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diff --git a/43240-0.txt b/43240-0.txt index 38a8c34..3852d51 100644 --- a/43240-0.txt +++ b/43240-0.txt @@ -1,38 +1,4 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Alchemy: Ancient and Modern, by H. Stanley Redgrove - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Alchemy: Ancient and Modern - Being a Brief Account of the Alchemistic Doctrines, and - Their Relations, to Mysticism on the One Hand, and ... - -Author: H. Stanley Redgrove - -Release Date: July 17, 2013 [EBook #43240] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALCHEMY: ANCIENT AND MODERN *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43240 *** Transcriber’s Notes @@ -4951,366 +4917,4 @@ _Works by H. STANLEY REDGROVE, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S._ End of Project Gutenberg's Alchemy: Ancient and Modern, by H. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Alchemy: Ancient and Modern - Being a Brief Account of the Alchemistic Doctrines, and - Their Relations, to Mysticism on the One Hand, and ... - -Author: H. Stanley Redgrove - -Release Date: July 17, 2013 [EBook #43240] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALCHEMY: ANCIENT AND MODERN *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - Texts printed in italics in the original work have been transcribed - as _text_, bold face texts as =text=. Small caps texts have been - transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. Greek letters are represented by - [alpha], [beta] and [gamma]. [oe] is the oe-ligature. - - [U] represents a U-shape rather than the letter U. Other symbols are - represented as [sun] for the sun-symbol, [moon] for the moon-symbol, - etc. - - More Transcriber's Notes may be found at the ned of this text. - - - - - ALCHEMY: ANCIENT AND MODERN - - -[Illustration: PLATE 1. - -PORTRAIT OF PARACELSUS - -[_Frontispiece_] - - - - - ALCHEMY: - - ANCIENT AND MODERN - - BEING A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE ALCHEMISTIC DOCTRINES, - AND THEIR RELATIONS, TO MYSTICISM ON - THE ONE HAND, AND TO RECENT DISCOVERIES IN - PHYSICAL SCIENCE ON THE OTHER HAND; TOGETHER - WITH SOME PARTICULARS REGARDING THE LIVES - AND TEACHINGS OF THE MOST NOTED ALCHEMISTS - - BY - - H. STANLEY REDGROVE, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S. - - AUTHOR OF "ON THE CALCULATION OF THERMO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS," - "MATTER, SPIRIT AND THE COSMOS," ETC. - - WITH 16 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS - - SECOND AND REVISED EDITION - - - LONDON - - WILLIAM RIDER & SON, LTD. - - 8 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. 4 - - 1922 - - - - - _First published_ 1911 - _Second Edition_ 1922 - - - - -PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION - - -It is exceedingly gratifying to me that a second edition of this book -should be called for. But still more welcome is the change in the -attitude of the educated world towards the old-time alchemists and their -theories which has taken place during the past few years. - -The theory of the origin of Alchemy put forward in Chapter I has led to -considerable discussion; but whilst this theory has met with general -acceptance, some of its earlier critics took it as implying far more -than is actually the case. As a result of further research my conviction -of its truth has become more fully confirmed, and in my recent work -entitled _Bygone Beliefs_ (Rider, 1920), under the title of "The Quest -of the Philosopher's Stone," I have found it possible to adduce further -evidence in this connection. At the same time, whilst I became -increasingly convinced that the main alchemistic hypotheses were drawn -from the domain of mystical theology and applied to physics and -chemistry by way of analogy, it also became evident to me that the crude -physiology of bygone ages and remnants of the old phallic faith formed a -further and subsidiary source of alchemistic theory. I have barely, if -at all, touched on this matter in the present work; the reader who is -interested will find it dealt with in some detail in "The Phallic -Element in Alchemical Doctrine" in my _Bygone Beliefs_. - -In view of recent research in the domain of Radioactivity and the -consequent advance in knowledge that has resulted since this book was -first published, I have carefully considered the advisability of -rewriting the whole of the last chapter, but came to the conclusion that -the time for this was not yet ripe, and that, apart from a few minor -emendations, the chapter had better remain very much as it originally -stood. My reason for this course was that, whilst considerably more is -known to-day, than was the case in 1911, concerning the very complex -transmutations undergone spontaneously by the radioactive -elements--knowledge helping further to elucidate the problem of the -constitution of the so-called "elements" of the chemist--the problem -really cognate to my subject, namely that of effecting a transmutation -of one element into another at will, remains in almost the same state of -indeterminateness as in 1911. In 1913, Sir William Ramsay[1] thought he -had obtained evidence for the transmutation of hydrogen into helium by -the action of the electric discharge, and Professors Collie and -Patterson[2] thought they had obtained evidence of the transmutation of -hydrogen into neon by similar means. But these observations (as well as -Sir William Ramsay's earlier transmutational experiments) failed to be -satisfactorily confirmed;[3] and since the death of the latter, little, -if anything, appears to have been done to settle the questions raised by -his experiments. Reference must, however, be made to a very interesting -investigation by Sir Ernest Rutherford on the "Collision of -[alpha]-Particles with Light Atoms,"[4] from which it appears certain -that when bombarded with the swiftly-moving [alpha]-particles given off -by radium-C, the atoms of nitrogen may be disintegrated, one of the -products being hydrogen. The other product is possibly helium,[5] though -this has not been proved. In view of Rutherford's results a further -repetition of Ramsay's experiments would certainly appear to be -advisable. - - [1] See his "The Presence of Helium in the Gas from the Interior of - an X-Ray Bulb," _Journal of the Chemical Society_, vol. ciii. - (1913), pp. 264 _et seq._ - - [2] See their "The Presence of Neon in Hydrogen after the Passage of - the Electric Discharge through the latter at Low Pressures," - _ibid._, pp. 419 _et seq._; and "The Production of Neon and Helium - by the Electric Discharge," _Proceedings of the Royal Society_, _A_, - vol. xci. (1915), pp. 30 _et seq._ - - [3] See especially the report of negative experiments by Mr. A. C. - G. Egerton, published in _Proceedings of the Royal Society_, _A_, - vol. xci. (1915), pp. 180 _et seq._ - - [4] See the _Philosophical Magazine_ for June, 1919, 6th Series, - vol. xxxvii. pp. 537-587. - - [5] Or perhaps an isotope of helium (see below). - -As concerns the spontaneous transmutations undergone by the radioactive -elements, the facts appear to indicate (or, at least, can be brought -into some sort of order by supposing) the atom to consist of a central -nucleus and an outer shell, as suggested by Sir Ernest Rutherford. The -nucleus may be compared to the sun of a solar system. It is excessively -small, but in it the mass of the atom is almost entirely concentrated. -It is positively charged, the charge being neutralised by that of the -free electrons which revolve like planets about it, and which by their -orbits account for the volume of the atom. The atomic weight of the -element depends upon the central sun; but the chemical properties of the -element are determined by the number of electrons in the shell; this -number is the same as that representing the position of the element in -the periodic system. Radioactive change originates in the atomic -nucleus. The expulsion of an [alpha]-particle therefrom decreases the -atomic weight by 4 units, necessitates (since the [alpha]-particle -carries two positive charges) the removal of two electrons from the -shell in order to maintain electrical neutrality, and hence changes the -chemical nature of the body, transmuting the element into one occupying -a position two places to the left in the periodic system (for example, -the change of radium into niton). But radioactivity sometimes results in -the expulsion of a [beta]-particle from the nucleus. This results in the -addition of an electron to the shell, and hence changes the chemical -character of the element, transmuting it into one occupying a position -one place to the right in the periodic system, but _without altering its -atomic weight_. Consequently, the expulsion of one [alpha]- and two -[beta]-particles from the nucleus, whilst decreasing the atomic weight -of the element by 4, leaves the number of electrons in the shell, and -thus the chemical properties of the element, unaltered. These remarkable -conclusions are amply borne out by the facts, and the discovery of -elements (called "isobares") having the same atomic weight but different -chemical properties, and of those (called "isotopes") having identical -chemical characters but different atomic weights, must be regarded as -one of the most significant and important discoveries of recent years. -Some further reference to this theory will be found in §§ 77 and 81: -the reader who wishes to follow the matter further should consult the -fourth edition of Professor Frederick Soddy's _The Interpretation of -Radium_ (1920), and the two chapters on the subject in his _Science and -Life_ (1920), one of which is a popular exposition and the other a more -technical one. - -These advances in knowledge all point to the possibility of effecting -transmutations at will, but so far attempts to achieve this, as I have -already indicated, cannot be regarded as altogether satisfactory. -Several methods of making gold, or rather elements chemically identical -with gold, once the method of controlling radioactive change is -discovered (as assuredly it will be) are suggested by Sir Ernest -Rutherford's theory of the nuclear atom. Thus, the expulsion of two -[alpha]-particles from bismuth or one from thallium would yield the -required result. Or lead could be converted into mercury by the -expulsion of one [alpha]-particle, and this into thallium by the -expulsion of one [beta]-particle, yielding gold by the further expulsion -of an [alpha]-particle. But, as Professor Soddy remarks in his _Science -and Life_ just referred to, "if man ever achieves this further control -over Nature, it is quite certain that the last thing he would want to do -would be to turn lead or mercury into gold--_for the sake of gold_. The -energy that would be liberated, if the control of these sub-atomic -processes were as possible as is the control of ordinary chemical -changes, such as combustion, would far exceed in importance and value -the gold. Rather it would pay to transmute gold into silver or some base -metal." - -In § 101 of the book I suggest that the question of the effect on the -world of finance of the discovery of an inexpensive method of -transmuting base metal into gold on a large scale is one that should -appeal to a novelist specially gifted with imagination. Since the words -were first written a work has appeared in which something approximating -to what was suggested has been attempted and very admirably achieved. My -reference is to Mr. H. G. Wells's novel, _The World Set Free_, published -in 1914. - -In conclusion I should like to thank the very many reviewers who found -so many good things to say concerning the first edition of this book. -For kind assistance in reading the proofs of this edition my best thanks -are due also and are hereby tendered to my wife, and my good friend -Gerald Druce, Esq., M.Sc. - - H. S. R. - - 191, CAMDEN ROAD, LONDON, N.W. 1. - _October_, 1921. - - - - -PREFACE - - -The number of books in the English language dealing with the interesting -subject of Alchemy is not sufficiently great to render an apology -necessary for adding thereto. Indeed, at the present time there is an -actual need for a further contribution on this subject. The time is gone -when it was regarded as perfectly legitimate to point to Alchemy as an -instance of the aberrations of the human mind. Recent experimental -research has brought about profound modifications in the scientific -notions regarding the chemical elements, and, indeed, in the scientific -concept of the physical universe itself; and a certain resemblance can -be traced between these later views and the theories of bygone Alchemy. -The spontaneous change of one "element" into another has been witnessed, -and the recent work of Sir William Ramsay suggests the possibility of -realising the old alchemistic dream--the transmutation of the "base" -metals into gold. - -The basic idea permeating all the alchemistic theories appears to have -been this: All the metals (and, indeed, all forms of matter) are one in -origin, and are produced by an evolutionary process. The Soul of them -all is one and the same; it is only the Soul that is permanent; the -body or outward form, _i.e._, the mode of manifestation of the Soul, is -transitory, and one form may be transmuted into another. The similarity, -indeed it might be said, the identity, between this view and the modern -etheric theory of matter is at once apparent. - -The old alchemists reached the above conclusion by a theoretical method, -and attempted to demonstrate the validity of their theory by means of -experiment; in which, it appears, they failed. Modern science, adopting -the reverse process, for a time lost hold of the idea of the unity of -the physical universe, to gain it once again by the experimental method. -It was in the elaboration of this grand fundamental idea that Alchemy -failed. If I were asked to contrast Alchemy with the chemical and -physical science of the nineteenth century I would say that, whereas the -latter abounded in a wealth of much accurate detail and much relative -truth, it lacked philosophical depth and insight; whilst Alchemy, -deficient in such accurate detail, was characterised by a greater degree -of philosophical depth and insight; for the alchemists did grasp the -fundamental truth of the Cosmos, although they distorted it and made it -appear grotesque. The alchemists cast their theories in a mould entirely -fantastic, even ridiculous--they drew unwarrantable analogies--and hence -their views cannot be accepted in these days of modern science. But if -we cannot approve of their theories _in toto_, we can nevertheless -appreciate the fundamental ideas at the root of them. And it is -primarily with the object of pointing out this similarity between these -ancient ideas regarding the physical universe and the latest products -of scientific thought, that this book has been written. - -It is a regrettable fact that the majority of works dealing with the -subject of Alchemy take a one-sided point of view. The chemists -generally take a purely physical view of the subject, and instead of -trying to understand its mystical language, often (I do not say always) -prefer to label it nonsense and the alchemist a fool. On the other hand, -the mystics, in many cases, take a purely transcendental view of the -subject, forgetting the fact that the alchemists were, for the most -part, concerned with operations of a physical nature. For a proper -understanding of Alchemy, as I hope to make plain in the first chapter -of this work, a synthesis of both points of view is essential; and, -since these two aspects are so intimately and essentially connected with -one another, this is necessary even when, as in the following work, one -is concerned primarily with the physical, rather than the purely -mystical, aspect of the subject. - -Now, the author of this book may lay claim to being a humble student of -both Chemistry and what may be generalised under the terms Mysticism and -Transcendentalism; and he hopes that this perhaps rather unusual -combination of studies has enabled him to take a broad-minded view of -the theories of the alchemists, and to adopt a sympathetic attitude -towards them. - -With regard to the illustrations, the author must express his thanks to -the authorities of the British Museum for permission to photograph -engraved portraits and illustrations from old works in the British -Museum Collections, and to G. H. Gabb, Esq., F.C.S., for permission to -photograph engraved portraits in his possession. - -The author's heartiest thanks are also due to Frank E. Weston, Esq., -B.Sc., F.C.S., and W. G. Llewellyn, Esq., for their kind help in reading -the proofs, &c. - - H. S. R. - - THE POLYTECHNIC, LONDON, W. - _October, 1910._ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - CHAPTER I. THE MEANING OF ALCHEMY 1 - - § 1. The Aim of Alchemy 1 - § 2. The Transcendental Theory of Alchemy 2 - § 3. Failure of the Transcendental Theory 3 - § 4. The Qualifications of the Adept 4 - § 5. Alchemistic Language 5 - § 6. Alchemists of a Mystical Type 7 - § 7. The Meaning of Alchemy 7 - § 8. Opinions of other Writers 8 - § 9. The Basic Idea of Alchemy 10 - § 10. The Law of Analogy 12 - § 11. The Dual Nature of Alchemy 13 - § 12. "Body, Soul and Spirit" 14 - § 13. Alchemy, Mysticism and Modern Science 15 - - - CHAPTER II. THE THEORY OF PHYSICAL ALCHEMY 17 - - § 14. Supposed Proofs of Transmutation 17 - § 15. The Alchemistic Elements 18 - § 16. Aristotle's Views regarding the Elements 19 - § 17. The Sulphur-Mercury Theory 20 - § 18. The Sulphur-Mercury-Salt Theory 22 - § 19. Alchemistic Elements and Principles 23 - § 20. The Growth of the Metals 25 - § 21. Alchemy and Astrology 26 - § 22. Alchemistic View of the Nature of Gold 27 - § 23. The Philosopher's Stone 29 - § 24. The Nature of the Philosopher's Stone 30 - § 25. The Theory of Development 32 - § 26. The Powers of the Philosopher's Stone 34 - § 27. The Elixir of Life 35 - § 28. The Practical Methods of the Alchemists 36 - - - CHAPTER III. THE ALCHEMISTS (A. BEFORE PARACELSUS) 39 - - § 29. Hermes Trismegistos 39 - § 30. The Smaragdine Table 40 - § 31. Zosimus of Panopolis 42 - § 32. Geber 42 - § 33. Other Arabian Alchemists 44 - § 34. Albertus Magnus 44 - § 35. Thomas Aquinas 44 - § 36. Roger Bacon 45 - § 37. Arnold de Villanova 47 - § 38. Raymond Lully 47 - § 39. Peter Bonus 49 - § 40. Nicolas Flamel 51 - § 41. "Basil Valentine" and the _Triumphal Chariot of - Antimony_. 52 - § 42. Isaac of Holland 53 - § 43. Bernard Trévisan 54 - § 44. Sir George Ripley 55 - § 45. Thomas Norton 56 - - - CHAPTER IV. THE ALCHEMISTS (B. PARACELSUS AND AFTER) 58 - - § 46. Paracelsus 58 - § 47. Views of Paracelsus 60 - § 48. Iatro-chemistry 61 - § 49. The Rosicrucian Society 62 - § 50. Thomas Charnock 65 - § 51. Andreas Libavius 66 - § 52. Edward Kelley and John Dee 67 - § 53. Henry Khunrath 70 - § 54. Alexander Sethon and Michael Sendivogius 70 - § 55. Michael Maier 72 - § 56. Jacob Boehme 74 - § 57. J. B. van Helmont and F. M. van Helmont 75 - § 58. Johann Rudolf Glauber 77 - § 59. Thomas Vaughan ("Eugenius Philalethes") 77 - § 60. "Eirenæus Philalethes" and George Starkey 79 - - - CHAPTER V. THE OUTCOME OF ALCHEMY 81 - - § 61. Did the Alchemists achieve the _Magnum Opus_? 81 - § 62. The Testimony of van Helmont 82 - § 63. The Testimony of Helvetius 83 - § 64. Helvetius obtains the Philosopher's Stone 85 - § 65. Helvetius performs a Transmutation 87 - § 66. Helvetius's Gold Assayed 88 - § 67. Helvetius's Gold Further Tested 88 - § 68. The Genesis of Chemistry 89 - § 69. The Degeneracy of Alchemy 90 - § 70. "Count Cagliostro" 91 - - - CHAPTER VI. THE AGE OF MODERN CHEMISTRY 94 - - § 71. The Birth of Modern Chemistry 94 - § 72. The Phlogiston Theory 94 - § 73. Boyle and the Definition of an Element 96 - § 74. The Stoichiometric Laws 96 - § 75. Dalton's Atomic Theory 99 - § 76. The Determination of the Atomic Weights of the - Elements 102 - § 77. Prout's Hypothesis 102 - § 78. The "Periodic Law" 105 - § 79. The Corpuscular Theory of Matter 109 - § 80. Proof that the Electrons are not Matter 110 - § 81. The Electronic Theory of Matter 112 - § 82. The Etheric Theory of Matter 113 - § 83. Further Evidence of the Complexity of the Atoms 114 - § 84. Views of Wald and Ostwald 115 - - - CHAPTER VII. MODERN ALCHEMY 117 - - § 85. "Modern Alchemy" 117 - § 86. X-Rays and Becquerel Rays 117 - § 87. The Discovery of Radium 118 - § 88. Chemical Properties of Radium 119 - § 89. The Radioactivity of Radium 120 - § 90. The Disintegration of the Radium Atom 122 - § 91. "Induced Radioactivity" 123 - § 92. Properties of Uranium and Thorium 123 - § 93. The Radium Emanation 124 - § 94. The Production of Helium from Emanation 125 - § 95. Nature of this Change 127 - § 96. Is this Change a true Transmutation? 128 - § 97. The Production of Neon from Emanation 130 - § 98. Ramsay's Experiments on Copper 132 - § 99. Further Experiments on Radium and Copper 134 - § 100. Ramsay's Experiments on Thorium and allied Metals 134 - § 101. The Possibility of Making Gold 136 - § 102. The Significance of "Allotropy" 136 - § 103. Conclusion 142 - - - - -LIST OF PLATES - - - PLATE 1. Portrait of Paracelsus _Frontispiece_ - - TO FACE PAGE - - PLATE 2. Symbolical Illustration representing the Trinity of - Body, Soul and Spirit 15 - - PLATE 3. Symbolical Illustrations representing-- - (A) The Fertility of the Earth } 26 - (B) The Amalgamation of Mercury and Gold } - - PLATE 4. Symbolical Illustrations representing-- - (A) The Coction of Gold-Amalgam in a Closed Vessel } 33 - (B) The Transmutation of the Metals } - - PLATE 5. Alchemistic Apparatus-- - (A) (B) Two forms of apparatus for sublimation 37 - - PLATE 6. Alchemistic Apparatus-- - (A) An Athanor } 38 - (B) A Pelican } - - PLATE 7. Portrait of Albertus Magnus 44 - - PLATE 8. Portraits of-- - (A) Thomas Aquinas } 52 - (B) Nicolas Flamel } - - PLATE 9. Portraits of-- - (A) Edward Kelley } 68 - (B) John Dee } - - PLATE 10. Portrait of Michael Maier 72 - - PLATE 11. Portrait of Jacob Boehme 74 - - PLATE 12. Portraits of J. B. and F. M. van Helmont 76 - - PLATE 13. Portrait of J. F. Helvetius 84 - - PLATE 14. Portrait of "Cagliostro" 92 - - PLATE 15. Portrait of Robert Boyle 94 - - PLATE 16. Portrait of John Dalton 100 - - - TABLE SHOWING THE PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHEMICAL - ELEMENTS Pages 106, 107 - - - - -ALCHEMY: - -ANCIENT AND MODERN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE MEANING OF ALCHEMY - - -The Aim of Alchemy. - -§ =1.= Alchemy is generally understood to have been that art whose end -was the transmutation of the so-called base metals into gold by means of -an ill-defined something called the Philosopher's Stone; but even from a -purely physical standpoint, this is a somewhat superficial view. Alchemy -was both a philosophy and an experimental science, and the transmutation -of the metals was its end only in that this would give the final proof -of the alchemistic hypotheses; in other words, Alchemy, considered from -the physical standpoint, was the attempt to demonstrate experimentally -on the material plane the validity of a certain philosophical view of -the Cosmos. We see the genuine scientific spirit in the saying of one of -the alchemists: "Would to God . . . all men might become adepts in our -Art--for then gold, the great idol of mankind, would lose its value, and -we should prize it only for its scientific teaching."[6] Unfortunately, -however, not many alchemists came up to this ideal; and for the majority -of them, Alchemy did mean merely the possibility of making gold cheaply -and gaining untold wealth. - - [6] "EIRENÆUS PHILALETHES": _An Open Entrance to the Closed Palace - of the King_ (see _The Hermetic Museum, Restored and Enlarged_, - edited by A. E. Waite, 1893, vol. ii. p. 178). - - -The Transcendental Theory of Alchemy. - -§ =2.= By some mystics, however, the opinion has been expressed that -Alchemy was not a physical art or science at all, that in no sense was -its object the manufacture of material gold, and that its processes were -not carried out on the physical plane. According to this transcendental -theory, Alchemy was concerned with man's soul, its object was the -perfection, not of material substances, but of man in a spiritual sense. -Those who hold this view identify Alchemy with, or at least regard it as -a branch of, Mysticism, from which it is supposed to differ merely by -the employment of a special language; and they hold that the writings of -the alchemists must not be understood literally as dealing with chemical -operations, with furnaces, retorts, alembics, pelicans and the like, -with salt, sulphur, mercury, gold and other material substances, but -must be understood as grand allegories dealing with spiritual truths. -According to this view, the figure of the transmutation of the "base" -metals into gold symbolised the salvation of man--the transmutation of -his soul into spiritual gold--which was to be obtained by the -elimination of evil and the development of good by the grace of God; and -the realisation of which salvation or spiritual transmutation may be -described as the New Birth, or that condition of being known as union -with the Divine. It would follow, of course, if this theory were true, -that the genuine alchemists were pure mystics, and hence, that the -development of chemical science was not due to their labours, but to -pseudo-alchemists who so far misunderstood their writings as to have -interpreted them in a literal sense. - - -Failure of the Transcendental Theory. - -§ =3.= This theory, however, has been effectively disposed of by Mr. -Arthur Edward Waite, who points to the lives of the alchemists -themselves in refutation of it. For their lives indisputably prove that -the alchemists were occupied with chemical operations on the physical -plane, and that for whatever motive, they toiled to discover a method -for transmuting the commoner metals into actual, material gold. As -Paracelsus himself says of the true "spagyric physicians," who were the -alchemists of his period: "These do not give themselves up to ease and -idleness . . . But they devote themselves diligently to their labours, -sweating whole nights over fiery furnaces. These do not kill the time -with empty talk, but find their delight in their laboratory."[7] The -writings of the alchemists contain (mixed, however, with much that from -the physical standpoint appears merely fantastic) accurate accounts of -many chemical processes and discoveries, which cannot be explained away -by any method of transcendental interpretation. There is not the -slightest doubt that chemistry owes its origin to the direct labours of -the alchemists themselves, and not to any who misread their writings. - - [7] PARACELSUS: "Concerning the Nature of Things" (see _The Hermetic - and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus_, edited by A. E. Waite, 1894, - vol. i. p. 167). - - -The Qualifications of the Adept. - -§ =4.= At the same time, it is quite evident that there is a -considerable element of Mysticism in the alchemistic doctrines; this has -always been recognised; but, as a general rule, those who have -approached the subject from the scientific point of view have considered -this mystical element as of little or no importance. However, there are -certain curious facts which are not satisfactorily explained by a purely -physical theory of Alchemy, and, in our opinion, the recognition of the -importance of this mystical element and of the true relation which -existed between Alchemy and Mysticism is essential for the right -understanding of the subject. We may notice, in the first place, that -the alchemists always speak of their Art as a Divine Gift, the highest -secrets of which are not to be learnt from any books on the subject; and -they invariably teach that the right mental attitude with regard to God -is the first step necessary for the achievement of the _magnum opus_. As -says one alchemist: "In the first place, let every devout and -God-fearing chemist and student of this Art consider that this arcanum -should be regarded, not only as a truly great, but as a most holy Art -(seeing that it typifies and shadows out the highest heavenly good). -Therefore, if any man desire to reach this great and unspeakable -Mystery, he must remember that it is obtained not by the might of man, -but by the grace of God, and that not our will or desire, but only the -mercy of the Most High, can bestow it upon us. For this reason you must -first of all cleanse your heart, lift it up to Him alone, and ask of -Him this gift in true, earnest, and undoubting prayer. He alone can give -and bestow it."[8] And "Basil Valentine": "First, there should be the -invocation of God, flowing from the depth of a pure and sincere heart, -and a conscience which should be free from all ambition, hypocrisy, and -vice, as also from all cognate faults, such as arrogance, boldness, -pride, luxury, worldly vanity, oppression of the poor, and similar -iniquities, which should all be rooted up out of the heart--that when a -man appears before the Throne of Grace, to regain the health of his -body, he may come with a conscience weeded of all tares, and be changed -into a pure temple of God cleansed of all that defiles."[9] - - [8] _The Sophic Hydrolith; or, Water Stone of the Wise_ (see _The - Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 74). - - [9] _The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony_ (Mr. A. E. Waite's - translation, p. 13). See § 41. - - -Alchemistic Language. - -§ =5.= In the second place, we must notice the nature of alchemistic -language. As we have hinted above, and as is at once apparent on opening -any alchemistic book, the language of Alchemy is very highly mystical, -and there is much that is perfectly unintelligible in a physical sense. -Indeed, the alchemists habitually apologise for their vagueness on the -plea that such mighty secrets may not be made more fully manifest. It is -true, of course, that in the days of Alchemy's degeneracy a good deal of -pseudo-mystical nonsense was written by the many impostors then -abounding, but the mystical style of language is by no means confined to -the later alchemistic writings. It is also true that the alchemists, no -doubt, desired to shield their secrets from vulgar and profane eyes, and -hence would necessarily adopt a symbolic language. But it is past belief -that the language of the alchemist was due to some arbitrary plan; -whatever it is to us, it was very real to him. Moreover, this argument -cuts both ways, for those, also, who take a transcendental view of -Alchemy regard its language as symbolical, although after a different -manner. It is also, to say the least, curious, as Mr. A. E. Waite points -out, that this mystical element should be found in the writings of the -earlier alchemists, whose manuscripts were not written for publication, -and therefore ran no risk of informing the vulgar of the precious -secrets of Alchemy. On the other hand, the transcendental method of -translation does often succeed in making sense out of what is otherwise -unintelligible in the writings of the alchemists. The above-mentioned -writer remarks on this point: "Without in any way pretending to assert -that this hypothesis reduces the literary chaos of the philosophers into -a regular order, it may be affirmed that it materially elucidates their -writings, and that it is wonderful how contradictions, absurdities, and -difficulties seem to dissolve wherever it is applied."[10] - - [10] ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: _The Occult Sciences_ (1891), p. 91. - -The alchemists' love of symbolism is also conspicuously displayed in the -curious designs with which certain of their books are embellished. We -are not here referring to the illustrations of actual apparatus employed -in carrying out the various operations of physical Alchemy, which are -not infrequently found in the works of those alchemists who at the same -time were practical chemists (Glauber, for example), but to pictures -whose meaning plainly lies not upon the surface and whose import is -clearly symbolical, whether their symbolism has reference to physical or -to spiritual processes. Examples of such symbolic illustrations, many of -which are highly fantastic, will be found in plates 2, 3, and 4. We -shall refer to them again in the course of the present and following -chapters. - - -Alchemists of a Mystical Type. - -§ =6.= We must also notice that, although there cannot be the slightest -doubt that the great majority of alchemists were engaged in problems and -experiments of a physical nature, yet there were a few men included -within the alchemistic ranks who were entirely, or almost entirely, -concerned with problems of a spiritual nature; Thomas Vaughan, for -example, and Jacob Boehme, who boldly employed the language of Alchemy -in the elaboration of his system of mystical philosophy. And -particularly must we notice, as Mr. A. E. Waite has also indicated, the -significant fact that the Western alchemists make unanimous appeal to -Hermes Trismegistos as the greatest authority on the art of Alchemy, -whose alleged writings are of an undoubtedly mystical character (see § -29). It is clear, that in spite of its apparently physical nature, -Alchemy must have been in some way closely connected with Mysticism. - - -The Meaning of Alchemy. - -§ =7.= If we are ever to understand the meaning of Alchemy aright we -must look at the subject from the alchemistic point of view. In modern -times there has come about a divorce between Religion and Science in -men's minds (though more recently a unifying tendency has set in); but -it was otherwise with the alchemists, their religion and their science -were closely united. We have said that "Alchemy was the attempt to -demonstrate experimentally on the material plane the validity of a -certain philosophical view of the Cosmos"; now, this "philosophical view -of the Cosmos" was Mysticism. =Alchemy had its origin in the attempt to -apply, in a certain manner, the principles of Mysticism to the things of -the physical plane=, and was, therefore, of a dual nature, on the one -hand spiritual and religious, on the other, physical and material. As -the anonymous author of _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1815) -remarks, "The universal chemistry, by which the science of alchemy opens -the knowledge of all nature, being founded on _first principles_ forms -analogy with whatever knowledge is founded on the _same first -principles_. . . . Saint John describes the redemption, or the new -creation of the fallen soul, on the _same first principles_, until the -consummation of the work, in which the Divine tincture transmutes the -base metal of the soul into a perfection, that will pass the fire of -eternity;"[11] that is to say, Alchemy and the mystical regeneration of -man (in this writer's opinion) are analogous processes on different -planes of being, because they are founded on the same first principles. - - [11] F. B.: _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1815), Preface, - p. 3. - - -Opinions of other Writers. - -§ =8.= We shall here quote the opinions of two modern writers, as to the -significance of Alchemy; one a mystic, the other a man of science. Says -Mr. A. E. Waite, "If the authors of the 'Suggestive Inquiry' and of -'Remarks on Alchemy and the Alchemists' [two books putting forward the -transcendental theory] had considered the lives of the symbolists, as -well as the nature of the symbols, their views would have been very much -modified; they would have found that the true method of Hermetic -interpretation lies in a middle course; but the errors which originated -with merely typographical investigations were intensified by a -consideration of the great alchemical theorem, which, _par excellence_, -is one of universal development, which acknowledges that every substance -contains undeveloped resources and potentialities, and can be brought -outward and forward into perfection. They [the generality of alchemists] -applied their theory only to the development of metallic substances from -a lower to a higher order, but we see by their writings that the grand -hierophants of Oriental and Western alchemy alike were continually -haunted by brief and imperfect glimpses of glorious possibilities for -man, if the evolution of his nature were accomplished along the lines of -their theory."[12] Mr. M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A., says: ". . . alchemy -aimed at giving experimental proof of a certain theory of the whole -system of nature, including humanity. The practical culmination of the -alchemical quest presented a threefold aspect; the alchemists sought the -stone of wisdom, for by gaining that they gained the control of wealth; -they sought the universal panacea, for that would give them the power of -enjoying wealth and life; they sought the soul of the world, for thereby -they could hold communion with spiritual existences, and enjoy the -fruition of spiritual life. The object of their search was to satisfy -their material needs, their intellectual capacities, and their spiritual -yearnings. The alchemists of the nobler sort always made the first of -these objects subsidiary to the other two. . . ."[13] - - [12] ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ - (1888), pp. 30, 31. As says another writer of the mystical school of - thought: "If we look upon the subject [of Alchymy] from the point - which affords the widest view, it may be said that Alchymy has two - aspects: the simply material, and the religious. The dogma that - Alchymy was only a form of chemistry is untenable by any one who has - read the works of its chief professors. The doctrine that Alchymy - was religion only, and that its chemical references were all blinds, - is equally untenable in the face of history, which shows that many - of its most noted professors were men who had made important - discoveries in the domain of common chemistry, and were in no way - notable as teachers either of ethics or religion" ("Sapere Aude," - _The Science of Alchymy, Spiritual and Material_ (1893), pp. 3 and - 4). - - [13] M. M. PATTISON MUIR, M.A.: _The Story of Alchemy and the - Beginnings of Chemistry_ (1902), pp. 105 and 106. - - -The Basic Idea of Alchemy. - -§ =9.= The famous axiom beloved by every alchemist--"_What is above is -as that which is below, and what is below is as that which is -above_"--although of questionable origin, tersely expresses the basic -idea of Alchemy. The alchemists postulated and believed in a very real -sense in the essential unity of the Cosmos. Hence, they held that there -is a correspondence or analogy existing between things spiritual and -things physical, the same laws operating in each realm. As writes -Sendivogius ". . . the Sages have been taught of God that this natural -world is only an image and material copy of a heavenly and spiritual -pattern; that the very existence of this world is based upon the reality -of its celestial archetype; and that God has created it in imitation of -the spiritual and invisible universe, in order that men might be the -better enabled to comprehend His heavenly teaching, and the wonders of -His absolute and ineffable power and wisdom. Thus the Sage sees heaven -reflected in Nature as in a mirror; and he pursues this Art, not for the -sake of gold or silver, but for the love of the knowledge which it -reveals; he jealously conceals it from the sinner and the scornful, lest -the mysteries of heaven should be laid bare to the vulgar gaze."[14] - - [14] MICHAEL SENDIVOGIUS: _The New Chemical Light, Pt. II., - Concerning Sulphur_ (_The Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. p. 138). - -The alchemists held that the metals are one in essence, and spring from -the same seed in the womb of nature, but are not all equally matured and -perfect, gold being the highest product of Nature's powers. In gold, the -alchemist saw a picture of the regenerate man, resplendent with -spiritual beauty, overcoming all temptations and proof against evil; -whilst he regarded lead--the basest of the metals--as typical of the -sinful and unregenerate man, stamped with the hideousness of sin and -easily overcome by temptation and evil; for whilst gold withstood the -action of fire and all known corrosive liquids (save _aqua regia_ -alone), lead was most easily acted upon. We are told that the -Philosopher's Stone, which would bring about the desired grand -transmutation, is of a species with gold itself and purer than the -purest; understood in the mystical sense this means that the -regeneration of man can be effected only by Goodness itself--in terms of -Christian theology, by the Power of the Spirit of Christ. The -Philosopher's Stone was regarded as symbolical of Christ Jesus, and in -this sense we can understand the otherwise incredible powers attributed -to it. - - -The Law of Analogy. - -§ =10.= With the theories of physical Alchemy we shall deal at length in -the following chapter, but enough has been said to indicate the analogy -existing, according to the alchemistic view, between the problem of the -perfection of the metals, _i.e._, the transmutation of the "base" metals -into gold, and the perfection or transfiguration of spiritual man; and -it might also be added, between these problems and that of the -perfection of man considered physiologically. To the alchemistic -philosopher these three problems were one: the same problem on different -planes of being; and the solution was likewise one. He who held the key -to one problem held the key to all three, provided he understood the -analogy between matter and spirit. The point is not, be it noted, -whether these problems are in reality one and the same; the main -doctrine of analogy, which is, indeed, an essential element in all true -mystical philosophy, will, we suppose, meet with general consent; but it -will be contended (and rightly, we think) that the analogies drawn by -the alchemists are fantastic and by no means always correct, though -possibly there may be more truth in them than appears at first sight. -The point is not that these analogies are correct, but that they were -regarded as such by all true alchemists. Says the author of _The Sophic -Hydrolith_: ". . . the practice of this Art enables us to understand, -not merely the marvels of Nature, but the nature of God Himself, in all -its unspeakable glory. It shadows forth, in a wonderful manner . . . all -the articles of the Christian faith, and the reason why man must pass -through much tribulation and anguish, and fall a prey to death, before -he can rise again to a new life."[15] A considerable portion of this -curious alchemistic work is taken up in expounding the analogy believed -to exist between the Philosopher's Stone and "the Stone which the -builders rejected," Christ Jesus; and the writer concludes: "Thus . . . -I have briefly and simply set forth to you the perfect analogy which -exists between our earthly and chemical and the true and heavenly Stone, -Jesus Christ, whereby we may attain unto certain beatitude and -perfection, not only in earthly but also in eternal life."[16] And -likewise says Peter Bonus: "I am firmly persuaded that any unbeliever -who got truly to know this Art, would straightway confess the truth of -our Blessed Religion, and believe in the Trinity and in our Lord Jesus -Christ."[17] - - [15] _The Sophic Hydrolith; or, Water Stone of the Wise_ (see _The - Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 88). - - [16] _Ibid._ p. 114. - - [17] PETER BONUS: _The New Pearl of Great Price_ (Mr. A. E. Waite's - translation, p. 275). - - -The Dual Nature of Alchemy. - -§ =11.= For the most part, the alchemists were chiefly engaged with the -carrying out of the alchemistic theory on the physical plane, _i.e._, -with the attempt to transmute the "base" metals into the "noble" ones; -some for the love of knowledge, but alas! the vast majority for the love -of mere wealth. But all who were worthy of the title of "alchemist" -realised at times, more or less dimly, the possibility of the -application of the same methods to man and the glorious result of the -transmutation of man's soul into spiritual gold. There were a few who -had a clearer vision of this ideal, those who devoted their activities -entirely, or almost so, to the attainment of this highest goal of -alchemistic philosophy, and concerned themselves little if at all with -the analogous problem on the physical plane. The theory that Alchemy -originated in the attempt to demonstrate the applicability of the -principles of Mysticism to the things of the physical realm brings into -harmony the physical and transcendental theories of Alchemy and the -various conflicting facts advanced in favour of each. It explains the -existence of the above-mentioned, two very different types of -alchemists. It explains the appeal to the works attributed to Hermes, -and the presence in the writings of the alchemists of much that is -clearly mystical. And finally, it is in agreement with such statements -as we have quoted above from _The Sophic Hydrolith_ and elsewhere, and -the general religious tone of the alchemistic writings. - -[Illustration: PLATE 2. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Trinity of Body, Soul and Spirit. - -[_To face page 15_] - - -"Body, Soul and Spirit." - -§ =12.= In accordance with our primary object as stated in the preface, -we shall confine our attention mainly to the physical aspect of Alchemy; -but in order to understand its theories, it appears to us to be -essential to realise the fact that Alchemy was an attempted application -of the principles of Mysticism to the things of the physical world. The -supposed analogy between man and the metals sheds light on what -otherwise would be very difficult to understand. It helps to make plain -why the alchemists attributed moral qualities to the metals--some are -called "imperfect," "base"; others are said to be "perfect," "noble." -And especially does it help to explain the alchemistic notions -regarding the nature of the metals. The alchemists believed that the -metals were constructed after the manner of man, into whose constitution -three factors were regarded as entering: body, soul, and spirit. As -regards man, mystical philosophers generally use these terms as follows: -"body" is the outward manifestation and form; "soul" is the inward -individual spirit[18]; and "spirit" is the universal Soul in all men. -And likewise, according to the alchemists, in the metals, there is the -"body" or outward form and properties, "metalline soul" or spirit,[19] -and finally, the all-pervading essence of all metals. As writes the -author of the exceedingly curious tract entitled _The Book of -Lambspring_: "Be warned and understand truly that two fishes are -swimming in our sea," illustrating his remark by the symbolical picture -reproduced in plate 2, and adding in elucidation thereof, "The Sea is -the Body, the two Fishes are Soul and Spirit."[20] The alchemists, -however, were not always consistent in their use of the term "spirit." -Sometimes (indeed frequently) they employed it to denote merely the more -volatile portions of a chemical substance; at other times it had a more -interior significance. - - [18] Which, in virtue of man's self-consciousness, is, by the grace - of God, immortal. - - [19] See the work _Of Natural and Supernatural Things_, attributed - to "Basil Valentine," for a description of the "spirits" of the - metals in particular. - - [20] _The Book of Lambspring_, translated by Nicholas Barnaud - Delphinas (see the _Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 277). This work - contains many other fantastic alchemistic symbolical pictures, - amongst the most curious series in alchemistic literature. - - -Alchemy, Mysticism and Modern Science. - -§ =13.= We notice the great difference between the alchemistic theory -and the views regarding the constitution of matter which have dominated -Chemistry since the time of Dalton. But at the present time Dalton's -theory of the chemical elements is undergoing a profound modification. -We do not imply that Modern Science is going back to any such fantastic -ideas as were held by the alchemists, but we are struck with the -remarkable similarity between this alchemistic theory of a soul of all -metals, a one primal element, and modern views regarding the ether of -space. In its attempt to demonstrate the applicability of the -fundamental principles of Mysticism to the things of the physical realm -Alchemy apparently failed and ended its days in fraud. It appears, -however, that this true aim of alchemistic art--particularly the -demonstration of the validity of the theory that all the various forms -of matter are produced by an evolutionary process from some one primal -element or _quintessence_--is being realised by recent researches in the -domain of physical and chemical science. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE THEORY OF PHYSICAL ALCHEMY - - -Supposed Proofs of Transmutation. - -§ =14.= It must be borne in mind when reviewing the theories of the -alchemists, that there were a number of phenomena known at the time, the -superficial examination of which would naturally engender a belief that -the transmutation of the metals was a common occurrence. For example, -the deposition of copper on iron when immersed in a solution of a copper -salt (_e.g._, blue vitriol) was naturally concluded to be a -transmutation of iron into copper,[21] although, had the alchemists -examined the residual liquid, they would have found that the two metals -had merely exchanged places; and the fact that white and yellow alloys -of copper with arsenic and other substances could be produced, pointed -to the possibility of transmuting copper into silver and gold. It was -also known that if water (and this is true of distilled water which does -not contain solid matter in solution) was boiled for some time in a -glass flask, some solid, earthy matter was produced; and if water could -be transmuted into earth, surely one metal could be converted into -another.[22] On account of these and like phenomena the alchemists -regarded the transmutation of the metals as an experimentally proved -fact. Even if they are to be blamed for their superficial observation of -such phenomena, yet, nevertheless, their labours marked a distinct -advance upon the purely speculative and theoretical methods of the -philosophers preceding them. Whatever their faults, the alchemists -_were_ the forerunners of modern experimental science. - - [21] Cf. _The Golden Tract concerning the Stone of the Philosophers_ - (_The Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 25). - - [22] Lavoisier (eighteenth century) proved this apparent - transmutation to be due to the action of the water on the glass - vessel containing it. - - -The Alchemistic Elements. - -§ =15.= The alchemists regarded the metals as composite, and granting -this, then the possibility of transmutation is only a logical -conclusion. In order to understand the theory of the elements held by -them we must rid ourselves of any idea that it bears any close -resemblance to Dalton's theory of the chemical elements; this is clear -from what has been said in the preceding chapter. Now, it is a fact of -simple observation that many otherwise different bodies manifest some -property in common, as, for instance, combustibility. Properties such as -these were regarded as being due to some principle or element common to -all bodies exhibiting such properties; thus, combustibility was thought -to be due to some elementary principle of combustion--the "sulphur" of -the alchemists and the "phlogiston" of a later period. This is a view -which _à priori_ appears to be not unlikely; but it is now known that, -although there are relations existing between the properties of bodies -and their constituent chemical elements (and also, it should be noted, -the relative arrangement of the particles of these elements), it is the -less obvious properties which enable chemists to determine the -constitution of bodies, and the connection is very far from being of the -simple nature imagined by the alchemists. - - -Aristotle's Views regarding the Elements. - -§ =16.= For the origin of the alchemistic theory of the elements it is -necessary to go back to the philosophers preceding the alchemists, and -it is not improbable that they derived it from some still older source. -It was taught by Empedocles of Agrigent (440 B.C. _circa_), who -considered that there were four elements--earth, water, air, and fire. -Aristotle added a fifth, "the ether." These elements were regarded, not -as different kinds of matter, but rather as different forms of the one -original matter, whereby it manifested different properties. It was -thought that to these elements were due the four primary properties of -dryness, moistness, warmth, and coldness, each element being supposed to -give rise to two of these properties, dryness and warmth being thought -to be due to fire, moistness and warmth to air, moistness and coldness -to water, and dryness and coldness to earth. Thus, moist and cold bodies -(liquids in general) were said to possess these properties in -consequence of the aqueous element, and were termed "waters," &c. Also, -since these elements were not regarded as different kinds of matter, -transmutation was thought to be possible, one being convertible into -another, as in the example given above (§ 14). - - -The Sulphur-Mercury Theory. - -§ =17.= Coming to the alchemists, we find the view that the metals are -all composed of two elementary principles--sulphur and mercury--in -different proportions and degrees of purity, well-nigh universally -accepted in the earlier days of Alchemy. By these terms "sulphur" and -"mercury," however, must not be understood the common bodies ordinarily -designated by these names; like the elements of Aristotle, the -alchemistic principles were regarded as properties rather than as -substances, though it must be confessed that the alchemists were by no -means always clear on this point themselves. Indeed, it is not -altogether easy to say exactly what the alchemists did mean by these -terms, and the question is complicated by the fact that very frequently -they make mention of different sorts of "sulphur" and "mercury." -Probably, however, we shall not be far wrong in saying that "sulphur" -was generally regarded as the principle of combustion and also of -colour, and was said to be present on account of the fact that most -metals are changed into earthy substances by the aid of fire; and to the -"mercury," the metallic principle _par excellence_, was attributed such -properties as fusibility, malleability and lustre, which were regarded -as characteristic of the metals in general. The pseudo-Geber (see § 32) -says that "Sulphur is a fatness of the Earth, by temperate Decoction in -the Mine of the Earth thickened, until it be hardned and made dry."[23] -He considered an excess of sulphur to be a cause of imperfection in the -metals, and he writes that one of the causes of the corruption of the -metals by fire "is the Inclusion of a burning Sulphuriety in the -profundity of their Substance, diminishing them by Inflamation, and -exterminating also into Fume, with extream Consumption, whatsoever -Argentvive in them is of good Fixation."[24] He assumed, further, that -the metals contained an incombustible as well as a combustible sulphur, -the latter sulphur being apparently regarded as an impurity.[25] A later -alchemist says that sulphur is "most easily recognised by the vital -spirit in animals, the colour in metals, the odour in plants."[26] -Mercury, on the other hand, according to the pseudo-Geber, is the cause -of perfection in the metals, and endows gold with its lustre. Another -alchemist, quoting Arnold de Villanova, writes: "Quicksilver is the -elementary form of all things fusible; for all things fusible, when -melted, are changed into it, and it mingles with them because it is of -the same substance with them. Such bodies differ from quicksilver in -their composition only so far as itself is or is not free from the -foreign matter of impure sulphur."[27] The obtaining of "philosophical -mercury," the imaginary virtues of which the alchemists never tired of -relating, was generally held to be essential for the attainment of the -_magnum opus_. It was commonly thought that it could be prepared from -ordinary quicksilver by purificatory processes, whereby the impure -sulphur supposed to be present in this sort of mercury might be purged -away. - - [23] _Of the Sum of Perfection_ (see _The Works of Geber_, - translated by Richard Russel, 1678, pp. 69 and 70). - - [24] _Of the Sum of Perfection_ (see _The Works of Geber_, p. 156). - - [25] See _The Works of Geber_, p. 160. This view was also held by - other alchemists. - - [26] _The New Chemical Light_, Part II., _Concerning Sulphur_ (see - _The Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. p. 151). - - [27] See _The Golden Tract concerning the Stone of the Philosophers_ - (_The Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 17). - -The sulphur-mercury theory of the metals was held by such famous -alchemists as Roger Bacon, Arnold de Villanova and Raymond Lully. Until -recently it was thought to have originated to a great extent with the -Arabian alchemist, Geber; but the late Professor Berthelot showed that -the works ascribed to Geber, in which the theory is put forward, are -forgeries of a date by which it was already centuries old (see § 32). -Occasionally, arsenic was regarded as an elementary principle (this view -is to be found, for example, in the work _Of the Sum of Perfection_, by -the pseudo-Geber), but the idea was not general. - - -The Sulphur-Mercury-Salt Theory. - -§ =18.= Later in the history of Alchemy, the mercury-sulphur theory was -extended by the addition of a third elementary principle, salt. As in -the case of philosophical sulphur and mercury, by this term was not -meant common salt (sodium chloride) or any of those substances commonly -known as salts. "Salt" was the name given to a supposed basic principle -in the metals, a principle of fixity and solidification, conferring the -property of resistance to fire. In this extended form, the theory is -found in the works of Isaac of Holland and in those attributed to "Basil -Valentine," who (see the work _Of Natural and Supernatural Things_) -attempts to explain the differences in the properties of the metals as -the result of the differences in the proportion of sulphur, salt, and -mercury they contain. Thus, copper, which is highly coloured, is said to -contain much sulphur, whilst iron is supposed to contain an excess of -salt, &c. The sulphur-mercury-salt theory was vigorously championed by -Paracelsus, and the doctrine gained very general acceptance amongst the -alchemists. Salt, however, seems generally to have been considered a -less important principle than either mercury or sulphur. - -The same germ-idea underlying these doctrines is to be found much later -in Stahl's phlogistic theory (eighteenth century), which attempted to -account for the combustibility of bodies by the assumption that such -bodies all contain "phlogiston"--the hypothetical principle of -combustion (see § 72)--though the concept of "phlogiston" approaches -more nearly to the modern idea of an element than do the alchemistic -elements or principles. It was not until still later in the history of -Chemistry that it became quite evident that the more obvious properties -of chemical substances are not specially conferred on them in virtue of -certain elements entering into their constitution. - - -Alchemistic Elements and Principles. - -§ =19.= The alchemists combined the above theories with Aristotle's -theory of the elements. The latter, namely, earth, air, fire and water, -were regarded as more interior, more primary, than the principles, whose -source was said to be these same elements. As writes Sendivogius in Part -II. of _The New Chemical Light_: "The three Principles of things are -produced out of the four elements in the following manner: Nature, whose -power is in her obedience to the Will of God, ordained from the very -beginning, that the four elements should incessantly act on one another -so, in obedience to her behest, fire began to act on air, and produced -Sulphur; air acted on water, and produced Mercury; water, by its action -on the earth, produced Salt. Earth, alone, having nothing to act upon, -did not produce anything, but became the nurse, or womb, of these three -Principles. We designedly speak of three Principles; for though the -Ancients mention only two, it is clear that they omitted the third -(Salt) not from ignorance, but from a desire to lead the uninitiated -astray."[28] - - [28] _The New Chemical Light_, Part II., _Concerning Sulphur_ (see - _The Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. pp. 142-143). - -Beneath and within all these coverings of outward properties, taught the -alchemists, is hidden the secret essence of all material things. ". . . -the elements and compounds," writes one alchemist, "in addition to crass -matter, are composed of a subtle substance, or intrinsic radical -humidity, diffused through the elemental parts, simple and wholly -incorruptible, long preserving the things themselves in vigour, and -called the Spirit of the World, proceeding from the Soul of the World, -the one certain life, filling and fathoming all things, gathering -together and connecting all things, so that from the three genera of -creatures, Intellectual, Celestial, and Corruptible, there is formed the -One Machine of the whole world."[29] It is hardly necessary to point out -how nearly this approaches modern views regarding the Ether of Space. - - [29] ALEXANDER VON SUCHTEN: _Man, the best and most perfect of God's - creatures. A more complete Exposition of this Medical Foundation for - the less Experienced Student._ (See BENEDICTUS FIGULUS: _A Golden - and Blessed Casket of Nature's Marvels_, translated by A. E. Waite, - 1893, pp. 71 and 72.) - - -The Growth of the Metals. - -§ =20.= The alchemists regarded the metals as growing in the womb of the -earth, and a knowledge of this growth as being of very great importance. -Thomas Norton (who, however, contrary to the generality of alchemists, -denied that metals have seed and that they grow in the sense of -multiply) says:-- - - "_Mettalls_ of kinde grow lowe under ground, - For above erth rust in them is found; - Soe above erth appeareth corruption, - Of mettalls, and in long tyme destruction, - Whereof noe Cause is found in this Case, - Buth that above Erth thei be not in their place - Contrarie places to nature causeth strife - As Fishes out of water losen their Lyfe: - And Man, with Beasts, and Birds live in ayer, - But Stones and Mineralls under Erth repaier."[30] - - [30] THOMAS NORTON: _Ordinall of Alchemy_ (see _Theatrum Chemicum - Britannicum_, edited by Elias Ashmole, 1652, p. 18). - -Norton here expresses the opinion, current among the alchemists, that -each and every thing has its own peculiar environment natural to it; a -view controverted by Robert Boyle (§ 71). So firm was the belief in the -growth of metals, that mines were frequently closed for a while in order -that the supply of metal might be renewed. The fertility of Mother Earth -forms the subject of one of the illustrations in _The Twelve Keys_ of -"Basil Valentine" (see § 41). We reproduce it in plate 3, fig. A. -Regarding this subject, the author writes: "The quickening power of the -earth produces all things that grow forth from it, and he who says that -the earth has no life makes a statement which is flatly contradicted by -the most ordinary facts. For what is dead cannot produce life and -growth, seeing that it is devoid of the quickening spirit. This spirit -is the life and soul that dwell in the earth, and are nourished by -heavenly and sidereal influences. For all herbs, trees, and roots, and -all metals and minerals, receive their growth and nutriment from the -spirit of the earth, which is the spirit of life. This spirit is itself -fed by the stars, and is thereby rendered capable of imparting nutriment -to all things that grow, and of nursing them as a mother does her child -while it is yet in the womb. The minerals are hidden in the womb of the -earth, and nourished by her with the spirit which she receives from -above. - -"Thus the power of growth that I speak of is imparted not by the earth, -but by the life-giving spirit that is in it. If the earth were deserted -by this spirit, it would be dead, and no longer able to afford -nourishment to anything. For its sulphur or richness would lack the -quickening spirit without which there can be neither life nor -growth."[31] - - [31] "BASIL VALENTINE": _The Twelve Keys_ (see _The Hermetic - Museum_, vol. i. pp. 333-334). - -[Illustration: PLATE 3. - -A. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Fertility of the Earth. - -B. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Amalgamation of Gold with Mercury. - -(See page 33.) - -_To face page 26_]] - - -Alchemy and Astrology. - -§ =21.= The idea that the growth of each metal was under the influence -of one of the heavenly bodies (a theory in harmony with the alchemistic -view of the unity of the Cosmos), was very generally held by the -alchemists; and in consequence thereof, the metals were often referred -to by the names or astrological symbols of their peculiar planets. These -particulars are shown in the following table:-- - - -----------+----------------------+-------------- - Metals. | Planets, &c.[32] | Symbols. - -----------+----------------------+-------------- - Gold | Sun | [sun] - Silver | Moon | [moon] - Mercury | Mercury | [mercury] - Copper | Venus | [venus] - Iron | Mars | [mars] - Tin | Jupiter | [jupiter] - Lead | Saturn | [saturn] - -----------+----------------------+-------------- - -Moreover, it was thought by some alchemists that a due observance of -astrological conditions was necessary for successfully carrying out -important alchemistic experiments. - - [32] This supposed connection between the metals and planets also - played an important part in Talismanic Magic. - - -Alchemistic View of the Nature of Gold. - -§ =22.