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diff --git a/43273-0.txt b/43273-0.txt index 03b841e..352aa62 100644 --- a/43273-0.txt +++ b/43273-0.txt @@ -1,39 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Zen Buddhism, by Arthur Waley - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Zen Buddhism - and Its Relation to Art - -Author: Arthur Waley - -Release Date: July 21, 2013 [EBook #43273] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ZEN BUDDHISM *** - - - - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43273 *** ZEN BUDDHISM and Its Relation to Art @@ -1159,362 +1124,4 @@ were marked in pen on the printed copy, and may not have been printed. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Zen Buddhism - and Its Relation to Art - -Author: Arthur Waley - -Release Date: July 21, 2013 [EBook #43273] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ZEN BUDDHISM *** - - - - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - ZEN BUDDHISM - and Its Relation to Art - - By - ARTHUR WALEY - - LONDON: - LUZAC & CO., 46, Great Russell Street, W.C.1. - 1922 - - - - -ZEN BUDDHISM - - - - -ZEN BUDDHISM - -AND ITS RELATION TO ART - - -Books on the Far East often mention a sect of Buddhism called Zen. They -say that it was a "school of abstract meditation" and that it exercised -a profound influence upon art and literature; but they tell us very -little about what Zen actually was, about its relation to ordinary -Buddhism, its history, or the exact nature of its influence upon the -arts. - -The reason of this is that very little of the native literature which -deals with Zen has yet been translated, perhaps because it is written -in early Chinese colloquial, a language the study of which has been -almost wholly neglected by Europeans and also (to judge by some of -their attempts to translate it) by the Japanese themselves. - -The present paper makes no attempt at profundity, but it is based on -the study of original texts and furnishes, I hope, some information not -hitherto accessible. - - * * * * * - -Before describing the origins of Zen itself I must give some general -account of Buddhism. At the time when it reached China[1] there were -two kinds of Buddhism, called the Lesser Vehicle and the Greater. The -former, Primitive Buddhism, possessed scriptures which in part at -any rate were genuine; that is to say, they recorded words actually -used by Shakyamuni. The ordinary adherent of this religion did not -hope to become a Buddha; Buddhas indeed were regarded as extremely -rare. He only aspired to become an Arhat, that is "an ascetic ripe -for annihilation," one who is about to escape from the wheel of -reincarnation--whose present incarnation is an antechamber to Nirvana. -To such aspirants the Buddha gives no assistance; he is what children -in their games call "home," and his followers must pant after him as -best they can. - -[1] First century A.D. - -Those who found this religion too comfortless invented another, which -became known as Mahayana, the Greater Vehicle. Putting their doctrines -into the mouth of Shakyamuni, they fabricated _ad hoc_ sermons of -enormous length, preached (so they asserted) by the Buddha himself in -his "second period" to those who were ripe to receive the whole truth. - -The great feature of this new Buddhism was the intervention of the -merciful Bodhisattvas, _illuminati_ who, though fit for Buddhahood, -voluntarily renounced it in order to help mankind. - -The first Buddhist books to reach China emanated from the Lesser -Vehicle. But the Greater Vehicle or Bodhisattva-Buddhism soon -prevailed, and by the sixth century A.D. over two thousand -works, most of them belonging to the Greater Vehicle, had been -translated into Chinese. - - -BUDDHIST SECTS. - -There were already many sects in China, the chief of which were: - - (1) _The Amidists._ - - This was the form of Buddhism which appealed to the uneducated. - It taught that a Buddha named Amida presides over the Western - Paradise, where he will receive the souls of those that worship - him. The conception of this Paradise closely resembles the - Christian idea of Heaven and may have been derived from it. - - (2) The _Tendai_ Sect, founded at the end of the sixth century. - Its teaching was based on a scripture of enormous length called - the _Saddharma Pundarika Sutra_, which is translated by Kern in - the Sacred Books of the East. It was perhaps the broadest and most - representative sect. It laid great stress on the ethical side of - Buddhism. - -We now come to _Zen_. - -In the year 520 A.D. there arrived at Canton a missionary from -Southern India. His name was Bodhidharma and he appears to have been -the younger son of an Indian Prince. - -The reigning Emperor of China was a munificent patron of Buddhism. He -had built monasteries, given alms, distributed scriptures, defended -the faith. Hearing that a Buddhist prince had arrived from India he -summoned him at once to his Capital. The following conversation took -place in the Palace at Nanking: - - _Emperor_: You will be interested to hear that I have built many - monasteries, distributed scriptures, given alms, and upheld the - Faith. Have I not indeed acquired merit? - - _Bodhidharma_: None at all. - - _Emperor_: In what then does true merit consist? - - _Bodhidharma_: In the obliteration of Matter through Absolute - Knowledge, not by external acts. - - _Emperor_: Which is the Divine and Primal Aspect of Reality? - - _Bodhidharma_: Reality has no aspect that is divine. - - _Emperor_: What are you, who have come before my Throne? - - _Bodhidharma_: I do not know. - -The Emperor could make nothing of him. Monasticism, a huge vested -interest, decried him, and after a short stay in Nanking he started -northward, towards the Capital of the Wei Tartars, who then ruled over -a large part of China. The Wei Emperor, like his Chinese confrère, was -also a great patron of Buddhism, and he, too, desired an interview with -the Indian priest. But Bodhidharma had done with Emperors, and settled -in a small country temple, where he lived till his death nine years -later. Some say that he tried to visit the Capital of the Weis, but was -prevented by the intrigues of the monks there. - -He left behind him a few short tractates, the substance of which is as -follows: - - There is no such person as Buddha. Buddha is simply a Sanskrit - word meaning "initiate." The Absolute is immanent in every man's - heart. This "treasure of the heart" is the only Buddha that exists. - It is no use seeking Buddha outside your own nature. Prayer, - scripture-reading, fasting, the observance of monastic rules--all - are useless. Those who seek Buddha do not find him. You may know - by heart all the Sutras of the twelve divisions, and yet be unable - to escape from the Wheel of Life and Death. One thing alone - avails--to discover the unreality of the World by contemplating the - Absolute which is at the root of one's own nature. - -Some one asked him: "Why may we not worship the Buddhas and -Bodhisattvas?" He answered: - - "Ogres and hobgoblins can at will assume the outward form of - Bodhisattvas; such are heretical and not of the true Buddha. There - is no Buddha but your own thoughts. Buddha is the Way. The Way is - Zen. This word Zen cannot be understood even of the wise. Zen means - 'for a man to behold his fundamental nature.'"[2] - -[2] Zen (_Sanskrit: dhyana_) means literally "contemplation." - - * * * * * - - The highest truths cannot be written down or taught by speech. A - man who cannot write a word, can yet contemplate his own heart and - become wise. Knowledge of 1,000 Sutras and 10,000 Shastras cannot - help him to realise the Absolute within him. - -He was asked: "Can a layman with wife and children, one given over to -the lusts of the flesh, achieve Buddhahood?" He answered: - - "Provided he contemplate his own inner-nature, he will achieve - Buddhahood. It does not matter about his lusts. Even a butcher can - achieve Buddhahood, if he searches in his own heart." - -"What," cried his listeners, "a butcher, who lives by taking life, and -_he_ achieve Buddhahood?" The master replied: - - "It is not a question of the man's trade. If he has learnt to know - his own nature he will be saved. - - "I have come from India only to teach you that Buddha is Thought. - I care nothing for monastic rules or ascetic practices. As for - walking on water or through fire, climbing sword-wheels, fasting, - sitting upright for hours without rest--all such practices are - heretical; they belong to the World of Being. - - "Thought, Thought, Thought! It is hard to seek. Expanding, it - covers the whole world; shrinking, it is too small to lodge a pin. - - "I seek the heart; I do not seek Buddha. For I have learnt to know - that the outer world is empty and untenanted." - -Such was the teaching of Bodhidharma. It was Vedantic[3] rather than -Buddhist. The terms "thought," "Buddha," etc., used by Bodhidharma -correspond exactly to the _brahman_ of the Upanishads. Mystic -contemplation or _yoga_ had been used by the Brahmins and was not -unknown to the early Buddhists. But Bodhidharma was the first to insist -upon it as the sole means of salvation. - -[3] Dr. McGovern tells me that Zen would seem to be more immediately -derived from the Nihilistic School of Nagarjuna (1st century -A.D.). - -Yet though his whole teaching turned on this "meditation" or "Zen," -he left behind him no exact directions for the practice of it. Having -shown the end, he left it to each individual to find his own means. -Rules, dogmas and definitions were precisely what he set out to destroy. - -Less than a hundred years after his death another Indian, Buddhapriya, -came to China and there defined with exactitude and blunt materiality -the various forms of meditation. - -The transition from the spirituality of Bodhidharma to the grossness of -his follower is, however, typical of religious history. The poetry of -Christ turns into the theology of Paul; the hovel of Saint Francis into -the mansion of Brother Elias. - - -BUDDHAPRIYA. - -He first describes the different attitudes in which Zen may be -practised, with an exact account of the correct position for hands, -feet, head, etc. The normal attitude of meditation, cross-legged, with -upright back and hands locked over the knees is familiar to every one. - -Zen could also be practised while walking and, in cases of sickness, -while lying down. Buddhapriya's instructions are in the form of -question and answer. - - _Question._--How does the Zen practised by heretics and by the - other schools of Buddhism differ from our Zen? - - _Answer._--The Zen of the heretics is not impersonal. The Zen of - the Lesser Vehicle is material. The Zen of the Greater Vehicle - only abstracts man and phenomena. - - _Question._--How ought one to set about practising Zen? - - _Answer._--First put far away from you all anger and malice, and - fill your heart with kindness and compassion. - - _Question._--Can the beginner at once proceed to the contemplation - of non-Being? - - _Answer._--By no means! He must by stratagems gradually enter in. - I have never yet seen one who straightway achieved the vision of - non-Reality. If for example he were meditating in this room he - must first banish from his mind every part of the world except the - city of Ch'ang-an. Next every building in the city except this - monastery. Next, every room in the monastery except this cell, - every object but himself, every part of himself except the end of - his nose. Finally the end of his nose hangs in space like a drop of - dew and on this nose-end he concentrates his mind. - - This is only a preliminary exercise. There are others of the same - kind. For example--persuade yourself that your navel is a minute - rivulet running through the sands. When this conception is firmly - achieved, you will see a bright light and ultimately, the body - growing transparent, you will behold the working of your bowels. - - Or again, regard your head as the top of a hollow pipe which runs - straight down through your body into the earth. Meditate upon the - top of your head, that is to say, upon the mouth of the drain-pipe, - and then gradually ascend in your thoughts to a height of four - inches above the head, and concentrate firmly on this conception. - You will thus easily pass into the contemplation of non-Being, - having performed the transition from elementary to complete Zen as - comfortably as a workman climbs the rungs of a ladder. - - _Question._--Are there any signs whereby I may know that I have - attained to Samadhi?