and New York; and there is in -all these works a refined <i>haut-got</i> +all these works a refined <i>haut-goût</i> of modern Parisian elegance and fragrant <i>rococo</i> grace. He revived no nymphs, and made @@ -16226,7 +16185,7 @@ arms and bosom, which had vanished since the <i>rococo</i> period from the power of French artists. Rosebuds and full-blown roses blossom like girls -<i> la</i> Greuze, and fading beauties, who +<i>à la</i> Greuze, and fading beauties, who are all the more irresistible, are the elements out of which his refined, indecorous, and yet fragrant art is constituted.</p> @@ -16252,7 +16211,7 @@ been in the beginning somewhat arid, grew delicate and allowed a mysterious sphinx-like smile to play round the lips of his women. Manifestly he has studied Prudhon and had much intercourse with Henner in those years when the latter, after his return from Italy, directed attention once more to the -old Lombards. From the time when he made his dbut in 1879, with the +old Lombards. From the time when he made his début in 1879, with the portrait of his sons, he received great encouragement, and stands out in these days as the most mature painter of women that the present age has to show. Only the great English portrait painters Watts and Millais, who @@ -16271,7 +16230,7 @@ in seizing a fleeting gesture or a turn of the head as he was in the management of drapery and the play of its hues. Then, again, he made a gradual transition from delicate and discreetly coquettish works to the crude arts of upholstery. Yet even in his last period he has painted some masculine portraits—those -of Pasteur, and of the painters Franais, Fritz Thaulow, and Ren +of Pasteur, and of the painters Français, Fritz Thaulow, and René Billotte—which are striking in their vigorous simplicity and unforced characterisation after the glaring virtuosity of his pictures of women.</p> @@ -16286,7 +16245,7 @@ after the glaring virtuosity of his pictures of women.</p> <tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of the Artist.</i>)</td></tr></table> -<p><i>Lon Bonnat</i>, the pupil of Madrazos, brought about the fruitful connection +<p><i>Léon Bonnat</i>, the pupil of Madrazos, brought about the fruitful connection between French painting and that of the old Spaniards. By this a large quantity of the fresh blood of naturalism was poured into it once more. Born in the South of France and educated in Spain, he had conceived there a special @@ -16327,7 +16286,7 @@ A French Lenbach, he painted in France a gallery of celebrated men. With an almost tangible reality he painted Hugo, Madame Pasta, Dumas, Gounod, Thiers, -Grvy, Pasteur, Puvis de Chavannes, +Grévy, Pasteur, Puvis de Chavannes, Jules Ferry, Carnot, Cardinal Lavigerie, and others. Over two hundred persons, famous or not, have sat to him, and he @@ -16350,9 +16309,9 @@ personal note, the palpitating life peculiar to Lenbach. With the intention of saying all things he often forgets the most important—the spirit of the man and the grace of the woman. His pictures are great pieces of still-life—exceedingly conscientious, but having something of the conscientiousness -of an actuary copying a tedious protocol. The portrait of Lon Cogniet, +of an actuary copying a tedious protocol. The portrait of Léon Cogniet, the teacher of the master, with his aged face, his spectacled eyes, and his -puckered hands (Muse Luxembourg), is perhaps the only likeness in which +puckered hands (Musée Luxembourg), is perhaps the only likeness in which Bonnat rivals Lenbach in depth of characterisation. His pictorial strength is always worthy of respect; but, for the sake of variety, the <i>esprit</i> is for once on the side of the German.</p> @@ -16362,7 +16321,7 @@ on the side of the German.</p> pictures of manners, which are distinguished, to their advantage, from older pictures of their type, because it is not the historical anecdote but the pictorial idea which is their basis. All the earlier painters were rather bent upon -archological accuracy than on pictorial charm in the treatment of such +archæological accuracy than on pictorial charm in the treatment of such themes. Roybet revelled in the rich hues of old costumes, and sometimes <span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span> attained, before he strained @@ -16461,7 +16420,7 @@ hoods and collars standing out against a black dress gave the opportunity for such a fine effect of tone. This was the province -in which poor <i>Franois Bonvin</i> +in which poor <i>François Bonvin</i> laboured. Deriving from the Dutch, he conceived an enthusiasm for work, silence, the subdued @@ -16511,7 +16470,7 @@ the old masters.</p> <td class="tcl f80 pb2">RIBOT.</td> <td class="tcr f80 pb2">THE STUDIO.</td></tr></table> -<p>Even <i>Thodule Ribot</i>, the most eminent of the group, one of the most +<p>Even <i>Théodule Ribot</i>, the most eminent of the group, one of the most dexterous executants of the French school, a master who for power of expression is worthy of being placed between Frans Hals and Ribera, made a beginning with still-life. He was born in 1823, in a little town of the department @@ -16535,7 +16494,7 @@ birds, and fish. Then after 1865 there followed a number of religious pictures which, in their hard, peasant-like veracity and their impressive, concentrated life, stood in the most abrupt contrast with the conventionally idealised figures of the academicians. His “Jesus in the Temple,” no less than “Saint -Sebastian” and “The Good Samaritan”—all three in the Muse Luxembourg—are +Sebastian” and “The Good Samaritan”—all three in the Musée Luxembourg—are works of simple and forceful grandeur, and have a thrilling effect which almost excites dismay. Sebastian is no smiling saint gracefully embellished with wounds, but a suffering man, with the blood streaming from his veins, @@ -16610,8 +16569,8 @@ Ostade and Craesbeeck also allure me; and for Holbein I feel veneration. As for M. Raphael, there is no doubt that he has painted some interesting portraits, but I cannot find any ideas in him.” In these words he had prophesied as early as 1855 the course which French art would take in the next decade. -When Courbet appeared the grand painting stood in thraldom to the <i>beaut -suprme</i>, and the sthetic conceptions of the time affected the treatment of +When Courbet appeared the grand painting stood in thraldom to the <i>beauté +suprême</i>, and the æsthetic conceptions of the time affected the treatment of contemporary subjects. Artists had not realism enough to give truth and animation to these themes. When Cabanel, Hamon, and Bouguereau occasionally painted beggars and orphans, they were bloodless phantoms, because @@ -16715,11 +16674,11 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p>Th. Wright: A History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art. London, 1875.</p> -<p>Arsne Alexandre: L’Art du rire. Paris, 1892.</p> +<p>Arsène Alexandre: L’Art du rire. Paris, 1892.</p> <p>E. Bayard: La caricature et les caricaturistes. Paris, 1900.</p> -<p>Fuchs und Krmer: Die Karikatur der europischen Vlker vom Altertum bis zur +<p>Fuchs und Krämer: Die Karikatur der europäischen Völker vom Altertum bis zur Neuzeit. Berlin, 1901.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>On the English Caricaturists:</b></span></p> @@ -16727,7 +16686,7 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p>Victor Champier: La caricature anglaise contemporaine, “L’Art,” 1875, i 29, 293, ii 300, iii 277 and 296.</p> -<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les livres caricatures en Angleterre, “Le Livre,” Novembre 1881.</p> +<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les livres à caricatures en Angleterre, “Le Livre,” Novembre 1881.</p> <p>Augustin Filon: La caricature en Angleterre, W. Hogarth, “Revue des Deux Mondes,” 15 Janvier 1885.</p> @@ -16790,7 +16749,7 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>On the German Draughtsmen:</b></span></p> -<p>Beitrge zur Geschichte der Caricatur, “Zeitschrift fr Museologie,” 1881, 13 ff.</p> +<p>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Caricatur, “Zeitschrift für Museologie,” 1881, 13 ff.</p> <p>J. Grand-Carteret: Les mœurs et la caricature en Allemagne, en Autriche, en Suisse. Paris, 1885.</p> @@ -16804,7 +16763,7 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Johann Adam Klein:</b></p> -<p>F. M.: Verzeichniss der von Johann Adam Klein gezeichneten und radirten Bltter. Stuttgart, 1853.</p> +<p>F. M.: Verzeichniss der von Johann Adam Klein gezeichneten und radirten Blätter. Stuttgart, 1853.</p> <p>John: Das Werk von Johann Adam Klein. Munich, 1863.</p> @@ -16812,42 +16771,42 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p>Richter-Album. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1861.</p> -<p>Jahn, in Richter-Album, and in the Biographische Aufstze. Leipzig, 1867.</p> +<p>Jahn, in Richter-Album, and in the Biographische Aufsätze. Leipzig, 1867.</p> <p>W. Heinrichsen: Ueber Richters Holzschnitte. Carlsruhe, 1870.