= The alchemists regarded gold as the most perfect metal, silver -being considered more perfect than the rest. The reason of this view is -not difficult to understand: gold is the most beautiful of all the -metals, and it retains its beauty without tarnishing; it resists the -action of fire and most corrosive liquids, and is unaffected by sulphur; -it was regarded, as we have pointed out above (see § 9), as symbolical -of the regenerate man. Silver, on the other hand, is, indeed, a -beautiful metal which wears well in a pure atmosphere and resists the -action of fire; but it is attacked by certain corrosives (_e.g._, _aqua -fortis_ or nitric acid) and also by sulphur. Through all the metals, -from the one seed, Nature, according to the alchemists, works -continuously up to gold; so that, in a sense, all other metals are gold -in the making; their existence marks the staying of Nature's powers; as -"Eirenæus Philalethes" says: "All metallic seed is the seed of gold; for -gold is the intention of Nature in regard to all metals. If the base -metals are not gold, it is only through some accidental hindrance; they -are all potentially gold."[33] Or, as another alchemist puts it: "Since -. . . the substance of the metals is _one_, and common to all, and since -this substance is (either at once, or after laying aside in course of -time the foreign and evil sulphur of the baser metals by a process of -gradual digestion) changed by the virtue of its own indwelling sulphur -into GOLD, which is the goal of all the metals, and the true intention -of Nature--we are obliged to admit, and freely confess that in the -mineral kingdom, as well as in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, Nature -seeks and demands a gradual attainment of perfection, and a gradual -approximation to the highest standard of purity and excellence."[34] -Such was the alchemistic view of the generation of the metals; a theory -which is admittedly crude, but which, nevertheless, contains the germ of -a great principle of the utmost importance, namely, the idea that all -the varying forms of matter are evolved from some one primordial -stuff--a principle of which chemical science lost sight for awhile, for -its validity was unrecognised by Dalton's Atomic Theory (at least, as -enunciated by him), but which is being demonstrated, as we hope to show -hereinafter, by recent scientific research. The alchemist was certainly -a fantastic evolutionist, but he _was_ an evolutionist, and, moreover, -he did not make the curious and paradoxical mistake of regarding the -fact of evolution as explaining away the existence of God--the alchemist -recognised the hand of the Divine in nature--and, although, in these -days of modern science, we cannot accept his theory of the growth of -metals, we can, nevertheless, appreciate and accept the fundamental -germ-idea underlying it. - - [33] "EIRENÆUS PHILALETHES": _The Metamorphosis of Metals_ (see _The - Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. p. 239). - - [34] _The Golden Tract Concerning the Stone of the Philosophers_ - (see _The Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 19). - - -The Philosopher's Stone. - -§ =23.= The alchemist strove to assist Nature in her gold-making, or, at -least, to carry out her methods. The pseudo-Geber taught that the -imperfect metals were to be perfected or cured by the application of -"medicines." Three forms of medicines were distinguished; the first -bring about merely a temporary change, and the changes wrought by the -second class, although permanent, are not complete. "A Medicine of the -third Order," he writes, "I call every Preparation, which, when it comes -to Bodies, with its projection, takes away all Corruption, and perfects -them with the Difference of all Compleatment. But this is one only."[35] -This, the true medicine that would produce a real and permanent -transmutation, is the =Philosopher's Stone=, the Masterpiece of -alchemistic art. Similar views were held by all the alchemists, though -some of them taught that it was necessary first of all to reduce the -metals to their first substance. Often, two forms of the Philosopher's -Stone were distinguished, or perhaps we should say, two degrees of -perfection in the one Stone; that for transmuting the "imperfect" metals -into silver being said to be white, the stone or "powder of projection" -for gold being said to be of a red colour. In other accounts (see -Chapter V.) the medicine is described as of a pale brimstone hue. - - [35] _Of the Sum of Perfection_ (see _The Works of Geber_, - translated by Richard Russel, 1678, p. 192). - -Most of the alchemists who claimed knowledge of the Philosopher's Stone -or the _materia prima_ necessary for its preparation, generally kept its -nature most secret, and spoke only in the most enigmatical and -allegorical language, the majority of their recipes containing words of -unknown meaning. In some cases gold or silver, as the case may be, was -employed in preparing the "medicine"; and, after projection had been -made, this was, of course, obtained again in the metallic form, the -alchemist imagining that a transmutation had been effected. In the case -of the few other recipes that are intelligible, the most that could be -obtained by following out their instructions is a white or yellow -metallic alloy superficially resembling silver or gold. - - -The Nature of the Philosopher's Stone. - -§ =24.= The mystical as distinguished from the pseudo-practical -descriptions of the Stone and its preparation are by far the more -interesting of the two. Paracelsus, in his work on _The Tincture of the -Philosophers_, tells us that all that is necessary for us to do is to -mix and coagulate the "rose-coloured blood from the Lion" and "the -gluten from the Eagle," by which he probably meant that we must combine -"philosophical sulphur" with "philosophical mercury." This opinion, -that the Philosopher's Stone consists of "philosophical sulphur and -mercury" combined so as to constitute a perfect unity, was commonly held -by the alchemists, and they frequently likened this union to the -conjunction of the sexes in marriage. "Eirenæus Philalethes" tells us -that for the preparation of the Stone it is necessary to extract the -seed of gold, though this cannot be accomplished by subjecting gold to -corrosive liquids, but only by a homogeneous water (or liquid)--the -Mercury of the Sages. In the _Book of the Revelation of Hermes, -interpreted by Theophrastus Paracelsus, concerning the Supreme Secret of -the World_, the Medicine, which is here, as not infrequently, identified -with the alchemistic essence of all things or Soul of the World, is -described in the following suggestive language: "This is the Spirit of -Truth, which the world cannot comprehend without the interposition of -the Holy Ghost, or without the instruction of those who know it. The -same is of a mysterious nature, wondrous strength, boundless power. -. . . By Avicenna this Spirit is named the Soul of the World. For, as -the Soul moves all the limbs of the Body, so also does this Spirit move -all bodies. And as the Soul is in all the limbs of the Body, so also is -this Spirit in all elementary created things. It is sought by many and -found by few. It is beheld from afar and found near; for it exists in -every thing, in every place, and at all times. It has the powers of all -creatures; its action is found in all elements, and the qualities of all -things are therein, even in the highest perfection . . . it heals all -dead and living bodies without other medicine, . . . converts all -metallic bodies into gold, and there is nothing like unto it under -Heaven."[36] - - [36] See BENEDICTUS FIGULUS: _A Golden and Blessed Casket of - Nature's Marvels_ (translated by A. E. Waite, 1893, pp. 36, 37, and - 41). - - -The Theory of Development. - -§ =25.= From the ascetic standpoint (and unfortunately, most mystics -have been somewhat overfond of ascetic ideas), the development of the -soul is only fully possible with the mortification of the body; and all -true Mysticism teaches that if we would reach the highest goal possible -for man--union with the Divine--there must be a giving up of our own -individual wills, an abasement of the soul before the Spirit. And so the -alchemists taught that for the achievement of the _magnum opus_ on the -physical plane, we must strip the metals of their outward properties in -order to develop the essence within. As says Helvetius: ". . . the -essences of metals are hidden in their outward bodies, as the kernel is -hidden in the nut. Every earthly body, whether animal, vegetable, or -mineral, is the habitation and terrestrial abode of that celestial -spirit, or influence, which is its principle of life or growth. The -secret of Alchemy is the destruction of the body, which enables the -Artist to get at, and utilise for his own purposes, the living -soul."[37] This killing of the outward nature of material things was to -be brought about by the processes of putrefaction and decay; hence the -reason why such processes figure so largely in alchemistic recipes for -the preparation of the "Divine Magistery." It must be borne in mind, -however, that the alchemists used the terms "putrefaction" and "decay" -rather indiscriminately, applying them to chemical processes which are -no longer regarded as such. Pictorial symbols of death and decay -representative of such processes are to be found in several alchemistic -books. There is a curious series of pictures in _A Form and Method of -Perfecting Base Metals_, by Janus Lacinus, the Calabrian (a short tract -prefixed to _The New Pearl of Great Price_ by Peter Bonus--see § 39), of -which we show three examples in plates 3 and 4. In the first picture of -the series (not shown here) we enter the palace of the king (gold) and -observe him sitting crowned upon his throne, surrounded by his son -(mercury) and five servants (silver, copper, tin, iron and lead). In the -next picture (plate 3, fig. B), the son, incited by the servants, kills -his father; and, in the third, he catches the blood of his murdered -parent in his robes; whereby we understand that an amalgam of gold and -mercury is to be prepared, the gold apparently disappearing or dying, -whilst the mercury is coloured thereby. The next picture shows us a -grave being dug, _i.e._, a furnace is to be made ready. In the fifth -picture in the series, the son "thought to throw his father into the -grave, and to leave him there; but . . . both fell in together"; and in -the sixth picture (plate 4, fig. A), we see the son being prevented from -escaping, both son and father being left in the grave to decay. Here we -have instructions in symbolical form to place the amalgam in a sealed -vessel in the furnace and to allow it to remain there until some change -is observed. So the allegory proceeds. Ultimately the father is -restored to life, the symbol of resurrection being (as might be -expected) of frequent occurrence in alchemistic literature. By this -resurrection we understand that the gold will finally be obtained in a -pure form. Indeed, it is now the "great medicine" and, in the last -picture of the series (plate 4, fig. B), the king's son and his five -servants are all made kings in virtue of its powers. - - [37] J. F. HELVETIUS: _The Golden Calf_, ch. iv. (see _The Hermetic - Museum_, vol. ii. p. 298). - -[Illustration: PLATE 4. - -A. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Coction of Gold Amalgam in a Closed Vessel. - -B. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Transmutation of the Metals. - -[_To face page 33_] - - -The Powers of the Philosopher's Stone. - -§ =26.= The alchemists believed that a most minute proportion of the -Stone projected upon considerable quantities of heated mercury, molten -lead, or other "base" metal, would transmute practically the whole into -silver or gold. This claim of the alchemists, that a most minute -quantity of the Stone was sufficient to transmute considerable -quantities of "base" metal, has been the object of much ridicule. -Certainly, some of the claims of the alchemists (understood literally) -are out of all reason; but on the other hand, the disproportion between -the quantities of Stone and transmuted metal cannot be advanced as an _à -priori_ objection to the alchemists' claims, inasmuch that a class of -chemical reactions (called "catalytic") is known, in which the presence -of a small quantity of some appropriate form of matter--the -catalyst--brings about a chemical change in an indefinite quantity of -some other form or forms; thus, for example, cane-sugar in aqueous -solution is converted into two other sugars by the action of small -quantities of acid; and sulphur-dioxide and oxygen, which will not -combine under ordinary conditions, do so readily in the presence of a -small quantity of platinized asbestos, which is obtained unaltered -after the reaction is completed and may be used over and over again -(this process is actually employed in the manufacture of sulphuric acid -or oil of vitriol). However, whether any such catalytic transmutation of -the chemical "elements" is possible is merely conjecture. - - -The Elixir of Life. - -§ =27.= The Elixir of Life, which was generally described as a solution -of the Stone in spirits of wine, or identified with the Stone itself, -could be applied, so it was thought, under certain conditions to the -alchemist himself, with an entirely analogous result, _i.e._, it would -restore him to the flower of youth. The idea, not infrequently -attributed to the alchemists, that the Elixir would endow one with a -life of endless duration on the material plane is not in strict accord -with alchemistic analogy. From this point of view, the effect of the -Elixir is physiological perfection, which, although ensuring long life, -is not equivalent to endless life on the material plane. "The -Philosophers' Stone," says Paracelsus, "purges the whole body of man, -and cleanses it from all impurities by the introduction of new and more -youthful forces which it joins to the nature of man."[38] And in another -work expressive of the opinions of the same alchemist, we read: ". . . -there is nothing which might deliver the mortal body from death; but -there is One Thing which may postpone decay, renew youth, and prolong -short human life . . ."[39] In the theory that a solution of the -Philosopher's Stone (which, it must be remembered, was thought to be of -a species with gold) constituted the _Elixir Vitæ_, can be traced, -perhaps, the idea that gold in a potable form was a veritable cure-all: -in the latter days of Alchemy any yellow-coloured liquid was foisted -upon a credulous public as a medicinal preparation of gold. - - [38] THEOPHRASTUS PARACELSUS: _The Fifth Book of the Archidoxies_ - (see _The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus_, - translated by A. E. Waite, 1894, vol. ii. p. 39). - - [39] _The Book of the Revelation of Hermes, interpreted by - Theophrastus Paracelsus, concerning the Supreme Secret of the - World._ (See BENEDICTUS FIGULUS: _A Golden Casket of Nature's - Marvels_, translated by A. E. Waite, 1893, pp. 33 and 34.) - -[Illustration: PLATE 5. - -ALCHEMISTIC APPARATUS. A and B.--Two forms of Apparatus for Sublimation. - -_To face page 37_]] - - -The Practical Methods of the Alchemists. - -§ =28.= We will conclude this chapter with some few remarks regarding -the practical methods of the alchemists. In their experiments, the -alchemists worked with very large quantities of material compared with -what is employed in chemical researches at the present day. They had -great belief in the efficacy of time to effect a desired change in their -substances, and they were wont to repeat the same operation (such as -distillation, for example) on the same material over and over again; -which demonstrated their unwearied patience, even if it effected little -towards the attainment of their end. They paid much attention to any -changes of colour they observed in their experiments, and many -descriptions of supposed methods to achieve the _magnum opus_ contain -detailed directions as to the various changes of colour which must be -obtained in the material operated upon if a successful issue to the -experiment is desired.[40] In plates 5 and 6 we give illustrations of -some characteristic pieces of apparatus employed by the alchemists. -Plate 5, fig. A, and plate 6, fig. A, are from a work known as -_Alchemiae Gebri_ (1545); plate 5, fig. B, is from Glauber's work on -Furnaces (1651); and plate 6, fig. B, is from a work by Dr. John French -entitled _The Art of Distillation_ (1651). The first figure shows us a -furnace and alembics. The alembic proper is a sort of still-head which -can be luted on to a flask or other vessel, and was much used for -distillations. In the present case, however, the alembics are employed -in conjunction with apparatus for subliming difficultly volatile -substances. Plate 5, fig. B, shows another apparatus for sublimation, -consisting of a sort of oven, and three detachable upper chambers, -generally called aludels. In both forms of apparatus the vapours are -cooled in the upper part of the vessel, and the substance is deposited -in the solid form, being thereby purified from less volatile impurities. -Plate 6, fig. A, shows an athanor (or digesting furnace) and a couple of -digesting vessels. A vessel of this sort was employed for heating bodies -in a closed space, the top being sealed up when the substances to be -operated upon had been put inside, and the vessel heated in ashes in an -athanor, a uniform temperature being maintained. The pelican, -illustrated in plate 6, fig. B, was used for a similar purpose, the two -arms being added in the idea that the vapours would be circulated -thereby. - - [40] As writes Espagnet in his _Hermetic Arcanum_, canons 64 and 65: - "The Means or demonstrative signs are Colours, successively and - orderly affecting the matter and its affections and demonstrative - passions, whereof there are also three special ones (as critical) to - be noted; to these some add a Fourth. The first is black, which is - called the Crow's head, because of its extreme blackness, whose - crepusculum sheweth the beginning of the action of the fire of - nature and solution, and the blackest midnight sheweth the - perfection of liquefaction, and confusion of the elements. Then the - grain putrefies and is corrupted, that it may be the more apt for - generation. The white colour succeedeth the black, wherein is given - the perfection of the first degree, and of the White Sulphur. This - is called the blessed stone; this Earth is white and foliated, - wherein Philosophers do sow their gold. The third is Orange colour, - which is produced in the passage of the white to the red, as the - middle, and being mixed of both is as the dawn with his saffron - hair, a forerunner of the Sun. The fourth colour is Ruddy and - Sanguine, which is extracted from the white fire only. Now because - whiteness is easily altered by any other colour before day it - quickly faileth of its candour. But the deep redness of the Sun - perfecteth the work of Sulphur, which is called the Sperm of the - male, the fire of the Stone, the King's Crown, and the Son of Sol, - wherein the first labour of the workman resteth. - - "Besides these decretory signs which firmly inhere in the matter, - and shew its essential mutations, almost infinite colours appear, - and shew themselves in vapours, as the Rainbow in the clouds, which - quickly pass away and are expelled by those that succeed, more - affecting the air than the earth: the operator must have a gentle - care of them, because they are not permanent, and proceed not from - the intrinsic disposition of the matter, but from the fire painting - and fashioning everything after its pleasure, or casually by heat in - slight moisture" (see _Collectanea Hermetica_, edited by W. Wynn - Westcott, vol. i., 1893, pp. 28 and 29). Very probably this is not - without a mystical meaning as well as a supposed application in the - preparation of the physical Stone. - -[Illustration: PLATE 6. - -ALCHEMISTIC APPARATUS. A.--An Athanor. B.--A Pelican. - -_To face page 38_]] - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE ALCHEMISTS[41] - -(A. BEFORE PARACELSUS) - - -Hermes Trismegistos. - -§ =29.= Having now considered the chief points in the theory of Physical -Alchemy, we must turn our attention to the lives and individual -teachings of the alchemists themselves. The first name which is found in -the history of Alchemy is that of =Hermes Trismegistos=. We have already -mentioned the high esteem in which the works ascribed to this personage -were held by the alchemists (§ 6). He has been regarded as the father of -Alchemy; his name has supplied a synonym for the Art--the Hermetic -Art--and even to-day we speak of _hermetically_ sealing flasks and the -like. But who Hermes actually was, or even if there were such a -personage, is a matter of conjecture. The alchemists themselves supposed -him to have been an Egyptian living about the time of Moses. He is now -generally regarded as purely mythical--a personification of Thoth, the -Egyptian God of learning; but, of course, some person or persons must -have written the works attributed to him, and the first of such writers -(if, as seems not unlikely, there were more than one) may be considered -to have a right to the name. Of these works, the _Divine Pymander_,[42] -a mystical-religious treatise, is the most important. The _Golden -Tractate_, also attributed to Hermes, which is an exceedingly obscure -alchemistic work, is now regarded as having been written at a -comparatively late date. - - [41] It is perhaps advisable to mention here that the lives of the - alchemists, for the most part, are enveloped in considerable - obscurity, and many points in connection therewith are in dispute. - The authorities we have followed will be found, as a rule, - specifically mentioned in what follows; but we may here acknowledge - our general indebtedness to the following works, though, as the - reader will observe, many others have been consulted as well: Thomas - Thomson's _The History of Chemistry_, Meyer's _A History of - Chemistry_, the anonymous _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ - (1815), the works of Mr. A. E. Waite, the _Dictionary of National - Biography_, and certain articles in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_. - This must not be taken to mean, however, that we have always - followed the conclusions reached in these works, for so far as the - older of them are concerned, recent researches by various - authorities--to whom reference will be found in the following pages, - and to whom, also, we are indebted--have shown, in certain cases, - that such are not tenable. - - [42] Dr. Everard's translation of this work forms vol. ii. of the - _Collectanea Hermetica_, edited by W. Wynn Westcott, M.B., D.P.H. It - is now, however, out of print. - - -The Smaragdine Table. - -§ =30.= In a work attributed to Albertus Magnus, but which is probably -spurious, we are told that Alexander the Great found the tomb of Hermes -in a cave near Hebron. This tomb contained an emerald table--"The -Smaragdine Table"--on which were inscribed the following thirteen -sentences in Ph[oe]nician characters:-- - -1. I speak not fictitious things, but what is true and most certain. - -2. What is below is like that which is above, and what is above is like -that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing. - -3. And as all things were produced by the mediation of one Being, so all -things were produced from this one thing by adaptation. - -4. Its father is the Sun, its mother the Moon; the wind carries it in -its belly, its nurse is the earth. - -5. It is the cause of all perfection throughout the whole world. - -6. Its power is perfect if it be changed into earth. - -7. Separate the earth from the fire, the subtle from the gross, acting -prudently and with judgment. - -8. Ascend with the greatest sagacity from the earth to heaven, and then -again descend to the earth, and unite together the powers of things -superior and things inferior. Thus you will obtain the glory of the -whole world, and all obscurity will fly far away from you. - -9. This thing is the fortitude of all fortitude, because it overcomes -all subtle things, and penetrates every solid thing. - -10. Thus were all things created. - -11. Thence proceed wonderful adaptations which are produced in this way. - -12. Therefore am I called Hermes Trismegistos, possessing the three -parts of the philosophy of the whole world. - -13. That which I had to say concerning the operation of the Sun is -completed. - -These sentences clearly teach the doctrine of the alchemistic essence or -"One Thing," which is everywhere present, penetrating even solids (this -we should note is true of the ether of space), and out of which all -things of the physical world are made by adaptation or modification. The -terms Sun and Moon in the above passage probably stand for Spirit and -Matter respectively, not gold and silver. - - -Zosimus of Panopolis. - -§ =31.= One of the earliest of the alchemists of whom record remains was -=Zosimus of Panopolis=, who flourished in the fifth century, and was -regarded by the later alchemists as a master of the Art. He is said to -have written many treatises dealing with Alchemy, but only fragments -remain. Of these fragments, Professor Venable says: ". . . they give us -a good idea of the learning of the man and of his times. They contain -descriptions of apparatus, of furnaces, studies of minerals, of alloys, -of glass making, of mineral waters, and much that is mystical, besides a -good deal referring to the transmutation of metals."[43] Zosimus is said -to have been the author of the saying, "like begets like," but whether -all the fragments ascribed to him were really his work is doubtful. - - [43] F. P. VENABLE, Ph.D.: _A Short History of Chemistry_ (1896), p. - 13. - -Among other early alchemists we may mention also =Africanus=, the -Syrian; =Synesius=, Bishop of Ptolemais, and the historian, -=Olympiodorus= of Thebes. - - -Geber. - -§ =32.= In the seventh century the Arabians conquered Egypt; and -strangely enough, Alchemy flourished under them to a remarkable degree. -Of all the Arabian alchemists, =Geber= has been regarded as the -greatest; as Professor Meyer says: "There can be no dispute that with -the name _Geber_ was propagated the memory of a personality with which -the chemical knowledge of the time was bound up."[44] Geber is supposed -to have lived about the ninth century, but of his life nothing definite -is known. A large number of works have been ascribed to him, of which -the majority are unknown, but the four Latin MSS. which have been -printed under the titles _Summa Perfectionis Mettalorum_, _De -Investigatione Perfectionis Metallorum_, _De Inventione Veritatis_ and -_De Fornacibus Construendis_, were, until a few years ago, regarded as -genuine. On the strength of these works, Geber has ranked high as a -chemist. In them are described the preparation of many important -chemical compounds; the most essential chemical operations, such as -sublimation, distillation, filtration, crystallisation (or coagulation, -as the alchemists called it), &c.; and also important chemical -apparatus, for example, the water-bath, improved furnaces, &c. However, -it was shown by the late Professor Berthelot that _Summa Perfectionis -Mettalorum_ is a forgery of the fourteenth century, and the other works -forgeries of an even later date. Moreover, the original Arabic MSS. of -Geber have been brought to light. These true writings of Geber are very -obscure; they give no warrant for believing that the famous -sulphur-mercury theory was due to this alchemist, and they prove him not -to be the expert chemist that he was supposed to have been. The spurious -writings mentioned above show that the pseudo-Geber was a man of wide -chemical knowledge and experience, and play a not inconsiderable part in -the history of Alchemy. - - [44] ERNST VON MEYER: _A History of Chemistry_ (translated by Dr. - McGowan, 1906), p. 31. - - -Other Arabian Alchemists. - -§ =33.= Among other Arabian alchemists the most celebrated were -=Avicenna= and =Rhasis=, who are supposed to have lived some time after -Geber; and to whom, perhaps, the sulphur-mercury theory may have been to -some extent due. - -The teachings of the Arabian alchemists gradually penetrated into the -Western world, in which, during the thirteenth century, flourished some -of the most eminent of the alchemists, whose lives and teachings we must -now briefly consider. - -[Illustration: PLATE 7. - -[by de Bry] - -PORTRAIT OF ALBERTUS MAGNUS. - -_To face page 44_]] - - -Albertus Magnus (1193-1280). - -§ =34.= =Albertus Magnus=, Albert Groot or Albert von Bollstädt (see -plate 7), was born at Lauingen, probably in 1193. He was educated at -Padua, and in his later years he showed himself apt at acquiring the -knowledge of his time. He studied theology, philosophy and natural -science, and is chiefly celebrated as an Aristotelean philosopher. He -entered the Dominican order, taught publicly at Cologne, Paris and -elsewhere, and was made provincial of this order. Later he had the -bishopric of Regensburg conferred on him, but he retired after a few -years to a Dominican cloister, where he devoted himself to philosophy -and science. He was one of the most learned men of his time and, -moreover, a man of noble character. The authenticity of the alchemistic -works attributed to him has been questioned. - - -Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). - -§ =35.= The celebrated Dominican, =Thomas Aquinas= (see plate 8), was -probably a pupil of Albertus Magnus, from whom it is thought he imbibed -alchemistic learning. It is very probable, however, that the alchemistic -works attributed to him are spurious. The author of these works -manifests a deeply religious tone, and, according to Thomson's _History -of Chemistry_, he was the first to employ the term "amalgam" to -designate an alloy of mercury with some other metal.[45] - - [45] THOMAS THOMSON: _The History of Chemistry_, vol. i. (1830), p. - 33. - - -Roger Bacon (1214-1294). - -§ =36.= =Roger Bacon=, the most illustrious of the mediæval alchemists, -was born near Ilchester in Somerset, probably in 1214. His erudition, -considering the general state of ignorance prevailing at this time, was -most remarkable. Professor Meyer says: "He is to be regarded as the -intellectual originator of experimental research, if the departure in -this direction is to be coupled with any one name--a direction which, -followed more and more as time went on, gave to the science [of -Chemistry] its own peculiar stamp, and ensured its steady -development."[46] Roger Bacon studied theology and science at Oxford and -at Paris; and he joined the Franciscan order, at what date, however, is -uncertain. He was particularly interested in optics, and certain -discoveries in this branch of physics have been attributed to him, -though probably erroneously. It appears, also, that he was acquainted -with gunpowder, which was, however, not employed in Europe until many -years later.[47] Unfortunately, he earned the undesirable reputation of -being in communication with the powers of darkness, and as he did not -hesitate to oppose many of the opinions current at the time, he -suffered much persecution. He was a firm believer in the powers of the -Philosopher's Stone to transmute large quantities of "base" metal into -gold, and also to extend the life of the individual. "_Alchimy_," he -says, "is a Science, teaching how to transforme any kind of mettall into -another: and that by a proper medicine, as it appeareth by many -Philosophers Bookes. _Alchimy_ therefore is a science teaching how to -make and compound a certaine medicine, which is called _Elixir_, the -which when it is cast upon mettals or imperfect bodies, doth fully -perfect them in the verie projection."[48] He also believed in -Astrology; but, nevertheless, he was entirely opposed to many of the -magical and superstitious notions held at the time, and his tract, _De -Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturæ, et de Nullitate Magiæ_, was an -endeavour to prove that many so-called "miracles" could be brought about -simply by the aid of natural science. Roger Bacon was a firm supporter -of the Sulphur-Mercury theory: he says: ". . . the natural principles in -the mynes, are _Argent-vive_, and _Sulphur_. All mettals and minerals, -whereof there be sundrie and divers kinds, are begotten of these two: -but I must tel you, that nature alwaies intendeth and striveth to the -perfection of Gold: but many accidents coming between, change the -metalls. . . . For according to the puritie and impuritie of the two -aforesaide principles, _Argent-vive_ and _Sulphur_, pure, and impure -mettals are ingendred."[49] He expresses surprise that any should employ -animal and vegetable substances in their attempts to prepare the Stone, -a practice common to some alchemists but warmly criticised by others. -He says: "Nothing may be mingled with mettalls which hath not beene made -or sprung from them, it remaineth cleane inough, that no strange thing -which hath not his originall from these two [viz., sulphur and mercury], -is able to perfect them, or to make a chaunge and new transmutation of -them: so that it is to be wondered at, that any wise man should set his -mind upon living creatures, or vegetables which are far off, when there -be minerals to bee found nigh enough: neither may we in any wise thinke, -that any of the Philosophers placed the Art in the said remote things, -except it were by way of comparison."[50] The one process necessary for -the preparation of the Stone, he tells us, is "continuall concoction" in -the fire, which is the method that "God hath given to nature."[51] He -died about 1294. - - [46] ERNST VON MEYER: _A History of Chemistry_ (translated by Dr. - McGowan, 1906), p. 35. - - [47] See ROGER BACON'S _Discovery of Miracles_, chaps. vi. and xi. - - [48] ROGER BACON: _The Mirror of Alchimy_ (1597), p. 1. - - [49] _Ibid._ p. 2. - - [50] ROGER BACON: _The Mirror of Alchimy_ (1597), p. 4. - - [51] _Ibid._ p. 9. - - -Arnold de Villanova (12--?-1310?). - -§ =37.= The date and birthplace of =Arnold de Villanova=, or Villeneuve, -are both uncertain. He studied medicine at Paris, and in the latter part -of the thirteenth century practised professionally in Barcelona. To -avoid persecution at the hands of the Inquisition, he was obliged to -leave Spain, and ultimately found safety with Frederick II. in Sicily. -He was famous not only as an alchemist, but also as a skilful physician. -He died (it is thought in a shipwreck) about 1310-1313. - - -Raymond Lully (1235?-1315). - -§ =38.= =Raymond Lully=, the son of a noble Spanish family, was born at -Palma (in Majorca) about 1235. He was a man of somewhat eccentric -character--in his youth a man of pleasure; in his maturity, a mystic -and ascetic. His career was of a roving and adventurous character. We -are told that, in his younger days, although married, he became -violently infatuated with a lady of the name of Ambrosia de Castello, -who vainly tried to dissuade him from his profane passion. Her efforts -proving futile, she requested Lully to call upon her, and in the -presence of her husband, bared to his sight her breast, which was almost -eaten away by a cancer. This sight--so the story goes--brought about -Lully's conversion. He became actuated by the idea of converting to -Christianity the heathen in Africa, and engaged the services of an -Arabian whereby he might learn the language. The man, however, -discovering his master's object, attempted to assassinate him, and Lully -narrowly escaped with his life. But his enthusiasm for missionary work -never abated--his central idea was the reasonableness and -demonstrability of Christian doctrine--and unhappily he was, at last, -stoned to death by the inhabitants of Bugiah (in Algeria) in 1315.[52] - - [52] See _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1815), pp. 17 _et - seq._ - -A very large number of alchemistic, theological and other treatises are -attributed to Lully, many of which are undoubtedly spurious; and it is a -difficult question to decide exactly which are genuine. He is supposed -to have derived a knowledge of Alchemy from Roger Bacon and Arnold de -Villanova. It appears more probable, however, either that Lully the -alchemist was a personage distinct from the Lully whose life we have -sketched above, or that the alchemistic writings attributed to him are -forgeries of a similar nature to the works of pseudo-Geber (§ 32). Of -these alchemical writings we may here mention the _Clavicula_. This he -says is the key to all his other books on Alchemy, in which books the -whole Art is fully declared, though so obscurely as not to be -understandable without its aid. In this work an alleged method for what -may be called the multiplication of the "noble" metals rather than -transmutation is described in clear language; but it should be noticed -that the stone employed is itself a compound either of silver or gold. -According to Lully, the secret of the Philosopher's Stone is the -extraction of the mercury of silver or gold. He writes: "Metals cannot -be transmuted . . . in the Minerals, unless they be reduced into their -first Matter. . . . Therefore I counsel you, O my Friends, that you do -not work but about _Sol_ and _Luna_, reducing them into the first -Matter, our _Sulphur_ and _Argent vive_: therefore, Son, you are to use -this venerable Matter; and I swear unto you and promise, that unless you -take the _Argent vive_ of these two, you go to the Practick as blind men -without eyes or sense. . . ."[53] - - [53] RAYMOND LULLY: _Clavicula, or, A Little Key_ (see _Aurifontina - Chymica_, 1680, p. 167). - - -Peter Bonus (14th Century). - -§ =39.= In 1546, a work was published entitled _Magarita Pretiosa_, -which claimed to be a "faithful abridgement," by "Janus Lacinus -Therapus, the Calabrian," of a MS. written by =Peter Bonus= in the -fourteenth century. An abridged English translation of this book by Mr. -A. E. Waite was published in 1894. Of the life of Bonus, who is said to -have been an inhabitant of Pola, a seaport of Istria, nothing is known; -but the _Magarita Pretiosa_ is an alchemistic work of considerable -interest. The author commences, like pseudo-Geber in his _Sum of -Perfection_, by bringing forward a number of very ingenious arguments -against the validity of the Art; he then proceeds with arguments in -favour of Alchemy and puts forward answers in full to the former -objections; further difficulties, &c., are then dealt with. In all this, -compared with many other alchemists, Bonus, though somewhat prolix, is -remarkably lucid. All metals, he argues, following the views of -pseudo-Geber, consist of mercury and sulphur; but whilst the mercury is -always one and the same, different metals contain different sulphurs. -There are also two different kinds of sulphurs--inward and outward. -Sulphur is necessary for the development of the mercury, but for the -final product, gold, to come forth, it is necessary that the outward and -impure sulphur be purged off. "Each metal," says Bonus, "differs from -all the rest, and has a certain perfection and completeness of its own; -but none, except gold, has reached that highest degree of perfection of -which it is capable. For all common metals there is a transient and a -perfect state of inward completeness, and this perfect state they attain -either through the slow operation of Nature, or through the sudden -transformatory power of our Stone. We must, however, add that the -imperfect metals form part of the great plan and design of Nature, -though they are in course of transformation into gold. For a large -number of very useful and indispensable tools and utensils could not be -provided at all if there were no copper, iron, tin, or lead, and if all -metals were either silver or gold. For this beneficent reason Nature -has furnished us with the metallic substance in all its different stages -of development, from iron, or the lowest, to gold, or the highest state -of metallic perfection. Nature is ever studying variety, and, for that -reason, instead of covering the whole face of the earth with water, has -evolved out of that elementary substance a great diversity of forms, -embracing the whole animal, vegetable and mineral world. It is, in like -manner, for the use of men that Nature has differentiated the metallic -substance into a great variety of species and forms."[54] According to -this interesting alchemistic work, the Art of Alchemy consists, not in -reducing the imperfect metals to their first substance, but in carrying -forward Nature's work, developing the imperfect metals to perfection and -removing their impure sulphur. - - [54] PETER BONUS: _The New Pearl of Great Price_ (Mr. A. E. Waite's - translation, pp. 176-177). - - -Nicolas Flamel (1330-1418). - -§ =40.= Nicolas Flamel (see plate 8) was born about 1330, probably in -Paris. His parents were poor, and Nicolas took up the trade of a -scrivener. In the course of time, Flamel became a very wealthy man and, -at the same time, it appears, one who exhibited considerable -munificence. This increase in Flamel's wealth has been attributed to -supposed success in the Hermetic Art. We are told that a remarkable book -came into the young scrivener's possession, which, at first, he was -unable to understand, until, at last, he had the good fortune to meet an -adept who translated its mysteries for him. This book revealed the -occult secrets of Alchemy, and by its means Nicolas was enabled to -obtain immense quantities of gold. This story, however, appears to be of -a legendary nature, and it seems more likely that Flamel's riches -resulted from his business as a scrivener and from moneylending. At any -rate, all of the alchemistic works attributed to Flamel are of more or -less questionable origin. One of these, entitled _A Short Tract, or -Philosophical Summary_, will be found in _The Hermetic Museum_. It is a -very brief work, supporting the sulphur-mercury theory. - -[Illustration: PLATE 8. - -PORTRAIT OF THOMAS AQUINAS. - -PORTRAIT OF NICOLAS FLAMEL. - -_To face page 52_]] - - -"Basil Valentine" and "The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony." - -§ =41.= Probably the most celebrated of all alchemistic books is the -work known as _Triumph-Wagen des Antimonii_. A Latin translation with a -commentary by Theodore Kerckringius was published in 1685, and an -English translation of this version by Mr. A. E. Waite appeared in 1893. -The author describes himself as "=Basil Valentine=, a Benedictine monk." -In his "_Practica_," another alchemistic work, he says: "When I had -emptied to the dregs the cup of human suffering, I was led to consider -the wretchedness of this world, and the fearful consequences of our -first parents' disobedience . . . I made haste to withdraw myself from -the evil world, to bid farewell to it, and to devote myself to the -Service of God."[55] He proceeds to relate that he entered a monastery, -but finding that he had some time on his hands after performing his -daily work and devotions, and not wishing to pass this time in idleness, -he took up the study of Alchemy, "the investigation of those natural -secrets by which God has shadowed out eternal things," and at last -his labours were rewarded by the discovery of a Stone most potent in the -curing of diseases. In _The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony_ are -accurately described a large number of antimonial preparations, and as -Basil was supposed to have written this work some time in the fifteenth -century, these preparations were accordingly concluded to have been, for -the most part, his own discoveries. He defends with the utmost vigour -the medicinal values of antimony, and criticises in terms far from mild -the physicians of his day. On account of this work Basil Valentine has -ranked very high as an experimental chemist; but from quite early times -its date and authorship have been regarded alike as doubtful; and it -appears from the researches of the late Professor Schorlemmer "to be an -undoubted forgery dating from about 1600, the information being culled -from the works of other writers. . . ."[56] Probably the other works -ascribed to Basil Valentine are of a like nature. _The Triumphal Chariot -of Antimony_ does, however, give an accurate account of the knowledge of -antimony of this time, and the pseudo-Valentine shows himself to have -been a man of considerable experience with regard to this subject. - - [55] "BASIL VALENTINE": _The "Practica"_ (see _The Hermetic Museum_, - vol. i. p. 313). - - [56] Sir H. E. ROSCOE, F.R.S., and C. SCHORLEMMER, F.R.S.: _A - Treatise on Chemistry_, vol. i. (1905), p. 9. - - -Isaac of Holland (15th Century). - -§ =42.= Isaac of Holland and a countryman of the same name, probably his -son, are said to have been the first Dutch alchemists. They are supposed -to have lived during the fifteenth century, but of their lives nothing -is known. Isaac, although not free from superstitious opinions, appears -to have been a practical chemist, and his works, which abound in -recipes, were held in great esteem by Paracelsus and other alchemists. -He held that all things in this world are of a dual nature, partly good -and partly bad. ". . . All that God hath created good in the upper part -of the world," he writes, "are perfect and uncorruptible, as the heaven: -but whatsoever in these lower parts, whether it be in beasts, fishes, -and all manner of sensible creatures, hearbs or plants, it is indued -with a double nature, that is to say, perfect, and unperfect; the -perfect nature is called the Quintessence, the unperfect the Feces or -dreggs, or the venemous or combustible oile. . . . God hath put a secret -nature or influence in every creature, and . . . to every nature of one -sort or kind he hath given one common influence and vertue, whether it -bee on Physick or other secret works, which partly are found out by -naturall workmanship. And yet more things are unknown than are apparent -to our senses."[57] He gives directions for extracting the Quintessence, -for which marvellous powers are claimed, out of sugar and other organic -substances; and he appears to be the earliest known writer who makes -mention of the famous sulphur-mercury-salt theory. - - [57] _One hundred and Fourteen Experiments and Cures of the Famous - Physitian Theophrastus Paracelsus, whereunto is added . . . certain - Secrets of Isaac Hollandus, concerning the Vegetall and Animall - Work_ (1652), p. 35. - - -Bernard Trévisan (1406-1490). - -§ =43.= =Bernard Trévisan=, a French count of the fifteenth century, -squandered enormous sums of money in the search for the Stone, in which -the whole of his life and energies were engaged. He seems to have become -the dupe of one charlatan after another, but at last, at a ripe old -age, he says that his labours were rewarded, and that he successfully -performed the _magnum opus_. In a short, but rather obscure work, he -speaks of the Philosopher's Stone in the following words: "This Stone -then is compounded of a Body and Spirit, or of a volatile and fixed -Substance, and that is therefore done, because nothing in the World can -be generated and brought to light without these two Substances, to wit, -a Male and Female: From whence it appeareth, that although these two -Substances are not of one and the same species, yet one Stone doth -thence arise, and although they appear and are said to be two -Substances, yet in truth it is but one, to wit, _Argent-vive_."[58] He -appears, however, to have added nothing to our knowledge of chemical -science. - - [58] BERNARD, EARL OF TRÉVISAN: _A Treatise of the Philosophers - Stone_, 1683 (see _Collectanea Chymica: A Collection of Ten Several - Treatises in Chemistry_, 1684, p. 91). - - -Sir George Ripley (14--?-1490?). - -§ =44.= =Sir George Ripley=, an eminent alchemistic philosopher of the -fifteenth century, entered upon a monastic life when a youth, becoming -one of the canons regular of Bridlington. After some travels he returned -to England and obtaining leave from the Pope to live in solitude, he -devoted himself to the study of the Hermetic Art. His chief work is _The -Compound of Alchymie . . . conteining twelve Gates_, which was written -in 1471. In this curious work, we learn that there are twelve processes -necessary for the achievement of the _magnum opus_, namely, Calcination, -Solution, Separation, Conjunction, Putrefaction, Congelation, Cibation, -Sublimation, Fermentation, Exaltation, Multiplication, and Projection. -These are likened to the twelve gates of a castle which the philosopher -must enter. At the conclusion of the twelfth gate, Ripley says:-- - - "Now thou hast conqueryd the _twelve Gates_, - And all the Castell thou holdyst at wyll, - Keep thy Secretts in store unto thy selve; - And the commaundements of God looke thou fulfull: - In fyer conteinue thy glas styll, - And Multeply thy Medcyns ay more and more, - For wyse men done say _store ys no sore_."[59] - - [59] Sir GEORGE RIPLEY: _The Compound of Alchemy_ (see _Theatrum - Chemicum Britannicum_, edited by Elias Ashmole, 1652, p. 186). - -At the conclusion of the work he tells us that in all that he wrote -before he was mistaken; he says:-- - - "I made _Solucyons_ full many a one, - Of Spyrytts, Ferments, Salts, Yerne and Steele; - Wenyng so to make the Phylosophers Stone: - But fynally I lost eche dele, - After my Boks yet wrought I well; - Whych evermore untrue I provyd, - That made me oft full sore agrevyd."[60] - - [60] _Ibid._ p. 189. - -Ripley did much to popularise the works of Raymond Lully in England, but -does not appear to have added to the knowledge of practical chemistry. -His _Bosom Book_, which contains an alleged method for preparing the -Stone, will be found in the _Collectanea Chemica_ (1893). - - -Thomas Norton (15th Century). - -§ =45.= =Thomas Norton=, the author of the celebrated _Ordinall of -Alchemy_, was probably born shortly before the commencement of the -fifteenth century. The _Ordinall_, which is written in verse (and which -will be found in Ashmole's _Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum_),[61] is -anonymous, but the author's identity is revealed by a curious device. -The initial syllables of the proem and of the first six chapters, -together with the first line of the seventh chapter, give the following -couplet:-- - - "Tomais Norton of Briseto, - A parfet _Master_ ye maie him call trowe." - - [61] A prose version will be found in _The Hermetic Museum_ - translated back into English from a Latin translation by Maier. - -Samuel Norton, the grandson of Thomas, who was also an alchemist, says -that Thomas Norton was a member of the privy chamber of Edward IV. -Norton's distinctive views regarding the generation of the metals we -have already mentioned (see § 20). He taught that true knowledge of the -Art of Alchemy could only be obtained by word of mouth from an adept, -and in his _Ordinall_ he gives an account of his own initiation. He -tells us that he was instructed by his master (probably Sir George -Ripley) and learnt the secrets of the Art in forty days, at the age of -twenty-eight. He does not, however, appear to have reaped the fruits of -this knowledge. Twice, he tells us, did he prepare the Elixir, and twice -was it stolen from him; and he is said to have died in 1477, after -ruining himself and his friends by his unsuccessful experiments. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE ALCHEMISTS (_continued_) - -(B. PARACELSUS AND AFTER) - - -Paracelsus (1493-1541.) - -§ =46.= That erratic genius, =Paracelsus=--or, to give him his correct -name, Philip (?) Aureole (?) =Theophrast Bombast von Hohenheim=--whose -portrait forms the frontispiece to the present work--was born at -Einsiedeln in Switzerland in 1493. He studied the alchemistic and -medical arts under his father, who was a physician, and continued his -studies later at the University of Basle. He also gave some time to the -study of magic and the occult sciences under the famous Trithemius of -Spanheim. Paracelsus, however, found the merely theoretical "book -learning" of the university curriculum unsatisfactory and betook himself -to the mines, where he might study the nature of metals at first hand. -He then spent several years in travelling, visiting some of the chief -countries of Europe. At last he returned to Basle, the chair of Medical -Science of his old university being bestowed upon him. The works of -Isaac of Holland had inspired him with the desire to improve upon the -medical science of his day, and in his lectures (which were, contrary -to the usual custom, delivered not in Latin, but in the German language) -he denounced in violent terms the teachings of Galen and Avicenna, who -were until then the accredited authorities on medical matters. His use -of the German tongue, his coarseness in criticism and his intense -self-esteem, combined with the fact that he did lay bare many of the -medical follies and frauds of his day, brought him into very general -dislike with the rest of the physicians, and the municipal authorities -siding with the aggrieved apothecaries and physicians, whose methods -Paracelsus had exposed, he fled from Basle and resumed his former roving -life. He was, so we are told, a man of very intemperate habits, being -seldom sober (a statement seriously open to doubt); but on the other -hand, he certainly accomplished a very large number of most remarkable -cures, and, judging from his writings, he was inspired by lofty and -noble ideals and a fervent belief in the Christian religion. He died in -1541. - -Paracelsus combined in himself such opposite characteristics that it is -a matter of difficulty to criticise him aright. As says Professor -Ferguson: "It is most difficult . . . to ascertain what his true -character really was, to appreciate aright this man of fervid -imagination, of powerful and persistent conviction, of unbated honesty -and love of truth, of keen insight into the errors (as he thought them) -of his time, of a merciless will to lay bare these errors and to reform -the abuses to which they gave rise, who in an instant offends by his -boasting, his grossness, his want of self-respect. It is a problem how -to reconcile his ignorance, his weakness, his superstition, his crude -notions, his erroneous observations, his ridiculous inferences and -theories, with his grasp of method, his lofty views of the true scope of -medicine, his lucid statements, his incisive and epigrammatic criticisms -of men and motives."[62] It is also a problem of considerable difficulty -to determine which of the many books attributed to him are really his -genuine works, and consequently what his views on certain points exactly -were. - - [62] JOHN FERGUSON, M.A.: Article "Paracelsus," _Encyclopædia - Britannica_, 9th edition (1885), vol. xviii. p. 236. - - -Views of Paracelsus. - -§ =47.= Paracelsus was the first to recognise the desirability of -investigating the physical universe with a motive other than -alchemistic. He taught that "the object of chemistry is not to make -gold, but to prepare medicines," and founded the school of -Iatro-chemistry or Medical Chemistry. This synthesis of chemistry with -medicine was of very great benefit to each science; new possibilities of -chemical investigation were opened up now that the aim was not purely -alchemistic. Paracelsus's central theory was that of the analogy between -man, the microcosm, and the world or macrocosm. He regarded all the -actions that go on in the human body as of a chemical nature, and he -thought that illness was the result of a disproportion in the body -between the quantities of the three great principles--sulphur, mercury, -and salt--which he regarded as constituting all things; for example, he -considered an excess of sulphur as the cause of fever, since sulphur was -the fiery principle, &c. The basis of the iatro-chemical doctrines, -namely, that the healthy human body is a particular combination of -chemical substances: illness the result of some change in this -combination, and hence curable only by chemical medicines, expresses a -certain truth, and is undoubtedly a great improvement upon the ideas of -the ancients. But in the elaboration of his medical doctrines Paracelsus -fell a prey to exaggeration and the fantastic, and many of his theories -appear to be highly ridiculous. This extravagance is also very -pronounced in the alchemistic works attributed to him; for example, the -belief in the artificial creation of minute living creatures resembling -men (called "homunculi")--a belief of the utmost absurdity, if we are to -understand it literally. On the other hand, his writings do contain much -true teaching of a mystical nature; his doctrine of the correspondence -of man with the universe considered as a whole, for example, certainly -being radically true, though fantastically stated and developed by -Paracelsus himself. - - -Iatro-Chemistry. - -§ =48.= Between the pupils of Paracelsus and the older school of -medicine, as might well be supposed, a battle royal was waged for a -considerable time, which ultimately concluded, if not with a full -vindication of Paracelsus's teaching, yet with the acceptance of the -fundamental iatro-chemical doctrines. Henceforward it is necessary to -distinguish between the chemists and the alchemists--to distinguish -those who pursued chemical studies with the object of discovering and -preparing useful medicines, and later those who pursued such studies for -their own sake, from those whose object was the transmutation of the -"base" metals into gold, whether from purely selfish motives, or with -the desire to demonstrate on the physical plane the validity of the -doctrines of Mysticism. However, during the following century or two we -find, very often, the chemist and the alchemist united in one and the -same person. Men such as Glauber and Boyle, whose names will ever be -remembered by chemists, did not doubt the possibility of performing the -_magnum opus_. In the present chapter, however, we shall confine our -attention for the most part to those men who may be regarded, for one -reason or another, particularly as _alchemists_. And the alchemists of -the period we are now considering present a very great diversity. On the -one hand, we have men of much chemical knowledge and skill such as -Libavius and van Helmont, on the other hand we have those who stand -equally as high as exponents of mystic wisdom--men such as Jacob Boehme -and, to a less extent, Thomas Vaughan. We have those, who, although they -did not enrich the science of Chemistry with any new discoveries, were, -nevertheless, regarded as masters of the Hermetic Art; and, finally, we -have alchemists of the Edward Kelley and "Cagliostro" type, whose main -object was their own enrichment at their neighbours' expense. Before, -however, proceeding to an account of the lives and teachings of these -men, there is one curious matter--perhaps the most remarkable of all -historical curiosities--that calls for some brief consideration. We -refer to the "far-famed" Rosicrucian Society. - - -The Rosicrucian Society. - -§ =49.= The exoteric history of the Rosicrucian Society commences with -the year 1614. In that year there was published at Cassel in Germany a -pamphlet entitled _The Discovery of the Fraternity of the Meritorious -Order of the Rosy Cross, addressed to the Learned in General and the -Governors of Europe_. After a discussion of the momentous question of -the general reformation of the world, which was to be accomplished -through the medium of a secret confederacy of the wisest and most -philanthropic men, the pamphlet proceeds to inform its readers that such -an association is in existence, founded over one hundred years ago by -the famous C.R.C., grand initiate in the mysteries of Alchemy, whose -history (which is clearly of a fabulous or symbolical nature) is given. -The book concludes by inviting the wise men of the time to join the -Fraternity, directing those who wished to do so to indicate their desire -by the publication of printed letters, which should come into the hands -of the Brotherhood. As might well be expected, the pamphlet was the -cause of considerable interest and excitement, but although many letters -were printed, apparently none of them were vouchsafed a reply. The -following year a further pamphlet appeared, _The Confession of the -Rosicrucian Fraternity, addressed to the Learned in Europe_, and in -1616, _The Chymical Nuptials of Christian Rosencreutz_. This latter book -is a remarkable allegorical romance, describing how an old man, a -lifelong student of the alchemistic Art, was present at the -accomplishment of the _magnum opus_ in the year 1459. An enormous amount -of controversy took place; it was plain to some that the Society had -deluded them, whilst others hotly maintained its claims; but after about -four years had passed, the excitement had subsided, and the subject -ceased, for the time being, to arouse any particular interest. - -Some writers, even in recent times, more gifted for romance than for -historical research, have seen in the Rosicrucian Society a secret -confederacy of immense antiquity and of stupendous powers, consisting of -the great initiates of all ages, supposed to be in possession of the -arch secrets of alchemistic art. It is abundantly evident, however, that -it was nothing of the sort. It is clear from an examination of the -pamphlets already mentioned that they are animated by Lutheran ideals; -and it is of interest to note that Luther's seal contained both the -cross and the rose--whence the term "Rosicrucian." The generally -accepted theory regards the pamphlets as a sort of elaborate hoax -perpetrated by Valentine Andreä, a young and benevolent Lutheran divine; -but more, however, than a mere hoax. As the late Mr. R. A. Vaughan -wrote: ". . . this Andreä writes the _Discovery of the Rosicrucian -Brotherhood, a jeu-d'esprit_ with a serious purpose, just as an -experiment to see whether something cannot be done by combined effort to -remedy the defect and abuses--social, educational, and religious, so -lamented by all good men. He thought there were many Andreäs scattered -throughout Europe--how powerful would be their united systematic action! -. . . He hoped that the few nobler minds whom he desired to organize -would see through the veil of fiction in which he had invested his -proposal; that he might communicate personally with some such, if they -should appear; or that his book might lead them to form among themselves -a practical philanthropic confederacy, answering to the serious purpose -he had embodied in his fiction."[63] His scheme was a failure, and on -seeing its result, Andreä, not daring to reveal himself as the author of -the pamphlets, did his best to put a stop to the folly by writing -several works in criticism of the Society and its claims. Mr. A. E. -Waite, however, whose work on the subject should be consulted for -further information, rejects this theory, and suggests that the -Rosicrucian Society was probably identical with the _Militia Crucifera -Evangelica_, a secret society founded in Nuremburg by the Lutheran -alchemist and mystic, Simon Studion.[64] - - [63] ROBERT ALFRED VAUGHAN, B.A.: _Hours with the Mystics_ (7th - edition, 1895), vol. ii. bk. 8, chap. ix. p. 134. - - [64] ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: _The Real History of the Rosicrucians_, - (1887). - - -Thomas Charnock (1524-1581). - -§ =50.= We must now turn our attention to the lives and teachings of the -alchemists of the period under consideration, treating them, as far as -possible, in chronological order; whence the first alchemist to come -under our notice is Thomas Charnock. - -=Thomas Charnock= was born at Faversham (Kent), either in the year 1524 -or in 1526. After some travels over England he settled at Oxford, -carrying on experiments in Alchemy. In 1557 he wrote his _Breviary of -Philosophy_. This work is almost entirely autobiographical, describing -Charnock's alchemistic experiences. He tells us that he was initiated -into the mysteries of the Hermetic Art by a certain James S. of -Salisbury; he also had another master, an old blind man, who on his -death-bed instructed Charnock. Unfortunately, however, Thomas was doomed -to failure in his experiments. On the first attempt his apparatus caught -fire and his work was destroyed. His next experiments were ruined by the -negligence of a servant. His final misfortune shall be described in his -own words. He had started the work for a third time, and had spent much -money on his fire, hoping to be shortly rewarded. . . . - - "Then a _Gentleman_ that oughte me great mallice - Caused me to be prest to goe serve at _Callys_: - When I saw there was no other boote, - But that I must goe spight of my heart roote; - In my fury I tooke a Hatchet in my hand, - And brake all my Worke whereas it did stand."[65] - - [65] THOMAS CHARNOCK: _The Breviary of Naturall Philosophy_ (see - _Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum_, edited by Ashmole, 1652, p. 295.) - -Thomas Charnock married in 1562 a Miss Agnes Norden. He died in 1581. It -is, perhaps, unnecessary to say that his name does not appear in the -history of Chemistry. - - -Andreas Libavius (1540-1616.) - -§ =51.= =Andreas Libavius= was born at Halle in Germany in 1540, where -he studied medicine and practiced for a short time as a physician. He -accepted the fundamental iatro-chemical doctrines, at the same time, -however, criticising certain of the more extravagant views expressed by -Paracelsus. He was a firm believer in the transmutation of the metals, -but his own activities were chiefly directed to the preparation of new -and better medicines. He enriched the science of Chemistry by many -valuable discoveries, and tin tetra-chloride, which he was the first to -prepare, is still known by the name of _spiritus fumans Libavii_. -Libavius was a man possessed of keen powers of observation; and his work -on Chemistry, which contains a full account of the knowledge of the -science of his time, may be regarded as the first text-book of -Chemistry. It was held in high esteem for a considerable time, being -reprinted on several occasions. - -[Illustration: PLATE 9. - -PORTRAIT OF EDWARD KELLEY. - -PORTRAIT OF JOHN DEE. - -_To face page 68_]] - - -Edward Kelley (1555-1595) and John Dee (1527-1608.) - -§ =52.= Edward Kelley or Kelly (see plate 9) was born at Worcester on -August 1, 1555. His life is so obscured by various traditions that it is -very difficult to arrive at the truth concerning it. The latest, and -probably the best, account will be found in Miss Charlotte Fell Smith's -_John Dee_ (1909). Edward Kelley, according to some accounts, was -brought up as an apothecary.