[4] - - _Answer._--To be sure there are. Sometimes you will feel a - sensation as of bugs or ants creeping over your skin; or again, it - will appear to you that a cloud or mass of white cotton-wool is - rising immediately behind your back. In neither case must you be - discomposed or put out your hand. Sometimes it will seem as though - oil were dripping down from your head and face; sometimes a light - will shine from out of the ground you are sitting upon. - - These are all preliminary signs. - - Sometimes when you have been sitting for a long while and your - back is aching, you will suddenly hear a sound of rapping with the - fingers or a noise as of some one bumping against the door. Do not - be disquieted. These are the Good Spirits of Heaven, come to warn - you against sleep. - - Again, it may happen that you have an agreeable sense of lightness - and floating; this is a good sign. Beware, however, of a _painful_ - sense of lightness; for this may merely indicate flatulence. - - Patches of heat on the body are a sign of Fiery Samadhi. A light - filling the whole room is a premonitory sign of Zen; to smell - strange fragrances not known on earth is a sign of whole and utter - Abstraction. - - Such and many more are the signs of Zen. The practicant must not - heed them; for if by them he be encouraged or dismayed, all his - work will be undone. - - _Question._--Can Zen be practised in a Buddha Shrine? - - _Answer._--No, indeed! Zen should be practised in a quiet room or - under a tree or among tombs or sitting on the dewy earth. - - _Question._--Can Zen be practised by many sitting together? - - _Answer._--To be sure it may; but each must face his neighbour's - back. They must not sit face to face. When there are many sitting - together at night, a lamp or candle may be lit; but when there are - few together, it ought not to be used. - - _Question._--Need I wear monastic vestments at my meditations? - - _Answer._--Vestments? Why, you need wear no clothes at all, if so - be you are alone. - -[4] Concentration. - - -LATER DEVELOPMENT OF ZEN. - -Zen was at first a purely personal discipline, non-monastic, -non-ethical, not demanding the acceptance of any Scripture or any -tradition. In modern Japan it has to some extent regained this -character. In China the habit of quoting written authority was -too strong to be easily discarded. The Zen masters soon began to -answer difficult questions by quoting from the Buddhist Scriptures. -Convenience dictated that practicants of Zen should live in communities -and monasticism was soon established in their sect, as in every other -sect of Buddhism. Questions of conduct arose, and Zen was squared -with the contemporary ethical outlook; though in medieval Japanese -literature wicked and cynical persons are generally depicted as adepts -of Zen. - -Bodhidharma denied the existence of Good and Evil; but it was pointed -out by later apologists that the Zen adept, having viewed the Absolute, -is convinced of the unreality and futility of those pleasures and -possessions which are the incentive to sin. The Zen practicant, though -he makes no moral effort, nevertheless is certain not to sin, because -he is certain not to be tempted. - -Finally, Zen forged itself a tradition. Probably during the eleventh -century a Scripture[5] was fabricated which recounts how once when -Buddha was preaching, he plucked a flower and smiled. Only the disciple -Kashyapa understood the significance of this act. Between him and the -Buddha there passed a wordless communication of Absolute Truths. This -communication was silently passed on by Kashyapa to his disciple, and -so ultimately to Bodhidharma, who brought it to China. - -[5] _Dai Bonten Monbutsu Ketsugi Kyo._ - -The method of teaching by symbolic acts (such as the plucking of a -flower) was extensively used by the Zen masters. For example, when -a disciple asked Enkwan a question about the nature of Buddha, he -answered, "Bring me a clean bowl." When the priest brought the bowl, -the master said, "Now put it back where you found it." He signified -that the priest's questionings must return to their proper place, -the questioner's heart, from which alone spiritual knowledge can be -obtained. - -The object of the Zen teachers, as of some eccentric schoolmasters -whom I have known, seems at first sight to have been merely to puzzle -and surprise their pupils to the highest possible degree. A peculiar -"brusquerie" was developed in Zen monasteries. The literature of the -sect consists chiefly in an endless series of anecdotes recording -the minutest happenings in the lives of famous Zen monks and their -(apparently) most trivial sayings. But behind these trifling acts -and sayings a deep meaning lay hid. The interpretation of such -teaching depends on a complete knowledge of the symbolism used. I -am not inclined to agree with those students of Zen who assert that -its written teaching are wholly devoid of intellectual content or so -completely esoteric as not to admit of explanation in words. Like other -Buddhist philosophers the Zen masters were chiefly concerned with the -attempt to define the relation between the One and the Many, between -the subjective and objective aspects of life. - -The idealism of Zen does not mean that the phenomenal world has no -importance. To those who have not reached complete self-realisation -the urgencies of that world remain paramount and are the only -stepping-stones upon which he can climb higher. - -On the day of his arrival at the monastery a novice presented himself -before the abbot, begging to be allowed to begin his spiritual -exercises without further delay. "Have you had supper?" asked the -abbot. "Yes." "Then go and wash your plate." - - -THE ZEN MASTERS. - -Let us begin with Eno, a master of the seventh century. He lost his -parents when he was young and earned his living by gathering firewood. -One day when he was in the market-place he heard some one reading the -Diamond Sutra.[6] He asked where such books were to be had and was -told "From Master Konin on the Yellow Plum-blossom Hill." Accordingly -he went to Konin's Monastery in Anhui and presented himself before the -Master. "Where do you come from?" "From the South." "Bah! In the South -they have not Buddha in their souls." "North and South," replied Eno, -"are human distinctions that Buddha knows nothing of." - -[6] Translated by W. Gemmell, 1912. Its use by Konin shows that Zen did -not long avoid the use of scriptures. - -Konin accepted him as a lay-brother and put him to pound rice in the -bakery. - -Konin was growing old and wished to choose his successor. He therefore -instituted a poetical competition in which each monk was to epitomise -in a quatrain the essence of Zen. The favourite candidate was the -warden Shinshu, who sent in the following verses: - - _The body is the trunk of the Bodhi-tree; - The mind is the bright mirror's stand; - Scrub your mirror continually, - Lest the dust eclipse its brightness._ - -Eno, as a lay-brother, was not qualified to compete. Some one told him -of Shinshu's quatrain. "Mine would be very different," he exclaimed, -and persuaded one of the boys employed in the bakery to go stealthily -by night and inscribe the following poem on the monastery-wall: - - _Knowledge is not a tree; - The Mirror has no stand; - Since nothing exists, - How could dust rise and cover it?_ - -The authorship of the poem was discovered and the abbot Konin visited -Eno in the bakery. "Is your rice white or no?" he asked. "White?" -answered Eno; "it has not yet been sifted." Thereupon the abbot -struck three times on the rice-mortar with his staff and departed. -Eno understood his meaning. That night at the third watch he came to -Konin's cell and was invested with the abbot's mantle, thereby becoming -the Sixth Patriarch of the Zen Church. He died in 712 A.D., -without having learned how to read or write. - - -FASHIONABLE ZEN. - -The warden Shinshu had lost the Patriarchate and with it the spiritual -headship of Zen. But as a compensation Fate had in store for him -worldly triumphs of the most dazzling kind. Leaving the rural monastery -of Konin, he entered the Temple of the Jade fountain in the great -city of Kingchau. His fame soon spread over central China. He was a -man of "huge stature, bushy eyebrows and shapely ears." The Empress -Wu Hou, who had usurped the throne of China, notoriously cultivated -the society of handsome priests. About 684 A.D. she summoned -him to the Capital. Instead of commanding his presence at Court she -came in a litter to his lodgings and actually knelt down before him. -The friendship of this murderous and fiendishly cruel woman procured -for him temporal dignities which in the eyes of the world completely -outshone the rustic piety of the Sixth Patriarch. Shinshu at the -Capital became as it were the Temporal Father of Zen, while Eno at his -country monastery remained its spiritual pope. The successors of Eno -became known as the Fathers of the Southern School; while the courtly -and social Zen of Shinshu is called Zen of the North. - -Was it in sincere goodwill or with the desire to discredit his rival -that Shinshu invited Eno to join him at the Capital? In any case Eno -had the good sense to refuse. "I am a man of low stature and humble -appearance," he replied; "I fear that the men of the North would -despise me and my doctrines"--thus hinting (with just that touch of -malice which so often spices the unworldly) that Shinshu's pre-eminence -in the North was due to outward rather than to spiritual graces. - -Shinshu died in 706, outliving his august patroness by a year. To -perpetuate his name a palace was turned into a memorial monastery; the -Emperor's brother wrote his epitaph; his obsequies were celebrated with -stupendous pomp. - -His successor, Fujaku, at first remained at the Kingchau monastery -where he had been Shinshu's pupil. But in 724 the irresolute Emperor -Ming-huang, who had proscribed Buddhism ten years before, summoned -Fujaku to the Imperial City. Here princes and grandees vied with one -another in doing him honour. "The secret of his success," says the -historian,[7] "was that he seldom spoke and generally looked cross. -Hence his rare words and occasional smiles acquired in the eyes of his -admirers an unmerited value." He died at the age of 89. On the day of -his interment the great streets of Ch'ang-an were empty. The whole city -had joined in the funeral procession. The Governor of Honan (one of -the greatest functionaries in the State), together with his wife and -children, all of them clad in monastic vestments, followed the bier, -mingling with the promiscuous crowd of his admirers and disciples. - -[7] _Old T'ang History_, 191. - -Religion was at that time fashionable in the high society of Ch'ang-an, -as it is to-day in the great Catholic capitals of Munich, Vienna or -Seville. When I read of Fujaku's burial another scene at once sprang -into my mind, the funeral of a great Bavarian dignitary, where I saw -the noblemen of Munich walk hooded and barefoot through the streets. - -I shall not refer again to the Northern School of Zen. One wonders -whether the founders of religions are forced by fate to watch the -posthumous development of their creeds. If so, theirs must be the very -blackest pit of Hell. - -Let us return to the Southern School, always regarded as the true -repository of Zen tradition. - - -OBAKU. - -Obaku lived at the beginning of the ninth century, and was thus a -contemporary of the poet Po Chü-i. He enjoyed the patronage of a -distinguished statesman the Chancellor Hai Kyu, of whom the Emperor -said, "This is indeed a true Confucian." It is to the Chancellor that -we owe the record of Obaku's conversations, which he wrote down day by -day. I will make a few extracts from this diary: - - Hai Kyu.