</p> <p>Johann F. Hoff: Adrian Ludwig Richter, Maler und Radirer. List and description of his works, with a biographical sketch by H. Steinfeld. Dresden, 1871.</p> -<p>L. Richter’s Landschaften. Text by H. Lcke. Leipzig, 1875.</p> +<p>L. Richter’s Landschaften. Text by H. Lücke. Leipzig, 1875.</p> <p>Georg Scherer: Aus der Jugendzeit. Leipzig, 1875. Ernst und Scherz. Leipzig, 1875.</p> <p>Deutsche Art und Sitte. Published by G. Scherer. Leipzig, 1876.</p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, i. Nrdlingen, 1877, pp. 57 ff.</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, i. Nördlingen, 1877, pp. 57 ff.</p> -<p>A. Springer: Zum 80 Geburtstag Ludwig Richter’s, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1883, pp. 377-386.</p> +<p>A. Springer: Zum 80 Geburtstag Ludwig Richter’s, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1883, pp. 377-386.</p> -<p>J. E. Wessely: Adrian Ludwig Richter zum 80 Geburtstag. A Monograph. “Graphische Knste,” 1884, vi 1.</p> +<p>J. E. Wessely: Adrian Ludwig Richter zum 80 Geburtstag. A Monograph. “Graphische Künste,” 1884, vi 1.</p> -<p>Obituary: “Allgemeine Zeitung,” 1884, No. 175; “Allgemeine Kunst-Chronik,” 1884, 26; G. Weisse, “Deutsches Knstlerblatt,” iii 1.</p> +<p>Obituary: “Allgemeine Zeitung,” 1884, No. 175; “Allgemeine Kunst-Chronik,” 1884, 26; G. Weisse, “Deutsches Künstlerblatt,” iii 1.</p> <p>Lebenserinnerungen eines deutschen Malers: Autobiography of Ludwig Richter. Published by Heinrich Richter. Frankfurt a. M., 1886.</p> -<p>Robert Waldmller: Ludwig Richter’s religise Entwickelung. “Gegenwart,” 37, pp. 198, 218.</p> +<p>Robert Waldmüller: Ludwig Richter’s religiöse Entwickelung. “Gegenwart,” 37, pp. 198, 218.</p> -<p>Veit Valentin: Kunst, Knstler, und Kunstwerke. 1889.</p> +<p>Veit Valentin: Kunst, Künstler, und Kunstwerke. 1889.</p> <p>Richard Meister: Land und Leute in Ludwig Richter’s Holzschnitt-Bildern. Leipzig, 1889.</p> -<p>Die vervielfltigende Kunst der Gegenwart. Edited by C. v. Ltzow. Vol. i. +<p>Die vervielfältigende Kunst der Gegenwart. Edited by C. v. Lützow. Vol. i. Woodcut Engravings. Wien, 1890.</p> -<p>H. Gerlach: Ludwig Richters Leben, dem deutschen Volke erzhlt. Dresden, 1891.</p> +<p>H. Gerlach: Ludwig Richters Leben, dem deutschen Volke erzählt. Dresden, 1891.</p> -<p>Budde: Ludwig Richter, “Preussische Jahrbcher.” Bd. 87. Berlin, 1897.</p> +<p>Budde: Ludwig Richter, “Preussische Jahrbücher.” Bd. 87. Berlin, 1897.</p> -<p>P. Mohn: Ludwig Richter, “Knstlermonographien,” Edited by Knackfuss. Bd. 14. +<p>P. Mohn: Ludwig Richter, “Künstlermonographien,” Edited by Knackfuss. Bd. 14. 2 Aufl. Bielefeld, 1898.</p> <p>J. Erler: Ludwig Richter, der Maler des deutschen Hauses. Leipzig, 1898.</p> @@ -16865,57 +16824,57 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>W. Busch:</b></p> -<p>Paul Lindau: “Nord und Sd,” 1878, iv 257.</p> +<p>Paul Lindau: “Nord und Süd,” 1878, iv 257.</p> -<p>Eduard Daelen: W. Busch, “Kunst fr Alle,” 1887, ii 217.</p> +<p>Eduard Daelen: W. Busch, “Kunst für Alle,” 1887, ii 217.</p> <p>See Busch-Album, Humoristischer Hausschatz. Collection of the twelve most popular - works, with 1400 pictures. Mnchen, 1885.</p> + works, with 1400 pictures. München, 1885.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Adolf Oberlnder:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Adolf Oberländer:</b></p> -<p>Adolf Bayersdorfer: Adolf Oberlnder, “Kunst fr Alle,” 1888, iv 49.</p> +<p>Adolf Bayersdorfer: Adolf Oberländer, “Kunst für Alle,” 1888, iv 49.</p> <p>Robert Stiassny: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Caricatur, “Neue Freie Presse,” 20th August 1889.</p> -<p>Hermann Essenwein: Adolf Oberlnder, “Moderne Illustratoren.” Bd. 5. Munich, +<p>Hermann Essenwein: Adolf Oberländer, “Moderne Illustratoren.” Bd. 5. Munich, 1903.</p> -<p>See Oberlnder-Album. 7 vols. Munich, Braun & Schneider, 1881-89.</p> +<p>See Oberländer-Album. 7 vols. Munich, Braun & Schneider, 1881-89.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>On the French Draughtsmen:</b></span></p> -<p>Champfleury: Histoire gnrale de la caricature. 5 vols. Paris, 1856-80.</p> +<p>Champfleury: Histoire générale de la caricature. 5 vols. Paris, 1856-80.</p> <p>J. Grand-Carteret: Les mœurs et la caricature en France. Paris, 1888.</p> -<p>Armand Dayot: Les Matres de la caricature au XIX sicle. 115 facsimils de grand - caricatures en noir, 5 facsimils de lithographies en couleurs. Paris, 1888.</p> +<p>Armand Dayot: Les Maîtres de la caricature au XIX siècle. 115 facsimilés de grand + caricatures en noir, 5 facsimilés de lithographies en couleurs. Paris, 1888.</p> -<p>Henri Braldi: Les graveurs du XIX sicle. Paris, 1885.</p> +<p>Henri Béraldi: Les graveurs du XIX siècle. Paris, 1885.</p> <p>Paul Mantz: La caricature moderne, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1888, i 286.</p> -<p>Augustin de Buisseret: Les caricaturistes franais, “L’Art,” 1888, ii 91.</p> +<p>Augustin de Buisseret: Les caricaturistes français, “L’Art,” 1888, ii 91.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Moreau:</b></p> -<p>J. F. Mahrault: L’œuvre de Moreau le jeune. Paris, 1880.</p> +<p>J. F. Mahérault: L’œuvre de Moreau le jeune. Paris, 1880.</p> -<p>A. Moureau: Les Moreau in “Les artistes clbres.” 1903.</p> +<p>A. Moureau: Les Moreau in “Les artistes célèbres.” 1903.</p> <p>Emanuel Bocher: Jean Michel Moreau le jeune. Paris, 1882.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Debucourt:</b></p> -<p>Roger Portalis and Henri Braldi: Les graveurs du XVIII sicle, vol. i. Paris, 1880.</p> +<p>Roger Portalis and Henri Béraldi: Les graveurs du XVIII siècle, vol. i. Paris, 1880.</p> -<p>Henri Bouchot, in “Les artistes clbres.” 1905.</p> +<p>Henri Bouchot, in “Les artistes célèbres.” 1905.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Carle Vernet:</b></p> -<p>Amde Durande: Joseph Carle, et Horace Vernet. Paris, 1865.</p> +<p>Amédée Durande: Joseph Carle, et Horace Vernet. Paris, 1865.</p> <p>A. Genevay: Carle Vernet, “L’Art,” 1877, i 73, 96.</p> @@ -16931,11 +16890,11 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p>Champfleury: L’œuvre de Daumier, Essai de catalogue, “L’Art,” 1878, ii 217, 252, 294.</p> -<p>Eugne Montrosier: La caricature politique, H. Daumier, “L’Art,” 1878, ii 25.</p> +<p>Eugène Montrosier: La caricature politique, H. Daumier, “L’Art,” 1878, ii 25.</p> <p>H. Billung: H. Daumier, “Kunstchronik,” 24, 1879.</p> -<p>Arsne Alexandre: Honor Daumier, l’homme et son œuvre. Paris, 1890.</p> +<p>Arsène Alexandre: Honoré Daumier, l’homme et son œuvre. Paris, 1890.</p> <p>H. Frantz: Daumier and Gavarni. London, 1904.</p> @@ -16948,46 +16907,46 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Gavarni:</b></p> -<p>Manires de voir et faons de penser, par Gavarni, prcd d’une tude par Charles Yriarte. +<p>Manières de voir et façons de penser, par Gavarni, précédé d’une étude par Charles Yriarte. Paris, 1869.</p> <p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Gavarni, l’Homme et l’Œuvre. Paris, 1873.</p> -<p>Armelhault et Bocher: Catalogue raisonn de l’Œuvre de Gavarni. Paris, 1873.</p> +<p>Armelhault et Bocher: Catalogue raisonné de l’Œuvre de Gavarni. Paris, 1873.</p> <p>G. A. Simcox: “Portfolio,” 1874, p. 56.</p> <p>Georges Duplessis: “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1875, ii 152, 211.</p> -<p>Georges Duplessis: Gavarni, tude, orne de 14 dessins indits. Paris, 1876.</p> +<p>Georges Duplessis: Gavarni, Étude, ornée de 14 dessins inédits. Paris, 1876.</p> -<p>Ph. de Chennevires: Souvenirs d’un Directeur des Beaux-Arts, IIIime partie. Paris, +<p>Ph. de Chennevières: Souvenirs d’un Directeur des Beaux-Arts, IIIième partie. Paris, 1876.</p> <p>Bruno Walden: “Unsere Zeit,” 1881, ii 926.</p> -<p>Eugne Forgues: Gavarni, in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1887.</p> +<p>Eugène Forgues: Gavarni, in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1887.</p> -<p>See also Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis. Henri Braldi, Graveurs du XIX sicle. +<p>See also Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux Lundis. Henri Béraldi, Graveurs du XIX siècle. Œuvres choisies de Gavarni. 4 vols. Paris, 1845-48.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Gustave Dor:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Gustave Doré:</b></p> -<p>K. Delorme, Gustave Dor, peintre, sculpteur, dessinateur, graveur. Avec gravures et +<p>K. Delorme, Gustave Doré, peintre, sculpteur, dessinateur, graveur. Avec gravures et photographies hors texte. Paris, Baschet, 1879.</p> -<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, 1884, p. 105.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 105.</p> <p>Obituary: “Magazine of Art,” March 1883; Fernand Brouet: “Revue artistique,” March 1883; Dubufe: “Nouvelle Revue,” March and April 1883; A. Michel: “Revue Alsacienne,” February 1883; “Chronique des Arts,” 1883, p. 4; “Zeitschrift - fr bildende Kunst,” 1883; A. Hustin, “L’Art,” 1883, p. 424.