[66] He is also said to have entered Oxford -University under the pseudonym of Talbot.[67] Later, he practised as a -notary in London. He is said to have committed a forgery, for which he -had his ears cropped; but another account, which supposes him to have -avoided this penalty by making his escape to Wales, is not improbable. -Other crimes of which he is accused are coining and necromancy. He was -probably not guilty of all these crimes, but that he was undoubtedly a -charlatan and profligate the sequel will make plain. We are told that -about the time of his alleged escape to Wales, whilst in the -neighbourhood of Glastonbury Abbey, he became possessed, by a lucky -chance, of a manuscript by St. Dunstan setting forth the grand secrets -of Alchemy, together with some of the two transmuting tinctures, both -white and red,[68] which had been discovered in a tomb near by. His -friendship with John Dee, or Dr. Dee as he is generally called, -commenced in 1582. Now, =John Dee= (see plate 9) was undoubtedly a -mathematician of considerable erudition. He was also an astrologer, and -was much interested in experiments in "crystal-gazing," for which -purpose he employed a speculum of polished cannel-coal, and by means of -which he believed that he had communication with the inhabitants of -spiritual spheres. It appears that Kelley, who probably did possess some -mediumistic powers, the results of which he augmented by means of fraud, -interested himself in these experiments, and not only became the -doctor's "scryer," but also gulled him into the belief that he was in -the possession of the arch-secrets of Alchemy. In 1583, Kelley and his -learned dupe left England together with their wives and a Polish -nobleman, staying firstly at Cracovia and afterwards at Prague, where it -is not unlikely that the Emperor Rudolph II. knighted Kelley. As -instances of the belief which the doctor had in Kelley's powers as an -alchemist, we may note that in his Private Diary under the date December -19, 1586, Dee records that Kelley performed a transmutation for the -benefit of one Edward Garland and his brother Francis;[69] and under -the date May 10, 1588, we find the following recorded: "E.K. did open -the great secret to me, God be thanked!"[70] That he was not always -without doubts as to Kelley's honesty, however, is evident from other -entries in his Diary. In 1587 occurred an event which must be recorded -to the partners' lasting shame. To cap his former impositions, Kelley -informed the doctor that by the orders of a spirit which had appeared to -him in the crystal, they were to share "their two wives in common"; to -which arrangement, after some further persuasion, Dee consented. -Kelley's profligacy and violent temper, however, had already been the -cause of some disagreement between him and the doctor, and this incident -leading to a further quarrel, the erstwhile friends parted. In 1589, the -Emperor Rudolph imprisoned Kelley, the price of his freedom being the -transmutative secret, or a substantial quantity of gold, at least, -prepared by its aid. He was, however, released in 1593; but died in -1595; according to one account, as the result of an accident incurred -while attempting to escape from a second imprisonment. Dee merely -records that he received news to the effect that Kelley "was slayne." - - [66] See, for example, WILLIAM LILLY: _History of His Life and - Times_ (1715, reprinted in 1822, p. 227). - - [67] See ANTHONY À WOOD'S account of Kelley's life in _Athenæ - Oxonienses_ (3rd edition, edited by Philip Bliss, vol. i. col. 639.) - - [68] William Lilly, the astrologer, in his _History of His Life and - Times_ (1822 reprint, pp. 225-226), relates a different story - regarding the manner in which Kelley is supposed to have obtained - the Great Medicine, but as it is told at third hand, it is of little - importance. We do not suppose that there can be much doubt that the - truth was that Dee and others were deceived by some skilful - conjuring tricks, for whatever else Kelley may have been, he - certainly was a very ingenious fellow. - - [69] _The Private Diary of Dr. John Dee_ (The Camden Society, 1842), - p. 22. - - [70] _The Private Diary of Dr. John Dee_ (The Camden Society, 1842), - p. 27. - -It was during his incarceration that he wrote an alchemistic work -entitled _The Stone of the Philosophers_, which consists largely of -quotations from older alchemistic writings. His other works on Alchemy -were probably written at an earlier period.[71] - - [71] An English translation of Kelley's alchemistic works were - published under the editorship of Mr. A. E. Waite, in 1893. - - -Henry Khunrath (1560-1605). - -§ =53.= =Henry Khunrath= was born in Saxony in the second half of the -sixteenth century. He was a follower of Paracelsus, and travelled about -Germany, practising as a physician. "This German alchemist," says Mr. A. -E. Waite, ". . . is claimed as a hierophant of the psychic side of the -_magnum opus_, and . . . was undoubtedly aware of the larger issues, of -Hermetic theorems"; he describes Khunrath's chief work, _Amphitheatrum -Sapientiæ Æternæ_, &c., as "purely mystical and magical."[72] - - [72] A. E. WAITE: _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1888), p. - 159. - - -Alexander Sethon (?-1604) and Michael Sendivogius (1566?-1646). - -§ =54.= The date and birthplace of =Alexander Sethon=, a Scottish -alchemist, do not appear to have been recorded, but =Michael -Sendivogius= was probably born in Moravia about 1566. Sethon, we are -told, was in possession of the arch-secrets of Alchemy. He visited -Holland in 1602, proceeded after a time to Italy, and passed through -Basle to Germany; meanwhile he is said to have performed many -transmutations. Ultimately arriving at Dresden, however, he fell into -the clutches of the young Elector, Christian II., who, in order to -extort his secret, cast him into prison, and put him to the torture, but -without avail. Now, it so happened that Sendivogius, who was in quest of -the Philosopher's Stone, was staying at Dresden, and hearing of Sethon's -imprisonment obtained permission to visit him. Sendivogius offered to -effect Sethon's escape in return for assistance in his alchemistic -pursuits, to which arrangement the Scottish alchemist willingly agreed. -After some considerable outlay of money in bribery, Sendivogius's plan -of escape was successfully carried out, and Sethon found himself a free -man; but he refused to betray the high secrets of Hermetic philosophy to -his rescuer. However, before his death, which occurred shortly -afterwards, he presented him with an ounce of the transmutative powder. -Sendivogius soon used up this powder, we are told, in effecting -transmutations and cures, and, being fond of expensive living, he -married Sethon's widow, in the hope that she was in the possession of -the transmutative secret. In this, however, he was disappointed; she -knew nothing of the matter, but she had the manuscript of an alchemistic -work written by her late husband. Shortly afterwards Sendivogius printed -at Prague a book entitled _The New Chemical Light_ under the name of -"Cosmopolita," which is said to be this work of Sethon's but which -Sendivogius claimed for his own by the insertion of his name on the -title-page, in the form of an anagram. The tract _On Sulphur_ which was -printed at the end of later editions, however, is said to have been the -genuine work of the Moravian. Whilst his powder lasted, Sendivogius -travelled about, performing, we are told, many transmutations. He was -twice imprisoned in order to extort the secrets of Alchemy from him, on -one occasion escaping, and on the other occasion obtaining his release -from the Emperor Rudolph. Afterwards, he appears to have degenerated -into an impostor, but this is said to have been a _finesse_ to hide his -true character as an alchemistic adept. He died in 1646.[73] - - [73] See F. B.: _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1815), pp. - 66-69. - -The _New Chemical Light_ was held in great esteem by the alchemists. The -first part treats at length of the generation of the metals and also of -the Philosopher's Stone, and claims to be based on practical experience. -The seed of Nature, we are told, is one, but various products result on -account of the different conditions of development. An imaginary -conversation between Mercury, an Alchemist and Nature which is appended, -is not without a touch of humour. Says the Alchemist, in despair, "Now I -see that I know nothing; only I must not say so. For I should lose the -good opinion of my neighbours, and they would no longer entrust me with -money for my experiments. I must therefore go on saying that I know -everything; for there are many that expect me to do great things for -them. . . . There are many countries, and many greedy persons who will -suffer themselves to be gulled by my promises of mountains of gold. Thus -day will follow day, and in the meantime the King or the donkey will -die, or I myself."[74] The second part treats of the Elements and -Principles (see §§ 17 and 19). - - [74] _The New Chemical Light_, Part I. (see _The Hermetic Museum_, - vol. ii. p. 125). - -[Illustration: PLATE 10. - -[by J. Brunn] - -PORTRAIT OF MICHAEL MAIER. - -_To face page 72_]] - - -Michael Maier (1568-1622). - -§ =55.= =Michael Maier= (see plate 10) was born at Rendsberg (in -Holstein) about 1568. He studied medicine assiduously, becoming a most -successful physician, and he was ennobled by Rudolf II. Later on, -however, he took up the subject of Alchemy, and is said to have ruined -his health and wasted his fortune in the pursuit of the alchemistic -_ignis fatuus_--the Stone of the Philosophers--travelling about Germany -and elsewhere in order to have converse with those who were regarded as -adepts in the Art. He took a prominent part in the famous Rosicrucian -controversy (see § 49), defending the claims of the alleged society in -several tracts. He is said, on the one hand, to have been admitted as a -member of the fraternity; and on the other hand, to have himself founded -a similar institution. A full account of his views will be found in the -Rev. J. B. Craven's _Count Michael Maier: Life and Writings_ (1910). He -was a very learned man, but his works are somewhat obscure and abound in -fanciful allegories. He read an alchemistic meaning into the ancient -fables concerning the Egyptian and Greek gods and heroes. Like most -alchemists, he held the supposed virtues of mercury in high esteem. In -his _Lusus Serius: or, Serious Passe-time_, for example, he supposes a -Parliament of the various creatures of the world to meet, in order that -Man might choose the noblest of them as king over all the rest. The -calf, the sheep, the goose, the oyster, the bee, the silkworm, flax and -mercury are the chosen representatives, each of which discourses in -turn. It will be unnecessary to state that Mercury wins the day. Thus -does Maier eulogise it: "Thou art the miracle, splendour and light of -the world. Thou art the glory, ornament, and supporter of the Earth. -Thou art the Asyle, Anchor, and tye of the Universe. Next to the minde -of Man, God Created nothing more Noble, more Glorious, or more -Profitable."[75] His _Subtle Allegory concerning the Secrets of Alchemy, -very useful to possess and pleasant to read_, will be found in the -_Hermetic Museum_, together with his _Golden Tripod_, consisting of -translations of "Valentine's" "_Practica_" and _Twelve Keys_, Norton's -_Ordinal_ and Cremer's spurious _Testament_. - - [75] MICHAEL MAIER: _Lusus Serius: or Serious Passe-time_ (1654), p. - 138. - -[Illustration: Plate 11. - -PORTRAIT OF JACOB BOEHME. - -_To face page 74_]] - - -Jacob Boehme (1575-1624.) - -§ =56.= =Jacob Boehme=, or Behmen (see plate 11), was born at Alt -Seidenberg, a village near Görlitz, in 1575. His parents being poor, the -education he received was of a very rudimentary nature, and when his -schooling days were over, Jacob was apprenticed to a shoemaker. His -religious nature caused him often to admonish his fellow-apprentices, -which behaviour ultimately caused him to be dismissed. He travelled -about as a journeyman shoemaker, returning, however, to Görlitz in 1594, -where he married and settled in business. He claims to have experienced -a wonderful vision in 1598, and to have had a similar vision two years -later. In these visions, the first of which lasted for several days, he -believed that he saw into the inmost secrets of nature; but what at -first appeared dim and vague became clear and coherent in a third -vision, which he tells us was vouchsafed to him in 1610. It was then -that he wrote his first book, the _Aurora_, which he composed for -himself only, in order that he should not forget the mysteries disclosed -to him. At a later period he produced a large number of treatises of a -mystical-religious nature, having spent the intervening years in -improving his early education. These books aroused the ire of the -narrow-minded ecclesiastical authorities of the town, and Jacob suffered -considerable persecution in consequence. He visited Dresden in 1624, and -in the same year was there taken ill with a fever. Returning to Görlitz, -he expired in a condition of ecstasy. - -Jacob Boehme was an alchemist of a purely transcendental order. He had, -it appears, acquired some knowledge of Chemistry during his apprentice -days, and he employed the language of Alchemy in the elaboration of his -system of mystical philosophy. With this lofty mystical-religious system -we cannot here deal; Boehme is, indeed, often accounted the greatest of -true Christian mystics; but although conscious of his superiority over -many minor lights, we think this title is due to Emanuel Swedenborg. The -question of the validity of his visions is also one which lies beyond -the scope of the present work;[76] we must confine our attention to -Boehme as an alchemist. The Philosopher's Stone, in Boehme's -terminology, is the Spirit of Christ which must "tincture" the -individual soul. In one place he says, "_The Phylosophers Stone_ is a -very dark disesteemed Stone, of a _Gray_ colour, but therein lyeth the -highest Tincture."[77] In the transcendental sense, this is reminiscent -of the words of Isaiah: "He hath no form nor comeliness; and when we see -him, there is no beauty that we should desire him. . . . He was despised -and we esteemed him not," &c.[78] - - [76] For a general discussion of spiritual visions see the present - writer's _Matter, Spirit and the Cosmos_ (Rider, 1910), Chapter IV., - "On Matter and Spirit." Undoubtedly Boehme's visions involved a - valuable element of truth, but at the same time much that was purely - relative and subjective. - - [77] JACOB BOEHME: _Epistles_ (translated by J. E., 1649), Ep. iv. § - 111, p. 65. - - [78] _The Book of the Prophet Isaiah_, chap, liii., vv. 2 and 3, - R.V. - - -J. B. van Helmont (1577-1644) and F. M. van Helmont (1618-1699.) - -§ =57.= =John Baptist van Helmont= (see plate 12) was born in Brussels -in 1577. He devoted himself to the study of medicine, at first following -Galen, but afterwards accepting in part the teachings of Paracelsus; -and he helped to a large extent in the overthrow of the old medical -doctrines. His purely chemical researches were also of great value to -the science. He was a man of profound knowledge, of a religious -temperament, and he possessed a marked liking for the mystical. He was -inspired by the writings of Thomas à Kempis to imitate Christ in all -things, and he practised medicine, therefore, as a work of benevolence, -asking no fee for his services. At the same time, moreover, he was a -firm believer in the powers of the Philosopher's Stone, claiming to have -himself successfully performed the transmutation of the metals on more -than one occasion, though unacquainted with the composition of the -medicine employed (see § 62). Many of his theoretical views are highly -fantastical. He lived a life devoted to scientific research, and died in -1644. - -[Illustration: PLATE 12. - -PORTRAITS OF J. B. AND F. M. VAN HELMONT. - -(From the Frontispiece to J. B. van Helmont's _Oriatrike_). - -_To face page 76_]] - -Van Helmont regarded water as the primary element out of which all -things are produced. He denied that fire was an element or anything -material at all, and he did not accept the sulphur-mercury-salt theory. -To him is due the word "gas"--before his time various gases were looked -upon as mere varieties of air--and he also made a distinction between -gases (which could not be condensed)[79] and vapours (which give liquids -on cooling). In particular he investigated the gas that is now known as -carbon-dioxide (carbonic anhydride), which he termed _gas sylvestre_; -but he lacked suitable apparatus for the collection of gases, and -hence was led in many cases to erroneous conclusions. - - [79] It has since been discovered that all gases can be condensed, - given a sufficient degree of cold and pressure. - -=Francis Mercurius van Helmont= (see plate 12), the son of John Baptist, -born in 1618, gained the reputation of having also achieved the _magnum -opus_, since he appeared to live very luxuriously upon a limited income. -He was a skilled chemist and physician, but held many queer theories, -metempsychosis included. - - -Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604-1668). - -§ =58.= =Johann Rudolf Glauber= was born at Karlstadt in 1604. Of his -life little is known. He appears to have travelled about Germany a good -deal, afterwards visiting Amsterdam, where he died in 1668. He was of a -very patriotic nature, and a most ardent investigator in the realm of -Chemistry. He accepted the main iatro-chemical doctrines, but gave most -of his attention to applied Chemistry. He enriched the science with many -important discoveries; and crystallised sodium sulphate is still called -"Glauber's Salt." Glauber, himself, attributed remarkable medicinal -powers to this compound. He was a firm believer in the claims of -Alchemy, and held many fantastic ideas. - - -Thomas Vaughan ("Eugenius Philalethes") (1622-1666.) - -§ =59.= =Thomas Vaughan=, who wrote under the name of "=Eugenius -Philalethes=," was born at Newton in Brecknockshire in 1622. He was -educated at Jesus College, Oxford, graduating as a Bachelor of Arts, and -being made a fellow of his college. He appears also to have taken holy -orders and to have had the living of St. Bridget's (Brecknockshire) -conferred on him.[80] During the civil wars he bore arms for the king, -but his allegiance to the Royalist cause led to his being accused of -"drunkenness, swearing, incontinency and bearing arms for the King"; and -he appears to have been deprived of his living. He retired to Oxford and -gave himself up to study and chemical research. He is to be regarded as -an alchemist of the transcendental order. His views as to the nature of -the true Philosopher's Stone may be gathered from the following -quotation: "This, reader," he says, speaking of the mystical -illumination, "is the Christian Philosopher's Stone, a Stone so often -inculcated in Scripture. This is the Rock in the wildernesse, because in -great obscurity, and few there are that know the right way unto it. This -is the Stone of Fire in Ezekiel; this is the Stone with Seven Eyes upon -it in Zacharie, and this is the White Stone with the New Name in the -Revelation. But in the Gospel, where Christ himself speakes, who was -born to discover mysteries and communicate Heaven to Earth, it is more -clearly described."[81] At the same time he appears to have carried out -experiments in physical Alchemy, and is said to have met with his death -in 1666 through accidentally inhaling the fumes of some mercury with -which he was experimenting. - - [80] See ANTHONY À WOOD: _Athenæ Oxonienses_, edited by Philip - Bliss, vol. iii. (1817), cols. 722-726. - - [81] THOMAS VAUGHAN ("Eugenius Philalethes"): _Anima Magica - Abscondita_ (see _The Magical Writings of Thomas Vaughan_, edited by - A. E. Waite, 1888, p. 71). - -Thomas Vaughan was an ardent disciple of Cornelius Agrippa, the -sixteenth-century theosophist. He held the peripatetic philosophy in -very slight esteem. He was a man devoted to God, though probably guilty -of some youthful follies, full of love towards his wife, and with an -intense desire for the solution of the great problems of Nature. Amongst -his chief works, which are by no means wanting in flashes of mystic -wisdom, may be mentioned _Anthroposophia Theomagica_, _Anima Magica -Abscondita_ (which were published together), and _Magia Adamica; or, the -Antiquitie of Magic_. With regard to his views as expressed in the first -two of these books, a controversy ensued between Vaughan and Henry -Moore, which was marked by considerable acrimony. - - -"Eirenæus Philalethes" (1623?-?) and George Starkey (?-1665). - -§ =60.= The use of the pseudonym "Philalethes" has not been confined to -one alchemist. The cosmopolitan adept who wrote under the name of -"=Eirenæus Philalethes=," has been confused, on the one hand, with -Thomas Vaughan, on the other hand with George Starkey (?-1665). He has -also been identified with Dr. Robert Child (1613-1654); but his real -identity remains shrouded in mystery.[82] =George Starkey= (or Stirk), -the son of George Stirk, minister of the Church of England in Bermuda, -graduated at Harvard in 1646 and practised medicine in the United States -of America from 1647 to 1650. In 1651 he came to England and practised -medicine in London. He died of the plague in 1665. In 1654-5 he -published _The Marrow of Alchemy_, by "Eirenæus Philoponos -Philalethes," which some think he had stolen from his Hermetic Master. -Other works by "Eirenæus Philalethes" appeared after Starkey's death and -became immensely popular. The _Open Entrance to the Closed Palace of the -King_ (the most famous of these) and the _Three Treatises_ of the same -author will be found in _The Hermetic Museum_. Some of his views have -already been noted (see §§ 1 and 22). On certain points he differed from -the majority of the alchemists. He denied that fire was an element, and, -also, that bodies are formed by mixture of the elements. According to -him there is one principle in the metals, namely, mercury, which arises -from the aqueous element, and is termed "metalically differentiated -water, _i.e._, it is water passed into that stage of development, in -which it can no longer produce anything but mineral substances."[83] -Philalethes's views as to "metallic seed" are also of considerable -interest. Of the seed of gold, which he regarded as the seed, also, of -all other metals, he says: "The seed of animals and vegetables is -something separate, and may be cut out, or otherwise separately -exhibited; but metallic seed is diffused throughout the metal, and -contained in all its smallest parts; neither can it be discerned from -its body: its extraction is therefore a task which may well tax the -ingenuity of the most experienced philosopher. . . ."[84] Well might -this have been said of the electron of modern scientific theory. - - [82] See Mr. A. E. Waite's _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_, - art. "Eirenæus Philalethes," and the Biographical Preface to his - _The Works of Thomas Vaughan_ (1919); also the late Professor - Ferguson's "'The Marrow of Alchemy'," _The Journal of The Alchemical - Society_, vol. iii. (1915), pp. 106 _et seq._, and Professor G. L. - Kittredge's _Doctor Robert Child, The Remonstrant_ (Camb., Mass., - 1919). The last mentioned writer strongly urges the identification - of "Eirenæus Philalethes" with George Starkey. - - [83] "EIRENÆUS PHILALETHES": _The Metamorphosis of Metals_ (see _The - Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. p. 236). Compare with van Helmont's - views, § 57. - - [84] _Ibid._, p. 240. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE OUTCOME OF ALCHEMY - - -Did the Alchemists achieve the "Magnum Opus"? - -§ =61.= The alchemists were untiring in their search for the Stone of -the Philosophers, and we may well ask whether they ever succeeded in -effecting a real transmutation. That many _apparent_ transmutations -occurred, the observers being either self-deceived by a superficial -examination--certain alloys resemble the "noble metals"--or deliberately -cheated by impostors, is of course undoubted. But at the same time we -must not assume that, because we know not the method now, real -transmutations have never taken place. Modern research indicates that it -may be possible to transmute other metals, such as lead or bismuth, into -gold, and consequently we must admit the possibility that amongst the -many experiments carried out, a real transmutation was effected. On the -other hand, the method which is suggested by the recent researches in -question could not have been known to the alchemists or accidentally -employed by them; and, moreover, the quantity of gold which is hoped -for, should such a method prove successful, is far below the smallest -amount that would have been detected in the days of Alchemy. But if -there be one method whereby the metals may be transmuted, there may be -other methods. And it is not altogether an easy task to explain away the -testimony of eminent men such as were van Helmont and Helvetius. - - -The Testimony of van Helmont. - -§ =62.= =John Baptist van Helmont= (see § 57), who was celebrated alike -for his skill as a physician and chemist and for his nobility of -character, testified in more than one place that he had himself carried -out the transmutation of mercury into gold. But, as we have mentioned -above, the composition of the Stone employed on these occasions was -unknown to him. He says: ". . . For truly, I have divers times seen it -[the Stone of the Philosophers], and handled it with my hands: but it -was of colour, such as is in Saffron in its Powder, yet weighty, and -shining like unto powdered Glass: There was once given unto me one -fourth part of one Grain: But I call a Grain the six hundredth part of -one Ounce: This quarter of one Grain therefore, being rouled up in -Paper, I projected upon eight Ounces of Quick-silver made hot in a -Crucible; and straightway all the Quick-silver, with a certain degree of -Noise, stood still from flowing, and being congealed, setled like unto a -yellow Lump: but after pouring it out, the Bellows blowing, there were -found eight Ounces, and a little less than eleven Grains [eight Ounces -less eleven Grains] of the purest Gold: Therefore one only Grain of that -Powder, had transchanged 19186 [19156] Parts of Quick-silver, equal to -itself, into the best Gold."[85] - - [85] J. B. VAN HELMONT: _Life Eternal_ (see _Oriatrike_, translated - by J. C., 1662; or _van Helmont's Workes_, translated by J. C., - 1664, which is merely the former work with a new title-page and - preliminary matter, pp. 751 and 752). - -And again: "I am constrained to believe that there is the Stone which -makes Gold, and which makes Silver; because I have at distinct turns, -made projection with my hand, of one grain of the Powder, upon some -thousand grains of hot Quick-silver; and the buisiness succeeded in the -Fire, even as Books do promise; a Circle of many People standing by, -together with a tickling Admiration of us all. . . . He who first gave -me the Gold-making Powder, had likewise also, at least as much of it, as -might be sufficient for changing two hundred thousand Pounds of Gold: -. . . For he gave me perhaps half a grain of that Powder, and nine -ounces and three quarters of Quick-silver were thereby transchanged: But -that Gold, a strange man [a stranger], being a Friend of one evenings -acquaintance, gave me."[86] - - [86] J. B. VAN HELMONT: _The Tree of Life_ (see _Oriatrike_ or _Van - Helmont's Workes_, p. 807). - -[Illustration: PLATE 13. - -_To face page 84_]] - - -The Testimony of Helvetius. - -§ =63.= =John Frederick Helvetius= (see plate 13), an eminent doctor of -medicine, and physician to the Prince of Orange, published at the Hague -in 1667 the following remarkable account of a transmutation he claimed -to have effected. Certain points of resemblance between this account and -that of van Helmont (_e.g._, in each case the Stone is described as a -glassy substance of a pale yellow colour) are worth noticing: "On the 27 -December, 1666, in the forenoon, there came to my house a certain man, -who was a complete stranger to me, but of an honest, grave countenance, -and an authoritative mien, clothed in a simple garb like that of a -Memnonite. . . . - -"After we had exchanged salutations, he asked me whether he might have -some conversation with me. He wished to say something to me about the -Pyrotechnic Art, as he had read one of my tracts (directed against the -sympathetic Powder of Dr. Digby), in which I hinted a suspicion whether -the Grand Arcanum of the Sages was not after all a gigantic hoax. He, -therefore, took that opportunity of asking me whether I could not -believe that such a grand mystery might exist in the nature of things, -by means of which a physician could restore any patient whose vitals -were not irreparably destroyed. I answered: 'Such a Medicine would be a -most desirable acquisition for any physician; nor can any man tell how -many secrets there may be hidden in Nature; yet, though I have read much -about the truth of this Art, it has never been my good fortune to meet -with a real Master of the Alchemical Science.' I also enquired whether -he was a medical man. . . . In reply, he . . . described himself as a -brassfounder. . . . After some further conversation, the Artist Elias -(for it was he) thus addressed me: 'Since you have read so much in the -works of the Alchemists about this Stone, its substance, its colour, and -its wonderful effects, may I be allowed the question, whether you have -not yourself prepared it?' On my answering his question in the negative, -he took out of his bag a cunningly-worked ivory box, in which there were -three large pieces of a substance resembling glass, or pale sulphur, and -informed me that here was enough of the Tincture for the production of -20 tons of gold. When I had held the precious treasure in my hand for -a quarter of an hour (during which time I listened to a recital of its -wonderful curative properties), I was compelled to restore it to its -owner, which I could not help doing with a certain degree of reluctance. -After thanking him for his kindness in shewing it to me, I then asked -how it was that his Stone did not display that ruby colour, which I had -been taught to regard as characteristic of the Philosopher's Stone. He -replied that the colour made no difference, and that the substance was -sufficiently mature for all practical purposes. My request that he would -give me a piece of his Stone (though it were no larger than a coriander -seed), he somewhat brusquely refused, adding, in a milder tone, that he -could not give it me for all the wealth I possessed, and that not on -account of its great preciousness, but for some other reason which it -was not lawful for him to divulge; . . . - - -Helvetius obtains the Philosopher's Stone. - -§ =64.= "When my strange visitor had concluded his narrative, I besought -him to give me a proof of his assertion, by performing the transmutatory -operation on some metals in my presence. He answered evasively, that he -could not do so then, but that he would return in three weeks, and that, -if he was then at liberty to do so, he would shew me something that -would make me open my eyes. He appeared punctually to the promised day, -and invited me to take a walk with him, in the course of which we -discoursed profoundly on the secrets of Nature in fire, though I noticed -that my companion was very chary in imparting information about the -Grand Arcanum. . . . At last I asked him point-blank to show me the -transmutation of metals. I besought him to come and dine with me, and to -spend the night at my house; I entreated; I expostulated; but in vain. -He remained firm. I reminded him of his promise. He retorted that his -promise had been conditional upon his being permitted to reveal the -secret to me. At last, however, I prevailed upon him to give me a piece -of his precious Stone--a piece no larger than a grain of rape seed. He -delivered it to me as if it were the most princely donation in the -world. Upon my uttering a doubt whether it would be sufficient to tinge -more than four grains of lead, he eagerly demanded it back. I complied, -in the hope that he would exchange it for a larger piece; instead of -which he divided it in two with his thumb, threw away one-half and gave -me back the other, saying: 'Even now it is sufficient for you.' Then I -was still more heavily disappointed, as I could not believe that -anything could be done with so small a particle of the Medicine. He, -however, bade me take two drachms, or half an ounce of lead, or even a -little more, and to melt it in the crucible; for the Medicine would -certainly not tinge more of the base metal than it was sufficient for. I -answered that I could not believe that so small a quantity of Tincture -could transform so large a mass of lead. But I had to be satisfied with -what he had given me, and my chief difficulty was about the application -of the Tincture. I confessed that when I held his ivory box in my hand, -I had managed to extract a few crumbs of his Stone, but that they had -changed my lead, not into gold, but only into glass. He laughed, and -said that I was more expert at theft than at the application of the -Tincture. 'You should have protected your spoil with "yellow wax," then -it would have been able to penetrate the lead and to transmute it into -gold.' . . . - - -Helvetius performs a Transmutation. - -§ =65.= ". . . With . . . a promise to return at nine o'clock the next -morning, he left me. But at the stated hour on the following day he did -not make his appearance; in his stead, however, there came, a few hours -later, a stranger, who told me that his friend the Artist was -unavoidably detained, but that he would call at three o'clock in the -afternoon. The afternoon came; I waited for him till half-past seven -o'clock. He did not appear. Thereupon my wife came and tempted me to try -the transmutation myself. I determined, however, to wait till the -morrow, and in the meantime, ordered my son to light the fire, as I was -now almost sure that he was an impostor. On the morrow, however, I -thought that I might at least make an experiment with the piece of -'Tincture' which I had received; if it turned out a failure, in spite of -my following his directions closely, I might then be quite certain that -my visitor had been a mere pretender to a knowledge of this Art. So I -asked my wife to put the Tincture in wax, and I myself, in the meantime, -prepared six drachms of lead; I then cast the Tincture, enveloped as it -was in wax, on the lead; as soon as it was melted, there was a hissing -sound and a slight effervescence, and after a quarter of an hour I found -that the whole mass of lead had been turned into the finest gold. Before -this transmutation took place, the compound became intensely green, but -as soon as I had poured it into the melting pot it assumed a hue like -blood. When it cooled, it glittered and shone like gold. We immediately -took it to the goldsmith, who at once declared it to be the finest gold -he had ever seen, and offered to pay fifty florins an ounce for it. - - -Helvetius's Gold Assayed. - -§ =66.= "The rumour, of course, spread at once like wildfire through the -whole city; and in the afternoon, I had visits from many illustrious -students of this Art; I also received a call from the Master of the Mint -and some other gentlemen, who requested me to place at their disposal a -small piece of the gold, in order that they might subject it to the -usual tests. I consented, and we betook ourselves to the house of a -certain silversmith, named Brechtil, who submitted a small piece of my -gold to the test called 'the fourth': three or four parts of silver are -melted in the crucible with one part of gold, and then beaten out into -thin plates, upon which some strong _aqua fortis_ [nitric acid] is -poured. The usual result of this experiment is that the silver is -dissolved, while the gold sinks to the bottom in the shape of a black -powder, and after the _aqua fortis_ has been poured off, [the gold,] -melted once again in the crucible, resumes its former shape. . . . When -we now performed this experiment, we thought at first that one-half of -the gold had evaporated; but afterwards we found that this was not the -case, but that, on the contrary, two scruples of the silver had -undergone a change into gold. - - -Helvetius's Gold Further Tested. - -§ =67.= "Then we tried another test, _viz._, that which is performed by -means of a septuple of Antimony; at first it seemed as if eight grains -of the gold had been lost, but afterwards, not only had two scruples of -the silver been converted into gold, but the silver itself was greatly -improved both in quality and malleability. Thrice I performed this -infallible test, discovering that every drachm of gold produced an -increase of a scruple of gold, but the silver is excellent and extremely -flexible. Thus I have unfolded to you the whole story from beginning to -end. The gold I still retain in my possession, but I cannot tell you -what has become of the Artist Elias. Before he left me, on the last day -of our friendly intercourse, he told me that he was on the point of -undertaking a journey to the Holy Land. May the Holy Angels of God watch -over him wherever he is, and long preserve him as a source of blessing -to Christendom! This is my earnest prayer on his and our behalf."[87] - - [87] J. F. HELVETIUS: _The Golden Calf_, ch. iii. (see _The Hermetic - Museum_, vol. ii. pp. 283 _et seq._). - -Testimony such as this warns us not to be too sure that a real -transmutation has never taken place. On the whole, with regard to this -question, an agnostic position appears to be the more philosophical. - - -The Genesis of Chemistry. - -§ =68.= But even if the alchemists did not discover the Grand Arcanum of -Nature, they did discover very many scientifically important facts. Even -if they did not prepare the Philosopher's Stone, they did prepare a very -large number of new and important chemical compounds. Their labours were -the seeds out of which modern Chemistry developed, and this highly -important science is rightfully included under the expression "The -Outcome of Alchemy." As we have already pointed out (§ 48), it was the -iatro-chemists who first investigated chemical matters with an object -other than alchemistic, their especial end in view being the -preparation of useful medicines, though the medical-chemist and the -alchemist were very often united in the one person, as in the case of -Paracelsus himself and the not less famous van Helmont. It was not until -still later that Chemistry was recognised as a distinct science separate -from medicine. - - -The Degeneracy of Alchemy. - -§ =69.= In another direction the Outcome of Alchemy was of a very -distressing nature. Alchemy was in many respects eminently suitable as a -cloak for fraud, and those who became "alchemists" with the sole object -of accumulating much wealth in a short space of time, finding that the -legitimate pursuit of the Art did not enable them to realise their -expectations in this direction, availed themselves of this fact. There -is, indeed, some evidence that the degeneracy of Alchemy had commenced -as early as the fourteenth century, but the attainment of the _magnum -opus_ was regarded as possible for some three or more centuries. - -The alchemistic promises of health, wealth and happiness and a -pseudo-mystical style of language were effectively employed by these -impostors. Some more or less ingenious tricks--such as the use of hollow -stirring-rods, in which the gold was concealed, &c.--convinced a -credulous public of the validity of their claims. Of these -pseudo-alchemists we have already made the acquaintance of Edward -Kelley, but chief of them all is generally accounted the notorious -"Count Cagliostro." That "Cagliostro" is rightfully placed in the -category of pseudo-alchemists is certain, but it also appears equally -certain that, charlatan though he was, posterity has not always done -him that justice which is due to all men, however bad they may be. - - -"Count Cagliostro" (--?-1795). - -§ =70.= Of the birth and early life of the personage calling himself -"=Count Cagliostro=" nothing is known with any degree of certainty, even -his true name being enveloped in mystery. It has, indeed, been usual to -identify him with the notorious Italian swindler, Giuseppe Balsamo, who, -born at Palermo in 1743 (or 1748), apparently disappeared from mortal -ken after some thirty years, of which the majority were spent in -committing various crimes. "Cagliostro's" latest biographer,[88] who -appears to have gone into the matter very thoroughly, however, throws -very grave doubts on the truth of this theory. - - [88] W. R. H. TROWBRIDGE: _Cagliostro_: _The Splendour and Misery of - a Master of Magic_ (1910). We must acknowledge our indebtedness for - many of the particulars which follow to this work. It is, however, - unfortunately marred by a ridiculous attempt to show a likeness - between "Cagliostro" and Swedenborg, for which, by the way, Mr. - Trowbridge has already been criticised by the _Spectator_. It may - justly be said of Swedenborg that he was scrupulously honest and - sincere in his beliefs as well as in his actions; and, as a - philosopher, it is only now being discovered how really great he - was. He did, indeed, claim to have converse with spiritual beings; - but the results of modern psychical research have robbed such claims - of any inherent impossibility, and in Swedenborg's case there is - very considerable evidence for their validity. - -[Illustration: PLATE 14. - -_To face page 92_]] - -If the earlier part of "Cagliostro's" life is unknown, the latter part -is so overlaid with legends and lies, that it is almost impossible to -get at the truth concerning it. In 1776 Cagliostro and his wife were in -London, where "Cagliostro" became a Freemason, joining a lodge connected -with "The Order of Strict Observance," a secret society incorporated -with Freemasonry, and which (on the Continent, at least) was concerned -largely with occult subjects. "Cagliostro," however, was unsatisfied -with its rituals and devised a new system which he called Egyptian -Masonry. Egyptian Masonry, he taught, was to reform the whole world, and -he set out, leaving England for the Continent, to convert Masons and -others to his views. We must look for the motive power of his -extraordinary career in vanity and a love of mystery-mongering, without -any true knowledge of the occult; it is probable, indeed, that -ultimately his unbounded vanity triumphed over his reason and that he -actually believed in his own pretensions. That he did possess hypnotic -and clairvoyant powers is, we think, at least probable; but it is none -the less certain that, when such failed him, he had no scruples against -employing other means of convincing the credulous of the validity of his -claims. This was the case on his visit to Russia, which occurred not -long afterwards. At St. Petersburg a youthful medium he was employing, -to put the matter briefly, "gave the show away," and at Warsaw, where he -found it necessary to turn alchemist, he was detected in the process of -introducing a piece of gold in the crucible containing the base metal he -was about to "transmute." At Strasburg, which he reached in 1780, -however, he was more successful. Here he appeared as a miraculous healer -of all diseases, though whether his cures are to be ascribed to some -simple but efficacious medicine which he had discovered, to hypnotism, -to the power of the imagination on the part of his patients, or to the -power of imagination on the part of those who have recorded the alleged -cures, is a question into which we do not propose to enter. At -Strasburg "Cagliostro" came into contact with the Cardinal de Rohan, and -a fast friendship sprang up between the two, which, in the end, proved -"Cagliostro's" ruin. The "Count" next visited Bordeaux and Lyons, -successfully founding lodges of Egyptian Masonry. From the latter town -he proceeded to Paris, where he reached the height of his fame. He -became extraordinarily rich, although he is said to have asked, and to -have accepted, no fee for his services as a healer. On the other hand, -there was a substantial entrance-fee to the mysteries of Egyptian -Masonry, which, with its alchemistic promises of health and wealth, -prospered exceedingly. At the summit of his career, however, fortune -forsook him. As a friend of de Rohan, he was arrested in connection with -the Diamond Necklace affair, on the word of the infamous Countess de -Lamotte; although, of whatever else he may have been guilty, he was -perfectly innocent of this charge. After lying imprisoned in the -Bastille for several months, he was tried by the French Parliament, -pronounced innocent, and released. Immediately, however, the king -banished him, and he left Paris for London, where he seems to have been -persistently persecuted by agents of the French king. He returned to the -Continent, ultimately reaching Italy, where he was arrested by the -Inquisition and condemned to death on the charge of being a Freemason (a -dire offence in the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church). The sentence, -however, was modified to one of perpetual imprisonment, and he was -confined in the Castle of San Leo, where he died in 1795, after four -years of imprisonment, in what manner is not known. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE AGE OF MODERN CHEMISTRY - - -The Birth of Modern Chemistry. - -§ =71.= Chemistry as distinct from Alchemy and Iatro-chemistry commenced -with Robert Boyle (see plate 15), who first clearly recognised that its -aim is neither the transmutation of the metals nor the preparation of -medicines, but the observation and generalisation of a certain class of -phenomena; who denied the validity of the alchemistic view of the -constitution of matter, and enunciated the definition of an element -which has since reigned supreme in Chemistry; and who enriched the -science with observations of the utmost importance. Boyle, however, was -a man whose ideas were in advance of his times, and intervening between -the iatro-chemical period and the Age of Modern Chemistry proper came -the period of the Phlogistic Theory--a theory which had a certain -affinity with the ideas of the alchemists. - -[Illustration: PLATE 15. - -PORTRAIT OF ROBERT BOYLE. - -_To face page 94_]] - - -The Phlogiston Theory. - -§ =72.= The phlogiston theory was mainly due to Georg Ernst Stahl -(1660-1734). Becher (1635-1682) had attempted to revive the once -universally accepted sulphur-mercury-salt theory of the alchemists in a -somewhat modified form, by the assumption that all substances consist of -three earths--the combustible, mercurial, and vitreous; and herein is -to be found the germ of Stahl's phlogistic theory. According to Stahl, -all combustible bodies (including those metals that change on heating) -contain _phlogiston_, the principle of combustion, which escapes in the -form of flame when such substances are burned. According to this theory, -therefore, the metals are compounds, since they consist of a metallic -calx (what we now call the "oxide" of the metal) combined with -phlogiston; and, further, to obtain the metal from the calx it is only -necessary to act upon it with some substance rich in phlogiston. Now, -coal and charcoal are both almost completely combustible, leaving very -little residue; hence, according to this theory, they must consist very -largely of phlogiston; and, as a matter of fact, metals can be obtained -by heating their calces with either of these substances. Many other -facts of a like nature were explicable in terms of the phlogiston -theory, and it became exceedingly popular. Chemists at this time did not -pay much attention to the balance; it was observed, however, that metals -increased in weight on calcination, but this was "explained" on the -assumption that phlogiston possessed negative weight. Antoine Lavoisier -(1743-1794), utilising Priestley's discovery of oxygen (called -"dephlogisticated air" by its discoverer) and studying the weight -relations accompanying combustion, demonstrated the non-validity of the -phlogistic theory[89] and proved combustion to be the combination of the -substance burnt with a certain constituent of the air, the oxygen. By -this time Alchemy was to all intents and purposes defunct, Boerhave -(1668-1738) was the last eminent chemist to give any support to its -doctrines, and the new chemistry of Lavoisier gave it a final -death-blow. We now enter upon the Age of Modern Chemistry, but we shall -deal in this chapter with the history of chemical theory only so far as -is necessary in pursuance of our primary object, and hence our account -will be very far from complete. - - [89] It should be noted, however, that if by the term "phlogiston" - we were to understand energy and not some form of matter, most of - the statements of the phlogistics would be true so far as they go. - - -Boyle and the Definition of an Element. - -§ =73.= Robert Boyle (1626-1691) had defined an element as a substance -which could not be decomposed, but which could enter into combination -with other elements giving compounds capable of decomposition into these -original elements. Hence, the metals were classed among the elements, -since they had defied all attempts to decompose them. Now, it must be -noted that this definition is of a negative character, and, although it -is convenient to term "elements" all substances which have so far defied -decomposition, it is a matter of impossibility to decide what substances -are true elements with absolute certainty; and the possibility, however -faint, that gold and other metals are of a compound nature, and hence -the possibility of preparing gold from the "base" metals or other -substances, must always remain. This uncertainty regarding the elements -appears to have generally been recognised by the new school of chemists, -but this having been so, it is the more surprising that their criticism -of alchemistic art was not less severe. - - -The Stoichiometric Laws. - -§ =74.= With the study of the relative weights in which substances -combine, certain generalisations or "natural laws" of supreme importance -were discovered. These stoichiometric laws, as they are called, are as -follows:-- - -1. "The Law of Constant Proportion"--_The same chemical compound always -contains the same elements, and there is a constant ratio between the -weights of the constituent elements present._ - -2. "The Law of Multiple Proportions"--_If two substances combine -chemically in more than one proportion, the weights of the one which -combine with a given weight of the other, stand in a simple rational -ratio to one another._ - -3. "The Law of Combining Weights"--_Substances combine either in the -ratio of their combining numbers, or in simple rational multiples or -submultiples of these numbers._ (The weights of different substances -which combine with a given weight of some particular substance, which is -taken as the unit, are called the combining numbers of such substances -with reference to this unit. The usual unit now chosen is 8 grammes of -Oxygen.)[90] - - [90] In order that these laws may hold good, it is, of course, - necessary that the substances are weighed under precisely similar - conditions. To state these laws in a more absolute form, we can - replace the term "weight" by "mass," or in preference, "inertia"; - for the inertias of bodies are proportional to their weights, - providing that they are weighed under precisely similar conditions. - For a discussion of the exact significance of these terms "mass" and - "inertia," the reader is referred to the present writer's _Matter, - Spirit and the Cosmos_ (Rider, 1910), Chapter I., "On the Doctrine - of the Indestructibility of Matter." - -As examples of these laws we may take the few following simple facts:-- - -1. Pure water is found always to consist of oxygen and hydrogen combined -in the ratio of 1·008 parts by weight of the latter to 8 parts by weight -of the former; and pure sulphur-dioxide, to take another example, is -found always to consist of sulphur and oxygen combined in the ratio of -8·02 parts by weight of sulphur to 8 parts by weight of oxygen. (The Law -of Constant Proportion.) - -2. Another compound is known consisting only of oxygen and hydrogen, -which, however, differs entirely in its properties from water. It is -found always to consist of oxygen and hydrogen combined in the ratio of -1·008 parts by weight of the latter to 16 parts by weight of the former, -_i.e._, in it a definite weight of hydrogen is combined with an amount -of oxygen _exactly twice_ that which is combined with the same weight of -hydrogen in water. No definite compound has been discovered with a -constitution intermediate between these two. Other compounds consisting -only of sulphur and oxygen are also known. One of these (viz., -sulphur-trioxide, or sulphuric anhydride) is found always to consist of -sulphur and oxygen combined in the ratio of 5·35 parts by weight of -sulphur to 8 parts by weight of oxygen. We see, therefore, that the -weights of sulphur combined with a definite weight of oxygen in the two -compounds called respectively "sulphur-dioxide" and "sulphur-trioxide," -are in the proportion of 8·02 to 5·35, _i.e._, 3 : 2. Similar simple -ratios are obtained in the case of all the other compounds. (The Law of -Multiple Proportions.) - -3. From the data given in (1) above we can fix the combining number of -hydrogen as 1·008, that of sulphur as 8·02. Now, compounds are known -containing sulphur and hydrogen, and, in each case, the weight of -sulphur combined with 1·008 grammes of hydrogen is found always to be -either 8·02 grammes or some multiple or submultiple of this quantity. -Thus, in the simplest compound of this sort, containing only hydrogen -and sulphur (viz., sulphuretted-hydrogen or hydrogen sulphide), 1·008 -grammes of hydrogen is found always to be combined with 16·04 grammes of -sulphur, _i.e._, exactly twice the above quantity. (The Law of Combining -Weights.) - -Berthollet (1748-1822) denied the truth of the law of constant -proportion, and a controversy ensued between this chemist and Proust -(1755-1826), who undertook a research to settle the question, the -results of which were in entire agreement with the law, and were -regarded as completely substantiating it. - -[Illustration: PLATE 16. - -[by Worthington, after Allen] - -PORTRAIT OF JOHN DALTON. - -_To face page 100_]] - - -Dalton's Atomic Theory. - -§ =75.= At the beginning of the nineteenth century, John Dalton (see -plate 15) put forward his Atomic Theory in explanation of these facts. -This theory assumes (1) that all matter is made up of small indivisible -and indestructible particles, called "atoms"; (2) that all atoms are -_not_ alike, there being as many different sorts of atoms as there are -elements; (3) that the atoms constituting any one element are exactly -alike and are of definite weight; and (4) that compounds are produced by -the combination of different atoms. Now, it is at once evident that if -matter be so constituted, the stoichiometric laws must necessarily -follow. For the smallest particle of any definite compound (now called a -"molecule") must consist of a definite assemblage of different atoms, -and these atoms are of definite weight: whence the law of constant -proportion. One atom of one substance may combine with 1, 2, 3 . . . -atoms of some other substance, but it cannot combine with some -fractional part of an atom, since the atoms are indivisible: whence the -law of multiple proportions. And these laws holding good, and the atoms -being of definite weight, the law of combining weights necessarily -follows. Dalton's Atomic Theory gave a simple and intelligible -explanation of these remarkable facts regarding the weights of -substances entering into chemical combination, and, therefore, gained -universal acceptance. But throughout the history of Chemistry can be -discerned a spirit of revolt against it as an explanation of the -absolute constitution of matter. The tendency of scientific philosophy -has always been towards Monism as opposed to Dualism, and here were not -merely two eternals, but several dozen; Dalton's theory denied the unity -of the Cosmos, it lacked the unifying principle of the alchemists. It is -only in recent times that it has been recognised that a scientific -hypothesis may be very useful without being altogether true. As to the -usefulness of Dalton's theory there can be no question; it has -accomplished that which no other hypothesis could have done; it rendered -the concepts of a chemical element, a chemical compound and a chemical -reaction definite; and has, in a sense, led to the majority of the -discoveries in the domain of Chemistry that have been made since its -enunciation. But as an expression of absolute truth, Dalton's theory, as -is very generally recognised nowadays, fails to be satisfactory. In the -past, however, it has been the philosophers of the materialistic school -of thought, rather than the chemists _quâ_ chemists, who have -insisted on the absolute truth of the Atomic Theory; Kekulé, who by -developing Franklin's theory of atomicity or valency[91] made still more -definite the atomic view of matter, himself expressed grave doubts as to -the absolute truth of Dalton's theory; but he regarded it as -_chemically_ true, and thus voices what appears to be the opinion of the -majority of chemists nowadays, namely, there are such things as chemical -atoms and chemical elements, incapable of being decomposed by purely -chemical means, but that such are not absolute atoms or absolute -elements, and consequently not impervious to all forms of action. But -of this more will be said later. - - [91] The term "valency" is not altogether an easy one to define; we - will, however, here do our best to make plain its significance. In a - definite chemical compound we must assume that the atoms - constituting each molecule are in some way bound together (though - not, of course, rigidly), and we may speak of "bonds" or "links of - affinity," taking care, however, not to interpret such terms too - literally. Now, the number of "affinity links" which one atom can - exert is not unlimited; indeed, according to the valency theory as - first formulated, it is fixed and constant. It is this number which - is called the "valency" of the element; but it is now known that the - "valency" in most cases can vary between certain limits. Hydrogen, - however, appears to be invariably univalent, and is therefore taken - as the unit of valency. Thus, Carbon is quadrivalent in the - methane-molecule, which consists of one atom of carbon combined with - four atoms of hydrogen; and Oxygen is divalent in the - water-molecule, which consists of one atom of oxygen combined with - two atoms of hydrogen. Hence, we should expect to find one atom of - carbon combining with two of oxygen, which is the case in the - carbon-dioxide--(carbonic anhydride)--molecule. For a development of - the thesis, so far as the compounds of carbon are concerned, that - each specific "affinity link" corresponds in general to a definite - and constant amount of energy, which is evolved as heat on - disruption of the bond, the reader is referred to the present - writer's monograph _On the Calculation of Thermo-Chemical Constants_ - (Arnold, 1909). The phenomena of valency find their explanation in - modern views concerning the constitution of atoms (see § 81). - - -The Determination of the Atomic Weights of the Elements. - -§ =76.= With the acceptance of Dalton's Atomic Theory, it became -necessary to determine the atomic weights of the various elements, -_i.e._, not the absolute atomic weights, but the relative weights of the -various atoms with reference to one of them as unit.[92] We cannot in -this place enter upon a discussion of the various difficulties, both of -an experimental and theoretical nature, which were involved in this -problem, save to remark that the correct atomic weights could be arrived -at only with the acceptance of Avogadro's Hypothesis. This hypothesis, -which is to the effect that equal volumes of different gases measured at -the same temperature and pressure contain an equal number of gaseous -molecules, was put forward in explanation of a number of facts connected -with the physical behaviour of gases; but its importance was for some -time unrecognised, owing to the fact that the distinction between atoms -and molecules was not yet clearly drawn. A list of those chemical -substances at present recognised as "elements," together with their -atomic weights, will be found on pp. 106, 107. - - [92] Since hydrogen is the lightest of all known substances, the - unit, Hydrogen = 1, was at one time usually employed. However, it - was seen to be more convenient to express the atomic weights in - terms of the weight of the oxygen-atom, and the unit, Oxygen = 16 is - now always employed. This value for the oxygen-atom was chosen so - that the approximate atomic weights would in most cases remain - unaltered by the change. - - -Prout's Hypothesis. - -§ =77.= It was observed by a chemist of the name of Prout, that, the -atomic weight of hydrogen being taken as the unit, the atomic weights -of nearly all the elements approximated to whole numbers; and in 1815 he -suggested as the reason for this regularity, that all the elements -consist solely of hydrogen. Prout's Hypothesis received on the whole a -very favourable reception; it harmonised Dalton's Theory with the grand -concept of the unity of matter--all matter was hydrogen in essence; and -Thomas Thomson undertook a research to demonstrate its truth. On the -other hand, however, the eminent Swedish chemist, Berzelius, who had -carried out many atomic weight determinations, criticised both Prout's -Hypothesis and Thomson's research (which latter, it is true, was -worthless) in most severe terms; for the hypothesis amounted to -this--that the decimals in the atomic weights obtained experimentally by -Berzelius, after so much labour, were to be regarded as so many errors. -In 1844, Marignac suggested half the hydrogen atom as the unit, for the -element chlorine, with an atomic weight of 35·5, would not fit in with -Prout's Hypothesis as originally formulated; and later, Dumas suggested -one-quarter. With this theoretical division of the hydrogen-atom, the -hypothesis lost its simplicity and charm, and was doomed to downfall. -Recent and most accurate atomic weight determinations show clearly that -the atomic weights are not exactly whole numbers, but that, -nevertheless, the majority of them (if expressed in terms of O = 16 as -the unit) do approximate very closely to such. The Hon. R. J. Strutt has -recently calculated that the probability of this occurring, in the case -of certain of the commoner elements, by mere chance is exceedingly small -(about 1 in 1,000),[93] and several attempts to explain this remarkable -fact have been put forward. Modern scientific speculations concerning -the constitution of atoms tend towards a modified form of Prout's -hypothesis, or to the view that the atoms of other elements are, in a -manner, polymerides of hydrogen and helium atoms. As has been pointed -out, it is possible, according to modern views, for elements of -different atomic weight to have identical chemical properties, since -these latter depend only upon the number of free electrons in the atom -and not at all upon the massive central nucleus. By a method somewhat -similar to that used for determining the mass of kathode particles (see -§ 79), but applied to positively charged particles, Sir Joseph Thomson -and Dr. F. W. Aston discovered that the element neon was a mixture of -two isotopic elements in unequal proportions, one having an atomic mass -of 20, the other (present only to a slight extent) having an atomic mass -of 22. Dr. Aston has perfected this method of analysing mixtures of -isotopes and determining their atomic masses.[94] The results are of -great interest. The atomic weight of hydrogen, 1·008, is confirmed. The -elements helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, phosphorus, -sulphur, arsenic, iodine and sodium are found to be simple bodies with -whole-number atomic weights. On the other hand, boron, neon, silicon, -chlorine, bromine, krypton, xenon, mercury, lithium, potassium and -rubidium are found to be mixtures. What is specially of interest is that -the indicated atomic mass of each of the constituents is a whole number. -Thus chlorine, whose atomic weight is 35·46, is found to be a mixture of -two chemically-identical elements whose atomic weights are 35 and 37. -Some of the elements, _e.g._, xenon, are mixtures of more than two -isotopes. - - [93] Hon. R. J. STRUTT: "On the Tendency of the Atomic Weights to - approximate to Whole Numbers," _Philosophical Magazine_, [6], vol. - i. (1901), pp. 311 _et seq._ - - [94] F. W. ASTON: "Mass-spectra and Atomic Weights," _Journal of the - Chemical Society_, vol. cix. (1921), pp. 677 _et seq._ - -It is highly probable that what is true of the elements investigated by -Dr. Aston is true of the remainder. It appears, therefore, that the -irregularities presented by the atomic weights of the ordinary elements, -which have so much puzzled men of science in the past, are due to the -fact that these elements are, in many cases, mixtures. As concerns -hydrogen, it is only reasonable to suppose that the close packing of -electrically charged particles should give rise to a slight decrease in -their total mass, so that the atomic weights of other elements referred -to H = 1 should be slightly less than whole numbers, or, what is the -same thing, that the atomic weight of hydrogen referred to O = 16 should -be slightly more than unity. - - -The "Periodic Law." - -§ =78.