--Eno could not read or write. How came it that he - succeeded to the Patriarchate of Konin? The warden Shinshu was - in control of 500 monks, gave lectures, and could discourse upon - thirty-two different Sutras and Shastras. It was certainly very - strange that he was not made Patriarch. - - Obaku (replying).--Shinshu's conception of Thought was too - material. His proofs and practices were too positive. - -"The master told me that when he was studying with Enkwan, the Emperor -Tai Chung came dressed as a monk. The master happened to be in the -chapel prostrating himself before an image of Buddha. The Emperor, who -thought he had learnt the lesson of Zen idealism, said to him: 'There -is nothing to be got from Buddha, nothing from the Church, nothing from -Man; for nothing exists. What do you mean by praying at your age?' - -"Obaku answered him: 'I seek nothing of Buddha, the Church, or of -Man. I am in the habit of praying.' The Emperor said: 'What do you do -it for?' Obaku lost patience and struck him with his fist. 'You rude -fellow,' cried the Emperor. 'Since nothing exists, what difference -does it make to you whether I am rude or polite?' and Obaku struck him -again. The Emperor retreated hastily." - -In his old age Obaku visited his native village and stayed a year in -his mother's house, without revealing his identity. After he had set -out again for his monastery, his mother suddenly realised that he was -her son and went in pursuit of him. She reached the shore of a certain -river, only to see him disembarking on the other side. Thereupon she -lost her reason and flung herself into the water. - -Obaku threw a lighted torch after her and recited the following verses: - - _May the wide river dry at its source, to its very bed - If here the crime of matricide has been done; - When one son becomes a priest, the whole family is born again in Heaven; - If that is a lie, all that Buddha promised is a lie._ - -Henceforward the throwing of a lighted torch into the bier became part -of the Zen funeral ceremony; it was accompanied by the reciting of the -above verses. Probably formula, ritual, and story alike belong to a -period much more ancient than Buddhism. - -In the seventeenth century a Chinese priest named Ingen[8] carried the -teaching of Obaku to Japan, where it now possesses nearly 700 temples. - -[8] 1592-1673 A.D. - - -BASO. - -Baso was a master of the ninth century. One day he was sitting with his -feet across the garden-path. A monk came along with a wheel-barrow. -"Tuck in your feet," said the monk. "What has been extended cannot be -retracted," answered Baso. "What has been started cannot be stopped," -cried the monk and pushed the barrow over Baso's feet. The master -hobbled to the monastery and seizing an axe called out "Have any of you -seen the rascal who hurt my feet?" The monk who had pushed the barrow -then came out and stood "with craned head." The master laid down his -axe. - -To understand this story we must realise that the wheel-barrow is here -a symbol of the Wheel of Life and Death, which, though every spoke of -it is illusion, cannot be disregarded till we have destroyed the last -seed of phenomenal perception in us. - - -RINZAI. - -Obaku, as we have seen, taught wisdom with his fists. When the novice -Rinzai came to him and asked him what was the fundamental idea of -Buddhism, Obaku hit him three times with his stick. Rinzai fled and -presently met the monk Daigu. - - _Daigu_: Where do you come from? - - _Rinzai_: From Obaku. - - _Daigu_: And what stanza did he lecture upon? - - _Rinzai_: I asked him thrice what was the fundamental doctrine of - Buddhism and each time he hit me with his stick. Please tell me if - I did something I ought not to have done? - - _Daigu_: You go to Obaku and torture him by your questions, and - then ask if you have done wrong! - -At that moment Rinzai had a Great Enlightenment. - -Rinzai substituted howling for Obaku's manual violence. He shouted -meaningless syllables at his disciples; roared like a lion or bellowed -like a bull. This "howling" became a regular part of Zen practice, -and may be compared to the yelling of the American Shakers. Upon his -deathbed Rinzai summoned his disciples round him and asked which of -them felt capable of carrying on his work. Sansho volunteered to -do so. "How will you tell people what was Rinzai's teaching?" asked -Rinzai. Sansho threw out his chest and roared in a manner which he -thought would gratify the master. But Rinzai groaned and cried out, "To -think that such a blind donkey should undertake to hand on my teaching!" - -It was in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that Zen most completely -permeated Chinese thought. Upon the invasion of the Mongols[9] many Zen -monks from Eastern China took refuge in Japan; the same thing happened -during the Manchu invasion in the seventeenth century. But by that time -Zen had a serious philosophic rival. - -[9] On the attitude of the Mongol rulers to Zen, see an article by -Prof. Kunishita, _Toyogakuho_, xi., 4, 87. - -In the fifteenth century the philosopher Wang Yang-ming began to -propagate a doctrine which, in all but names, strongly resembled the -philosophic side of Zen. He taught that in each one of us is a "higher -nature," something which, borrowing a phrase from Mencius, he called -"Good Knowledge." Of this inner nature he speaks in exactly the same -terms as the Zen teachers spoke of their "Buddha immanent in man's -heart." He even uses the same kind of doggerel-verse as a medium of -teaching. - -Rigid Confucianists, who would not have listened to any doctrine of -professedly Buddhist origin, were able through Wang Yang-ming's tact to -accept the philosophy of Zen without feeling that they were betraying -the Confucian tradition. The followers of Yang-ming are to-day very -numerous both in China and Japan. They cultivate introspection, but not -the complete self-hypnosis of Zen. - -In China, where Zen is almost forgotten, the followers of this later -doctrine are not even aware of its derivation. - - -ZEN AND ART. - -I said at the beginning of this paper that Zen is often mentioned -by writers on Far Eastern Art. The connection between Zen and art -is important, not only because of the inspiration which Zen gave -to the artist, but also because through Zen was obtained a better -understanding of the psychological conditions under which art is -produced than has prevailed in any other civilisation. - -Art was regarded as a kind of Zen, as a delving down into the Buddha -that each of us unknowingly carries within him, as Benjamin carried -Joseph's cup in his sack. Through Zen we annihilate Time and see the -Universe not split up into myriad fragments, but in its primal unity. -Unless, says the Zen æsthetician, the artist's work is imbued with -this vision of the subjective, non-phenomenal aspect of life, his -productions will be mere toys. - -I do not mean to suggest that Chinese artists found in Zen a short -cut to the production of beauty. Zen aims at the annihilation of -consciousness, whereas art is produced by an interaction of conscious -and unconscious faculties. How far such an interaction can be promoted -by the psychic discipline of Zen no layman can judge; moreover the -whole question of the artist's psychology is controversial and obscure. - -Perhaps it is not even very important that the artist himself should -have a sound æsthetic; but it is of the utmost importance to the artist -that the public should have some notion of the conditions under which -art can be produced--should have some key to the vagaries of a section -of humanity which will in any case always be found troublesome and -irritating. - -Such a key Zen supplied, and it is in the language of Zen that, after -the twelfth century, art is usually discussed in China and Japan. - - -THE ROKUTSUJI SCHOOL. - -One institution, about which till recently very little was known, -seems to have been an important factor in the propagation of Zen art -and ideas. About 1215 A.D. a Zen priest came from the far -south-west of China to Hangchow, the Capital, and there refounded a -ruined monastery, the Rokutsuji, which stood on the shores of the -famous Western Lake. His name was Mokkei. He seems to have been the -first to practise the swift, ecstatic type of monochrome which is -associated with Zen. In hurried swirls of ink he sought to record -before they faded visions and exaltations produced whether by the -frenzy of wine, the stupor of tea, or the vacancy of absorption. - -Sometimes his design is tangled and chaotic; sometimes as in his famous -"Persimmons,"[10] passion has congealed into a stupendous calm. - -[10] See Kümmel, _Die Kunst Ostasiens_ Pl. 118. - -Of his fellow-workers the best known is Raso, a painter of birds and -flowers. Ryokai, once a fashionable painter, left the Court and with -his pupil Rikaku worked in the manner of Mokkei. - -Examples of Ryokai's work before and after his conversion are still -preserved in Japan. - -Finally, about the middle of the fourteenth century, a Japanese priest -came to China and, under circumstances which I shall describe in an -appendix, confusingly became Mokkei II. It may be that it was he who -sent back to his own country some of the numerous pictures signed -Mokkei which are now in Japan. Which of them are by Mokkei and which by -Mokuan is a problem which remains to be solved. - -This Zen art did not flourish long in China, nor in all probability do -many specimens of it survive there. But in Japan it was a principal -source of inspiration to the great painters of the fourteenth and -fifteenth centuries. Sesshu himself is the direct descendant of Mokkei; -as in a decadent way are Kano masters such as Tsunenobu. - -Zen paintings are of two kinds. (1) Representations of animals, birds -and flowers, in which the artist attempted to identify himself with the -object depicted, to externise its inner Buddha. These were achieved -not by study from the life, as the early Sung nature-pieces have been, -but by intense and concentrated visualisation of the subject to be -painted. This mental picture was rapidly transferred to paper before -the spell of concentration (samadhi) was broken. (2) Illustrations of -episodes in the lives of the great Zen teachers. This branch of Zen -art was essentially dramatic. It sought to express the characters of -the persons involved, subtly to reveal the grandeur of soul that lay -hidden behind apparent uncouthness or stupidity. Typical of this kind -of painting are the pictures of "Tanka burning the Image." - -One night Tanka, a Zen priest, stayed as a guest at an ordinary -Buddhist monastery. There was no firewood in his cell. As the night -was cold he went into the chapel, seized a wooden statue of Shakyamuni -and, chopping it up, made himself a comfortable fire. To him the -idol of Buddha was a mere block of wood; his indignant hosts took a -different view. The controversy is the same as that which occupies the -central place in the No play _Sotoba Komachi_. - -There is another aspect of Zen which had an equally important effect on -art. The Buddha-nature is immanent not in Man only, but in everything -that exists, animate or inanimate. Stone, river and tree are alike -parts of the great hidden Unity. Thus Man, through his Buddha-nature -or universalised consciousness, possesses an intimate means of contact -with Nature. The songs of birds, the noise of waterfalls, the rolling -of thunder, the whispering of wind in the pine-trees--all these are -utterances of the Absolute. - -Hence the connection of Zen with the passionate love of Nature which is -so evident in Far Eastern poetry and art. - -Personally I believe that this passion for Nature worked more -favourably on literature than on painting. The typical Zen picture, -dashed off in a moment of exaltation--perhaps a moonlit river expressed -in three blurs and a flourish--belongs rather to the art of calligraphy -than to that of painting. - -In his more elaborate depictions of nature the Zen artist is led by his -love of nature into that common pitfall of lovers--sentimentality. The -forms of Nature tend with him to function not as forms but as symbols. - -Something resembling the mystic belief which Zen embraces is found -in