</p> + für bildende Kunst,” 1883; A. Hustin, “L’Art,” 1883, p. 424.</p> -<p>Van Deyssel: Gustave Dor, “De Dietsche Warande,” iv 5.</p> +<p>Van Deyssel: Gustave Doré, “De Dietsche Warande,” iv 5.</p> -<p>Blanche Roosevelt: Life and Reminiscences of Gustave Dor. London, 1885.</p> +<p>Blanche Roosevelt: Life and Reminiscences of Gustave Doré. London, 1885.</p> -<p>Claude Phillips: Gustave Dor, “Portfolio,” 1891, p. 249.</p> +<p>Claude Phillips: Gustave Doré, “Portfolio,” 1891, p. 249.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Cham:</b></p> @@ -16997,7 +16956,7 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p>Cham-Album. 3 vols. Paris. Without date.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Grvin:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Grévin:</b></p> <p>Ad. Racot: Portraits d’aujourd’hui. Paris, 1891.</p> </div> @@ -17085,7 +17044,7 @@ reached a similar goal by another route.</p> <p>Lord Ronald Gower: Romney and Lawrence. London, 1882.</p> <p>T. H. Ward and W. Roberts: Romney, A biographical and critical essay, with a catalogue -raisonn of his works. London, 1904.</p> +raisonné of his works. London, 1904.</p> <p>G. Paston: George Romney, etc. (Little Books on Art). London, 1903.</p> @@ -17099,7 +17058,7 @@ in crayon. London, 1839.</p> <p>A. Genevay: “L’Art,” 1875, iii 385.</p> -<p>Th. de Wyzewa: Thomas Lawrence et la Socit anglaise de son temps, “Gazette +<p>Th. de Wyzewa: Thomas Lawrence et la Société anglaise de son temps, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1891, i 119, ii 112, 335.</p> <p>Lord Ronald Gower: Romney and Lawrence. London, 1882.</p> @@ -17154,7 +17113,7 @@ passim.</p> <p>Catalogue of the Works of Sir Edwin Landseer, “Art Journal,” 1875, p. 317.</p> -<p>J. Beavington-Atkinson: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1875, pp. 129 and 163.</p> +<p>J. Beavington-Atkinson: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1875, pp. 129 and 163.</p> <p>M. M. Heaton: “Academy,” 1879, p. 378.</p> @@ -17183,7 +17142,7 @@ and Cambridge, 1868.</p> <p>Feuillet de Conches: Sir David Wilkie, “Artiste,” August 1883.</p> -<p>F. Rabbe, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>F. Rabbe, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p>E. Pinnington: Sir David Wilkie, etc. (Famous Scots Series). London, 1900.</p> @@ -17224,16 +17183,16 @@ date.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>In General:</b></span></p> -<p>Arsne Alexandre: Histoire de la peinture militaire en France. Paris, 1890.</p> +<p>Arsène Alexandre: Histoire de la peinture militaire en France. Paris, 1890.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Horace Vernet:</b></p> <p>L. Ruutz-Rees: Horace Vernet and Paul Delaroche. Illustrations. London, 1879.</p> -<p>Amde Durande: Josephe, Carle, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et Biographies. +<p>Amédée Durande: Josephe, Carle, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et Biographies. Paris, 1865.</p> -<p>Theophile Silvestre: Les artistes franais, p. 355.</p> +<p>Theophile Silvestre: Les artistes français, p. 355.</p> <p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, p. 65.</p> @@ -17243,9 +17202,9 @@ Paris, 1865.</p> <p>De la Combe: Charlet, sa vie et ses lettres. Paris, 1856.</p> -<p>Eugne Veron: “L’Art,” 1875, i 193, 217.</p> +<p>Eugène Veron: “L’Art,” 1875, i 193, 217.</p> -<p>F. L’homme, in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1893.</p> +<p>F. L’homme, in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1893.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Raffet:</b></p> @@ -17253,29 +17212,29 @@ Paris, 1865.</p> <p>Georges Duplessis: “L’Art,” 1879, i 76.</p> -<p>Notes et croquis de Raffet, mis en ordre et publis par Auguste Raffet fils. Paris, Amand-Durand, +<p>Notes et croquis de Raffet, mis en ordre et publiés par Auguste Raffet fils. Paris, Amand-Durand, 1879.</p> -<p>Henri Braldi: Raffet, Peintre National. Paris, 1891.</p> +<p>Henri Béraldi: Raffet, Peintre National. Paris, 1891.</p> -<p>F. L’homme, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>F. L’homme, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p>A. Dayot: Raffet et son œuvre, etc. Paris, 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>On the Young Military Painters:</b></span></p> -<p>Eugne Montrosier: Les Peintres militaires, contenant les biographies de Neuville, +<p>Eugène Montrosier: Les Peintres militaires, contenant les biographies de Neuville, Detaille, Berne-Bellecour, Protais, etc. Paris, 1881.</p> <p>Jules Richard: En campagne. Tableaux et dessins de Meissonier, Detaille, Neuville, etc. 2 vols. Paris, 1889.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Bellang:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Bellangé:</b></p> -<p>Francis Wey: Exposition des œuvres d’Hippolyte Bellang, tude biographique. Paris, +<p>Francis Wey: Exposition des œuvres d’Hippolyte Bellangé, Étude biographique. Paris, 1867.</p> -<p>Jules Adeline: Hippolyte Bellang et son œuvre. Paris, 1880.</p> +<p>Jules Adeline: Hippolyte Bellangé et son œuvre. Paris, 1880.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Protais:</b></p> @@ -17283,7 +17242,7 @@ Detaille, Berne-Bellecour, Protais, etc. Paris, 1881.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Pils:</b></p> -<p>L. Becq de Fouquires: Isidore Pils, sa vie et ses œuvres. Paris, 1876.</p> +<p>L. Becq de Fouquières: Isidore Pils, sa vie et ses œuvres. Paris, 1876.</p> <p>Roger-Ballu: L’œuvre de Pils, “L’Art,” 1876, i 232-258.</p> @@ -17293,56 +17252,56 @@ Detaille, Berne-Bellecour, Protais, etc. Paris, 1881.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Detaille:</b></p> -<p>Jules Claretie: L’Art et les artistes franais contemporains. Paris, 1876, p. 56.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie: L’Art et les artistes français contemporains. Paris, 1876, p. 56.</p> -<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, 1884, p. 249.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 249.</p> <p>G. Goetschy: Les jeunes peintres militaires. Paris, 1878.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Rgamey:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Régamey:</b></p> -<p>E. Chesneau: Notice sur G. Rgamey. Paris, 1870.</p> +<p>E. Chesneau: Notice sur G. Régamey. Paris, 1870.</p> -<p>Eugne Montrosier: “L’Art,” 1879, ii 25.</p> +<p>Eugène Montrosier: “L’Art,” 1879, ii 25.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Albrecht Adam:</b></p> <p>Albrecht Adam: Autobiography, 1786-1862. Edited by H. Holland. Stuttgart, 1886.</p> -<p>Das Werk der Mnchener Knstlerfamilie Adam. Reproductions after originals by the +<p>Das Werk der Münchener Künstlerfamilie Adam. Reproductions after originals by the painters Albrecht, Benno, Emil, Eugen, Franz and Julius Adam. Text by H. Holland. Nuremberg, Soldan, 1890.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>P. Hess:</b></p> -<p>H. Holland: P. v. Hess. Mnchen, 1871. Originally in “Oberbayerisches Archiv,” +<p>H. Holland: P. v. Hess. München, 1871. Originally in “Oberbayerisches Archiv,” vol. xxxi.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>F. Krger:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>F. Krüger:</b></p> -<p>A. Rosenberg: Aus dem alten Berlin, Franz Krger-Ausstellung, “Zeitschrift fr +<p>A. Rosenberg: Aus dem alten Berlin, Franz Krüger-Ausstellung, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1881, xvi 337.</p> -<p>H. Mackowski, in “Das Museum,” vi 41. See Vor 50 Jahren, Portrtskizzen berhmter -und bekannter Persnlickkeiten von F. Krger. Berlin, 1883.</p> +<p>H. Mackowski, in “Das Museum,” vi 41. See Vor 50 Jahren, Porträtskizzen berühmter +und bekannter Persönlickkeiten von F. Krüger. Berlin, 1883.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Franz Adam:</b></p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: Franz Adam, “Kunst fr Alle,” 1887, ii 120.</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: Franz Adam, “Kunst für Alle,” 1887, ii 120.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Thodor Horschelt:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Théodor Horschelt:</b></p> -<p>Ed. Ille: Zur Erinnerung an den Schlachtenmaler Thodor Horschelt. Mnchen, 1871.</p> +<p>Ed. Ille: Zur Erinnerung an den Schlachtenmaler Théodor Horschelt. München, 1871.</p> -<p>H. Holland: Thodor Horschelt, sein Leben und seine Werke. Mnchen, 1889.</p> +<p>H. Holland: Théodor Horschelt, sein Leben und seine Werke. München, 1889.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Heinrich Lang:</b></p> -<p>H. E. von Berlepsch: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1892.</p> +<p>H. E. von Berlepsch: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1892.</p> -<p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>On the more recent Dsseldorf Painters:</b></span></p> +<p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>On the more recent Düsseldorf Painters:</b></span></p> -<p>Adolf Rosenberg: Dsseldorfer Kriegs- und Militrmaler, “Zeitschrift fr bildende +<p>Adolf Rosenberg: Düsseldorfer Kriegs- und Militärmaler, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1889, xxiv 228.