= A remarkable property of the atomic weights was discovered, in -the sixties, independently by Lothar Meyer and Mendeléeff. They found -that the elements could be arranged in rows in the order of their atomic -weights so that similar elements would be found in the same columns. A -modernised form of the Periodic Table will be found on pp. 106, 107. It -will be noticed, for example, that the "alkali" metals, Lithium, Sodium, -Rubidium and Cæsium, which resemble one another very closely, fall in -Column 1; the "alkaline earth" metals occur together in Column 2; though -in each case these are accompanied by certain elements with somewhat -different properties. Much the same holds good in the case of the other -columns of this Table; there is manifested a remarkable regularity, with -certain still more remarkable divergences (see notes appended to Table -on pp. 106, 107). This regularity exhibited by the "elements" is of -considerable importance, since it shows that, in general, the properties -of the "elements" are _periodic_ functions of their atomic weights; and, -together with certain other remarkable properties of the "elements," -distinguishes them sharply from the "compounds." It may be concluded -with tolerable certainty, therefore, that if the "elements" are in -reality of a compound nature, they are all, in general, compounds of a -like nature distinct from that of other compounds. - -THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. - - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | |[Hydro-| | | | | |Hydro- | | - | |gen][a]| | | | | |gen | | - | |[H = | | | | | |H = | | - | |1·008] | | | | | |1·008 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Helium |Lithium|Gluci- |Boron |Carbon |Nitro- |Oxygen |Fluo- | | - | | |num | | |gen | |rine | | - |He = |Li = |Gl = |B = |C = |N = |O = |F = | | - |4·00 |6·94 |9·1 |10·9 |12·005 |14·008 |16·00 |19·0 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Neon |Sodium |Magne- |Alumin-|Silicon|Phos- |Sulphur|Chlo- | | - | | |sium |ium | |phorus | |rine | | - |Ne = |Na = |Mg = |Al = |Si = |P = |S = |Cl = | | - |20·2 |23·00 |24·32 |27·1 |28·3 |31·04 |32·06 |35·46 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Argon |Potas- |Calcium|Scan- |Tita- |Vana- |Chro- |Manga- |Iron | - | |sium[b]| |dium |nium |dium |mium |nese |Fe = | - | | | | | | | | |55·84[c]| - |A = |K = |Ca = |Sc = |Ti = |V = |Cr = |Mn = |Cobalt | - |39·9 |39·10 |40·07 |45·1 |48·1 |51·0 |52·0 |54·93 |Co = | - | | | | | | | | |58·97 | - | | | | | | | | |Nickel | - | | | | | | | | |Ni = | - | | | | | | | | |58·68 | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | |Copper |Zinc |Gallium|Germa- |Arsenic|Sele- |Bromine| | - | | | | |nium | |nium | | | - | |Cu = |Zn = |Ga = |Ge = |As = |Se = |Br = | | - | |63·57 |65·37 |70·1 |72·5 |74·96 |79·2 |79·92 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Krypton|Rubi- |Stron- |Yttrium|Zirco- |Colum- |Molyb- | ? |Ruthe- | - | |dium |tium | |nium |bium |denum | |nium | - |Kr = |Rb = |Sr = |Y = |Zr = |Cb = |Mo = | |Ru = | - |82·92 |85·45 |87·63 |89·33 |90·6 |93·1 |96·0 | |101·7 | - | | | | | | | | |Rhodium | - | | | | | | | | |Rh = | - | | | | | | | | |102·9 | - | | | | | | | | |Palla- | - | | | | | | | | |dium | - | | | | | | | | |Pd = | - | | | | | | | | |106·7 | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | |Silver |Cadmium|Indium |Tin |Antimo-|Tellu- |Iodine | | - | | | | | |ny |rium |[d] | | - | |Ag = |Cd = |In = |Sn = |Sb = |Te = |I (or | | - | |107·88 |112·40 |114·8 |118·7 |120·2 |127·5 |J) = | | - | | | | | | | |126·92 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Xenon |Cæsium |Barium |Lantha-|Cerium | ? | ? | ? | ? | - | | | |num |[e] | | | | | - |Xe = |Cs = |Ba = |La = |Ce = | | | | | - |130·2 |132·81 |137·37 |139·0 |140·25 | | | | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |Tanta- |Tung- | ? |Osmium | - | | | | | |lum |sten | |Os = | - | | | | | |Ta = |W = | |190·9 | - | | | | | |181·5 |184·0 | |Iridium | - | | | | | | | | |Ir = | - | | | | | | | | |193·1 | - | | | | | | | | |Platinum| - | | | | | | | | |Pt = | - | | | | | | | | |195·2 | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | |Gold |Mercury|Thal- |Lead |Bismuth|Polo- | ? | | - | | | |lium | | |nium | | | - | |Au = |Hg = |Tl = |Pb = |Bi = |(210) | | | - | |197·2 |200·6 |204·0 |207·20 |208·0 | | | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Emana- | ? |Radium |Acti- |Thorium|Ekatan-|Uranium| ? | ? | - |tion | | |nium | |talum | | | | - |(Niton)| |Ra = | ? |Th = | ? |U = | | | - | 222·0 | |226·0 | |232·15 | |238·2 | | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - - NOTES. - - There are several somewhat different forms of this Periodic Table. - This is one of the simplest, but it lacks certain advantages of some - of the more complicated forms. The atomic weights given are those of - the International Atomic Weights Committee for 1920-1. They are - calculated on the basis, Oxygen = 16. The number of decimal places - given in each case indicates the degree of accuracy with which each - atomic weight has been determined. The letter or letters underneath - the name of each element is the symbol by which it is invariably - designated by chemists. - - The number above each column indicates the valency which the - elements of each group exhibit towards oxygen. Many of the elements - are exceptional in this respect. - - [a]: The exact position of Hydrogen is in dispute. - - [b]: The positions of Argon and Potassium have been inverted in - order that these elements may fall in the right columns with the - elements they resemble; [d]: so also have the positions of Tellurium - and Iodine. - - [c]: The whole of "Group 8" forms an exception to the Table. - - [e]: There are a number of ill-defined rare earth metals with atomic - weights lying between those of Cerium and Tantalum. They all appear - to resemble the elements of "Group 3," so that their positions in - the Table cannot be decided with accuracy. - -It is now some years since the late Sir William Crookes attempted to -explain the periodicity of the properties of the elements on the theory -that they have all been evolved by a conglomerating process from some -primal stuff--the protyle--consisting of very small particles. He -represented the action of this generative cause by means of a "figure of -eight" spiral, along which the elements are placed at regular intervals, -so that similar elements come underneath one another, as in Mendeléeff's -table, though the grouping differs in some respects. The slope of the -curve is supposed to represent the decline of some factor (_e.g._, -temperature) conditioning the process, which process is assumed to be of -a recurrent nature, like the swing of a pendulum. After the completion -of one swing (to keep to the illustration of a pendulum) whereby one -series of elements is produced, owing to the decline of the -above-mentioned factor, the same series of elements is not again the -result as would otherwise be the case, but a somewhat different series -is produced, each member of which resembles the corresponding member of -the former series. Thus, if the first series contains, for example, -helium, lithium, carbon, &c., the second series will contain instead, -argon, potassium, titanium, &c. The whole theory, though highly -interesting, is, however, by no means free from defects. - - -The Corpuscular Theory of Matter. - -§ =79.= We must now turn our attention to those recent views of the -constitution of matter which originated to a great extent in the -investigations of the passage of electricity through gases at very low -pressures. It will be possible, however, on the present occasion, to -give only the very briefest account of the subject; but a fuller -treatment is rendered unnecessary by the fact that these and allied -investigations and the theories to which they have given rise have been -fully treated in several well-known works, by various authorities on the -subject, which have appeared during the last few years.[95] - - [95] We have found Prof. Harry Jones' _The Electrical Nature of - Matter and Radioactivity_ (1906), Mr. Soddy's _Radioactivity_ - (1904), and Mr. Whetham's _The Recent Development of Physical - Science_ (1909) particularly interesting. Mention, of course, should - also be made of the standard works of Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson and - Prof. Rutherford. - -When an electrical discharge is passed through a high-vacuum tube, -invisible rays are emitted from the kathode, generally with the -production of a greenish-yellow fluorescence where they strike the -glass walls of the tube. These rays are called "kathode rays." At one -time they were regarded as waves in the ether, but it was shown by Sir -William Crookes that they consist of small electrically charged -particles, moving with a very high velocity. Sir J. J. Thomson was able -to determine the ratio of the charge carried by these particles to their -mass or inertia; he found that this ratio was constant whatever gas was -contained in the vacuum tube, and much greater than the corresponding -ratio for the hydrogen ion (electrically charged hydrogen atom) in -electrolysis. By a skilful method, based on the fact discovered by Mr. -C. T. R. Wilson, that charged particles can serve as nuclei for the -condensation of water-vapour, he was further able to determine the value -of the electrical charge carried by these particles, which was found to -be constant also, and equal to the charge carried by univalent ions, -_e.g._, hydrogen, in electrolysis. Hence, it follows that the mass of -these kathode particles must be much smaller than the hydrogen ion, the -actual ratio being about 1 : 1700. The first theory put forward by Sir -J. J. Thomson in explanation of these facts, was that these kathode -particles ("corpuscles" as he termed them) were electrically charged -portions of matter, much smaller than the smallest atom; and since the -same sort of corpuscle is obtained whatever gas is contained in the -vacuum tube, it is reasonable to conclude that the corpuscle is the -common unit of all matter. - - -Proof that the Electrons are not Matter. - -§ =80.= This eminent physicist, however, had shown mathematically that a -charged particle moving with a very high velocity (approaching that of -light) would exhibit an appreciable increase in mass or inertia due to -the charge, the magnitude of such inertia depending on the velocity of -the particle. This was experimentally verified by Kaufmann, who -determined the velocities, and the ratios between the electrical charge -and the inertia, of various kathode particles and similar particles -which are emitted by compounds of radium (see §§ 89 and 90). Sir J. J. -Thomson calculated these values on the assumption that the inertia of -such particles is entirely of electrical origin, and thereby obtained -values in remarkable agreement with the experimental. There is, -therefore, no reason for supposing the corpuscle to be matter at all; -indeed, if it were, the above agreement would not be obtained. As -Professor Jones says: "Since we know things only by their properties, -and since all the properties of the corpuscle are accounted for by the -electrical charge associated with it, why assume that the corpuscle -contains anything but the electrical charge? It is obvious that there is -no reason for doing so. - -"_The corpuscle is, then, nothing but a disembodied electrical charge_, -containing nothing material, as we have been accustomed to use that -term. It is electricity, and nothing but electricity. With this new -conception a new term was introduced, and, now, instead of speaking of -the corpuscle we speak of the _electron_."[96] Applying this -modification to the above view of the constitution of matter, we have -what is called "the electronic theory," namely, that the material atoms -consist of electrons, or units of electricity in rapid motion; which -amounts to this--that matter is simply an electrical phenomenon. - - [96] H. C. JONES: _The Electrical Nature of Matter and - Radioactivity_ (1906), p. 21. - - -The Electronic Theory of Matter. - -§ =81.= Sir J. J. Thomson has elaborated this theory of the nature and -constitution of matter; he has shown what systems of electrons would be -stable, and has attempted to find therein the significance of -Mendeléeff's generalisation and the explanation of valency. There can be -no doubt that there is a considerable element of truth in the electronic -theory of matter; the one characteristic property of matter, _i.e._, -inertia, can be accounted for electrically. The fundamental difficulty -is that the electrons are units of negative electricity, whereas matter -is electrically neutral. Several theories have been put forward to -surmount this difficulty. Certainly the electron is a constituent of -matter; but is it the sole constituent? Recent research indicates that, -as already pointed out, all atoms consist of two distinct portions, a -massive central nucleus, whose net charge is positive, surrounded by a -number of electrons, just sufficient to neutralize this charge. The -point of greatest interest is that the indicated number of free -electrons is exactly the number which expresses the position of the -element in the Periodic Table, reckoning helium as 2, lithium as 3, and -so on; and it would seem that the chemical properties of the elements -are determined entirely by these electrons, and are, therefore, not, -strictly speaking, periodic functions of their atomic weights, as was -formerly thought (§ 78), but of their atomic numbers. The exact nature -of the nuclei of the various atoms has yet to be determined: in the -case of the atoms heavier than helium they would appear to be made up of -the nuclei of hydrogen and (or) helium atoms together with--in many -cases--electrons insufficient in number to neutralize the positive -charges associated with these. - - -The Etheric Theory of Matter. - -§ =82.= The analysis of matter has been carried a step further. A -philosophical view of the Cosmos involves the assumption of an -absolutely continuous and homogeneous medium filling all space, for an -absolute vacuum is unthinkable, and if it were supposed that the stuff -filling all space is of an atomic structure, the question arises, What -occupies the interstices between its atoms? This ubiquitous medium is -termed by the scientists of to-day "the Ether of Space." Moreover, such -a medium as the Ether is demanded by the phenomena of light. It appears, -however, that the ether of space has another and a still more important -function than the transmission of light: the idea that matter has its -explanation therein has been developed by Sir Oliver Lodge. The evidence -certainly points to the conclusion that matter is some sort of -singularity in the ether, probably a stress centre. We have been too -much accustomed to think of the ether as something excessively light and -quite the reverse of massive or dense, in which it appears we have been -wrong. Sir Oliver Lodge calculates that the density of the ether is far -greater than that of the most dense forms of matter; not that matter is -to be thought of as a rarefaction of the ether, for the ether within -matter is as dense as that without. What we call matter, however, is not -a continuous substance; it consists, rather, of a number of widely -separated particles, whence its comparatively small density compared -with the perfectly continuous ether. Further, if there is a difficulty -in conceiving how a perfect fluid like the ether can give rise to a -solid body possessed of such properties as rigidity, impenetrability and -elasticity, we must remember that all these properties can be produced -by means of motion. A jet of water moving with a sufficient velocity -behaves like a rigid and impenetrable solid, whilst a revolving disc of -paper exhibits elasticity and can act as a circular saw.[97] It appears, -therefore, that the ancient doctrine of the alchemistic essence is -fundamentally true after all, that out of the "One Thing" all material -things have been produced by adaptation or modification; and, as we have -already noticed (§ 60), there also appears to be some resemblance -between the concept of the electron and that of the seed of gold, which -seed, it should be borne in mind, was regarded by the alchemists as the -common seed of all metals. - - [97] See Sir OLIVER LODGE, F.R.S.: _The Ether of Space_ (1909). - - -Further Evidence of the Complexity of the Atoms. - -§ =83.= There are also certain other facts which appear to demand such a -modification of Dalton's Atomic Theory as is found in the Electronic -Theory. One of the characteristics of the chemical elements is that each -one gives a spectrum peculiar to itself. The spectrum of an element -must, therefore, be due to its atoms, which in some way are able, at a -sufficiently high temperature, to act upon the ether so as to produce -vibrations of definite and characteristic wave-length. Now, in many -cases the number of lines of definite wave-length observed in such a -spectrum is considerable, for example, hundreds of different lines have -been observed in the arc-spectrum of iron. But it is incredible that an -atom, if it were a simple unit, would give rise to such a number of -different and definite vibrations, and the only reasonable conclusion is -that the atoms must be complex in structure. We may here mention that -spectroscopic examination of various heavenly bodies leads to the -conclusion that there is some process of evolution at work building up -complex elements from simpler ones, since the hottest nebulæ appear to -consist of but a few simple elements, whilst cooler bodies exhibit a -greater complexity. - - -Views of Wald and Ostwald. - -§ =84.= Such modifications of the atomic theory as those we have briefly -discussed above, although profoundly modifying, and, indeed, -controverting the philosophical significance of Dalton's theory as -originally formulated, leave its chemical significance practically -unchanged. The atoms can be regarded no longer as the eternal, -indissoluble gods of Nature that they were once supposed to be; thus, -Materialism is deprived of what was thought to be its scientific -basis.[98] But the science of Chemistry is unaffected thereby; the atoms -are not the ultimate units out of which material things are built, but -the atoms cannot be decomposed by purely chemical means; the "elements" -are not truly elemental, but _they are chemical elements_. However, the -atomic theory has been subjected to a far more searching criticism. Wald -argues that substances obey the law of definite proportions because of -the way in which they are prepared; chemists refuse, he says, to admit -any substance as a definite chemical compound unless it does obey this -law. Wald's opinions have been supported by Professor Ostwald, who has -attempted to deduce the other stoichiometric laws on these grounds -without assuming any atomic hypothesis[99]; but these new ideas do not -appear to have gained the approval of chemists in general. It is not to -be supposed that chemists will give up without a struggle a mental tool -of such great utility as Dalton's theory, in spite of its defects, has -proved itself to be. There does seem, however, to be logic in the -arguments of Wald and Ostwald, but the trend of recent scientific theory -and research does not appear to be in the direction of Wald's views. -Certainly, however, it appears that, on the one hand, the atomic theory -is not necessitated by the so-called "stoichiometric laws"; but, on the -other hand, a molecular constitution of matter seems to be demanded by -the phenomenon known as the "Brownian Movement," _i.e._, the -spontaneous, irregular and apparently perpetual movement of microscopic -portions of solid matter when immersed in a liquid medium; such movement -appearing to be explicable only as the result of the motion of the -molecules of which the liquid in question is built up.[100] - - [98] For a critical examination of Materialism, the reader is - referred to the present writer's _Matter, Spirit and the Cosmos_ - (Rider, 1910), especially Chapters I. and IV. - - [99] W. OSTWALD: "Faraday Lecture," _Journal of the Chemical - Society_, vol. lxxxv. (1904), pp. 506 _et seq._ See also W. OSTWALD: - _The Fundamental Principles of Chemistry_ (translated by H. W. - Morse, 1909), especially Chapters VI., VII. and VIII. - - [100] For an account of this singular phenomenon, see Prof. JEAN - PERRIN: _Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality_ (translated from - the _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, 8me Séries, September, 1909, - by F. Soddy, M.A., F.R.S., 1910). - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -MODERN ALCHEMY - - -"Modern Alchemy." - -§ =85.= Correctly speaking, there is no such thing as "Modern Alchemy"; -not that Mysticism is dead, or that men no longer seek to apply the -principles of Mysticism to phenomena on the physical plane, but they do -so after another manner from that of the alchemists. A new science, -however, is born amongst us, closely related on the one hand to -Chemistry, on the other to Physics, but dealing with changes more -profound and reactions more deeply seated than are dealt with by either -of these; a science as yet without a name, unless it be the not -altogether satisfactory one of "Radioactivity." It is this science, or, -perhaps we should say, a certain aspect of it, to which we refer (it may -be fantastically) by the expression "Modern Alchemy": the aptness of the -title we hope to make plain in the course of the present chapter. - - -X-rays and Becquerel rays. - -§ =86.= As is commonly known, what are called X-rays are produced when -an electric discharge is passed through a high-vacuum tube. It has been -shown that these rays are a series of irregular pulses in the ether, -which are set up when the kathode particles strike the walls of the -glass vacuum tube,[101] and it was found that more powerful effects can -be produced by inserting a disc of platinum in the path of the kathode -particles. It was M. Becquerel who first discovered that there are -substances which naturally emit radiations similar to X-rays. He found -that uranium compounds affected a photographic plate from which they -were carefully screened, and he also showed that these uranium -radiations, or "Becquerel rays," resemble X-rays in other particulars. -It was already known that certain substances fluoresce (emit light) in -the dark after having been exposed to sunlight, and it was thought at -first that the above phenomenon exhibited by uranium salts was of a like -nature, since certain uranium salts are fluorescent; but M. Becquerel -found that uranium salts which had never been exposed to sunlight were -still capable of affecting a photographic plate, and that this -remarkable property was possessed by all uranium salts, whether -fluorescent or not. This phenomenon is known as "radioactivity," and -bodies which exhibit it are said to be "radioactive." Schmidt found that -thorium compounds possess a similar property, and Professor Rutherford -showed that thorium compounds evolved also something resembling a gas. -He called this an "emanation." - - [101] They must not be confused with the greenish-yellow - phosphorescence which is also produced: the X-rays are invisible. - - -The Discovery of Radium. - -§ =87.= Mme. Curie[102] determined the radioactivity of many uranium and -thorium compounds, and found that there was a proportion between the -radioactivity of such compounds and the quantity of uranium or thorium -in them, with the remarkable exception of certain natural ores, which -had a radioactivity much in excess of the normal, and, indeed, in -certain cases, much greater than pure uranium. In order to throw some -light on this matter, Mme. Curie prepared one of these ores by a -chemical process and found that it possessed a normal radioactivity. The -only logical conclusion to be drawn from these facts was that the ores -in question must contain some unknown, highly radioactive substance, and -the Curies were able, after very considerable labour, to extract from -pitchblende (the ore with the greatest radioactivity) minute quantities -of the salts of two new elements--which they named "Polonium" and -"Radium" respectively--both of which were extremely radioactive. - - [102] See Madame SKLODOWSKA CURIE'S _Radio-active Substances_ (2nd - ed., 1904). - -M. Debierne has obtained a third radioactive substance from pitchblende, -which he has called "Actinium." - - -Chemical Properties of Radium. - -§ =88.= Radium is an element resembling calcium, strontium, and barium -in chemical properties; its atomic weight was determined by Mme. Curie, -and found to be about 225, according to her first experiments; a -redetermination gave a slightly higher value, which has been confirmed -by a further investigation carried out by Sir T. E. Thorpe.[103] Radium -gives a characteristic spectrum, and is intensely radioactive. It -should be noted that up to the middle of the year 1910 the element -radium itself had not been prepared; in all the experiments carried out -radium salts were employed (_i.e._, certain compounds of radium with -other elements), generally radium chloride and radium bromide. In that -year, however, Mme. Curie, in conjunction with M. Debierne, obtained the -free metal. It is described as a white, shining metal resembling the -other alkaline earth metals. It reacts very violently with water, chars -paper with which it is allowed to come in contact, and blackens in the -air, probably owing to the formation of a nitride. It fuses at 700° C., -and is more volatile than barium.[104] - - [103] See Sir T. E. THORPE: "On the Atomic Weight of Radium" - (Bakerian Lecture for 1907. Delivered before the Royal Society, June - 20, 1907), _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. lxxx. - pp. 298 _et seq._; reprinted in _The Chemical News_, vol. xcvii. pp. - 229 _et seq._ (May 15, 1908). - - [104] Madame P. CURIE and M. A. DEBIERNE: "Sur le radium - métallique," _Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie - des Sciences_, vol. cli. (1910), pp. 523-525. (For an English - translation of this paper see _The Chemical News_, vol. cii. p. - 175.) - - -The Radioactivity of Radium. - -§ =89.= Radium salts give off three distinct sorts of rays, referred to -by the Greek letters [alpha], [beta], [gamma]. The [alpha]-rays have -been shown to consist of electrically charged (positive) particles, with -a mass approximately equal to that of four hydrogen atoms; they are -slightly deviated by a magnetic field, and do not possess great -penetrative power. The [beta]-rays are similar to the kathode rays, and -consist of (negative) electrons; they are strongly deviated by a -magnetic field, in a direction opposite to that in which the -[alpha]-particles are deviated, and possess medium penetrative power, -passing for the most part through a thin sheet of metal. The -[gamma]-rays resemble X-rays; they possess great penetrative power, and -are not deviated by a magnetic field. The difference in the effect of -the magnetic field on these rays, and the difference in their -penetrative power, led to their detection and allows of their separate -examination. Radium salts emit also an emanation, which tends to become -occluded in the solid salt, but can be conveniently liberated by -dissolving the salt in water, or by heating it. The emanation exhibits -the characteristic properties of a gas, it obeys Boyle's Law (_i.e._, -its volume varies inversely with its pressure), and it can be condensed -to a liquid at low temperatures; its density as determined by the -diffusion method is about 100. Attempts to prepare chemical compounds of -the emanation have failed, and in this respect it resembles the rare -gases of the atmosphere--helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon--whence -it is probable that its molecules are monatomic, so that a density of -100 would give its atomic weight as 200.[105] As can be seen from the -table on pp. 106, 107, an atomic weight of about 220 corresponds to a -position in the column containing the rare gases in the periodic system. -That the emanation actually has an atomic weight of these dimensions was -confirmed by further experiments carried out by the late Sir William -Ramsay and Dr. R. W. Gray.[106] These chemists determined the density of -the emanation by actually weighing minute quantities of known volume of -the substance, sealed up in small capillary tubes, a specially -sensitive balance being employed. Values for the density varying from -108 to 113½, corresponding to values for the atomic weight varying from -216 to 227, were thereby obtained. Sir William Ramsay, therefore, -considered that there could no longer be any doubt that the emanation -was one of the elements of the group of chemically inert gases. He -proposed to call it _Niton_, and, for reasons which we shall note later, -considered that in all probability it had an atomic weight of about -222½. - - [105] This follows from Avogadro's Hypothesis, see § 76. - - [106] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY and Dr. R. W. GRAY: "La densité de - l'émanation du radium," _Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de - l'Académie des Sciences_, vol. cvi. (1910), pp. 126 _et seq._ - - -The Disintegration of the Radium Atom. - -§ =90.= Radium salts possess another very remarkable property, namely, -that of continuously emitting light and heat. It seemed, at first, that -here was a startling contradiction to the law of the conservation of -energy, but the whole mystery becomes comparatively clear in terms of -the corpuscular or the electronic theory of matter. The radium-atom is a -system of a large number (see § 81) of corpuscles or electrons, and -contains in virtue of their motion an enormous amount of energy. But it -is known from Chemistry that atomic systems (_i.e._, molecules) which -contain very much energy are unstable and liable to explode. The same -law holds good on the more interior plane--the radium-atom is liable to, -and actually does, explode. And the result? Energy is set free, and -manifests itself partly as heat and light. Some free electrons are shot -off (the [beta]-rays), which, striking the undecomposed particles of -salt, give rise to pulses in the ether (the [gamma]-rays),[107] just as -the kathode particles give rise to X-rays when they strike the walls of -the vacuum tube or a platinum disc placed in their path. The [beta]- and -[gamma]-rays do not, however, result immediately from the exploding -radium-atoms, the initial products being the emanation and one -[alpha]-particle from each radium-atom destroyed. - - [107] This view regarding the [gamma]-rays is not, however, - universally accepted, some scientists regarding them as consisting - of a stream of particles moving with very high velocities. - - -"Induced Radioactivity." - -§ =91.= Radium salts have the property of causing surrounding objects to -become temporally radioactive. This "induced radioactivity," as it may -be called, is found to be due to the emanation, which is itself -radioactive (it emits [alpha]-rays only), and is decomposed into minute -traces of solid radioactive deposits. By examining the rate of decay of -the activity of the deposit, it has been found that it is undergoing a -series of sub-atomic changes, the products being termed Radium A, B, C, -&c. It has been proved that all the [beta]- and [gamma]-rays emitted by -radium salts are really due to certain of these secondary products. -Radium F is thought to be identical with Polonium (§ 87). Another -product is also obtained by these decompositions, with which we shall -deal later (§ 94). - - -Properties of Uranium and Thorium. - -§ =92.= Uranium and thorium differ in one important respect from radium, -inasmuch as the first product of the decomposition of the uranium and -thorium atoms is in both cases solid. Sir William Crookes[108] was able -to separate from uranium salts by chemical means a small quantity of an -intensely radioactive substance, which he called Uranium X, the residual -uranium having lost most of its activity; and M. Becquerel, on -repeating the experiment, found that the activity of the residual -uranium was slowly regained, whilst that of the uranium X decayed. This -is most simply explained by the theory that uranium first changes into -uranium X. It has been suggested that radium may be the final product of -the breaking up of the uranium-atom; at any rate, it is quite certain -that radium must be evolved in some way, as otherwise there would be -none in existence--it would all have decomposed. This suggestion has -been experimentally confirmed, the growth of radium in large quantities -of a solution of purified uranyl nitrate having been observed. Uranium -gives no emanation. Thorium probably gives at least three solid -products--Meso-thorium, Radio-thorium, and Thorium X, the last of which -yields an emanation resembling that obtained from radium, but not -identical with it. - - [108] Sir WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.: "Radio-activity of Uranium," - _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. lxvi. (1900), pp. - 409 _et seq._ - - -The Radium Emanation. - -§ =93.= We must now more fully consider the radium emanation--a -substance with more astounding properties than even the radium compounds -themselves. By distilling off the emanation from some radium bromide, -and measuring the quantities of heat given off by the emanation and the -radium salt respectively, Professors Rutherford and Barnes[109] proved -that nearly three-fourths of the total amount of heat given out by a -radium salt comes from the minute quantity of emanation that it -contains. The amount of energy liberated as heat during the decay of the -emanation is enormous; one cubic centimetre liberates about four -million times as much heat as is obtained by the combustion of an equal -volume of hydrogen. Undoubtedly this must indicate some profound change, -and one may well ask, What is the ultimate product of the decomposition -of the emanation? - - [109] E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S., and H. T. BARNES, D.Sc.: "Heating - Effect of the Radium Emanation," _Philosophical Magazine_ [6], vol. - vii. (1904), pp. 202 _et seq._ - - -The Production of Helium from Radium. - -§ =94.= It had been observed already that the radioactive minerals on -heating give off Helium--a gaseous element, characterised by a -particular yellow line in its spectrum--and it seemed not unlikely that -helium might be the ultimate decomposition product of the emanation. A -research to settle this point was undertaken by Sir William Ramsay and -Mr. Soddy,[110] and a preliminary experiment having confirmed the above -speculation, they carried out further very careful experiments. "The -maximum amount of the emanation obtained from 50 milligrams of radium -bromide was conveyed by means of oxygen into a [U]-tube cooled in liquid -air, and the latter was then extracted by the pump." The spectrum was -observed; it "was apparently a new one, probably that of the emanation -itself. . . . After standing from July 17 to 21 the helium spectrum -appeared, and the characteristic lines were observed." Sir William -Ramsay performed a further experiment with a similar result, in which -the radium salt had been first of all heated in a vacuum for some time, -proving that the helium obtained could not have been occluded in it; -though the fact that the helium spectrum did not immediately appear, in -itself proves this point. Sir William Ramsay's results were confirmed -by further careful experiments by Sir James Dewar and other chemists. It -was suggested, therefore, that the [alpha]-particle consists of an -electrically charged helium-atom, and not only is this view in agreement -with the value of the mass of this particle as determined -experimentally, but it has been completely demonstrated by Professor -Rutherford and Mr. Royds. These chemists performed an experiment in -which the emanation from about one-seventh of a gramme of radium was -enclosed in a thin-walled tube, through the walls of which the -[alpha]-particles could pass, but which were impervious to gases. This -tube was surrounded by an outer jacket, which was evacuated. After a -time the presence of helium in the space between the inner tube and the -outer jacket was observed spectroscopically.[111] Now, the -emanation-atom results from the radium-atom by the expulsion of one -[alpha]-particle; and since this latter consists of an electrically -charged helium-atom, it follows that the emanation must have an atomic -weight of 226 - 4, _i.e._, 222. This value is in agreement with Sir -William Ramsay's determination of the density of the emanation. We may -represent the degradation of the radium-atom, therefore, by the -following scheme:-- - - [alpha]-particle (Helium-atom) - / 4 - Radium-atom [alpha]-particle (Helium-atom) - 226 \ / 4 - Emanation (Niton-atom) - 222 \ - Radium-A, &c. - - [110] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY and FREDERICK SODDY: "Experiments in - Radioactivity and the Production of Helium from Radium," - _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. lxxii. (1903), - pp. 204 _et seq._ - - [111] E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S., and T. ROYDS, M.Sc.: "The Nature of the - [alpha]-Particle from Radio-active Substances," _Philosophical - Magazine_ [6], vol. xvii. (1909), pp. 281 _et seq._ - - -Nature of this Change. - -§ =95.= Here, then, for the first time in the history of Chemistry, we -have the undoubted formation of one chemical element from another, for, -leaving out of the question the nature of the emanation, there can be no -doubt that radium is a chemical element. This is a point which must be -insisted upon, for it has been suggested that radium may be a compound -of helium with some unknown element; or, perhaps, a compound of helium -with lead, since it has been shown that lead is probably one of the end -products of the decomposition of radium. The following considerations, -however, show this view to be altogether untenable: (i.) All attempts to -prepare compounds of helium with other elements have failed. (ii.) -Radium possesses all the properties of a chemical element; it has a -characteristic spectrum, and falls in that column in the Periodic Table -with those elements which it resembles as to its chemical properties. -(iii.) The quantity of heat liberated on the decomposition of the -emanation is, as we have already indicated, out of all proportion to -that obtained even in the most violent chemical reactions; and (iv.) one -very important fact has been observed, namely, that the rate of decay of -the emanation is unaffected by even extreme changes of temperature, -whereas chemical actions are always affected in rate by changes of -temperature. It will also be advisable, perhaps, to indicate some of the -differences between helium and the emanation. The latter is a heavy gas, -condensable to a liquid by liquid air (recently it has been -solidified[112]); whereas helium is the lightest of all known gases -with the exception of hydrogen and has been liquefied only by the most -persistent effort.[113] The emanation, moreover, is radioactive, giving -off [alpha]-particles, whereas helium does not possess this property. - - [112] By Ramsay. See _Proceedings of the Chemical Society_, vol. - xxv. (1909), pp. 82 and 83. - - [113] By Professor Onnes. See _Chemical News_, vol. xcviii. p. 37 - (July 24, 1908). - - -Is this Change a true Transmutation? - -§ =96.= It has been pointed out, however, that (in a sense) this change -(viz., of emanation into helium) is not quite what has been meant by the -expression "transmutation of the elements"; for the reason that it is a -_spontaneous_ change; no effort of ours can bring it about or cause it -to cease.[114] But the fact of the change does go to prove that the -chemical elements are not the discrete units of matter that they were -supposed to be. And since it appears that all matter is radioactive, -although (save in these exceptional cases) in a very slight degree,[115] -we here have evidence of a process of evolution at work among the -chemical elements. The chemical elements are not permanent; they are all -undergoing change; and the common elements merely mark those points -where the rate of the evolutionary process is at its slowest. (See also -§§ 78 and 83.) Thus, the essential truth in the old alchemistic doctrine -of the growth of metals is vindicated, for the metals do grow in the -womb of Nature, although the process may be far slower than appears to -have been imagined by certain of the alchemists,[116] and although gold -may not be the end product. As writes Professor Sir W. Tilden: ". . . It -appears that modern ideas as to the genesis of the elements, and hence -of all matter, stand in strong contrast with those which chiefly -prevailed among experimental philosophers from the time of Newton, and -seem to reflect in an altered form the speculative views of the -ancients." ". . . It seems probable," he adds, "that the chemical -elements, and hence all material substances of which the earth, the sea, -the air, and the host of heavenly bodies are all composed, resulted from -a change, corresponding to condensation, in something of which we have -no direct and intimate knowledge. Some have imagined this primal essence -of all things to be identical with the ether of space. As yet we know -nothing with certainty, but it is thought that by means of the -spectroscope some stages of the operation may be seen in progress in the -nebulæ and stars. . . ."[117] We have next to consider whether there is -any experimental evidence showing it to be possible (using the -phraseology of the alchemists) for man to assist in Nature's work. - - [114] See Professor H. C. JONES: _The Electrical Nature of Matter - and Radioactivity_ (1906), pp. 125-126. - - [115] It has been definitely proved, for example, that the common - element potassium is radioactive, though very feebly so (it emits - [beta]-rays). It is also interesting to note that many common - substances emit corpuscles at high temperatures. - - [116] Says Peter Bonus, however, ". . . we know that the generation - of metals occupies thousands of years . . . in Nature's workshop. - . . ." (see _The New Pearl of Great Price_, Mr. A. E. Waite's - translation, p. 55), and certain others of the alchemists expressed - a similar view. - - [117] Sir WILLIAM A. TILDEN: _The Elements: Speculations as to their - Nature and Origin_ (1910), pp. 108, 109, 133 and 134. With regard to - Sir William Tilden's remarks, it is very interesting to note that - Swedenborg (who was born when Newton was between forty and fifty - years old) not only differed from that great philosopher on those - very points on which modern scientific philosophy is at variance - with Newton, but, as is now recognised by scientific men, - anticipated many modern discoveries and scientific theories. It - would be a most interesting task to set forth the agreement existing - between Swedenborg's theories and the latest products of scientific - thought concerning the nature of the physical universe. Such, - however, would lie without the confines of the present work. - - -The Production of Neon from Emanation. - -§ =97.= As we have already indicated above (§ 93), the radium emanation -contains a vast store of potential energy, and it was with the idea of -utilising this energy for bringing about chemical changes that Sir -William Ramsay[118] undertook a research on the chemical action of this -substance--a research with the most surprising and the most interesting -results, for the energy contained within the radium emanation appeared -to behave like a veritable Philosopher's Stone. The first experiments -were carried out on distilled water. It had already been observed that -the emanation decomposes water into its gaseous elements, oxygen and -hydrogen, and that the latter is always produced in excess. These -results were confirmed and the presence of hydrogen peroxide was -detected, explaining the formation of an excess of hydrogen; it was also -shown that the emanation brings about the reverse change to some extent, -causing oxygen and hydrogen to unite with the production of water, until -a position of equilibrium is attained. On examining spectroscopically -the gas obtained by the action of the emanation on water, after the -removal of the ordinary gases, a most surprising result was -observed--the gas showed a brilliant spectrum of neon, accompanied with -some faint helium lines. A more careful experiment was carried out later -by Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Cameron, in which a silica bulb was -employed instead of glass. The spectrum of the residual gas after -removing ordinary gases was successfully photographed, and a large -number of the neon lines identified; helium was also present. The -presence of neon could not be explained, in Ramsay's opinion, by leakage -of air into the apparatus, as the percentage of neon in the air is not -sufficiently high, whereas this suggestion might be put forward in the -case of argon. Moreover, the neon could not have come from the aluminium -of the electrodes (in which it might be thought to have been occluded), -as the sparking tube had been used and tested before the experiment was -carried out. The authors conclude: "We must regard the transformation of -emanation into neon, in presence of water, as indisputably proved, and, -if a transmutation be defined as a transformation brought about at will, -by change of conditions, then _this is the first case of transmutation -of which conclusive evidence is put forward_."[119] However, Professor -Rutherford and Mr. Royds have been unable to confirm this result. They -describe[120] attempts to obtain neon by the action of emanation on -water. Out of five experiments no neon was obtained, save in one case in -which a small air leak was discovered; and, since the authors find that -very minute quantities of this gas are sufficient to give a clearly -visible spectrum, they conclude that Ramsay's positive results are due, -after all, to leakage of air into the apparatus. But if this is the true -explanation of Ramsay's results, it is difficult to understand why, in -the case of the experiment with a solution of a copper salt described -below, the presence of neon was not detected, for, if due to leakage, -the proportions of the rare gases present should presumably have been -the same in all the experiments. Further research seems necessary -conclusively to settle the question. - - [118] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "The Chemical Action of the Radium - Emanation. Pt. I., Action on Distilled Water," _Journal of the - Chemical Society_, vol. xci. (1907), pp. 931 _et seq._ ALEXANDER T. - CAMERON and Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY, _ibid._ "Pt. II., On Solutions - containing Copper, and Lead, and on Water," _ibid._ pp. 1593 _et - seq._ "Pt. III., On Water and Certain Gases," _ibid._ vol. xciii. - (1908), pp. 966 _et seq._ "Pt. IV., On Water," _ibid._ pp. 992 _et - seq._ - - [119] _Journal of the Chemical Society_, vol. xciii. (1908), p. 997. - - [120] E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S., and T. ROYDS, M.Sc.: "The Action of - Radium Emanation on Water," _Philosophical Magazine_ [6], vol. xvi. - (1908), pp. 812 _et seq._ - - -Ramsay's Experiments on Copper. - -§ =98.= The fact that an excess of hydrogen was produced when water was -decomposed by the emanation suggested to Sir William Ramsay and Mr. -Cameron that if a solution of a metallic salt was employed in place of -pure water, the free metal might be obtained. These "modern alchemists," -therefore, proceeded to investigate the action of radium emanation on -solutions of copper and lead salts, and again apparently effected -transmutations. They found on removing the copper from a solution of a -copper-salt which had been subjected to the action of the emanation, and -spectroscopically examining the residue, that a considerable quantity of -sodium was present, together with traces of lithium; and the gas evolved -in the case of a solution of copper nitrate contained, along with much -nitric oxide and a little nitrogen, argon (which was detected -spectroscopically), but no helium. It certainly seemed like a dual -transformation of copper into lithium and sodium, and emanation into -argon. They also observed that apparently carbon-dioxide is continually -evolved from an acid solution of thorium nitrate (see below, § 100). It -is worth while noticing that helium, neon and argon occur in the same -column in the Periodic Table with emanation; lithium and sodium with -copper, and carbon with thorium; in each case the elements produced -being of lighter atomic weight than those decomposed.[121] The authors -make the following suggestions: "(1) That helium and the -[alpha]-particle are not identical; (2) that helium results from the -'degradation' of the large molecule of emanation by its bombardment with -[alpha]-particles; (3) that this 'degradation,' when the emanation is -alone or mixed with oxygen and hydrogen, results in the lowest member of -the inactive series, namely, helium; (4) that if particles of greater -mass than hydrogen or oxygen are associated with the emanation, namely, -liquid water, then the 'degradation' of the emanation is less complete, -and neon is produced; (5) that when molecules of still greater weight -and complexity are present, as is the case when the emanation is -dissolved in a solution of copper sulphate, the product of 'degradation' -of the emanation is argon. We are inclined to believe too [they say] -that (6) the copper also is involved in this process of degradation, and -is reduced to the lowest term of its series, namely, lithium; and at the -same time, inasmuch as the weight of the residue of alkali, produced -when copper nitrate is present, is double that obtained from the blank -experiment, or from water alone, the supposition is not excluded that -the chief product of the 'degradation' of copper is sodium."[122] - - [121] See pp. 106, 107. - - [122] _Journal of the Chemical Society_, vol. xci. (1907), pp. - 1605-1606. More recent experiments, however, proved that the - [alpha]-particle does consist of an electrically charged - helium-atom, and this view was latterly accepted by Sir William - Ramsay, so that the above suggestions must be modified in accordance - therewith. (See § 94.) - - -Further Experiments on Radium and Copper. - -§ =99.= A little later Madame Curie and Mademoiselle Gleditsch[123] -repeated Cameron and Ramsay's experiments on copper salts, using, -however, platinum apparatus. They failed to detect lithium after the -action of the emanation, and think that Cameron and Ramsay's results may -be due to the glass vessels employed. Dr. Perman[124] has investigated -the direct action of the emanation on copper and gold, and has failed to -detect any trace of lithium. The transmutation of copper into lithium, -therefore, must be regarded as unproved, but further research is -necessary before any conclusive statements can be made on the subject. - - [123] Madame CURIE and Mademoiselle GLEDITSCH: "Action de - l'émanation du radium sur les solutions des sels de cuivre," - _Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des - Sciences_, vol. cxlvii. (1908), pp. 345 _et seq._ (For an English - translation of this paper, see _The Chemical News_, vol. xcviii. pp. - 157 and 158.) - - [124] EDGAR PHILIP PERMAN: "The Direct Action of Radium on Copper - and Gold," _Proceedings of the Chemical Society_, vol. xxiv. (1908), - p. 214. - - -Ramsay's Experiments on Thorium and allied Metals. - -§ =100.= In his presidential address to the Chemical Society, March 25, -1909, after having brought forward some exceedingly interesting -arguments for the possibility of transmutation, Sir William Ramsay -described some experiments which he had carried out on thorium and -allied elements.[125] It was found, as we have already stated (§ 98), -that, apparently, carbon-dioxide was continually evolved from an acid -solution of thorium nitrate, precautions being taken that the gas was -not produced from the grease on the stop-cock employed, and it also -appeared that carbon-dioxide was produced by the action of radium -emanation on thorium nitrate. The action of radium emanation on -compounds (not containing carbon) of other members of the carbon group, -namely, silicon, zirconium and lead, was then investigated; in the cases -of zirconium nitrate and hydro-fluosilicic acid, carbon-dioxide was -obtained; but in the case of lead chlorate the amount of carbon dioxide -was quite insignificant. Curiously enough, the perchlorate of bismuth, a -metal which belongs to the nitrogen group of elements, also yielded -carbon-dioxide when acted on by emanation. Sir William Ramsay concludes -his discussion of these experiments as follows: "Such are the facts. No -one is better aware than I how insufficient the proof is. Many other -experiments must be made before it can confidently be asserted that -certain elements, when exposed to 'concentrated energy,' undergo -degradation into carbon." Some such confirmatory experiments were -carried out by Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Francis L. Usher, and they -also described an experiment with a compound of titanium. Their results -confirm Sir William Ramsay's former experiments. Carbon-dioxide was -obtained in appreciable quantities by the action of emanation on -compounds of silicon, titanium, zirconium and thorium. In the case of -lead, the amount of carbon dioxide obtained was inappreciable.[126] - - [125] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "Elements and Electrons," _Journal of the - Chemical Society_, vol. xcv. (1909), pp. 624 _et seq._ - - [126] For a brief account in English of these later experiments see - _The Chemical News_, vol. c. p. 209 (October 29, 1909). - - -The Possibility of Making Gold. - -§ =101.= It does not seem unlikely that if it is possible to "degrade" -elements, it may be possible to build them up. It has been suggested -that it might be possible to obtain, in this way, gold from silver, -since these two elements occur in the same column in the Periodic Table; -but the suggestion still awaits experimental confirmation. The question -arises, What would be the result if gold could be cheaply produced? That -gold is a metal admirably adapted for many purposes, for which its -scarcity prevents its use, must be admitted. But the financial chaos -which would follow if it were to be cheaply obtained surpasses the -ordinary imagination. It is a theme that ought to appeal to a novelist -of exceptional imaginative power. However, we need not fear these -results, for not only is radium extremely rare, far dearer than gold, -and on account of its instability will never be obtained in large -quantities, but, judging from the above-described experiments, if, -indeed, the radium emanation is the true Philosopher's Stone, the -quantity of gold that may be hoped for by its aid is extremely small. - - -The Significance of "Allotropy." - -§ =102.= A very suggestive argument for the transmutation of the metals -was put forward by Professor Henry M. Howe, LL.D., in a paper entitled -"Allotropy or Transmutation?" read before the British Association -(Section B), Sheffield Meeting, 1910. Certain substances are known -which, although differing in their physical properties very markedly, -behave chemically as if they were one and the same element, giving rise -to the same series of compounds. Such substances, of which we may -mention diamond, graphite and charcoal (_e.g._, lampblack)--all of which -are known chemically as "carbon"--or, to take another example, yellow -phosphorus (a yellow, waxy, highly inflammable solid) and red phosphorus -(a difficultly-inflammable, dark red substance, probably possessing a -minutely crystalline structure), are, moreover, convertible one into the -other.[127] It has been customary to refer to such substances as -different forms or allotropic modifications of the same element, and not -to regard them as being different elements. As Professor Howe says, "If -after defining 'elements' as substances hitherto indivisible, and -different elements as those which differ in at least some one property, -and after asserting that the elements cannot be transmuted into each -other, we are confronted with the change from diamond into lampblack, -and with the facts, first, that each is clearly indivisible hitherto -and hence an element, and, second, that they differ in every property, -we try to escape in a circle by saying that they are not different -elements because they do change into each other. In short, we limit the -name 'element' to indivisible substances which cannot be transmuted into -each other, and we define those which do transmute as _ipso facto_ one -element, and then we say that the elements cannot be transmuted. Is not -this very like saying that, if you call a calf's tail a leg, then a calf -has five legs? And if it is just to reply that calling a tail a leg does -not make it a leg, is it not equally just to reply that calling two -transmutable elements one element does not make them so? - - [127] Diamond is transformed into graphite when heated by a powerful - electric current between carbon poles, and both diamond and graphite - can be indirectly converted into charcoal. The artificial production - of the diamond, however, is a more difficult process; but the late - Professor Moissan succeeded in effecting it, so far as very small - diamonds are concerned, by dissolving charcoal in molten iron or - silver and allowing it to crystallise from the solution under high - pressure. Graphite was also obtained. Red phosphorus is produced - from yellow phosphorus by heating the latter in absence of air. The - temperature 240-250° C. is the most suitable; at higher temperatures - the reverse change sets in, red phosphorus being converted into - yellow phosphorus. - -"Is it philosophical to point to the fact that two such transmutable -elements yield but a single line of derivatives as proof that they are -one element? Is not this rather proof of the readiness, indeed -irresistibleness, of their transmutation? Does not this simply mean that -the derivativeless element, whenever it enters into combination, -inevitably transmutes into its mate which has derivatives?"[128] - - [128] Professor HENRY M. HOWE, LL.D.: "Allotropy or Transmutation." - (See _The Chemical News_, vol. cii. pp. 153 and 154, September 23, - 1910.) - -According to the atomic theory the differences between what are termed -"allotropic modifications" are generally ascribed to differences in the -number and arrangement of the atoms constituting the molecules of such -"modifications," and not to any differences in the atoms themselves. But -we cannot argue that two such "allotropic modifications" or elements -which are transmutable into one another are one and the same element, -because they possess the same atomic weight, and different elements are -distinguished by different atomic weights; for the reason that, in the -determination of atomic weights, derivatives of such bodies are -employed; hence, the value obtained is the atomic weight of the element -which forms derivatives, from which that of its derivativeless mate may -differ considerably for all we know to the contrary, if we do, indeed, -regard the atomic weights of the elements as having any meaning beyond -expressing the inertia-ratios in which they combine one with another. - -If we wish to distinguish between two such "allotropic modifications" -apart from any theoretical views concerning the nature and constitution -of matter, we can say that such "modifications" are different because -equal weights of them contain, or are equivalent to, different -quantities of energy,[129] since the change of one "form" to another -takes place only with the evolution or absorption (as the case may be) -of heat.[130] But, according to modern views regarding the nature of -matter, this is the sole fundamental difference between two different -elements--such are different because equal weights of them contain or -are equivalent to different quantities of energy. The so-called -"allotropic modifications of an element," therefore, are just as much -different elements as any other different elements, and the change from -one "modification" to another is a true transmutation of the elements; -the only distinction being that what are called "allotropic -modifications of the same element" differ only slightly in respect of -the energy they contain, and hence are comparatively easy to convert one -into the other, whereas different elements (so called) differ very -greatly from one another in this respect, whence it is to be concluded -that the transmutation of one such element into another will only be -attained by the utilisation of energy in a very highly concentrated -form, such as is evolved simultaneously with the spontaneous -decomposition of the radium emanation. - - [129] For a defence of the view that chemical substances may be - regarded as energy-complexes, and that this view is equally as valid - as the older notion of a chemical substance as an inertia-complex, - _i.e._, as something made up entirely of different units or atoms - each characterised by the possession of a definite and constant - weight at a fixed point on the earth's surface, see an article by - the present writer, entitled "The Claims of Thermochemistry," - _Knowledge and Scientific News_, vol. vii. (New Series), pp. 227 _et - seq._ (July, 1910). - - [130] In some cases the heat change accompanying the transformation - of an element into an "allotropic modification" can be measured - directly. More frequently, however, it is calculated as the - difference between the quantities of heat obtained when the two - "forms" are converted into one and the same compound. - - -Conclusion. - -§ =103.= We have shown that modern science indicates the essential truth -of alchemistic doctrine, and our task is ended. Writing in 1904, Sir -William Ramsay said: "If these hypotheses [concerning the possibility of -causing the atoms of ordinary elements to absorb energy] are just, then -the transmutations of the elements no longer appears an idle dream. The -philosopher's stone will have been discovered, and it is not beyond the -bounds of possibility that it may lead to that other goal of the -philosophers of the dark ages--the _elixir vitæ_. For the action of -living cells is also dependent on the nature and direction of the energy -which they contain; and who can say that it will be impossible to -control their action, when the means of imparting and controlling energy -shall have been investigated?"[131] Whatever may be the final verdict -concerning his own experiments, those of Sir Ernest Rutherford, referred -to in the Preface to the present edition, demonstrate the fact of -transmutation; and it is worth noticing how many of the alchemists' -obscure descriptions of their Magistery well apply to that marvellous -something which we call Energy, the true "First Matter" of the Universe. -And of the other problem, the _Elixir Vitæ_, who knows? - - [131] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "Radium and its Products," _Harper's - Magazine_ (December 1904), vol. xlix. (European Edition), p. 57. - - -THE END. - - - - - _Printed in Great Britain by_ - - UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED - - WOKING AND LONDON - - - - -_Works by H. STANLEY REDGROVE, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S._ - - - =ON THE CALCULATION OF THERMO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS.= (Arnold, 1909, - 6s. net.) - - =MATTER, SPIRIT AND THE COSMOS: Some Suggestions towards a better - Understanding of the Whence and Why of their Existence.= (Rider, - Popular Edition, 1916, 1s. net.) - - =A MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF SPIRIT.= Being an Attempt to employ - certain Mathematical Principles in the Elucidation of some - Metaphysical Problems. (Rider, 1912, 2s. 6d. net.) - - =EXPERIMENTAL MENSURATION.= An Elementary Text-Book of Inductive - Geometry. (Heinemann, 1912, 2s. 6d. net.) - - =THE MAGIC OF EXPERIENCE.= A Contribution to the Theory of - Knowledge. With an Introduction by Sir WILLIAM F. BARRETT, F.R.S. - (Dent, 1916. _Out of print._) - - =BYGONE BELIEFS.= A Series of Excursions in the Byways of Thought. - (Rider, 1920, 10s. 6d. net.) - - =PURPOSE AND TRANSCENDENTALISM.= An Exposition of Swedenborg's - Philosophical Doctrine in Relation to Modern Thought. (Kegan Paul, - 1920, 5s. net.) - - =ROGER BACON, the Father of Experimental Science, and Mediæval - Occultism.= (Rider, 1920, 1s. 6d. net.) - - =INDUSTRIAL GASES, together with the Liquefaction of Gases.= By - various authors, including H. S. REDGROVE. (Crosby Lockwood, Second - Impression, 1918, 9s. net.) - - =THE INDICTMENT OF WAR.= An Anthology. Compiled by H. S. REDGROVE - and J. H. ROWBOTTOM. (Daniel, 1919, 10s. 6d. net.) - - =JOSEPH GLANVILL, and Psychical Research in the Seventeenth - Century.= By H. S. REDGROVE and I. M. L. REDGROVE. (Rider, 1921, 2s. - net.) - - -=London: WILLIAM RIDER & SON, Ltd., 8 Paternoster Row, E.C. 4= - - - - - Transcriber's Notes: - - The text of the original work has been retained, including - inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation, punctuation, etc., except - as mentioned below. - - Page 82, footnote [85]: the original work had a letter missing; or - seems to fit best (or van Helmont's Workes). - - Page 84, Memnonite: possibly error for Mennonite. - - Page 93, fulfull: possibly error for fulfill. - - - Changes made to the text: - - Footnotes and illustrations have been moved outside text paragraphs. - - Some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been - corrected silently. - - Page xvii: 142 changed to 140 (Table of Contents) - - Page 10: quesable changed to questionable - - Page 41: Trismegistus changed to Trismegistos as elsewhere - - Page 66: Gentlemen changed to Gentleman - - Page 120, footnote [104]: Séances l'Académie changed to Séances de - l'Académie - - Page 140, footnote [130]: modication changed to modification. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Alchemy: Ancient and Modern, by H. 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Stanley Redgrove. @@ -95,47 +95,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Alchemy: Ancient and Modern, by H. Stanley Redgrove - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Alchemy: Ancient and Modern - Being a Brief Account of the Alchemistic Doctrines, and - Their Relations, to Mysticism on the One Hand, and ... - -Author: H. Stanley Redgrove - -Release Date: July 17, 2013 [EBook #43240] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALCHEMY: ANCIENT AND MODERN *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43240 ***</div> <div class="tnbox"> <p class="center">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> @@ -7938,387 +7898,6 @@ Page 140, footnote [130]: modication changed to modification.