many countries and under many names. But Zen differs from other -religions of the same kind in that it admits only one means by -which the perception of Truth can be attained. Prayer, fasting, -asceticism--all are dismissed as useless, giving place to one single -resource, the method of self-hypnosis which I have here described. - -I have, indeed, omitted any mention of an important adjunct of Zen, -namely tea-drinking, which was as constant a feature in the life of Zen -monasteries as it is here in the régime of charwomen and girl-clerks. -I have not space to describe the various tea-ceremonies. The tendency -of monasteries was to create in them as in every part of daily life a -more and more elaborate ritual, calculated to give some pattern to -days otherwise devoid of any incident. We possess minute descriptions -of every ceremony--the initiation of novices, the celebration of birth -and death anniversaries of the Patriarchs, the procedure in cases of -sickness, madness, disobedience, disappearance or death of monks; -the selection and investiture of abbots; the lectures, liturgies and -sessions which constituted the curriculum of Zen instruction. - -In China decay set in after the fifteenth century. The Zen monasteries -became almost indistinguishable from those of popular, idolatrous -Buddhism. In Japan, on the other hand, Zen has remained absolutely -distinct and is now the favourite creed of the educated classes. It -has not hitherto conducted any propaganda in Europe, whereas the Amida -Sect has sent out both missionaries and pamphlets. But I believe that -Zen would find many converts in England. Something rather near it we -already possess. Quakerism, like Zen, is a non-dogmatic religion, -laying stress on the doctrine of Immanence. But whereas the Quakers -seek communion with the Divine Spark in corporate meditation and -deliberately exploit the mysterious potencies of crowd-psychology--the -Zen adept probes in solitude (or at least without reference to his -neighbour) for the Buddha within him. - -In cases where a Quaker meeting passes in silence, the members having -meditated quietly for a whole hour, a very near approach to a Zen -gathering has been made. But more often than not the Holy Spirit, -choosing his mouthpiece with an apparent lack of discrimination, -quickly descends upon some member of the meeting. The ineffable, -which Zen wisely refused to express, is then drowned in a torrent of -pedestrian oration. - -Some, then, may turn to Zen as a purer Quakerism. Others will be -attracted to it by the resemblance of its doctrines to the hypotheses -of recent psychology. The Buddha consciousness of Zen exactly -corresponds to the Universal Consciousness which, according to certain -modern investigators, lies hid beneath the personal Consciousness. -Such converts will probably use a kind of applied Zen, much as the -Japanese have done; that is to say, they will not seek to spend their -days in complete Samadhi, but will dive occasionally, for rest or -encouragement, into the deeper recesses of the soul. - -It is not likely that they will rest content with the traditional -Eastern methods of self-hypnosis. If certain states of consciousness -are indeed more valuable than those with which we are familiar in -ordinary life--then we must seek them unflinchingly by whatever means -we can devise. I can imagine a kind of dentist's chair fitted with -revolving mirrors, flashing lights, sulphurous haloes expanding and -contracting--in short a mechanism that by the pressure of a single knob -should whirl a dustman into Nirvana. - -Whether such states of mind are actually more valuable than our -ordinary consciousness is difficult to determine. Certainly no one -has much right to an opinion who has not experienced them. But -something akin to Samadhi--a sudden feeling of contact with a unity -more real than the apparent complexity of things--is probably not an -uncommon experience. The athlete, the creative artist, the lover, the -philosopher--all, I fancy, get a share of it, not when seeking to -escape from the visible world; but rather just when that world was -seeming to them most sublimely real. - -To seek by contemplation of the navel or of the tip of the nose a -repetition of spiritual experiences such as these seems to us inane; -and indeed the negative trance of Zen is very different from the -positive ecstasies to which I have just referred. I say that it is -different; but how do I know? "Zen," said Bodhidharma, "cannot be -described in words nor chronicled in books"; and I have no other -experience of Zen. If I _knew_, I might transmit to you my knowledge, -but it would have to be by a direct spiritual communication, symbolised -only by a smile, a gesture, or the plucking of a flower. - -I need not therefore apologise for having given a purely external and -historical account of Zen, a creed whose inner mysteries are admittedly -beyond the scope of words. - - - - -APPENDIX I. - - -Reproductions of Zen Paintings in Japanese art publications. (The -_Kokka_ and the other publications here referred to may be seen at the -Art Library, Victoria and Albert Museum; and at the Print Room of the -British Museum.) - - MOKKEI--_Kokka._ 37, 112, 122, 177, 185, 238, 242, 265, 268, 291, - 293, 314. - - RASO.--_Shimbi Taikwan_ XX. - - MOKUAN.--(Mokkei II).--_Kokka_ 295, _Shimbi Taikwan_ Vol. IX. (Nos. - 21 and 22 in the collection of Chinese Paintings at the British - Museum are probably by Mokuan.) - - RYOKAI.--_Kokka_ 40, 114, 145, 152, 220, 227, 229. - - RIKAKU.--_Kokka_ 269. - - MUJUN.--(An important thirteenth century Zen writer.) _Kokka_ 243. - - INDRA.--(A Hangchow priest, presumably an Indian; flourished c. - 1280.) _Kokka_ 35, 110, 223, 310. _Shimbi Taikwan_ IX. - - - - -APPENDIX II. - - -MOKUAN. - -The Nikkoshu[11], a diary by the priest Gido, has the following entry -under the year 1378 (month and day uncertain): - - To-day Donfu[12] came, and we fell to talking of Mokuan. It seems - that he was once known as Ze-itsu. But on becoming a pupil of the - priest Kenzan[13], he changed his name to Mokuan. Afterwards he - went to China and entered the Honkakuji[14], where he became the - disciple of Ryo-an[15] and was made librarian. Here he published at - his own expense (lit. "selling his shoes") the _Second Collection - of Sayings by Korin_. - - Subsequently he lived at the Shotenji at Soochow, and was warden - there under Nanso[16], dying soon afterwards. - - When he first came to China he spent some time at the Joji - Monastery at Hangchow and from there visited the Rokutsuji on - the shores of the Western Lake. This monastery was inhabited by - the followers of Mokkei. The abbot greeted Mokuan with a smile, - saying to him: "Last night I dreamt that our founder Mokkei came - back again. You must be his reincarnation"; and he gave to Mokuan - Mokkei's two seals, white and red. Henceforward he was known as - Mokkei the Second. - -[11] See my _No Plays of Japan_ (Allen & Unwin, 1921), p. 19. The -passage here translated is taken not from the current, two-chapter -abridgement of Gido's Diary, but from the _Kokuchoshu_, a miscellany by -the 15th century priest Zuikei, who quoted many passages from the lost -portion of the Diary. See Mr. Saga Toshu, _Shina Gaku_, I., 1. - -[12] 1314-1384. - -[13] Died 1323. Both he and Donfu were Japanese priests who visited -China. - -[14] At Chia-hsing in Chehkiang. - -[15] Entered this temple in 1334. - -[16] Visited Japan; was at the Shotenji from 1342-1345. - - - - -APPENDIX III. - -Reproductions of paintings illustrating Zen legend. - - -BODHIDHARMA. - - (1) With tightly closed lips, as he appeared before the Emperor of - China in 520. _Masterpieces of Sesshu_, Pl. 47. - - (2) Crossing the Yangtze on a reed. Perhaps the best example may be - seen not in a reproduction, but in No. 22 of the original Chinese - Paintings at the British Museum. - - (3) Sitting with his face to the wall. He sat thus in silence for - nine years in the Shorin Monastery on Mount Sung. _Kokka_ 333. - - -EKA. - - Second Patriarch of the sect. Severed his own arm and presented - it to Bodhidharma. In spite of his fanaticism (or because of it) - the Founder did not at first regard him with complete confidence - and recommended to him the study of the Langkavatara Sutra, - not considering him ripe for complete, non-dogmatic Zen. Eka - waiting waist-deep in the snow for the Founder to instruct him. - Masterpieces of Sesshu, Pl. 45. - - -ENO. - - Sixth Patriarch. See above, p 15. _Kokka_, 289, 297. - - -TOKUSAN, died 865 A.D. - - _Shimbi Taikwan_, I, 13, shows him with his famous Zen stick. He - is also sometimes depicted failing to answer an old market-woman's - riddle; and tearing up his commentary on the Diamond Sutra. - - -TANKA. - - A painting by Indra (_Kokka_ 173) shows him burning the wooden - statue of Buddha at the Erin Temple. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY. - - -(1) EUROPEAN. - -The only writer who has made extracts from the works of Bodhidharma is -Père Wieger, whose remarks (in his _Histoire des Croyances religieuses -en Chine_, pp. 517-528) show a robust and likeable bigotry. - -Of Zen literature he says: "Nombre d'in-folio remplis de réponses -incohérentes, insensées.... Ce ne sont pas, comme on l'a supposé, des -allusions à des affaires intérieures, qu'il faudrait connaître pour -pouvoir comprendre. Ce sont des exclamations échappées à des abrutis, -momentanément tirés de leur coma." - -For the tea-ceremony in Japan see Okakura's _Book of Tea_ (Foulis, -1919). The "military" Zen of Japan is well described by Nukariya Kaiten -in his _The Religion of the Samurai, 1913_. - - -(2) NATIVE. - -Most of this paper is derived from the section on Zen (Series II, Vol. -15, seq.) in the "Supplement to the Collection of Buddhist Scriptures," -_Dai Nihon Zoku Zo Kyo_. - -Much of the information with regard to the Rokutsuji School is taken -from the article by Mr. Saga to which I have already referred. For the -Rokutsuji ("Temple of the Six Penetrations") see _Hsien Shun Lin-an -Chih_ ("Topography of Hangchow, 1265-1275 A.D."), ch. 78, f. 9 -recto. - -I have also used Yamada's _Zenshu Jiten_ (Dictionary of Zen) and the -_Hekiganroku_, edited by Soyen, 1920. - - - - -SHORT INDEX. - - -(Chinese pronunciations given in brackets.) - - Amida, 8. - - Baso (Ma Tsu), 20. - - Bodhidharma (Ta-mo), 8 _seq._, 29. - - Bodhisattvas, 8. - - Buddhapriya (Chio-ai), 11. - - _Dai Bonten Monbutsu-ketsugi Kyo_, 14. - - Daigu (Ta-yü), 20. - - Diamond Sutra, 15. - - Dhyana, see Zen. Also, 10. - - Eka (Hui-k'o), 29. - - Enkwan (Yen-kuan), 14. - - Eno (Hui-neng), 15, 29. - - Fujaku (P'u-chi), 17. - - Haikyu (P'ei Hsiu), 18. - - _Hokkekyo_, see _Saddharma_, etc. - - Honkakuji (Pen-chio-ssu), 28. - - Joji (Ching-tz'u), 28. - - Kern, 8. - - Konin (Hung-jen), 15. - - Korin (Ku-lin), 28. - - Mahayana, 7. - - Mokkei (Mu-ch'i), 22, 27. - - Mujun (Wu-chun), 27. - - Nanso (Nan-ch'u), 28. - - Obaku (Huang Po), 18. - - Okakura, 30. - - Raso (Lo-ch'uang), 23, 27. - - Rikaku (Li Ch'üeh), 27. - - Rinzai (Lin-chi), 20. - - Rokutsuji (Liu-t'ung-ssu), 22. - - Ryo-an (Liao-an), 28. - - Ryokai (Liang K'ai), 23, 27. - - _Saddharma Pundarika Sutra_, 8. - - Saga T. 28, 30. - - Samadhi (San-mei), 12. - - Sansho (San-sheng), 21. - - Shakyamuni, 7. - - _Shina Gaku_, 28, 30. - - Shinshu (Shen-hsiu), 16. - - Shotenji (Ch'eng-t'ien-ssu), 28. - - Tanka (Tan-hsia), 23, 29. - - Tendai (T'ien-t'ai), 8. - - Tokusan (Te-shan), 29. - - Wieger, 30. - - Wu Hou, 17. - - Zen (Ch'an), 7, etc. - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber's Note - -A duplicate title page has been removed from the text. - -"Externise" on p. 23 is a variant form of "externalise", and has been -left as printed. - -The diacritics in "Saddharma Pundarika Sutra" on p. 8 -were marked in pen on the printed copy, and may not have been printed. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Zen Buddhism, by Arthur Waley - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ZEN BUDDHISM *** - -***** This file should be named 43273-8.txt or 43273-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/2/7/43273/ - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Zen Buddhism - and Its Relation to Art - -Author: Arthur Waley - -Release Date: July 21, 2013 [EBook #43273] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ZEN BUDDHISM *** - - - - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43273 ***</div> <div class="center transnote"> The cover image was produced by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</div> @@ -1512,384 +1474,6 @@ China.</p></div> </div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Zen Buddhism, by Arthur Waley - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ZEN BUDDHISM *** - -***** This file should be named 43273-h.htm or 43273-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/2/7/43273/ - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Zen Buddhism - and Its Relation to Art - -Author: Arthur Waley - -Release Date: July 21, 2013 [EBook #43273] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ZEN BUDDHISM *** - - - - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - ZEN BUDDHISM - and Its Relation to Art - - By - ARTHUR WALEY - - LONDON: - LUZAC & CO., 46, Great Russell Street, W.C.1. - 1922 - - - - -ZEN BUDDHISM - - - - -ZEN BUDDHISM - -AND ITS RELATION TO ART - - -Books on the Far East often mention a sect of Buddhism called Zen. They -say that it was a "school of abstract meditation" and that it exercised -a profound influence upon art and literature; but they tell us very -little about what Zen actually was, about its relation to ordinary -Buddhism, its history, or the exact nature of its influence upon the -arts. - -The reason of this is that very little of the native literature which -deals with Zen has yet been translated, perhaps because it is written -in early Chinese colloquial, a language the study of which has been -almost wholly neglected by Europeans and also (to judge by some of -their attempts to translate it) by the Japanese themselves. - -The present paper makes no attempt at profundity, but it is based on -the study of original texts and furnishes, I hope, some information not -hitherto accessible. - - * * * * * - -Before describing the origins of Zen itself I must give some general -account of Buddhism. At the time when it reached China[1] there were -two kinds of Buddhism, called the Lesser Vehicle and the Greater. The -former, Primitive Buddhism, possessed scriptures which in part at -any rate were genuine; that is to say, they recorded words actually -used by Shakyamuni. The ordinary adherent of this religion did not -hope to become a Buddha; Buddhas indeed were regarded as extremely -rare. He only aspired to become an Arhat, that is "an ascetic ripe -for annihilation," one who is about to escape from the wheel of -reincarnation--whose present incarnation is an antechamber to Nirvana. -To such aspirants the Buddha gives no assistance; he is what children -in their games call "home," and his followers must pant after him as -best they can. - -[1] First century A.D. - -Those who found this religion too comfortless invented another, which -became known as Mahayana, the Greater Vehicle. Putting their doctrines -into the mouth of Shakyamuni, they fabricated _ad hoc_ sermons of -enormous length, preached (so they asserted) by the Buddha himself in -his "second period" to those who were ripe to receive the whole truth. - -The great feature of this new Buddhism was the intervention of the -merciful Bodhisattvas, _illuminati_ who, though fit for Buddhahood, -voluntarily renounced it in order to help mankind. - -The first Buddhist books to reach China emanated from the Lesser -Vehicle. But the Greater Vehicle or Bodhisattva-Buddhism soon -prevailed, and by the sixth century A.D. over two thousand -works, most of them belonging to the Greater Vehicle, had been -translated into Chinese. - - -BUDDHIST SECTS. - -There were already many sects in China, the chief of which were: - - (1) _The Amidists._ - - This was the form of Buddhism which appealed to the uneducated. - It taught that a Buddha named Amida presides over the Western - Paradise, where he will receive the souls of those that worship - him. The conception of this Paradise closely resembles the - Christian idea of Heaven and may have been derived from it. - - (2) The _Tendai_ Sect, founded at the end of the sixth century. - Its teaching was based on a scripture of enormous length called - the _Saddharma Pundarika Sutra_, which is translated by Kern in - the Sacred Books of the East. It was perhaps the broadest and most - representative sect. It laid great stress on the ethical side of - Buddhism. - -We now come to _Zen_. - -In the year 520 A.D. there arrived at Canton a missionary from -Southern India. His name was Bodhidharma and he appears to have been -the younger son of an Indian Prince. - -The reigning Emperor of China was a munificent patron of Buddhism. He -had built monasteries, given alms, distributed scriptures, defended -the faith. Hearing that a Buddhist prince had arrived from India he -summoned him at once to his Capital. The following conversation took -place in the Palace at Nanking: - - _Emperor_: You will be interested to hear that I have built many - monasteries, distributed scriptures, given alms, and upheld the - Faith. Have I not indeed acquired merit? - - _Bodhidharma_: None at all. - - _Emperor_: In what then does true merit consist? - - _Bodhidharma_: In the obliteration of Matter through Absolute - Knowledge, not by external acts. - - _Emperor_: Which is the Divine and Primal Aspect of Reality? - - _Bodhidharma_: Reality has no aspect that is divine. - - _Emperor_: What are you, who have come before my Throne? - - _Bodhidharma_: I do not know. - -The Emperor could make nothing of him. Monasticism, a huge vested -interest, decried him, and after a short stay in Nanking he started -northward, towards the Capital of the Wei Tartars, who then ruled over -a large part of China. The Wei Emperor, like his Chinese confrere, was -also a great patron of Buddhism, and he, too, desired an interview with -the Indian priest. But Bodhidharma had done with Emperors, and settled -in a small country temple, where he lived till his death nine years -later. Some say that he tried to visit the Capital of the Weis, but was -prevented by the intrigues of the monks there. - -He left behind him a few short tractates, the substance of which is as -follows: - - There is no such person as Buddha. Buddha is simply a Sanskrit - word meaning "initiate." The Absolute is immanent in every man's - heart. This "treasure of the heart" is the only Buddha that exists. - It is no use seeking Buddha outside your own nature. Prayer, - scripture-reading, fasting, the observance of monastic rules--all - are useless. Those who seek Buddha do not find him. You may know - by heart all the Sutras of the twelve divisions, and yet be unable - to escape from the Wheel of Life and Death. One thing alone - avails--to discover the unreality of the World by contemplating the - Absolute which is at the root of one's own nature. - -Some one asked him: "Why may we not worship the Buddhas and -Bodhisattvas?" He answered: - - "Ogres and hobgoblins can at will assume the outward form of - Bodhisattvas; such are heretical and not of the true Buddha. There - is no Buddha but your own thoughts. Buddha is the Way. The Way is - Zen. This word Zen cannot be understood even of the wise. Zen means - 'for a man to behold his fundamental nature.'"[2] - -[2] Zen (_Sanskrit: dhyana_) means literally "contemplation." - - * * * * * - - The highest truths cannot be written down or taught by speech. A - man who cannot write a word, can yet contemplate his own heart and - become wise. Knowledge of 1,000 Sutras and 10,000 Shastras cannot - help him to realise the Absolute within him. - -He was asked: "Can a layman with wife and children, one given over to -the lusts of the flesh, achieve Buddhahood?" He answered: - - "Provided he contemplate his own inner-nature, he will achieve - Buddhahood. It does not matter about his lusts. Even a butcher can - achieve Buddhahood, if he searches in his own heart." - -"What," cried his listeners, "a butcher, who lives by taking life, and -_he_ achieve Buddhahood?" The master replied: - - "It is not a question of the man's trade. If he has learnt to know - his own nature he will be saved. - - "I have come from India only to teach you that Buddha is Thought. - I care nothing for monastic rules or ascetic practices. As for - walking on water or through fire, climbing sword-wheels, fasting, - sitting upright for hours without rest--all such practices are - heretical; they belong to the World of Being. - - "Thought, Thought, Thought! It is hard to seek. Expanding, it - covers the whole world; shrinking, it is too small to lodge a pin. - - "I seek the heart; I do not seek Buddha. For I have learnt to know - that the outer world is empty and untenanted." - -Such was the teaching of Bodhidharma. It was Vedantic[3] rather than -Buddhist. The terms "thought," "Buddha," etc., used by Bodhidharma -correspond exactly to the _brahman_ of the Upanishads. Mystic -contemplation or _yoga_ had been used by the Brahmins and was not -unknown to the early Buddhists. But Bodhidharma was the first to insist -upon it as the sole means of salvation. - -[3] Dr. McGovern tells me that Zen would seem to be more immediately -derived from the Nihilistic School of Nagarjuna (1st century -A.D.). - -Yet though his whole teaching turned on this "meditation" or "Zen," -he left behind him no exact directions for the practice of it. Having -shown the end, he left it to each individual to find his own means. -Rules, dogmas and definitions were precisely what he set out to destroy. - -Less than a hundred years after his death another Indian, Buddhapriya, -came to China and there defined with exactitude and blunt materiality -the various forms of meditation. - -The transition from the spirituality of Bodhidharma to the grossness of -his follower is, however, typical of religious history. The poetry of -Christ turns into the theology of Paul; the hovel of Saint Francis into -the mansion of Brother Elias. - - -BUDDHAPRIYA. - -He first describes the different attitudes in which Zen may be -practised, with an exact account of the correct position for hands, -feet, head, etc. The normal attitude of meditation, cross-legged, with -upright back and hands locked over the knees is familiar to every one. - -Zen could also be practised while walking and, in cases of sickness, -while lying down. Buddhapriya's instructions are in the form of -question and answer. - - _Question._--How does the Zen practised by heretics and by the - other schools of Buddhism differ from our Zen? - - _Answer._--The Zen of the heretics is not impersonal. The Zen of - the Lesser Vehicle is material. The Zen of the Greater Vehicle - only abstracts man and phenomena. - - _Question._--How ought one to set about practising Zen? - - _Answer._--First put far away from you all anger and malice, and - fill your heart with kindness and compassion. - - _Question._--Can the beginner at once proceed to the contemplation - of non-Being? - - _Answer._--By no means! He must by stratagems gradually enter in. - I have never yet seen one who straightway achieved the vision of - non-Reality. If for example he were meditating in this room he - must first banish from his mind every part of the world except the - city of Ch'ang-an. Next every building in the city except this - monastery. Next, every room in the monastery except this cell, - every object but himself, every part of himself except the end of - his nose. Finally the end of his nose hangs in space like a drop of - dew and on this nose-end he concentrates his mind. - - This is only a preliminary exercise. There are others of the same - kind. For example--persuade yourself that your navel is a minute - rivulet running through the sands. When this conception is firmly - achieved, you will see a bright light and ultimately, the body - growing transparent, you will behold the working of your bowels. - - Or again, regard your head as the top of a hollow pipe which runs - straight down through your body into the earth. Meditate upon the - top of your head, that is to say, upon the mouth of the drain-pipe, - and then gradually ascend in your thoughts to a height of four - inches above the head, and concentrate firmly on this conception. - You will thus easily pass into the contemplation of non-Being, - having performed the transition from elementary to complete Zen as - comfortably as a workman climbs the rungs of a ladder. - - _Question._--Are there any signs whereby I may know that I have - attained to Samadhi?