</p> </div> @@ -17351,12 +17310,12 @@ Kunst,” 1889, xxiv 228.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a"><b>Leopold Robert:</b></p> -<p>E. J. Delcluze: Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Leopold Robert. Paris, 1838.</p> +<p>E. J. Delécluze: Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Leopold Robert. Paris, 1838.</p> <p>Feuillet de Conches: Leopold Robert, sa vie, ses œuvres, et sa correspondance. Paris, 1848.</p> -<p>Charles Clement: Leopold Robert d’aprs sa correspondance indite. Paris, 1875.</p> +<p>Charles Clement: Leopold Robert d’après sa correspondance inédite. Paris, 1875.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Riedel:</b></p> @@ -17365,9 +17324,9 @@ cited.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>On the Painters of the East in General:</b></span></p> -<p>Charles Gindriez: L’Algrie et les artistes, “L’Art,” 1875, iii 396; 1876, i 133.</p> +<p>Charles Gindriez: L’Algérie et les artistes, “L’Art,” 1875, iii 396; 1876, i 133.</p> -<p>Hermann Helferich: Moderne Orientmaler, “Freie Bhne,” 1892.</p> +<p>Hermann Helferich: Moderne Orientmaler, “Freie Bühne,” 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Decamps:</b></p> @@ -17375,13 +17334,13 @@ cited.</p> <p>Ernest Chesneau: Mouvement moderne en peinture: Decamps. Paris, 1861.</p> -<p>Ad. Moreau: Decamps et son œuvre, avec des gravures en facsimil des planches originales +<p>Ad. Moreau: Decamps et son œuvre, avec des gravures en facsimilé des planches originales les plus rares. Paris, 1869.</p> -<p>M. E. Im-Thurn: Scheffer et Decamps. Nmes, 1876. (Extr. des Mm. de l’Acadmie -du Gard, anne 1875.)</p> +<p>M. E. Im-Thurn: Scheffer et Decamps. Nîmes, 1876. (Extr. des Mém. de l’Académie +du Gard, année 1875.)</p> -<p>Charles Clement, in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1886.</p> +<p>Charles Clement, in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1886.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Marilhat:</b></p> @@ -17392,17 +17351,17 @@ du Gard, anne 1875.)</p> <p>Jean Rousseau: “L’Art,” 1877, i 11, 25.</p> <p>L. Gonse: “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1878-1880. Published separately under the title -“Eugne Fromentin peintre et crivain. Ouvrage augment d’un Voyage en Egypte -et d’autres notes et moreaux indits de Fromentin, et illustr de 16 gravures hors +“Eugène Fromentin peintre et écrivain. Ouvrage augmenté d’un Voyage en Egypte +et d’autres notes et morçeaux inédits de Fromentin, et illustré de 16 gravures hors texte et 45 dans le texte.” Paris, Quantin, 1881.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Guillaumet:</b></p> <p>Paul Leroi: “L’Art,” 1882, iii 228.</p> -<p>Exposition des œuvres de Guillaumet. Prface par Roger-Ballu. Paris, 1888.</p> +<p>Exposition des œuvres de Guillaumet. Préface par Roger-Ballu. Paris, 1888.</p> -<p>Gustave Guillaumet: Tableaux algriens. Prcd d’une notice sur la vie et les œuvres +<p>Gustave Guillaumet: Tableaux algériens. Précédé d’une notice sur la vie et les œuvres de Guillaumet. Paris, 1888.</p> <p>Adolphe Badin: “L’Art,” 1888, i 3, 39, 53.</p> @@ -17416,50 +17375,50 @@ Mittler, 1890.</p> <p>Obituary in “Chronique des Arts,” 1890, 29.</p> -<p>Adolf Rosenberg: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1891, p. 8.</p> +<p>Adolf Rosenberg: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1891, p. 8.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Adolf Schreyer:</b></p> -<p>Richard Graul: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1888, xxiii 153.</p> +<p>Richard Graul: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1888, xxiii 153.</p> -<p>Richard Graul, in “Graphische Knste,” 1889, xii 121, and in “Velhagen und Klasings +<p>Richard Graul, in “Graphische Künste,” 1889, xii 121, and in “Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte,” 1893.</p> </div> <p class="center chap2 pt1">CHAPTER XX</p> <div class="list pt1"> -<p class="pt1a"><b>H. Brkel:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>H. Bürkel:</b></p> -<p>C. A. R.: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1870, v 161.</p> +<p>C. A. R.: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1870, v 161.</p> -<p>Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg. Mnchen, 1893.</p> +<p>Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg. München, 1893.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Spitzweg:</b></p> -<p>C. A. Regnet: “Mnchener Knstler,” 1871, ii 268-276.</p> +<p>C. A. Regnet: “Münchener Künstler,” 1871, ii 268-276.</p> -<p>Graf Schack: “Meine Gemldegalerie,” 1881, pp. 189-191.</p> +<p>Graf Schack: “Meine Gemäldegalerie,” 1881, pp. 189-191.</p> -<p>O. Berggruen: “Graphische Knste,” 1883, v.</p> +<p>O. Berggruen: “Graphische Künste,” 1883, v.</p> <p>F. Pecht, Supplement “Allgemeine Zeitung,” October 1885, and “Geschichte der -Mnchener Kunst,” 1888, p. 154.</p> +Münchener Kunst,” 1888, p. 154.</p> -<p>“Mnchener Kunstvereinsbericht,” 1885, p. 69.</p> +<p>“Münchener Kunstvereinsbericht,” 1885, p. 69.</p> -<p>C. A. Regnet: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1886, xxi 77.</p> +<p>C. A. Regnet: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1886, xxi 77.</p> -<p>Spitzweg-Album. Mnchen, Hanfstaengl, 1890.</p> +<p>Spitzweg-Album. München, Hanfstaengl, 1890.</p> -<p>Spitzweg-Mappe, with preface by F. Pecht. Mnchen, Braun & Schneider, 1890.</p> +<p>Spitzweg-Mappe, with preface by F. Pecht. München, Braun & Schneider, 1890.</p> <p>H. Holland: Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, 1893.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Hermann Kauffmann:</b></p> <p>Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg, 1800-1850. -Mnchen, 1893.</p> +München, 1893.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Eduard Meyerheim:</b></p> @@ -17467,20 +17426,20 @@ Mnchen, 1893.</p> preface by B. Auerbach and the likeness of Eduard Meyerheim. Berlin, Stilke, 1880.</p> -<p>A. Rosenberg: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1881, xvi 1.</p> +<p>A. Rosenberg: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1881, xvi 1.</p> -<p>Ludwig Pietsch: Die Knstlerfamilie Meyerheim, “Westermanns Monatshefte,” 1889, +<p>Ludwig Pietsch: Die Künstlerfamilie Meyerheim, “Westermanns Monatshefte,” 1889, p. 397.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Enhuber:</b></p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1868, iii 53</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1868, iii 53</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>On the Viennese Genre Picture:</b></span></p> -<p>C. v. Ltzow: Geschichte der k. k. Akademie der bildenden Knste. Vienna, 1877.</p> +<p>C. v. Lützow: Geschichte der k. k. Akademie der bildenden Künste. Vienna, 1877.</p> -<p>R. v. Eitelberger: Das Wiener Genrebild vor dem Jahre 1848, “Zeitschrift fr bildende +<p>R. v. Eitelberger: Das Wiener Genrebild vor dem Jahre 1848, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1877, xii 106. Also in his collected studies on the history of art, i 66.</p> <p>Dr. Cyriak Bodenstein: Hundert Jahre Kunstgeschichte Wiens, 1788-1888. Wien, @@ -17489,28 +17448,28 @@ Kunst,” 1877, xii 106. Also in his collected studies on the history of art <p>Albert Ilg: Kunstgeschichtliche Charakterbilder aus Oesterreich-Ungarn (The Nineteenth Century, by A. Nossig). Wien, 1893.</p> -<p>Ludwig Hevesi: Die sterreichische Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert. Leipzig, 1902.</p> +<p>Ludwig Hevesi: Die österreichische Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert. Leipzig, 1902.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Danhauser:</b></p> <p>Albert Ilg: Raimund und Danhauser, in Kabdebo’s “Osterreichisch-ungarische Kunstchronik.” Vienna, 1880, iii 161.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Waldmller:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Waldmüller:</b></p> -<p>“Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1866, i 33.</p> +<p>“Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1866, i 33.</p> -<p>Oskar Berggruen: “Graphische Knste,” x 57.</p> +<p>Oskar Berggruen: “Graphische Künste,” x 57.</p> -<p>R. v. Eitelberger: J. Danhauser und Ferdinand Waldmller, in “Kunst und Knstler +<p>R. v. Eitelberger: J. Danhauser und Ferdinand Waldmüller, in “Kunst und Künstler Wiens,” p. 73. (Vol. i of his works on the history of art. Vienna, 1879.)</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Gauermann:</b></p> -<p>R. v. Eitelberger: Friedrich Gauermann, in “Kunst und Knstler Wiens,” 1878, p. 92. +<p>R. v. Eitelberger: Friedrich Gauermann, in “Kunst und Künstler Wiens,” 1878, p. 92. (Vol. i of his works on the history of art. Vienna, 1879.)</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Schrdter:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Schrödter:</b></p> <p>Obituary by Kaulen in the “Deutsches Kunstblatt,” 1884, 11 and 12.