</p> </div><!--tnbox--> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Alchemy: Ancient and Modern, by H. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Alchemy: Ancient and Modern - Being a Brief Account of the Alchemistic Doctrines, and - Their Relations, to Mysticism on the One Hand, and ... - -Author: H. Stanley Redgrove - -Release Date: July 17, 2013 [EBook #43240] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALCHEMY: ANCIENT AND MODERN *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry LamA(C) and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - Texts printed in italics in the original work have been transcribed - as _text_, bold face texts as =text=. Small caps texts have been - transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. Greek letters are represented by - [alpha], [beta] and [gamma]. [oe] is the oe-ligature. - - [U] represents a U-shape rather than the letter U. Other symbols are - represented as [sun] for the sun-symbol, [moon] for the moon-symbol, - etc. - - More Transcriber's Notes may be found at the ned of this text. - - - - - ALCHEMY: ANCIENT AND MODERN - - -[Illustration: PLATE 1. - -PORTRAIT OF PARACELSUS - -[_Frontispiece_] - - - - - ALCHEMY: - - ANCIENT AND MODERN - - BEING A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE ALCHEMISTIC DOCTRINES, - AND THEIR RELATIONS, TO MYSTICISM ON - THE ONE HAND, AND TO RECENT DISCOVERIES IN - PHYSICAL SCIENCE ON THE OTHER HAND; TOGETHER - WITH SOME PARTICULARS REGARDING THE LIVES - AND TEACHINGS OF THE MOST NOTED ALCHEMISTS - - BY - - H. STANLEY REDGROVE, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S. - - AUTHOR OF "ON THE CALCULATION OF THERMO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS," - "MATTER, SPIRIT AND THE COSMOS," ETC. - - WITH 16 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS - - SECOND AND REVISED EDITION - - - LONDON - - WILLIAM RIDER & SON, LTD. - - 8 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. 4 - - 1922 - - - - - _First published_ 1911 - _Second Edition_ 1922 - - - - -PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION - - -It is exceedingly gratifying to me that a second edition of this book -should be called for. But still more welcome is the change in the -attitude of the educated world towards the old-time alchemists and their -theories which has taken place during the past few years. - -The theory of the origin of Alchemy put forward in Chapter I has led to -considerable discussion; but whilst this theory has met with general -acceptance, some of its earlier critics took it as implying far more -than is actually the case. As a result of further research my conviction -of its truth has become more fully confirmed, and in my recent work -entitled _Bygone Beliefs_ (Rider, 1920), under the title of "The Quest -of the Philosopher's Stone," I have found it possible to adduce further -evidence in this connection. At the same time, whilst I became -increasingly convinced that the main alchemistic hypotheses were drawn -from the domain of mystical theology and applied to physics and -chemistry by way of analogy, it also became evident to me that the crude -physiology of bygone ages and remnants of the old phallic faith formed a -further and subsidiary source of alchemistic theory. I have barely, if -at all, touched on this matter in the present work; the reader who is -interested will find it dealt with in some detail in "The Phallic -Element in Alchemical Doctrine" in my _Bygone Beliefs_. - -In view of recent research in the domain of Radioactivity and the -consequent advance in knowledge that has resulted since this book was -first published, I have carefully considered the advisability of -rewriting the whole of the last chapter, but came to the conclusion that -the time for this was not yet ripe, and that, apart from a few minor -emendations, the chapter had better remain very much as it originally -stood. My reason for this course was that, whilst considerably more is -known to-day, than was the case in 1911, concerning the very complex -transmutations undergone spontaneously by the radioactive -elements--knowledge helping further to elucidate the problem of the -constitution of the so-called "elements" of the chemist--the problem -really cognate to my subject, namely that of effecting a transmutation -of one element into another at will, remains in almost the same state of -indeterminateness as in 1911. In 1913, Sir William Ramsay[1] thought he -had obtained evidence for the transmutation of hydrogen into helium by -the action of the electric discharge, and Professors Collie and -Patterson[2] thought they had obtained evidence of the transmutation of -hydrogen into neon by similar means. But these observations (as well as -Sir William Ramsay's earlier transmutational experiments) failed to be -satisfactorily confirmed;[3] and since the death of the latter, little, -if anything, appears to have been done to settle the questions raised by -his experiments. Reference must, however, be made to a very interesting -investigation by Sir Ernest Rutherford on the "Collision of -[alpha]-Particles with Light Atoms,"[4] from which it appears certain -that when bombarded with the swiftly-moving [alpha]-particles given off -by radium-C, the atoms of nitrogen may be disintegrated, one of the -products being hydrogen. The other product is possibly helium,[5] though -this has not been proved. In view of Rutherford's results a further -repetition of Ramsay's experiments would certainly appear to be -advisable. - - [1] See his "The Presence of Helium in the Gas from the Interior of - an X-Ray Bulb," _Journal of the Chemical Society_, vol. ciii. - (1913), pp. 264 _et seq._ - - [2] See their "The Presence of Neon in Hydrogen after the Passage of - the Electric Discharge through the latter at Low Pressures," - _ibid._, pp. 419 _et seq._; and "The Production of Neon and Helium - by the Electric Discharge," _Proceedings of the Royal Society_, _A_, - vol. xci. (1915), pp. 30 _et seq._ - - [3] See especially the report of negative experiments by Mr. A. C. - G. Egerton, published in _Proceedings of the Royal Society_, _A_, - vol. xci. (1915), pp. 180 _et seq._ - - [4] See the _Philosophical Magazine_ for June, 1919, 6th Series, - vol. xxxvii. pp. 537-587. - - [5] Or perhaps an isotope of helium (see below). - -As concerns the spontaneous transmutations undergone by the radioactive -elements, the facts appear to indicate (or, at least, can be brought -into some sort of order by supposing) the atom to consist of a central -nucleus and an outer shell, as suggested by Sir Ernest Rutherford. The -nucleus may be compared to the sun of a solar system. It is excessively -small, but in it the mass of the atom is almost entirely concentrated. -It is positively charged, the charge being neutralised by that of the -free electrons which revolve like planets about it, and which by their -orbits account for the volume of the atom. The atomic weight of the -element depends upon the central sun; but the chemical properties of the -element are determined by the number of electrons in the shell; this -number is the same as that representing the position of the element in -the periodic system. Radioactive change originates in the atomic -nucleus. The expulsion of an [alpha]-particle therefrom decreases the -atomic weight by 4 units, necessitates (since the [alpha]-particle -carries two positive charges) the removal of two electrons from the -shell in order to maintain electrical neutrality, and hence changes the -chemical nature of the body, transmuting the element into one occupying -a position two places to the left in the periodic system (for example, -the change of radium into niton). But radioactivity sometimes results in -the expulsion of a [beta]-particle from the nucleus. This results in the -addition of an electron to the shell, and hence changes the chemical -character of the element, transmuting it into one occupying a position -one place to the right in the periodic system, but _without altering its -atomic weight_. Consequently, the expulsion of one [alpha]- and two -[beta]-particles from the nucleus, whilst decreasing the atomic weight -of the element by 4, leaves the number of electrons in the shell, and -thus the chemical properties of the element, unaltered. These remarkable -conclusions are amply borne out by the facts, and the discovery of -elements (called "isobares") having the same atomic weight but different -chemical properties, and of those (called "isotopes") having identical -chemical characters but different atomic weights, must be regarded as -one of the most significant and important discoveries of recent years. -Some further reference to this theory will be found in Sec.Sec. 77 and 81: -the reader who wishes to follow the matter further should consult the -fourth edition of Professor Frederick Soddy's _The Interpretation of -Radium_ (1920), and the two chapters on the subject in his _Science and -Life_ (1920), one of which is a popular exposition and the other a more -technical one. - -These advances in knowledge all point to the possibility of effecting -transmutations at will, but so far attempts to achieve this, as I have -already indicated, cannot be regarded as altogether satisfactory. -Several methods of making gold, or rather elements chemically identical -with gold, once the method of controlling radioactive change is -discovered (as assuredly it will be) are suggested by Sir Ernest -Rutherford's theory of the nuclear atom. Thus, the expulsion of two -[alpha]-particles from bismuth or one from thallium would yield the -required result. Or lead could be converted into mercury by the -expulsion of one [alpha]-particle, and this into thallium by the -expulsion of one [beta]-particle, yielding gold by the further expulsion -of an [alpha]-particle. But, as Professor Soddy remarks in his _Science -and Life_ just referred to, "if man ever achieves this further control -over Nature, it is quite certain that the last thing he would want to do -would be to turn lead or mercury into gold--_for the sake of gold_. The -energy that would be liberated, if the control of these sub-atomic -processes were as possible as is the control of ordinary chemical -changes, such as combustion, would far exceed in importance and value -the gold. Rather it would pay to transmute gold into silver or some base -metal." - -In Sec. 101 of the book I suggest that the question of the effect on the -world of finance of the discovery of an inexpensive method of -transmuting base metal into gold on a large scale is one that should -appeal to a novelist specially gifted with imagination. Since the words -were first written a work has appeared in which something approximating -to what was suggested has been attempted and very admirably achieved. My -reference is to Mr. H. G. Wells's novel, _The World Set Free_, published -in 1914. - -In conclusion I should like to thank the very many reviewers who found -so many good things to say concerning the first edition of this book. -For kind assistance in reading the proofs of this edition my best thanks -are due also and are hereby tendered to my wife, and my good friend -Gerald Druce, Esq., M.Sc. - - H. S. R. - - 191, CAMDEN ROAD, LONDON, N.W. 1. - _October_, 1921. - - - - -PREFACE - - -The number of books in the English language dealing with the interesting -subject of Alchemy is not sufficiently great to render an apology -necessary for adding thereto. Indeed, at the present time there is an -actual need for a further contribution on this subject. The time is gone -when it was regarded as perfectly legitimate to point to Alchemy as an -instance of the aberrations of the human mind. Recent experimental -research has brought about profound modifications in the scientific -notions regarding the chemical elements, and, indeed, in the scientific -concept of the physical universe itself; and a certain resemblance can -be traced between these later views and the theories of bygone Alchemy. -The spontaneous change of one "element" into another has been witnessed, -and the recent work of Sir William Ramsay suggests the possibility of -realising the old alchemistic dream--the transmutation of the "base" -metals into gold. - -The basic idea permeating all the alchemistic theories appears to have -been this: All the metals (and, indeed, all forms of matter) are one in -origin, and are produced by an evolutionary process. The Soul of them -all is one and the same; it is only the Soul that is permanent; the -body or outward form, _i.e._, the mode of manifestation of the Soul, is -transitory, and one form may be transmuted into another. The similarity, -indeed it might be said, the identity, between this view and the modern -etheric theory of matter is at once apparent. - -The old alchemists reached the above conclusion by a theoretical method, -and attempted to demonstrate the validity of their theory by means of -experiment; in which, it appears, they failed. Modern science, adopting -the reverse process, for a time lost hold of the idea of the unity of -the physical universe, to gain it once again by the experimental method. -It was in the elaboration of this grand fundamental idea that Alchemy -failed. If I were asked to contrast Alchemy with the chemical and -physical science of the nineteenth century I would say that, whereas the -latter abounded in a wealth of much accurate detail and much relative -truth, it lacked philosophical depth and insight; whilst Alchemy, -deficient in such accurate detail, was characterised by a greater degree -of philosophical depth and insight; for the alchemists did grasp the -fundamental truth of the Cosmos, although they distorted it and made it -appear grotesque. The alchemists cast their theories in a mould entirely -fantastic, even ridiculous--they drew unwarrantable analogies--and hence -their views cannot be accepted in these days of modern science. But if -we cannot approve of their theories _in toto_, we can nevertheless -appreciate the fundamental ideas at the root of them. And it is -primarily with the object of pointing out this similarity between these -ancient ideas regarding the physical universe and the latest products -of scientific thought, that this book has been written. - -It is a regrettable fact that the majority of works dealing with the -subject of Alchemy take a one-sided point of view. The chemists -generally take a purely physical view of the subject, and instead of -trying to understand its mystical language, often (I do not say always) -prefer to label it nonsense and the alchemist a fool. On the other hand, -the mystics, in many cases, take a purely transcendental view of the -subject, forgetting the fact that the alchemists were, for the most -part, concerned with operations of a physical nature. For a proper -understanding of Alchemy, as I hope to make plain in the first chapter -of this work, a synthesis of both points of view is essential; and, -since these two aspects are so intimately and essentially connected with -one another, this is necessary even when, as in the following work, one -is concerned primarily with the physical, rather than the purely -mystical, aspect of the subject. - -Now, the author of this book may lay claim to being a humble student of -both Chemistry and what may be generalised under the terms Mysticism and -Transcendentalism; and he hopes that this perhaps rather unusual -combination of studies has enabled him to take a broad-minded view of -the theories of the alchemists, and to adopt a sympathetic attitude -towards them. - -With regard to the illustrations, the author must express his thanks to -the authorities of the British Museum for permission to photograph -engraved portraits and illustrations from old works in the British -Museum Collections, and to G. H. Gabb, Esq., F.C.S., for permission to -photograph engraved portraits in his possession. - -The author's heartiest thanks are also due to Frank E. Weston, Esq., -B.Sc., F.C.S., and W. G. Llewellyn, Esq., for their kind help in reading -the proofs, &c. - - H. S. R. - - THE POLYTECHNIC, LONDON, W. - _October, 1910._ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - CHAPTER I. THE MEANING OF ALCHEMY 1 - - Sec. 1. The Aim of Alchemy 1 - Sec. 2. The Transcendental Theory of Alchemy 2 - Sec. 3. Failure of the Transcendental Theory 3 - Sec. 4. The Qualifications of the Adept 4 - Sec. 5. Alchemistic Language 5 - Sec. 6. Alchemists of a Mystical Type 7 - Sec. 7. The Meaning of Alchemy 7 - Sec. 8. Opinions of other Writers 8 - Sec. 9. The Basic Idea of Alchemy 10 - Sec. 10. The Law of Analogy 12 - Sec. 11. The Dual Nature of Alchemy 13 - Sec. 12. "Body, Soul and Spirit" 14 - Sec. 13. Alchemy, Mysticism and Modern Science 15 - - - CHAPTER II. THE THEORY OF PHYSICAL ALCHEMY 17 - - Sec. 14. Supposed Proofs of Transmutation 17 - Sec. 15. The Alchemistic Elements 18 - Sec. 16. Aristotle's Views regarding the Elements 19 - Sec. 17. The Sulphur-Mercury Theory 20 - Sec. 18. The Sulphur-Mercury-Salt Theory 22 - Sec. 19. Alchemistic Elements and Principles 23 - Sec. 20. The Growth of the Metals 25 - Sec. 21. Alchemy and Astrology 26 - Sec. 22. Alchemistic View of the Nature of Gold 27 - Sec. 23. The Philosopher's Stone 29 - Sec. 24. The Nature of the Philosopher's Stone 30 - Sec. 25. The Theory of Development 32 - Sec. 26. The Powers of the Philosopher's Stone 34 - Sec. 27. The Elixir of Life 35 - Sec. 28. The Practical Methods of the Alchemists 36 - - - CHAPTER III. THE ALCHEMISTS (A. BEFORE PARACELSUS) 39 - - Sec. 29. Hermes Trismegistos 39 - Sec. 30. The Smaragdine Table 40 - Sec. 31. Zosimus of Panopolis 42 - Sec. 32. Geber 42 - Sec. 33. Other Arabian Alchemists 44 - Sec. 34. Albertus Magnus 44 - Sec. 35. Thomas Aquinas 44 - Sec. 36. Roger Bacon 45 - Sec. 37. Arnold de Villanova 47 - Sec. 38. Raymond Lully 47 - Sec. 39. Peter Bonus 49 - Sec. 40. Nicolas Flamel 51 - Sec. 41. "Basil Valentine" and the _Triumphal Chariot of - Antimony_. 52 - Sec. 42. Isaac of Holland 53 - Sec. 43. Bernard Trevisan 54 - Sec. 44. Sir George Ripley 55 - Sec. 45. Thomas Norton 56 - - - CHAPTER IV. THE ALCHEMISTS (B. PARACELSUS AND AFTER) 58 - - Sec. 46. Paracelsus 58 - Sec. 47. Views of Paracelsus 60 - Sec. 48. Iatro-chemistry 61 - Sec. 49. The Rosicrucian Society 62 - Sec. 50. Thomas Charnock 65 - Sec. 51. Andreas Libavius 66 - Sec. 52. Edward Kelley and John Dee 67 - Sec. 53. Henry Khunrath 70 - Sec. 54. Alexander Sethon and Michael Sendivogius 70 - Sec. 55. Michael Maier 72 - Sec. 56. Jacob Boehme 74 - Sec. 57. J. B. van Helmont and F. M. van Helmont 75 - Sec. 58. Johann Rudolf Glauber 77 - Sec. 59. Thomas Vaughan ("Eugenius Philalethes") 77 - Sec. 60. "Eirenaeus Philalethes" and George Starkey 79 - - - CHAPTER V. THE OUTCOME OF ALCHEMY 81 - - Sec. 61. Did the Alchemists achieve the _Magnum Opus_? 81 - Sec. 62. The Testimony of van Helmont 82 - Sec. 63. The Testimony of Helvetius 83 - Sec. 64. Helvetius obtains the Philosopher's Stone 85 - Sec. 65. Helvetius performs a Transmutation 87 - Sec. 66. Helvetius's Gold Assayed 88 - Sec. 67. Helvetius's Gold Further Tested 88 - Sec. 68. The Genesis of Chemistry 89 - Sec. 69. The Degeneracy of Alchemy 90 - Sec. 70. "Count Cagliostro" 91 - - - CHAPTER VI. THE AGE OF MODERN CHEMISTRY 94 - - Sec. 71. The Birth of Modern Chemistry 94 - Sec. 72. The Phlogiston Theory 94 - Sec. 73. Boyle and the Definition of an Element 96 - Sec. 74. The Stoichiometric Laws 96 - Sec. 75. Dalton's Atomic Theory 99 - Sec. 76. The Determination of the Atomic Weights of the - Elements 102 - Sec. 77. Prout's Hypothesis 102 - Sec. 78. The "Periodic Law" 105 - Sec. 79. The Corpuscular Theory of Matter 109 - Sec. 80. Proof that the Electrons are not Matter 110 - Sec. 81. The Electronic Theory of Matter 112 - Sec. 82. The Etheric Theory of Matter 113 - Sec. 83. Further Evidence of the Complexity of the Atoms 114 - Sec. 84. Views of Wald and Ostwald 115 - - - CHAPTER VII. MODERN ALCHEMY 117 - - Sec. 85. "Modern Alchemy" 117 - Sec. 86. X-Rays and Becquerel Rays 117 - Sec. 87. The Discovery of Radium 118 - Sec. 88. Chemical Properties of Radium 119 - Sec. 89. The Radioactivity of Radium 120 - Sec. 90. The Disintegration of the Radium Atom 122 - Sec. 91. "Induced Radioactivity" 123 - Sec. 92. Properties of Uranium and Thorium 123 - Sec. 93. The Radium Emanation 124 - Sec. 94. The Production of Helium from Emanation 125 - Sec. 95. Nature of this Change 127 - Sec. 96. Is this Change a true Transmutation? 128 - Sec. 97. The Production of Neon from Emanation 130 - Sec. 98. Ramsay's Experiments on Copper 132 - Sec. 99. Further Experiments on Radium and Copper 134 - Sec. 100. Ramsay's Experiments on Thorium and allied Metals 134 - Sec. 101. The Possibility of Making Gold 136 - Sec. 102. The Significance of "Allotropy" 136 - Sec. 103. Conclusion 142 - - - - -LIST OF PLATES - - - PLATE 1. Portrait of Paracelsus _Frontispiece_ - - TO FACE PAGE - - PLATE 2. Symbolical Illustration representing the Trinity of - Body, Soul and Spirit 15 - - PLATE 3. Symbolical Illustrations representing-- - (A) The Fertility of the Earth } 26 - (B) The Amalgamation of Mercury and Gold } - - PLATE 4. Symbolical Illustrations representing-- - (A) The Coction of Gold-Amalgam in a Closed Vessel } 33 - (B) The Transmutation of the Metals } - - PLATE 5. Alchemistic Apparatus-- - (A) (B) Two forms of apparatus for sublimation 37 - - PLATE 6. Alchemistic Apparatus-- - (A) An Athanor } 38 - (B) A Pelican } - - PLATE 7. Portrait of Albertus Magnus 44 - - PLATE 8. Portraits of-- - (A) Thomas Aquinas } 52 - (B) Nicolas Flamel } - - PLATE 9. Portraits of-- - (A) Edward Kelley } 68 - (B) John Dee } - - PLATE 10. Portrait of Michael Maier 72 - - PLATE 11. Portrait of Jacob Boehme 74 - - PLATE 12. Portraits of J. B. and F. M. van Helmont 76 - - PLATE 13. Portrait of J. F. Helvetius 84 - - PLATE 14. Portrait of "Cagliostro" 92 - - PLATE 15. Portrait of Robert Boyle 94 - - PLATE 16. Portrait of John Dalton 100 - - - TABLE SHOWING THE PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHEMICAL - ELEMENTS Pages 106, 107 - - - - -ALCHEMY: - -ANCIENT AND MODERN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE MEANING OF ALCHEMY - - -The Aim of Alchemy. - -Sec. =1.= Alchemy is generally understood to have been that art whose end -was the transmutation of the so-called base metals into gold by means of -an ill-defined something called the Philosopher's Stone; but even from a -purely physical standpoint, this is a somewhat superficial view. Alchemy -was both a philosophy and an experimental science, and the transmutation -of the metals was its end only in that this would give the final proof -of the alchemistic hypotheses; in other words, Alchemy, considered from -the physical standpoint, was the attempt to demonstrate experimentally -on the material plane the validity of a certain philosophical view of -the Cosmos. We see the genuine scientific spirit in the saying of one of -the alchemists: "Would to God . . . all men might become adepts in our -Art--for then gold, the great idol of mankind, would lose its value, and -we should prize it only for its scientific teaching."[6] Unfortunately, -however, not many alchemists came up to this ideal; and for the majority -of them, Alchemy did mean merely the possibility of making gold cheaply -and gaining untold wealth. - - [6] "EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES": _An Open Entrance to the Closed Palace - of the King_ (see _The Hermetic Museum, Restored and Enlarged_, - edited by A. E. Waite, 1893, vol. ii. p. 178). - - -The Transcendental Theory of Alchemy. - -Sec. =2.= By some mystics, however, the opinion has been expressed that -Alchemy was not a physical art or science at all, that in no sense was -its object the manufacture of material gold, and that its processes were -not carried out on the physical plane. According to this transcendental -theory, Alchemy was concerned with man's soul, its object was the -perfection, not of material substances, but of man in a spiritual sense. -Those who hold this view identify Alchemy with, or at least regard it as -a branch of, Mysticism, from which it is supposed to differ merely by -the employment of a special language; and they hold that the writings of -the alchemists must not be understood literally as dealing with chemical -operations, with furnaces, retorts, alembics, pelicans and the like, -with salt, sulphur, mercury, gold and other material substances, but -must be understood as grand allegories dealing with spiritual truths. -According to this view, the figure of the transmutation of the "base" -metals into gold symbolised the salvation of man--the transmutation of -his soul into spiritual gold--which was to be obtained by the -elimination of evil and the development of good by the grace of God; and -the realisation of which salvation or spiritual transmutation may be -described as the New Birth, or that condition of being known as union -with the Divine. It would follow, of course, if this theory were true, -that the genuine alchemists were pure mystics, and hence, that the -development of chemical science was not due to their labours, but to -pseudo-alchemists who so far misunderstood their writings as to have -interpreted them in a literal sense. - - -Failure of the Transcendental Theory. - -Sec. =3.= This theory, however, has been effectively disposed of by Mr. -Arthur Edward Waite, who points to the lives of the alchemists -themselves in refutation of it. For their lives indisputably prove that -the alchemists were occupied with chemical operations on the physical -plane, and that for whatever motive, they toiled to discover a method -for transmuting the commoner metals into actual, material gold. As -Paracelsus himself says of the true "spagyric physicians," who were the -alchemists of his period: "These do not give themselves up to ease and -idleness . . . But they devote themselves diligently to their labours, -sweating whole nights over fiery furnaces. These do not kill the time -with empty talk, but find their delight in their laboratory."[7] The -writings of the alchemists contain (mixed, however, with much that from -the physical standpoint appears merely fantastic) accurate accounts of -many chemical processes and discoveries, which cannot be explained away -by any method of transcendental interpretation. There is not the -slightest doubt that chemistry owes its origin to the direct labours of -the alchemists themselves, and not to any who misread their writings. - - [7] PARACELSUS: "Concerning the Nature of Things" (see _The Hermetic - and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus_, edited by A. E. Waite, 1894, - vol. i. p. 167). - - -The Qualifications of the Adept. - -Sec. =4.= At the same time, it is quite evident that there is a -considerable element of Mysticism in the alchemistic doctrines; this has -always been recognised; but, as a general rule, those who have -approached the subject from the scientific point of view have considered -this mystical element as of little or no importance. However, there are -certain curious facts which are not satisfactorily explained by a purely -physical theory of Alchemy, and, in our opinion, the recognition of the -importance of this mystical element and of the true relation which -existed between Alchemy and Mysticism is essential for the right -understanding of the subject. We may notice, in the first place, that -the alchemists always speak of their Art as a Divine Gift, the highest -secrets of which are not to be learnt from any books on the subject; and -they invariably teach that the right mental attitude with regard to God -is the first step necessary for the achievement of the _magnum opus_. As -says one alchemist: "In the first place, let every devout and -God-fearing chemist and student of this Art consider that this arcanum -should be regarded, not only as a truly great, but as a most holy Art -(seeing that it typifies and shadows out the highest heavenly good). -Therefore, if any man desire to reach this great and unspeakable -Mystery, he must remember that it is obtained not by the might of man, -but by the grace of God, and that not our will or desire, but only the -mercy of the Most High, can bestow it upon us. For this reason you must -first of all cleanse your heart, lift it up to Him alone, and ask of -Him this gift in true, earnest, and undoubting prayer. He alone can give -and bestow it."[8] And "Basil Valentine": "First, there should be the -invocation of God, flowing from the depth of a pure and sincere heart, -and a conscience which should be free from all ambition, hypocrisy, and -vice, as also from all cognate faults, such as arrogance, boldness, -pride, luxury, worldly vanity, oppression of the poor, and similar -iniquities, which should all be rooted up out of the heart--that when a -man appears before the Throne of Grace, to regain the health of his -body, he may come with a conscience weeded of all tares, and be changed -into a pure temple of God cleansed of all that defiles."[9] - - [8] _The Sophic Hydrolith; or, Water Stone of the Wise_ (see _The - Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 74). - - [9] _The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony_ (Mr. A. E. Waite's - translation, p. 13). See Sec. 41. - - -Alchemistic Language. - -Sec. =5.= In the second place, we must notice the nature of alchemistic -language. As we have hinted above, and as is at once apparent on opening -any alchemistic book, the language of Alchemy is very highly mystical, -and there is much that is perfectly unintelligible in a physical sense. -Indeed, the alchemists habitually apologise for their vagueness on the -plea that such mighty secrets may not be made more fully manifest. It is -true, of course, that in the days of Alchemy's degeneracy a good deal of -pseudo-mystical nonsense was written by the many impostors then -abounding, but the mystical style of language is by no means confined to -the later alchemistic writings. It is also true that the alchemists, no -doubt, desired to shield their secrets from vulgar and profane eyes, and -hence would necessarily adopt a symbolic language. But it is past belief -that the language of the alchemist was due to some arbitrary plan; -whatever it is to us, it was very real to him. Moreover, this argument -cuts both ways, for those, also, who take a transcendental view of -Alchemy regard its language as symbolical, although after a different -manner. It is also, to say the least, curious, as Mr. A. E. Waite points -out, that this mystical element should be found in the writings of the -earlier alchemists, whose manuscripts were not written for publication, -and therefore ran no risk of informing the vulgar of the precious -secrets of Alchemy. On the other hand, the transcendental method of -translation does often succeed in making sense out of what is otherwise -unintelligible in the writings of the alchemists. The above-mentioned -writer remarks on this point: "Without in any way pretending to assert -that this hypothesis reduces the literary chaos of the philosophers into -a regular order, it may be affirmed that it materially elucidates their -writings, and that it is wonderful how contradictions, absurdities, and -difficulties seem to dissolve wherever it is applied."[10] - - [10] ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: _The Occult Sciences_ (1891), p. 91. - -The alchemists' love of symbolism is also conspicuously displayed in the -curious designs with which certain of their books are embellished. We -are not here referring to the illustrations of actual apparatus employed -in carrying out the various operations of physical Alchemy, which are -not infrequently found in the works of those alchemists who at the same -time were practical chemists (Glauber, for example), but to pictures -whose meaning plainly lies not upon the surface and whose import is -clearly symbolical, whether their symbolism has reference to physical or -to spiritual processes. Examples of such symbolic illustrations, many of -which are highly fantastic, will be found in plates 2, 3, and 4. We -shall refer to them again in the course of the present and following -chapters. - - -Alchemists of a Mystical Type. - -Sec. =6.= We must also notice that, although there cannot be the slightest -doubt that the great majority of alchemists were engaged in problems and -experiments of a physical nature, yet there were a few men included -within the alchemistic ranks who were entirely, or almost entirely, -concerned with problems of a spiritual nature; Thomas Vaughan, for -example, and Jacob Boehme, who boldly employed the language of Alchemy -in the elaboration of his system of mystical philosophy. And -particularly must we notice, as Mr. A. E. Waite has also indicated, the -significant fact that the Western alchemists make unanimous appeal to -Hermes Trismegistos as the greatest authority on the art of Alchemy, -whose alleged writings are of an undoubtedly mystical character (see Sec. -29). It is clear, that in spite of its apparently physical nature, -Alchemy must have been in some way closely connected with Mysticism. - - -The Meaning of Alchemy. - -Sec. =7.= If we are ever to understand the meaning of Alchemy aright we -must look at the subject from the alchemistic point of view. In modern -times there has come about a divorce between Religion and Science in -men's minds (though more recently a unifying tendency has set in); but -it was otherwise with the alchemists, their religion and their science -were closely united. We have said that "Alchemy was the attempt to -demonstrate experimentally on the material plane the validity of a -certain philosophical view of the Cosmos"; now, this "philosophical view -of the Cosmos" was Mysticism. =Alchemy had its origin in the attempt to -apply, in a certain manner, the principles of Mysticism to the things of -the physical plane=, and was, therefore, of a dual nature, on the one -hand spiritual and religious, on the other, physical and material. As -the anonymous author of _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1815) -remarks, "The universal chemistry, by which the science of alchemy opens -the knowledge of all nature, being founded on _first principles_ forms -analogy with whatever knowledge is founded on the _same first -principles_. . . . Saint John describes the redemption, or the new -creation of the fallen soul, on the _same first principles_, until the -consummation of the work, in which the Divine tincture transmutes the -base metal of the soul into a perfection, that will pass the fire of -eternity;"[11] that is to say, Alchemy and the mystical regeneration of -man (in this writer's opinion) are analogous processes on different -planes of being, because they are founded on the same first principles. - - [11] F. B.: _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1815), Preface, - p. 3. - - -Opinions of other Writers. - -Sec. =8.= We shall here quote the opinions of two modern writers, as to the -significance of Alchemy; one a mystic, the other a man of science. Says -Mr. A. E. Waite, "If the authors of the 'Suggestive Inquiry' and of -'Remarks on Alchemy and the Alchemists' [two books putting forward the -transcendental theory] had considered the lives of the symbolists, as -well as the nature of the symbols, their views would have been very much -modified; they would have found that the true method of Hermetic -interpretation lies in a middle course; but the errors which originated -with merely typographical investigations were intensified by a -consideration of the great alchemical theorem, which, _par excellence_, -is one of universal development, which acknowledges that every substance -contains undeveloped resources and potentialities, and can be brought -outward and forward into perfection. They [the generality of alchemists] -applied their theory only to the development of metallic substances from -a lower to a higher order, but we see by their writings that the grand -hierophants of Oriental and Western alchemy alike were continually -haunted by brief and imperfect glimpses of glorious possibilities for -man, if the evolution of his nature were accomplished along the lines of -their theory."[12] Mr. M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A., says: ". . . alchemy -aimed at giving experimental proof of a certain theory of the whole -system of nature, including humanity. The practical culmination of the -alchemical quest presented a threefold aspect; the alchemists sought the -stone of wisdom, for by gaining that they gained the control of wealth; -they sought the universal panacea, for that would give them the power of -enjoying wealth and life; they sought the soul of the world, for thereby -they could hold communion with spiritual existences, and enjoy the -fruition of spiritual life. The object of their search was to satisfy -their material needs, their intellectual capacities, and their spiritual -yearnings. The alchemists of the nobler sort always made the first of -these objects subsidiary to the other two. . . ."[13] - - [12] ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ - (1888), pp. 30, 31. As says another writer of the mystical school of - thought: "If we look upon the subject [of Alchymy] from the point - which affords the widest view, it may be said that Alchymy has two - aspects: the simply material, and the religious. The dogma that - Alchymy was only a form of chemistry is untenable by any one who has - read the works of its chief professors. The doctrine that Alchymy - was religion only, and that its chemical references were all blinds, - is equally untenable in the face of history, which shows that many - of its most noted professors were men who had made important - discoveries in the domain of common chemistry, and were in no way - notable as teachers either of ethics or religion" ("Sapere Aude," - _The Science of Alchymy, Spiritual and Material_ (1893), pp. 3 and - 4). - - [13] M. M. PATTISON MUIR, M.A.: _The Story of Alchemy and the - Beginnings of Chemistry_ (1902), pp. 105 and 106. - - -The Basic Idea of Alchemy. - -Sec. =9.= The famous axiom beloved by every alchemist--"_What is above is -as that which is below, and what is below is as that which is -above_"--although of questionable origin, tersely expresses the basic -idea of Alchemy. The alchemists postulated and believed in a very real -sense in the essential unity of the Cosmos. Hence, they held that there -is a correspondence or analogy existing between things spiritual and -things physical, the same laws operating in each realm. As writes -Sendivogius ". . . the Sages have been taught of God that this natural -world is only an image and material copy of a heavenly and spiritual -pattern; that the very existence of this world is based upon the reality -of its celestial archetype; and that God has created it in imitation of -the spiritual and invisible universe, in order that men might be the -better enabled to comprehend His heavenly teaching, and the wonders of -His absolute and ineffable power and wisdom. Thus the Sage sees heaven -reflected in Nature as in a mirror; and he pursues this Art, not for the -sake of gold or silver, but for the love of the knowledge which it -reveals; he jealously conceals it from the sinner and the scornful, lest -the mysteries of heaven should be laid bare to the vulgar gaze."[14] - - [14] MICHAEL SENDIVOGIUS: _The New Chemical Light, Pt. II., - Concerning Sulphur_ (_The Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. p. 138). - -The alchemists held that the metals are one in essence, and spring from -the same seed in the womb of nature, but are not all equally matured and -perfect, gold being the highest product of Nature's powers. In gold, the -alchemist saw a picture of the regenerate man, resplendent with -spiritual beauty, overcoming all temptations and proof against evil; -whilst he regarded lead--the basest of the metals--as typical of the -sinful and unregenerate man, stamped with the hideousness of sin and -easily overcome by temptation and evil; for whilst gold withstood the -action of fire and all known corrosive liquids (save _aqua regia_ -alone), lead was most easily acted upon. We are told that the -Philosopher's Stone, which would bring about the desired grand -transmutation, is of a species with gold itself and purer than the -purest; understood in the mystical sense this means that the -regeneration of man can be effected only by Goodness itself--in terms of -Christian theology, by the Power of the Spirit of Christ. The -Philosopher's Stone was regarded as symbolical of Christ Jesus, and in -this sense we can understand the otherwise incredible powers attributed -to it. - - -The Law of Analogy. - -Sec. =10.= With the theories of physical Alchemy we shall deal at length in -the following chapter, but enough has been said to indicate the analogy -existing, according to the alchemistic view, between the problem of the -perfection of the metals, _i.e._, the transmutation of the "base" metals -into gold, and the perfection or transfiguration of spiritual man; and -it might also be added, between these problems and that of the -perfection of man considered physiologically. To the alchemistic -philosopher these three problems were one: the same problem on different -planes of being; and the solution was likewise one. He who held the key -to one problem held the key to all three, provided he understood the -analogy between matter and spirit. The point is not, be it noted, -whether these problems are in reality one and the same; the main -doctrine of analogy, which is, indeed, an essential element in all true -mystical philosophy, will, we suppose, meet with general consent; but it -will be contended (and rightly, we think) that the analogies drawn by -the alchemists are fantastic and by no means always correct, though -possibly there may be more truth in them than appears at first sight. -The point is not that these analogies are correct, but that they were -regarded as such by all true alchemists. Says the author of _The Sophic -Hydrolith_: ". . . the practice of this Art enables us to understand, -not merely the marvels of Nature, but the nature of God Himself, in all -its unspeakable glory. It shadows forth, in a wonderful manner . . . all -the articles of the Christian faith, and the reason why man must pass -through much tribulation and anguish, and fall a prey to death, before -he can rise again to a new life."[15] A considerable portion of this -curious alchemistic work is taken up in expounding the analogy believed -to exist between the Philosopher's Stone and "the Stone which the -builders rejected," Christ Jesus; and the writer concludes: "Thus . . . -I have briefly and simply set forth to you the perfect analogy which -exists between our earthly and chemical and the true and heavenly Stone, -Jesus Christ, whereby we may attain unto certain beatitude and -perfection, not only in earthly but also in eternal life."[16] And -likewise says Peter Bonus: "I am firmly persuaded that any unbeliever -who got truly to know this Art, would straightway confess the truth of -our Blessed Religion, and believe in the Trinity and in our Lord Jesus -Christ."[17] - - [15] _The Sophic Hydrolith; or, Water Stone of the Wise_ (see _The - Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 88). - - [16] _Ibid._ p. 114. - - [17] PETER BONUS: _The New Pearl of Great Price_ (Mr. A. E. Waite's - translation, p. 275). - - -The Dual Nature of Alchemy. - -Sec. =11.= For the most part, the alchemists were chiefly engaged with the -carrying out of the alchemistic theory on the physical plane, _i.e._, -with the attempt to transmute the "base" metals into the "noble" ones; -some for the love of knowledge, but alas! the vast majority for the love -of mere wealth. But all who were worthy of the title of "alchemist" -realised at times, more or less dimly, the possibility of the -application of the same methods to man and the glorious result of the -transmutation of man's soul into spiritual gold. There were a few who -had a clearer vision of this ideal, those who devoted their activities -entirely, or almost so, to the attainment of this highest goal of -alchemistic philosophy, and concerned themselves little if at all with -the analogous problem on the physical plane. The theory that Alchemy -originated in the attempt to demonstrate the applicability of the -principles of Mysticism to the things of the physical realm brings into -harmony the physical and transcendental theories of Alchemy and the -various conflicting facts advanced in favour of each. It explains the -existence of the above-mentioned, two very different types of -alchemists. It explains the appeal to the works attributed to Hermes, -and the presence in the writings of the alchemists of much that is -clearly mystical. And finally, it is in agreement with such statements -as we have quoted above from _The Sophic Hydrolith_ and elsewhere, and -the general religious tone of the alchemistic writings. - -[Illustration: PLATE 2. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Trinity of Body, Soul and Spirit. - -[_To face page 15_] - - -"Body, Soul and Spirit." - -Sec. =12.= In accordance with our primary object as stated in the preface, -we shall confine our attention mainly to the physical aspect of Alchemy; -but in order to understand its theories, it appears to us to be -essential to realise the fact that Alchemy was an attempted application -of the principles of Mysticism to the things of the physical world. The -supposed analogy between man and the metals sheds light on what -otherwise would be very difficult to understand. It helps to make plain -why the alchemists attributed moral qualities to the metals--some are -called "imperfect," "base"; others are said to be "perfect," "noble." -And especially does it help to explain the alchemistic notions -regarding the nature of the metals. The alchemists believed that the -metals were constructed after the manner of man, into whose constitution -three factors were regarded as entering: body, soul, and spirit. As -regards man, mystical philosophers generally use these terms as follows: -"body" is the outward manifestation and form; "soul" is the inward -individual spirit[18]; and "spirit" is the universal Soul in all men. -And likewise, according to the alchemists, in the metals, there is the -"body" or outward form and properties, "metalline soul" or spirit,[19] -and finally, the all-pervading essence of all metals. As writes the -author of the exceedingly curious tract entitled _The Book of -Lambspring_: "Be warned and understand truly that two fishes are -swimming in our sea," illustrating his remark by the symbolical picture -reproduced in plate 2, and adding in elucidation thereof, "The Sea is -the Body, the two Fishes are Soul and Spirit."[20] The alchemists, -however, were not always consistent in their use of the term "spirit." -Sometimes (indeed frequently) they employed it to denote merely the more -volatile portions of a chemical substance; at other times it had a more -interior significance. - - [18] Which, in virtue of man's self-consciousness, is, by the grace - of God, immortal. - - [19] See the work _Of Natural and Supernatural Things_, attributed - to "Basil Valentine," for a description of the "spirits" of the - metals in particular. - - [20] _The Book of Lambspring_, translated by Nicholas Barnaud - Delphinas (see the _Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 277). This work - contains many other fantastic alchemistic symbolical pictures, - amongst the most curious series in alchemistic literature. - - -Alchemy, Mysticism and Modern Science. - -Sec. =13.= We notice the great difference between the alchemistic theory -and the views regarding the constitution of matter which have dominated -Chemistry since the time of Dalton. But at the present time Dalton's -theory of the chemical elements is undergoing a profound modification. -We do not imply that Modern Science is going back to any such fantastic -ideas as were held by the alchemists, but we are struck with the -remarkable similarity between this alchemistic theory of a soul of all -metals, a one primal element, and modern views regarding the ether of -space. In its attempt to demonstrate the applicability of the -fundamental principles of Mysticism to the things of the physical realm -Alchemy apparently failed and ended its days in fraud. It appears, -however, that this true aim of alchemistic art--particularly the -demonstration of the validity of the theory that all the various forms -of matter are produced by an evolutionary process from some one primal -element or _quintessence_--is being realised by recent researches in the -domain of physical and chemical science. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE THEORY OF PHYSICAL ALCHEMY - - -Supposed Proofs of Transmutation. - -Sec. =14.= It must be borne in mind when reviewing the theories of the -alchemists, that there were a number of phenomena known at the time, the -superficial examination of which would naturally engender a belief that -the transmutation of the metals was a common occurrence. For example, -the deposition of copper on iron when immersed in a solution of a copper -salt (_e.g._, blue vitriol) was naturally concluded to be a -transmutation of iron into copper,[21] although, had the alchemists -examined the residual liquid, they would have found that the two metals -had merely exchanged places; and the fact that white and yellow alloys -of copper with arsenic and other substances could be produced, pointed -to the possibility of transmuting copper into silver and gold. It was -also known that if water (and this is true of distilled water which does -not contain solid matter in solution) was boiled for some time in a -glass flask, some solid, earthy matter was produced; and if water could -be transmuted into earth, surely one metal could be converted into -another.[22] On account of these and like phenomena the alchemists -regarded the transmutation of the metals as an experimentally proved -fact. Even if they are to be blamed for their superficial observation of -such phenomena, yet, nevertheless, their labours marked a distinct -advance upon the purely speculative and theoretical methods of the -philosophers preceding them. Whatever their faults, the alchemists -_were_ the forerunners of modern experimental science. - - [21] Cf. _The Golden Tract concerning the Stone of the Philosophers_ - (_The Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 25). - - [22] Lavoisier (eighteenth century) proved this apparent - transmutation to be due to the action of the water on the glass - vessel containing it. - - -The Alchemistic Elements. - -Sec. =15.= The alchemists regarded the metals as composite, and granting -this, then the possibility of transmutation is only a logical -conclusion. In order to understand the theory of the elements held by -them we must rid ourselves of any idea that it bears any close -resemblance to Dalton's theory of the chemical elements; this is clear -from what has been said in the preceding chapter. Now, it is a fact of -simple observation that many otherwise different bodies manifest some -property in common, as, for instance, combustibility. Properties such as -these were regarded as being due to some principle or element common to -all bodies exhibiting such properties; thus, combustibility was thought -to be due to some elementary principle of combustion--the "sulphur" of -the alchemists and the "phlogiston" of a later period. This is a view -which _a priori_ appears to be not unlikely; but it is now known that, -although there are relations existing between the properties of bodies -and their constituent chemical elements (and also, it should be noted, -the relative arrangement of the particles of these elements), it is the -less obvious properties which enable chemists to determine the -constitution of bodies, and the connection is very far from being of the -simple nature imagined by the alchemists. - - -Aristotle's Views regarding the Elements. - -Sec. =16.= For the origin of the alchemistic theory of the elements it is -necessary to go back to the philosophers preceding the alchemists, and -it is not improbable that they derived it from some still older source. -It was taught by Empedocles of Agrigent (440 B.C. _circa_), who -considered that there were four elements--earth, water, air, and fire. -Aristotle added a fifth, "the ether." These elements were regarded, not -as different kinds of matter, but rather as different forms of the one -original matter, whereby it manifested different properties. It was -thought that to these elements were due the four primary properties of -dryness, moistness, warmth, and coldness, each element being supposed to -give rise to two of these properties, dryness and warmth being thought -to be due to fire, moistness and warmth to air, moistness and coldness -to water, and dryness and coldness to earth. Thus, moist and cold bodies -(liquids in general) were said to possess these properties in -consequence of the aqueous element, and were termed "waters," &c. Also, -since these elements were not regarded as different kinds of matter, -transmutation was thought to be possible, one being convertible into -another, as in the example given above (Sec. 14). - - -The Sulphur-Mercury Theory. - -Sec. =17.= Coming to the alchemists, we find the view that the metals are -all composed of two elementary principles--sulphur and mercury--in -different proportions and degrees of purity, well-nigh universally -accepted in the earlier days of Alchemy. By these terms "sulphur" and -"mercury," however, must not be understood the common bodies ordinarily -designated by these names; like the elements of Aristotle, the -alchemistic principles were regarded as properties rather than as -substances, though it must be confessed that the alchemists were by no -means always clear on this point themselves. Indeed, it is not -altogether easy to say exactly what the alchemists did mean by these -terms, and the question is complicated by the fact that very frequently -they make mention of different sorts of "sulphur" and "mercury." -Probably, however, we shall not be far wrong in saying that "sulphur" -was generally regarded as the principle of combustion and also of -colour, and was said to be present on account of the fact that most -metals are changed into earthy substances by the aid of fire; and to the -"mercury," the metallic principle _par excellence_, was attributed such -properties as fusibility, malleability and lustre, which were regarded -as characteristic of the metals in general. The pseudo-Geber (see Sec. 32) -says that "Sulphur is a fatness of the Earth, by temperate Decoction in -the Mine of the Earth thickened, until it be hardned and made dry."[23] -He considered an excess of sulphur to be a cause of imperfection in the -metals, and he writes that one of the causes of the corruption of the -metals by fire "is the Inclusion of a burning Sulphuriety in the -profundity of their Substance, diminishing them by Inflamation, and -exterminating also into Fume, with extream Consumption, whatsoever -Argentvive in them is of good Fixation."[24] He assumed, further, that -the metals contained an incombustible as well as a combustible sulphur, -the latter sulphur being apparently regarded as an impurity.[25] A later -alchemist says that sulphur is "most easily recognised by the vital -spirit in animals, the colour in metals, the odour in plants."[26] -Mercury, on the other hand, according to the pseudo-Geber, is the cause -of perfection in the metals, and endows gold with its lustre. Another -alchemist, quoting Arnold de Villanova, writes: "Quicksilver is the -elementary form of all things fusible; for all things fusible, when -melted, are changed into it, and it mingles with them because it is of -the same substance with them. Such bodies differ from quicksilver in -their composition only so far as itself is or is not free from the -foreign matter of impure sulphur."[27] The obtaining of "philosophical -mercury," the imaginary virtues of which the alchemists never tired of -relating, was generally held to be essential for the attainment of the -_magnum opus_. It was commonly thought that it could be prepared from -ordinary quicksilver by purificatory processes, whereby the impure -sulphur supposed to be present in this sort of mercury might be purged -away. - - [23] _Of the Sum of Perfection_ (see _The Works of Geber_, - translated by Richard Russel, 1678, pp. 69 and 70). - - [24] _Of the Sum of Perfection_ (see _The Works of Geber_, p. 156). - - [25] See _The Works of Geber_, p. 160. This view was also held by - other alchemists. - - [26] _The New Chemical Light_, Part II., _Concerning Sulphur_ (see - _The Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. p. 151). - - [27] See _The Golden Tract concerning the Stone of the Philosophers_ - (_The Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 17). - -The sulphur-mercury theory of the metals was held by such famous -alchemists as Roger Bacon, Arnold de Villanova and Raymond Lully. Until -recently it was thought to have originated to a great extent with the -Arabian alchemist, Geber; but the late Professor Berthelot showed that -the works ascribed to Geber, in which the theory is put forward, are -forgeries of a date by which it was already centuries old (see Sec. 32). -Occasionally, arsenic was regarded as an elementary principle (this view -is to be found, for example, in the work _Of the Sum of Perfection_, by -the pseudo-Geber), but the idea was not general. - - -The Sulphur-Mercury-Salt Theory. - -Sec. =18.= Later in the history of Alchemy, the mercury-sulphur theory was -extended by the addition of a third elementary principle, salt. As in -the case of philosophical sulphur and mercury, by this term was not -meant common salt (sodium chloride) or any of those substances commonly -known as salts. "Salt" was the name given to a supposed basic principle -in the metals, a principle of fixity and solidification, conferring the -property of resistance to fire. In this extended form, the theory is -found in the works of Isaac of Holland and in those attributed to "Basil -Valentine," who (see the work _Of Natural and Supernatural Things_) -attempts to explain the differences in the properties of the metals as -the result of the differences in the proportion of sulphur, salt, and -mercury they contain. Thus, copper, which is highly coloured, is said to -contain much sulphur, whilst iron is supposed to contain an excess of -salt, &c. The sulphur-mercury-salt theory was vigorously championed by -Paracelsus, and the doctrine gained very general acceptance amongst the -alchemists. Salt, however, seems generally to have been considered a -less important principle than either mercury or sulphur. - -The same germ-idea underlying these doctrines is to be found much later -in Stahl's phlogistic theory (eighteenth century), which attempted to -account for the combustibility of bodies by the assumption that such -bodies all contain "phlogiston"--the hypothetical principle of -combustion (see Sec. 72)--though the concept of "phlogiston" approaches -more nearly to the modern idea of an element than do the alchemistic -elements or principles. It was not until still later in the history of -Chemistry that it became quite evident that the more obvious properties -of chemical substances are not specially conferred on them in virtue of -certain elements entering into their constitution. - - -Alchemistic Elements and Principles. - -Sec. =19.= The alchemists combined the above theories with Aristotle's -theory of the elements. The latter, namely, earth, air, fire and water, -were regarded as more interior, more primary, than the principles, whose -source was said to be these same elements. As writes Sendivogius in Part -II. of _The New Chemical Light_: "The three Principles of things are -produced out of the four elements in the following manner: Nature, whose -power is in her obedience to the Will of God, ordained from the very -beginning, that the four elements should incessantly act on one another -so, in obedience to her behest, fire began to act on air, and produced -Sulphur; air acted on water, and produced Mercury; water, by its action -on the earth, produced Salt. Earth, alone, having nothing to act upon, -did not produce anything, but became the nurse, or womb, of these three -Principles. We designedly speak of three Principles; for though the -Ancients mention only two, it is clear that they omitted the third -(Salt) not from ignorance, but from a desire to lead the uninitiated -astray."[28] - - [28] _The New Chemical Light_, Part II., _Concerning Sulphur_ (see - _The Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. pp. 142-143). - -Beneath and within all these coverings of outward properties, taught the -alchemists, is hidden the secret essence of all material things. ". . . -the elements and compounds," writes one alchemist, "in addition to crass -matter, are composed of a subtle substance, or intrinsic radical -humidity, diffused through the elemental parts, simple and wholly -incorruptible, long preserving the things themselves in vigour, and -called the Spirit of the World, proceeding from the Soul of the World, -the one certain life, filling and fathoming all things, gathering -together and connecting all things, so that from the three genera of -creatures, Intellectual, Celestial, and Corruptible, there is formed the -One Machine of the whole world."[29] It is hardly necessary to point out -how nearly this approaches modern views regarding the Ether of Space. - - [29] ALEXANDER VON SUCHTEN: _Man, the best and most perfect of God's - creatures. A more complete Exposition of this Medical Foundation for - the less Experienced Student._ (See BENEDICTUS FIGULUS: _A Golden - and Blessed Casket of Nature's Marvels_, translated by A. E. Waite, - 1893, pp. 71 and 72.) - - -The Growth of the Metals. - -Sec. =20.= The alchemists regarded the metals as growing in the womb of the -earth, and a knowledge of this growth as being of very great importance. -Thomas Norton (who, however, contrary to the generality of alchemists, -denied that metals have seed and that they grow in the sense of -multiply) says:-- - - "_Mettalls_ of kinde grow lowe under ground, - For above erth rust in them is found; - Soe above erth appeareth corruption, - Of mettalls, and in long tyme destruction, - Whereof noe Cause is found in this Case, - Buth that above Erth thei be not in their place - Contrarie places to nature causeth strife - As Fishes out of water losen their Lyfe: - And Man, with Beasts, and Birds live in ayer, - But Stones and Mineralls under Erth repaier."[30] - - [30] THOMAS NORTON: _Ordinall of Alchemy_ (see _Theatrum Chemicum - Britannicum_, edited by Elias Ashmole, 1652, p. 18). - -Norton here expresses the opinion, current among the alchemists, that -each and every thing has its own peculiar environment natural to it; a -view controverted by Robert Boyle (Sec. 71). So firm was the belief in the -growth of metals, that mines were frequently closed for a while in order -that the supply of metal might be renewed. The fertility of Mother Earth -forms the subject of one of the illustrations in _The Twelve Keys_ of -"Basil Valentine" (see Sec. 41). We reproduce it in plate 3, fig. A. -Regarding this subject, the author writes: "The quickening power of the -earth produces all things that grow forth from it, and he who says that -the earth has no life makes a statement which is flatly contradicted by -the most ordinary facts. For what is dead cannot produce life and -growth, seeing that it is devoid of the quickening spirit. This spirit -is the life and soul that dwell in the earth, and are nourished by -heavenly and sidereal influences. For all herbs, trees, and roots, and -all metals and minerals, receive their growth and nutriment from the -spirit of the earth, which is the spirit of life. This spirit is itself -fed by the stars, and is thereby rendered capable of imparting nutriment -to all things that grow, and of nursing them as a mother does her child -while it is yet in the womb. The minerals are hidden in the womb of the -earth, and nourished by her with the spirit which she receives from -above. - -"Thus the power of growth that I speak of is imparted not by the earth, -but by the life-giving spirit that is in it. If the earth were deserted -by this spirit, it would be dead, and no longer able to afford -nourishment to anything. For its sulphur or richness would lack the -quickening spirit without which there can be neither life nor -growth."[31] - - [31] "BASIL VALENTINE": _The Twelve Keys_ (see _The Hermetic - Museum_, vol. i. pp. 333-334). - -[Illustration: PLATE 3. - -A. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Fertility of the Earth. - -B. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Amalgamation of Gold with Mercury. - -(See page 33.) - -_To face page 26_]] - - -Alchemy and Astrology. - -Sec. =21.= The idea that the growth of each metal was under the influence -of one of the heavenly bodies (a theory in harmony with the alchemistic -view of the unity of the Cosmos), was very generally held by the -alchemists; and in consequence thereof, the metals were often referred -to by the names or astrological symbols of their peculiar planets. These -particulars are shown in the following table:-- - - -----------+----------------------+-------------- - Metals. | Planets, &c.[32] | Symbols. - -----------+----------------------+-------------- - Gold | Sun | [sun] - Silver | Moon | [moon] - Mercury | Mercury | [mercury] - Copper | Venus | [venus] - Iron | Mars | [mars] - Tin | Jupiter | [jupiter] - Lead | Saturn | [saturn] - -----------+----------------------+-------------- - -Moreover, it was thought by some alchemists that a due observance of -astrological conditions was necessary for successfully carrying out -important alchemistic experiments. - - [32] This supposed connection between the metals and planets also - played an important part in Talismanic Magic. - - -Alchemistic View of the Nature of Gold. - -Sec. =22.