[4] - - _Answer._--To be sure there are. Sometimes you will feel a - sensation as of bugs or ants creeping over your skin; or again, it - will appear to you that a cloud or mass of white cotton-wool is - rising immediately behind your back. In neither case must you be - discomposed or put out your hand. Sometimes it will seem as though - oil were dripping down from your head and face; sometimes a light - will shine from out of the ground you are sitting upon. - - These are all preliminary signs. - - Sometimes when you have been sitting for a long while and your - back is aching, you will suddenly hear a sound of rapping with the - fingers or a noise as of some one bumping against the door. Do not - be disquieted. These are the Good Spirits of Heaven, come to warn - you against sleep. - - Again, it may happen that you have an agreeable sense of lightness - and floating; this is a good sign. Beware, however, of a _painful_ - sense of lightness; for this may merely indicate flatulence. - - Patches of heat on the body are a sign of Fiery Samadhi. A light - filling the whole room is a premonitory sign of Zen; to smell - strange fragrances not known on earth is a sign of whole and utter - Abstraction. - - Such and many more are the signs of Zen. The practicant must not - heed them; for if by them he be encouraged or dismayed, all his - work will be undone. - - _Question._--Can Zen be practised in a Buddha Shrine? - - _Answer._--No, indeed! Zen should be practised in a quiet room or - under a tree or among tombs or sitting on the dewy earth. - - _Question._--Can Zen be practised by many sitting together? - - _Answer._--To be sure it may; but each must face his neighbour's - back. They must not sit face to face. When there are many sitting - together at night, a lamp or candle may be lit; but when there are - few together, it ought not to be used. - - _Question._--Need I wear monastic vestments at my meditations? - - _Answer._--Vestments? Why, you need wear no clothes at all, if so - be you are alone. - -[4] Concentration. - - -LATER DEVELOPMENT OF ZEN. - -Zen was at first a purely personal discipline, non-monastic, -non-ethical, not demanding the acceptance of any Scripture or any -tradition. In modern Japan it has to some extent regained this -character. In China the habit of quoting written authority was -too strong to be easily discarded. The Zen masters soon began to -answer difficult questions by quoting from the Buddhist Scriptures. -Convenience dictated that practicants of Zen should live in communities -and monasticism was soon established in their sect, as in every other -sect of Buddhism. Questions of conduct arose, and Zen was squared -with the contemporary ethical outlook; though in medieval Japanese -literature wicked and cynical persons are generally depicted as adepts -of Zen. - -Bodhidharma denied the existence of Good and Evil; but it was pointed -out by later apologists that the Zen adept, having viewed the Absolute, -is convinced of the unreality and futility of those pleasures and -possessions which are the incentive to sin. The Zen practicant, though -he makes no moral effort, nevertheless is certain not to sin, because -he is certain not to be tempted. - -Finally, Zen forged itself a tradition. Probably during the eleventh -century a Scripture[5] was fabricated which recounts how once when -Buddha was preaching, he plucked a flower and smiled. Only the disciple -Kashyapa understood the significance of this act. Between him and the -Buddha there passed a wordless communication of Absolute Truths. This -communication was silently passed on by Kashyapa to his disciple, and -so ultimately to Bodhidharma, who brought it to China. - -[5] _Dai Bonten Monbutsu Ketsugi Kyo._ - -The method of teaching by symbolic acts (such as the plucking of a -flower) was extensively used by the Zen masters. For example, when -a disciple asked Enkwan a question about the nature of Buddha, he -answered, "Bring me a clean bowl." When the priest brought the bowl, -the master said, "Now put it back where you found it." He signified -that the priest's questionings must return to their proper place, -the questioner's heart, from which alone spiritual knowledge can be -obtained. - -The object of the Zen teachers, as of some eccentric schoolmasters -whom I have known, seems at first sight to have been merely to puzzle -and surprise their pupils to the highest possible degree. A peculiar -"brusquerie" was developed in Zen monasteries. The literature of the -sect consists chiefly in an endless series of anecdotes recording -the minutest happenings in the lives of famous Zen monks and their -(apparently) most trivial sayings. But behind these trifling acts -and sayings a deep meaning lay hid. The interpretation of such -teaching depends on a complete knowledge of the symbolism used. I -am not inclined to agree with those students of Zen who assert that -its written teaching are wholly devoid of intellectual content or so -completely esoteric as not to admit of explanation in words. Like other -Buddhist philosophers the Zen masters were chiefly concerned with the -attempt to define the relation between the One and the Many, between -the subjective and objective aspects of life. - -The idealism of Zen does not mean that the phenomenal world has no -importance. To those who have not reached complete self-realisation -the urgencies of that world remain paramount and are the only -stepping-stones upon which he can climb higher. - -On the day of his arrival at the monastery a novice presented himself -before the abbot, begging to be allowed to begin his spiritual -exercises without further delay. "Have you had supper?" asked the -abbot. "Yes." "Then go and wash your plate." - - -THE ZEN MASTERS. - -Let us begin with Eno, a master of the seventh century. He lost his -parents when he was young and earned his living by gathering firewood. -One day when he was in the market-place he heard some one reading the -Diamond Sutra.[6] He asked where such books were to be had and was -told "From Master Konin on the Yellow Plum-blossom Hill." Accordingly -he went to Konin's Monastery in Anhui and presented himself before the -Master. "Where do you come from?" "From the South." "Bah! In the South -they have not Buddha in their souls." "North and South," replied Eno, -"are human distinctions that Buddha knows nothing of." - -[6] Translated by W. Gemmell, 1912. Its use by Konin shows that Zen did -not long avoid the use of scriptures. - -Konin accepted him as a lay-brother and put him to pound rice in the -bakery. - -Konin was growing old and wished to choose his successor. He therefore -instituted a poetical competition in which each monk was to epitomise -in a quatrain the essence of Zen. The favourite candidate was the -warden Shinshu, who sent in the following verses: - - _The body is the trunk of the Bodhi-tree; - The mind is the bright mirror's stand; - Scrub your mirror continually, - Lest the dust eclipse its brightness._ - -Eno, as a lay-brother, was not qualified to compete. Some one told him -of Shinshu's quatrain. "Mine would be very different," he exclaimed, -and persuaded one of the boys employed in the bakery to go stealthily -by night and inscribe the following poem on the monastery-wall: - - _Knowledge is not a tree; - The Mirror has no stand; - Since nothing exists, - How could dust rise and cover it?_ - -The authorship of the poem was discovered and the abbot Konin visited -Eno in the bakery. "Is your rice white or no?" he asked. "White?" -answered Eno; "it has not yet been sifted." Thereupon the abbot -struck three times on the rice-mortar with his staff and departed. -Eno understood his meaning. That night at the third watch he came to -Konin's cell and was invested with the abbot's mantle, thereby becoming -the Sixth Patriarch of the Zen Church. He died in 712 A.D., -without having learned how to read or write. - - -FASHIONABLE ZEN. - -The warden Shinshu had lost the Patriarchate and with it the spiritual -headship of Zen. But as a compensation Fate had in store for him -worldly triumphs of the most dazzling kind. Leaving the rural monastery -of Konin, he entered the Temple of the Jade fountain in the great -city of Kingchau. His fame soon spread over central China. He was a -man of "huge stature, bushy eyebrows and shapely ears." The Empress -Wu Hou, who had usurped the throne of China, notoriously cultivated -the society of handsome priests. About 684 A.D. she summoned -him to the Capital. Instead of commanding his presence at Court she -came in a litter to his lodgings and actually knelt down before him. -The friendship of this murderous and fiendishly cruel woman procured -for him temporal dignities which in the eyes of the world completely -outshone the rustic piety of the Sixth Patriarch. Shinshu at the -Capital became as it were the Temporal Father of Zen, while Eno at his -country monastery remained its spiritual pope. The successors of Eno -became known as the Fathers of the Southern School; while the courtly -and social Zen of Shinshu is called Zen of the North. - -Was it in sincere goodwill or with the desire to discredit his rival -that Shinshu invited Eno to join him at the Capital? In any case Eno -had the good sense to refuse. "I am a man of low stature and humble -appearance," he replied; "I fear that the men of the North would -despise me and my doctrines"--thus hinting (with just that touch of -malice which so often spices the unworldly) that Shinshu's pre-eminence -in the North was due to outward rather than to spiritual graces. - -Shinshu died in 706, outliving his august patroness by a year. To -perpetuate his name a palace was turned into a memorial monastery; the -Emperor's brother wrote his epitaph; his obsequies were celebrated with -stupendous pomp. - -His successor, Fujaku, at first remained at the Kingchau monastery -where he had been Shinshu's pupil. But in 724 the irresolute Emperor -Ming-huang, who had proscribed Buddhism ten years before, summoned -Fujaku to the Imperial City. Here princes and grandees vied with one -another in doing him honour. "The secret of his success," says the -historian,[7] "was that he seldom spoke and generally looked cross. -Hence his rare words and occasional smiles acquired in the eyes of his -admirers an unmerited value." He died at the age of 89. On the day of -his interment the great streets of Ch'ang-an were empty. The whole city -had joined in the funeral procession. The Governor of Honan (one of -the greatest functionaries in the State), together with his wife and -children, all of them clad in monastic vestments, followed the bier, -mingling with the promiscuous crowd of his admirers and disciples. - -[7] _Old T'ang History_, 191. - -Religion was at that time fashionable in the high society of Ch'ang-an, -as it is to-day in the great Catholic capitals of Munich, Vienna or -Seville. When I read of Fujaku's burial another scene at once sprang -into my mind, the funeral of a great Bavarian dignitary, where I saw -the noblemen of Munich walk hooded and barefoot through the streets. - -I shall not refer again to the Northern School of Zen. One wonders -whether the founders of religions are forced by fate to watch the -posthumous development of their creeds. If so, theirs must be the very -blackest pit of Hell. - -Let us return to the Southern School, always regarded as the true -repository of Zen tradition. - - -OBAKU. - -Obaku lived at the beginning of the ninth century, and was thus a -contemporary of the poet Po Chue-i. He enjoyed the patronage of a -distinguished statesman the Chancellor Hai Kyu, of whom the Emperor -said, "This is indeed a true Confucian." It is to the Chancellor that -we owe the record of Obaku's conversations, which he wrote down day by -day. I will make a few extracts from this diary: - - Hai Kyu.