</p> @@ -17522,7 +17481,7 @@ Wiens,” p. 73. (Vol. i of his works on the history of art. Vienna, 1879.)< <p class="pt1a"><b>Rudolf Jordan:</b></p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Kunst fr Alle,” 1887, ii 241.</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Kunst für Alle,” 1887, ii 241.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Tidemand:</b></p> @@ -17544,7 +17503,7 @@ Wiens,” p. 73. (Vol. i of his works on the history of art. Vienna, 1879.)< <p>L. Boivin: Notice sur M. Biard, ses aventures, son voyage en Japonie avec Mme. Biard, Examen critique de ses tableaux. Paris, 1842.</p> -<p>Obituary in the “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” ix 1874. Supplementary Sheet, +<p>Obituary in the “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” ix 1874. Supplementary Sheet, p. 769.</p> </div> @@ -17553,21 +17512,21 @@ p. 769.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>In General:</b></span></p> -<p>Emil Reich: Die brgerliche Kunst und die besitzlosen Klassen. Leipzig, 1892.</p> +<p>Emil Reich: Die bürgerliche Kunst und die besitzlosen Klassen. Leipzig, 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Tassaert:</b></p> <p>Bernard Prost: “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1886, i 28.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Carl Hbner:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Carl Hübner:</b></p> -<p>M. Blanckarts: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” xv 1312.</p> +<p>M. Blanckarts: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xv 1312.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Wiertz:</b></p> -<p>Louis Labarre: Antoine Wiertz, tude biographique. Brussels, 1866.</p> +<p>Louis Labarre: Antoine Wiertz, étude biographique. Brussels, 1866.</p> -<p>Ed. F.: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1866, i 273.</p> +<p>Ed. F.: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1866, i 273.</p> <p>H. Grimm: Der Maler Wiertz, in “15 Essays,” New Series, Berlin, 1875, p. 1.</p> @@ -17575,7 +17534,7 @@ p. 769.</p> <p>C. E. Clement: Antoine Jos. Wiertz, “American Art Review,” 1881, 13.</p> -<p>Catalogue du Muse Wiertz, prcd d’une notice biographique par Em. de Laveleye. +<p>Catalogue du Musée Wiertz, précédé d’une notice biographique par Em. de Laveleye. Brussels, 1882.</p> <p>L. Schulze Waldhausen: Anton Wiertz, “Deutsches Kunstblatt,” 1882, 5; 1883, 12.</p> @@ -17601,22 +17560,22 @@ Brussels, 1882.</p> <p>L. Pietsch: Ludwig Knaus. Photographs after originals by the master. Berlin Photographische Gesellschaft.</p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: Zu Knaus 60 Geburtstag, “Kunst fr Alle,” 1890, v 65.</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: Zu Knaus 60 Geburtstag, “Kunst für Alle,” 1890, v 65.</p> -<p>G. Voss: “Tgliche Rundschau,” 1889, p. 233.</p> +<p>G. Voss: “Tägliche Rundschau,” 1889, p. 233.</p> -<p>L. Pietsch, Louis Knaus in the “Knstlermonographien,” ed. by Knackfuss. Bielefeld, +<p>L. Pietsch, Louis Knaus in the “Künstlermonographien,” ed. by Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1896.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Vautier:</b></p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. Nrdlingen, +<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. Nördlingen, 1881, p. 351.</p> <p>E. Heilbuth: Knaus und Vautier. Text to Behrens’ work upon the gallery, reprinted -in “Kunst fr Alle,” 1892, 2.</p> +in “Kunst für Alle,” 1892, 2.</p> -<p>Adolf Rosenberg, Vautier in the “Knstlermonographien,” ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. 23. +<p>Adolf Rosenberg, Vautier in the “Künstlermonographien,” ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. 23. Bielefeld, 1897.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Defregger:</b></p> @@ -17631,39 +17590,39 @@ iii 1.</p> <p>Ludwig Pietsch: Franz Defregger, “Westermanns Monatshefte,” February 1889.</p> -<p>F. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Mnchen, 1888.</p> +<p>F. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. München, 1888.</p> -<p>Adolf Rosenberg, in the “Knstlermonographien,” ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. 18. Bielefeld, +<p>Adolf Rosenberg, in the “Künstlermonographien,” ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. 18. Bielefeld, 1893.</p> <p>Franz Hermann Meissner in the “Kunstlerbuch.” Berlin, 1901.</p> -<p>See also Karl Stieler und F. Defregger, Von Dahoam. Mnchen, 1888.</p> +<p>See also Karl Stieler und F. Defregger, Von Dahoam. München, 1888.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Riefstahl:</b></p> <p>H. Holland: Wilhelm Riefstahl. Altenburg, 1889.</p> -<p>M. Haushofer: “Kunst fr Alle,” 1889, iv 97.</p> +<p>M. Haushofer: “Kunst für Alle,” 1889, iv 97.</p> -<p>W. Lbke: “Nord und Sd,” 1890, 163.</p> +<p>W. Lübke: “Nord und Süd,” 1890, 163.</p> -<p>H. E. v. Berlepsch: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1890, 8.</p> +<p>H. E. v. Berlepsch: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1890, 8.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Grtzner:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Grützner:</b></p> <p>G. Ramberg: “Vom Fels zum Meer,” 1890, 2.</p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Kunst fr Alle,” 1890, 12.</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Kunst für Alle,” 1890, 12.</p> -<p>J. Janitsch: “Nord und Sd,” 1892, 182.</p> +<p>J. Janitsch: “Nord und Süd,” 1892, 182.</p> -<p>Fritz von Ostini, in the “Knstlermonographien,” ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. 58. Leipzig, +<p>Fritz von Ostini, in the “Künstlermonographien,” ed. by Knackfuss. Bd. 58. Leipzig, 1902.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Bokelmann:</b></p> -<p>Adolf Rosenberg: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1892.</p> +<p>Adolf Rosenberg: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Gustave Brion:</b></p> @@ -17675,7 +17634,7 @@ iii 1.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>The Swedish Genre Painters:</b></span></p> -<p>Georg Nordensvan: Svensk Konst och Svenska Konstnrer i 19^de Arhundradet. Stockholm, +<p>Georg Nordensvan: Svensk Konst och Svenska Konstnärer i 19^de Arhundradet. Stockholm, 1892. (German Translation:) Die schwedische Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert. Leipzig, 1903.</p> @@ -17683,9 +17642,9 @@ Leipzig, 1903.</p> <p>A. Ipolyi: Die bildende Kunst in Ungarn, “Ungarische Revue,” 1882, 5.</p> -<p>Szana Tamz: Magyar Mvszek. Budapest, 1887.</p> +<p>Szana Tamáz: Magyar Müvészek. Budapest, 1887.</p> -<p>Heinrich Glcksmann: Die ungarische Kunst der Gegenwart, “Kunst fr Alle,” 1892, +<p>Heinrich Glücksmann: Die ungarische Kunst der Gegenwart, “Kunst für Alle,” 1892, vii 129, 145.</p> </div> @@ -17697,13 +17656,13 @@ vii 129, 145.</p> <p>David Friedrich Strauss: Kleine Schriften biographischen, literarischen, und kunstgeschichtlichen Inhalts. Leipzig, 1862, p. 303.</p> -<p>Th. Frimmel, in Dohmes Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. 9. Leipzig, +<p>Th. Frimmel, in Dohmes Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. 9. Leipzig, 1884.</p> -<p>C. v. Ltzow: Aus Kochs Jugendzeit, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1874, ix 65.</p> +<p>C. v. Lützow: Aus Kochs Jugendzeit, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1874, ix 65.</p> <p>See also J. A. Koch: Moderne Kunstchronik. Briefe zweier Freunde in Rom und in -der Tartarei ber das moderne Kunstleben. Karlsruhe, 1834.</p> +der Tartarei über das moderne Kunstleben. Karlsruhe, 1834.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Reinhart:</b></p> @@ -17715,30 +17674,30 @@ Zeitung,” 1883, 89, 90.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Rottmann:</b></p> -<p>A. Teichlein: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1869, iv 7, 72.</p> +<p>A. Teichlein: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1869, iv 7, 72.</p> -<p>A. Bayersdorfer: Karl Rottmann. Mnchen, 1871. Reprinted in A. Bayersdorfer’s -Leben und Schriften. Mnchen, 1902.</p> +<p>A. Bayersdorfer: Karl Rottmann. München, 1871. Reprinted in A. Bayersdorfer’s +Leben und Schriften. München, 1902.</p> -<p>O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, “Graphische Knste,” v 1.</p> +<p>O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, “Graphische Künste,” v 1.</p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nrdlingen, 1879, ii +<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nördlingen, 1879, ii pp. 1-26.</p> -<p>C. A. Regnet, in Dohmes Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. 10.</p> +<p>C. A. Regnet, in Dohmes Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, No. 10.</p> <p>See also Rottmann’s Italienische Landschaften. After the Frescoes in the Arcades of -the Royal Garden in Munich, carried out by Steinbock. Mnchen, Bruckmann, +the Royal Garden in Munich, carried out by Steinbock. München, Bruckmann, 1876.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Preller:</b></p> -<p>R. Schne: Fr. Preller’s Odysseelandschaften. Leipzig, 1863.