= The alchemists regarded gold as the most perfect metal, silver -being considered more perfect than the rest. The reason of this view is -not difficult to understand: gold is the most beautiful of all the -metals, and it retains its beauty without tarnishing; it resists the -action of fire and most corrosive liquids, and is unaffected by sulphur; -it was regarded, as we have pointed out above (see Sec. 9), as symbolical -of the regenerate man. Silver, on the other hand, is, indeed, a -beautiful metal which wears well in a pure atmosphere and resists the -action of fire; but it is attacked by certain corrosives (_e.g._, _aqua -fortis_ or nitric acid) and also by sulphur. Through all the metals, -from the one seed, Nature, according to the alchemists, works -continuously up to gold; so that, in a sense, all other metals are gold -in the making; their existence marks the staying of Nature's powers; as -"Eirenaeus Philalethes" says: "All metallic seed is the seed of gold; for -gold is the intention of Nature in regard to all metals. If the base -metals are not gold, it is only through some accidental hindrance; they -are all potentially gold."[33] Or, as another alchemist puts it: "Since -. . . the substance of the metals is _one_, and common to all, and since -this substance is (either at once, or after laying aside in course of -time the foreign and evil sulphur of the baser metals by a process of -gradual digestion) changed by the virtue of its own indwelling sulphur -into GOLD, which is the goal of all the metals, and the true intention -of Nature--we are obliged to admit, and freely confess that in the -mineral kingdom, as well as in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, Nature -seeks and demands a gradual attainment of perfection, and a gradual -approximation to the highest standard of purity and excellence."[34] -Such was the alchemistic view of the generation of the metals; a theory -which is admittedly crude, but which, nevertheless, contains the germ of -a great principle of the utmost importance, namely, the idea that all -the varying forms of matter are evolved from some one primordial -stuff--a principle of which chemical science lost sight for awhile, for -its validity was unrecognised by Dalton's Atomic Theory (at least, as -enunciated by him), but which is being demonstrated, as we hope to show -hereinafter, by recent scientific research. The alchemist was certainly -a fantastic evolutionist, but he _was_ an evolutionist, and, moreover, -he did not make the curious and paradoxical mistake of regarding the -fact of evolution as explaining away the existence of God--the alchemist -recognised the hand of the Divine in nature--and, although, in these -days of modern science, we cannot accept his theory of the growth of -metals, we can, nevertheless, appreciate and accept the fundamental -germ-idea underlying it. - - [33] "EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES": _The Metamorphosis of Metals_ (see _The - Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. p. 239). - - [34] _The Golden Tract Concerning the Stone of the Philosophers_ - (see _The Hermetic Museum_, vol. i. p. 19). - - -The Philosopher's Stone. - -Sec. =23.= The alchemist strove to assist Nature in her gold-making, or, at -least, to carry out her methods. The pseudo-Geber taught that the -imperfect metals were to be perfected or cured by the application of -"medicines." Three forms of medicines were distinguished; the first -bring about merely a temporary change, and the changes wrought by the -second class, although permanent, are not complete. "A Medicine of the -third Order," he writes, "I call every Preparation, which, when it comes -to Bodies, with its projection, takes away all Corruption, and perfects -them with the Difference of all Compleatment. But this is one only."[35] -This, the true medicine that would produce a real and permanent -transmutation, is the =Philosopher's Stone=, the Masterpiece of -alchemistic art. Similar views were held by all the alchemists, though -some of them taught that it was necessary first of all to reduce the -metals to their first substance. Often, two forms of the Philosopher's -Stone were distinguished, or perhaps we should say, two degrees of -perfection in the one Stone; that for transmuting the "imperfect" metals -into silver being said to be white, the stone or "powder of projection" -for gold being said to be of a red colour. In other accounts (see -Chapter V.) the medicine is described as of a pale brimstone hue. - - [35] _Of the Sum of Perfection_ (see _The Works of Geber_, - translated by Richard Russel, 1678, p. 192). - -Most of the alchemists who claimed knowledge of the Philosopher's Stone -or the _materia prima_ necessary for its preparation, generally kept its -nature most secret, and spoke only in the most enigmatical and -allegorical language, the majority of their recipes containing words of -unknown meaning. In some cases gold or silver, as the case may be, was -employed in preparing the "medicine"; and, after projection had been -made, this was, of course, obtained again in the metallic form, the -alchemist imagining that a transmutation had been effected. In the case -of the few other recipes that are intelligible, the most that could be -obtained by following out their instructions is a white or yellow -metallic alloy superficially resembling silver or gold. - - -The Nature of the Philosopher's Stone. - -Sec. =24.= The mystical as distinguished from the pseudo-practical -descriptions of the Stone and its preparation are by far the more -interesting of the two. Paracelsus, in his work on _The Tincture of the -Philosophers_, tells us that all that is necessary for us to do is to -mix and coagulate the "rose-coloured blood from the Lion" and "the -gluten from the Eagle," by which he probably meant that we must combine -"philosophical sulphur" with "philosophical mercury." This opinion, -that the Philosopher's Stone consists of "philosophical sulphur and -mercury" combined so as to constitute a perfect unity, was commonly held -by the alchemists, and they frequently likened this union to the -conjunction of the sexes in marriage. "Eirenaeus Philalethes" tells us -that for the preparation of the Stone it is necessary to extract the -seed of gold, though this cannot be accomplished by subjecting gold to -corrosive liquids, but only by a homogeneous water (or liquid)--the -Mercury of the Sages. In the _Book of the Revelation of Hermes, -interpreted by Theophrastus Paracelsus, concerning the Supreme Secret of -the World_, the Medicine, which is here, as not infrequently, identified -with the alchemistic essence of all things or Soul of the World, is -described in the following suggestive language: "This is the Spirit of -Truth, which the world cannot comprehend without the interposition of -the Holy Ghost, or without the instruction of those who know it. The -same is of a mysterious nature, wondrous strength, boundless power. -. . . By Avicenna this Spirit is named the Soul of the World. For, as -the Soul moves all the limbs of the Body, so also does this Spirit move -all bodies. And as the Soul is in all the limbs of the Body, so also is -this Spirit in all elementary created things. It is sought by many and -found by few. It is beheld from afar and found near; for it exists in -every thing, in every place, and at all times. It has the powers of all -creatures; its action is found in all elements, and the qualities of all -things are therein, even in the highest perfection . . . it heals all -dead and living bodies without other medicine, . . . converts all -metallic bodies into gold, and there is nothing like unto it under -Heaven."[36] - - [36] See BENEDICTUS FIGULUS: _A Golden and Blessed Casket of - Nature's Marvels_ (translated by A. E. Waite, 1893, pp. 36, 37, and - 41). - - -The Theory of Development. - -Sec. =25.= From the ascetic standpoint (and unfortunately, most mystics -have been somewhat overfond of ascetic ideas), the development of the -soul is only fully possible with the mortification of the body; and all -true Mysticism teaches that if we would reach the highest goal possible -for man--union with the Divine--there must be a giving up of our own -individual wills, an abasement of the soul before the Spirit. And so the -alchemists taught that for the achievement of the _magnum opus_ on the -physical plane, we must strip the metals of their outward properties in -order to develop the essence within. As says Helvetius: ". . . the -essences of metals are hidden in their outward bodies, as the kernel is -hidden in the nut. Every earthly body, whether animal, vegetable, or -mineral, is the habitation and terrestrial abode of that celestial -spirit, or influence, which is its principle of life or growth. The -secret of Alchemy is the destruction of the body, which enables the -Artist to get at, and utilise for his own purposes, the living -soul."[37] This killing of the outward nature of material things was to -be brought about by the processes of putrefaction and decay; hence the -reason why such processes figure so largely in alchemistic recipes for -the preparation of the "Divine Magistery." It must be borne in mind, -however, that the alchemists used the terms "putrefaction" and "decay" -rather indiscriminately, applying them to chemical processes which are -no longer regarded as such. Pictorial symbols of death and decay -representative of such processes are to be found in several alchemistic -books. There is a curious series of pictures in _A Form and Method of -Perfecting Base Metals_, by Janus Lacinus, the Calabrian (a short tract -prefixed to _The New Pearl of Great Price_ by Peter Bonus--see Sec. 39), of -which we show three examples in plates 3 and 4. In the first picture of -the series (not shown here) we enter the palace of the king (gold) and -observe him sitting crowned upon his throne, surrounded by his son -(mercury) and five servants (silver, copper, tin, iron and lead). In the -next picture (plate 3, fig. B), the son, incited by the servants, kills -his father; and, in the third, he catches the blood of his murdered -parent in his robes; whereby we understand that an amalgam of gold and -mercury is to be prepared, the gold apparently disappearing or dying, -whilst the mercury is coloured thereby. The next picture shows us a -grave being dug, _i.e._, a furnace is to be made ready. In the fifth -picture in the series, the son "thought to throw his father into the -grave, and to leave him there; but . . . both fell in together"; and in -the sixth picture (plate 4, fig. A), we see the son being prevented from -escaping, both son and father being left in the grave to decay. Here we -have instructions in symbolical form to place the amalgam in a sealed -vessel in the furnace and to allow it to remain there until some change -is observed. So the allegory proceeds. Ultimately the father is -restored to life, the symbol of resurrection being (as might be -expected) of frequent occurrence in alchemistic literature. By this -resurrection we understand that the gold will finally be obtained in a -pure form. Indeed, it is now the "great medicine" and, in the last -picture of the series (plate 4, fig. B), the king's son and his five -servants are all made kings in virtue of its powers. - - [37] J. F. HELVETIUS: _The Golden Calf_, ch. iv. (see _The Hermetic - Museum_, vol. ii. p. 298). - -[Illustration: PLATE 4. - -A. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Coction of Gold Amalgam in a Closed Vessel. - -B. - -SYMBOLICAL ILLUSTRATION - -Representing the Transmutation of the Metals. - -[_To face page 33_] - - -The Powers of the Philosopher's Stone. - -Sec. =26.= The alchemists believed that a most minute proportion of the -Stone projected upon considerable quantities of heated mercury, molten -lead, or other "base" metal, would transmute practically the whole into -silver or gold. This claim of the alchemists, that a most minute -quantity of the Stone was sufficient to transmute considerable -quantities of "base" metal, has been the object of much ridicule. -Certainly, some of the claims of the alchemists (understood literally) -are out of all reason; but on the other hand, the disproportion between -the quantities of Stone and transmuted metal cannot be advanced as an _a -priori_ objection to the alchemists' claims, inasmuch that a class of -chemical reactions (called "catalytic") is known, in which the presence -of a small quantity of some appropriate form of matter--the -catalyst--brings about a chemical change in an indefinite quantity of -some other form or forms; thus, for example, cane-sugar in aqueous -solution is converted into two other sugars by the action of small -quantities of acid; and sulphur-dioxide and oxygen, which will not -combine under ordinary conditions, do so readily in the presence of a -small quantity of platinized asbestos, which is obtained unaltered -after the reaction is completed and may be used over and over again -(this process is actually employed in the manufacture of sulphuric acid -or oil of vitriol). However, whether any such catalytic transmutation of -the chemical "elements" is possible is merely conjecture. - - -The Elixir of Life. - -Sec. =27.= The Elixir of Life, which was generally described as a solution -of the Stone in spirits of wine, or identified with the Stone itself, -could be applied, so it was thought, under certain conditions to the -alchemist himself, with an entirely analogous result, _i.e._, it would -restore him to the flower of youth. The idea, not infrequently -attributed to the alchemists, that the Elixir would endow one with a -life of endless duration on the material plane is not in strict accord -with alchemistic analogy. From this point of view, the effect of the -Elixir is physiological perfection, which, although ensuring long life, -is not equivalent to endless life on the material plane. "The -Philosophers' Stone," says Paracelsus, "purges the whole body of man, -and cleanses it from all impurities by the introduction of new and more -youthful forces which it joins to the nature of man."[38] And in another -work expressive of the opinions of the same alchemist, we read: ". . . -there is nothing which might deliver the mortal body from death; but -there is One Thing which may postpone decay, renew youth, and prolong -short human life . . ."[39] In the theory that a solution of the -Philosopher's Stone (which, it must be remembered, was thought to be of -a species with gold) constituted the _Elixir Vitae_, can be traced, -perhaps, the idea that gold in a potable form was a veritable cure-all: -in the latter days of Alchemy any yellow-coloured liquid was foisted -upon a credulous public as a medicinal preparation of gold. - - [38] THEOPHRASTUS PARACELSUS: _The Fifth Book of the Archidoxies_ - (see _The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus_, - translated by A. E. Waite, 1894, vol. ii. p. 39). - - [39] _The Book of the Revelation of Hermes, interpreted by - Theophrastus Paracelsus, concerning the Supreme Secret of the - World._ (See BENEDICTUS FIGULUS: _A Golden Casket of Nature's - Marvels_, translated by A. E. Waite, 1893, pp. 33 and 34.) - -[Illustration: PLATE 5. - -ALCHEMISTIC APPARATUS. A and B.--Two forms of Apparatus for Sublimation. - -_To face page 37_]] - - -The Practical Methods of the Alchemists. - -Sec. =28.= We will conclude this chapter with some few remarks regarding -the practical methods of the alchemists. In their experiments, the -alchemists worked with very large quantities of material compared with -what is employed in chemical researches at the present day. They had -great belief in the efficacy of time to effect a desired change in their -substances, and they were wont to repeat the same operation (such as -distillation, for example) on the same material over and over again; -which demonstrated their unwearied patience, even if it effected little -towards the attainment of their end. They paid much attention to any -changes of colour they observed in their experiments, and many -descriptions of supposed methods to achieve the _magnum opus_ contain -detailed directions as to the various changes of colour which must be -obtained in the material operated upon if a successful issue to the -experiment is desired.[40] In plates 5 and 6 we give illustrations of -some characteristic pieces of apparatus employed by the alchemists. -Plate 5, fig. A, and plate 6, fig. A, are from a work known as -_Alchemiae Gebri_ (1545); plate 5, fig. B, is from Glauber's work on -Furnaces (1651); and plate 6, fig. B, is from a work by Dr. John French -entitled _The Art of Distillation_ (1651). The first figure shows us a -furnace and alembics. The alembic proper is a sort of still-head which -can be luted on to a flask or other vessel, and was much used for -distillations. In the present case, however, the alembics are employed -in conjunction with apparatus for subliming difficultly volatile -substances. Plate 5, fig. B, shows another apparatus for sublimation, -consisting of a sort of oven, and three detachable upper chambers, -generally called aludels. In both forms of apparatus the vapours are -cooled in the upper part of the vessel, and the substance is deposited -in the solid form, being thereby purified from less volatile impurities. -Plate 6, fig. A, shows an athanor (or digesting furnace) and a couple of -digesting vessels. A vessel of this sort was employed for heating bodies -in a closed space, the top being sealed up when the substances to be -operated upon had been put inside, and the vessel heated in ashes in an -athanor, a uniform temperature being maintained. The pelican, -illustrated in plate 6, fig. B, was used for a similar purpose, the two -arms being added in the idea that the vapours would be circulated -thereby. - - [40] As writes Espagnet in his _Hermetic Arcanum_, canons 64 and 65: - "The Means or demonstrative signs are Colours, successively and - orderly affecting the matter and its affections and demonstrative - passions, whereof there are also three special ones (as critical) to - be noted; to these some add a Fourth. The first is black, which is - called the Crow's head, because of its extreme blackness, whose - crepusculum sheweth the beginning of the action of the fire of - nature and solution, and the blackest midnight sheweth the - perfection of liquefaction, and confusion of the elements. Then the - grain putrefies and is corrupted, that it may be the more apt for - generation. The white colour succeedeth the black, wherein is given - the perfection of the first degree, and of the White Sulphur. This - is called the blessed stone; this Earth is white and foliated, - wherein Philosophers do sow their gold. The third is Orange colour, - which is produced in the passage of the white to the red, as the - middle, and being mixed of both is as the dawn with his saffron - hair, a forerunner of the Sun. The fourth colour is Ruddy and - Sanguine, which is extracted from the white fire only. Now because - whiteness is easily altered by any other colour before day it - quickly faileth of its candour. But the deep redness of the Sun - perfecteth the work of Sulphur, which is called the Sperm of the - male, the fire of the Stone, the King's Crown, and the Son of Sol, - wherein the first labour of the workman resteth. - - "Besides these decretory signs which firmly inhere in the matter, - and shew its essential mutations, almost infinite colours appear, - and shew themselves in vapours, as the Rainbow in the clouds, which - quickly pass away and are expelled by those that succeed, more - affecting the air than the earth: the operator must have a gentle - care of them, because they are not permanent, and proceed not from - the intrinsic disposition of the matter, but from the fire painting - and fashioning everything after its pleasure, or casually by heat in - slight moisture" (see _Collectanea Hermetica_, edited by W. Wynn - Westcott, vol. i., 1893, pp. 28 and 29). Very probably this is not - without a mystical meaning as well as a supposed application in the - preparation of the physical Stone. - -[Illustration: PLATE 6. - -ALCHEMISTIC APPARATUS. A.--An Athanor. B.--A Pelican. - -_To face page 38_]] - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE ALCHEMISTS[41] - -(A. BEFORE PARACELSUS) - - -Hermes Trismegistos. - -Sec. =29.= Having now considered the chief points in the theory of Physical -Alchemy, we must turn our attention to the lives and individual -teachings of the alchemists themselves. The first name which is found in -the history of Alchemy is that of =Hermes Trismegistos=. We have already -mentioned the high esteem in which the works ascribed to this personage -were held by the alchemists (Sec. 6). He has been regarded as the father of -Alchemy; his name has supplied a synonym for the Art--the Hermetic -Art--and even to-day we speak of _hermetically_ sealing flasks and the -like. But who Hermes actually was, or even if there were such a -personage, is a matter of conjecture. The alchemists themselves supposed -him to have been an Egyptian living about the time of Moses. He is now -generally regarded as purely mythical--a personification of Thoth, the -Egyptian God of learning; but, of course, some person or persons must -have written the works attributed to him, and the first of such writers -(if, as seems not unlikely, there were more than one) may be considered -to have a right to the name. Of these works, the _Divine Pymander_,[42] -a mystical-religious treatise, is the most important. The _Golden -Tractate_, also attributed to Hermes, which is an exceedingly obscure -alchemistic work, is now regarded as having been written at a -comparatively late date. - - [41] It is perhaps advisable to mention here that the lives of the - alchemists, for the most part, are enveloped in considerable - obscurity, and many points in connection therewith are in dispute. - The authorities we have followed will be found, as a rule, - specifically mentioned in what follows; but we may here acknowledge - our general indebtedness to the following works, though, as the - reader will observe, many others have been consulted as well: Thomas - Thomson's _The History of Chemistry_, Meyer's _A History of - Chemistry_, the anonymous _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ - (1815), the works of Mr. A. E. Waite, the _Dictionary of National - Biography_, and certain articles in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. - This must not be taken to mean, however, that we have always - followed the conclusions reached in these works, for so far as the - older of them are concerned, recent researches by various - authorities--to whom reference will be found in the following pages, - and to whom, also, we are indebted--have shown, in certain cases, - that such are not tenable. - - [42] Dr. Everard's translation of this work forms vol. ii. of the - _Collectanea Hermetica_, edited by W. Wynn Westcott, M.B., D.P.H. It - is now, however, out of print. - - -The Smaragdine Table. - -Sec. =30.= In a work attributed to Albertus Magnus, but which is probably -spurious, we are told that Alexander the Great found the tomb of Hermes -in a cave near Hebron. This tomb contained an emerald table--"The -Smaragdine Table"--on which were inscribed the following thirteen -sentences in Ph[oe]nician characters:-- - -1. I speak not fictitious things, but what is true and most certain. - -2. What is below is like that which is above, and what is above is like -that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing. - -3. And as all things were produced by the mediation of one Being, so all -things were produced from this one thing by adaptation. - -4. Its father is the Sun, its mother the Moon; the wind carries it in -its belly, its nurse is the earth. - -5. It is the cause of all perfection throughout the whole world. - -6. Its power is perfect if it be changed into earth. - -7. Separate the earth from the fire, the subtle from the gross, acting -prudently and with judgment. - -8. Ascend with the greatest sagacity from the earth to heaven, and then -again descend to the earth, and unite together the powers of things -superior and things inferior. Thus you will obtain the glory of the -whole world, and all obscurity will fly far away from you. - -9. This thing is the fortitude of all fortitude, because it overcomes -all subtle things, and penetrates every solid thing. - -10. Thus were all things created. - -11. Thence proceed wonderful adaptations which are produced in this way. - -12. Therefore am I called Hermes Trismegistos, possessing the three -parts of the philosophy of the whole world. - -13. That which I had to say concerning the operation of the Sun is -completed. - -These sentences clearly teach the doctrine of the alchemistic essence or -"One Thing," which is everywhere present, penetrating even solids (this -we should note is true of the ether of space), and out of which all -things of the physical world are made by adaptation or modification. The -terms Sun and Moon in the above passage probably stand for Spirit and -Matter respectively, not gold and silver. - - -Zosimus of Panopolis. - -Sec. =31.= One of the earliest of the alchemists of whom record remains was -=Zosimus of Panopolis=, who flourished in the fifth century, and was -regarded by the later alchemists as a master of the Art. He is said to -have written many treatises dealing with Alchemy, but only fragments -remain. Of these fragments, Professor Venable says: ". . . they give us -a good idea of the learning of the man and of his times. They contain -descriptions of apparatus, of furnaces, studies of minerals, of alloys, -of glass making, of mineral waters, and much that is mystical, besides a -good deal referring to the transmutation of metals."[43] Zosimus is said -to have been the author of the saying, "like begets like," but whether -all the fragments ascribed to him were really his work is doubtful. - - [43] F. P. VENABLE, Ph.D.: _A Short History of Chemistry_ (1896), p. - 13. - -Among other early alchemists we may mention also =Africanus=, the -Syrian; =Synesius=, Bishop of Ptolemais, and the historian, -=Olympiodorus= of Thebes. - - -Geber. - -Sec. =32.= In the seventh century the Arabians conquered Egypt; and -strangely enough, Alchemy flourished under them to a remarkable degree. -Of all the Arabian alchemists, =Geber= has been regarded as the -greatest; as Professor Meyer says: "There can be no dispute that with -the name _Geber_ was propagated the memory of a personality with which -the chemical knowledge of the time was bound up."[44] Geber is supposed -to have lived about the ninth century, but of his life nothing definite -is known. A large number of works have been ascribed to him, of which -the majority are unknown, but the four Latin MSS. which have been -printed under the titles _Summa Perfectionis Mettalorum_, _De -Investigatione Perfectionis Metallorum_, _De Inventione Veritatis_ and -_De Fornacibus Construendis_, were, until a few years ago, regarded as -genuine. On the strength of these works, Geber has ranked high as a -chemist. In them are described the preparation of many important -chemical compounds; the most essential chemical operations, such as -sublimation, distillation, filtration, crystallisation (or coagulation, -as the alchemists called it), &c.; and also important chemical -apparatus, for example, the water-bath, improved furnaces, &c. However, -it was shown by the late Professor Berthelot that _Summa Perfectionis -Mettalorum_ is a forgery of the fourteenth century, and the other works -forgeries of an even later date. Moreover, the original Arabic MSS. of -Geber have been brought to light. These true writings of Geber are very -obscure; they give no warrant for believing that the famous -sulphur-mercury theory was due to this alchemist, and they prove him not -to be the expert chemist that he was supposed to have been. The spurious -writings mentioned above show that the pseudo-Geber was a man of wide -chemical knowledge and experience, and play a not inconsiderable part in -the history of Alchemy. - - [44] ERNST VON MEYER: _A History of Chemistry_ (translated by Dr. - McGowan, 1906), p. 31. - - -Other Arabian Alchemists. - -Sec. =33.= Among other Arabian alchemists the most celebrated were -=Avicenna= and =Rhasis=, who are supposed to have lived some time after -Geber; and to whom, perhaps, the sulphur-mercury theory may have been to -some extent due. - -The teachings of the Arabian alchemists gradually penetrated into the -Western world, in which, during the thirteenth century, flourished some -of the most eminent of the alchemists, whose lives and teachings we must -now briefly consider. - -[Illustration: PLATE 7. - -[by de Bry] - -PORTRAIT OF ALBERTUS MAGNUS. - -_To face page 44_]] - - -Albertus Magnus (1193-1280). - -Sec. =34.= =Albertus Magnus=, Albert Groot or Albert von Bollstaedt (see -plate 7), was born at Lauingen, probably in 1193. He was educated at -Padua, and in his later years he showed himself apt at acquiring the -knowledge of his time. He studied theology, philosophy and natural -science, and is chiefly celebrated as an Aristotelean philosopher. He -entered the Dominican order, taught publicly at Cologne, Paris and -elsewhere, and was made provincial of this order. Later he had the -bishopric of Regensburg conferred on him, but he retired after a few -years to a Dominican cloister, where he devoted himself to philosophy -and science. He was one of the most learned men of his time and, -moreover, a man of noble character. The authenticity of the alchemistic -works attributed to him has been questioned. - - -Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). - -Sec. =35.= The celebrated Dominican, =Thomas Aquinas= (see plate 8), was -probably a pupil of Albertus Magnus, from whom it is thought he imbibed -alchemistic learning. It is very probable, however, that the alchemistic -works attributed to him are spurious. The author of these works -manifests a deeply religious tone, and, according to Thomson's _History -of Chemistry_, he was the first to employ the term "amalgam" to -designate an alloy of mercury with some other metal.[45] - - [45] THOMAS THOMSON: _The History of Chemistry_, vol. i. (1830), p. - 33. - - -Roger Bacon (1214-1294). - -Sec. =36.= =Roger Bacon=, the most illustrious of the mediaeval alchemists, -was born near Ilchester in Somerset, probably in 1214. His erudition, -considering the general state of ignorance prevailing at this time, was -most remarkable. Professor Meyer says: "He is to be regarded as the -intellectual originator of experimental research, if the departure in -this direction is to be coupled with any one name--a direction which, -followed more and more as time went on, gave to the science [of -Chemistry] its own peculiar stamp, and ensured its steady -development."[46] Roger Bacon studied theology and science at Oxford and -at Paris; and he joined the Franciscan order, at what date, however, is -uncertain. He was particularly interested in optics, and certain -discoveries in this branch of physics have been attributed to him, -though probably erroneously. It appears, also, that he was acquainted -with gunpowder, which was, however, not employed in Europe until many -years later.[47] Unfortunately, he earned the undesirable reputation of -being in communication with the powers of darkness, and as he did not -hesitate to oppose many of the opinions current at the time, he -suffered much persecution. He was a firm believer in the powers of the -Philosopher's Stone to transmute large quantities of "base" metal into -gold, and also to extend the life of the individual. "_Alchimy_," he -says, "is a Science, teaching how to transforme any kind of mettall into -another: and that by a proper medicine, as it appeareth by many -Philosophers Bookes. _Alchimy_ therefore is a science teaching how to -make and compound a certaine medicine, which is called _Elixir_, the -which when it is cast upon mettals or imperfect bodies, doth fully -perfect them in the verie projection."[48] He also believed in -Astrology; but, nevertheless, he was entirely opposed to many of the -magical and superstitious notions held at the time, and his tract, _De -Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae, et de Nullitate Magiae_, was an -endeavour to prove that many so-called "miracles" could be brought about -simply by the aid of natural science. Roger Bacon was a firm supporter -of the Sulphur-Mercury theory: he says: ". . . the natural principles in -the mynes, are _Argent-vive_, and _Sulphur_. All mettals and minerals, -whereof there be sundrie and divers kinds, are begotten of these two: -but I must tel you, that nature alwaies intendeth and striveth to the -perfection of Gold: but many accidents coming between, change the -metalls. . . . For according to the puritie and impuritie of the two -aforesaide principles, _Argent-vive_ and _Sulphur_, pure, and impure -mettals are ingendred."[49] He expresses surprise that any should employ -animal and vegetable substances in their attempts to prepare the Stone, -a practice common to some alchemists but warmly criticised by others. -He says: "Nothing may be mingled with mettalls which hath not beene made -or sprung from them, it remaineth cleane inough, that no strange thing -which hath not his originall from these two [viz., sulphur and mercury], -is able to perfect them, or to make a chaunge and new transmutation of -them: so that it is to be wondered at, that any wise man should set his -mind upon living creatures, or vegetables which are far off, when there -be minerals to bee found nigh enough: neither may we in any wise thinke, -that any of the Philosophers placed the Art in the said remote things, -except it were by way of comparison."[50] The one process necessary for -the preparation of the Stone, he tells us, is "continuall concoction" in -the fire, which is the method that "God hath given to nature."[51] He -died about 1294. - - [46] ERNST VON MEYER: _A History of Chemistry_ (translated by Dr. - McGowan, 1906), p. 35. - - [47] See ROGER BACON'S _Discovery of Miracles_, chaps. vi. and xi. - - [48] ROGER BACON: _The Mirror of Alchimy_ (1597), p. 1. - - [49] _Ibid._ p. 2. - - [50] ROGER BACON: _The Mirror of Alchimy_ (1597), p. 4. - - [51] _Ibid._ p. 9. - - -Arnold de Villanova (12--?-1310?). - -Sec. =37.= The date and birthplace of =Arnold de Villanova=, or Villeneuve, -are both uncertain. He studied medicine at Paris, and in the latter part -of the thirteenth century practised professionally in Barcelona. To -avoid persecution at the hands of the Inquisition, he was obliged to -leave Spain, and ultimately found safety with Frederick II. in Sicily. -He was famous not only as an alchemist, but also as a skilful physician. -He died (it is thought in a shipwreck) about 1310-1313. - - -Raymond Lully (1235?-1315). - -Sec. =38.= =Raymond Lully=, the son of a noble Spanish family, was born at -Palma (in Majorca) about 1235. He was a man of somewhat eccentric -character--in his youth a man of pleasure; in his maturity, a mystic -and ascetic. His career was of a roving and adventurous character. We -are told that, in his younger days, although married, he became -violently infatuated with a lady of the name of Ambrosia de Castello, -who vainly tried to dissuade him from his profane passion. Her efforts -proving futile, she requested Lully to call upon her, and in the -presence of her husband, bared to his sight her breast, which was almost -eaten away by a cancer. This sight--so the story goes--brought about -Lully's conversion. He became actuated by the idea of converting to -Christianity the heathen in Africa, and engaged the services of an -Arabian whereby he might learn the language. The man, however, -discovering his master's object, attempted to assassinate him, and Lully -narrowly escaped with his life. But his enthusiasm for missionary work -never abated--his central idea was the reasonableness and -demonstrability of Christian doctrine--and unhappily he was, at last, -stoned to death by the inhabitants of Bugiah (in Algeria) in 1315.[52] - - [52] See _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1815), pp. 17 _et - seq._ - -A very large number of alchemistic, theological and other treatises are -attributed to Lully, many of which are undoubtedly spurious; and it is a -difficult question to decide exactly which are genuine. He is supposed -to have derived a knowledge of Alchemy from Roger Bacon and Arnold de -Villanova. It appears more probable, however, either that Lully the -alchemist was a personage distinct from the Lully whose life we have -sketched above, or that the alchemistic writings attributed to him are -forgeries of a similar nature to the works of pseudo-Geber (Sec. 32). Of -these alchemical writings we may here mention the _Clavicula_. This he -says is the key to all his other books on Alchemy, in which books the -whole Art is fully declared, though so obscurely as not to be -understandable without its aid. In this work an alleged method for what -may be called the multiplication of the "noble" metals rather than -transmutation is described in clear language; but it should be noticed -that the stone employed is itself a compound either of silver or gold. -According to Lully, the secret of the Philosopher's Stone is the -extraction of the mercury of silver or gold. He writes: "Metals cannot -be transmuted . . . in the Minerals, unless they be reduced into their -first Matter. . . . Therefore I counsel you, O my Friends, that you do -not work but about _Sol_ and _Luna_, reducing them into the first -Matter, our _Sulphur_ and _Argent vive_: therefore, Son, you are to use -this venerable Matter; and I swear unto you and promise, that unless you -take the _Argent vive_ of these two, you go to the Practick as blind men -without eyes or sense. . . ."[53] - - [53] RAYMOND LULLY: _Clavicula, or, A Little Key_ (see _Aurifontina - Chymica_, 1680, p. 167). - - -Peter Bonus (14th Century). - -Sec. =39.= In 1546, a work was published entitled _Magarita Pretiosa_, -which claimed to be a "faithful abridgement," by "Janus Lacinus -Therapus, the Calabrian," of a MS. written by =Peter Bonus= in the -fourteenth century. An abridged English translation of this book by Mr. -A. E. Waite was published in 1894. Of the life of Bonus, who is said to -have been an inhabitant of Pola, a seaport of Istria, nothing is known; -but the _Magarita Pretiosa_ is an alchemistic work of considerable -interest. The author commences, like pseudo-Geber in his _Sum of -Perfection_, by bringing forward a number of very ingenious arguments -against the validity of the Art; he then proceeds with arguments in -favour of Alchemy and puts forward answers in full to the former -objections; further difficulties, &c., are then dealt with. In all this, -compared with many other alchemists, Bonus, though somewhat prolix, is -remarkably lucid. All metals, he argues, following the views of -pseudo-Geber, consist of mercury and sulphur; but whilst the mercury is -always one and the same, different metals contain different sulphurs. -There are also two different kinds of sulphurs--inward and outward. -Sulphur is necessary for the development of the mercury, but for the -final product, gold, to come forth, it is necessary that the outward and -impure sulphur be purged off. "Each metal," says Bonus, "differs from -all the rest, and has a certain perfection and completeness of its own; -but none, except gold, has reached that highest degree of perfection of -which it is capable. For all common metals there is a transient and a -perfect state of inward completeness, and this perfect state they attain -either through the slow operation of Nature, or through the sudden -transformatory power of our Stone. We must, however, add that the -imperfect metals form part of the great plan and design of Nature, -though they are in course of transformation into gold. For a large -number of very useful and indispensable tools and utensils could not be -provided at all if there were no copper, iron, tin, or lead, and if all -metals were either silver or gold. For this beneficent reason Nature -has furnished us with the metallic substance in all its different stages -of development, from iron, or the lowest, to gold, or the highest state -of metallic perfection. Nature is ever studying variety, and, for that -reason, instead of covering the whole face of the earth with water, has -evolved out of that elementary substance a great diversity of forms, -embracing the whole animal, vegetable and mineral world. It is, in like -manner, for the use of men that Nature has differentiated the metallic -substance into a great variety of species and forms."[54] According to -this interesting alchemistic work, the Art of Alchemy consists, not in -reducing the imperfect metals to their first substance, but in carrying -forward Nature's work, developing the imperfect metals to perfection and -removing their impure sulphur. - - [54] PETER BONUS: _The New Pearl of Great Price_ (Mr. A. E. Waite's - translation, pp. 176-177). - - -Nicolas Flamel (1330-1418). - -Sec. =40.= Nicolas Flamel (see plate 8) was born about 1330, probably in -Paris. His parents were poor, and Nicolas took up the trade of a -scrivener. In the course of time, Flamel became a very wealthy man and, -at the same time, it appears, one who exhibited considerable -munificence. This increase in Flamel's wealth has been attributed to -supposed success in the Hermetic Art. We are told that a remarkable book -came into the young scrivener's possession, which, at first, he was -unable to understand, until, at last, he had the good fortune to meet an -adept who translated its mysteries for him. This book revealed the -occult secrets of Alchemy, and by its means Nicolas was enabled to -obtain immense quantities of gold. This story, however, appears to be of -a legendary nature, and it seems more likely that Flamel's riches -resulted from his business as a scrivener and from moneylending. At any -rate, all of the alchemistic works attributed to Flamel are of more or -less questionable origin. One of these, entitled _A Short Tract, or -Philosophical Summary_, will be found in _The Hermetic Museum_. It is a -very brief work, supporting the sulphur-mercury theory. - -[Illustration: PLATE 8. - -PORTRAIT OF THOMAS AQUINAS. - -PORTRAIT OF NICOLAS FLAMEL. - -_To face page 52_]] - - -"Basil Valentine" and "The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony." - -Sec. =41.= Probably the most celebrated of all alchemistic books is the -work known as _Triumph-Wagen des Antimonii_. A Latin translation with a -commentary by Theodore Kerckringius was published in 1685, and an -English translation of this version by Mr. A. E. Waite appeared in 1893. -The author describes himself as "=Basil Valentine=, a Benedictine monk." -In his "_Practica_," another alchemistic work, he says: "When I had -emptied to the dregs the cup of human suffering, I was led to consider -the wretchedness of this world, and the fearful consequences of our -first parents' disobedience . . . I made haste to withdraw myself from -the evil world, to bid farewell to it, and to devote myself to the -Service of God."[55] He proceeds to relate that he entered a monastery, -but finding that he had some time on his hands after performing his -daily work and devotions, and not wishing to pass this time in idleness, -he took up the study of Alchemy, "the investigation of those natural -secrets by which God has shadowed out eternal things," and at last -his labours were rewarded by the discovery of a Stone most potent in the -curing of diseases. In _The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony_ are -accurately described a large number of antimonial preparations, and as -Basil was supposed to have written this work some time in the fifteenth -century, these preparations were accordingly concluded to have been, for -the most part, his own discoveries. He defends with the utmost vigour -the medicinal values of antimony, and criticises in terms far from mild -the physicians of his day. On account of this work Basil Valentine has -ranked very high as an experimental chemist; but from quite early times -its date and authorship have been regarded alike as doubtful; and it -appears from the researches of the late Professor Schorlemmer "to be an -undoubted forgery dating from about 1600, the information being culled -from the works of other writers. . . ."[56] Probably the other works -ascribed to Basil Valentine are of a like nature. _The Triumphal Chariot -of Antimony_ does, however, give an accurate account of the knowledge of -antimony of this time, and the pseudo-Valentine shows himself to have -been a man of considerable experience with regard to this subject. - - [55] "BASIL VALENTINE": _The "Practica"_ (see _The Hermetic Museum_, - vol. i. p. 313). - - [56] Sir H. E. ROSCOE, F.R.S., and C. SCHORLEMMER, F.R.S.: _A - Treatise on Chemistry_, vol. i. (1905), p. 9. - - -Isaac of Holland (15th Century). - -Sec. =42.= Isaac of Holland and a countryman of the same name, probably his -son, are said to have been the first Dutch alchemists. They are supposed -to have lived during the fifteenth century, but of their lives nothing -is known. Isaac, although not free from superstitious opinions, appears -to have been a practical chemist, and his works, which abound in -recipes, were held in great esteem by Paracelsus and other alchemists. -He held that all things in this world are of a dual nature, partly good -and partly bad. ". . . All that God hath created good in the upper part -of the world," he writes, "are perfect and uncorruptible, as the heaven: -but whatsoever in these lower parts, whether it be in beasts, fishes, -and all manner of sensible creatures, hearbs or plants, it is indued -with a double nature, that is to say, perfect, and unperfect; the -perfect nature is called the Quintessence, the unperfect the Feces or -dreggs, or the venemous or combustible oile. . . . God hath put a secret -nature or influence in every creature, and . . . to every nature of one -sort or kind he hath given one common influence and vertue, whether it -bee on Physick or other secret works, which partly are found out by -naturall workmanship. And yet more things are unknown than are apparent -to our senses."[57] He gives directions for extracting the Quintessence, -for which marvellous powers are claimed, out of sugar and other organic -substances; and he appears to be the earliest known writer who makes -mention of the famous sulphur-mercury-salt theory. - - [57] _One hundred and Fourteen Experiments and Cures of the Famous - Physitian Theophrastus Paracelsus, whereunto is added . . . certain - Secrets of Isaac Hollandus, concerning the Vegetall and Animall - Work_ (1652), p. 35. - - -Bernard Trevisan (1406-1490). - -Sec. =43.= =Bernard Trevisan=, a French count of the fifteenth century, -squandered enormous sums of money in the search for the Stone, in which -the whole of his life and energies were engaged. He seems to have become -the dupe of one charlatan after another, but at last, at a ripe old -age, he says that his labours were rewarded, and that he successfully -performed the _magnum opus_. In a short, but rather obscure work, he -speaks of the Philosopher's Stone in the following words: "This Stone -then is compounded of a Body and Spirit, or of a volatile and fixed -Substance, and that is therefore done, because nothing in the World can -be generated and brought to light without these two Substances, to wit, -a Male and Female: From whence it appeareth, that although these two -Substances are not of one and the same species, yet one Stone doth -thence arise, and although they appear and are said to be two -Substances, yet in truth it is but one, to wit, _Argent-vive_."[58] He -appears, however, to have added nothing to our knowledge of chemical -science. - - [58] BERNARD, EARL OF TREVISAN: _A Treatise of the Philosophers - Stone_, 1683 (see _Collectanea Chymica: A Collection of Ten Several - Treatises in Chemistry_, 1684, p. 91). - - -Sir George Ripley (14--?-1490?). - -Sec. =44.= =Sir George Ripley=, an eminent alchemistic philosopher of the -fifteenth century, entered upon a monastic life when a youth, becoming -one of the canons regular of Bridlington. After some travels he returned -to England and obtaining leave from the Pope to live in solitude, he -devoted himself to the study of the Hermetic Art. His chief work is _The -Compound of Alchymie . . . conteining twelve Gates_, which was written -in 1471. In this curious work, we learn that there are twelve processes -necessary for the achievement of the _magnum opus_, namely, Calcination, -Solution, Separation, Conjunction, Putrefaction, Congelation, Cibation, -Sublimation, Fermentation, Exaltation, Multiplication, and Projection. -These are likened to the twelve gates of a castle which the philosopher -must enter. At the conclusion of the twelfth gate, Ripley says:-- - - "Now thou hast conqueryd the _twelve Gates_, - And all the Castell thou holdyst at wyll, - Keep thy Secretts in store unto thy selve; - And the commaundements of God looke thou fulfull: - In fyer conteinue thy glas styll, - And Multeply thy Medcyns ay more and more, - For wyse men done say _store ys no sore_."[59] - - [59] Sir GEORGE RIPLEY: _The Compound of Alchemy_ (see _Theatrum - Chemicum Britannicum_, edited by Elias Ashmole, 1652, p. 186). - -At the conclusion of the work he tells us that in all that he wrote -before he was mistaken; he says:-- - - "I made _Solucyons_ full many a one, - Of Spyrytts, Ferments, Salts, Yerne and Steele; - Wenyng so to make the Phylosophers Stone: - But fynally I lost eche dele, - After my Boks yet wrought I well; - Whych evermore untrue I provyd, - That made me oft full sore agrevyd."[60] - - [60] _Ibid._ p. 189. - -Ripley did much to popularise the works of Raymond Lully in England, but -does not appear to have added to the knowledge of practical chemistry. -His _Bosom Book_, which contains an alleged method for preparing the -Stone, will be found in the _Collectanea Chemica_ (1893). - - -Thomas Norton (15th Century). - -Sec. =45.= =Thomas Norton=, the author of the celebrated _Ordinall of -Alchemy_, was probably born shortly before the commencement of the -fifteenth century. The _Ordinall_, which is written in verse (and which -will be found in Ashmole's _Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum_),[61] is -anonymous, but the author's identity is revealed by a curious device. -The initial syllables of the proem and of the first six chapters, -together with the first line of the seventh chapter, give the following -couplet:-- - - "Tomais Norton of Briseto, - A parfet _Master_ ye maie him call trowe." - - [61] A prose version will be found in _The Hermetic Museum_ - translated back into English from a Latin translation by Maier. - -Samuel Norton, the grandson of Thomas, who was also an alchemist, says -that Thomas Norton was a member of the privy chamber of Edward IV. -Norton's distinctive views regarding the generation of the metals we -have already mentioned (see Sec. 20). He taught that true knowledge of the -Art of Alchemy could only be obtained by word of mouth from an adept, -and in his _Ordinall_ he gives an account of his own initiation. He -tells us that he was instructed by his master (probably Sir George -Ripley) and learnt the secrets of the Art in forty days, at the age of -twenty-eight. He does not, however, appear to have reaped the fruits of -this knowledge. Twice, he tells us, did he prepare the Elixir, and twice -was it stolen from him; and he is said to have died in 1477, after -ruining himself and his friends by his unsuccessful experiments. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE ALCHEMISTS (_continued_) - -(B. PARACELSUS AND AFTER) - - -Paracelsus (1493-1541.) - -Sec. =46.= That erratic genius, =Paracelsus=--or, to give him his correct -name, Philip (?) Aureole (?) =Theophrast Bombast von Hohenheim=--whose -portrait forms the frontispiece to the present work--was born at -Einsiedeln in Switzerland in 1493. He studied the alchemistic and -medical arts under his father, who was a physician, and continued his -studies later at the University of Basle. He also gave some time to the -study of magic and the occult sciences under the famous Trithemius of -Spanheim. Paracelsus, however, found the merely theoretical "book -learning" of the university curriculum unsatisfactory and betook himself -to the mines, where he might study the nature of metals at first hand. -He then spent several years in travelling, visiting some of the chief -countries of Europe. At last he returned to Basle, the chair of Medical -Science of his old university being bestowed upon him. The works of -Isaac of Holland had inspired him with the desire to improve upon the -medical science of his day, and in his lectures (which were, contrary -to the usual custom, delivered not in Latin, but in the German language) -he denounced in violent terms the teachings of Galen and Avicenna, who -were until then the accredited authorities on medical matters. His use -of the German tongue, his coarseness in criticism and his intense -self-esteem, combined with the fact that he did lay bare many of the -medical follies and frauds of his day, brought him into very general -dislike with the rest of the physicians, and the municipal authorities -siding with the aggrieved apothecaries and physicians, whose methods -Paracelsus had exposed, he fled from Basle and resumed his former roving -life. He was, so we are told, a man of very intemperate habits, being -seldom sober (a statement seriously open to doubt); but on the other -hand, he certainly accomplished a very large number of most remarkable -cures, and, judging from his writings, he was inspired by lofty and -noble ideals and a fervent belief in the Christian religion. He died in -1541. - -Paracelsus combined in himself such opposite characteristics that it is -a matter of difficulty to criticise him aright. As says Professor -Ferguson: "It is most difficult . . . to ascertain what his true -character really was, to appreciate aright this man of fervid -imagination, of powerful and persistent conviction, of unbated honesty -and love of truth, of keen insight into the errors (as he thought them) -of his time, of a merciless will to lay bare these errors and to reform -the abuses to which they gave rise, who in an instant offends by his -boasting, his grossness, his want of self-respect. It is a problem how -to reconcile his ignorance, his weakness, his superstition, his crude -notions, his erroneous observations, his ridiculous inferences and -theories, with his grasp of method, his lofty views of the true scope of -medicine, his lucid statements, his incisive and epigrammatic criticisms -of men and motives."[62] It is also a problem of considerable difficulty -to determine which of the many books attributed to him are really his -genuine works, and consequently what his views on certain points exactly -were. - - [62] JOHN FERGUSON, M.A.: Article "Paracelsus," _Encyclopaedia - Britannica_, 9th edition (1885), vol. xviii. p. 236. - - -Views of Paracelsus. - -Sec. =47.= Paracelsus was the first to recognise the desirability of -investigating the physical universe with a motive other than -alchemistic. He taught that "the object of chemistry is not to make -gold, but to prepare medicines," and founded the school of -Iatro-chemistry or Medical Chemistry. This synthesis of chemistry with -medicine was of very great benefit to each science; new possibilities of -chemical investigation were opened up now that the aim was not purely -alchemistic. Paracelsus's central theory was that of the analogy between -man, the microcosm, and the world or macrocosm. He regarded all the -actions that go on in the human body as of a chemical nature, and he -thought that illness was the result of a disproportion in the body -between the quantities of the three great principles--sulphur, mercury, -and salt--which he regarded as constituting all things; for example, he -considered an excess of sulphur as the cause of fever, since sulphur was -the fiery principle, &c. The basis of the iatro-chemical doctrines, -namely, that the healthy human body is a particular combination of -chemical substances: illness the result of some change in this -combination, and hence curable only by chemical medicines, expresses a -certain truth, and is undoubtedly a great improvement upon the ideas of -the ancients. But in the elaboration of his medical doctrines Paracelsus -fell a prey to exaggeration and the fantastic, and many of his theories -appear to be highly ridiculous. This extravagance is also very -pronounced in the alchemistic works attributed to him; for example, the -belief in the artificial creation of minute living creatures resembling -men (called "homunculi")--a belief of the utmost absurdity, if we are to -understand it literally. On the other hand, his writings do contain much -true teaching of a mystical nature; his doctrine of the correspondence -of man with the universe considered as a whole, for example, certainly -being radically true, though fantastically stated and developed by -Paracelsus himself. - - -Iatro-Chemistry. - -Sec. =48.= Between the pupils of Paracelsus and the older school of -medicine, as might well be supposed, a battle royal was waged for a -considerable time, which ultimately concluded, if not with a full -vindication of Paracelsus's teaching, yet with the acceptance of the -fundamental iatro-chemical doctrines. Henceforward it is necessary to -distinguish between the chemists and the alchemists--to distinguish -those who pursued chemical studies with the object of discovering and -preparing useful medicines, and later those who pursued such studies for -their own sake, from those whose object was the transmutation of the -"base" metals into gold, whether from purely selfish motives, or with -the desire to demonstrate on the physical plane the validity of the -doctrines of Mysticism. However, during the following century or two we -find, very often, the chemist and the alchemist united in one and the -same person. Men such as Glauber and Boyle, whose names will ever be -remembered by chemists, did not doubt the possibility of performing the -_magnum opus_. In the present chapter, however, we shall confine our -attention for the most part to those men who may be regarded, for one -reason or another, particularly as _alchemists_. And the alchemists of -the period we are now considering present a very great diversity. On the -one hand, we have men of much chemical knowledge and skill such as -Libavius and van Helmont, on the other hand we have those who stand -equally as high as exponents of mystic wisdom--men such as Jacob Boehme -and, to a less extent, Thomas Vaughan. We have those, who, although they -did not enrich the science of Chemistry with any new discoveries, were, -nevertheless, regarded as masters of the Hermetic Art; and, finally, we -have alchemists of the Edward Kelley and "Cagliostro" type, whose main -object was their own enrichment at their neighbours' expense. Before, -however, proceeding to an account of the lives and teachings of these -men, there is one curious matter--perhaps the most remarkable of all -historical curiosities--that calls for some brief consideration. We -refer to the "far-famed" Rosicrucian Society. - - -The Rosicrucian Society. - -Sec. =49.= The exoteric history of the Rosicrucian Society commences with -the year 1614. In that year there was published at Cassel in Germany a -pamphlet entitled _The Discovery of the Fraternity of the Meritorious -Order of the Rosy Cross, addressed to the Learned in General and the -Governors of Europe_. After a discussion of the momentous question of -the general reformation of the world, which was to be accomplished -through the medium of a secret confederacy of the wisest and most -philanthropic men, the pamphlet proceeds to inform its readers that such -an association is in existence, founded over one hundred years ago by -the famous C.R.C., grand initiate in the mysteries of Alchemy, whose -history (which is clearly of a fabulous or symbolical nature) is given. -The book concludes by inviting the wise men of the time to join the -Fraternity, directing those who wished to do so to indicate their desire -by the publication of printed letters, which should come into the hands -of the Brotherhood. As might well be expected, the pamphlet was the -cause of considerable interest and excitement, but although many letters -were printed, apparently none of them were vouchsafed a reply. The -following year a further pamphlet appeared, _The Confession of the -Rosicrucian Fraternity, addressed to the Learned in Europe_, and in -1616, _The Chymical Nuptials of Christian Rosencreutz_. This latter book -is a remarkable allegorical romance, describing how an old man, a -lifelong student of the alchemistic Art, was present at the -accomplishment of the _magnum opus_ in the year 1459. An enormous amount -of controversy took place; it was plain to some that the Society had -deluded them, whilst others hotly maintained its claims; but after about -four years had passed, the excitement had subsided, and the subject -ceased, for the time being, to arouse any particular interest. - -Some writers, even in recent times, more gifted for romance than for -historical research, have seen in the Rosicrucian Society a secret -confederacy of immense antiquity and of stupendous powers, consisting of -the great initiates of all ages, supposed to be in possession of the -arch secrets of alchemistic art. It is abundantly evident, however, that -it was nothing of the sort. It is clear from an examination of the -pamphlets already mentioned that they are animated by Lutheran ideals; -and it is of interest to note that Luther's seal contained both the -cross and the rose--whence the term "Rosicrucian." The generally -accepted theory regards the pamphlets as a sort of elaborate hoax -perpetrated by Valentine Andreae, a young and benevolent Lutheran divine; -but more, however, than a mere hoax. As the late Mr. R. A. Vaughan -wrote: ". . . this Andreae writes the _Discovery of the Rosicrucian -Brotherhood, a jeu-d'esprit_ with a serious purpose, just as an -experiment to see whether something cannot be done by combined effort to -remedy the defect and abuses--social, educational, and religious, so -lamented by all good men. He thought there were many Andreaes scattered -throughout Europe--how powerful would be their united systematic action! -. . . He hoped that the few nobler minds whom he desired to organize -would see through the veil of fiction in which he had invested his -proposal; that he might communicate personally with some such, if they -should appear; or that his book might lead them to form among themselves -a practical philanthropic confederacy, answering to the serious purpose -he had embodied in his fiction."[63] His scheme was a failure, and on -seeing its result, Andreae, not daring to reveal himself as the author of -the pamphlets, did his best to put a stop to the folly by writing -several works in criticism of the Society and its claims. Mr. A. E. -Waite, however, whose work on the subject should be consulted for -further information, rejects this theory, and suggests that the -Rosicrucian Society was probably identical with the _Militia Crucifera -Evangelica_, a secret society founded in Nuremburg by the Lutheran -alchemist and mystic, Simon Studion.[64] - - [63] ROBERT ALFRED VAUGHAN, B.A.: _Hours with the Mystics_ (7th - edition, 1895), vol. ii. bk. 8, chap. ix. p. 134. - - [64] ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE: _The Real History of the Rosicrucians_, - (1887). - - -Thomas Charnock (1524-1581). - -Sec. =50.= We must now turn our attention to the lives and teachings of the -alchemists of the period under consideration, treating them, as far as -possible, in chronological order; whence the first alchemist to come -under our notice is Thomas Charnock. - -=Thomas Charnock= was born at Faversham (Kent), either in the year 1524 -or in 1526. After some travels over England he settled at Oxford, -carrying on experiments in Alchemy. In 1557 he wrote his _Breviary of -Philosophy_. This work is almost entirely autobiographical, describing -Charnock's alchemistic experiences. He tells us that he was initiated -into the mysteries of the Hermetic Art by a certain James S. of -Salisbury; he also had another master, an old blind man, who on his -death-bed instructed Charnock. Unfortunately, however, Thomas was doomed -to failure in his experiments. On the first attempt his apparatus caught -fire and his work was destroyed. His next experiments were ruined by the -negligence of a servant. His final misfortune shall be described in his -own words. He had started the work for a third time, and had spent much -money on his fire, hoping to be shortly rewarded. . . . - - "Then a _Gentleman_ that oughte me great mallice - Caused me to be prest to goe serve at _Callys_: - When I saw there was no other boote, - But that I must goe spight of my heart roote; - In my fury I tooke a Hatchet in my hand, - And brake all my Worke whereas it did stand."[65] - - [65] THOMAS CHARNOCK: _The Breviary of Naturall Philosophy_ (see - _Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum_, edited by Ashmole, 1652, p. 295.) - -Thomas Charnock married in 1562 a Miss Agnes Norden. He died in 1581. It -is, perhaps, unnecessary to say that his name does not appear in the -history of Chemistry. - - -Andreas Libavius (1540-1616.) - -Sec. =51.= =Andreas Libavius= was born at Halle in Germany in 1540, where -he studied medicine and practiced for a short time as a physician. He -accepted the fundamental iatro-chemical doctrines, at the same time, -however, criticising certain of the more extravagant views expressed by -Paracelsus. He was a firm believer in the transmutation of the metals, -but his own activities were chiefly directed to the preparation of new -and better medicines. He enriched the science of Chemistry by many -valuable discoveries, and tin tetra-chloride, which he was the first to -prepare, is still known by the name of _spiritus fumans Libavii_. -Libavius was a man possessed of keen powers of observation; and his work -on Chemistry, which contains a full account of the knowledge of the -science of his time, may be regarded as the first text-book of -Chemistry. It was held in high esteem for a considerable time, being -reprinted on several occasions. - -[Illustration: PLATE 9. - -PORTRAIT OF EDWARD KELLEY. - -PORTRAIT OF JOHN DEE. - -_To face page 68_]] - - -Edward Kelley (1555-1595) and John Dee (1527-1608.) - -Sec. =52.