--Eno could not read or write. How came it that he - succeeded to the Patriarchate of Konin? The warden Shinshu was - in control of 500 monks, gave lectures, and could discourse upon - thirty-two different Sutras and Shastras. It was certainly very - strange that he was not made Patriarch. - - Obaku (replying).--Shinshu's conception of Thought was too - material. His proofs and practices were too positive. - -"The master told me that when he was studying with Enkwan, the Emperor -Tai Chung came dressed as a monk. The master happened to be in the -chapel prostrating himself before an image of Buddha. The Emperor, who -thought he had learnt the lesson of Zen idealism, said to him: 'There -is nothing to be got from Buddha, nothing from the Church, nothing from -Man; for nothing exists. What do you mean by praying at your age?' - -"Obaku answered him: 'I seek nothing of Buddha, the Church, or of -Man. I am in the habit of praying.' The Emperor said: 'What do you do -it for?' Obaku lost patience and struck him with his fist. 'You rude -fellow,' cried the Emperor. 'Since nothing exists, what difference -does it make to you whether I am rude or polite?' and Obaku struck him -again. The Emperor retreated hastily." - -In his old age Obaku visited his native village and stayed a year in -his mother's house, without revealing his identity. After he had set -out again for his monastery, his mother suddenly realised that he was -her son and went in pursuit of him. She reached the shore of a certain -river, only to see him disembarking on the other side. Thereupon she -lost her reason and flung herself into the water. - -Obaku threw a lighted torch after her and recited the following verses: - - _May the wide river dry at its source, to its very bed - If here the crime of matricide has been done; - When one son becomes a priest, the whole family is born again in Heaven; - If that is a lie, all that Buddha promised is a lie._ - -Henceforward the throwing of a lighted torch into the bier became part -of the Zen funeral ceremony; it was accompanied by the reciting of the -above verses. Probably formula, ritual, and story alike belong to a -period much more ancient than Buddhism. - -In the seventeenth century a Chinese priest named Ingen[8] carried the -teaching of Obaku to Japan, where it now possesses nearly 700 temples. - -[8] 1592-1673 A.D. - - -BASO. - -Baso was a master of the ninth century. One day he was sitting with his -feet across the garden-path. A monk came along with a wheel-barrow. -"Tuck in your feet," said the monk. "What has been extended cannot be -retracted," answered Baso. "What has been started cannot be stopped," -cried the monk and pushed the barrow over Baso's feet. The master -hobbled to the monastery and seizing an axe called out "Have any of you -seen the rascal who hurt my feet?" The monk who had pushed the barrow -then came out and stood "with craned head." The master laid down his -axe. - -To understand this story we must realise that the wheel-barrow is here -a symbol of the Wheel of Life and Death, which, though every spoke of -it is illusion, cannot be disregarded till we have destroyed the last -seed of phenomenal perception in us. - - -RINZAI. - -Obaku, as we have seen, taught wisdom with his fists. When the novice -Rinzai came to him and asked him what was the fundamental idea of -Buddhism, Obaku hit him three times with his stick. Rinzai fled and -presently met the monk Daigu. - - _Daigu_: Where do you come from? - - _Rinzai_: From Obaku. - - _Daigu_: And what stanza did he lecture upon? - - _Rinzai_: I asked him thrice what was the fundamental doctrine of - Buddhism and each time he hit me with his stick. Please tell me if - I did something I ought not to have done? - - _Daigu_: You go to Obaku and torture him by your questions, and - then ask if you have done wrong! - -At that moment Rinzai had a Great Enlightenment. - -Rinzai substituted howling for Obaku's manual violence. He shouted -meaningless syllables at his disciples; roared like a lion or bellowed -like a bull. This "howling" became a regular part of Zen practice, -and may be compared to the yelling of the American Shakers. Upon his -deathbed Rinzai summoned his disciples round him and asked which of -them felt capable of carrying on his work. Sansho volunteered to -do so. "How will you tell people what was Rinzai's teaching?" asked -Rinzai. Sansho threw out his chest and roared in a manner which he -thought would gratify the master. But Rinzai groaned and cried out, "To -think that such a blind donkey should undertake to hand on my teaching!" - -It was in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that Zen most completely -permeated Chinese thought. Upon the invasion of the Mongols[9] many Zen -monks from Eastern China took refuge in Japan; the same thing happened -during the Manchu invasion in the seventeenth century. But by that time -Zen had a serious philosophic rival. - -[9] On the attitude of the Mongol rulers to Zen, see an article by -Prof. Kunishita, _Toyogakuho_, xi., 4, 87. - -In the fifteenth century the philosopher Wang Yang-ming began to -propagate a doctrine which, in all but names, strongly resembled the -philosophic side of Zen. He taught that in each one of us is a "higher -nature," something which, borrowing a phrase from Mencius, he called -"Good Knowledge." Of this inner nature he speaks in exactly the same -terms as the Zen teachers spoke of their "Buddha immanent in man's -heart." He even uses the same kind of doggerel-verse as a medium of -teaching. - -Rigid Confucianists, who would not have listened to any doctrine of -professedly Buddhist origin, were able through Wang Yang-ming's tact to -accept the philosophy of Zen without feeling that they were betraying -the Confucian tradition. The followers of Yang-ming are to-day very -numerous both in China and Japan. They cultivate introspection, but not -the complete self-hypnosis of Zen. - -In China, where Zen is almost forgotten, the followers of this later -doctrine are not even aware of its derivation. - - -ZEN AND ART. - -I said at the beginning of this paper that Zen is often mentioned -by writers on Far Eastern Art. The connection between Zen and art -is important, not only because of the inspiration which Zen gave -to the artist, but also because through Zen was obtained a better -understanding of the psychological conditions under which art is -produced than has prevailed in any other civilisation. - -Art was regarded as a kind of Zen, as a delving down into the Buddha -that each of us unknowingly carries within him, as Benjamin carried -Joseph's cup in his sack. Through Zen we annihilate Time and see the -Universe not split up into myriad fragments, but in its primal unity. -Unless, says the Zen aesthetician, the artist's work is imbued with -this vision of the subjective, non-phenomenal aspect of life, his -productions will be mere toys. - -I do not mean to suggest that Chinese artists found in Zen a short -cut to the production of beauty. Zen aims at the annihilation of -consciousness, whereas art is produced by an interaction of conscious -and unconscious faculties. How far such an interaction can be promoted -by the psychic discipline of Zen no layman can judge; moreover the -whole question of the artist's psychology is controversial and obscure. - -Perhaps it is not even very important that the artist himself should -have a sound aesthetic; but it is of the utmost importance to the artist -that the public should have some notion of the conditions under which -art can be produced--should have some key to the vagaries of a section -of humanity which will in any case always be found troublesome and -irritating. - -Such a key Zen supplied, and it is in the language of Zen that, after -the twelfth century, art is usually discussed in China and Japan. - - -THE ROKUTSUJI SCHOOL. - -One institution, about which till recently very little was known, -seems to have been an important factor in the propagation of Zen art -and ideas. About 1215 A.D. a Zen priest came from the far -south-west of China to Hangchow, the Capital, and there refounded a -ruined monastery, the Rokutsuji, which stood on the shores of the -famous Western Lake. His name was Mokkei. He seems to have been the -first to practise the swift, ecstatic type of monochrome which is -associated with Zen. In hurried swirls of ink he sought to record -before they faded visions and exaltations produced whether by the -frenzy of wine, the stupor of tea, or the vacancy of absorption. - -Sometimes his design is tangled and chaotic; sometimes as in his famous -"Persimmons,"[10] passion has congealed into a stupendous calm. - -[10] See Kuemmel, _Die Kunst Ostasiens_ Pl. 118. - -Of his fellow-workers the best known is Raso, a painter of birds and -flowers. Ryokai, once a fashionable painter, left the Court and with -his pupil Rikaku worked in the manner of Mokkei. - -Examples of Ryokai's work before and after his conversion are still -preserved in Japan. - -Finally, about the middle of the fourteenth century, a Japanese priest -came to China and, under circumstances which I shall describe in an -appendix, confusingly became Mokkei II. It may be that it was he who -sent back to his own country some of the numerous pictures signed -Mokkei which are now in Japan. Which of them are by Mokkei and which by -Mokuan is a problem which remains to be solved. - -This Zen art did not flourish long in China, nor in all probability do -many specimens of it survive there. But in Japan it was a principal -source of inspiration to the great painters of the fourteenth and -fifteenth centuries. Sesshu himself is the direct descendant of Mokkei; -as in a decadent way are Kano masters such as Tsunenobu. - -Zen paintings are of two kinds. (1) Representations of animals, birds -and flowers, in which the artist attempted to identify himself with the -object depicted, to externise its inner Buddha. These were achieved -not by study from the life, as the early Sung nature-pieces have been, -but by intense and concentrated visualisation of the subject to be -painted. This mental picture was rapidly transferred to paper before -the spell of concentration (samadhi) was broken. (2) Illustrations of -episodes in the lives of the great Zen teachers. This branch of Zen -art was essentially dramatic. It sought to express the characters of -the persons involved, subtly to reveal the grandeur of soul that lay -hidden behind apparent uncouthness or stupidity. Typical of this kind -of painting are the pictures of "Tanka burning the Image." - -One night Tanka, a Zen priest, stayed as a guest at an ordinary -Buddhist monastery. There was no firewood in his cell. As the night -was cold he went into the chapel, seized a wooden statue of Shakyamuni -and, chopping it up, made himself a comfortable fire. To him the -idol of Buddha was a mere block of wood; his indignant hosts took a -different view. The controversy is the same as that which occupies the -central place in the No play _Sotoba Komachi_. - -There is another aspect of Zen which had an equally important effect on -art. The Buddha-nature is immanent not in Man only, but in everything -that exists, animate or inanimate. Stone, river and tree are alike -parts of the great hidden Unity. Thus Man, through his Buddha-nature -or universalised consciousness, possesses an intimate means of contact -with Nature. The songs of birds, the noise of waterfalls, the rolling -of thunder, the whispering of wind in the pine-trees--all these are -utterances of the Absolute. - -Hence the connection of Zen with the passionate love of Nature which is -so evident in Far Eastern poetry and art. - -Personally I believe that this passion for Nature worked more -favourably on literature than on painting. The typical Zen picture, -dashed off in a moment of exaltation--perhaps a moonlit river expressed -in three blurs and a flourish--belongs rather to the art of calligraphy -than to that of painting. - -In his more elaborate depictions of nature the Zen artist is led by his -love of nature into that common pitfall of lovers--sentimentality. The -forms of Nature tend with him to function not as forms but as symbols. - -Something resembling the mystic belief which Zen embraces is found -in many countries and