</p> +<p>R. Schöne: Fr. Preller’s Odysseelandschaften. Leipzig, 1863.</p> -<p>L. v. Donop: Der Genelli-Fries von Fr. Preller. “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” +<p>L. v. Donop: Der Genelli-Fries von Fr. Preller. “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1874, ix 321.</p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nrdlingen, 1877, vol. i +<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nördlingen, 1877, vol. i pp. 271-289.</p> <p>C. Ruland: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Preller. Weimar, 1878.</p> @@ -17747,17 +17706,17 @@ pp. 271-289.</p> <p>M. Jordan: Katalog der Preller Ausstellung in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, 1879.</p> -<p>A. Drr: Preller und Goethe, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1881, xvi 357-365.</p> +<p>A. Dürr: Preller und Goethe, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1881, xvi 357-365.</p> <p>J. Beavington-Atkinson: Frederick Preller, “Art Journal,” 1881, 9.</p> -<p>W. Lbke: Friedrich Preller, “Allgemeine Zeitung,” 1882, No. 117.</p> +<p>W. Lübke: Friedrich Preller, “Allgemeine Zeitung,” 1882, No. 117.</p> <p>Preller und Goethe, “Allgemeine Zeitung,” 1882, No. 342.</p> <p>O. Roquette: Preller und Goethe, “Gegenwart,” 1883, 42.</p> -<p>Friedrich J. Frommann: Zur Charakteristik Friedrich Prellers, “Zeitschrift fr +<p>Friedrich J. Frommann: Zur Charakteristik Friedrich Prellers, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1884, No. 31.</p> <p>See also Homer’s Odyssee mit 40 Original compositionen von Friedrich Preller. Leipzig, @@ -17769,21 +17728,21 @@ lithographs. Leipzig, 1875.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>K. F. Lessing:</b></p> -<p>Karl Koberstein: Karl Friedrich Lessing, “Nord und Sd,” 14, 1880, p. 312.</p> +<p>Karl Koberstein: Karl Friedrich Lessing, “Nord und Süd,” 14, 1880, p. 312.</p> -<p>K. F. Lessing’s Briefe mitgetheilt von Th. Frimmel, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” +<p>K. F. Lessing’s Briefe mitgetheilt von Th. Frimmel, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1881, 6.</p> -<p>Rudolf Redtenbacher: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1881, xvi 2.</p> +<p>Rudolf Redtenbacher: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1881, xvi 2.</p> <p>M. Schasler: “Unsere Zeit,” 1880, 10.</p> <p>W. Dohme: “Westermanns illustrierte Monatshefte,” 1880, ix 729.</p> -<p>A. Rosenberg: Lessing-Ausstellung in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, “Zeitschrift fr +<p>A. Rosenberg: Lessing-Ausstellung in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1880, No. 5.</p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, iii. Nrdlingen, 1881, p. 294.</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, iii. Nördlingen, 1881, p. 294.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Blechen:</b></p> @@ -17795,7 +17754,7 @@ bildende Kunst,” 1880, No. 5.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Schirmer:</b></p> -<p>Johann Wilhelm Schirmer: Dsseldorfer Lehrjahre, “Deutsche Rundschau,” 1878.</p> +<p>Johann Wilhelm Schirmer: Düsseldorfer Lehrjahre, “Deutsche Rundschau,” 1878.</p> <p>Alfred Woltmann, in “Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.” Works cited in it.</p> @@ -17806,35 +17765,35 @@ og Kulturhistorie. Kristiania, Aschehoug, 1893.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Morgenstern:</b></p> -<p>Obituary by Pecht: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1867, ii 80.</p> +<p>Obituary by Pecht: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1867, ii 80.</p> <p>Alfred Lichtwark: Hermann Kauffmann und die Kunst in Hamburg von 1800 <i>bis</i> 1850. -Mnchen, 1893.</p> +München, 1893.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Andreas Achenbach:</b></p> -<p>Ludwig Pietsch: “Nord und Sd,” 1880, xv 381.</p> +<p>Ludwig Pietsch: “Nord und Süd,” 1880, xv 381.</p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. Nrdlingen, +<p>Friedrich Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Third Series. Nördlingen, 1881, p. 328.</p> -<p>Theodor Levin: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1886, xxi, No. 1.</p> +<p>Theodor Levin: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1886, xxi, No. 1.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Eduard Schleich:</b></p> -<p>C. A. Regnet: Zu Eduard Schleichs Gedchtniss, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” +<p>C. A. Regnet: Zu Eduard Schleichs Gedächtniss, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1874, ix 161.</p> -<p>O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, “Graphische Knste,” v 1.</p> +<p>O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, “Graphische Künste,” v 1.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Alexander Calame:</b></p> -<p>E. H. Gaullier: Alexander Calame. Genve, 1854. (Le Muse Suisse, vol. i.)</p> +<p>E. H. Gaullier: Alexander Calame. Genève, 1854. (Le Musée Suisse, vol. i.)</p> <p>H. Delaborde: La peinture de paysage en Suisse; Alexander Calame: “Revue des -Deux Mondes,” Fvrier, 1865.</p> +Deux Mondes,” Février, 1865.</p> -<p>J. M. Ziegler: Mittheilungen ber den Landschaftsmaler Alexander Calame. Zurich, +<p>J. M. Ziegler: Mittheilungen über den Landschaftsmaler Alexander Calame. Zurich, 1866.</p> <p>C. Meyer: Alexander Calame, “Dioskuren.” Stuttgart, 1866.</p> @@ -17843,20 +17802,20 @@ Deux Mondes,” Fvrier, 1865.</p> <p>Wilhelm Rossmann, in the text to work of engravings from the Dresden Gallery. 1881, etc.</p> -<p>E. Rambert: Alexander Calame, sa vie et son œuvre d’aprs les sources originales. Paris, +<p>E. Rambert: Alexander Calame, sa vie et son œuvre d’après les sources originales. Paris, 1884.</p> <p>Adolf Rosenberg: “Grenzboten,” 1884, ii 371.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Gude:</b></p> -<p>A. Rosenberg: Die Dsseldorfer Schule. “Grenzboten,” 1881, 35.</p> +<p>A. Rosenberg: Die Düsseldorfer Schule. “Grenzboten,” 1881, 35.</p> <p>Af. Dietrichson: H. Gude liv og vœrker. Kristiania, 1899.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Eduard Hildebrandt:</b></p> -<p>Bruno Meyer: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1869, iv 261, 336.</p> +<p>Bruno Meyer: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1869, iv 261, 336.</p> <p>F. Arndt: Eduard Hildebrandt, der Maler des Kosmos, Sein Leben und seine Werke. Second Edition. Berlin, 1869.</p> @@ -17865,7 +17824,7 @@ Second Edition. Berlin, 1869.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Louis Douzette:</b></p> -<p>Adolf Rosenberg: “Graphische Knste,” 1891, xiv 13.</p> +<p>Adolf Rosenberg: “Graphische Künste,” 1891, xiv 13.</p> </div> <p class="center chap2 pt1">CHAPTER XXIV</p> @@ -17880,23 +17839,23 @@ Paris, 1870.</p> <p>Aligny et la paysage historique, “L’Art,” 1882, i 251; ii 33.</p> -<p>See also the etchings Vues des Sites les plus clbres de la Grce antique. Paris, 1845.</p> +<p>See also the etchings Vues des Sites les plus célèbres de la Grèce antique. Paris, 1845.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Victor Hugo:</b></p> <p>Les dessins de Victor Hugo, “L’Art,” 1877, i 50.</p> -<p>H. Helferich: Malende Dichter, “Kunst fr Alle,” 1891, 21.</p> +<p>H. Helferich: Malende Dichter, “Kunst für Alle,” 1891, 21.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Paul Huet:</b></p> <p>Philippe Burty: Paul Huet, Notice biographique. Paris, 1869.</p> -<p>E. Legouv: Notice sur Paul Huet. Paris, 1878.</p> +<p>E. Legouvé: Notice sur Paul Huet. Paris, 1878.</p> <p>Ernest Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques. Paris, 1880.</p> -<p>Lon Mancino: Un prcurseur, “L’Art,” 1883, i 49.</p> +<p>Léon Mancino: Un précurseur, “L’Art,” 1883, i 49.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>On the English:</b></span></p> @@ -17944,9 +17903,9 @@ list of the engraved works of that master. London. Fine Art Society, 1878.</p> <p>G. Radford: Turner in Wharfedale, “Portfolio,” May, 1884.</p> -<p>Philip G. Hamerton: J. M. W. Turner, in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1889.</p> +<p>Philip G. Hamerton: J. M. W. Turner, in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1889.</p> -<p>Robert de la Sizeranne: Deux heures la Turner Gallery. Paris, 1890.</p> +<p>Robert de la Sizeranne: Deux heures à la Turner Gallery. Paris, 1890.</p> <p>F. Wedmore: Turner and Ruskin. 2 vols. London, 1900.</p> @@ -17998,7 +17957,7 @@ With Illustrations. 1891.</p> <p>Charles Robert Leslie: The Memoirs of John Constable. London, 1845.</p> -<p>H. Perrier: De Hugo v. d. Goes Constable, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” March, 1873.</p> +<p>H. Perrier: De Hugo v. d. Goes à Constable, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” March, 1873.</p> <p>Frederick Wedmore, “L’Art,” 1878, ii 169.</p> @@ -18007,7 +17966,7 @@ Biographies of the Great Artists.” London, Low, 1881.</p> <p>P. G. Hamerton: Constable’s Sketches, “Portfolio,” 1890, p. 162.