= Edward Kelley or Kelly (see plate 9) was born at Worcester on -August 1, 1555. His life is so obscured by various traditions that it is -very difficult to arrive at the truth concerning it. The latest, and -probably the best, account will be found in Miss Charlotte Fell Smith's -_John Dee_ (1909). Edward Kelley, according to some accounts, was -brought up as an apothecary.[66] He is also said to have entered Oxford -University under the pseudonym of Talbot.[67] Later, he practised as a -notary in London. He is said to have committed a forgery, for which he -had his ears cropped; but another account, which supposes him to have -avoided this penalty by making his escape to Wales, is not improbable. -Other crimes of which he is accused are coining and necromancy. He was -probably not guilty of all these crimes, but that he was undoubtedly a -charlatan and profligate the sequel will make plain. We are told that -about the time of his alleged escape to Wales, whilst in the -neighbourhood of Glastonbury Abbey, he became possessed, by a lucky -chance, of a manuscript by St. Dunstan setting forth the grand secrets -of Alchemy, together with some of the two transmuting tinctures, both -white and red,[68] which had been discovered in a tomb near by. His -friendship with John Dee, or Dr. Dee as he is generally called, -commenced in 1582. Now, =John Dee= (see plate 9) was undoubtedly a -mathematician of considerable erudition. He was also an astrologer, and -was much interested in experiments in "crystal-gazing," for which -purpose he employed a speculum of polished cannel-coal, and by means of -which he believed that he had communication with the inhabitants of -spiritual spheres. It appears that Kelley, who probably did possess some -mediumistic powers, the results of which he augmented by means of fraud, -interested himself in these experiments, and not only became the -doctor's "scryer," but also gulled him into the belief that he was in -the possession of the arch-secrets of Alchemy. In 1583, Kelley and his -learned dupe left England together with their wives and a Polish -nobleman, staying firstly at Cracovia and afterwards at Prague, where it -is not unlikely that the Emperor Rudolph II. knighted Kelley. As -instances of the belief which the doctor had in Kelley's powers as an -alchemist, we may note that in his Private Diary under the date December -19, 1586, Dee records that Kelley performed a transmutation for the -benefit of one Edward Garland and his brother Francis;[69] and under -the date May 10, 1588, we find the following recorded: "E.K. did open -the great secret to me, God be thanked!"[70] That he was not always -without doubts as to Kelley's honesty, however, is evident from other -entries in his Diary. In 1587 occurred an event which must be recorded -to the partners' lasting shame. To cap his former impositions, Kelley -informed the doctor that by the orders of a spirit which had appeared to -him in the crystal, they were to share "their two wives in common"; to -which arrangement, after some further persuasion, Dee consented. -Kelley's profligacy and violent temper, however, had already been the -cause of some disagreement between him and the doctor, and this incident -leading to a further quarrel, the erstwhile friends parted. In 1589, the -Emperor Rudolph imprisoned Kelley, the price of his freedom being the -transmutative secret, or a substantial quantity of gold, at least, -prepared by its aid. He was, however, released in 1593; but died in -1595; according to one account, as the result of an accident incurred -while attempting to escape from a second imprisonment. Dee merely -records that he received news to the effect that Kelley "was slayne." - - [66] See, for example, WILLIAM LILLY: _History of His Life and - Times_ (1715, reprinted in 1822, p. 227). - - [67] See ANTHONY A WOOD'S account of Kelley's life in _Athenae - Oxonienses_ (3rd edition, edited by Philip Bliss, vol. i. col. 639.) - - [68] William Lilly, the astrologer, in his _History of His Life and - Times_ (1822 reprint, pp. 225-226), relates a different story - regarding the manner in which Kelley is supposed to have obtained - the Great Medicine, but as it is told at third hand, it is of little - importance. We do not suppose that there can be much doubt that the - truth was that Dee and others were deceived by some skilful - conjuring tricks, for whatever else Kelley may have been, he - certainly was a very ingenious fellow. - - [69] _The Private Diary of Dr. John Dee_ (The Camden Society, 1842), - p. 22. - - [70] _The Private Diary of Dr. John Dee_ (The Camden Society, 1842), - p. 27. - -It was during his incarceration that he wrote an alchemistic work -entitled _The Stone of the Philosophers_, which consists largely of -quotations from older alchemistic writings. His other works on Alchemy -were probably written at an earlier period.[71] - - [71] An English translation of Kelley's alchemistic works were - published under the editorship of Mr. A. E. Waite, in 1893. - - -Henry Khunrath (1560-1605). - -Sec. =53.= =Henry Khunrath= was born in Saxony in the second half of the -sixteenth century. He was a follower of Paracelsus, and travelled about -Germany, practising as a physician. "This German alchemist," says Mr. A. -E. Waite, ". . . is claimed as a hierophant of the psychic side of the -_magnum opus_, and . . . was undoubtedly aware of the larger issues, of -Hermetic theorems"; he describes Khunrath's chief work, _Amphitheatrum -Sapientiae AEternae_, &c., as "purely mystical and magical."[72] - - [72] A. E. WAITE: _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1888), p. - 159. - - -Alexander Sethon (?-1604) and Michael Sendivogius (1566?-1646). - -Sec. =54.= The date and birthplace of =Alexander Sethon=, a Scottish -alchemist, do not appear to have been recorded, but =Michael -Sendivogius= was probably born in Moravia about 1566. Sethon, we are -told, was in possession of the arch-secrets of Alchemy. He visited -Holland in 1602, proceeded after a time to Italy, and passed through -Basle to Germany; meanwhile he is said to have performed many -transmutations. Ultimately arriving at Dresden, however, he fell into -the clutches of the young Elector, Christian II., who, in order to -extort his secret, cast him into prison, and put him to the torture, but -without avail. Now, it so happened that Sendivogius, who was in quest of -the Philosopher's Stone, was staying at Dresden, and hearing of Sethon's -imprisonment obtained permission to visit him. Sendivogius offered to -effect Sethon's escape in return for assistance in his alchemistic -pursuits, to which arrangement the Scottish alchemist willingly agreed. -After some considerable outlay of money in bribery, Sendivogius's plan -of escape was successfully carried out, and Sethon found himself a free -man; but he refused to betray the high secrets of Hermetic philosophy to -his rescuer. However, before his death, which occurred shortly -afterwards, he presented him with an ounce of the transmutative powder. -Sendivogius soon used up this powder, we are told, in effecting -transmutations and cures, and, being fond of expensive living, he -married Sethon's widow, in the hope that she was in the possession of -the transmutative secret. In this, however, he was disappointed; she -knew nothing of the matter, but she had the manuscript of an alchemistic -work written by her late husband. Shortly afterwards Sendivogius printed -at Prague a book entitled _The New Chemical Light_ under the name of -"Cosmopolita," which is said to be this work of Sethon's but which -Sendivogius claimed for his own by the insertion of his name on the -title-page, in the form of an anagram. The tract _On Sulphur_ which was -printed at the end of later editions, however, is said to have been the -genuine work of the Moravian. Whilst his powder lasted, Sendivogius -travelled about, performing, we are told, many transmutations. He was -twice imprisoned in order to extort the secrets of Alchemy from him, on -one occasion escaping, and on the other occasion obtaining his release -from the Emperor Rudolph. Afterwards, he appears to have degenerated -into an impostor, but this is said to have been a _finesse_ to hide his -true character as an alchemistic adept. He died in 1646.[73] - - [73] See F. B.: _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_ (1815), pp. - 66-69. - -The _New Chemical Light_ was held in great esteem by the alchemists. The -first part treats at length of the generation of the metals and also of -the Philosopher's Stone, and claims to be based on practical experience. -The seed of Nature, we are told, is one, but various products result on -account of the different conditions of development. An imaginary -conversation between Mercury, an Alchemist and Nature which is appended, -is not without a touch of humour. Says the Alchemist, in despair, "Now I -see that I know nothing; only I must not say so. For I should lose the -good opinion of my neighbours, and they would no longer entrust me with -money for my experiments. I must therefore go on saying that I know -everything; for there are many that expect me to do great things for -them. . . . There are many countries, and many greedy persons who will -suffer themselves to be gulled by my promises of mountains of gold. Thus -day will follow day, and in the meantime the King or the donkey will -die, or I myself."[74] The second part treats of the Elements and -Principles (see Sec.Sec. 17 and 19). - - [74] _The New Chemical Light_, Part I. (see _The Hermetic Museum_, - vol. ii. p. 125). - -[Illustration: PLATE 10. - -[by J. Brunn] - -PORTRAIT OF MICHAEL MAIER. - -_To face page 72_]] - - -Michael Maier (1568-1622). - -Sec. =55.= =Michael Maier= (see plate 10) was born at Rendsberg (in -Holstein) about 1568. He studied medicine assiduously, becoming a most -successful physician, and he was ennobled by Rudolf II. Later on, -however, he took up the subject of Alchemy, and is said to have ruined -his health and wasted his fortune in the pursuit of the alchemistic -_ignis fatuus_--the Stone of the Philosophers--travelling about Germany -and elsewhere in order to have converse with those who were regarded as -adepts in the Art. He took a prominent part in the famous Rosicrucian -controversy (see Sec. 49), defending the claims of the alleged society in -several tracts. He is said, on the one hand, to have been admitted as a -member of the fraternity; and on the other hand, to have himself founded -a similar institution. A full account of his views will be found in the -Rev. J. B. Craven's _Count Michael Maier: Life and Writings_ (1910). He -was a very learned man, but his works are somewhat obscure and abound in -fanciful allegories. He read an alchemistic meaning into the ancient -fables concerning the Egyptian and Greek gods and heroes. Like most -alchemists, he held the supposed virtues of mercury in high esteem. In -his _Lusus Serius: or, Serious Passe-time_, for example, he supposes a -Parliament of the various creatures of the world to meet, in order that -Man might choose the noblest of them as king over all the rest. The -calf, the sheep, the goose, the oyster, the bee, the silkworm, flax and -mercury are the chosen representatives, each of which discourses in -turn. It will be unnecessary to state that Mercury wins the day. Thus -does Maier eulogise it: "Thou art the miracle, splendour and light of -the world. Thou art the glory, ornament, and supporter of the Earth. -Thou art the Asyle, Anchor, and tye of the Universe. Next to the minde -of Man, God Created nothing more Noble, more Glorious, or more -Profitable."[75] His _Subtle Allegory concerning the Secrets of Alchemy, -very useful to possess and pleasant to read_, will be found in the -_Hermetic Museum_, together with his _Golden Tripod_, consisting of -translations of "Valentine's" "_Practica_" and _Twelve Keys_, Norton's -_Ordinal_ and Cremer's spurious _Testament_. - - [75] MICHAEL MAIER: _Lusus Serius: or Serious Passe-time_ (1654), p. - 138. - -[Illustration: Plate 11. - -PORTRAIT OF JACOB BOEHME. - -_To face page 74_]] - - -Jacob Boehme (1575-1624.) - -Sec. =56.= =Jacob Boehme=, or Behmen (see plate 11), was born at Alt -Seidenberg, a village near Goerlitz, in 1575. His parents being poor, the -education he received was of a very rudimentary nature, and when his -schooling days were over, Jacob was apprenticed to a shoemaker. His -religious nature caused him often to admonish his fellow-apprentices, -which behaviour ultimately caused him to be dismissed. He travelled -about as a journeyman shoemaker, returning, however, to Goerlitz in 1594, -where he married and settled in business. He claims to have experienced -a wonderful vision in 1598, and to have had a similar vision two years -later. In these visions, the first of which lasted for several days, he -believed that he saw into the inmost secrets of nature; but what at -first appeared dim and vague became clear and coherent in a third -vision, which he tells us was vouchsafed to him in 1610. It was then -that he wrote his first book, the _Aurora_, which he composed for -himself only, in order that he should not forget the mysteries disclosed -to him. At a later period he produced a large number of treatises of a -mystical-religious nature, having spent the intervening years in -improving his early education. These books aroused the ire of the -narrow-minded ecclesiastical authorities of the town, and Jacob suffered -considerable persecution in consequence. He visited Dresden in 1624, and -in the same year was there taken ill with a fever. Returning to Goerlitz, -he expired in a condition of ecstasy. - -Jacob Boehme was an alchemist of a purely transcendental order. He had, -it appears, acquired some knowledge of Chemistry during his apprentice -days, and he employed the language of Alchemy in the elaboration of his -system of mystical philosophy. With this lofty mystical-religious system -we cannot here deal; Boehme is, indeed, often accounted the greatest of -true Christian mystics; but although conscious of his superiority over -many minor lights, we think this title is due to Emanuel Swedenborg. The -question of the validity of his visions is also one which lies beyond -the scope of the present work;[76] we must confine our attention to -Boehme as an alchemist. The Philosopher's Stone, in Boehme's -terminology, is the Spirit of Christ which must "tincture" the -individual soul. In one place he says, "_The Phylosophers Stone_ is a -very dark disesteemed Stone, of a _Gray_ colour, but therein lyeth the -highest Tincture."[77] In the transcendental sense, this is reminiscent -of the words of Isaiah: "He hath no form nor comeliness; and when we see -him, there is no beauty that we should desire him. . . . He was despised -and we esteemed him not," &c.[78] - - [76] For a general discussion of spiritual visions see the present - writer's _Matter, Spirit and the Cosmos_ (Rider, 1910), Chapter IV., - "On Matter and Spirit." Undoubtedly Boehme's visions involved a - valuable element of truth, but at the same time much that was purely - relative and subjective. - - [77] JACOB BOEHME: _Epistles_ (translated by J. E., 1649), Ep. iv. Sec. - 111, p. 65. - - [78] _The Book of the Prophet Isaiah_, chap, liii., vv. 2 and 3, - R.V. - - -J. B. van Helmont (1577-1644) and F. M. van Helmont (1618-1699.) - -Sec. =57.= =John Baptist van Helmont= (see plate 12) was born in Brussels -in 1577. He devoted himself to the study of medicine, at first following -Galen, but afterwards accepting in part the teachings of Paracelsus; -and he helped to a large extent in the overthrow of the old medical -doctrines. His purely chemical researches were also of great value to -the science. He was a man of profound knowledge, of a religious -temperament, and he possessed a marked liking for the mystical. He was -inspired by the writings of Thomas a Kempis to imitate Christ in all -things, and he practised medicine, therefore, as a work of benevolence, -asking no fee for his services. At the same time, moreover, he was a -firm believer in the powers of the Philosopher's Stone, claiming to have -himself successfully performed the transmutation of the metals on more -than one occasion, though unacquainted with the composition of the -medicine employed (see Sec. 62). Many of his theoretical views are highly -fantastical. He lived a life devoted to scientific research, and died in -1644. - -[Illustration: PLATE 12. - -PORTRAITS OF J. B. AND F. M. VAN HELMONT. - -(From the Frontispiece to J. B. van Helmont's _Oriatrike_). - -_To face page 76_]] - -Van Helmont regarded water as the primary element out of which all -things are produced. He denied that fire was an element or anything -material at all, and he did not accept the sulphur-mercury-salt theory. -To him is due the word "gas"--before his time various gases were looked -upon as mere varieties of air--and he also made a distinction between -gases (which could not be condensed)[79] and vapours (which give liquids -on cooling). In particular he investigated the gas that is now known as -carbon-dioxide (carbonic anhydride), which he termed _gas sylvestre_; -but he lacked suitable apparatus for the collection of gases, and -hence was led in many cases to erroneous conclusions. - - [79] It has since been discovered that all gases can be condensed, - given a sufficient degree of cold and pressure. - -=Francis Mercurius van Helmont= (see plate 12), the son of John Baptist, -born in 1618, gained the reputation of having also achieved the _magnum -opus_, since he appeared to live very luxuriously upon a limited income. -He was a skilled chemist and physician, but held many queer theories, -metempsychosis included. - - -Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604-1668). - -Sec. =58.= =Johann Rudolf Glauber= was born at Karlstadt in 1604. Of his -life little is known. He appears to have travelled about Germany a good -deal, afterwards visiting Amsterdam, where he died in 1668. He was of a -very patriotic nature, and a most ardent investigator in the realm of -Chemistry. He accepted the main iatro-chemical doctrines, but gave most -of his attention to applied Chemistry. He enriched the science with many -important discoveries; and crystallised sodium sulphate is still called -"Glauber's Salt." Glauber, himself, attributed remarkable medicinal -powers to this compound. He was a firm believer in the claims of -Alchemy, and held many fantastic ideas. - - -Thomas Vaughan ("Eugenius Philalethes") (1622-1666.) - -Sec. =59.= =Thomas Vaughan=, who wrote under the name of "=Eugenius -Philalethes=," was born at Newton in Brecknockshire in 1622. He was -educated at Jesus College, Oxford, graduating as a Bachelor of Arts, and -being made a fellow of his college. He appears also to have taken holy -orders and to have had the living of St. Bridget's (Brecknockshire) -conferred on him.[80] During the civil wars he bore arms for the king, -but his allegiance to the Royalist cause led to his being accused of -"drunkenness, swearing, incontinency and bearing arms for the King"; and -he appears to have been deprived of his living. He retired to Oxford and -gave himself up to study and chemical research. He is to be regarded as -an alchemist of the transcendental order. His views as to the nature of -the true Philosopher's Stone may be gathered from the following -quotation: "This, reader," he says, speaking of the mystical -illumination, "is the Christian Philosopher's Stone, a Stone so often -inculcated in Scripture. This is the Rock in the wildernesse, because in -great obscurity, and few there are that know the right way unto it. This -is the Stone of Fire in Ezekiel; this is the Stone with Seven Eyes upon -it in Zacharie, and this is the White Stone with the New Name in the -Revelation. But in the Gospel, where Christ himself speakes, who was -born to discover mysteries and communicate Heaven to Earth, it is more -clearly described."[81] At the same time he appears to have carried out -experiments in physical Alchemy, and is said to have met with his death -in 1666 through accidentally inhaling the fumes of some mercury with -which he was experimenting. - - [80] See ANTHONY A WOOD: _Athenae Oxonienses_, edited by Philip - Bliss, vol. iii. (1817), cols. 722-726. - - [81] THOMAS VAUGHAN ("Eugenius Philalethes"): _Anima Magica - Abscondita_ (see _The Magical Writings of Thomas Vaughan_, edited by - A. E. Waite, 1888, p. 71). - -Thomas Vaughan was an ardent disciple of Cornelius Agrippa, the -sixteenth-century theosophist. He held the peripatetic philosophy in -very slight esteem. He was a man devoted to God, though probably guilty -of some youthful follies, full of love towards his wife, and with an -intense desire for the solution of the great problems of Nature. Amongst -his chief works, which are by no means wanting in flashes of mystic -wisdom, may be mentioned _Anthroposophia Theomagica_, _Anima Magica -Abscondita_ (which were published together), and _Magia Adamica; or, the -Antiquitie of Magic_. With regard to his views as expressed in the first -two of these books, a controversy ensued between Vaughan and Henry -Moore, which was marked by considerable acrimony. - - -"Eirenaeus Philalethes" (1623?-?) and George Starkey (?-1665). - -Sec. =60.= The use of the pseudonym "Philalethes" has not been confined to -one alchemist. The cosmopolitan adept who wrote under the name of -"=Eirenaeus Philalethes=," has been confused, on the one hand, with -Thomas Vaughan, on the other hand with George Starkey (?-1665). He has -also been identified with Dr. Robert Child (1613-1654); but his real -identity remains shrouded in mystery.[82] =George Starkey= (or Stirk), -the son of George Stirk, minister of the Church of England in Bermuda, -graduated at Harvard in 1646 and practised medicine in the United States -of America from 1647 to 1650. In 1651 he came to England and practised -medicine in London. He died of the plague in 1665. In 1654-5 he -published _The Marrow of Alchemy_, by "Eirenaeus Philoponos -Philalethes," which some think he had stolen from his Hermetic Master. -Other works by "Eirenaeus Philalethes" appeared after Starkey's death and -became immensely popular. The _Open Entrance to the Closed Palace of the -King_ (the most famous of these) and the _Three Treatises_ of the same -author will be found in _The Hermetic Museum_. Some of his views have -already been noted (see Sec.Sec. 1 and 22). On certain points he differed from -the majority of the alchemists. He denied that fire was an element, and, -also, that bodies are formed by mixture of the elements. According to -him there is one principle in the metals, namely, mercury, which arises -from the aqueous element, and is termed "metalically differentiated -water, _i.e._, it is water passed into that stage of development, in -which it can no longer produce anything but mineral substances."[83] -Philalethes's views as to "metallic seed" are also of considerable -interest. Of the seed of gold, which he regarded as the seed, also, of -all other metals, he says: "The seed of animals and vegetables is -something separate, and may be cut out, or otherwise separately -exhibited; but metallic seed is diffused throughout the metal, and -contained in all its smallest parts; neither can it be discerned from -its body: its extraction is therefore a task which may well tax the -ingenuity of the most experienced philosopher. . . ."[84] Well might -this have been said of the electron of modern scientific theory. - - [82] See Mr. A. E. Waite's _Lives of Alchemystical Philosophers_, - art. "Eirenaeus Philalethes," and the Biographical Preface to his - _The Works of Thomas Vaughan_ (1919); also the late Professor - Ferguson's "'The Marrow of Alchemy'," _The Journal of The Alchemical - Society_, vol. iii. (1915), pp. 106 _et seq._, and Professor G. L. - Kittredge's _Doctor Robert Child, The Remonstrant_ (Camb., Mass., - 1919). The last mentioned writer strongly urges the identification - of "Eirenaeus Philalethes" with George Starkey. - - [83] "EIRENAEUS PHILALETHES": _The Metamorphosis of Metals_ (see _The - Hermetic Museum_, vol. ii. p. 236). Compare with van Helmont's - views, Sec. 57. - - [84] _Ibid._, p. 240. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE OUTCOME OF ALCHEMY - - -Did the Alchemists achieve the "Magnum Opus"? - -Sec. =61.= The alchemists were untiring in their search for the Stone of -the Philosophers, and we may well ask whether they ever succeeded in -effecting a real transmutation. That many _apparent_ transmutations -occurred, the observers being either self-deceived by a superficial -examination--certain alloys resemble the "noble metals"--or deliberately -cheated by impostors, is of course undoubted. But at the same time we -must not assume that, because we know not the method now, real -transmutations have never taken place. Modern research indicates that it -may be possible to transmute other metals, such as lead or bismuth, into -gold, and consequently we must admit the possibility that amongst the -many experiments carried out, a real transmutation was effected. On the -other hand, the method which is suggested by the recent researches in -question could not have been known to the alchemists or accidentally -employed by them; and, moreover, the quantity of gold which is hoped -for, should such a method prove successful, is far below the smallest -amount that would have been detected in the days of Alchemy. But if -there be one method whereby the metals may be transmuted, there may be -other methods. And it is not altogether an easy task to explain away the -testimony of eminent men such as were van Helmont and Helvetius. - - -The Testimony of van Helmont. - -Sec. =62.= =John Baptist van Helmont= (see Sec. 57), who was celebrated alike -for his skill as a physician and chemist and for his nobility of -character, testified in more than one place that he had himself carried -out the transmutation of mercury into gold. But, as we have mentioned -above, the composition of the Stone employed on these occasions was -unknown to him. He says: ". . . For truly, I have divers times seen it -[the Stone of the Philosophers], and handled it with my hands: but it -was of colour, such as is in Saffron in its Powder, yet weighty, and -shining like unto powdered Glass: There was once given unto me one -fourth part of one Grain: But I call a Grain the six hundredth part of -one Ounce: This quarter of one Grain therefore, being rouled up in -Paper, I projected upon eight Ounces of Quick-silver made hot in a -Crucible; and straightway all the Quick-silver, with a certain degree of -Noise, stood still from flowing, and being congealed, setled like unto a -yellow Lump: but after pouring it out, the Bellows blowing, there were -found eight Ounces, and a little less than eleven Grains [eight Ounces -less eleven Grains] of the purest Gold: Therefore one only Grain of that -Powder, had transchanged 19186 [19156] Parts of Quick-silver, equal to -itself, into the best Gold."[85] - - [85] J. B. VAN HELMONT: _Life Eternal_ (see _Oriatrike_, translated - by J. C., 1662; or _van Helmont's Workes_, translated by J. C., - 1664, which is merely the former work with a new title-page and - preliminary matter, pp. 751 and 752). - -And again: "I am constrained to believe that there is the Stone which -makes Gold, and which makes Silver; because I have at distinct turns, -made projection with my hand, of one grain of the Powder, upon some -thousand grains of hot Quick-silver; and the buisiness succeeded in the -Fire, even as Books do promise; a Circle of many People standing by, -together with a tickling Admiration of us all. . . . He who first gave -me the Gold-making Powder, had likewise also, at least as much of it, as -might be sufficient for changing two hundred thousand Pounds of Gold: -. . . For he gave me perhaps half a grain of that Powder, and nine -ounces and three quarters of Quick-silver were thereby transchanged: But -that Gold, a strange man [a stranger], being a Friend of one evenings -acquaintance, gave me."[86] - - [86] J. B. VAN HELMONT: _The Tree of Life_ (see _Oriatrike_ or _Van - Helmont's Workes_, p. 807). - -[Illustration: PLATE 13. - -_To face page 84_]] - - -The Testimony of Helvetius. - -Sec. =63.= =John Frederick Helvetius= (see plate 13), an eminent doctor of -medicine, and physician to the Prince of Orange, published at the Hague -in 1667 the following remarkable account of a transmutation he claimed -to have effected. Certain points of resemblance between this account and -that of van Helmont (_e.g._, in each case the Stone is described as a -glassy substance of a pale yellow colour) are worth noticing: "On the 27 -December, 1666, in the forenoon, there came to my house a certain man, -who was a complete stranger to me, but of an honest, grave countenance, -and an authoritative mien, clothed in a simple garb like that of a -Memnonite. . . . - -"After we had exchanged salutations, he asked me whether he might have -some conversation with me. He wished to say something to me about the -Pyrotechnic Art, as he had read one of my tracts (directed against the -sympathetic Powder of Dr. Digby), in which I hinted a suspicion whether -the Grand Arcanum of the Sages was not after all a gigantic hoax. He, -therefore, took that opportunity of asking me whether I could not -believe that such a grand mystery might exist in the nature of things, -by means of which a physician could restore any patient whose vitals -were not irreparably destroyed. I answered: 'Such a Medicine would be a -most desirable acquisition for any physician; nor can any man tell how -many secrets there may be hidden in Nature; yet, though I have read much -about the truth of this Art, it has never been my good fortune to meet -with a real Master of the Alchemical Science.' I also enquired whether -he was a medical man. . . . In reply, he . . . described himself as a -brassfounder. . . . After some further conversation, the Artist Elias -(for it was he) thus addressed me: 'Since you have read so much in the -works of the Alchemists about this Stone, its substance, its colour, and -its wonderful effects, may I be allowed the question, whether you have -not yourself prepared it?' On my answering his question in the negative, -he took out of his bag a cunningly-worked ivory box, in which there were -three large pieces of a substance resembling glass, or pale sulphur, and -informed me that here was enough of the Tincture for the production of -20 tons of gold. When I had held the precious treasure in my hand for -a quarter of an hour (during which time I listened to a recital of its -wonderful curative properties), I was compelled to restore it to its -owner, which I could not help doing with a certain degree of reluctance. -After thanking him for his kindness in shewing it to me, I then asked -how it was that his Stone did not display that ruby colour, which I had -been taught to regard as characteristic of the Philosopher's Stone. He -replied that the colour made no difference, and that the substance was -sufficiently mature for all practical purposes. My request that he would -give me a piece of his Stone (though it were no larger than a coriander -seed), he somewhat brusquely refused, adding, in a milder tone, that he -could not give it me for all the wealth I possessed, and that not on -account of its great preciousness, but for some other reason which it -was not lawful for him to divulge; . . . - - -Helvetius obtains the Philosopher's Stone. - -Sec. =64.= "When my strange visitor had concluded his narrative, I besought -him to give me a proof of his assertion, by performing the transmutatory -operation on some metals in my presence. He answered evasively, that he -could not do so then, but that he would return in three weeks, and that, -if he was then at liberty to do so, he would shew me something that -would make me open my eyes. He appeared punctually to the promised day, -and invited me to take a walk with him, in the course of which we -discoursed profoundly on the secrets of Nature in fire, though I noticed -that my companion was very chary in imparting information about the -Grand Arcanum. . . . At last I asked him point-blank to show me the -transmutation of metals. I besought him to come and dine with me, and to -spend the night at my house; I entreated; I expostulated; but in vain. -He remained firm. I reminded him of his promise. He retorted that his -promise had been conditional upon his being permitted to reveal the -secret to me. At last, however, I prevailed upon him to give me a piece -of his precious Stone--a piece no larger than a grain of rape seed. He -delivered it to me as if it were the most princely donation in the -world. Upon my uttering a doubt whether it would be sufficient to tinge -more than four grains of lead, he eagerly demanded it back. I complied, -in the hope that he would exchange it for a larger piece; instead of -which he divided it in two with his thumb, threw away one-half and gave -me back the other, saying: 'Even now it is sufficient for you.' Then I -was still more heavily disappointed, as I could not believe that -anything could be done with so small a particle of the Medicine. He, -however, bade me take two drachms, or half an ounce of lead, or even a -little more, and to melt it in the crucible; for the Medicine would -certainly not tinge more of the base metal than it was sufficient for. I -answered that I could not believe that so small a quantity of Tincture -could transform so large a mass of lead. But I had to be satisfied with -what he had given me, and my chief difficulty was about the application -of the Tincture. I confessed that when I held his ivory box in my hand, -I had managed to extract a few crumbs of his Stone, but that they had -changed my lead, not into gold, but only into glass. He laughed, and -said that I was more expert at theft than at the application of the -Tincture. 'You should have protected your spoil with "yellow wax," then -it would have been able to penetrate the lead and to transmute it into -gold.' . . . - - -Helvetius performs a Transmutation. - -Sec. =65.= ". . . With . . . a promise to return at nine o'clock the next -morning, he left me. But at the stated hour on the following day he did -not make his appearance; in his stead, however, there came, a few hours -later, a stranger, who told me that his friend the Artist was -unavoidably detained, but that he would call at three o'clock in the -afternoon. The afternoon came; I waited for him till half-past seven -o'clock. He did not appear. Thereupon my wife came and tempted me to try -the transmutation myself. I determined, however, to wait till the -morrow, and in the meantime, ordered my son to light the fire, as I was -now almost sure that he was an impostor. On the morrow, however, I -thought that I might at least make an experiment with the piece of -'Tincture' which I had received; if it turned out a failure, in spite of -my following his directions closely, I might then be quite certain that -my visitor had been a mere pretender to a knowledge of this Art. So I -asked my wife to put the Tincture in wax, and I myself, in the meantime, -prepared six drachms of lead; I then cast the Tincture, enveloped as it -was in wax, on the lead; as soon as it was melted, there was a hissing -sound and a slight effervescence, and after a quarter of an hour I found -that the whole mass of lead had been turned into the finest gold. Before -this transmutation took place, the compound became intensely green, but -as soon as I had poured it into the melting pot it assumed a hue like -blood. When it cooled, it glittered and shone like gold. We immediately -took it to the goldsmith, who at once declared it to be the finest gold -he had ever seen, and offered to pay fifty florins an ounce for it. - - -Helvetius's Gold Assayed. - -Sec. =66.= "The rumour, of course, spread at once like wildfire through the -whole city; and in the afternoon, I had visits from many illustrious -students of this Art; I also received a call from the Master of the Mint -and some other gentlemen, who requested me to place at their disposal a -small piece of the gold, in order that they might subject it to the -usual tests. I consented, and we betook ourselves to the house of a -certain silversmith, named Brechtil, who submitted a small piece of my -gold to the test called 'the fourth': three or four parts of silver are -melted in the crucible with one part of gold, and then beaten out into -thin plates, upon which some strong _aqua fortis_ [nitric acid] is -poured. The usual result of this experiment is that the silver is -dissolved, while the gold sinks to the bottom in the shape of a black -powder, and after the _aqua fortis_ has been poured off, [the gold,] -melted once again in the crucible, resumes its former shape. . . . When -we now performed this experiment, we thought at first that one-half of -the gold had evaporated; but afterwards we found that this was not the -case, but that, on the contrary, two scruples of the silver had -undergone a change into gold. - - -Helvetius's Gold Further Tested. - -Sec. =67.= "Then we tried another test, _viz._, that which is performed by -means of a septuple of Antimony; at first it seemed as if eight grains -of the gold had been lost, but afterwards, not only had two scruples of -the silver been converted into gold, but the silver itself was greatly -improved both in quality and malleability. Thrice I performed this -infallible test, discovering that every drachm of gold produced an -increase of a scruple of gold, but the silver is excellent and extremely -flexible. Thus I have unfolded to you the whole story from beginning to -end. The gold I still retain in my possession, but I cannot tell you -what has become of the Artist Elias. Before he left me, on the last day -of our friendly intercourse, he told me that he was on the point of -undertaking a journey to the Holy Land. May the Holy Angels of God watch -over him wherever he is, and long preserve him as a source of blessing -to Christendom! This is my earnest prayer on his and our behalf."[87] - - [87] J. F. HELVETIUS: _The Golden Calf_, ch. iii. (see _The Hermetic - Museum_, vol. ii. pp. 283 _et seq._). - -Testimony such as this warns us not to be too sure that a real -transmutation has never taken place. On the whole, with regard to this -question, an agnostic position appears to be the more philosophical. - - -The Genesis of Chemistry. - -Sec. =68.= But even if the alchemists did not discover the Grand Arcanum of -Nature, they did discover very many scientifically important facts. Even -if they did not prepare the Philosopher's Stone, they did prepare a very -large number of new and important chemical compounds. Their labours were -the seeds out of which modern Chemistry developed, and this highly -important science is rightfully included under the expression "The -Outcome of Alchemy." As we have already pointed out (Sec. 48), it was the -iatro-chemists who first investigated chemical matters with an object -other than alchemistic, their especial end in view being the -preparation of useful medicines, though the medical-chemist and the -alchemist were very often united in the one person, as in the case of -Paracelsus himself and the not less famous van Helmont. It was not until -still later that Chemistry was recognised as a distinct science separate -from medicine. - - -The Degeneracy of Alchemy. - -Sec. =69.= In another direction the Outcome of Alchemy was of a very -distressing nature. Alchemy was in many respects eminently suitable as a -cloak for fraud, and those who became "alchemists" with the sole object -of accumulating much wealth in a short space of time, finding that the -legitimate pursuit of the Art did not enable them to realise their -expectations in this direction, availed themselves of this fact. There -is, indeed, some evidence that the degeneracy of Alchemy had commenced -as early as the fourteenth century, but the attainment of the _magnum -opus_ was regarded as possible for some three or more centuries. - -The alchemistic promises of health, wealth and happiness and a -pseudo-mystical style of language were effectively employed by these -impostors. Some more or less ingenious tricks--such as the use of hollow -stirring-rods, in which the gold was concealed, &c.--convinced a -credulous public of the validity of their claims. Of these -pseudo-alchemists we have already made the acquaintance of Edward -Kelley, but chief of them all is generally accounted the notorious -"Count Cagliostro." That "Cagliostro" is rightfully placed in the -category of pseudo-alchemists is certain, but it also appears equally -certain that, charlatan though he was, posterity has not always done -him that justice which is due to all men, however bad they may be. - - -"Count Cagliostro" (--?-1795). - -Sec. =70.= Of the birth and early life of the personage calling himself -"=Count Cagliostro=" nothing is known with any degree of certainty, even -his true name being enveloped in mystery. It has, indeed, been usual to -identify him with the notorious Italian swindler, Giuseppe Balsamo, who, -born at Palermo in 1743 (or 1748), apparently disappeared from mortal -ken after some thirty years, of which the majority were spent in -committing various crimes. "Cagliostro's" latest biographer,[88] who -appears to have gone into the matter very thoroughly, however, throws -very grave doubts on the truth of this theory. - - [88] W. R. H. TROWBRIDGE: _Cagliostro_: _The Splendour and Misery of - a Master of Magic_ (1910). We must acknowledge our indebtedness for - many of the particulars which follow to this work. It is, however, - unfortunately marred by a ridiculous attempt to show a likeness - between "Cagliostro" and Swedenborg, for which, by the way, Mr. - Trowbridge has already been criticised by the _Spectator_. It may - justly be said of Swedenborg that he was scrupulously honest and - sincere in his beliefs as well as in his actions; and, as a - philosopher, it is only now being discovered how really great he - was. He did, indeed, claim to have converse with spiritual beings; - but the results of modern psychical research have robbed such claims - of any inherent impossibility, and in Swedenborg's case there is - very considerable evidence for their validity. - -[Illustration: PLATE 14. - -_To face page 92_]] - -If the earlier part of "Cagliostro's" life is unknown, the latter part -is so overlaid with legends and lies, that it is almost impossible to -get at the truth concerning it. In 1776 Cagliostro and his wife were in -London, where "Cagliostro" became a Freemason, joining a lodge connected -with "The Order of Strict Observance," a secret society incorporated -with Freemasonry, and which (on the Continent, at least) was concerned -largely with occult subjects. "Cagliostro," however, was unsatisfied -with its rituals and devised a new system which he called Egyptian -Masonry. Egyptian Masonry, he taught, was to reform the whole world, and -he set out, leaving England for the Continent, to convert Masons and -others to his views. We must look for the motive power of his -extraordinary career in vanity and a love of mystery-mongering, without -any true knowledge of the occult; it is probable, indeed, that -ultimately his unbounded vanity triumphed over his reason and that he -actually believed in his own pretensions. That he did possess hypnotic -and clairvoyant powers is, we think, at least probable; but it is none -the less certain that, when such failed him, he had no scruples against -employing other means of convincing the credulous of the validity of his -claims. This was the case on his visit to Russia, which occurred not -long afterwards. At St. Petersburg a youthful medium he was employing, -to put the matter briefly, "gave the show away," and at Warsaw, where he -found it necessary to turn alchemist, he was detected in the process of -introducing a piece of gold in the crucible containing the base metal he -was about to "transmute." At Strasburg, which he reached in 1780, -however, he was more successful. Here he appeared as a miraculous healer -of all diseases, though whether his cures are to be ascribed to some -simple but efficacious medicine which he had discovered, to hypnotism, -to the power of the imagination on the part of his patients, or to the -power of imagination on the part of those who have recorded the alleged -cures, is a question into which we do not propose to enter. At -Strasburg "Cagliostro" came into contact with the Cardinal de Rohan, and -a fast friendship sprang up between the two, which, in the end, proved -"Cagliostro's" ruin. The "Count" next visited Bordeaux and Lyons, -successfully founding lodges of Egyptian Masonry. From the latter town -he proceeded to Paris, where he reached the height of his fame. He -became extraordinarily rich, although he is said to have asked, and to -have accepted, no fee for his services as a healer. On the other hand, -there was a substantial entrance-fee to the mysteries of Egyptian -Masonry, which, with its alchemistic promises of health and wealth, -prospered exceedingly. At the summit of his career, however, fortune -forsook him. As a friend of de Rohan, he was arrested in connection with -the Diamond Necklace affair, on the word of the infamous Countess de -Lamotte; although, of whatever else he may have been guilty, he was -perfectly innocent of this charge. After lying imprisoned in the -Bastille for several months, he was tried by the French Parliament, -pronounced innocent, and released. Immediately, however, the king -banished him, and he left Paris for London, where he seems to have been -persistently persecuted by agents of the French king. He returned to the -Continent, ultimately reaching Italy, where he was arrested by the -Inquisition and condemned to death on the charge of being a Freemason (a -dire offence in the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church). The sentence, -however, was modified to one of perpetual imprisonment, and he was -confined in the Castle of San Leo, where he died in 1795, after four -years of imprisonment, in what manner is not known. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE AGE OF MODERN CHEMISTRY - - -The Birth of Modern Chemistry. - -Sec. =71.= Chemistry as distinct from Alchemy and Iatro-chemistry commenced -with Robert Boyle (see plate 15), who first clearly recognised that its -aim is neither the transmutation of the metals nor the preparation of -medicines, but the observation and generalisation of a certain class of -phenomena; who denied the validity of the alchemistic view of the -constitution of matter, and enunciated the definition of an element -which has since reigned supreme in Chemistry; and who enriched the -science with observations of the utmost importance. Boyle, however, was -a man whose ideas were in advance of his times, and intervening between -the iatro-chemical period and the Age of Modern Chemistry proper came -the period of the Phlogistic Theory--a theory which had a certain -affinity with the ideas of the alchemists. - -[Illustration: PLATE 15. - -PORTRAIT OF ROBERT BOYLE. - -_To face page 94_]] - - -The Phlogiston Theory. - -Sec. =72.= The phlogiston theory was mainly due to Georg Ernst Stahl -(1660-1734). Becher (1635-1682) had attempted to revive the once -universally accepted sulphur-mercury-salt theory of the alchemists in a -somewhat modified form, by the assumption that all substances consist of -three earths--the combustible, mercurial, and vitreous; and herein is -to be found the germ of Stahl's phlogistic theory. According to Stahl, -all combustible bodies (including those metals that change on heating) -contain _phlogiston_, the principle of combustion, which escapes in the -form of flame when such substances are burned. According to this theory, -therefore, the metals are compounds, since they consist of a metallic -calx (what we now call the "oxide" of the metal) combined with -phlogiston; and, further, to obtain the metal from the calx it is only -necessary to act upon it with some substance rich in phlogiston. Now, -coal and charcoal are both almost completely combustible, leaving very -little residue; hence, according to this theory, they must consist very -largely of phlogiston; and, as a matter of fact, metals can be obtained -by heating their calces with either of these substances. Many other -facts of a like nature were explicable in terms of the phlogiston -theory, and it became exceedingly popular. Chemists at this time did not -pay much attention to the balance; it was observed, however, that metals -increased in weight on calcination, but this was "explained" on the -assumption that phlogiston possessed negative weight. Antoine Lavoisier -(1743-1794), utilising Priestley's discovery of oxygen (called -"dephlogisticated air" by its discoverer) and studying the weight -relations accompanying combustion, demonstrated the non-validity of the -phlogistic theory[89] and proved combustion to be the combination of the -substance burnt with a certain constituent of the air, the oxygen. By -this time Alchemy was to all intents and purposes defunct, Boerhave -(1668-1738) was the last eminent chemist to give any support to its -doctrines, and the new chemistry of Lavoisier gave it a final -death-blow. We now enter upon the Age of Modern Chemistry, but we shall -deal in this chapter with the history of chemical theory only so far as -is necessary in pursuance of our primary object, and hence our account -will be very far from complete. - - [89] It should be noted, however, that if by the term "phlogiston" - we were to understand energy and not some form of matter, most of - the statements of the phlogistics would be true so far as they go. - - -Boyle and the Definition of an Element. - -Sec. =73.= Robert Boyle (1626-1691) had defined an element as a substance -which could not be decomposed, but which could enter into combination -with other elements giving compounds capable of decomposition into these -original elements. Hence, the metals were classed among the elements, -since they had defied all attempts to decompose them. Now, it must be -noted that this definition is of a negative character, and, although it -is convenient to term "elements" all substances which have so far defied -decomposition, it is a matter of impossibility to decide what substances -are true elements with absolute certainty; and the possibility, however -faint, that gold and other metals are of a compound nature, and hence -the possibility of preparing gold from the "base" metals or other -substances, must always remain. This uncertainty regarding the elements -appears to have generally been recognised by the new school of chemists, -but this having been so, it is the more surprising that their criticism -of alchemistic art was not less severe. - - -The Stoichiometric Laws. - -Sec. =74.= With the study of the relative weights in which substances -combine, certain generalisations or "natural laws" of supreme importance -were discovered. These stoichiometric laws, as they are called, are as -follows:-- - -1. "The Law of Constant Proportion"--_The same chemical compound always -contains the same elements, and there is a constant ratio between the -weights of the constituent elements present._ - -2. "The Law of Multiple Proportions"--_If two substances combine -chemically in more than one proportion, the weights of the one which -combine with a given weight of the other, stand in a simple rational -ratio to one another._ - -3. "The Law of Combining Weights"--_Substances combine either in the -ratio of their combining numbers, or in simple rational multiples or -submultiples of these numbers._ (The weights of different substances -which combine with a given weight of some particular substance, which is -taken as the unit, are called the combining numbers of such substances -with reference to this unit. The usual unit now chosen is 8 grammes of -Oxygen.)[90] - - [90] In order that these laws may hold good, it is, of course, - necessary that the substances are weighed under precisely similar - conditions. To state these laws in a more absolute form, we can - replace the term "weight" by "mass," or in preference, "inertia"; - for the inertias of bodies are proportional to their weights, - providing that they are weighed under precisely similar conditions. - For a discussion of the exact significance of these terms "mass" and - "inertia," the reader is referred to the present writer's _Matter, - Spirit and the Cosmos_ (Rider, 1910), Chapter I., "On the Doctrine - of the Indestructibility of Matter." - -As examples of these laws we may take the few following simple facts:-- - -1. Pure water is found always to consist of oxygen and hydrogen combined -in the ratio of 1.008 parts by weight of the latter to 8 parts by weight -of the former; and pure sulphur-dioxide, to take another example, is -found always to consist of sulphur and oxygen combined in the ratio of -8.02 parts by weight of sulphur to 8 parts by weight of oxygen. (The Law -of Constant Proportion.) - -2. Another compound is known consisting only of oxygen and hydrogen, -which, however, differs entirely in its properties from water. It is -found always to consist of oxygen and hydrogen combined in the ratio of -1.008 parts by weight of the latter to 16 parts by weight of the former, -_i.e._, in it a definite weight of hydrogen is combined with an amount -of oxygen _exactly twice_ that which is combined with the same weight of -hydrogen in water. No definite compound has been discovered with a -constitution intermediate between these two. Other compounds consisting -only of sulphur and oxygen are also known. One of these (viz., -sulphur-trioxide, or sulphuric anhydride) is found always to consist of -sulphur and oxygen combined in the ratio of 5.35 parts by weight of -sulphur to 8 parts by weight of oxygen. We see, therefore, that the -weights of sulphur combined with a definite weight of oxygen in the two -compounds called respectively "sulphur-dioxide" and "sulphur-trioxide," -are in the proportion of 8.02 to 5.35, _i.e._, 3 : 2. Similar simple -ratios are obtained in the case of all the other compounds. (The Law of -Multiple Proportions.) - -3. From the data given in (1) above we can fix the combining number of -hydrogen as 1.008, that of sulphur as 8.02. Now, compounds are known -containing sulphur and hydrogen, and, in each case, the weight of -sulphur combined with 1.008 grammes of hydrogen is found always to be -either 8.02 grammes or some multiple or submultiple of this quantity. -Thus, in the simplest compound of this sort, containing only hydrogen -and sulphur (viz., sulphuretted-hydrogen or hydrogen sulphide), 1.008 -grammes of hydrogen is found always to be combined with 16.04 grammes of -sulphur, _i.e._, exactly twice the above quantity. (The Law of Combining -Weights.) - -Berthollet (1748-1822) denied the truth of the law of constant -proportion, and a controversy ensued between this chemist and Proust -(1755-1826), who undertook a research to settle the question, the -results of which were in entire agreement with the law, and were -regarded as completely substantiating it. - -[Illustration: PLATE 16. - -[by Worthington, after Allen] - -PORTRAIT OF JOHN DALTON. - -_To face page 100_]] - - -Dalton's Atomic Theory. - -Sec. =75.= At the beginning of the nineteenth century, John Dalton (see -plate 15) put forward his Atomic Theory in explanation of these facts. -This theory assumes (1) that all matter is made up of small indivisible -and indestructible particles, called "atoms"; (2) that all atoms are -_not_ alike, there being as many different sorts of atoms as there are -elements; (3) that the atoms constituting any one element are exactly -alike and are of definite weight; and (4) that compounds are produced by -the combination of different atoms. Now, it is at once evident that if -matter be so constituted, the stoichiometric laws must necessarily -follow. For the smallest particle of any definite compound (now called a -"molecule") must consist of a definite assemblage of different atoms, -and these atoms are of definite weight: whence the law of constant -proportion. One atom of one substance may combine with 1, 2, 3 . . . -atoms of some other substance, but it cannot combine with some -fractional part of an atom, since the atoms are indivisible: whence the -law of multiple proportions. And these laws holding good, and the atoms -being of definite weight, the law of combining weights necessarily -follows. Dalton's Atomic Theory gave a simple and intelligible -explanation of these remarkable facts regarding the weights of -substances entering into chemical combination, and, therefore, gained -universal acceptance. But throughout the history of Chemistry can be -discerned a spirit of revolt against it as an explanation of the -absolute constitution of matter. The tendency of scientific philosophy -has always been towards Monism as opposed to Dualism, and here were not -merely two eternals, but several dozen; Dalton's theory denied the unity -of the Cosmos, it lacked the unifying principle of the alchemists. It is -only in recent times that it has been recognised that a scientific -hypothesis may be very useful without being altogether true. As to the -usefulness of Dalton's theory there can be no question; it has -accomplished that which no other hypothesis could have done; it rendered -the concepts of a chemical element, a chemical compound and a chemical -reaction definite; and has, in a sense, led to the majority of the -discoveries in the domain of Chemistry that have been made since its -enunciation. But as an expression of absolute truth, Dalton's theory, as -is very generally recognised nowadays, fails to be satisfactory. In the -past, however, it has been the philosophers of the materialistic school -of thought, rather than the chemists _qua_ chemists, who have -insisted on the absolute truth of the Atomic Theory; Kekule, who by -developing Franklin's theory of atomicity or valency[91] made still more -definite the atomic view of matter, himself expressed grave doubts as to -the absolute truth of Dalton's theory; but he regarded it as -_chemically_ true, and thus voices what appears to be the opinion of the -majority of chemists nowadays, namely, there are such things as chemical -atoms and chemical elements, incapable of being decomposed by purely -chemical means, but that such are not absolute atoms or absolute -elements, and consequently not impervious to all forms of action. But -of this more will be said later. - - [91] The term "valency" is not altogether an easy one to define; we - will, however, here do our best to make plain its significance. In a - definite chemical compound we must assume that the atoms - constituting each molecule are in some way bound together (though - not, of course, rigidly), and we may speak of "bonds" or "links of - affinity," taking care, however, not to interpret such terms too - literally. Now, the number of "affinity links" which one atom can - exert is not unlimited; indeed, according to the valency theory as - first formulated, it is fixed and constant. It is this number which - is called the "valency" of the element; but it is now known that the - "valency" in most cases can vary between certain limits. Hydrogen, - however, appears to be invariably univalent, and is therefore taken - as the unit of valency. Thus, Carbon is quadrivalent in the - methane-molecule, which consists of one atom of carbon combined with - four atoms of hydrogen; and Oxygen is divalent in the - water-molecule, which consists of one atom of oxygen combined with - two atoms of hydrogen. Hence, we should expect to find one atom of - carbon combining with two of oxygen, which is the case in the - carbon-dioxide--(carbonic anhydride)--molecule. For a development of - the thesis, so far as the compounds of carbon are concerned, that - each specific "affinity link" corresponds in general to a definite - and constant amount of energy, which is evolved as heat on - disruption of the bond, the reader is referred to the present - writer's monograph _On the Calculation of Thermo-Chemical Constants_ - (Arnold, 1909). The phenomena of valency find their explanation in - modern views concerning the constitution of atoms (see Sec. 81). - - -The Determination of the Atomic Weights of the Elements. - -Sec. =76.= With the acceptance of Dalton's Atomic Theory, it became -necessary to determine the atomic weights of the various elements, -_i.e._, not the absolute atomic weights, but the relative weights of the -various atoms with reference to one of them as unit.[92] We cannot in -this place enter upon a discussion of the various difficulties, both of -an experimental and theoretical nature, which were involved in this -problem, save to remark that the correct atomic weights could be arrived -at only with the acceptance of Avogadro's Hypothesis. This hypothesis, -which is to the effect that equal volumes of different gases measured at -the same temperature and pressure contain an equal number of gaseous -molecules, was put forward in explanation of a number of facts connected -with the physical behaviour of gases; but its importance was for some -time unrecognised, owing to the fact that the distinction between atoms -and molecules was not yet clearly drawn. A list of those chemical -substances at present recognised as "elements," together with their -atomic weights, will be found on pp. 106, 107. - - [92] Since hydrogen is the lightest of all known substances, the - unit, Hydrogen = 1, was at one time usually employed. However, it - was seen to be more convenient to express the atomic weights in - terms of the weight of the oxygen-atom, and the unit, Oxygen = 16 is - now always employed. This value for the oxygen-atom was chosen so - that the approximate atomic weights would in most cases remain - unaltered by the change. - - -Prout's Hypothesis. - -Sec. =77.= It was observed by a chemist of the name of Prout, that, the -atomic weight of hydrogen being taken as the unit, the atomic weights -of nearly all the elements approximated to whole numbers; and in 1815 he -suggested as the reason for this regularity, that all the elements -consist solely of hydrogen. Prout's Hypothesis received on the whole a -very favourable reception; it harmonised Dalton's Theory with the grand -concept of the unity of matter--all matter was hydrogen in essence; and -Thomas Thomson undertook a research to demonstrate its truth. On the -other hand, however, the eminent Swedish chemist, Berzelius, who had -carried out many atomic weight determinations, criticised both Prout's -Hypothesis and Thomson's research (which latter, it is true, was -worthless) in most severe terms; for the hypothesis amounted to -this--that the decimals in the atomic weights obtained experimentally by -Berzelius, after so much labour, were to be regarded as so many errors. -In 1844, Marignac suggested half the hydrogen atom as the unit, for the -element chlorine, with an atomic weight of 35.5, would not fit in with -Prout's Hypothesis as originally formulated; and later, Dumas suggested -one-quarter. With this theoretical division of the hydrogen-atom, the -hypothesis lost its simplicity and charm, and was doomed to downfall. -Recent and most accurate atomic weight determinations show clearly that -the atomic weights are not exactly whole numbers, but that, -nevertheless, the majority of them (if expressed in terms of O = 16 as -the unit) do approximate very closely to such. The Hon. R. J. Strutt has -recently calculated that the probability of this occurring, in the case -of certain of the commoner elements, by mere chance is exceedingly small -(about 1 in 1,000),[93] and several attempts to explain this remarkable -fact have been put forward. Modern scientific speculations concerning -the constitution of atoms tend towards a modified form of Prout's -hypothesis, or to the view that the atoms of other elements are, in a -manner, polymerides of hydrogen and helium atoms. As has been pointed -out, it is possible, according to modern views, for elements of -different atomic weight to have identical chemical properties, since -these latter depend only upon the number of free electrons in the atom -and not at all upon the massive central nucleus. By a method somewhat -similar to that used for determining the mass of kathode particles (see -Sec. 79), but applied to positively charged particles, Sir Joseph Thomson -and Dr. F. W. Aston discovered that the element neon was a mixture of -two isotopic elements in unequal proportions, one having an atomic mass -of 20, the other (present only to a slight extent) having an atomic mass -of 22. Dr. Aston has perfected this method of analysing mixtures of -isotopes and determining their atomic masses.[94] The results are of -great interest. The atomic weight of hydrogen, 1.008, is confirmed. The -elements helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, phosphorus, -sulphur, arsenic, iodine and sodium are found to be simple bodies with -whole-number atomic weights. On the other hand, boron, neon, silicon, -chlorine, bromine, krypton, xenon, mercury, lithium, potassium and -rubidium are found to be mixtures. What is specially of interest is that -the indicated atomic mass of each of the constituents is a whole number. -Thus chlorine, whose atomic weight is 35.46, is found to be a mixture of -two chemically-identical elements whose atomic weights are 35 and 37. -Some of the elements, _e.g._, xenon, are mixtures of more than two -isotopes. - - [93] Hon. R. J. STRUTT: "On the Tendency of the Atomic Weights to - approximate to Whole Numbers," _Philosophical Magazine_, [6], vol. - i. (1901), pp. 311 _et seq._ - - [94] F. W. ASTON: "Mass-spectra and Atomic Weights," _Journal of the - Chemical Society_, vol. cix. (1921), pp. 677 _et seq._ - -It is highly probable that what is true of the elements investigated by -Dr. Aston is true of the remainder. It appears, therefore, that the -irregularities presented by the atomic weights of the ordinary elements, -which have so much puzzled men of science in the past, are due to the -fact that these elements are, in many cases, mixtures. As concerns -hydrogen, it is only reasonable to suppose that the close packing of -electrically charged particles should give rise to a slight decrease in -their total mass, so that the atomic weights of other elements referred -to H = 1 should be slightly less than whole numbers, or, what is the -same thing, that the atomic weight of hydrogen referred to O = 16 should -be slightly more than unity. - - -The "Periodic Law." - -Sec. =78.