under many names. But Zen differs from other -religions of the same kind in that it admits only one means by -which the perception of Truth can be attained. Prayer, fasting, -asceticism--all are dismissed as useless, giving place to one single -resource, the method of self-hypnosis which I have here described. - -I have, indeed, omitted any mention of an important adjunct of Zen, -namely tea-drinking, which was as constant a feature in the life of Zen -monasteries as it is here in the regime of charwomen and girl-clerks. -I have not space to describe the various tea-ceremonies. The tendency -of monasteries was to create in them as in every part of daily life a -more and more elaborate ritual, calculated to give some pattern to -days otherwise devoid of any incident. We possess minute descriptions -of every ceremony--the initiation of novices, the celebration of birth -and death anniversaries of the Patriarchs, the procedure in cases of -sickness, madness, disobedience, disappearance or death of monks; -the selection and investiture of abbots; the lectures, liturgies and -sessions which constituted the curriculum of Zen instruction. - -In China decay set in after the fifteenth century. The Zen monasteries -became almost indistinguishable from those of popular, idolatrous -Buddhism. In Japan, on the other hand, Zen has remained absolutely -distinct and is now the favourite creed of the educated classes. It -has not hitherto conducted any propaganda in Europe, whereas the Amida -Sect has sent out both missionaries and pamphlets. But I believe that -Zen would find many converts in England. Something rather near it we -already possess. Quakerism, like Zen, is a non-dogmatic religion, -laying stress on the doctrine of Immanence. But whereas the Quakers -seek communion with the Divine Spark in corporate meditation and -deliberately exploit the mysterious potencies of crowd-psychology--the -Zen adept probes in solitude (or at least without reference to his -neighbour) for the Buddha within him. - -In cases where a Quaker meeting passes in silence, the members having -meditated quietly for a whole hour, a very near approach to a Zen -gathering has been made. But more often than not the Holy Spirit, -choosing his mouthpiece with an apparent lack of discrimination, -quickly descends upon some member of the meeting. The ineffable, -which Zen wisely refused to express, is then drowned in a torrent of -pedestrian oration. - -Some, then, may turn to Zen as a purer Quakerism. Others will be -attracted to it by the resemblance of its doctrines to the hypotheses -of recent psychology. The Buddha consciousness of Zen exactly -corresponds to the Universal Consciousness which, according to certain -modern investigators, lies hid beneath the personal Consciousness. -Such converts will probably use a kind of applied Zen, much as the -Japanese have done; that is to say, they will not seek to spend their -days in complete Samadhi, but will dive occasionally, for rest or -encouragement, into the deeper recesses of the soul. - -It is not likely that they will rest content with the traditional -Eastern methods of self-hypnosis. If certain states of consciousness -are indeed more valuable than those with which we are familiar in -ordinary life--then we must seek them unflinchingly by whatever means -we can devise. I can imagine a kind of dentist's chair fitted with -revolving mirrors, flashing lights, sulphurous haloes expanding and -contracting--in short a mechanism that by the pressure of a single knob -should whirl a dustman into Nirvana. - -Whether such states of mind are actually more valuable than our -ordinary consciousness is difficult to determine. Certainly no one -has much right to an opinion who has not experienced them. But -something akin to Samadhi--a sudden feeling of contact with a unity -more real than the apparent complexity of things--is probably not an -uncommon experience. The athlete, the creative artist, the lover, the -philosopher--all, I fancy, get a share of it, not when seeking to -escape from the visible world; but rather just when that world was -seeming to them most sublimely real. - -To seek by contemplation of the navel or of the tip of the nose a -repetition of spiritual experiences such as these seems to us inane; -and indeed the negative trance of Zen is very different from the -positive ecstasies to which I have just referred. I say that it is -different; but how do I know? "Zen," said Bodhidharma, "cannot be -described in words nor chronicled in books"; and I have no other -experience of Zen. If I _knew_, I might transmit to you my knowledge, -but it would have to be by a direct spiritual communication, symbolised -only by a smile, a gesture, or the plucking of a flower. - -I need not therefore apologise for having given a purely external and -historical account of Zen, a creed whose inner mysteries are admittedly -beyond the scope of words. - - - - -APPENDIX I. - - -Reproductions of Zen Paintings in Japanese art publications. (The -_Kokka_ and the other publications here referred to may be seen at the -Art Library, Victoria and Albert Museum; and at the Print Room of the -British Museum.) - - MOKKEI--_Kokka._ 37, 112, 122, 177, 185, 238, 242, 265, 268, 291, - 293, 314. - - RASO.--_Shimbi Taikwan_ XX. - - MOKUAN.--(Mokkei II).--_Kokka_ 295, _Shimbi Taikwan_ Vol. IX. (Nos. - 21 and 22 in the collection of Chinese Paintings at the British - Museum are probably by Mokuan.) - - RYOKAI.--_Kokka_ 40, 114, 145, 152, 220, 227, 229. - - RIKAKU.--_Kokka_ 269. - - MUJUN.--(An important thirteenth century Zen writer.) _Kokka_ 243. - - INDRA.--(A Hangchow priest, presumably an Indian; flourished c. - 1280.) _Kokka_ 35, 110, 223, 310. _Shimbi Taikwan_ IX. - - - - -APPENDIX II. - - -MOKUAN. - -The Nikkoshu[11], a diary by the priest Gido, has the following entry -under the year 1378 (month and day uncertain): - - To-day Donfu[12] came, and we fell to talking of Mokuan. It seems - that he was once known as Ze-itsu. But on becoming a pupil of the - priest Kenzan[13], he changed his name to Mokuan. Afterwards he - went to China and entered the Honkakuji[14], where he became the - disciple of Ryo-an[15] and was made librarian. Here he published at - his own expense (lit. "selling his shoes") the _Second Collection - of Sayings by Korin_. - - Subsequently he lived at the Shotenji at Soochow, and was warden - there under Nanso[16], dying soon afterwards. - - When he first came to China he spent some time at the Joji - Monastery at Hangchow and from there visited the Rokutsuji on - the shores of the Western Lake. This monastery was inhabited by - the followers of Mokkei. The abbot greeted Mokuan with a smile, - saying to him: "Last night I dreamt that our founder Mokkei came - back again. You must be his reincarnation"; and he gave to Mokuan - Mokkei's two seals, white and red. Henceforward he was known as - Mokkei the Second. - -[11] See my _No Plays of Japan_ (Allen & Unwin, 1921), p. 19. The -passage here translated is taken not from the current, two-chapter -abridgement of Gido's Diary, but from the _Kokuchoshu_, a miscellany by -the 15th century priest Zuikei, who quoted many passages from the lost -portion of the Diary. See Mr. Saga Toshu, _Shina Gaku_, I., 1. - -[12] 1314-1384. - -[13] Died 1323. Both he and Donfu were Japanese priests who visited -China. - -[14] At Chia-hsing in Chehkiang. - -[15] Entered this temple in 1334. - -[16] Visited Japan; was at the Shotenji from 1342-1345. - - - - -APPENDIX III. - -Reproductions of paintings illustrating Zen legend. - - -BODHIDHARMA. - - (1) With tightly closed lips, as he appeared before the Emperor of - China in 520. _Masterpieces of Sesshu_, Pl. 47. - - (2) Crossing the Yangtze on a reed. Perhaps the best example may be - seen not in a reproduction, but in No. 22 of the original Chinese - Paintings at the British Museum. - - (3) Sitting with his face to the wall. He sat thus in silence for - nine years in the Shorin Monastery on Mount Sung. _Kokka_ 333. - - -EKA. - - Second Patriarch of the sect. Severed his own arm and presented - it to Bodhidharma. In spite of his fanaticism (or because of it) - the Founder did not at first regard him with complete confidence - and recommended to him the study of the Langkavatara Sutra, - not considering him ripe for complete, non-dogmatic Zen. Eka - waiting waist-deep in the snow for the Founder to instruct him. - Masterpieces of Sesshu, Pl. 45. - - -ENO. - - Sixth Patriarch. See above, p 15. _Kokka_, 289, 297. - - -TOKUSAN, died 865 A.D. - - _Shimbi Taikwan_, I, 13, shows him with his famous Zen stick. He - is also sometimes depicted failing to answer an old market-woman's - riddle; and tearing up his commentary on the Diamond Sutra. - - -TANKA. - - A painting by Indra (_Kokka_ 173) shows him burning the wooden - statue of Buddha at the Erin Temple. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY. - - -(1) EUROPEAN. - -The only writer who has made extracts from the works of Bodhidharma is -Pere Wieger, whose remarks (in his _Histoire des Croyances religieuses -en Chine_, pp. 517-528) show a robust and likeable bigotry. - -Of Zen literature he says: "Nombre d'in-folio remplis de reponses -incoherentes, insensees.... Ce ne sont pas, comme on l'a suppose, des -allusions a des affaires interieures, qu'il faudrait connaitre pour -pouvoir comprendre. Ce sont des exclamations echappees a des abrutis, -momentanement tires de leur coma." - -For the tea-ceremony in Japan see Okakura's _Book of Tea_ (Foulis, -1919). The "military" Zen of Japan is well described by Nukariya Kaiten -in his _The Religion of the Samurai, 1913_. - - -(2) NATIVE. - -Most of this paper is derived from the section on Zen (Series II, Vol. -15, seq.) in the "Supplement to the Collection of Buddhist Scriptures," -_Dai Nihon Zoku Zo Kyo_. - -Much of the information with regard to the Rokutsuji School is taken -from the article by Mr. Saga to which I have already referred. For the -Rokutsuji ("Temple of the Six Penetrations") see _Hsien Shun Lin-an -Chih_ ("Topography of Hangchow, 1265-1275 A.D."), ch. 78, f. 9 -recto. - -I have also used Yamada's _Zenshu Jiten_ (Dictionary of Zen) and the -_Hekiganroku_, edited by Soyen, 1920. - - - - -SHORT INDEX. - - -(Chinese pronunciations given in brackets.) - - Amida, 8. - - Baso (Ma Tsu), 20. - - Bodhidharma (Ta-mo), 8 _seq._, 29. - - Bodhisattvas, 8. - - Buddhapriya (Chio-ai), 11. - - _Dai Bonten Monbutsu-ketsugi Kyo_, 14. - - Daigu (Ta-yue), 20. - - Diamond Sutra, 15. - - Dhyana, see Zen. Also, 10. - - Eka (Hui-k'o), 29. - - Enkwan (Yen-kuan), 14. - - Eno (Hui-neng), 15, 29. - - Fujaku (P'u-chi), 17. - - Haikyu (P'ei Hsiu), 18. - - _Hokkekyo_, see _Saddharma_, etc. - - Honkakuji (Pen-chio-ssu), 28. - - Joji (Ching-tz'u), 28. - - Kern, 8. - - Konin (Hung-jen), 15. - - Korin (Ku-lin), 28. - - Mahayana, 7. - - Mokkei (Mu-ch'i), 22, 27. - - Mujun (Wu-chun), 27. - - Nanso (Nan-ch'u), 28. - - Obaku (Huang Po), 18. - - Okakura, 30. - - Raso (Lo-ch'uang), 23, 27. - - Rikaku (Li Ch'ueeh), 27. - - Rinzai (Lin-chi), 20. - - Rokutsuji (Liu-t'ung-ssu), 22. - - Ryo-an (Liao-an), 28. - - Ryokai (Liang K'ai), 23, 27. - - _Saddharma Pundarika Sutra_, 8. - - Saga T. 28, 30. - - Samadhi (San-mei), 12. - - Sansho (San-sheng), 21. - - Shakyamuni, 7. - - _Shina Gaku_, 28, 30. - - Shinshu (Shen-hsiu), 16. - - Shotenji (Ch'eng-t'ien-ssu), 28. - - Tanka (Tan-hsia), 23, 29. - - Tendai (T'ien-t'ai), 8. - - Tokusan (Te-shan), 29. - - Wieger, 30. - - Wu Hou, 17. - - Zen (Ch'an), 7, etc. - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber's Note - -A duplicate title page has been removed from the text. - -"Externise" on p. 23 is a variant form of "externalise", and has been -left as printed. - -The diacritics in "Saddharma Pundarika Sutra" on p. 8 -were marked in pen on the printed copy, and may not have been printed. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Zen Buddhism, by Arthur Waley - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ZEN BUDDHISM *** - -***** This file should be named 43273.txt or 43273.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/2/7/43273/ - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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