</p> -<p>Robert Hobart: in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Robert Hobart: in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b><i>Reproductions:</i></b></p> @@ -18056,12 +18015,12 @@ Macmillan & Co., 1888.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Bonington:</b></p> -<p>Al. Bouvenne: Catalogue de l’œuvre grav et lithographi de R. P. Bonington. Paris, +<p>Al. Bouvenne: Catalogue de l’œuvre gravé et lithographié de R. P. Bonington. Paris, 1873.</p> <p>Paul Mantz: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1876, ii 288.</p> -<p>Edmond Saint-Raymond: Bonington et les ctes normandes de Saint Jouin, “L’Art,” +<p>Edmond Saint-Raymond: Bonington et les côtes normandes de Saint Jouin, “L’Art,” 1879, i 197.</p> <p>P. G. Hamerton: A Sketchbook of Bonington at the British Museum, “Portfolio,” @@ -18073,9 +18032,9 @@ Macmillan & Co., 1888.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a f80"><span class="verd"><b>In General:</b></span></p> -<p>Roger-Ballu: Le paysage franais au XIX sicle, “Nouvelle Revue,” 1881.</p> +<p>Roger-Ballu: Le paysage français au XIX siècle, “Nouvelle Revue,” 1881.</p> -<p>John W. Mollet: The Painters of Barbizon. (1. Corot, Daubigny, Dupr; 2. Millet, +<p>John W. Mollet: The Painters of Barbizon. (1. Corot, Daubigny, Dupré; 2. Millet, Rousseau, Diaz.) In “Illustrated Biographies of the Great Artists.” London, Low, 1890.</p> @@ -18086,67 +18045,67 @@ Millet, Daubigny, etc. With One Hundred and Thirty Illustrations. London, <p>See also the articles by G. Gurlitt in “Die Gegenwart,” 1891, the Text of H. Helferich to Behrens’ work on the gallery, etc.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Thodore Rousseau:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Théodore Rousseau:</b></p> -<p>A. Teichlein: Thodore Rousseau und die Anfnge des Paysage intime, “Zeitschrift -fr bildende Kunst,” 1868, iii 281.</p> +<p>A. Teichlein: Théodore Rousseau und die Anfänge des Paysage intime, “Zeitschrift +für bildende Kunst,” 1868, iii 281.</p> -<p>Alfred Sensier: Souvenirs sur Thodore Rousseau, suivis d’une confrence sur le Paysage -et orn du portrait du matre. Paris, 1872.</p> +<p>Alfred Sensier: Souvenirs sur Théodore Rousseau, suivis d’une conférence sur le Paysage +et orné du portrait du maître. Paris, 1872.</p> -<p>Philippe Burty: Thodore Rousseau, paysagiste, “L’Art,” 1881, p. 374.</p> +<p>Philippe Burty: Théodore Rousseau, paysagiste, “L’Art,” 1881, p. 374.</p> -<p>Emile Michel, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Emile Michel, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> -<p>Walter Gensel: Millet und Rousseau, Bd. 57 in the “Knstlermonographien” ed. by +<p>Walter Gensel: Millet und Rousseau, Bd. 57 in the “Künstlermonographien” ed. by Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1902.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Corot:</b></p> -<p>Edmond About: Voyage travers L’Exposition des Beaux-Arts. Paris, 1855.</p> +<p>Edmond About: Voyage à travers L’Exposition des Beaux-Arts. Paris, 1855.</p> -<p>Henri Dumesnil: Corot, souvenirs intimes: avec un portrait dessin par Aim Millet, -grav par Alphonse Leroy. Paris, Rapilly, 1875.</p> +<p>Henri Dumesnil: Corot, souvenirs intimes: avec un portrait dessiné par Aimé Millet, +gravé par Alphonse Leroy. Paris, Rapilly, 1875.</p> <p>Charles Blanc: Les Artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1879.</p> -<p>Leleux: Corot Montreux, “Bibliothque universelle et Revue suisse,” September +<p>Leleux: Corot à Montreux, “Bibliothèque universelle et Revue suisse,” September 1883.</p> -<p>Alfred Robaut: Corot, peintures dcoratives, “L’Art,” 1883, p. 407.</p> +<p>Alfred Robaut: Corot, peintures décoratives, “L’Art,” 1883, p. 407.</p> <p>Jean Rousseau: Camille Corot: avec gravures. Paris, 1884.</p> -<p>Armand Silvestre: Galerie Durand-Ruel: avec 28 gravures l’eauforte d’aprs des +<p>Armand Silvestre: Galerie Durand-Ruel: avec 28 gravures à l’eauforte d’après des tableaux de Corot. Paris. No date.</p> <p>Albert Wolff: La capitale de l’Art. Paris, 1886.</p> <p>Charles Bigot: Peintres contemporains. Paris, 1888.</p> -<p>L. Roger-Mils: Corot, in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1891.</p> +<p>L. Roger-Milès: Corot, in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1891.</p> <p>Album classique des chefs d’œuvre de Corot. Paris, 1896.</p> -<p>Julius Meier-Grfe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906.</p> +<p>Julius Meier-Gräfe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Dupr:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Dupré:</b></p> -<p>Les hommes du jour: M. Jules Dupr, 1811-1879, par un critique d’art. Paris, 1879.</p> +<p>Les hommes du jour: M. Jules Dupré, 1811-1879, par un critique d’art. Paris, 1879.</p> -<p>R. Mnard: “L’Art,” 1879, iii 311; iv 241.</p> +<p>R. Ménard: “L’Art,” 1879, iii 311; iv 241.</p> <p>A. Michel: “L’Art,” 1883, p. 460.</p> -<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, 1884, p. 177.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 177.</p> -<p>A. Hustin, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>A. Hustin, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Diaz:</b></p> <p>Jules Claretie: Narcisse Diaz, “L’Art,” 1875, iii 204.</p> -<p>Exposition des œuvres de Narcisse Diaz l’cole des Beaux-Arts. Notice biographique +<p>Exposition des œuvres de Narcisse Diaz à l’école des Beaux-Arts. Notice biographique par M. Jules Claretie. Paris, 1877.</p> <p>Roger-Ballu: “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1877, i 290.</p> @@ -18155,28 +18114,28 @@ par M. Jules Claretie. Paris, 1877.</p> <p>T. Chasrel: L’exposition de Narcisse Diaz, “L’Art,” 1877, ii 189.</p> -<p>Hermann Billung: Narcisse Virgilio Diaz, ein Lebensbild, “Zeitschrift fr bildende +<p>Hermann Billung: Narcisse Virgilio Diaz, ein Lebensbild, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1879, xiv 97.</p> -<p>A. Hustin, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>A. Hustin, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Daubigny:</b></p> <p>Karl Daubigny: Ch. Daubigny et son œuvre. Paris, 1875.</p> -<p>Frdric Henriet: Charles Daubigny et son œuvre. Paris, 1878.</p> +<p>Frédéric Henriet: Charles Daubigny et son œuvre. Paris, 1878.</p> -<p>Frdric Henriet, in “L’Art,” 1881, p. 330.</p> +<p>Frédéric Henriet, in “L’Art,” 1881, p. 330.</p> -<p>A. Hustin, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>A. Hustin, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> -<p>Robert J. Wickenden: Charles Franois Daubigny, “Century Magazine,” July 1892.</p> +<p>Robert J. Wickenden: Charles François Daubigny, “Century Magazine,” July 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Chintreuil:</b></p> -<p>Frdric Henriet: Chintreuil: Esquisse biographique. Paris, 1858.</p> +<p>Frédéric Henriet: Chintreuil: Esquisse biographique. Paris, 1858.</p> -<p>A. de la Fisliere, Champfleury, et F. Henriet: La vie et l’œuvre de Chintreuil. Paris, +<p>A. de la Fisèliere, Champfleury, et F. Henriet: La vie et l’œuvre de Chintreuil. Paris, 1874.</p> <p>“Portfolio,” 1874, p. 99.</p> @@ -18185,9 +18144,9 @@ Kunst,” 1879, xiv 97.</p> <p>Charles Tardieu: Henry Harpignies, “L’Art,” 1879, xvi 269, 281.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Franais:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Français:</b></p> -<p>J. G. Prat: Franois Louis Franais, “L’Art,” 1882, i 48, 81, 368.</p> +<p>J. G. Prat: François Louis Français, “L’Art,” 1882, i 48, 81, 368.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Brascassat:</b></p> @@ -18201,22 +18160,22 @@ Kunst,” 1879, xiv 97.</p> <p>A. Hustin: “L’Art,” 1889, i 77; ii 85.</p> -<p>A. Hustin, in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1893.</p> +<p>A. Hustin, in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1893.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Rosa Bonheur:</b></p> <p>Laruelle: Rosa Bonheur, sa vie, ses œuvres. Paris, 1885.</p> -<p>Ren Peyrol: Rosa Bonheur, her Life and Work. With three engraved Plates and +<p>René Peyrol: Rosa Bonheur, her Life and Work. With three engraved Plates and Illustrations, “The Art Annual.” London, 1889.</p> -<p>Roger-Mils: Rosa Bonheur. Paris, 1901.</p> +<p>Roger-Milès: Rosa Bonheur. Paris, 1901.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Emile van Marcke:</b></p> <p>Emile Michel: “L’Art,” 1891, i 145.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Eugne Lambert:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Eugène Lambert:</b></p> <p>Chiens et chats, Text by G. de Cherville. Paris, 1888.</p> @@ -18226,48 +18185,48 @@ Illustrations, “The Art Annual.” London, 1889.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Charles Jacque:</b></p> -<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, 1884, p. 297.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 297.</p> </div> <p class="center chap2 pt1">CHAPTER XXVI</p> <div class="list pt1"> -<p>Ernest Chesneau: Jean Franois Millet, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1875, i 429.