= A remarkable property of the atomic weights was discovered, in -the sixties, independently by Lothar Meyer and Mendeleeff. They found -that the elements could be arranged in rows in the order of their atomic -weights so that similar elements would be found in the same columns. A -modernised form of the Periodic Table will be found on pp. 106, 107. It -will be noticed, for example, that the "alkali" metals, Lithium, Sodium, -Rubidium and Caesium, which resemble one another very closely, fall in -Column 1; the "alkaline earth" metals occur together in Column 2; though -in each case these are accompanied by certain elements with somewhat -different properties. Much the same holds good in the case of the other -columns of this Table; there is manifested a remarkable regularity, with -certain still more remarkable divergences (see notes appended to Table -on pp. 106, 107). This regularity exhibited by the "elements" is of -considerable importance, since it shows that, in general, the properties -of the "elements" are _periodic_ functions of their atomic weights; and, -together with certain other remarkable properties of the "elements," -distinguishes them sharply from the "compounds." It may be concluded -with tolerable certainty, therefore, that if the "elements" are in -reality of a compound nature, they are all, in general, compounds of a -like nature distinct from that of other compounds. - -THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. - - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | |[Hydro-| | | | | |Hydro- | | - | |gen][a]| | | | | |gen | | - | |[H = | | | | | |H = | | - | |1.008] | | | | | |1.008 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Helium |Lithium|Gluci- |Boron |Carbon |Nitro- |Oxygen |Fluo- | | - | | |num | | |gen | |rine | | - |He = |Li = |Gl = |B = |C = |N = |O = |F = | | - |4.00 |6.94 |9.1 |10.9 |12.005 |14.008 |16.00 |19.0 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Neon |Sodium |Magne- |Alumin-|Silicon|Phos- |Sulphur|Chlo- | | - | | |sium |ium | |phorus | |rine | | - |Ne = |Na = |Mg = |Al = |Si = |P = |S = |Cl = | | - |20.2 |23.00 |24.32 |27.1 |28.3 |31.04 |32.06 |35.46 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Argon |Potas- |Calcium|Scan- |Tita- |Vana- |Chro- |Manga- |Iron | - | |sium[b]| |dium |nium |dium |mium |nese |Fe = | - | | | | | | | | |55.84[c]| - |A = |K = |Ca = |Sc = |Ti = |V = |Cr = |Mn = |Cobalt | - |39.9 |39.10 |40.07 |45.1 |48.1 |51.0 |52.0 |54.93 |Co = | - | | | | | | | | |58.97 | - | | | | | | | | |Nickel | - | | | | | | | | |Ni = | - | | | | | | | | |58.68 | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | |Copper |Zinc |Gallium|Germa- |Arsenic|Sele- |Bromine| | - | | | | |nium | |nium | | | - | |Cu = |Zn = |Ga = |Ge = |As = |Se = |Br = | | - | |63.57 |65.37 |70.1 |72.5 |74.96 |79.2 |79.92 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Krypton|Rubi- |Stron- |Yttrium|Zirco- |Colum- |Molyb- | ? |Ruthe- | - | |dium |tium | |nium |bium |denum | |nium | - |Kr = |Rb = |Sr = |Y = |Zr = |Cb = |Mo = | |Ru = | - |82.92 |85.45 |87.63 |89.33 |90.6 |93.1 |96.0 | |101.7 | - | | | | | | | | |Rhodium | - | | | | | | | | |Rh = | - | | | | | | | | |102.9 | - | | | | | | | | |Palla- | - | | | | | | | | |dium | - | | | | | | | | |Pd = | - | | | | | | | | |106.7 | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | |Silver |Cadmium|Indium |Tin |Antimo-|Tellu- |Iodine | | - | | | | | |ny |rium |[d] | | - | |Ag = |Cd = |In = |Sn = |Sb = |Te = |I (or | | - | |107.88 |112.40 |114.8 |118.7 |120.2 |127.5 |J) = | | - | | | | | | | |126.92 | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Xenon |Caesium |Barium |Lantha-|Cerium | ? | ? | ? | ? | - | | | |num |[e] | | | | | - |Xe = |Cs = |Ba = |La = |Ce = | | | | | - |130.2 |132.81 |137.37 |139.0 |140.25 | | | | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | ? | ? | ? | ? | ? |Tanta- |Tung- | ? |Osmium | - | | | | | |lum |sten | |Os = | - | | | | | |Ta = |W = | |190.9 | - | | | | | |181.5 |184.0 | |Iridium | - | | | | | | | | |Ir = | - | | | | | | | | |193.1 | - | | | | | | | | |Platinum| - | | | | | | | | |Pt = | - | | | | | | | | |195.2 | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - | |Gold |Mercury|Thal- |Lead |Bismuth|Polo- | ? | | - | | | |lium | | |nium | | | - | |Au = |Hg = |Tl = |Pb = |Bi = |(210) | | | - | |197.2 |200.6 |204.0 |207.20 |208.0 | | | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - |Emana- | ? |Radium |Acti- |Thorium|Ekatan-|Uranium| ? | ? | - |tion | | |nium | |talum | | | | - |(Niton)| |Ra = | ? |Th = | ? |U = | | | - | 222.0 | |226.0 | |232.15 | |238.2 | | | - +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ - - NOTES. - - There are several somewhat different forms of this Periodic Table. - This is one of the simplest, but it lacks certain advantages of some - of the more complicated forms. The atomic weights given are those of - the International Atomic Weights Committee for 1920-1. They are - calculated on the basis, Oxygen = 16. The number of decimal places - given in each case indicates the degree of accuracy with which each - atomic weight has been determined. The letter or letters underneath - the name of each element is the symbol by which it is invariably - designated by chemists. - - The number above each column indicates the valency which the - elements of each group exhibit towards oxygen. Many of the elements - are exceptional in this respect. - - [a]: The exact position of Hydrogen is in dispute. - - [b]: The positions of Argon and Potassium have been inverted in - order that these elements may fall in the right columns with the - elements they resemble; [d]: so also have the positions of Tellurium - and Iodine. - - [c]: The whole of "Group 8" forms an exception to the Table. - - [e]: There are a number of ill-defined rare earth metals with atomic - weights lying between those of Cerium and Tantalum. They all appear - to resemble the elements of "Group 3," so that their positions in - the Table cannot be decided with accuracy. - -It is now some years since the late Sir William Crookes attempted to -explain the periodicity of the properties of the elements on the theory -that they have all been evolved by a conglomerating process from some -primal stuff--the protyle--consisting of very small particles. He -represented the action of this generative cause by means of a "figure of -eight" spiral, along which the elements are placed at regular intervals, -so that similar elements come underneath one another, as in Mendeleeff's -table, though the grouping differs in some respects. The slope of the -curve is supposed to represent the decline of some factor (_e.g._, -temperature) conditioning the process, which process is assumed to be of -a recurrent nature, like the swing of a pendulum. After the completion -of one swing (to keep to the illustration of a pendulum) whereby one -series of elements is produced, owing to the decline of the -above-mentioned factor, the same series of elements is not again the -result as would otherwise be the case, but a somewhat different series -is produced, each member of which resembles the corresponding member of -the former series. Thus, if the first series contains, for example, -helium, lithium, carbon, &c., the second series will contain instead, -argon, potassium, titanium, &c. The whole theory, though highly -interesting, is, however, by no means free from defects. - - -The Corpuscular Theory of Matter. - -Sec. =79.= We must now turn our attention to those recent views of the -constitution of matter which originated to a great extent in the -investigations of the passage of electricity through gases at very low -pressures. It will be possible, however, on the present occasion, to -give only the very briefest account of the subject; but a fuller -treatment is rendered unnecessary by the fact that these and allied -investigations and the theories to which they have given rise have been -fully treated in several well-known works, by various authorities on the -subject, which have appeared during the last few years.[95] - - [95] We have found Prof. Harry Jones' _The Electrical Nature of - Matter and Radioactivity_ (1906), Mr. Soddy's _Radioactivity_ - (1904), and Mr. Whetham's _The Recent Development of Physical - Science_ (1909) particularly interesting. Mention, of course, should - also be made of the standard works of Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson and - Prof. Rutherford. - -When an electrical discharge is passed through a high-vacuum tube, -invisible rays are emitted from the kathode, generally with the -production of a greenish-yellow fluorescence where they strike the -glass walls of the tube. These rays are called "kathode rays." At one -time they were regarded as waves in the ether, but it was shown by Sir -William Crookes that they consist of small electrically charged -particles, moving with a very high velocity. Sir J. J. Thomson was able -to determine the ratio of the charge carried by these particles to their -mass or inertia; he found that this ratio was constant whatever gas was -contained in the vacuum tube, and much greater than the corresponding -ratio for the hydrogen ion (electrically charged hydrogen atom) in -electrolysis. By a skilful method, based on the fact discovered by Mr. -C. T. R. Wilson, that charged particles can serve as nuclei for the -condensation of water-vapour, he was further able to determine the value -of the electrical charge carried by these particles, which was found to -be constant also, and equal to the charge carried by univalent ions, -_e.g._, hydrogen, in electrolysis. Hence, it follows that the mass of -these kathode particles must be much smaller than the hydrogen ion, the -actual ratio being about 1 : 1700. The first theory put forward by Sir -J. J. Thomson in explanation of these facts, was that these kathode -particles ("corpuscles" as he termed them) were electrically charged -portions of matter, much smaller than the smallest atom; and since the -same sort of corpuscle is obtained whatever gas is contained in the -vacuum tube, it is reasonable to conclude that the corpuscle is the -common unit of all matter. - - -Proof that the Electrons are not Matter. - -Sec. =80.= This eminent physicist, however, had shown mathematically that a -charged particle moving with a very high velocity (approaching that of -light) would exhibit an appreciable increase in mass or inertia due to -the charge, the magnitude of such inertia depending on the velocity of -the particle. This was experimentally verified by Kaufmann, who -determined the velocities, and the ratios between the electrical charge -and the inertia, of various kathode particles and similar particles -which are emitted by compounds of radium (see Sec.Sec. 89 and 90). Sir J. J. -Thomson calculated these values on the assumption that the inertia of -such particles is entirely of electrical origin, and thereby obtained -values in remarkable agreement with the experimental. There is, -therefore, no reason for supposing the corpuscle to be matter at all; -indeed, if it were, the above agreement would not be obtained. As -Professor Jones says: "Since we know things only by their properties, -and since all the properties of the corpuscle are accounted for by the -electrical charge associated with it, why assume that the corpuscle -contains anything but the electrical charge? It is obvious that there is -no reason for doing so. - -"_The corpuscle is, then, nothing but a disembodied electrical charge_, -containing nothing material, as we have been accustomed to use that -term. It is electricity, and nothing but electricity. With this new -conception a new term was introduced, and, now, instead of speaking of -the corpuscle we speak of the _electron_."[96] Applying this -modification to the above view of the constitution of matter, we have -what is called "the electronic theory," namely, that the material atoms -consist of electrons, or units of electricity in rapid motion; which -amounts to this--that matter is simply an electrical phenomenon. - - [96] H. C. JONES: _The Electrical Nature of Matter and - Radioactivity_ (1906), p. 21. - - -The Electronic Theory of Matter. - -Sec. =81.= Sir J. J. Thomson has elaborated this theory of the nature and -constitution of matter; he has shown what systems of electrons would be -stable, and has attempted to find therein the significance of -Mendeleeff's generalisation and the explanation of valency. There can be -no doubt that there is a considerable element of truth in the electronic -theory of matter; the one characteristic property of matter, _i.e._, -inertia, can be accounted for electrically. The fundamental difficulty -is that the electrons are units of negative electricity, whereas matter -is electrically neutral. Several theories have been put forward to -surmount this difficulty. Certainly the electron is a constituent of -matter; but is it the sole constituent? Recent research indicates that, -as already pointed out, all atoms consist of two distinct portions, a -massive central nucleus, whose net charge is positive, surrounded by a -number of electrons, just sufficient to neutralize this charge. The -point of greatest interest is that the indicated number of free -electrons is exactly the number which expresses the position of the -element in the Periodic Table, reckoning helium as 2, lithium as 3, and -so on; and it would seem that the chemical properties of the elements -are determined entirely by these electrons, and are, therefore, not, -strictly speaking, periodic functions of their atomic weights, as was -formerly thought (Sec. 78), but of their atomic numbers. The exact nature -of the nuclei of the various atoms has yet to be determined: in the -case of the atoms heavier than helium they would appear to be made up of -the nuclei of hydrogen and (or) helium atoms together with--in many -cases--electrons insufficient in number to neutralize the positive -charges associated with these. - - -The Etheric Theory of Matter. - -Sec. =82.= The analysis of matter has been carried a step further. A -philosophical view of the Cosmos involves the assumption of an -absolutely continuous and homogeneous medium filling all space, for an -absolute vacuum is unthinkable, and if it were supposed that the stuff -filling all space is of an atomic structure, the question arises, What -occupies the interstices between its atoms? This ubiquitous medium is -termed by the scientists of to-day "the Ether of Space." Moreover, such -a medium as the Ether is demanded by the phenomena of light. It appears, -however, that the ether of space has another and a still more important -function than the transmission of light: the idea that matter has its -explanation therein has been developed by Sir Oliver Lodge. The evidence -certainly points to the conclusion that matter is some sort of -singularity in the ether, probably a stress centre. We have been too -much accustomed to think of the ether as something excessively light and -quite the reverse of massive or dense, in which it appears we have been -wrong. Sir Oliver Lodge calculates that the density of the ether is far -greater than that of the most dense forms of matter; not that matter is -to be thought of as a rarefaction of the ether, for the ether within -matter is as dense as that without. What we call matter, however, is not -a continuous substance; it consists, rather, of a number of widely -separated particles, whence its comparatively small density compared -with the perfectly continuous ether. Further, if there is a difficulty -in conceiving how a perfect fluid like the ether can give rise to a -solid body possessed of such properties as rigidity, impenetrability and -elasticity, we must remember that all these properties can be produced -by means of motion. A jet of water moving with a sufficient velocity -behaves like a rigid and impenetrable solid, whilst a revolving disc of -paper exhibits elasticity and can act as a circular saw.[97] It appears, -therefore, that the ancient doctrine of the alchemistic essence is -fundamentally true after all, that out of the "One Thing" all material -things have been produced by adaptation or modification; and, as we have -already noticed (Sec. 60), there also appears to be some resemblance -between the concept of the electron and that of the seed of gold, which -seed, it should be borne in mind, was regarded by the alchemists as the -common seed of all metals. - - [97] See Sir OLIVER LODGE, F.R.S.: _The Ether of Space_ (1909). - - -Further Evidence of the Complexity of the Atoms. - -Sec. =83.= There are also certain other facts which appear to demand such a -modification of Dalton's Atomic Theory as is found in the Electronic -Theory. One of the characteristics of the chemical elements is that each -one gives a spectrum peculiar to itself. The spectrum of an element -must, therefore, be due to its atoms, which in some way are able, at a -sufficiently high temperature, to act upon the ether so as to produce -vibrations of definite and characteristic wave-length. Now, in many -cases the number of lines of definite wave-length observed in such a -spectrum is considerable, for example, hundreds of different lines have -been observed in the arc-spectrum of iron. But it is incredible that an -atom, if it were a simple unit, would give rise to such a number of -different and definite vibrations, and the only reasonable conclusion is -that the atoms must be complex in structure. We may here mention that -spectroscopic examination of various heavenly bodies leads to the -conclusion that there is some process of evolution at work building up -complex elements from simpler ones, since the hottest nebulae appear to -consist of but a few simple elements, whilst cooler bodies exhibit a -greater complexity. - - -Views of Wald and Ostwald. - -Sec. =84.= Such modifications of the atomic theory as those we have briefly -discussed above, although profoundly modifying, and, indeed, -controverting the philosophical significance of Dalton's theory as -originally formulated, leave its chemical significance practically -unchanged. The atoms can be regarded no longer as the eternal, -indissoluble gods of Nature that they were once supposed to be; thus, -Materialism is deprived of what was thought to be its scientific -basis.[98] But the science of Chemistry is unaffected thereby; the atoms -are not the ultimate units out of which material things are built, but -the atoms cannot be decomposed by purely chemical means; the "elements" -are not truly elemental, but _they are chemical elements_. However, the -atomic theory has been subjected to a far more searching criticism. Wald -argues that substances obey the law of definite proportions because of -the way in which they are prepared; chemists refuse, he says, to admit -any substance as a definite chemical compound unless it does obey this -law. Wald's opinions have been supported by Professor Ostwald, who has -attempted to deduce the other stoichiometric laws on these grounds -without assuming any atomic hypothesis[99]; but these new ideas do not -appear to have gained the approval of chemists in general. It is not to -be supposed that chemists will give up without a struggle a mental tool -of such great utility as Dalton's theory, in spite of its defects, has -proved itself to be. There does seem, however, to be logic in the -arguments of Wald and Ostwald, but the trend of recent scientific theory -and research does not appear to be in the direction of Wald's views. -Certainly, however, it appears that, on the one hand, the atomic theory -is not necessitated by the so-called "stoichiometric laws"; but, on the -other hand, a molecular constitution of matter seems to be demanded by -the phenomenon known as the "Brownian Movement," _i.e._, the -spontaneous, irregular and apparently perpetual movement of microscopic -portions of solid matter when immersed in a liquid medium; such movement -appearing to be explicable only as the result of the motion of the -molecules of which the liquid in question is built up.[100] - - [98] For a critical examination of Materialism, the reader is - referred to the present writer's _Matter, Spirit and the Cosmos_ - (Rider, 1910), especially Chapters I. and IV. - - [99] W. OSTWALD: "Faraday Lecture," _Journal of the Chemical - Society_, vol. lxxxv. (1904), pp. 506 _et seq._ See also W. OSTWALD: - _The Fundamental Principles of Chemistry_ (translated by H. W. - Morse, 1909), especially Chapters VI., VII. and VIII. - - [100] For an account of this singular phenomenon, see Prof. JEAN - PERRIN: _Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality_ (translated from - the _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, 8me Series, September, 1909, - by F. Soddy, M.A., F.R.S., 1910). - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -MODERN ALCHEMY - - -"Modern Alchemy." - -Sec. =85.= Correctly speaking, there is no such thing as "Modern Alchemy"; -not that Mysticism is dead, or that men no longer seek to apply the -principles of Mysticism to phenomena on the physical plane, but they do -so after another manner from that of the alchemists. A new science, -however, is born amongst us, closely related on the one hand to -Chemistry, on the other to Physics, but dealing with changes more -profound and reactions more deeply seated than are dealt with by either -of these; a science as yet without a name, unless it be the not -altogether satisfactory one of "Radioactivity." It is this science, or, -perhaps we should say, a certain aspect of it, to which we refer (it may -be fantastically) by the expression "Modern Alchemy": the aptness of the -title we hope to make plain in the course of the present chapter. - - -X-rays and Becquerel rays. - -Sec. =86.= As is commonly known, what are called X-rays are produced when -an electric discharge is passed through a high-vacuum tube. It has been -shown that these rays are a series of irregular pulses in the ether, -which are set up when the kathode particles strike the walls of the -glass vacuum tube,[101] and it was found that more powerful effects can -be produced by inserting a disc of platinum in the path of the kathode -particles. It was M. Becquerel who first discovered that there are -substances which naturally emit radiations similar to X-rays. He found -that uranium compounds affected a photographic plate from which they -were carefully screened, and he also showed that these uranium -radiations, or "Becquerel rays," resemble X-rays in other particulars. -It was already known that certain substances fluoresce (emit light) in -the dark after having been exposed to sunlight, and it was thought at -first that the above phenomenon exhibited by uranium salts was of a like -nature, since certain uranium salts are fluorescent; but M. Becquerel -found that uranium salts which had never been exposed to sunlight were -still capable of affecting a photographic plate, and that this -remarkable property was possessed by all uranium salts, whether -fluorescent or not. This phenomenon is known as "radioactivity," and -bodies which exhibit it are said to be "radioactive." Schmidt found that -thorium compounds possess a similar property, and Professor Rutherford -showed that thorium compounds evolved also something resembling a gas. -He called this an "emanation." - - [101] They must not be confused with the greenish-yellow - phosphorescence which is also produced: the X-rays are invisible. - - -The Discovery of Radium. - -Sec. =87.= Mme. Curie[102] determined the radioactivity of many uranium and -thorium compounds, and found that there was a proportion between the -radioactivity of such compounds and the quantity of uranium or thorium -in them, with the remarkable exception of certain natural ores, which -had a radioactivity much in excess of the normal, and, indeed, in -certain cases, much greater than pure uranium. In order to throw some -light on this matter, Mme. Curie prepared one of these ores by a -chemical process and found that it possessed a normal radioactivity. The -only logical conclusion to be drawn from these facts was that the ores -in question must contain some unknown, highly radioactive substance, and -the Curies were able, after very considerable labour, to extract from -pitchblende (the ore with the greatest radioactivity) minute quantities -of the salts of two new elements--which they named "Polonium" and -"Radium" respectively--both of which were extremely radioactive. - - [102] See Madame SKLODOWSKA CURIE'S _Radio-active Substances_ (2nd - ed., 1904). - -M. Debierne has obtained a third radioactive substance from pitchblende, -which he has called "Actinium." - - -Chemical Properties of Radium. - -Sec. =88.= Radium is an element resembling calcium, strontium, and barium -in chemical properties; its atomic weight was determined by Mme. Curie, -and found to be about 225, according to her first experiments; a -redetermination gave a slightly higher value, which has been confirmed -by a further investigation carried out by Sir T. E. Thorpe.[103] Radium -gives a characteristic spectrum, and is intensely radioactive. It -should be noted that up to the middle of the year 1910 the element -radium itself had not been prepared; in all the experiments carried out -radium salts were employed (_i.e._, certain compounds of radium with -other elements), generally radium chloride and radium bromide. In that -year, however, Mme. Curie, in conjunction with M. Debierne, obtained the -free metal. It is described as a white, shining metal resembling the -other alkaline earth metals. It reacts very violently with water, chars -paper with which it is allowed to come in contact, and blackens in the -air, probably owing to the formation of a nitride. It fuses at 700 deg. C., -and is more volatile than barium.[104] - - [103] See Sir T. E. THORPE: "On the Atomic Weight of Radium" - (Bakerian Lecture for 1907. Delivered before the Royal Society, June - 20, 1907), _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. lxxx. - pp. 298 _et seq._; reprinted in _The Chemical News_, vol. xcvii. pp. - 229 _et seq._ (May 15, 1908). - - [104] Madame P. CURIE and M. A. DEBIERNE: "Sur le radium - metallique," _Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Seances de l'Academie - des Sciences_, vol. cli. (1910), pp. 523-525. (For an English - translation of this paper see _The Chemical News_, vol. cii. p. - 175.) - - -The Radioactivity of Radium. - -Sec. =89.= Radium salts give off three distinct sorts of rays, referred to -by the Greek letters [alpha], [beta], [gamma]. The [alpha]-rays have -been shown to consist of electrically charged (positive) particles, with -a mass approximately equal to that of four hydrogen atoms; they are -slightly deviated by a magnetic field, and do not possess great -penetrative power. The [beta]-rays are similar to the kathode rays, and -consist of (negative) electrons; they are strongly deviated by a -magnetic field, in a direction opposite to that in which the -[alpha]-particles are deviated, and possess medium penetrative power, -passing for the most part through a thin sheet of metal. The -[gamma]-rays resemble X-rays; they possess great penetrative power, and -are not deviated by a magnetic field. The difference in the effect of -the magnetic field on these rays, and the difference in their -penetrative power, led to their detection and allows of their separate -examination. Radium salts emit also an emanation, which tends to become -occluded in the solid salt, but can be conveniently liberated by -dissolving the salt in water, or by heating it. The emanation exhibits -the characteristic properties of a gas, it obeys Boyle's Law (_i.e._, -its volume varies inversely with its pressure), and it can be condensed -to a liquid at low temperatures; its density as determined by the -diffusion method is about 100. Attempts to prepare chemical compounds of -the emanation have failed, and in this respect it resembles the rare -gases of the atmosphere--helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon--whence -it is probable that its molecules are monatomic, so that a density of -100 would give its atomic weight as 200.[105] As can be seen from the -table on pp. 106, 107, an atomic weight of about 220 corresponds to a -position in the column containing the rare gases in the periodic system. -That the emanation actually has an atomic weight of these dimensions was -confirmed by further experiments carried out by the late Sir William -Ramsay and Dr. R. W. Gray.[106] These chemists determined the density of -the emanation by actually weighing minute quantities of known volume of -the substance, sealed up in small capillary tubes, a specially -sensitive balance being employed. Values for the density varying from -108 to 113-1/2, corresponding to values for the atomic weight varying from -216 to 227, were thereby obtained. Sir William Ramsay, therefore, -considered that there could no longer be any doubt that the emanation -was one of the elements of the group of chemically inert gases. He -proposed to call it _Niton_, and, for reasons which we shall note later, -considered that in all probability it had an atomic weight of about -222-1/2. - - [105] This follows from Avogadro's Hypothesis, see Sec. 76. - - [106] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY and Dr. R. W. GRAY: "La densite de - l'emanation du radium," _Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Seances de - l'Academie des Sciences_, vol. cvi. (1910), pp. 126 _et seq._ - - -The Disintegration of the Radium Atom. - -Sec. =90.= Radium salts possess another very remarkable property, namely, -that of continuously emitting light and heat. It seemed, at first, that -here was a startling contradiction to the law of the conservation of -energy, but the whole mystery becomes comparatively clear in terms of -the corpuscular or the electronic theory of matter. The radium-atom is a -system of a large number (see Sec. 81) of corpuscles or electrons, and -contains in virtue of their motion an enormous amount of energy. But it -is known from Chemistry that atomic systems (_i.e._, molecules) which -contain very much energy are unstable and liable to explode. The same -law holds good on the more interior plane--the radium-atom is liable to, -and actually does, explode. And the result? Energy is set free, and -manifests itself partly as heat and light. Some free electrons are shot -off (the [beta]-rays), which, striking the undecomposed particles of -salt, give rise to pulses in the ether (the [gamma]-rays),[107] just as -the kathode particles give rise to X-rays when they strike the walls of -the vacuum tube or a platinum disc placed in their path. The [beta]- and -[gamma]-rays do not, however, result immediately from the exploding -radium-atoms, the initial products being the emanation and one -[alpha]-particle from each radium-atom destroyed. - - [107] This view regarding the [gamma]-rays is not, however, - universally accepted, some scientists regarding them as consisting - of a stream of particles moving with very high velocities. - - -"Induced Radioactivity." - -Sec. =91.= Radium salts have the property of causing surrounding objects to -become temporally radioactive. This "induced radioactivity," as it may -be called, is found to be due to the emanation, which is itself -radioactive (it emits [alpha]-rays only), and is decomposed into minute -traces of solid radioactive deposits. By examining the rate of decay of -the activity of the deposit, it has been found that it is undergoing a -series of sub-atomic changes, the products being termed Radium A, B, C, -&c. It has been proved that all the [beta]- and [gamma]-rays emitted by -radium salts are really due to certain of these secondary products. -Radium F is thought to be identical with Polonium (Sec. 87). Another -product is also obtained by these decompositions, with which we shall -deal later (Sec. 94). - - -Properties of Uranium and Thorium. - -Sec. =92.= Uranium and thorium differ in one important respect from radium, -inasmuch as the first product of the decomposition of the uranium and -thorium atoms is in both cases solid. Sir William Crookes[108] was able -to separate from uranium salts by chemical means a small quantity of an -intensely radioactive substance, which he called Uranium X, the residual -uranium having lost most of its activity; and M. Becquerel, on -repeating the experiment, found that the activity of the residual -uranium was slowly regained, whilst that of the uranium X decayed. This -is most simply explained by the theory that uranium first changes into -uranium X. It has been suggested that radium may be the final product of -the breaking up of the uranium-atom; at any rate, it is quite certain -that radium must be evolved in some way, as otherwise there would be -none in existence--it would all have decomposed. This suggestion has -been experimentally confirmed, the growth of radium in large quantities -of a solution of purified uranyl nitrate having been observed. Uranium -gives no emanation. Thorium probably gives at least three solid -products--Meso-thorium, Radio-thorium, and Thorium X, the last of which -yields an emanation resembling that obtained from radium, but not -identical with it. - - [108] Sir WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.: "Radio-activity of Uranium," - _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. lxvi. (1900), pp. - 409 _et seq._ - - -The Radium Emanation. - -Sec. =93.= We must now more fully consider the radium emanation--a -substance with more astounding properties than even the radium compounds -themselves. By distilling off the emanation from some radium bromide, -and measuring the quantities of heat given off by the emanation and the -radium salt respectively, Professors Rutherford and Barnes[109] proved -that nearly three-fourths of the total amount of heat given out by a -radium salt comes from the minute quantity of emanation that it -contains. The amount of energy liberated as heat during the decay of the -emanation is enormous; one cubic centimetre liberates about four -million times as much heat as is obtained by the combustion of an equal -volume of hydrogen. Undoubtedly this must indicate some profound change, -and one may well ask, What is the ultimate product of the decomposition -of the emanation? - - [109] E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S., and H. T. BARNES, D.Sc.: "Heating - Effect of the Radium Emanation," _Philosophical Magazine_ [6], vol. - vii. (1904), pp. 202 _et seq._ - - -The Production of Helium from Radium. - -Sec. =94.= It had been observed already that the radioactive minerals on -heating give off Helium--a gaseous element, characterised by a -particular yellow line in its spectrum--and it seemed not unlikely that -helium might be the ultimate decomposition product of the emanation. A -research to settle this point was undertaken by Sir William Ramsay and -Mr. Soddy,[110] and a preliminary experiment having confirmed the above -speculation, they carried out further very careful experiments. "The -maximum amount of the emanation obtained from 50 milligrams of radium -bromide was conveyed by means of oxygen into a [U]-tube cooled in liquid -air, and the latter was then extracted by the pump." The spectrum was -observed; it "was apparently a new one, probably that of the emanation -itself. . . . After standing from July 17 to 21 the helium spectrum -appeared, and the characteristic lines were observed." Sir William -Ramsay performed a further experiment with a similar result, in which -the radium salt had been first of all heated in a vacuum for some time, -proving that the helium obtained could not have been occluded in it; -though the fact that the helium spectrum did not immediately appear, in -itself proves this point. Sir William Ramsay's results were confirmed -by further careful experiments by Sir James Dewar and other chemists. It -was suggested, therefore, that the [alpha]-particle consists of an -electrically charged helium-atom, and not only is this view in agreement -with the value of the mass of this particle as determined -experimentally, but it has been completely demonstrated by Professor -Rutherford and Mr. Royds. These chemists performed an experiment in -which the emanation from about one-seventh of a gramme of radium was -enclosed in a thin-walled tube, through the walls of which the -[alpha]-particles could pass, but which were impervious to gases. This -tube was surrounded by an outer jacket, which was evacuated. After a -time the presence of helium in the space between the inner tube and the -outer jacket was observed spectroscopically.[111] Now, the -emanation-atom results from the radium-atom by the expulsion of one -[alpha]-particle; and since this latter consists of an electrically -charged helium-atom, it follows that the emanation must have an atomic -weight of 226 - 4, _i.e._, 222. This value is in agreement with Sir -William Ramsay's determination of the density of the emanation. We may -represent the degradation of the radium-atom, therefore, by the -following scheme:-- - - [alpha]-particle (Helium-atom) - / 4 - Radium-atom [alpha]-particle (Helium-atom) - 226 \ / 4 - Emanation (Niton-atom) - 222 \ - Radium-A, &c. - - [110] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY and FREDERICK SODDY: "Experiments in - Radioactivity and the Production of Helium from Radium," - _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. lxxii. (1903), - pp. 204 _et seq._ - - [111] E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S., and T. ROYDS, M.Sc.: "The Nature of the - [alpha]-Particle from Radio-active Substances," _Philosophical - Magazine_ [6], vol. xvii. (1909), pp. 281 _et seq._ - - -Nature of this Change. - -Sec. =95.= Here, then, for the first time in the history of Chemistry, we -have the undoubted formation of one chemical element from another, for, -leaving out of the question the nature of the emanation, there can be no -doubt that radium is a chemical element. This is a point which must be -insisted upon, for it has been suggested that radium may be a compound -of helium with some unknown element; or, perhaps, a compound of helium -with lead, since it has been shown that lead is probably one of the end -products of the decomposition of radium. The following considerations, -however, show this view to be altogether untenable: (i.) All attempts to -prepare compounds of helium with other elements have failed. (ii.) -Radium possesses all the properties of a chemical element; it has a -characteristic spectrum, and falls in that column in the Periodic Table -with those elements which it resembles as to its chemical properties. -(iii.) The quantity of heat liberated on the decomposition of the -emanation is, as we have already indicated, out of all proportion to -that obtained even in the most violent chemical reactions; and (iv.) one -very important fact has been observed, namely, that the rate of decay of -the emanation is unaffected by even extreme changes of temperature, -whereas chemical actions are always affected in rate by changes of -temperature. It will also be advisable, perhaps, to indicate some of the -differences between helium and the emanation. The latter is a heavy gas, -condensable to a liquid by liquid air (recently it has been -solidified[112]); whereas helium is the lightest of all known gases -with the exception of hydrogen and has been liquefied only by the most -persistent effort.[113] The emanation, moreover, is radioactive, giving -off [alpha]-particles, whereas helium does not possess this property. - - [112] By Ramsay. See _Proceedings of the Chemical Society_, vol. - xxv. (1909), pp. 82 and 83. - - [113] By Professor Onnes. See _Chemical News_, vol. xcviii. p. 37 - (July 24, 1908). - - -Is this Change a true Transmutation? - -Sec. =96.= It has been pointed out, however, that (in a sense) this change -(viz., of emanation into helium) is not quite what has been meant by the -expression "transmutation of the elements"; for the reason that it is a -_spontaneous_ change; no effort of ours can bring it about or cause it -to cease.[114] But the fact of the change does go to prove that the -chemical elements are not the discrete units of matter that they were -supposed to be. And since it appears that all matter is radioactive, -although (save in these exceptional cases) in a very slight degree,[115] -we here have evidence of a process of evolution at work among the -chemical elements. The chemical elements are not permanent; they are all -undergoing change; and the common elements merely mark those points -where the rate of the evolutionary process is at its slowest. (See also -Sec.Sec. 78 and 83.) Thus, the essential truth in the old alchemistic doctrine -of the growth of metals is vindicated, for the metals do grow in the -womb of Nature, although the process may be far slower than appears to -have been imagined by certain of the alchemists,[116] and although gold -may not be the end product. As writes Professor Sir W. Tilden: ". . . It -appears that modern ideas as to the genesis of the elements, and hence -of all matter, stand in strong contrast with those which chiefly -prevailed among experimental philosophers from the time of Newton, and -seem to reflect in an altered form the speculative views of the -ancients." ". . . It seems probable," he adds, "that the chemical -elements, and hence all material substances of which the earth, the sea, -the air, and the host of heavenly bodies are all composed, resulted from -a change, corresponding to condensation, in something of which we have -no direct and intimate knowledge. Some have imagined this primal essence -of all things to be identical with the ether of space. As yet we know -nothing with certainty, but it is thought that by means of the -spectroscope some stages of the operation may be seen in progress in the -nebulae and stars. . . ."[117] We have next to consider whether there is -any experimental evidence showing it to be possible (using the -phraseology of the alchemists) for man to assist in Nature's work. - - [114] See Professor H. C. JONES: _The Electrical Nature of Matter - and Radioactivity_ (1906), pp. 125-126. - - [115] It has been definitely proved, for example, that the common - element potassium is radioactive, though very feebly so (it emits - [beta]-rays). It is also interesting to note that many common - substances emit corpuscles at high temperatures. - - [116] Says Peter Bonus, however, ". . . we know that the generation - of metals occupies thousands of years . . . in Nature's workshop. - . . ." (see _The New Pearl of Great Price_, Mr. A. E. Waite's - translation, p. 55), and certain others of the alchemists expressed - a similar view. - - [117] Sir WILLIAM A. TILDEN: _The Elements: Speculations as to their - Nature and Origin_ (1910), pp. 108, 109, 133 and 134. With regard to - Sir William Tilden's remarks, it is very interesting to note that - Swedenborg (who was born when Newton was between forty and fifty - years old) not only differed from that great philosopher on those - very points on which modern scientific philosophy is at variance - with Newton, but, as is now recognised by scientific men, - anticipated many modern discoveries and scientific theories. It - would be a most interesting task to set forth the agreement existing - between Swedenborg's theories and the latest products of scientific - thought concerning the nature of the physical universe. Such, - however, would lie without the confines of the present work. - - -The Production of Neon from Emanation. - -Sec. =97.= As we have already indicated above (Sec. 93), the radium emanation -contains a vast store of potential energy, and it was with the idea of -utilising this energy for bringing about chemical changes that Sir -William Ramsay[118] undertook a research on the chemical action of this -substance--a research with the most surprising and the most interesting -results, for the energy contained within the radium emanation appeared -to behave like a veritable Philosopher's Stone. The first experiments -were carried out on distilled water. It had already been observed that -the emanation decomposes water into its gaseous elements, oxygen and -hydrogen, and that the latter is always produced in excess. These -results were confirmed and the presence of hydrogen peroxide was -detected, explaining the formation of an excess of hydrogen; it was also -shown that the emanation brings about the reverse change to some extent, -causing oxygen and hydrogen to unite with the production of water, until -a position of equilibrium is attained. On examining spectroscopically -the gas obtained by the action of the emanation on water, after the -removal of the ordinary gases, a most surprising result was -observed--the gas showed a brilliant spectrum of neon, accompanied with -some faint helium lines. A more careful experiment was carried out later -by Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Cameron, in which a silica bulb was -employed instead of glass. The spectrum of the residual gas after -removing ordinary gases was successfully photographed, and a large -number of the neon lines identified; helium was also present. The -presence of neon could not be explained, in Ramsay's opinion, by leakage -of air into the apparatus, as the percentage of neon in the air is not -sufficiently high, whereas this suggestion might be put forward in the -case of argon. Moreover, the neon could not have come from the aluminium -of the electrodes (in which it might be thought to have been occluded), -as the sparking tube had been used and tested before the experiment was -carried out. The authors conclude: "We must regard the transformation of -emanation into neon, in presence of water, as indisputably proved, and, -if a transmutation be defined as a transformation brought about at will, -by change of conditions, then _this is the first case of transmutation -of which conclusive evidence is put forward_."[119] However, Professor -Rutherford and Mr. Royds have been unable to confirm this result. They -describe[120] attempts to obtain neon by the action of emanation on -water. Out of five experiments no neon was obtained, save in one case in -which a small air leak was discovered; and, since the authors find that -very minute quantities of this gas are sufficient to give a clearly -visible spectrum, they conclude that Ramsay's positive results are due, -after all, to leakage of air into the apparatus. But if this is the true -explanation of Ramsay's results, it is difficult to understand why, in -the case of the experiment with a solution of a copper salt described -below, the presence of neon was not detected, for, if due to leakage, -the proportions of the rare gases present should presumably have been -the same in all the experiments. Further research seems necessary -conclusively to settle the question. - - [118] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "The Chemical Action of the Radium - Emanation. Pt. I., Action on Distilled Water," _Journal of the - Chemical Society_, vol. xci. (1907), pp. 931 _et seq._ ALEXANDER T. - CAMERON and Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY, _ibid._ "Pt. II., On Solutions - containing Copper, and Lead, and on Water," _ibid._ pp. 1593 _et - seq._ "Pt. III., On Water and Certain Gases," _ibid._ vol. xciii. - (1908), pp. 966 _et seq._ "Pt. IV., On Water," _ibid._ pp. 992 _et - seq._ - - [119] _Journal of the Chemical Society_, vol. xciii. (1908), p. 997. - - [120] E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S., and T. ROYDS, M.Sc.: "The Action of - Radium Emanation on Water," _Philosophical Magazine_ [6], vol. xvi. - (1908), pp. 812 _et seq._ - - -Ramsay's Experiments on Copper. - -Sec. =98.= The fact that an excess of hydrogen was produced when water was -decomposed by the emanation suggested to Sir William Ramsay and Mr. -Cameron that if a solution of a metallic salt was employed in place of -pure water, the free metal might be obtained. These "modern alchemists," -therefore, proceeded to investigate the action of radium emanation on -solutions of copper and lead salts, and again apparently effected -transmutations. They found on removing the copper from a solution of a -copper-salt which had been subjected to the action of the emanation, and -spectroscopically examining the residue, that a considerable quantity of -sodium was present, together with traces of lithium; and the gas evolved -in the case of a solution of copper nitrate contained, along with much -nitric oxide and a little nitrogen, argon (which was detected -spectroscopically), but no helium. It certainly seemed like a dual -transformation of copper into lithium and sodium, and emanation into -argon. They also observed that apparently carbon-dioxide is continually -evolved from an acid solution of thorium nitrate (see below, Sec. 100). It -is worth while noticing that helium, neon and argon occur in the same -column in the Periodic Table with emanation; lithium and sodium with -copper, and carbon with thorium; in each case the elements produced -being of lighter atomic weight than those decomposed.[121] The authors -make the following suggestions: "(1) That helium and the -[alpha]-particle are not identical; (2) that helium results from the -'degradation' of the large molecule of emanation by its bombardment with -[alpha]-particles; (3) that this 'degradation,' when the emanation is -alone or mixed with oxygen and hydrogen, results in the lowest member of -the inactive series, namely, helium; (4) that if particles of greater -mass than hydrogen or oxygen are associated with the emanation, namely, -liquid water, then the 'degradation' of the emanation is less complete, -and neon is produced; (5) that when molecules of still greater weight -and complexity are present, as is the case when the emanation is -dissolved in a solution of copper sulphate, the product of 'degradation' -of the emanation is argon. We are inclined to believe too [they say] -that (6) the copper also is involved in this process of degradation, and -is reduced to the lowest term of its series, namely, lithium; and at the -same time, inasmuch as the weight of the residue of alkali, produced -when copper nitrate is present, is double that obtained from the blank -experiment, or from water alone, the supposition is not excluded that -the chief product of the 'degradation' of copper is sodium."[122] - - [121] See pp. 106, 107. - - [122] _Journal of the Chemical Society_, vol. xci. (1907), pp. - 1605-1606. More recent experiments, however, proved that the - [alpha]-particle does consist of an electrically charged - helium-atom, and this view was latterly accepted by Sir William - Ramsay, so that the above suggestions must be modified in accordance - therewith. (See Sec. 94.) - - -Further Experiments on Radium and Copper. - -Sec. =99.= A little later Madame Curie and Mademoiselle Gleditsch[123] -repeated Cameron and Ramsay's experiments on copper salts, using, -however, platinum apparatus. They failed to detect lithium after the -action of the emanation, and think that Cameron and Ramsay's results may -be due to the glass vessels employed. Dr. Perman[124] has investigated -the direct action of the emanation on copper and gold, and has failed to -detect any trace of lithium. The transmutation of copper into lithium, -therefore, must be regarded as unproved, but further research is -necessary before any conclusive statements can be made on the subject. - - [123] Madame CURIE and Mademoiselle GLEDITSCH: "Action de - l'emanation du radium sur les solutions des sels de cuivre," - _Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Seances de l'Academie des - Sciences_, vol. cxlvii. (1908), pp. 345 _et seq._ (For an English - translation of this paper, see _The Chemical News_, vol. xcviii. pp. - 157 and 158.) - - [124] EDGAR PHILIP PERMAN: "The Direct Action of Radium on Copper - and Gold," _Proceedings of the Chemical Society_, vol. xxiv. (1908), - p. 214. - - -Ramsay's Experiments on Thorium and allied Metals. - -Sec. =100.= In his presidential address to the Chemical Society, March 25, -1909, after having brought forward some exceedingly interesting -arguments for the possibility of transmutation, Sir William Ramsay -described some experiments which he had carried out on thorium and -allied elements.[125] It was found, as we have already stated (Sec. 98), -that, apparently, carbon-dioxide was continually evolved from an acid -solution of thorium nitrate, precautions being taken that the gas was -not produced from the grease on the stop-cock employed, and it also -appeared that carbon-dioxide was produced by the action of radium -emanation on thorium nitrate. The action of radium emanation on -compounds (not containing carbon) of other members of the carbon group, -namely, silicon, zirconium and lead, was then investigated; in the cases -of zirconium nitrate and hydro-fluosilicic acid, carbon-dioxide was -obtained; but in the case of lead chlorate the amount of carbon dioxide -was quite insignificant. Curiously enough, the perchlorate of bismuth, a -metal which belongs to the nitrogen group of elements, also yielded -carbon-dioxide when acted on by emanation. Sir William Ramsay concludes -his discussion of these experiments as follows: "Such are the facts. No -one is better aware than I how insufficient the proof is. Many other -experiments must be made before it can confidently be asserted that -certain elements, when exposed to 'concentrated energy,' undergo -degradation into carbon." Some such confirmatory experiments were -carried out by Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Francis L. Usher, and they -also described an experiment with a compound of titanium. Their results -confirm Sir William Ramsay's former experiments. Carbon-dioxide was -obtained in appreciable quantities by the action of emanation on -compounds of silicon, titanium, zirconium and thorium. In the case of -lead, the amount of carbon dioxide obtained was inappreciable.[126] - - [125] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "Elements and Electrons," _Journal of the - Chemical Society_, vol. xcv. (1909), pp. 624 _et seq._ - - [126] For a brief account in English of these later experiments see - _The Chemical News_, vol. c. p. 209 (October 29, 1909). - - -The Possibility of Making Gold. - -Sec. =101.= It does not seem unlikely that if it is possible to "degrade" -elements, it may be possible to build them up. It has been suggested -that it might be possible to obtain, in this way, gold from silver, -since these two elements occur in the same column in the Periodic Table; -but the suggestion still awaits experimental confirmation. The question -arises, What would be the result if gold could be cheaply produced? That -gold is a metal admirably adapted for many purposes, for which its -scarcity prevents its use, must be admitted. But the financial chaos -which would follow if it were to be cheaply obtained surpasses the -ordinary imagination. It is a theme that ought to appeal to a novelist -of exceptional imaginative power. However, we need not fear these -results, for not only is radium extremely rare, far dearer than gold, -and on account of its instability will never be obtained in large -quantities, but, judging from the above-described experiments, if, -indeed, the radium emanation is the true Philosopher's Stone, the -quantity of gold that may be hoped for by its aid is extremely small. - - -The Significance of "Allotropy." - -Sec. =102.= A very suggestive argument for the transmutation of the metals -was put forward by Professor Henry M. Howe, LL.D., in a paper entitled -"Allotropy or Transmutation?" read before the British Association -(Section B), Sheffield Meeting, 1910. Certain substances are known -which, although differing in their physical properties very markedly, -behave chemically as if they were one and the same element, giving rise -to the same series of compounds. Such substances, of which we may -mention diamond, graphite and charcoal (_e.g._, lampblack)--all of which -are known chemically as "carbon"--or, to take another example, yellow -phosphorus (a yellow, waxy, highly inflammable solid) and red phosphorus -(a difficultly-inflammable, dark red substance, probably possessing a -minutely crystalline structure), are, moreover, convertible one into the -other.[127] It has been customary to refer to such substances as -different forms or allotropic modifications of the same element, and not -to regard them as being different elements. As Professor Howe says, "If -after defining 'elements' as substances hitherto indivisible, and -different elements as those which differ in at least some one property, -and after asserting that the elements cannot be transmuted into each -other, we are confronted with the change from diamond into lampblack, -and with the facts, first, that each is clearly indivisible hitherto -and hence an element, and, second, that they differ in every property, -we try to escape in a circle by saying that they are not different -elements because they do change into each other. In short, we limit the -name 'element' to indivisible substances which cannot be transmuted into -each other, and we define those which do transmute as _ipso facto_ one -element, and then we say that the elements cannot be transmuted. Is not -this very like saying that, if you call a calf's tail a leg, then a calf -has five legs? And if it is just to reply that calling a tail a leg does -not make it a leg, is it not equally just to reply that calling two -transmutable elements one element does not make them so? - - [127] Diamond is transformed into graphite when heated by a powerful - electric current between carbon poles, and both diamond and graphite - can be indirectly converted into charcoal. The artificial production - of the diamond, however, is a more difficult process; but the late - Professor Moissan succeeded in effecting it, so far as very small - diamonds are concerned, by dissolving charcoal in molten iron or - silver and allowing it to crystallise from the solution under high - pressure. Graphite was also obtained. Red phosphorus is produced - from yellow phosphorus by heating the latter in absence of air. The - temperature 240-250 deg. C. is the most suitable; at higher temperatures - the reverse change sets in, red phosphorus being converted into - yellow phosphorus. - -"Is it philosophical to point to the fact that two such transmutable -elements yield but a single line of derivatives as proof that they are -one element? Is not this rather proof of the readiness, indeed -irresistibleness, of their transmutation? Does not this simply mean that -the derivativeless element, whenever it enters into combination, -inevitably transmutes into its mate which has derivatives?"[128] - - [128] Professor HENRY M. HOWE, LL.D.: "Allotropy or Transmutation." - (See _The Chemical News_, vol. cii. pp. 153 and 154, September 23, - 1910.) - -According to the atomic theory the differences between what are termed -"allotropic modifications" are generally ascribed to differences in the -number and arrangement of the atoms constituting the molecules of such -"modifications," and not to any differences in the atoms themselves. But -we cannot argue that two such "allotropic modifications" or elements -which are transmutable into one another are one and the same element, -because they possess the same atomic weight, and different elements are -distinguished by different atomic weights; for the reason that, in the -determination of atomic weights, derivatives of such bodies are -employed; hence, the value obtained is the atomic weight of the element -which forms derivatives, from which that of its derivativeless mate may -differ considerably for all we know to the contrary, if we do, indeed, -regard the atomic weights of the elements as having any meaning beyond -expressing the inertia-ratios in which they combine one with another. - -If we wish to distinguish between two such "allotropic modifications" -apart from any theoretical views concerning the nature and constitution -of matter, we can say that such "modifications" are different because -equal weights of them contain, or are equivalent to, different -quantities of energy,[129] since the change of one "form" to another -takes place only with the evolution or absorption (as the case may be) -of heat.[130] But, according to modern views regarding the nature of -matter, this is the sole fundamental difference between two different -elements--such are different because equal weights of them contain or -are equivalent to different quantities of energy. The so-called -"allotropic modifications of an element," therefore, are just as much -different elements as any other different elements, and the change from -one "modification" to another is a true transmutation of the elements; -the only distinction being that what are called "allotropic -modifications of the same element" differ only slightly in respect of -the energy they contain, and hence are comparatively easy to convert one -into the other, whereas different elements (so called) differ very -greatly from one another in this respect, whence it is to be concluded -that the transmutation of one such element into another will only be -attained by the utilisation of energy in a very highly concentrated -form, such as is evolved simultaneously with the spontaneous -decomposition of the radium emanation. - - [129] For a defence of the view that chemical substances may be - regarded as energy-complexes, and that this view is equally as valid - as the older notion of a chemical substance as an inertia-complex, - _i.e._, as something made up entirely of different units or atoms - each characterised by the possession of a definite and constant - weight at a fixed point on the earth's surface, see an article by - the present writer, entitled "The Claims of Thermochemistry," - _Knowledge and Scientific News_, vol. vii. (New Series), pp. 227 _et - seq._ (July, 1910). - - [130] In some cases the heat change accompanying the transformation - of an element into an "allotropic modification" can be measured - directly. More frequently, however, it is calculated as the - difference between the quantities of heat obtained when the two - "forms" are converted into one and the same compound. - - -Conclusion. - -Sec. =103.= We have shown that modern science indicates the essential truth -of alchemistic doctrine, and our task is ended. Writing in 1904, Sir -William Ramsay said: "If these hypotheses [concerning the possibility of -causing the atoms of ordinary elements to absorb energy] are just, then -the transmutations of the elements no longer appears an idle dream. The -philosopher's stone will have been discovered, and it is not beyond the -bounds of possibility that it may lead to that other goal of the -philosophers of the dark ages--the _elixir vitae_. For the action of -living cells is also dependent on the nature and direction of the energy -which they contain; and who can say that it will be impossible to -control their action, when the means of imparting and controlling energy -shall have been investigated?"[131] Whatever may be the final verdict -concerning his own experiments, those of Sir Ernest Rutherford, referred -to in the Preface to the present edition, demonstrate the fact of -transmutation; and it is worth noticing how many of the alchemists' -obscure descriptions of their Magistery well apply to that marvellous -something which we call Energy, the true "First Matter" of the Universe. -And of the other problem, the _Elixir Vitae_, who knows? - - [131] Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "Radium and its Products," _Harper's - Magazine_ (December 1904), vol. xlix. (European Edition), p. 57. - - -THE END. - - - - - _Printed in Great Britain by_ - - UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED - - WOKING AND LONDON - - - - -_Works by H. STANLEY REDGROVE, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S._ - - - =ON THE CALCULATION OF THERMO-CHEMICAL CONSTANTS.= (Arnold, 1909, - 6s. net.) - - =MATTER, SPIRIT AND THE COSMOS: Some Suggestions towards a better - Understanding of the Whence and Why of their Existence.= (Rider, - Popular Edition, 1916, 1s. net.) - - =A MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF SPIRIT.= Being an Attempt to employ - certain Mathematical Principles in the Elucidation of some - Metaphysical Problems. (Rider, 1912, 2s. 6d. net.) - - =EXPERIMENTAL MENSURATION.= An Elementary Text-Book of Inductive - Geometry. (Heinemann, 1912, 2s. 6d. net.) - - =THE MAGIC OF EXPERIENCE.= A Contribution to the Theory of - Knowledge. With an Introduction by Sir WILLIAM F. BARRETT, F.R.S. - (Dent, 1916. _Out of print._) - - =BYGONE BELIEFS.= A Series of Excursions in the Byways of Thought. - (Rider, 1920, 10s. 6d. net.) - - =PURPOSE AND TRANSCENDENTALISM.= An Exposition of Swedenborg's - Philosophical Doctrine in Relation to Modern Thought. (Kegan Paul, - 1920, 5s. net.) - - =ROGER BACON, the Father of Experimental Science, and Mediaeval - Occultism.= (Rider, 1920, 1s. 6d. net.) - - =INDUSTRIAL GASES, together with the Liquefaction of Gases.= By - various authors, including H. S. REDGROVE. (Crosby Lockwood, Second - Impression, 1918, 9s. net.) - - =THE INDICTMENT OF WAR.= An Anthology. Compiled by H. S. REDGROVE - and J. H. ROWBOTTOM. (Daniel, 1919, 10s. 6d. net.) - - =JOSEPH GLANVILL, and Psychical Research in the Seventeenth - Century.= By H. S. REDGROVE and I. M. L. REDGROVE. (Rider, 1921, 2s. - net.) - - -=London: WILLIAM RIDER & SON, Ltd., 8 Paternoster Row, E.C. 4= - - - - - Transcriber's Notes: - - The text of the original work has been retained, including - inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation, punctuation, etc., except - as mentioned below. - - Page 82, footnote [85]: the original work had a letter missing; or - seems to fit best (or van Helmont's Workes). - - Page 84, Memnonite: possibly error for Mennonite. - - Page 93, fulfull: possibly error for fulfill. - - - Changes made to the text: - - Footnotes and illustrations have been moved outside text paragraphs. - - Some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been - corrected silently. - - Page xvii: 142 changed to 140 (Table of Contents) - - Page 10: quesable changed to questionable - - Page 41: Trismegistus changed to Trismegistos as elsewhere - - Page 66: Gentlemen changed to Gentleman - - Page 120, footnote [104]: Seances l'Academie changed to Seances de - l'Academie - - Page 140, footnote [130]: modication changed to modification. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Alchemy: Ancient and Modern, by H. 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