</p> +<p>Ernest Chesneau: Jean François Millet, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1875, i 429.</p> <p>Ph. L. Couturier: Millet et Corot. Saint-Quentin, 1876.</p> -<p>A. Piedagnel: Jean Franois Millet. Souvenirs de Barbizon. Avec 1 portrait, 9 Eaux-fortes, -et un facsimil d’autographe. Paris, 1876.</p> +<p>A. Piedagnel: Jean François Millet. Souvenirs de Barbizon. Avec 1 portrait, 9 Eaux-fortes, +et un facsimilé d’autographe. Paris, 1876.</p> -<p>A. Sensier: La vie et l’œuvre de Jean Franois Millet. Manuscrit publi par P. Mantz, -avec de nombreux fascimils, 12 heliographies hors texte, et 48 gravures. Paris, +<p>A. Sensier: La vie et l’œuvre de Jean François Millet. Manuscrit publié par P. Mantz, +avec de nombreux fascimilés, 12 heliographies hors texte, et 48 gravures. Paris, Quantin, 1881.</p> <p>W. E. H.: Millet as an Art-Critic, “Magazine of Art,” 1883, p. 27.</p> -<p>Charles Yriarte: Jean Franois Millet. Portrait et 24 Gravures. Paris, 1885.</p> +<p>Charles Yriarte: Jean François Millet. Portrait et 24 Gravures. Paris, 1885.</p> -<p>Andr Michel: Jean Franois Millet et l’exposition de ses œuvres a l’cole des Beaux-Arts, +<p>André Michel: Jean François Millet et l’exposition de ses œuvres a l’école des Beaux-Arts, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1887, ii 5.</p> <p>Charles Bigot: Peintres contemporains. Paris, 1888.</p> -<p>R. Graul: Jean Franois Millet, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” New Series, +<p>R. Graul: Jean François Millet, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” New Series, ii 29.</p> -<p>Le livre d’or de Jean Franois Millet. Illustr de 17 Eaux-fortes par Frdric Jacque. +<p>Le livre d’or de Jean François Millet. Illustré de 17 Eaux-fortes par Frédéric Jacque. Paris, 1892.</p> -<p>Emile Michel, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Emile Michel, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p>H. Naegely: Millet and Rustic Art. London, 1897.</p> <p>W. Gensel: Millet und Rousseau. Leipzig, 1902.</p> -<p>Julia Cartwright: Jean Franois Millet, His Life and Letters. London, 1901. German +<p>Julia Cartwright: Jean François Millet, His Life and Letters. London, 1901. German Edition. Leipzig, 1902.</p> -<p>Arthur Thomson: Jean-Franois Millet and the Barbizon School. London, 1903.</p> +<p>Arthur Thomson: Jean-François Millet and the Barbizon School. London, 1903.</p> <p>Richard Muther in his series “Die Kunst.” Berlin, 1904.</p> </div> @@ -18280,9 +18239,9 @@ Edition. Leipzig, 1902.</p> <p>Champfleury: Grandes figures d’hier et d’aujourd’hui. (Balzac, Wagner, Courbet.) Paris, Poulet-Malassis, 1861.</p> -<p>Th. Silvestre: Les artistes franais, p. 109. Paris, 1878.</p> +<p>Th. Silvestre: Les artistes français, p. 109. Paris, 1878.</p> -<p>P. d’Abrest: Artistische Wanderungen durch Paris, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” +<p>P. d’Abrest: Artistische Wanderungen durch Paris, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1876, xi 183, 209.</p> <p>Comte H. d’Jdeville: Gustave Courbet: Notes et documents sur sa vie et son œuvre. @@ -18292,31 +18251,31 @@ Paris, 1878.</p> <p>Paul Mantz: Gustave Courbet, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1878, i 514; ii 17, 371.</p> -<p>mile Zola: Mes Haines. Proudhon et Courbet. Paris, 1879, p. 21.</p> +<p>Émile Zola: Mes Haines. Proudhon et Courbet. Paris, 1879, p. 21.</p> <p>Gros-Kost: Courbet, Souvenirs intimes. Paris, 1880.</p> <p>H. Billung: Supplement to the “Allgemeine Zeitung,” 1880, p. 240.</p> -<p>Eug. Vron: G. Courbet, Un enterrement Ornans, “L’Art,” 1882, i 363, 390; ii 226.</p> +<p>Eug. Véron: G. Courbet, Un enterrement à Ornans, “L’Art,” 1882, i 363, 390; ii 226.</p> <p>A. de Lostalot: L’exposition des œuvres de Courbet, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1882, i 572.</p> -<p>Carl v. Ltzow: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1889.</p> +<p>Carl v. Lützow: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1889.</p> <p>Camille Lemonnier: Les peintres de la vie. Cap. I, Courbet et son œuvre. Paris, 1888.</p> -<p>Abel Patoux, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Abel Patoux, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> -<p>Julius Meier-Grfe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906.</p> +<p>Julius Meier-Gräfe: Corot und Courbet. Stuttgart, 1906.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Stevens:</b></p> <p>Paul d’Abrest: Artistische Wanderungen durch Paris. Ein Besuch bei Alfred Stevens, -“Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1875, x 310.</p> +“Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1875, x 310.</p> -<p>L. Cardon: Les modernistes: Alfred Stevens, “La fdration artistique,” 23-26.</p> +<p>L. Cardon: Les modernistes: Alfred Stevens, “La fédération artistique,” 23-26.</p> <p>Camille Lemonnier: Alfred Stevens, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1878, i 160, 335.</p> @@ -18324,17 +18283,17 @@ Paris, 1878.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Ricard:</b></p> -<p>Moriz Hartmann: Bsten und Bilder. Frankfurt-a-M., 1860.</p> +<p>Moriz Hartmann: Büsten und Bilder. Frankfurt-a-M., 1860.</p> <p>Paul de Musset: Notice sur la vie de Gustave Ricard. Paris, 1873.</p> -<p>Louis Brs: Gustave Ricard et son œuvre. Paris, 1873.</p> +<p>Louis Brés: Gustave Ricard et son œuvre. Paris, 1873.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Bonvin:</b></p> <p>L. Gauchez, “L’Art,” 1888, i 249, ii 41, 61.</p> -<p>Paul Lefort: Philippe Rousseau et Franois Bonvin, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” +<p>Paul Lefort: Philippe Rousseau et François Bonvin, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1888, i 132.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Charles Chaplin:</b></p> @@ -18347,10 +18306,10 @@ Paris, 1878.</p> <p>L. Gonse: “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1887, i 221.</p> -<p>V. Guillemin: F. Gaillard, graveur et peinture, originaire de la Franche-Comt, 1834-1887. -Notice sur sa vie et son œuvre. Besanon, 1891.</p> +<p>V. Guillemin: F. Gaillard, graveur et peinture, originaire de la Franche-Comté, 1834-1887. +Notice sur sa vie et son œuvre. Besançon, 1891.</p> -<p>Georges Duplessis, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Georges Duplessis, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Bonnat:</b></p> @@ -18358,15 +18317,15 @@ Notice sur sa vie et son œuvre. Besanon, 1891.</p> <p>B. Day: L’atelier Bonnat, “Magazine of Art,” 1881, p. 6.</p> -<p>Jules Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, 1884, p. 129.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 129.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Carolus Duran:</b></p> -<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, 1884, p. 153.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 153.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Vollon:</b></p> -<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, 1884, p. 201.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 201.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Philippe Rousseau:</b></p> @@ -18374,7 +18333,7 @@ Notice sur sa vie et son œuvre. Besanon, 1891.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Paul Dubois:</b></p> -<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Srie. Paris, 1884, p. 321.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains, II Série. Paris, 1884, p. 321.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Delaunay:</b></p> @@ -18382,400 +18341,21 @@ Notice sur sa vie et son œuvre. Besanon, 1891.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Ribot:</b></p> -<p>E. Vron: Thodule Ribot, Exposition gnrale de ses œuvres, “L’Art,” 1880, p. 281.</p> +<p>E. Véron: Théodule Ribot, Exposition générale de ses œuvres, “L’Art,” 1880, p. 281.</p> -<p>Firmin Javel: Thodule Ribot, “Revue des Muses,” 1890, iii 55.</p> +<p>Firmin Javel: Théodule Ribot, “Revue des Musées,” 1890, iii 55.</p> -<p>L. Fourcaud: Matres modernes: Thodule Ribot, sa vie et ses œuvres. With Illustrations. +<p>L. Fourcaud: Maîtres modernes: Théodule Ribot, sa vie et ses œuvres. With Illustrations. Paris, 1890.</p> -<p>Paul Lefort: Thodule Ribot, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1891, ii 298.</p> +<p>Paul Lefort: Théodule Ribot, “Gazette des Beaux-Arts,” 1891, ii 298.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:258px; height:35px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img0.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p class="pt2 center f80"><i>Printed by</i> <span class="sc">Morrison & Gibb Limited</span>, <i>Edinburgh</i></p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Modern Painting, Volume -2 (of 4), by Richard Muther - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING *** - -***** This file should be named 43894-h.htm or 43894-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/8/9/43894/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Lszl, P. G. 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